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who song you got a friend in me | You 've Got a Friend in Me - wikipedia
"You 've Got a Friend in Me '' is a song by Randy Newman. Used as the theme song for the 1995 Disney / Pixar animated film Toy Story, it has since become a major musical component for its sequels, Toy Story 2 (1999) and Toy Story 3 (2010) as well as a musical leitmotif throughout the whole Toy Story franchise. The song was nominated for both the Academy Award for Best Original Song and the Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song, but lost both to "Colors of the Wind '' from Disney 's Pocahontas.
Like many other Disney theme songs, "You 've Got a Friend in Me '' has been covered numerous times. Cover versions featured in the three Toy Story films include a duet with Newman and Lyle Lovett in Toy Story; a diegetic instance by Tom Hanks, a version by Robert Goulet and an instrumental by Tom Scott in Toy Story 2, and a Spanish language version by the Gipsy Kings in Toy Story 3.
The song is played during the opening credits for Toy Story and Toy Story 3, establishing the importance of Woody and Andy in the first film and the importance of all his toys in the third. Toy Story 3 also uses it for irony and dramatic effect, as the opening credits harken back to the first film and the song abruptly fades out with "As the years go by / Our friendship will never die '', before showing that Andy 's remaining toys in the present day are boxed up and unused. When they were unused, Andy was 17 years old.
In the two sequels, the song is listened to by the characters as part of the story. Two of these are cover versions done at the end of the film for thematic reasons: at the end of Toy Story 2, the character Wheezy starts to sing it to the other toys; during the end credits of Toy Story 3, Buzz Lightyear and Jessie (now a couple) perform a pasodoble to a Spanish version of the song, deliberately played by Jessie to get Buzz to dance.
The most significant use of the song was in the third act of Toy Story 2, where an episode of Woody 's Roundup (the 1950s puppet show he was based on) shows the puppet Woody singing the song, directed at the young audience and featuring a small child hugging the puppet. Woody sees this and has an epiphany, realizing that his mission as a toy is to be there for a child. (In - universe, the song was presumably written for Woody 's Roundup.)
The Woody 's Roundup version was performed by Tom Hanks, with acoustic guitar backing; Wheezy 's version was sung by Robert Goulet (though the character was voiced by Joe Ranft); and the Spanish version, "You 've Got a Friend in Me (Para el Buzz Español) '', was performed by the Gipsy Kings.
Michael Bublé covered "You 've Got a Friend in Me '' on his 2013 album, To Be Loved. The track became a U.S. Adult Contemporary chart hit, spending 14 weeks on the chart and peaking at number 10.
On May 31, 2018, Rex Orange County released a cover of "You 've Got a Friend in Me '', performing along with Randy Newman, the creator of the song.
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which english team has won the most trophies since 2000 | List of FA Cup finals - wikipedia
The Football Association Challenge Cup, commonly known as the FA Cup, is a knockout competition in English football, organised by and named after The Football Association (the FA). It is the oldest existing football competition in the world, having commenced in the 1871 -- 72 season. The tournament is open to all clubs in the top 10 levels of the English football league system, although a club 's home stadium must meet certain requirements prior to entering the tournament. The competition culminates at the end of the league season usually in May with the FA Cup Final, officially named The Football Association Challenge Cup Final Tie, which has traditionally been regarded as the showpiece finale of the English football season.
All of the final venues, apart from four, have been in London with most being played at the original Wembley Stadium, which was used from 1923 until the stadium closed in 2000. The other venues that were used for the final prior to 1923 were Kennington Oval, Crystal Palace, Stamford Bridge and Lillie Bridge, all in London, Goodison Park in Liverpool and Fallowfield Stadium and Old Trafford in Manchester. The Millennium Stadium in Cardiff hosted the final for six years (2001 -- 2006), while the new Wembley Stadium was under construction. Other grounds have been used for replays, which until 1999 took place if the initial match ended in a draw. The new Wembley Stadium has been the permanent venue of the final since 2007.
As of 2018, the record for the most wins is held by Arsenal with 13 victories. The cup has been won by the same team in two or more consecutive years on ten occasions, and four teams have won consecutive finals more than once: Wanderers, Blackburn Rovers, Tottenham Hotspur and Arsenal. The cup has been won by a non-English team once. The cup is currently held by Chelsea, who defeated Manchester United in the 2018 final.
The winners of the first tournament were Wanderers, a team of former public schoolboys based in London, who went on to win the competition five times in its first seven seasons. The early winners of the competition were all teams of wealthy amateurs from the south of England, but in 1883, Blackburn Olympic became the first team from the north to win the cup, defeating Old Etonians. Upon his team 's return to Blackburn, Olympic captain Albert Warburton proclaimed: "The Cup is very welcome to Lancashire. It 'll have a good home and it 'll never go back to London. ''
With the advent of professionalism at around the same time, the amateur teams quickly faded from prominence in the competition. The leading professional clubs formed The Football League in 1888. Since then, one non-league team has won the cup. Tottenham Hotspur, then of the Southern League, defeated Sheffield United of The Football League to win the 1901 final. A year later Sheffield United returned to the final and won the cup, which then remained in the hands of Northern and Midland clubs until Tottenham won it again in 1921. In 1927, Cardiff City, a team which plays in the English football league system despite being based in Wales, won the cup, the only non-English club to do so. Scottish club Queens Park reached the final twice in the early years of the competition.
Newcastle United enjoyed a brief spell of FA Cup dominance in the 1950s, winning the trophy three times in five years, and in the 1960s, Tottenham Hotspur enjoyed a similar spell of success, with three wins in seven seasons. This marked the start of a successful period for London - based clubs, with 11 wins in 22 seasons. Teams from the second tier of English football, at the time called the Second Division, experienced an unprecedented run of cup success between 1973 and 1980. Sunderland won the cup in 1973, Southampton repeated the feat in 1976, and West Ham United won in 1980, the most recent victory by a team from outside the top division.
Until 1999, a draw in the final would result in the match being replayed at a later date; since then the final has always been decided on the day, with a penalty shootout as required. As of 2017 a penalty shoot - out has been required on only two occasions, in the 2005 and 2006 finals. The competition did not take place during the First and Second World Wars, other than in the 1914 -- 15 season, when it was completed, and the 1939 -- 40 season, when it was abandoned during the qualifying rounds.
All teams are English, except where marked (Scottish) or (Welsh).
A. ^ The official attendance for the 1923 final was reported as 126,047, but the actual figure is believed to be anywhere between 150,000 and 300,000.
Teams shown in italics are no longer in existence. Additionally, Queen 's Park ceased to be eligible to enter the FA Cup after a Scottish Football Association ruling in 1887.
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big hand for the little lady movie cast | A Big hand for the Little lady - wikipedia
A Big Hand for the Little Lady (released in the UK as Big Deal at Dodge City) is a 1966 Technicolor western film, made by Eden Productions Inc. and released by Warner Bros. The film was produced and directed by Fielder Cook from a screenplay by Sidney Carroll, adapted from their TV play Big Deal in Laredo which aired on The DuPont Show of the Week in 1962.
The film stars Henry Fonda, Joanne Woodward, Paul Ford, and Jason Robards, with Charles Bickford, Burgess Meredith, Kevin McCarthy, Robert Middleton, and John Qualen. The original TV play starred Walter Matthau as Meredith.
The five richest men in the territory gather in Laredo for their annual high - stakes poker game. The high rollers let nothing get in the way of their yearly showdown. When undertaker Tropp (Charles Bickford) calls for them in his horse - drawn hearse, cattleman Henry Drummond (Jason Robards) forces a postponement of his daughter 's wedding, while lawyer Otto Habershaw (Kevin McCarthy) abandons his closing arguments in a trial, with his client 's life hanging in the balance. They are joined by Wilcox (Robert Middleton) and Buford (John Qualen) in the back room of Sam 's saloon, while the curious gather outside for occasional reports.
Settler Meredith (Henry Fonda), his wife Mary (Joanne Woodward), and their young son Jackie (Gerald Michenaud) are passing through, on their way to purchase a farm near San Antonio, when a wheel on their wagon breaks. They wait at Sam 's while the local blacksmith repairs it. Meredith, a recovering gambler, learns of the big poker game and begins to feel the excitement once again. During a break, Otto Habershaw catches a glimpse of Mary in her violet dress. Being so enchanted by her, he permits Meredith 's request to watch the game only if Mary allows him. The newcomer buys into the game, eventually staking all of the family savings, meant to pay for a home.
The game builds to a climactic hand; the gamblers raise and re-raise until more than $20,000 is in the pot. Meredith, out of cash, is unable to call the latest raise. Under the strain, he collapses. The town physician, Joseph "Doc '' Scully (Burgess Meredith), is called to care for the stricken man. Barely conscious, Meredith signals for his wife to play out the hand.
Taking his seat, Mary asks, "How do you play this game? '' The other players object loudly to playing with someone who does not know the game, but eventually give in. The situation is explained to her: if she can not match the last raise (and any others that may follow), she will be out of the hand.
Despite the men 's protests, she leaves the room to borrow additional funds. With Jackie and four of the players trailing behind, Mary crosses the street and talks to the owner of the Cattle and Merchants ' Bank, C.P. Ballinger (Paul Ford). After she shows him her hand, Ballinger assumes she is playing a practical joke. When he learns otherwise, he loans her $5,500 (at 6 % interest) and makes a $5,000 raise for her. The other players, aware of Ballinger 's tightfisted, cautious nature, all reluctantly fold. Mary collects her sizable winnings and pays Ballinger back with interest. The game then breaks up, no one ever having seen the winning hand.
The lady 's determination earns her the admiration of the men. Even Drummond, the most hard - hearted of the bunch, is so touched that, when he returns home to the waiting wedding ceremony, he talks privately to his weak - willed, prospective son - in - law, gives him some money, and orders him to run away and find himself a better wife than his daughter.
The final scene takes place in the gambling town of Black Creek, where it is revealed that Meredith, Mary, and even their "son '' are confidence tricksters and expert card sharps. Together with Ballinger and Scully, they have perpetrated a scam on the five poker players, who had swindled the banker in a real estate deal sixteen years before. "Mary '' is actually Ballinger 's girlfriend Ruby. She had promised him she would give up gambling after the caper, but it becomes clear that she had no such intent when she sits down to another poker game.
Joanne Woodward was nominated for the Golden Laurel Award for Female Comedy Performance.
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who is the best selling canadian artist of all time | List of best - selling Music artists - wikipedia
This list includes music artists with claims of 75 million or more record sales. The artists in the following tables are listed with both their claimed sales figure along with their total of certified units and are ranked in descending order, with the artist with the highest amount of claimed sales at the top. If two or more artists have the same claimed sales, they are then ranked by certified units. The claimed sales figure and the total of certified units (for each country) within the provided sources include sales of albums, singles, compilation - albums, music videos as well as downloads of singles and full - length albums. Sales figures, such as those from Soundscan, which are sometimes published by Billboard magazine, have not been included in the certified units column. As of 2017, based on both sales claims and certified units, The Beatles are considered the highest - selling band. Elvis Presley is considered the highest - selling individual artist based on sales claims and Rihanna is the highest - selling individual artist based on certified units.
All artists included on this list, which have begun charting on official albums or singles charts have their available claimed figures supported by at least 20 % in certified units. That is why Cliff Richard, Diana Ross, Scorpions, Charles Aznavour, Bing Crosby, Gloria Estefan, Deep Purple, Iron Maiden, Tom Jones, The Jackson 5, Dionne Warwick, the Spice Girls, Luciano Pavarotti, Dolly Parton, Ozzy Osbourne, Andrea Bocelli and others have not been included on this list. The more recent the artist, the higher the required percentage of certified units, so artists such as Rihanna, Taylor Swift, Flo Rida, Katy Perry, Justin Bieber, Adele, Lady Gaga, Bruno Mars and Nicki Minaj are expected to have their claimed figures supported by over 75 % in certified units. The certified units are sourced from available online databases of local music industry associations. All certified units are converted from Gold / Platinum / Diamond certification awards based on criteria provided by certifying bodies. The certified sales percentage varies according to the first year that an artist appeared in the charts.
The requirements of certified sales are designed to avoid inflated sales figures, which are frequently practiced by record companies for promotional purposes. The claimed figures are referenced from online articles created by highly reliable sources. For clarity, the sources used, say the term "records '' (singles, albums, videos) and not "albums ''. However, if all available sources for an artist or band say "albums '', such sources are only used if the certified album units of the said artist meet the required percentage amount. This list uses claimed figures that are closest to artists ' available certified units: inflated claimed figures that meet the required certified units amount but are unrealistically high, are not used.
The claimed figures are upgraded only when there is a significant progress in artists ' certified sales. In other words, the available certified sales for each artist should get relatively closer to already listed claimed figure in order for higher figures to replace the listed ones.
The certified sales of the newer artists may sometimes be higher than their listed claimed figures. This is because Recording Industry Association of America and almost all other certifying bodies count streaming towards Gold and Platinum thresholds required for Digital Single Award certification. For this reason, some singles and even albums get over certified by hundreds of thousands of units. The over certified figures, however, are often in millions of units for RIAA certifications, one such example is Rihanna 's single "We Found Love '', which is certified at nine times Platinum by the RIAA, yet during the time of the certification, it had sold 5.4 million downloads.
The certified sales for some artists / bands who have multi-disc albums can be higher than their listed claimed figures due to Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) counting each unit within set as one unit toward certification.
The Beatles
Elvis Presley
Michael Jackson
Madonna
Elton John
Led Zeppelin
Pink Floyd
Rihanna
Mariah Carey
Celine Dion
Queen
Whitney Houston
AC / DC
The Rolling Stones
Taylor Swift
Garth Brooks
Eminem
Eagles
Bruno Mars
U2
Kanye West
Justin Bieber
Katy Perry
Adele
Lady Gaga
Jay - Z
Metallica
Bon Jovi
B'z
Coldplay
Shania Twain
Nicki Minaj
Flo Rida
Ayumi Hamasaki
Van Halen
Journey
The Black Eyed Peas
Maroon 5
Kenny G
Usher
Tupac Shakur
Robbie Williams
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its been how many days since michigan beat ohio state | Michigan -- Ohio State football rivalry - Wikipedia
The Michigan -- Ohio State football rivalry, referred to as The Game by some followers, is an American college football rivalry game played annually between the University of Michigan Wolverines and the Ohio State University Buckeyes. It gathered particular national interest as most of the games from the 1970s through the mid-2000s determined the Big Ten Conference title and the resulting Rose Bowl Game match ups, and many influenced the outcome of the national college football championship. The game was ranked by ESPN in 2000 as the greatest North American sports rivalry.
The two Midwest state schools first met in 1897, and the rivalry has been played annually since 1918. The game has been played at the end of the regular season since 1935 (with exceptions in 1942, 1986, and 1998). Since 1918, the game 's site has alternated between Columbus, Ohio, and Ann Arbor, Michigan (Michigan hosts it in odd years and Ohio State in even years), and has been played in Ohio Stadium since 1922 and Michigan Stadium since 1927. Through 2010, Ohio State and Michigan have decided the Big Ten Conference championship between themselves on 22 different occasions, and have affected the determination of the conference title an additional 27 times.
For many years, the game aired on ABC, usually in the 12 p.m. time slot. Beginning with the 2017 season, the game aired on Fox as a result of that network acquiring the Big Ten 's tier 1 rights in the most recent broadcasting contract.
When the University of Michigan and Ohio State met for the first time in 1897, the Toledo War was within the memories of some still living, and the short - lived border war may have fueled the rivalry between the two opposing teams. The inaugural game, held at Ann Arbor, resulted in a lopsided victory for Michigan, with the Wolverines posting a 34 -- 0 win over Ohio State 's Buckeyes. The teams did not meet in 1898 or 1899, but played again in 1900.
The first game foretold a long Michigan winning streak, with Michigan winning or tying every game from 1897 to 1912 and thereby compiling a 12 -- 0 -- 2 record before the contest was postponed for several years. The Ohio State Alma Mater "Carmen Ohio '' was written on the train ride home to Columbus following the 1902 contest, which saw Ohio State lose to Michigan 86 -- 0. The lyrics and melody (Spanish Chant) have remained largely unchanged since its conception.
Ohio State became a member of the Big Ten Conference in 1912. In 1917, Michigan rejoined the conference after a ten - year absence. In 1918, the teams played their first conference matchup, with Michigan prevailing 14 -- 0 and lodging its eleventh shutout over the Buckeyes. The rivalry has been renewed annually every year since then. In 1919, the Buckeyes (led by legendary halfback Chic Harley) won their first game in the series, beating the Wolverines 13 -- 3. The Buckeyes won the following two contests as well, to bring the series record to 13 -- 3 -- 2.
Harley 's prowess spurred the university to campaign to build a stadium for Ohio State football. The stadium was completed in 1922, and the first of many historic games in Ohio Stadium took place on October 21, 1922, the day the stadium was dedicated in Columbus. In front of a record 71,000 fans, the Wolverines posted another shutout of the home team Buckeyes, 19 -- 0. According to lore, there was a wager on the outcome of this game, and yellow flowers on a blue background still exist today in the upper part of the stadium 's rotunda. Michigan won the next five games before OSU picked up the final two victories of the decade. At the end of the 1920s, the series stood at 19 -- 5 -- 2 in favor of Michigan.
Michigan won three of four contests between 1930 and 1933, claiming the national championship twice. In 1934, Francis Schmidt came on as the head coach for Ohio State. The team had lost nine of the previous 12 Michigan - OSU contests, and when a reporter asked Schmidt if Ohio State could beat Michigan that year, he replied, "Of course we can win, Michigan puts their pants on one leg at a time just like we do ''. The Buckeyes thereupon ran off four straight shutout victories against Michigan, outscoring the Wolverines 114 -- 0 from 1934 to 1937. Schmidt 's quote spawned an OSU tradition -- since 1934, every Ohio State player receives a gold pants pendant after a victory against Michigan.
Michigan won the three games from 1938 to 1940. The 1940 game, won by Michigan, 40 -- 0, was the benchmark performance of what some consider to be the greatest Michigan team in history, and was the final collegiate game of the tailback tandem of Tom Harmon and Paul Kromer.
In 1941, Michigan and Ohio State met for the first time with each team ranked in the AP Poll, which had started in 1936. The 14th - ranked Buckeyes played the 5th - ranked Wolverines to a 20 -- 20 tie in Ann Arbor.
In 1945, Michigan quarterback Howard Yerges led Michigan to a 7 -- 3 victory over Ohio State. Yerges played for Ohio State in 1943 as a freshman (freshmen were eligible to play during wartime) and then transferred to Michigan in 1944, making him one of three players to play on both sides in the rivalry. Five more times during the 1940s, the teams were both ranked for their annual matchup. Michigan won five of the next seven games before playing to their second tie of the decade in 1949. The series record stood at 30 -- 12 -- 4 at the mid-century mark.
One of the more famous games in the rivalry is the 1950 contest, colloquially known as the Snow Bowl. Eighth - ranked Ohio State, coached by Wes Fesler, was scheduled to host the game on November 25 in Columbus amidst one of the worst blizzards on Ohio record. The Buckeyes, who led the Big Ten, were granted the option to cancel the game against Michigan, which would have, by default, given the Buckeyes the Big Ten title outright. Ohio State refused, and the game was set to be played. Amid howling snow and wind, in a famous example of a "field position '' game, the teams exchanged 45 punts, often on first down, in hopes that the other team would fumble the ball near or into their own end zone. Ohio State 's Vic Janowicz, who would claim the Heisman Trophy that year, punted 21 times for 685 yards and also kicked a field goal in the first quarter for the Buckeyes ' only points. Michigan capitalized on two blocked punts, booting one out of the back of the end zone for a safety and recovering another one in the end zone for a touchdown just before halftime. Despite failing to gain a single first down or complete a single forward pass, Michigan gained a 9 -- 3 victory, securing the Big Ten title and a Rose Bowl berth. Heavy criticism of Fesler 's play calling led to his resignation and the hiring of Woody Hayes as his successor.
Between 1951 and 1968 under Hayes, the Buckeyes won 12 of 18 contests, including a 1957 victory in Michigan Stadium, the first game in the series attended by over 100,000 fans. In 1958, Ohio State had a 20 -- 14 lead towards the end of the game. On the final play, Michigan fullback Gene Sisinyak ran the ball from the one - yard line for what might have been a game - winning touchdown, but Ohio State defensive tackle Dick Schafrath hit Sisinyak, forcing a fumble. In the 1968 game, Ohio State won 50 -- 14, outscoring its foe 29 -- 0 in the second half and attempting an unsuccessful two - point conversion attempt on its final touchdown. In the post-game interview Hayes was asked why he went for two points with an already insurmountable 50 -- 14 lead and he replied, "because I could n't go for three ''. The victory gave top - ranked Ohio State the Big Ten title for the first time in seven years en route to an AP national championship. The Buckeyes had also narrowed the series margin to 37 -- 24 -- 4.
Wolverines coach Bump Elliott resigned after the 1968 loss and Michigan hired Miami (Ohio) head coach Bo Schembechler, who had previously been an assistant at Ohio State under Hayes, to revitalize its football program. On November 22, 1969, Hayes led his top - ranked Buckeyes into Michigan Stadium to face Schembechler 's Wolverines in the first matchup between two coaches who would come to define the rivalry between the two programs. The Buckeyes brought a 22 - game winning streak into Ann Arbor, but behind an inspiring 60 - yard punt return by Barry Pierson that set up a Wolverine touchdown in the second quarter, and a defense that intercepted Ohio State six times (three by Pierson), the Wolverines won a defensive battle (both teams were scoreless in the second half) for a 24 -- 12 upset.
The contest was the first in the famous "Ten - Year War '' between Hayes and Schembechler, which pitted some of OSU 's and UM 's strongest teams against one another. Four times between 1970 and 1975, Ohio State and Michigan were both ranked in the top five of the AP Poll before their matchup. The Wolverines entered every game during those years undefeated and won only once, a 10 -- 7 victory in Ann Arbor on November 20, 1971. The Michigan graduating class of 1975 shared or won the Big Ten championship every season, yet went to the Rose Bowl only once, in 1972. They only lost or tied with Ohio State during the regular season in that period.
In 1973, both teams entered undefeated, with the winner guaranteed a trip to the Rose Bowl. The rivals played to a 10 -- 10 tie in Ann Arbor on November 24, and the athletic directors of the other Big Ten institutions were forced to vote on the Big Ten representative for the bowl game. In a secret ballot, Ohio State won the vote, to the outrage of Michigan athletic officials and fans. Schembechler argued that Michigan was robbed of its on - field achievements, and for months afterward, Ohio State newspapers were flooded with angry Wolverine letters and threats of lawsuits.
Woody coined the phrase "That state up north '' and "That team up north '', so he would not have to say the word "Michigan ''. He was famous for his intense hatred of all things Michigan and according to legend, once refused to get gas in an empty tank, saying: "No, goddammit! We do NOT pull in and fill up. And I 'll tell you exactly why we do n't. It 's because I do n't buy one goddam drop of gas in the state of Michigan! We 'll coast and PUSH this goddam car to the Ohio line before I give this state a nickel of my money! ''
During the "Ten - Year War, '' Ohio State and Michigan shared the Big Ten title six times. Between 1976 and 1978, Michigan won the game each year, and Ohio State failed to score a touchdown in each of those contests. Woody Hayes was fired at the end of the 1978 season after punching a Clemson player during the Gator Bowl, which ended the "War. '' The 1978 game was won by Michigan, 14 -- 3, giving Schembechler a record of 5 -- 4 -- 1 against Hayes. At the end of the Hayes tenure, the series stood at 42 -- 28 -- 5.
Earle Bruce took over for Hayes and led the Buckeyes to a 5 -- 4 record against Schembechler 's Wolverines between 1979 and 1987, perhaps the most balanced stretch of the rivalry, during which neither team won more than two consecutive games. In 1987, Bruce was fired in the week before the Michigan game due to a poor season record, but was allowed to coach anyway, and the inspired Buckeyes (each wearing a sweatband labeled "Earle '') won an upset over the heavily favored Wolverines. After the game, Bo Schembechler told Bruce, "I always mind losing to Ohio State but I did n't mind so much today. '' After 1987, the series stood at 46 -- 33 -- 5 in favor of UM.
The 13 games during John Cooper 's tenure as Buckeye coach were dominated by Michigan, as the Wolverines went 10 -- 2 -- 1 during the stretch. Schembechler coached Michigan through the 1989 season and then turned over the reins to one of his assistants, Gary Moeller, who led the team for five seasons before another longtime Michigan assistant, Lloyd Carr, became the head coach in 1995.
The most notorious matchups of the era took place in 1993, 1995, and 1996, in which Ohio State entered the game each year undefeated. The Buckeyes had a 9 -- 0 -- 1 record heading into the 1993 game and were looking to claim an outright Big Ten title against a Michigan team that had already lost four times. Michigan receiver Mercury Hayes and running backs Jon Ritchie, Che Foster, and Ed Davis each scored a touchdown as the Wolverines shocked the Buckeyes, 28 -- 0. After the game, Cooper said: "This is one of the most embarrassing games I 've ever been involved with. '' "They outplayed us on offense, on defense, and in the kicking game. If you 'd told me we would come up here and get beat 28 -- 0, I 'd have probably stayed home. ''
In 1995, # 2 Ohio State was led by eventual Heisman Trophy winner Eddie George and future National Football League (NFL) stars Orlando Pace, Terry Glenn, Mike Vrabel, Shawn Springs, and Rickey Dudley. Glenn insisted there was n't anything special about the Wolverines: "Michigan 's nothing, '' he said. Perhaps inspired by this remark, the Wolverines manhandled the Buckeyes at the line of scrimmage from the very first play. Michigan senior running back Tim Biakabutuka amassed 313 yards rushing in Michigan 's 31 -- 23 upset.
The Buckeyes had high expectations again entering the 1996 contest. They boasted an unblemished 10 -- 0 record and were ranked # 2 in the nation as they entered the finale with 7 -- 3 Michigan. When Ohio State jumped to a 9 -- 0 halftime lead, the OSU crowd sensed a special finish and perhaps a rise to # 1. The Wolverines ' defense shut the Buckeyes out in the second half while Brian Griese replaced the struggling Scott Dreisbach and led Michigan to 13 unanswered points and another victory over their rivals, 13 -- 9. The game would turn out to be the Buckeyes ' only loss of the season and ended up costing them a chance of the national championship.
In 1997, Ohio State hoped to return the favor: the 10 -- 0 Wolverines sat atop the AP Poll entering their matchup with the 10 -- 1 Buckeyes, who were ranked # 4. Spearheaded by the play of eventual Heisman winner Charles Woodson, who ran a punt back for a touchdown, intercepted a pass in the Ohio State end zone, and caught a 37 - yard pass that set up freshman running back Anthony Thomas ' touchdown run, the Wolverines prevailed, 20 -- 14. The Wolverines then defeated Washington State in the Rose Bowl by a 21 -- 16 score, winning their first national championship since 1948.
Ohio State came back with a win in the 1998 contest, but Michigan went on to win in 1999 and 2000. Senior quarterback Tom Brady hit sophomore receiver Marquise Walker for the game - winning touchdown pass with five minutes to go to for a 24 -- 17 victory in 1999. In the 2000 game, Michigan grabbed a 31 -- 12 lead and held on to win, 38 -- 26. Michigan junior quarterback Drew Henson went 14 for 25 passing for 303 yards and three scores and added a touchdown run. At the end of the 2000 season, Cooper was fired. While he consistently fielded strong teams, his 2 -- 10 -- 1 record against Michigan, including his failure to ever win in Ann Arbor, was, along with disciplinary problems and a losing record in bowl games, a major contributor to his dismissal. Michigan students held a "John Cooper Day '' celebration in Ann Arbor on February 10, 2001 in mock celebration of Cooper 's record in the rivalry.
In 2001, Youngstown State head football coach Jim Tressel took over as Buckeye head coach. Unlike his predecessor John Cooper, Tressel put a special emphasis on the rivalry. In his introductory speech at halftime of a January basketball game, against Michigan, he said "I can assure you that you will be proud of our young people, in the classroom, in the community, and most especially in 310 days in Ann Arbor, Michigan on the football field. '' In his first year, Tressel registered the Buckeyes ' first defeat of the Wolverines in Ann Arbor in 14 years, by a 26 -- 20 score. Led by senior running back Jonathan Wells, the Buckeyes raced to a 23 -- 0 halftime lead. With Wells out, Michigan mounted a second half comeback that fell just short. The next year, Tressel achieved what Cooper could not: Beating Michigan in consecutive years with a 14 -- 9 victory. The game was decided on the last play when defensive back Will Allen intercepted a pass at the two yard line as time expired to clinch the victory. The Buckeyes were led by freshman running back Maurice Clarett, who ran for 119 yards and one touchdown. He also had a key reception to set up Maurice Hall 's game - winning score. The Buckeyes went on to win the national championship that season, as they defeated Miami in the Fiesta Bowl.
In 2003, Michigan struck back and won the 100th meeting between the historical rivals by a score of 35 -- 21 in Ann Arbor. Senior running back Chris Perry, a Heisman finalist, had 154 yards rushing and two touchdowns to lead the Wolverines to the victory. Braylon Edwards contributed seven catches for 130 yards and two big touchdowns. The game 's attendance was 112,118, the largest crowd ever for an NCAA football game at the time. In 2004, the 6 -- 4 Buckeyes defeated the heavily favored 9 -- 1 Wolverines, 37 -- 21, behind the leadership of quarterback Troy Smith and true freshman receiver Ted Ginn, Jr. The Buckeyes added another win in the 2005 game by overcoming a 21 -- 12 deficit with less than eight minutes in the game. In the closing minutes of the game, the Buckeye offense scored two touchdowns to claim a 25 -- 21 victory. Smith threw for 300 yards and completed 73 % of his passes. Ginn had a game high nine catches for 89 yards.
On November 18, 2006, Ohio State and Michigan met for their annual showdown, each carrying an 11 -- 0 record. For the first time in the history of the rivalry, the two rivals faced off while holding the top two spots in the Bowl Championship Series rankings. Ohio State won the game by a score of 42 -- 39 and became the outright Big Ten champion, earning the right to play for a national championship at the BCS National Championship Game in Glendale, Arizona. Michigan struck first with a touchdown run by junior running back Mike Hart, but the Buckeyes then scored 21 unanswered points, and at halftime, they were up 28 -- 14. Thanks to an interception and a fumble recovery by junior defensive tackle Alan Branch, Michigan made it 35 -- 31 Ohio State with 14 minutes to go in the fourth quarter. But after appearing to have forced Ohio State into a fourth - down situation with six minutes to go, junior outside linebacker Shawn Crable was called for roughing the passer, giving the Buckeyes a fresh set of downs. Ohio State quarterback Troy Smith then passed to Brian Robiskie for a touchdown, increasing the Buckeyes ' lead to 42 -- 31 with five minutes remaining in the game. After Ohio State was called for pass interference on a failed fourth - down attempt, giving Michigan an automatic first down, junior quarterback Chad Henne found senior tight end Tyler Ecker for a 16 - yard touchdown with two minutes to go to cut the OSU lead to 42 -- 37. Senior wide receiver Steve Breaston caught the two - point conversion to bring the Wolverines within a field goal. Michigan needed to recover the ensuing onside kick, but they failed to do so. The Buckeyes ran out the clock for the victory, and a trip to the BCS national championship game. Troy Smith completed 71 % of his passes for 316 yards and four touchdowns, essentially clinching the Heisman trophy. Ginn caught eight passes for 104 yards and a touchdown. Ohio State running back Antonio Pittman ran for 139 yards on 18 carries for a 7.7 yards - per - carry average. Michigan running back Mike Hart carried the ball 23 times for 142 yards and three touchdowns against a stout Buckeye defense. Chad Henne had 267 yards, two touchdowns, and no turnovers on a 60 % completion percentage. Neither performance was, however, sufficient to turn the tide in favor of the Wolverines. The game was highly touted by ESPN / ABC (there was a game countdown clock for a week before kickoff) and was viewed by the largest television audience for a regular - season college football game since 1993, averaging 21.8 million viewers. The victory marked the first time in 43 years that the Buckeyes had won three consecutive games in the series. The game gained even more significance when, on the eve of the meeting, Michigan head coach and former Ohio State assistant coach Bo Schembechler died. Schembechler was honored with a video tribute at Ohio Stadium as well as a moment of silence before kickoff. Half an hour after the game ended, the Ohio Lottery PICK 4 evening drawing was 4 -- 2 -- 3 -- 9, matching the final score of the game and paying out up to $5,000 per winner, for a total payout of $2.2 million.
Following the game, there was a chance of a rematch in the 2007 BCS National Championship Game, but Florida was chosen over Michigan to be Ohio State 's opponent.
Lloyd Carr retired as coach at Michigan following the 2007 season and another loss to Ohio State. Tressel had compiled a 6 -- 1 record against Carr 's Michigan teams, leaving Carr with a 6 -- 7 career record against Ohio State. In December 2007, Michigan hired West Virginia head coach Rich Rodriguez to take over the football program. Rodriguez, known for his expertise in the spread offense, represented a significant departure from the Wolverines ' traditional offensive style. Furthermore, both Carr and his predecessor Gary Moeller had been apprenticed by the now - legendary Schembechler, and Rodriguez 's hiring marked the first time in 40 years that a Michigan football team would not be coached by a member of the "Schembechler school. ''
The 2008 game, Rodriguez 's first against the Buckeyes, featured an Ohio State team that needed a win to secure at least a share of the Big Ten championship for the fourth straight year. Michigan by contrast entered the game with a 3 -- 8 record, having already suffered more losses than in any other season in its history. The Buckeyes posted a 42 -- 7 win, and scored their largest margin of victory over Michigan since 1968.
Ohio State won 21 -- 10 in the 2009 game to extend their winning streak against Michigan to six games, their longest in the rivalry 's history, and improve Jim Tressel 's record versus Michigan to 8 -- 1. Ohio State wore throwback uniforms to commemorate their 1954 national championship team. The 2009 meeting also saw Buckeye guard Justin Boren, who had transferred to Ohio State from Michigan in 2008, become the third player in school history to play for both teams (J.T. White and Howard Yerges, Jr. being the others) and only the second to play for both teams in the rivalry game. In 2010, Ohio State again prevailed, 37 -- 7 but had to vacate all wins from the 2010 season.
Rodriguez was fired following Michigan 's 2010 season, ending Michigan 's flirtation with the spread -- and with non - "Michigan Man '' coaches. Rodriguez was succeeded by Brady Hoke, who served as Michigan 's defensive line coach from 1995 to 2002. Hoke held head coaching positions at Ball State from 2003 to 2008 and San Diego State from 2009 to 2010 before returning to Michigan. Meanwhile, in Columbus, the Ohio State football program came under NCAA investigation in early 2011 for an incident in which several prominent players were discovered to have traded memorabilia for tattoos. Evidence surfaced that Tressel had known about the situation but had not reported it to school compliance officials, and that the abuses were more widespread and longstanding than originally reported. On May 30, 2011, Tressel resigned as head coach and former Buckeye player and assistant coach Luke Fickell was appointed interim head coach for the 2011 season. In July 2011, in response to the ongoing NCAA investigation, Ohio State vacated all wins from the 2010 season, including the win over Michigan, leaving Tressel with a final record against Michigan of 8 -- 1, with a win streak of six.
Michigan won the 2011 meeting, 40 -- 34, which was the first between two first - year coaches since the 1929 match - up of Harry Kipke and Sam Willaman. The Wolverines were led by junior quarterback Denard Robinson who accounted for 337 total yards rushing and passing, and five touchdowns.
On November 28, 2011, Urban Meyer, who had served as an assistant at Ohio State from 1986 to 1987, was named the 24th head coach for the Buckeyes, replacing Fickell. In the 2012 matchup, OSU 's junior running back Carlos Hyde ran for 146 yards and the fourth - ranked Buckeyes, trailing at halftime, shut down No. 20 Michigan 's offense in the second half to prevail 26 -- 21 and cap a 12 -- 0 season.
In 2013, Ohio State came to Michigan Stadium with an 11 -- 0 record (7 -- 0 Big Ten) and ranked # 3 in the BCS standings. Michigan was a disappointing 7 -- 4 (3 -- 4 Big Ten). In spite of the seeming mismatch, the game remained close and with 32 seconds remaining Michigan scored to bring the score to 42 -- 41. Michigan attempted a two - point conversion for the lead, but Devin Gardner 's pass was intercepted in the end zone by Tyvis Powell, and Ohio State escaped with the win.
Michigan entered the 2014 contest with a 5 -- 6 record and needed a win against Ohio State to become bowl eligible. Ohio State had a 10 -- 1 record (7 -- 0 in the Big Ten), and was holding onto hope that they would be selected as one of the top four teams in the nation and gain a spot in the first ever College Football Playoff. The game was tied at 21 until the fourth quarter when Ohio State scored three touchdowns (two on offense and one on defense) to go up 42 -- 21. The Game ended 42 -- 28. During the contest, OSU quarterback J.T. Barrett suffered a broken ankle and left the game in favor of third - string sophomore quarterback, Cardale Jones. Ohio State would go on to win the inaugural College Football Playoff and national championship.
Three days after the game, Michigan head coach Brady Hoke was fired and Michigan began searching for Hoke 's successor. On December 30, 2014, Jim Harbaugh, former quarterback for Michigan from 1983 to 1986, was introduced by the University of Michigan as the school 's new head football coach.
The 2015 game in Ann Arbor marked Harbaugh 's first game as a head coach in the rivalry. His Michigan team was 9 -- 2 coming into the game and Ohio State was 10 -- 1. For the first time since 2006, both teams were ranked in the top 10, with Ohio State at # 8 and Michigan at # 10. The first half was close, with Michigan scoring a touchdown shortly before halftime to narrow Ohio State 's lead to 14 -- 10. Ohio State, however, scored touchdowns on each of its first 4 possessions in the second half, while Michigan could only muster a single field goal. The final score was 42 -- 13, in favor of Ohio State.
The 2016 game pitted the third - ranked Wolverines against the second - ranked Buckeyes, only the second time that the matchup featured programs both ranked in the nation 's top three. Michigan led 10 -- 7 at halftime and extended its lead to 17 -- 7 early in the third quarter. An Ohio State touchdown cut the deficit to 17 -- 14 heading to the fourth quarter. The Buckeyes kicked a field goal in the final seconds of regulation to tie the game and force overtime. The game marked the first overtime in the series between the two teams. Ohio State defeated Michigan for the fifth consecutive time, winning 30 -- 27 in two overtimes.
The 2017 game, held in Ann Arbor, drew a crowd of more than 112,000, and featured the ninth - ranked Buckeyes against the unranked Wolverines. Michigan took an early lead and led 14 - 0 at the end of the first quarter but Ohio State tied the game at 14 - 14 before half time. Michigan 's offense was limited to six points in the second half, and Ohio State scored 17, winning the game 31 - 20. The victory was the Buckeyes ' sixth win in six years under head coach Urban Meyer. J.T. Barrett, Ohio State 's starting quarterback, recorded 4 wins in 4 years as a starting quarterback -- the first Ohio State QB to do so. Until this game, Ohio State had never come back and won a game against Michigan once down 14 or more points.
In 2010, the Big Ten Conference announced that the University of Nebraska would be joining the Big Ten the following year, and that the Big Ten would be split into two divisions. When rumors surfaced that Ohio State and Michigan would be placed in different divisions, concerns arose that the teams might no longer play the last game of the regular season to avoid potential back - to - back games if each team won their division and earned the right to play in the Big Ten Championship Game. Fans bombarded the athletic directors of both schools, as well as the Big Ten commissioner with emails, creating pressure to keep The Game as the regular season finale. Ultimately, Michigan was placed in the Legends Division and Ohio State in the Leaders Division. The Michigan -- Ohio State game became a "protected crossover '' game, to be played every year at the end of the regular season.
The game became a division matchup in 2014 under the Big Ten 's geographical realignment. Michigan and Ohio State were both placed in the East Division.
During the mid-2000s, ESPN aired several commercials describing certain situations that would be "normal, if it was n't for sports ''. One commercial featured a man in an Ohio State shirt making out with a woman wearing a Michigan shirt. An ESPNU commercial air portrayed a couple on a blind date that appears to be successful until it becomes clear that she is from Michigan and he is a fan of Ohio State.
In 2006, as part of their "Midwest Midterm Midtacular '', The Daily Show visited Ohio State University and made fun of the rivalry on the final night by having correspondent Rob Riggle report while wearing a Michigan sweatshirt. This brought boos, jeers, and a few laughs from the OSU audience. After the sketch was over, Jon Stewart compared the rivalry to the disputes between Sunni and Shiite Muslims.
The 2007 HBO documentary Michigan vs. Ohio State: The Rivalry focused on the rivalry, chiefly the "Ten - Year War '' through the present.
The book Myth Directions by Robert Asprin, who attended Michigan, features a thinly veiled version of the Ohio State vs. Michigan game, parodying both sides and their fanaticism regarding the event.
The 1942 movie The Male Animal, based on a play of the same name by Ohio State alumni James Thurber and Elliott Nugent, also features a version of the game.
In 2011, 10 - year - old Grant Reed of Columbus was diagnosed with a malignant brain tumor. Not liking to use the word "cancer '', Reed (whose parents are both Ohio State alums and himself is an Ohio State fan) decided to call his cancer "Michigan '', since "Ohio State is always going to beat Michigan ''. The move of calling his cancer "Michigan '' got the support of his parents, Ohio State head coach Urban Meyer (who Reed later got to meet), and even some Michigan fans, including Michigan head coach Brady Hoke. After his last chemotherapy treatment in 2013 which placed him in remission, Reed now tells people that he "beat Michigan ''.
Rankings are from the AP Poll.
In Big Ten Conference play, Ohio State leads the series 49 -- 46 -- 4 through the 2017 meeting. Michigan was a charter member of the Big Ten in 1896 before leaving the league after the 1906 football season. Ohio State began league play with the 1913 season, and Michigan returned for the 1917 season. The 1918 matchup between the two schools was the first between them with both as Big Ten members.
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producing power from biomass by the year 2022 | Renewable energy in India - Wikipedia
India is one of the countries with the largest production of energy from renewable sources. In the electricity sector, renewable energy (excluding large hydro) accounted for 20 % of the total installed power capacity (71.325 GW) as of 30 June 2018. Large hydro installed capacity was 45.29 GW as of 31 March 2018, contributing to 13 % of the total power capacity. Unlike most countries, India does not count large hydro power while accounting for renewable energy targets as it comes under the older Ministry of Power instead of Ministry of New and Renewable Energy. Thus, renewable energy including large scale hydro - power currently adds up to more than 33 % of the total installed power capacity in India.
Wind power capacity was 34,046 MW as of 31 March 2018, making India the fourth - largest wind power producer in the world. The country has a strong manufacturing base in wind power with 20 manufactures of 53 different wind turbine models of international quality up to 3 MW in size with exports to Europe the USA and other countries.
The government target of installing 20 GW of solar power by 2022 was achieved four year ahead of schedule in January 2018, through both solar parks as well as roof - top solar panels. India has set a new target of achieving 100 GW of solar power by 2022. Four of the top seven largest solar parks worldwide are in India including the second largest solar park in the world at Kurnool, Andhra Pradesh, with a capacity of 1000 MW. The world 's largest solar power plant, Bhadla Solar Park is being constructed in Rajasthan with a capacity of 2255 MW and is expected to be completed by the end of 2018.
Biomass power from biomass combustion, biomass gasification and bagasse co-generation reached 8.3 GW installed capacity as of 31 March 2018. Family type biogas plants reached 3.98 million.
Renewable energy in India comes under the purview of the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE). India was the first country in the world to set up a ministry of non-conventional energy resources, in the early 1980s. Solar Energy Corporation of India is responsible for the development of solar energy industry in India. Hydroelectricity is administered separately by the Ministry of Power and not included in MNRE targets.
India is running one of the largest and most ambitious renewable capacity expansion programs in the world. Newer renewable electricity sources are projected to grow massively by nearer term 2022 targets, including a more than doubling of India 's large wind power capacity and an almost 15 fold increase in solar power from April 2016 levels. Such ambitious targets would place India among the world leaders in renewable energy use and place India at the centre of its "Sunshine Countries '' International Solar Alliance project promoting the growth and development of solar power internationally to over 120 countries. India set a target of achieving 40 % of its total electricity generation from non-fossil fuel sources by 2030, as stated in its Intended Nationally Determined Contributions statement in the Paris Agreement. A blueprint draft published by Central Electricity Authority projects that 57 % of the total electricity capacity will be from renewable sources by 2027. In the 2027 forecasts, India aims to have a renewable energy installed capacity of 275 GW, in addition to 72 GW of hydro - energy, 15 GW of nuclear energy and nearly 100 GW from "other zero emission '' sources.
The 2022 electrical power targets include achieving 227GW (earlier 175 GW) of energy from renewable sources - nearly 113 GW through solar power, 66 GW from wind power, 10 GW from biomass power, 5GW from small hydro and 31GW from floating solar and offshore wind power. The bidding process for the further additional 115 GW or thereabouts to meet these targets of installed capacity from January 2018 levels will be completed by the end of 2019 - 2020. The government has announced that no new coal - based capacity addition is required beyond the 50 GW under different stages of construction likely to come online between 2017 and 2022.
* The target is given for "bio-power '' which includes biomass power and waste to power generation.
The figures above refer to newer and fast developing renewable energy sources and are managed by the Ministry for New and Renewable Energy (MNRE). In addition as of 31 March 2018 India had 45.29 GW of installed large hydro capacity which comes under the ambit of Ministry of Power.
In terms of meeting its ambitious 2022 targets, as of 31 March 2017, wind power was more than halfway towards its goal, whilst solar power was below 13 % of its highly ambitious target, although expansion is expected to be dramatic in the near future. Bio energy was at just above 80 % mark whilst small hydro power was already 85 % of the way to meet its target. Overall India was at 33 % towards meeting its 2022 renewable installed power capacity target of 175 GW. The total breakdown of installed grid connected capacity from all sources including large hydro was as follows:
The first figure at the top of the table refers to the fast growing renewable energy sources under the responsibility of the Ministry for New and Renewable Energy and slightly exceeded the installed capacity of large hydro installations. This figure is targeted to reach 175 GW by 2022. Coal power currently represents the largest share of installed capacity at just under 186 GW. Total installed capacity as of 30 April 2016, for grid connected power in India stood at a little under 303 GW.
Total renewable energy which includes large hydro with pumped storage generation, is nearly 17.5 % of total utility electricity generation in India during the year 2017 - 18.
India is the 7th largest producer of hydroelectric power in the world. As of 30 April 2017, India 's installed utility - scale hydroelectric capacity was 44,594 MW, or 13.5 % of its total utility power generation capacity.
Additional smaller hydroelectric power units with a total capacity of 4,380 MW (1.3 % of its total utility power generation capacity) have been installed. Small hydropower comes under the ambit of the Ministry of New and Renewable energy (MNRE) whilst large hydro comes under the ambit of Ministry of Power.
The development of wind power in India began in the 1990s, and has significantly increased in the last few years. Although a relative newcomer to the wind industry compared with Denmark or the US, domestic policy support for wind power has led India to become the country with the fourth largest installed wind power capacity in the world.
As of 30 June 2018 the installed capacity of wind power in India was 34,293 MW, mainly spread across Tamil Nadu (7,269.50 MW), Maharashtra (4,100.40 MW), Gujarat (3,454.30 MW), Rajasthan (2,784.90 MW), Karnataka (2,318.20 MW), Andhra Pradesh (746.20 MW) and Madhya Pradesh (423.40 MW) Wind power accounts for 10 % of India 's total installed power capacity. India has set an ambitious target to generate 60,000 MW of electricity from wind power by 2022.
The Indian Government 's Ministry of New and Renewable Energy announced a new wind - solar hybrid policy in May 2018. This means that the same piece of land will be used to house both wind farms and solar panels.
Some of India 's largest wind farms are:
India is densely populated and has high solar insolation, an ideal combination for using solar power in India.
Announced in November 2009, the Government of India proposed to launch its Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission under the National Action Plan on Climate Change. The program was inaugurated by former Prime Minister Manmohan Singh on 11 January 2010 with a target of 20GW grid capacity by 2022 as well as 2GW off - grid installations, this target was later increased to 100 GW by the same date under the Narendra Modi government in the 2015 Union budget of India. Achieving this National Solar Mission target would establish India in its ambition to be a global leader in solar power generation. The Mission aims to achieve grid parity (electricity delivered at the same cost and quality as that delivered on the grid) by 2022. The National Solar Mission is also promoted and known by its more colloquial name of "Solar India ''. The earlier objectives of the mission were to install 1,000 MW of power by 2013 and cover 20 × 10 ^ m (220 × 10 ^ sq ft) with collectors by the end of the final phase of the mission in 2022.
On 30 November 2015 the Prime Minister of India Narendra Modi and the Prime Minister of France Francois Hollande launched the International Solar Alliance. The ISA is an alliance of 121 solar rich countries lying partially or fully between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn, a number of countries outside of this area are also involved with the organisation. The ISA aims to promote and develop solar power amongst its members and has the objective of mobilising $1 Trillion dollars of investment by 2030...
Much of the country does not have an electrical grid, so one of the first applications of solar power was for water pumping, to begin replacing India 's four to five million diesel powered water pumps, each consuming about 3.5 kilowatts, and off - grid lighting. Some large projects have been proposed, and a 35,000 km (14,000 sq mi) area of the Thar Desert has been set aside for solar power projects, sufficient to generate 700 to 2,100 gigawatts. Solar power in India has been growing at a rate of 113 % yoy and now dropped to around ₹ 4.34 (6.3 ¢ US) per kWh, which is around 18 % lower than the average price for electricity generated by coal - fired plants.
As part of India 's ambitious solar programme the central government has set up a US $350 million fund and the Yes Bank will loan US $5 billion to finance solar projects (c. January 2018). India is also the home to the world 's first and only 100 % solar powered airport, located at Cochin, Kerala. India also has a wholly 100 % solar powered railway station in Guwhati, Assam. India 's first and the largest floating solar power plant was constructed at Banasura Sagar reservoir in Wayanad, Kerala.
The Indian Solar Loan Programme, supported by the United Nations Environment Programme has won the prestigious Energy Globe World award for Sustainability for helping to establish a consumer financing program for solar home power systems. Over the span of three years more than 16,000 solar home systems have been financed through 2,000 bank branches, particularly in rural areas of South India where the electricity grid does not yet extend.
Launched in 2003, the Indian Solar Loan Programme was a four - year partnership between UNEP, the UNEP Risoe Centre, and two of India 's largest banks, the Canara Bank and Syndicate Bank.
Every year, about 55 million tonnes of municipal solid waste (MSW) and 38 billion litres of sewage are generated in the urban areas of India. In addition, large quantities of solid and liquid wastes are generated by industries. Waste generation in India is expected to increase rapidly in the future. As more people migrate to urban areas and as incomes increase, consumption levels are likely to rise, as are rates of waste generation. It is estimated that the amount of waste generated in India will increase at a per capita rate of approximately 1 - 1.33 % annually. This has significant impacts on the amount of land that is and will be needed for disposal, economic costs of collecting and transporting waste, and the environmental consequences of increased MSW generation levels.
India has had a long involvement with anaerobic digestion and biogas technologies. Waste water treatment plants in the country have been established which produce renewable energy from sewage gas. However, there is still significant untapped potential. Also wastes from the distillery sector are on some sites converted into biogas to run in a gas engine to generate onsite power. Prominent companies in the waste to energy sector include:
India is an ideal environment for Biomass production given its tropical location and abundant sunshine and rains. The countries vast agricultural potential provides huge agro-residues which can be used to meet energy needs, both in heat and power applications... According to IREDA "Biomass is capable of supplementing the coal to the tune of about 260 million tonnes '', "saving of about Rs. 250 billion, every year. '' It is estimated that the potential for biomass energy in India includes 16,000 MW from biomass energy and a further 3,500 MW from bagasse cogeneration. Biomass materials that can be used for power generation include bagasse, rice husk, straw, cotton stalk, coconut shells, soya husk, de-oiled cakes, coffee waste, jute wastes, and groundnut shells and saw dust.
Synthetic methane (SNG) generated using electricity from carbon neutral renewable power can be used to produce protein rich feed for cattle, poultry and fish economically by cultivating Methylococcus capsulatus bacteria culture with tiny land and water foot print. The carbon dioxide gas produced as by product from these bio protein plants can be recycled in the generation of SNG. Similarly, oxygen gas produced as by product from the electrolysis of water and the methanation process can be consumed in the cultivation of bacteria culture. With these integrated plants, the abundant renewable power potential in India can be converted in to high value food products with out any water pollution or green house gas (GHG) emissions for achieving food security at a faster pace with lesser people deployment in agriculture / animal husbandry sector.
Ethanol market penetration reached its highest figure of a 3.3 % blend rate in India in 2016. It is produced from sugarcane molasses and partly from grains and can be blended with gasoline. Sugarcane or sugarcane juice may not be used for the production of ethanol in India.
The market for biodiesel remains at an early stage in India with the country achieving a minimal blend rate with diesel of 0.001 % in 2016. Initially development was focussed on the jatropha (jatropha curcas) plant as the most suitable indedible oilseed for biodiesel production. Development of biodiesel from jatropha has met a number of agronomic and economic restraints and attention is now moving towards other feedstock technologies which utilize used cooking oils, other unusable oil fractions, animal fat and indedible oils.
Media related to Renewable energy in India at Wikimedia Commons
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what are the names of all the jurassic movies | Jurassic Park - wikipedia
Jurassic Park is an American science fiction media franchise centered on a disastrous attempt to create a theme park of cloned dinosaurs. The dinosaurs escape confinement and terrorize the human characters. It began in 1990 when Universal Pictures and Amblin Entertainment bought the rights to the novel by Michael Crichton before it was even published.
The book was successful, as was Steven Spielberg 's 1993 film adaptation, which led to four sequels, although only the first two films were based on the novels. Numerous video games based on the franchise have been created by various software developers since the release of the 1993 film. Since 1996, several water rides based on the series have been opened at various Universal theme parks.
The Jurassic Park Ultimate Trilogy was released on DVD and Blu - ray on October 25, 2011, in North America. The first film was re-released in 3D on April 5, 2013.
The fourth film, Jurassic World, was initially scheduled to be released in the summer of 2005, but was delayed numerous times and was ultimately released in June 2015. It became the first film to gross over $500 million worldwide in its opening weekend, and has grossed over $1.6 billion through the course of its theatrical run, making it the fifth highest - grossing film of all time. When adjusted for monetary inflation, however, this film is the second highest grossing in the franchise after Jurassic Park. An animated film, Lego Jurassic World: The Indominus Escape, was released on October 18, 2016 with the home media release of Jurassic World, alongside a short film, Employee Safety Video.
A fifth film, Jurassic World: Fallen Kingdom, was released in June 2018. A sixth film, tentatively titled Jurassic World 3, is scheduled to be released on June 11, 2021. As of 2000, the franchise had generated $5 billion in revenue, making it one of the highest - grossing media franchises of all time.
In 1983, Michael Crichton originally conceived a screenplay about a pterosaur being cloned from fossil DNA. After wrestling with this idea for a while, he came up with the story of Jurassic Park. Crichton worked on the book for several years; he decided his first draft would have a theme park for the setting (similar to his 1973 film Westworld) and a young boy as the main character. Response was extremely negative, so Crichton rewrote the story to make it from an adult 's point of view, which resulted in more positive feedback.
Steven Spielberg learned of the novel in October 1989 while he and Crichton were discussing a screenplay that would become the TV series ER. Warner Bros. Pictures, Columbia Pictures, 20th Century Fox, and Universal Pictures bid for the rights to the novel before its publication. In May 1990, Universal acquired the rights, with the backing of Spielberg 's Amblin Entertainment. Crichton put up a non-negotiable fee for $1.5 million as well as a substantial percentage of the gross. Universal further paid Crichton $500,000 to adapt his own novel (Malia Scotch Marmo, who was a writer on Spielberg 's 1991 film Hook, wrote the next draft of Jurassic Park, but was not credited. David Koepp wrote the final draft, which left out much of the novel 's exposition and violence, and made numerous changes to the characters). Universal desperately needed money to keep their company alive, and partially succeeded with Jurassic Park, as it became a critical and commercial success.
After the film adaptation of Jurassic Park was released to home video, Crichton was pressured from many sources for a sequel novel. Crichton declined all offers until Spielberg himself told him that he would be keen to direct a movie adaptation of the sequel, if one were written. Crichton began work almost immediately and in 1995 published The Lost World. Crichton confirmed that his novel had elements taken from the novel of the same name by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle. The book was also an outstanding success, both with professional and amateur critics. The film adaptation, The Lost World: Jurassic Park, began production in September 1996.
In the novels, the fictional company InGen (International Genetic Technologies, Inc.) is based in Palo Alto, California and has one location in Europe. Nevertheless, most of InGen 's research took place on the fictional islands of Isla Sorna and Isla Nublar, near Costa Rica. While the first novel indicated InGen was just one of any number of small 1980s genetic engineering start - ups, the events of the novel and film revealed to a select group that InGen had discovered a method of cloning dinosaurs and other animals (including a quagga) using blood extracted from mosquitoes trapped in amber during various periods in time, ranging from the Mesozoic era to the 1800s. Beacham 's Encyclopedia of Popular Fiction describes InGen as comparable to another "sleazy organization ''. Other sources reference the company 's receiving the baby T. rex as an allusion to other exploitative entrepreneurs depicted in King Kong. Ken Gelder describes InGen as "resolutely secretive, just like the firm in Grisham 's novel ''.
The film is set on Isla Nublar, the location of the theme park. When an incident with a velociraptor results in the death of an employee, Jurassic Park owner John Hammond (Richard Attenborough) brings in three specialists to sign off on the park to calm investors. The specialists, paleontologist Alan Grant (Sam Neill), paleobotanist Ellie Sattler (Laura Dern), and chaos theorist Ian Malcolm (Jeff Goldblum) are surprised to see the island park 's main attraction are living, breathing dinosaurs, created with a mixture of fossilized DNA and genetic cross-breeding / cloning. However, when lead programmer Dennis Nedry (Wayne Knight) shuts down the park 's power to sneak out with samples of the dinosaur embryos to sell to a corporate rival, the dinosaurs break free, and the survivors are forced to find a way to turn the power back on and make it out alive. The film also stars Bob Peck, Martin Ferrero, BD Wong, Ariana Richards, Joseph Mazzello, and Samuel L. Jackson.
Jurassic Park is regarded as a landmark in the use of computer - generated imagery and received positive reviews from critics, who praised the effects, though reactions to other elements of the picture, such as character development, were mixed. During its release, the film grossed more than $914 million worldwide, becoming the most successful film released up to that time (surpassing E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial and surpassed 4 years later by Titanic), and it is currently the 17th highest grossing feature film (taking inflation into account, it is the 20th - highest - grossing film in North America). It is the most financially successful film for NBCUniversal and Steven Spielberg.
Jurassic Park had two re-releases: The first on September 23, 2011, in the United Kingdom and the second in which it was converted into 3D on April 5, 2013, for its 20th Anniversary, which resulted in the film passing the $1 billion mark at the worldwide box office.
Before The Lost World was published, a film adaptation was already in pre-production, with its release occurring in May 1997. The film was a commercial success, breaking many box - office records when released. The film had mixed reviews, similar to its predecessor in terms of characterization. Much like the first film, The Lost World made a number of changes to the plot and characters from the book, replacing the corporate rivals with an internal power struggle and changing the roles / characterizations of several protagonists.
When a vacationing family stumbles upon the dinosaurs of Isla Sorna, a secondary island where the animals were bred en masse and allowed to grow before being transported to the park, Ian Malcolm (Jeff Goldblum) is called in by John Hammond (Richard Attenborough) to lead a team to document the island to turn it into a preserve, where the animals can roam free without interference from the outside world. Malcolm agrees to go when he discovers his girlfriend, paleontologist Sarah Harding (Julianne Moore) is already on the island, while at the same time Hammond 's nephew, Peter Ludlow (Arliss Howard), has taken over his uncle 's company and leads a team of hunters to capture the creatures and bring them back to a theme park in San Diego. The two groups clash and are ultimately forced to work together to evade the predatory creatures and survive the second island. The film also stars Pete Postlethwaite, Richard Schiff, Vince Vaughn, Vanessa Lee Chester, Peter Stormare, and a young Camilla Belle.
Joe Johnston had been interested in directing the sequel to Jurassic Park and approached his friend Steven Spielberg about the project. While Spielberg wanted to direct the first sequel, he agreed that if there was ever a third film, Johnston could direct. Spielberg, nevertheless, stayed involved in this film by becoming its executive producer. Production began on August 30, 2000, with filming in California, and the Hawaiian islands of Kauai, Oahu, and Molokai. It is the first Jurassic Park film not to be based on a novel. The film was a financial success but received mixed reviews from critics.
When their son goes missing while parasailing at Isla Sorna, the Kirbys (William H. Macy and Téa Leoni) hire Alan Grant (Sam Neill) under false pretenses to help them navigate the island. Believing it to be nothing more than sight - seeing, and that he will act as a dinosaur guide from the safety of their plane, he is startled to find them landing on the ground, where they are stalked by a Spinosaurus (superior to the Tyrannosaurus in size), which destroys their plane. As they search for the Kirbys ' son, the situation grows dire as Velociraptors (more intelligent than ever) hunt their group and they must find a way off the island. The film also stars Alessandro Nivola, Michael Jeter, Trevor Morgan, Mark Harelik, and Laura Dern.
Steven Spielberg devised a story idea for a fourth film in 2001, during production of Jurassic Park III. In 2002, William Monahan was hired to write the script, with the film 's release scheduled for 2005. Monahan finished the first draft of the script in 2003, with the film 's plot revolving around dinosaurs escaping to the mainland. Sam Neill and Richard Attenborough were set to reprise their characters, while Keira Knightley was in talks for two separate roles. In 2004, John Sayles wrote two drafts of the script. Sayles ' first draft involved a team of Deinonychus being trained for use in rescue missions. His second draft involved genetically modified dinosaur - human mercenaries. Both drafts were scrapped. In 2006, a new script was being worked on. Laura Dern was contacted to reprise her role, with the film expected for release in 2008. The film was further delayed by the 2007 -- 08 Writers Guild of America strike. Mark Protosevich wrote two film treatments in 2011, which were rejected. Rise of the Planet of the Apes screenwriters Rick Jaffa and Amanda Silver were hired in 2012 to write an early draft of the script. In 2013, Colin Trevorrow was announced as a director and co-writer, with the film scheduled for release on June 12, 2015. The film was shot in 3D, and received generally positive reviews.
The film features a new park, Jurassic World, built on the remains of the original park on Isla Nublar. The film sees the park run by Simon Masrani (Irrfan Khan) and Masrani Corp, and features the return of Dr. Henry Wu (BD Wong) from the first film. Chris Pratt, Bryce Dallas Howard, and Jake Johnson star, while Vincent D'Onofrio portrayed the main antagonist, Vic Hoskins. The cast also includes Lauren Lapkus, Ty Simpkins, Nick Robinson, Omar Sy, and Judy Greer. The primary dinosaur antagonist is Indominus rex, a genetically - modified hybrid of Tyrannosaurus rex and several other species, including Velociraptor, cuttlefish, tree frog, and pit viper.
A sequel to Jurassic World was released in June 2018. The film was directed by J.A. Bayona and written by Trevorrow and Connolly, with Trevorrow and Spielberg as executive producers. The film stars Chris Pratt, Bryce Dallas Howard, Rafe Spall, Justice Smith, Daniella Pineda, James Cromwell, Toby Jones, Ted Levine, BD Wong, Isabella Sermon, and Geraldine Chaplin, with Jeff Goldblum reprising his role as Dr. Ian Malcolm. The film also introduces a new hybrid dinosaur called Indoraptor, who is a primary dinosaur antagonist and consists of Velociraptor and deceased Indominus Rex from Jurassic World.
During early conversations on Jurassic World, Spielberg told Trevorrow that he was interested in having several more films made. In April 2014, Trevorrow announced that sequels to Jurassic World had been discussed: "We wanted to create something that would be a little bit less arbitrary and episodic, and something that could potentially arc into a series that would feel like a complete story. '' Trevorrow, who said he would direct the film if asked, later told Spielberg that he would only focus on directing one film in the series. Trevorrow believed that different directors could bring different qualities to future films. Bayona was once considered to direct Jurassic World, but he declined as he felt there was not enough time for production. Filming took place from February to July 2017, in the United Kingdom and Hawaii.
Former Jurassic World manager Claire Dearing and Velociraptor handler Owen Grady join a mission to rescue Isla Nublar 's dinosaurs from a volcanic eruption by relocating them to a new island sanctuary. They discover that the mission is part of a scheme to sell the captured dinosaurs on the black market. The captured dinosaurs are brought to an estate in northern California, where several of the creatures are auctioned and subsequently shipped to their new owners. A new hybrid dinosaur, the Indoraptor, escapes and terrorizes people at the estate before being killed. The unsold dinosaurs are released from the estate and into the wilderness to save them from a gas leak. With the dinosaurs now dispersed, the world has entered a Neo-Jurassic Period where humans and dinosaurs must coexist. A subplot involving human cloning is introduced.
In September 2015, Trevorrow said that Bryce Dallas Howard 's character would evolve the most over the course of the Jurassic World trilogy that, in turn, is expected to conclude the storyline that began with the previous five films. In October 2015, Frank Marshall confirmed plans for a sixth film in the series. In November 2015, Universal Pictures chairman Donna Langley said that Trevorrow and Spielberg have a story idea for the sixth film. In September 2016, Bayona further confirmed that Trevorrow has plans for a Jurassic World trilogy. That month, Trevorrow was asked how much planning he had put into a new trilogy while he was filming Jurassic World in 2014: "I knew the end. I knew where I wanted it to go. '' Trevorrow later said that planning the beginning, middle, and end of the trilogy ahead of time "is crucial to a franchise like this if you really want to bring people along with you and make sure they stay interested. It needs to be thought through on that level. It ca n't be arbitrary (...) the earlier Jurassic Park movies had pretty clear definitive endings. They were much more episodic. '' In March 2017, Laura Dern commented, "As I said to the people who are making the new series, ' If you guys make a last one, you got ta let Ellie Sattler come back. ' ''
In February 2018, it was announced that the film, currently titled as Jurassic World 3, would be released on June 11, 2021. It was also announced that Trevorrow would write the script with Emily Carmichael, based on a story by Trevorrow and Connolly; and that Trevorrow and Spielberg would serve as executive producers for the film, with Marshall and Crowley as producers. On March 30, 2018, it was announced that Trevorrow would also direct the film, at the request of Spielberg. Trevorrow and Carmichael were writing the script as of April 2018. At the time, Trevorrow said that Pratt and Howard would reprise their roles from the previous films, and that "there 's other characters who we 'll meet in Fallen Kingdom you 'll realize are major characters. '' Additionally, Trevorrow said that Jurassic World 3 would be a "science thriller, '' describing it as being the Jurassic World film that would most closely match the tone of Spielberg 's original 1993 Jurassic Park film. In May 2018, Trevorrow announced that the film would focus more on real dinosaurs as opposed to hybrids, which had prominent roles in the previous Jurassic World films.
Over the course of five days from October 3, 2016 to October 7, 2016, an untitled five - part animated series based on Lego Jurassic World was released on the YouTube channels of Jurassic World and LEGO. In October 2016, the series was released as a 24 - minute animated film entitled Lego Jurassic World: The Indominus Escape as part of a Jurassic World DVD bundle set, receiving shared billing alongside the 2015 film. The film marks the first time an animated film spin - off of Jurassic Park has been released. The film is a prequel to Jurassic World, and features most of the primary adult characters on the island (with the exception of Barry and Zara) attempting to capture a hotdog - loving Indominus rex. Zachary Levi, Sendhil Ramamurthy and Fred Tatasciore joined Jake Johnson, Lauren Lapkus, Bryce Dallas Howard and BD Wong as voice actors. The film is directed by Michael D. Black.
With the home media release of The Indominus Escape, a short film, Lego Jurassic World: Employee Safety Video, was released, featuring BD Wong, David Gunning, Jake Johnson and Lauren Lapkus reprising their roles from The Indominus Escape. Like The Indominus Escape, the short is set before the events of Jurassic World.
In promotion of Jurassic World: Fallen Kingdom, Lego produced a short film, with a variant featured on YouTube where it was separated into four parts, and at the end of each part the audience was given the option to choose between two different outcomes.
From June 1993 to August 1997 the now - defunct Topps Comics published comic adaptions of Jurassic Park and The Lost World: Jurassic Park, as well as several tie - in series.
Beginning in June 2010, IDW Publishing began publishing Jurassic Park comics. They also acquired the rights to reprint the issues published by Topps in the 1990s, which they began to do in trade paperback format starting in November 2010. After a four - year hiatus, IDW announced a comic series based on Jurassic World that was to be released in 2017.
This series has been collected in the following trade paperbacks:
Classic Jurassic Park Volume 2: Raptors ' Revenge
In June 1993, after the theatrical release of Jurassic Park, spokesmen for Amblin and MCA confirmed that an animated series based on the film was in development and awaiting Spielberg 's final approval. The series, titled Escape from Jurassic Park, would have consisted of 23 episodes for its first season. The series would have centered on John Hammond 's attempts to finish Jurassic Park and open it to the public, while InGen 's corporate rival Biosyn is simultaneously planning to open their own dinosaur theme park in Brazil, which ultimately ends with their dinosaurs escaping into the jungles.
If produced, it was believed that the project would be the most expensive animated series up to that time. Jeff Segal, president of Universal Cartoon Studios, said, "We are developing a TV series that we anticipate would be computer animated and very sophisticated. However, Spielberg has not had a chance yet to look at either the material or the format for the series. '' Segal said Universal was considering the possibility of developing the series for prime time. Segal said about the series ' storyline, "It would essentially pick up from the closing moments of the movie and it would continue the story in a very dramatic way. The intention would be to continue with the primary characters and also introduce new characters. '' Segal also said the series would be aimed specifically at the same target audience as the film, while hoping that it would also appeal to young children.
Animation veteran and comic artist Will Meugniot (then working at Universal Cartoon Studios for various projects, including Exosquad) contacted artist William Stout to ask if he would be interested in designing the animated series. According to Stout, "This was not going to be a kiddy show (although kids of all ages, including myself, could enjoy it). They wanted the show to be a mature prime time series with top writers and state - of - the - art television animation augmented with quite a bit of CG animation. '' Universal Animation Studios wanted the show to have the look of a graphic novel.
Stout was hired to work on the series and subsequently made a trailer to demonstrate how the series would look, and how it would combine traditional animation with computer animation. The series required Spielberg 's final approval before it could go into production. However, Spielberg had grown tired of the massive promotion and merchandise revolving around the film, and never watched the trailer. On July 13, 1993, Margaret Loesch, president of the Fox Children 's Network, confirmed that discussions had been held with Spielberg about an animated version of the film. Loesch also said, "At least for now and in the foreseeable future, there will not be an animated Jurassic Park. That 's Steven Spielberg 's decision, and we respect that decision. ''
Part three of the four - part comic adaptation of The Lost World: Jurassic Park, published by Topps Comics in July 1997, confirmed to readers that a cartoon series based on the film was in development. In November 1997, it was reported that the cartoon would be accompanied by Jurassic Park: Chaos Effect, a series of dinosaur toys produced by Kenner and based on a premise that scientists had created dinosaur hybrids consisting of DNA from different creatures. The new toys were based on the upcoming cartoon. That month, it was also reported that the cartoon could be ready by March 1998, as a mid-season replacement. The Chaos Effect toyline was released in June 1998, but the animated series was never produced, for unknown reasons.
In the short - lived toyline, the dinosaurs in this line are the results of scientists combining the DNA of dinosaurs with other dinosaurs and modern day animals. The following dinosaurs are in this category:
When the first film was released in 1993, two different video game publishers were given the rights to publish games based on it, Sega and Ocean Software. Both produced several different games based on the film for several different game systems, including the NES and Sega Genesis. In 1994, Ocean Software produced a sequel to the first game in the series for the Game Boy and SNES systems. Universal Interactive also produced an interactive game for the ill - fated 3DO system.
For the second film in the franchise, DreamWorks Interactive released five games for the most popular systems at the time. The third film had the biggest marketing push, spawning seven video games for PC and Game Boy Advance. A number of lightgun arcade games were also released for all three films.
Jurassic Park: Operation Genesis is a tycoon - style video game. The objective of the game is to fulfill Hammond 's dream of building a five - star theme park with dinosaurs. It was released 2003 for the Xbox, PlayStation 2 and PC.
Jurassic Park: The Game is an episodic video game based on the Jurassic Park franchise, bridging the story of the first two films developed by Telltale Games in a deal with Universal. It was released on November 15, 2011 to a mixed reception, with reviewers praising the story but criticizing the characters and gameplay. The game takes place during and after the events of the original film, and follows a new group of survivors trying to escape Isla Nublar. The game features several creatures from the film, as well as new additions like Troodon and a Tylosaurus. The game is available on PC, Mac, PlayStation 3, Xbox 360, and iPad.
Lego Jurassic World is a 2015 Lego action - adventure video game developed by Traveller 's Tales and published by Warner Bros. Interactive Entertainment, for the PlayStation 4, PlayStation 3, PlayStation Vita, Nintendo 3DS, Wii U, Xbox One, Xbox 360, and Microsoft Windows. It followed the plots of the series ' four films, including Jurassic Park, and was released on June 12, 2015.
Jurassic World Evolution is a business simulation game developed and published by Frontier Developments, and released on June 12, 2018. The game tasks players with constructing and managing their own Jurassic World theme park. The game features the series ' fictional Muertes Archipelago, including Isla Nublar and Isla Sorna.
On June 21, 1996, Universal Studios Hollywood opened Jurassic Park: The Ride. Universal Studios Japan later opened this attraction, and Universal 's Islands of Adventure opened Jurassic Park River Adventure. The rides are heavily themed on the first three films. Another ride based on the series has also been opened at Universal Studios Singapore (Jurassic Park Rapids Adventure).
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who wrote there'll be bluebirds over the white cliffs of dover | (There 'll be bluebirds over) the White Cliffs of Dover - wikipedia
"(There 'll Be Bluebirds Over) The White Cliffs of Dover '' is a popular World War II song composed in 1941 by Walter Kent to lyrics by Nat Burton. Made famous in Vera Lynn 's 1942 version, it was one of Lynn 's best - known recordings and among the most popular World War II tunes.
The song was written about a year after British Commonwealth and German aircraft had been fighting over the cliffs of Dover in the Battle of Britain (1940). Nazi Germany had conquered much of Europe and in 1941 was still bombing Britain. With neither America nor the Soviet Union having yet joined the war, Britain was the only major power fighting the Axis in Europe (see The Darkest Hour). The lyrics refer to the RAF and RCAF fighter pilots (in their blue uniforms) as "bluebirds '' and expresses confidence that they would prevail. Notable phrases include "Thumbs Up! '' which was an RAF and RCAF term for permission to go, and "flying in those angry skies '' where the air war was taking place. There will probably never be wild bluebirds over the White Cliffs of Dover as the bluebird is not indigenous to Europe and is non-migratory.
The lyrics also looked towards a time when the war would be over and peace would rule over the iconic white cliffs of Dover, Britain 's symbolic border with the European mainland.
The full song includes two verses rarely found in recordings:
I 'll never forget the people I met braving those angry skies. I remember well as the shadows fell, the light of hope in their eyes. And tho ' I 'm far away, I can still hear them say "Thumbs Up! '' for when the dawn comes up,... There 'll be blue birds over... When night shadows fall, I 'll always recall out there across the sea Twilight falling down on some little town; It 's fresh in my memory. I hear mother pray, and to her baby say "Do n't cry, '' This is her lullaby... There 'll be blue birds over...
The song was a top ten hit in America for Kate Smith in 1942.
Glenn Miller recorded a version of the song in November 1941.
Jimmie Baker frequently performed it in Europe during the war.
The song was sung by the vocal group The King 's Men on a 3 February 1942 episode of the Fibber McGee and Molly Show.
Ray Eberle and Tex Beneke also included it in their repertoires.
The song is the terrace anthem of the supporters of Dover Athletic FC.
The Checkers, an American group, released an R&B version of the song in 1953 which became very popular. Other artists who have recorded the song include Connie Francis, Bing Crosby, Ray Conniff, Jim Reeves, Acker Bilk, The Righteous Brothers, Bert Kaemfert and The Hot Sardines on their debut album released in 2014. The 1990s pop duo Robson & Jerome recorded the song as the B side of their U.K. No. 1 hit single "Unchained Melody. '' The Jive Aces released a swing version in 2005 (similar to Acker Bilk 's arrangement)
On 18 February 2009, a story in The Daily Telegraph announced that Vera Lynn was suing the British National Party (BNP) for using her version of "The White Cliffs of Dover '' on an anti-immigration album without her permission. Dame Vera 's lawyer claimed sales of the song would help boost the BNP 's coffers and would link her name to the party 's far - right views by association.
On 12 October 2009, Ian Hislop presented a half - hour BBC Radio 4 programme about the song.
On 9 May 2015, Elaine Paige performed the song at VE Day 70: A Party to Remember at Horse Guards Parade in London.
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who did the voice of kitt on knight rider | William Daniels - wikipedia
William David Daniels (born March 31, 1927) is an American actor, known for his role as Mr. Feeny in the ABC sitcom Boy Meets World. He was president of the Screen Actors Guild from 1999 to 2001.
He is also associated with his performances as the father of Benjamin Braddock (Dustin Hoffman) in The Graduate (1967), as Howard in Two for the Road, as John Adams in 1776, as Carter Nash in Captain Nice, as the voice of KITT in Knight Rider, and as Dr. Mark Craig in St. Elsewhere, for which he won two Emmy Awards. In 2015, he returned to his role as Mr. Feeny in the sequel to Boy Meets World, titled Girl Meets World.
William Daniels was born in Brooklyn, New York City, New York, United States to Irene and David Daniels. His father was a bricklayer. He has two sisters, Jacqueline and Carol. Daniels speaks, especially in performances, with a Boston Brahmin accent that has transatlantic influences.
Daniels was drafted into the U.S. Army in 1945 and stationed in Italy, where he served as a disc jockey at an Army radio station. At the suggestion of Howard Lindsay, co-author of Life With Father, who recommended he use the GI Bill to attend a college with a good drama department, Daniels enrolled at Northwestern University. He graduated from Northwestern in 1949, and was a member of Sigma Nu fraternity.
Daniels began his career as a member of the singing Daniels family in Brooklyn. He made his television debut as part of a variety act (along with other members of his family) in 1943, on NBC, then a single station in New York. He made his Broadway debut in 1943 in Life With Father, and remained a busy Broadway actor for decades afterwards. His Broadway credits include roles in 1776, A Thousand Clowns, On a Clear Day You Can See Forever and A Little Night Music. He received an Obie Award for The Zoo Story (1960).
Daniels 's motion picture debut was as a school principal in the 1963 anti-war drama film Ladybug Ladybug. In 1965, he reprised his Broadway role as a child welfare worker in the screen version of A Thousand Clowns. In 1967 he appeared in The Graduate as the father of Dustin Hoffman 's character. In 1969, Daniels starred as John Adams in the Broadway musical 1776; he also appeared in the film version in 1972. Two years later, he co-starred in Richard Donner 's telefilm Sarah T. - Portrait of a Teenage Alcoholic.
Daniels 's first network television appearance came in 1952 when he portrayed the young John Quincy Adams, eldest son of John and Abigail Adams in the Hallmark Hall of Fame drama A Woman for the Ages. In 1976, he reprised the role as the middle - aged and elder John Quincy Adams in the acclaimed PBS miniseries The Adams Chronicles. He starred in the short - lived series Captain Nice as police chemist Carter Nash. He appeared as acid - tongued Dr. Mark Craig in St. Elsewhere from 1982 -- 88, for which he won two Emmy awards. Concurrently, he provided the voice of KITT in Knight Rider from 1982 -- 86. Daniels said in 1982, "My duties on Knight Rider are very simple. I do it in about an hour and a half. I 've never met the cast. I have n't even met the producer. ''
He reprised the voice - only role of KITT in 1991 for the television movie Knight Rider 2000, again in the movie The Benchwarmers. He performed the role in AT&T and GE commercials about talking machines, and twice in The Simpsons as well as at the Comedy Central Roast of his co-star David Hasselhoff. He reprised the role of KITT in the 2015 Lego - themed action - adventure video game Lego Dimensions.
Daniels portrayed teacher (later principal) George Feeny at John Adams High School in Boy Meets World from 1993 to 2000. In addition to the previously mentioned 1967 superhero sitcom Captain Nice, he was a regular on the 1970s TV series Freebie and the Bean and The Nancy Walker Show.
A familiar character actor, he has appeared as a guest star on numerous TV comedies and dramas, including Soap, The Rockford Files, Quincy, M.E., Kolchak: The Night Stalker, and many others. In 2012, Daniels appeared in the ninth season of Grey 's Anatomy as Dr. Craig Thomas, an unlikely mentor to the character of Dr. Cristina Yang played by actress Sandra Oh. His character, Dr. Thomas, died in the operating room while performing a procedure to repair a heart defect midway through the season, which forced Yang to move back to Seattle.
In 2014, Daniels reprised his role as Mr. Feeny in the pilot episode of the Boy Meets World spinoff, Girl Meets World. His role was a cameo at the end credits praising the adult Cory Matthews for his parenting. He made additional appearances in the second and third seasons.
Bartlett and Daniels both served on the Screen Actors Guild 's Board of Directors.
Daniels has been married to actress and fellow Emmy Award - winner Bonnie Bartlett since June 30, 1951. In 1961, Bartlett gave birth to a son, who died just 24 hours later. They later adopted two children: Michael, who became an assistant director and stage manager in Los Angeles, and Robert, who became an artist and computer graphics designer based in New York City.
Daniels refused the 1969 Tony Award nomination for Featured Actor in a Musical in 1776 due to his insistence that the part of John Adams was a leading role rather than supporting. He was ruled to be ineligible for the Best Actor nomination because of the technicality that his name was not billed above the title of the show.
In 1986, Daniels and Bartlett, who played his fictional wife on St. Elsewhere and Boy Meets World, won Emmy Awards on the same night, becoming the first married couple to accomplish the feat since Alfred Lunt and Lynn Fontanne in 1965 for a production of The Magnificent Yankee for the Hallmark Hall of Fame.
Daniels, William (2017). There I Go Again: How I Came to Be Mr. Feeny, John Adams, Dr. Craig, KITT, and Many Others. Potomac Books, Inc.
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trips forming part of the world trade organization is intended | TRIPS agreement - wikipedia
The Agreement on Trade - Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) is an international legal agreement between all the member nations of the World Trade Organization (WTO). It sets down minimum standards for the regulation by national governments of many forms of intellectual property (IP) as applied to nationals of other WTO member nations. TRIPS was negotiated at the end of the Uruguay Round of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) in 1994 and is administered by the WTO.
The TRIPS agreement introduced intellectual property law into the international trading system for the first time and remains the most comprehensive international agreement on intellectual property to date. In 2001, developing countries, concerned that developed countries were insisting on an overly narrow reading of TRIPS, initiated a round of talks that resulted in the Doha Declaration. The Doha declaration is a WTO statement that clarifies the scope of TRIPS, stating for example that TRIPS can and should be interpreted in light of the goal "to promote access to medicines for all. ''
Specifically, TRIPS requires WTO members to provide copyright rights, covering content producers including performers, producers of sound recordings and broadcasting organizations; geographical indications, including appellations of origin; industrial designs; integrated circuit layout - designs; patents; new plant varieties; trademarks; trade dress; and undisclosed or confidential information. TRIPS also specifies enforcement procedures, remedies, and dispute resolution procedures. Protection and enforcement of all intellectual property rights shall meet the objectives to contribute to the promotion of technological innovation and to the transfer and dissemination of technology, to the mutual advantage of producers and users of technological knowledge and in a manner conducive to social and economic welfare, and to a balance of rights and obligations.
TRIPS was negotiated at the end of the Uruguay Round of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) in 1994. Its inclusion was the culmination of a program of intense lobbying by the United States, supported by the European Union, Japan and other developed nations. Campaigns of unilateral economic encouragement under the Generalized System of Preferences and coercion under Section 301 of the Trade Act played an important role in defeating competing policy positions that were favored by developing countries like Brazil, but also including Thailand, India and Caribbean Basin states. In turn, the United States strategy of linking trade policy to intellectual property standards can be traced back to the entrepreneurship of senior management at Pfizer in the early 1980s, who mobilized corporations in the United States and made maximizing intellectual property privileges the number one priority of trade policy in the United States (Braithwaite and Drahos, 2000, Chapter 7).
After the Uruguay round, the GATT became the basis for the establishment of the World Trade Organization. Because ratification of TRIPS is a compulsory requirement of World Trade Organization membership, any country seeking to obtain hard access to the numerous international markets opened by the World Trade Organization must enact the strict intellectual property laws mandated by TRIPS. For this reason, TRIPS is the most important multilateral instrument for the globalization of intellectual property laws. States like Russia and China that were very unlikely to join the Berne Convention have found the prospect of WTO membership a powerful enticement.
Furthermore, unlike other agreements on intellectual property, TRIPS has a powerful enforcement mechanism. States can be disciplined through the WTO 's dispute settlement mechanism.
TRIPS requires member states to provide strong protection for intellectual property rights. For example, under TRIPS:
Many of the TRIPS provisions on copyright were copied from the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works and many of its trademark and patent provisions were modeled on the Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property. It is the case of the protection of software and database.
Article 10 of the treaty stipulates:
"1. Computer programs, whether in source or object code, shall be protected as literary works under the Berne Convention (1971). 2. Compilations of data or other material, whether in machine readable or other form, which by reason of the selection or arrangement of their contents constitute intellectual creations shall be protected as such. Such protection, which shall not extend to the data or material itself, shall be without prejudice to any copyright subsisting in the data or material itself. ''
The most visible conflict has been over AIDS drugs in Africa. Despite the role that patents have played in maintaining higher drug costs for public health programs across Africa, this controversy has not led to a revision of TRIPS. Instead, an interpretive statement, the Doha Declaration, was issued in November 2001, which indicated that TRIPS should not prevent states from dealing with public health crises. After Doha, PhRMA, the United States and to a lesser extent other developed nations began working to minimize the effect of the declaration.
A 2003 agreement loosened the domestic market requirement, and allows developing countries to export to other countries where there is a national health problem as long as drugs exported are not part of a commercial or industrial policy. Drugs exported under such a regime may be packaged or colored differently in order to prevent them from prejudicing markets in the developed world.
In 2003, the Bush administration also changed its position, concluding that generic treatments might in fact be a component of an effective strategy to combat HIV. Bush created the PEPFAR program, which received $15 billion from 2003 -- 2007, and was reauthorized in 2008 for $48 billion over the next five years. Despite wavering on the issue of (compulsory licensing), PEPFAR began to distribute generic drugs in 2004 - 5.
Another controversy has been over the TRIPS Article 27 requirements for patentability "in all fields of technology '', and whether or not this necessitates the granting of software and business method patents.
According to article 10 of the TRIPS Agreement the appropriate instrument to protect software protection is author right. The importance of this instrument has recently been confirmed by the US Supreme Court (Oracle America, Inc. v. Google, Inc.).
The obligations under TRIPS apply equally to all member states, however developing countries were allowed extra time to implement the applicable changes to their national laws, in two tiers of transition according to their level of development. The transition period for developing countries expired in 2005. The transition period for least developed countries to implement TRIPS was extended to 2013, and until 1 January 2016 for pharmaceutical patents, with the possibility of further extension.
It has therefore been argued that the TRIPS standard of requiring all countries to create strict intellectual property systems will be detrimental to poorer countries ' development. It has been argued that it is, prima facie, in the strategic interest of most if not all underdeveloped nations to use the flexibility available in TRIPS to legislate the weakest IP laws possible.
This has not happened in most cases. A 2005 report by the WHO found that many developing countries have not incorporated TRIPS flexibilities (compulsory licensing, parallel importation, limits on data protection, use of broad research and other exceptions to patentability, etc.) into their legislation to the extent authorized under Doha.
This is likely caused by the lack of legal and technical expertise needed to draft legislation that implements flexibilities, which has often led to developing countries directly copying developed country IP legislation, or relying on technical assistance from the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO), which, according to critics such as Cory Doctorow, encourages them to implement stronger intellectual property monopolies.
Banerjee and Nayak shows that TRIPS has a positive effect on R&D expenditure of Indian pharmaceutical firms.
In addition to the baseline intellectual property standards created by the TRIPS agreement, many nations have engaged in bilateral agreements to adopt a higher standard of protection. These collection of standards, known as TRIPS+ or TRIPS - Plus, can take many forms. General objectives of these agreements include:
According to WTO 10th Anniversary, Highlights of the first decade, Annual Report 2005 page 142, in the first ten years, 25 complaints have been lodged leading to the panel reports and appellate body reports on TRIPS listed below.
The WTO website has a gateway to all TRIPS disputes (including those that did not lead to panel reports) here (1).
Since TRIPS came into force, it has been subject to criticism from developing countries, academics, and non-governmental organizations. Though some of this criticism is against the WTO generally, many advocates of trade liberalisation also regard TRIPS as poor policy. TRIPS 's wealth concentration effects (moving money from people in developing countries to copyright and patent owners in developed countries) and its imposition of artificial scarcity on the citizens of countries that would otherwise have had weaker intellectual property laws, are common bases for such criticisms. Other criticism has focused on the failure of TRIPS to accelerate investment and technology flows to low - income countries, a benefit advanced by WTO members in the lead - up to the agreement 's formation. Statements by the World Bank indicate that TRIPS has not led to a demonstrable acceleration of investment to low - income countries, though it may have done so for middle - income countries. Lengthy patent periods under TRIPs have been scrutinised for unduly slowing the entry of generic substitutes and competition to the market. In particular, the illegality of pre-clinical trials or submission of samples for approval until a patent expires have been blamed for driving the growth of a few multinationals, rather than developing country producers.
Daniele Archibugi and Andrea Filippetti argue that the importance of TRIPS in the process of generation and diffusion of knowledge and innovation has been overestimated by its supporters. This point has been supported by United Nations findings indicating many countries with weak protection routinely benefit from strong levels of foreign direct investment (FDI). Analysis of OECD countries in the 1980s and 1990s (during which the patent life of drugs was extended by 6 years) showed that while total number of products registered increased slightly, the mean innovation index remained unchanged.
The 2002 Doha Declaration affirmed that the TRIPS agreement should not prevent members from taking measures necessary to protect public health. Despite this recognition, less - developed countries have argued that TRIPS 's flexible provisions, such as compulsory licensing, are near - on impossible to exercise. In particular, less developed countries have cited their infant domestic manufacturing and technology industries as evidence of the policy 's bluntness.
TRIPS - plus conditions mandating standards beyond TRIPS have also been the subject of scrutiny. These FTA agreements contain conditions that limit the ability of governments to introduce competition for generic producers. In particular, the United States has been criticised for advancing protection well beyond the standards mandated by TRIPS. The United States Free Trade Agreements with Australia, Morocco and Bahrain have extended patentability by requiring patents be available for new uses of known products. The TRIPS agreement allows the grant of compulsory licenses at a nation 's discretion. TRIPS - plus conditions in the United States FTA 's with Australia, Jordan, Singapore and Vietnam have restricted the application of compulsory licenses to emergency situations, antitrust remedies, and cases of public non-commercial use.
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is there such thing as international men's day | International Men 's Day - wikipedia
International Men 's Day (IMD) is an annual international event celebrated every year on 19 November. Inaugurated in 1992 on February by Thomas Oaster The project of International Men 's Day was conceived one year earlier on 8 February 1991. The project was re-initialised in 1999 in Trinidad and Tobago. The longest running celebration of International Men 's Day is Malta, where events have occurred since 7 February 1994.
Dr. Jerome Teelucksingh, who revived the event, chose 19 November to honour his father 's birthday and also to celebrate how on that date in 1989 Trinidad and Tobago 's soccer team had united the country with their endeavours to qualify for the soccer world cup. Dr Teelucksingh has promoted International Men 's Day as not just a gendered day but a day where all issues affecting men and boys can be addressed. He has said of IMD and its grass roots activists, "They are striving for gender equality and patiently attempt to remove the negative images and the stigma associated with men in our society ''
International Men 's Day is supported by a variety of individuals and groups in Oceania, the Caribbean, North America, Asia, Europe and Africa. Speaking on behalf of UNESCO, Director of Women and Culture of Peace Ingeborg Breines said of IMD, "This is an excellent idea and would give some gender balance. '' She added that UNESCO was looking forward to cooperating with the organizers.
The objectives of celebrating an International Men 's Day, set out in "The Six Pillars of International Men 's Day '', include focusing on men 's and boys ' health, improving gender relations, promoting gender equality, and highlighting male role models. It is an occasion to highlight discrimination against men and boys and to celebrate their achievements and contributions, in particular for their contributions to community, family, marriage, and child care. The broader and ultimate aim of the event is to promote basic humanitarian values.
International Men 's Day is celebrated in over 70 countries, including Antigua and Barbuda, Australia, Austria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Botswana, Burundi, Canada, the Cayman Islands, China, Croatia, Cuba, Denmark, France, Ghana, Grenada, Hungary, India, Ireland, Italy, Isle of Man, Jamaica, Malta, Nigeria, Norway, Pakistan, Romania, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Seychelles, Singapore, South Africa, Tanzania, Trinidad and Tobago, Ukraine, the United Kingdom, the United States, and Zimbabwe, on 19 November, and global support for the celebration is broad. International Men 's Day is followed by Universal Children 's Day on 20 November, forming a 48 - hour celebration of men and children, respectively. Additionally, the month of November is also occasionally recognized as International Men 's Month.
Calls for an International Men 's Day have been noted since at least the 1960s, when many men were reported to "have been agitating privately to make 23 Feb International Men 's Day, the equivalent of 8 March, which is International Women 's Day '' In the Soviet Union this day was The Red Army and Navy Day since 1922, which in 2002 was renamed to Defender of the Fatherland Day. The date was informally viewed a male counterpart of Women 's Day (8 March) in some territories of the Union, however due to the day 's limited focus to historical events some countries of the former union have moved to adopt the more ' male specific ' 19 November as International Men 's Day, including Belarus, Ukraine, Moldova, Russia and Georgia.
In 1968 American Journalist John P. Harris wrote an editorial in the Salina Journal highlighting a lack of balance in the Soviet system, which promoted an International Women 's Day for the female workers without promoting a corresponding day for male workers. Harris stated that although he did not begrudge Soviet women their March day of glory, its resulting gender inequality clearly exhibited a serious flaw in the Communist system, which, "makes much of the equal rights it has given the sexes, but as it turns out, the women are much more equal than the men. '' Harris stated that while the men toiled along in their grooves doing what their government and womenfolk tell them to do, there was no day when males are recognised for their service, leading Harris to conclude that "This strikes me as unwarranted discrimination and rank injustice. '' Similar questions about the inequality of observing women 's day without a corresponding men 's day occurred in media publications from the 1960s through to the 1990s, at which time the first attempts at inaugurating international Men 's Day are recorded.
In the early 1990s, organizations in the United States, Australia and Malta held small events in February at the invitation of Thomas Oaster who directed the Missouri Center for Men 's Studies at the University of Missouri -- Kansas City. Oaster successfully promoted the event in 1993 and 1994, but his following attempt in 1995 was poorly attended and he ceased plans to continue the event in subsequent years. Australians also ceased to observe the event (until they re-established it on 19 November 2003) whilst the Maltese Association for Men 's Rights continued as the only country that continued to observe the event each year in February. As the only remaining country still observing the original February date, the Maltese AMR Committee voted in 2009 to shift the date of their observation to 19 November to be in synchrony with all other countries which had begun to celebrate IMD on that date.
Although International Men 's and Women 's Day are considered to be ' gender focussed ' events, they are not ideological mirror images because they highlight issues that are considered unique to men or to women. The history of IMD primarily concerns celebrating issues that are considered unique to men 's and boys experiences, along with the emphasis on positive role models "is deemed necessary in a social context which is often fascinated with images of males behaving badly... In highlighting positive male role models IMD attempts to show that males of all ages respond much more energetically to positive role models than they do to negative stereotyping. ''
Citizens in Trinidad and Tobago were the first to observe IMD on 19 November 1999. The event was conceived and coordinated by Jerome Teelucksingh from The University of the West Indies at the Families in Action headquarters in Newtown, Port of Spain. As his rationale for creating the event Teelucksingh stated, "I realized there was no day for men... some have said that there is Father 's Day, but what about young boys, teenagers and men who are not fathers? '' Teelucksingh, understanding the importance of celebrating good male role models, felt that his own father had been an example of an excellent role model and so chose 19 November partly because this was his father 's birthday, and also because it was the date on which a local sporting team in his country created a level of unity with transcended gender, religious and ethnic divisions. The idea of celebrating an International Men 's Day received written support from officials in UNESCO and the event has continued to be celebrated annually in Trinidad and Tobago and other countries since its beginning.
Jamaicans held an inaugural IMD observation on 19 November 2001, with a church service at Northgate Family Church in Ocho Rios, an educational session with male students at Ferncourt High School, and public forum at Brown 's Town Community College. Keynote speaker at the event was Luciano who talked on the theme of ' Today 's Man, Tomorrow 's Future '. A special theme of the event was discussions on men 's sexual health and reproduction. Nurse Bunnaman of the Beth Jacobs Family Planning Clinic in St. Ann 's Bay told The Star Newspaper "This is the first time that Jamaica will be observing International Men 's Day. It was started in Trinidad in 1999. This year it will be observed in Kenya, Tanzania, Norway, Brazil, Germany, Britain and the United States of America as well ''. Educational sessions about men 's sexual health and reproduction were held the Beth Jacobs Clinic, where medical check - ups and testicular checks were given free of charge.
Australians have celebrated IMD on 19 November since 2003, when Phil Gouldson of Men 's Health and Wellbeing Association ACT (MHWA) launched the inaugural event after receiving an invitation by Trinidad and Tobago 's Harrack Balramsingh to join in the event. In Canberra, 2004, Gouldson asked men in Australia to wear a red rose for IMD and for women and families to buy the men in their life flowers. He said a red rose is worn by men on IMD as a symbol of strength of character and courage, and as it is unusual to see men being given flowers so it is a good way to highlight the occasion. In 2004, Michael Flood, an academic, criticized the basis of the ' Men 's Health and Wellbeing Association ' (MHWA) 's IMD celebration which focused on men 's health, arguing that there were already enough opportunities to work on men 's health and fatherhood (citing Father 's Day and Men 's Health Week). Gouldson responded, reminding that "Not all men and boys are fathers, while Men 's Health Week focuses on claimed inadequacies of men in not better managing their health. '' Teelucksingh independently highlighted the need to address the needs of young boys, teenagers and men who are not fathers, which was one of his primary purposes for establishing International Men 's Day.
In 2008 Dads4Kids Organization highlighted the theme ' honour and sacrifice ', pointing to the sinking of the cruiser HMAS Sydney on 19 November during the Second World War which resulted in the death of 645 men off the coast of Geraldton in Western Australia. Organisers said, "men make sacrifices every day in their place of work, in their role as husbands and fathers, for their families, for their friends, for their communities and for their nation. ''
In 2009, a number of events were held throughout Australia including IMD initiatives organized by four local governments: Maitland City Council in N.S.W., Greater Hume Shire Council in Victoria, Ipswich City Council in Queensland, and Forbes Shire Council in N.S.W. each of whom funded local observations. These were the first government bodies in Australia to fund and host community IMD events. In the State Parliament of Western Australia Minister Nick Goiran gave a speech introducing International Men 's Day and its objectives to the parliament, focussing on the promotion of gender equality and the importance of highlighting positive male role models. There was also an event held in the Federal Australian Parliament House with several notable speakers. Numerous other organisations hosted observations including the Men 's Shed Steering Committee in Rockhampton, the Community Resource center in Ulladulla, the Regional Health Service in KooWeeRup, and Dads on the Air radio programme in Sydney which hosted an hour - long programme discussing IMD with a panel of international coordinators of the event.
In honour of men and boys on the occasion of IMD 2014, Liz Behjat addressed the Western Australian Legislative Council on the topic of men 's lives and issues.
The inaugural celebration of IMD in India was organized by the leading Indian Men 's rights organization Save Indian Family on 19 November 2007. The date of 19 November was accepted based on the fact that Australia and the West Indies (Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago) were already observing IMD on that date. The event was again celebrated in India in 2008, and plans have been made to continue the celebration annually.
In 2009, India received the first corporate sponsorship of the International Men 's Day with menswear brand Allen Solly deciding to create promotional offers on IMD, and HBO deciding to screen male - positive movies in its "Men in Back '' series on 19 November.
In November 2014 Confidare Education Consultancy hosted an International Men 's Day Art Gallery in New Delhi, while in Kolkata protests were held to highlight elder abuse and men 's human rights. Other men 's rights activists posed questions on the occasion of IMD, asking why are men deprived of gender neutral laws, why should not the domestic violence act be made gender neutral, and why are fathers deprived of children 's custody in case of separated spouses. The Chennai Chapter of All India Men 's Welfare Association (AIMWA) submitted a memorandum to the government on IMD 2014 demanding constitution of Men 's Welfare Ministry, National Commission for Men, and making all laws gender neutral.
In 2003, a fashion magazine proposed 3 August as the International Men 's day, corresponding to the International Women 's day held on 8 March. The magazine claimed to have submitted a proposal to UNESCO. Ever since then, the topic about "Men 's Day '' has been discussed every August on the Internet.
In Hong Kong in 2010 special observances of International Men 's Day occurred on 19 November, with the theme "Blessed Are The Men ''. All men were invited to ride for free in the city 's Ngong Ping 360 Tung Chung cable cars for a round - trip on 19 November. In the same year an article in China Daily on 3 August asked whether men in China needed their own special day, citing the fact that on International Women 's Day all women in China, who accounted for 45 percent of the workforce, get a mandatory half day off by their employer while men had no such day. The article reported on an online survey done by Shanghai Hotline asking "Do men need a holiday for themselves? '' -- to which 80.24 percent of respondents said "yes '' with many insisting that Shanghai men are tired and deserve a holiday.
The following states and cities have recognized International Men 's Day: Pennsylvania, New York, Iowa (Luther College in Decorah, Iowa), Illinois, Virginia, Hawaii, Florida, California, Arizona, Alabama, and Michigan; Washington, D.C.; Dallas, Texas; Atlanta, Georgia.
2012 International Men 's Day was celebrated during the weeks before the observance of 2012 International Men 's Day on 12 October 2012. Twala unveiled a ten - year plan for International Men 's Day, known as the "2012 -- 2022: International Men 's Day Ten Year Plan '' which will tackle, over a ten - year period, the key challenges of education, physical and mental health, violence, fatherhood, positive male role models, and real - life options which prevent boys and young men from maturing into purpose - driven, productive, and successful adults. After reviewing the concept for this plan created by Twala, a general consensus was reached among coordinators in the United States for International Men 's Day to adopt and develop this plan in the United States. The US 2012 -- 2022 International Men 's Day Ten Year Plan Committee has been established and members who are regional coordinators for International Men 's Day in the United States are working on developing and implementing the plan.
In the UK, International Men 's Day is coordinated by Glen Poole (editor of insideMAN magazine) with support from Mark Brooks (Chair of the ManKind Initiative) domestic abuse charity and Tony Stott (Healing - Men).
In 2014, over 25 organisations held events across the UK -- including two in the House of Commons. This was continued in 2015 where Philip Davies MP introduced a debate in the Palace of Westminster about men 's issues on 19 November. and the Day has been endorsed by the Prime Minister, Theresa May. In 2016, over 60 events were held.
2017 was the biggest IMD to date with more than 100 events, campaigns and celebrations held.
In England (and the UK) the event was inaugurated in 2008 by University of Kent students who celebrated International Men 's Day the university campus on 19 November 2008. This event was organized and coordinated by the Kent University student group ' The Bishopden Boys '. The Bishopden boy 's were a Kent Union charitable group, located in Bishopden court, which raises money for various charities each year. Activities for IMD night included 7 a side football tournament, comedy acts and a live music festival, fronted by the student band "Jad ''. There was a raffle, a guitar hero competition and an Xbox 360 tournament to raise money. About 3,000 people attended with roughly equal numbers of males and females. All proceeds raised went to ORCHID a charity for all male cancers, including prostate, penile or testicular cancer.
In November 2010 the Brighton Men 's Network organised an IMD conference event for the city of Brighton for professionals, experts and people interested in helping the city in improving services for men and boys. Chair of the Men 's Network Glen Poole stated that public sector bosses, the voluntary sector, business leaders and concerned individuals will come together and explore how to help all men and boys live more fulfilled lives and make a bigger contribution to the city, and concluded, "This event will be an important step towards getting people to agree on the actions we need to take and help us develop the world 's first citywide strategy for men and boys that we aim to launch next year. '' At Hartlepool, Rossmere Youth Centre hosted an IMD evening for boys and girls between the ages of 13 and 19 focused on health, gender equality and promoting male role models. Activities included rides on a rodeo bull, a Gladiators - style event, an Indian head massage, and dressing up in sumo suits. Organisations Springboard, Nacro and Jobsmart attended to give information and advice on training opportunities. On 19 November 2010 Tiemo Entertainment sponsored a ' Celebration of Men Dinner ' in London 's Hotel Ibis in Euston, with Keynote Speaker Mr Damion Queva -- Publisher of Fathers Quarterly magazine. Discussions were conducted on the topic, "What is the purpose of International Men 's Day? '' and attendees were treated to a wide - ranging discussion of some of the key issues facing men today. The mixed panel of professionals (including women) included Investment Analyst Michael Young, HR Manager Beverley Green, Builder and Reach Role Model Hylton Forrester, Wendy Forrester, Michael Peters, Polish Publisher Anna Prochon and the Keynote speaker Damion Queva, Publisher of Fathers Quarterly magazine in the UK.
A website (ukmensday.org.uk) was created in 2013 listing the events and supporting organisations in the UK.
Planned events to mark IMD at the University of York in 2015 were cancelled at the last minute by the University, after pressure from some 200 staff, students, and alumni, who signed an open letter on 13 November. Using strong radical feministic viewpoints of a perceived "patriarchy '' and dismissing terms used such as ' gender equality is for everyone ' as simply echoing "misogynistic rhetoric '', the letter also vocalized a view that "men 's issues can not be approached in the same way as unfairness and discrimination towards women ''. Subsequently, the University made no plans to mark the event in 2016, despite a counter-petition which attracted 4,261 supporters.
In Northern Ireland 2010 Deputy Mayor of Newry and Mourne Council, Cllr Karen Mc Kevitt launched the Magnet Young Men 's Health Event, ' on Friday 19 November. The event was attended by men from across the district and representatives from local statutory, voluntary and community organisations were organised to celebrate 19 November as International Men 's Day. Deputy Mayor, Cllr Mc Kevitt said, ' It is a great idea to give an issue that has an international perspective a local focus. All men need to look after their health and take advantage of the services and help that is out there, as we all do. But it is particularly good to see an event that looks at the barriers that young men may be facing and brings together people from all organisations across the district to look at what can be done to work together to make things better. ' The event offered opportunities for men to have health checks with experienced staff from Action Cancer, and speakers such as Ken Harland (University of Ulster 's Centre of Young Men 's studies), Peter Mc Donald, a senior child care worker from Giggles Daycare nursery, and local athlete Ronan Murtagh shared their own insight into the choices young men make and the opportunities that are out there for young men today. Also in attendance was Jerome Burns, Assistant Director, Department for Social Development. Jerome stated, "The department for Social Development is delighted to support local initiatives that work with young men to highlight inequalities in health. ''
IMD was inaugurated in Scotland in 2010. The event was endorsed by the Government of Scotland and by the Men 's Health Forum of Scotland (MHFS). The MHFS celebrated the day with a roundtable event to promote the health and wellbeing of men and boys by bringing together key people and organisations. The focus of the event was to discuss the rationale for developing a national men 's health policy in Scotland. The event took place at Elliot House, the office of NHS Quality Improvement Scotland (QIS) in Edinburgh, where there were representations from Scottish Government, NHS Leads and Directors in the Voluntary Health Sector who discussed the issues and set up a short term task group to take this work forward. Jim Leishman, Men 's Health Coordinator, NHS Forth Valley said: "This event was a huge opportunity to drive through improvements in men 's health in Scotland. ''
In 2011 The Welsh Government was accused by Tory councillor Peter Davies (father of MP Philip Davies) of sex discrimination for supporting International Women 's Day with grants totalling £ 30,000 while ignoring International Men 's Day. Davies stated, "I do n't particularly object to the Welsh Government spending money on International Women 's Day, but I would have thought that with its commitment to equality it would also be happy to recognise International Men 's Day, which will be celebrated this Saturday. ''
In 2008, a 19 -- 21 November IMD event was organized in Singapore. The Adam Association organized a forum -- Definition of a Man - which identified various problems men face at home such as communication issues, and how to overcome them. Held in Malay, speakers included Maliki Osman, Parliamentary Secretary for National Development, and staff members from the Registry of Marriages. The forum was open to the public for free and was held at the Darussalam mosque along Commonwealth Avenue West. Another event, also part of International Men 's Day, was the Admiralty Baby Genius and Kids ' Fashion contest, held on Sunday at Woodlands. Jointly organized by Adam Association and Ace the Place Community Club Management Committee, activities included a diaper - changing contest for fathers.
In 2009 the National Family Council launched the Singapore Dads for Life movement to support a man 's role in co-parenting. As part of the event volunteers distributed men 's ' toolkits ' at more than 30 locations to mark International Men 's Day. Another organization, the Father 's Action Network (FAN) also handed out "Dads for Life '' toolkits and asked people to share personal stories of fatherhood which were placed online.
As of 19 November 2016 Romania will officially celebrate the "national men 's day ''. The law declaring 19 November as the national men 's day was passed on 2 February 2016 by the Romanian parliament. Romania is the first country to officially recognize and celebrate this as a national day. National women 's day is also held on 8 March
International Men 's Day has been celebrated in Malta by the Association for Men 's Rights since 1994. AMR founder and director John Zammit conceived the event which has been held yearly in the form of a dinner, lunch or reception for AMR members and public. On this occasion awards are given to individuals who have made distinctive contributions men 's rights such as, for example, efforts made by committee members, "for the removal of the impediment of departure which we had on men in separation / divorce cases. Before 1995 all men who had problems with their wives in Malta, be it Maltese or foreigners, could not leave the island while their case was still in court and so were imprisoned in Malta. '' The Malta event has traditionally been observed on 7 February since 1994, making it the longest running local IMD observation in the world. As the February date is not celebrated by other participating countries and did not qualify as an internationally observed date, discussions were undertaken within the Maltese Association for Men 's Rights, and on 17 January 2009, the committee voted unanimously to shift their celebrations to 19 November to coincide with all the others around the world.
In November 2009, writer Marie Clarence organized the inaugural IMD celebration for Hungary. Clarence organized the event to promote gender balance and gender equity. The celebration was held in Budapest and the UNESCO Cultural Committee Chairman of Hungary Michael Hoppal gave the opening speech. The event included celebration of local culture, including dancing and forum discussions which highlighted men 's achievements and contributions to the world.
Positive Men 's Movement of South Africa (POMESA) in partnership with South African Network of People Living with HIV and AIDS (NAPWA) organized the first Annual International Men 's Day event. The event was held on 6 December 2008, and involved a Men 's March for peace and justice from taxi rank to the national men 's rally venue which is Rabasotho hall in Thembisa township, Ekurhuleni, Gauteng. Between three and five thousand men attended from all provinces of South Africa. Speakers in the event included the national government officials, national leadership of POMESA and NAPWA, and civil society, and included an Annual Men 's Awards event to honour three outstanding men who have or and continue to contribute positively in the creation of peaceful and just society.
In 2008, POMESA and NAPWA celebrated IMD on 6 December. As the December date was not celebrated by other participating countries, discussions were undertaken within both organizations and in May 2009 the Secretary General of NAPWA and POMESA Nkululeko Nxesi announced that the National Boards of both organizations have agreed to celebrate the Men 's day on the same dates with other countries beginning on 19 November 2009 and in each year thereafter on the same date.
On 19 November 2009 five thousand men from across Africa converged on the Orlando Communal Hall in Soweto to celebrate the second annual International Men 's Day, where they promoted gender equality, positive male role models and emphasised that ' not all men are bad people '. Deputy President of South Africa Kgalema Motlanthe delivered the keynote address at what was termed "a ground - breaking event ''. The meeting was organized and led by the National Association of People Living With HIV and AIDS (NAPWA) to highlight the need for treatment access to medication and prevention.
Ghana Fatherhood Initiative Foundation hosted an inaugural IMD celebration in 2009. The occasion was marked by a formal event with speakers, and included a cerermony of donating of books to several schools in the Ablekuma sub-district in Accra. The event was chaired by George Odame, the advisory board chairman of Ghana Fatherhood Initiative Foundation, who encouraged all fathers to read to their children as part of responsible fatherhood. The special guest of honour was Maxwell Mac. Ocloo who delivered a speech entitled ' Men -- let us be instruments of positive influence ' in which he encouraged men to lead by example.
On Saturday 19 November 2011, Youth Challenge International (YCI), in partnership with local and international organizations celebrated International Men 's Day for the first time in Arusha and Morogoro, Tanzania. In Arusha, YCI, The Umoja Centre, Support for International Change, UMATI, Initiative for Youth Organization and Global Service Corps hosted the event at the Mbauda Open Market Ground. This event was aimed to promote men and boys as positive role models and to educate the community on the role of males and females in health, education, family life, violence and life choices. The event included performances, games, and educational activities. Over 500 youth and other community members came together to acknowledge the roles and responsibilities of men and boys in creating a brighter future for all Tanzanians. To celebrate the event in Morogoro, volunteers, along with partner organization Faraja Trust Fund, held a soccer tournament on with 8 local teams. To qualify to participate in the tournament each team had to come to two information sessions on male sexual and reproductive health, HIV / AIDS, gender roles and good governance. YCI and Faraja provided an on - site HIV testing centre, a DJ with music and dancing throughout the day, and drama group performances on the key objectives of International Men 's Day. Plans exist for the Tanzanian Men 's Rights Organisation (TAMRA) to celebrate International men 's day in 2013.
International Men 's Day was inaugurated in Zimbabwe on 19 November 2011. The commemorations were held at Chibuku Stadium in Chitungwiza under the theme Giving The Boy Child The Best Possible Start In Life. Fred Misi, the chairman of Men 's Forum Varume Svinurai / Vhukhani said the commemorations came at a time when attention was being given to the girl child at the expense of boys, and noted, "Whilst it is important to focus on the specific needs of the girl child, we are creating a crisis by ignoring the specific needs of the boy child. '' Misi highlighted the growing trend that many boys were dropping out of school and were hooked on hard drugs as well as abusing alcohol, while a significant number of those who were completed secondary and tertiary education were roaming the streets because of unemployment. He added the government and Zimbabweans needed to act immediately. A number of prominent persons attended and gave papers on the need to give the boy child assistance. There was drama and poetry from various groups and individual high school students in line with the theme of the celebrations, and the Zimbabwe Minister of Women Affairs, Gender and Community Development, Olivia Muchena gave a key note address in which she said, "It is an occasion for men to celebrate their achievements and contributions, in particular their contributions to community, family, marriage and child care while highlighting the discrimination against them... International Men 's Day is an opportunity for people everywhere of good will to appreciate and celebrate the men in their life and the contributions they make to society for the greater good of all hence it being important for us to celebrate this day equally as we did with The International Women 's Day. ''
International Men 's Day was inaugurated in Botswana in 2011 by coordinator Geneuvieve Twala. One of the International Men 's Day themes promoted was to help foster youth to unlock their creative identities to allow them to share their gifts with peers, family and the community, and to be seen and heard for who they are and not how they are perceived. The primary event was a gala dinner titled "One moment for Change '' to highlight men 's potential and the increasing capabilities of men as innovators of society. The dinner was held to raise funds to cover six months music tuition fees for a group of 20 children from the SOS Children 's Village whom IMD ambassadors have adopted as part of a mentoring programme for children. Standard Chartered Bank sponsored the dinner, which included a range of iconic speakers who shared their experience and insights with the audience. Standard Chartered Bank Acting CEO Mr Michael Wiegand opened the event by sharing best practices that Standard Chartered Bank uses to address legitimate issues faced by male employees, including the fact that Standard Chartered Bank is the first company in Botswana to offer paternity leave which, he stated, made their male employees feel valued and that they were working for a 21st - century organization. Mr Tebogo Sebego, senior partner at Sebego & Sharma Attorneys and former chairperson of the Law Society of Botswana gave a keynote speech where he emphasized how the child protection laws should be improved, how the society play a role in creating a safe environment for the future generation of men. Mrs Tjipo Mothobi, Director, GBC Health South Africa gave an address on business collective effort. The District Commissioner in his closing remarks made an announcement that by end of December he was convening a meeting with men in the City where they will engage in dialogue on how they can collectively address the issues and challenges men and boys face. The inaugural event was a success, with radio stations subsequently airing programmes that call for debate on men 's issues since IMD. All the businesses and stakeholders involved gave a commitment to be part and parcel of the next IMD and we are already working on the strategy for 2012.
On 19 November 2012 Government Minister Vincent Meriton declared this year the first that IMD has been celebrated at a National Government level. Minister Meriton said, "The time has come for us to adopt a new approach, instead of reinforcing negative stereotyping of males behaving badly, e.g. media portrayals of males as violent, power - hungry, irresponsible and so on. Such negative images are frequently used in an attempt to shame males into behaving more positively. '' Meriton stated that the practice of negative stereotyping ignores the fact that such negative behaviours do not apply to the vast majority of men and boys, or that such negativity may detrimentally impact the self - image and self - esteem of boys, which in turn impacts their willingness to contribute to building better relationships and communities as they grow into adults. In conclusion he stated that "International Men 's Day calls for and promotes positive masculinity which we in Seychelles can strongly identify with as it forms part of the social renaissance campaign launched at the beginning of the year by President James Michel. ''
On 19 November 2012 Burundi joined the world for the first time in celebrating the International Men 's Day, as Association for the Protection of the Man in Distress (APHD Burundi) denounced violence inflicted to men by their wives. Vincent Bukuru, chairman of the APHD - Burundi said, "Violence on men rises when the man loses his job, during the end of year festivities (Christmas and New Year) and at the International Women 's Day (8 March). '' Bukuru called on the Burundian government to conduct a national investigation on types and origins of violence that men are facing, their consequences and their gravity which he stated is a violation of human rights.
To Celebrate International Men 's Day on Thursday 19 November 2009, Irish broadcaster Newstalk devoted a day - long show to men. The show was hosted by Tom Dunne and was Ireland 's first ever observation of the event. Topics included discussion of how ' Men Sheds ' contribute to improving men 's health, and of their popularity in Ireland. In 2011 Men in Childcare Network Ireland and Men in Childcare Europe, a European network made up of Men in Childcare networks from individual EU member countries, hosted a European conference on "Reimagining Childhood Care & Education '' A celebration of Universal Children 's Day, and International Men 's Day. The event called ' Reimagining Childhood Care and Education ' took place in Ireland on Saturday 19 November 2011 at the City West Hotel, Dublin. Also in 2011 the Raphoe Family Resource Centre hosted an event with different groups in order to focus on the value of, and highlighting the positive contribution that men make. Children were invited to offer poems or stories about their fathers, grandfathers, uncles or big brothers which were put on display all week to show the men in families know how important they are to others.
The Isle of Man celebrated its inaugural celebration in 2012 at the Isle of Man College of Higher education on 19 November 2012. The organization emphasised the 2012 theme which highlighted World Health Organization figures showing that every year over half a million people die from violence and 83 % of them are men and boys, and that a similar proportion of the global burden of disease (ill - health, disability or early death) from violence is borne by males. For activities the NSC held strength tests and health advice; The Children 's Centre loaned out their interactive babies and some parenting information and Will Sutton attended as the ' Positive ' male role model for the day. The Student Council baked and sold cakes, and Sami - Jaine Martin (Student President) was running a Sexual Health Stand. The engineering group was selling moustaches and raising money for men 's cancer charities, while construction group (with help from the art department) made an 8 ft seaside cut out for photographs on the day. The beauty therapy department offered their time to pamper the boys with Indian head massages and face mapping, and there were also 3 students who volunteered to have their chest waxed to raise money for charity.
On 19 November 2014 a total of 110 men took part in the all - male class led by Dave Smythe at the National Sports Centre in Douglas, which set the new world record for the Largest male yoga class, according to the World Record Academy. The event was the organized by Kate Bergquist, health and well - being co-ordinator at Isle of Man College to mark International Men 's Day.
On 19 November 2009, directors of the Vancouver Manology Program held an all day event to mark the beginning of the Vancouver Men 's Centre. As a feature of this event organizers announced their official endorsement of International Men 's Day and held forums introducing attendees to the history, goals and values of the international event, including discussions toward planning larger IMD events in 2010. This marks the first Canadian 19 Nov IMD observation. In 2010 Canada IMD Coordinator David Hatfield organized a large event at the Roundhouse in Vancouver for numerous male and family - friendly organizations to display their social work to the general public. Entertainment and various speakers were included. The Council of the Corporation of the City of Oshawa issued a 2010 Proclamation that 19 November be designated Oshawa International Men 's Day with the Proclamation, "And further take notice and let it be known that the Council of the Corporation of the City of Oshawa hereby urges all citizens to take cognizance of this event and fittingly join in its observance ''. The Laurel Centre in Winnipeg celebrated IMD with a public open house on 19 November announcing a new shelter program to help men and their children who are fleeing intimate partner violence. On 1 July 2010, the Men 's Resource Centre (MRC) officially became a program of The Laurel Centre, and staff and volunteers said they were pleased with the new partnership which will provide a solid foundation of leadership and expertise from which to grow and develop services for men in Manitoba. The official IMD launch of this initiative was attended by several speakers including The Honorable Gord Mackintosh -- Minister of Family Services; Mr. Justin Swandel -- Deputy Mayor and The City of Winnipeg.
Men in Denmark formed a group which planned to hold their own International Men 's Day celebration on 19 November 2010. The group 's spokesman Martin Pavón said that IMD is not a political counterpart of Women 's Day, nor in opposition to women. He stated, "We want to take this opportunity to promote everyday ordinary men who live clean and honest lives and contribute positively to society. ''
In 2011, the first international men 's day was organized by a group of volunteers in cooperation with the Resource Centre for Men. The event, at the House of Literature on 30 February included Stig Omland from the Norwegian Cancer Society, representatives from the Resource Centre for Men, and included a panel discussion and photo exhibition by Nina Djærff called "Man ''.
In 2010 Männerpartei (an Austrian Men 's Rights collective) inaugurated International Men 's Day in Austria after the liquidation of the ' Men 's World Day ' event in 2004 which left the country with no men 's day celebration. Männerpartei used the occasion to hold a workshop on father friendly social policy in Austria and to summarise progress for men and boys in the last twelve months, particularly in the area of law reform. The group also celebrated the first Children 's Planet Award Gala and its focus on the Convention on the Rights of the Child adopted on 20 November 1989.
In 2011 The Society Development Association "Kap '' initiated an inaugural International Men 's Day programme for Bosnia - Herzegovina on 19 November. The goal of the public media campaign was to raise awareness about the health of men and boys, with other goals being the promotion of gender equality through a dialogue and common marking of this date, and noting positive male role models using examples from different areas of society.
On 16 November 2012 the Ukrainian News Agency held a ' Meet the Press ' event entitled "International Men 's Day: Aspects Of Health And Longevity ''. The event was Ukraine 's inaugural recognition of the global occasion. The panelists were Pasechnikov S.P., a professor, doctor of medical sciences, an Honored Scientist of Ukraine, the chief urologist of the Health Ministry of Ukraine, and the head of the Department of Urology at the Bohomolets National Medical University; Shvets O.V., an associate professor, a doctor of medical sciences, the president of the Ukrainian Association of Dietitians, and the chief nutritionist of the Health Ministry of Ukraine; Silantiev D.O., an honored master of sports in swimming, a world champion, a European champion, a public activist, and the founder of the Foundation for Support of Youth and Olympic Swimming; and Markov A.E., a doctor of medical sciences and GlaxoSmithKline 's regional medical director for Ukraine, Belarus, Moldova, and the Caucasus. Themes discussed included healthy lifestyle as the basis for good health; Healthy eating and complete diet; The particulars and maintenance of health and quality of life from the viewpoint of urology; The role of the environment and social initiatives; and The expansion of the Orange Card social program -- new opportunities for Ukrainian men.
In France Discovery Channel launched a moustache - growing competition for 2010 International Men 's Day, with prizes given to the winners on 19 November. The competition winners are decided by popular public vote.
In November 2009 Giorgio Ceccarelli, law graduate and a practicing lawyer announced that International Men 's Day was formally recognized in all Italian organisations to which he is President: Children Denied Association, Daddy 's Pride, Army Fathers and Cultural Association "I Love Alatri ''. On 19 November several activists also rallied outside the Colosseum as part of their IMD celebration. This was the very first observation of 19 November IMD in Italy.
Pakistani Human Rights organization ' Rights and Rights ' inaugurated International Men 's Day in Muzaffargarh in 2010. Rights and Rights Founder Yousaf Jamal reported that around 100 people attended, with many lawyers, educationists, social activists and representatives of Women 's organizations attending the seminar. Special tributes were paid to prominent male role models. Jamal observed that in Pakistan over the last few years a lot of feminist organizations paint the whole male gender as cruel, and likewise in some prevailing laws there are discriminatory clauses against men, particularly in Family Law and Harassment in the Work Place Act. Jamal paid reference to the steady decline of male participation at Higher Education and University level, citing student numbers in Karachi University as 90 % female, in Punjab University 70 % female, and in BZ University 52 % female. Mr Jamal spoke of the importance of gender cooperation in tackling various problems faced by males and females and cautioned that we should avoid the "Each gender for itself '' approach and instead promote better gender relationships. He proposed that all people should celebrate both Men 's Day and Women 's Day and asked everyone to join with Rights and Rights International for the elimination of Gender Based Discrimination.
In 2010 during Plenary of the Thirty - Fifth assembly of the Inter-American Commission of Women (CIM), Ambassador Gillian Bristol presented a national report reiterating Grenada 's commitment to gender equality and its decision to celebrate International Men 's Day with various activities which include an address to the nation by Prime Minister Tillman Thomas on 19 November 2010.
Cuba held its inaugural IMD observations on 19 November 2011. In 2012 the Sculpture Workshop Gallery of Rita Longa was nominated as a weekend space for reflections on the International Day of Man and on the subject of gender equality. The event was attended by members of the Cuban Association of Agricultural and Forestry Technicians (ACTAF) and the Union of Writers and Artists of Cuba (UNEAC), along with nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) who decided to pool efforts with the two major social programs offices. Othoniel Morffis Valera, director of the main institution hosting the event and cultural project coordinator Alley Ceiba, offered their reflections about observing the date for the second time, both in this city and in the capital Havana.
In 2010 the Government of Antigua and Barbuda announced its official inauguration of International Men 's Day. The day was celebrated with a public observation, speeches and TV interviews. In the keynote speech C.W. Roberts defined the purpose of International Men 's Day as, "A global occasion to celebrate the positive contributions and variegated experience of being male. On this day we celebrate men 's and boys ' strengths whilst taking time to acknowledge their vulnerabilities and their needs. '' Roberts added that the day intended to transcend negative stereotyping and to encourage and embrace greater options for men and for all people.
International Men 's Day was inaugurated in St. Kitts and Nevis on 19 November 2010. The Ministry of Community Development, Culture and Gender Affairs is using the occasion of International Men 's Day to highlight issues affecting and involving men. International Men 's Day was observed on Friday and a few activities, such as a health fair, a church service and a panel discussion on general men 's issues were organized by the ministry. Sharon Rattan, Acting Permanent Secretary in the Ministry of Gender Affairs said the Gender Affairs Department wants to reach out more to men as previously they focused mostly on women issues. Rattan told WINN FM that it was their hope to use the opportunity to gather more information about the issues affecting men to guide their plan of action in the future. "We are trying to get men together and engage their minds on the issues that affect them so that we can go forward and support them, '' Rattan said, adding that the programs would also cater to young boys.
In 2011 the Department of Counselling Services ' Family Resource Centre organized Cayman Islands ' first IMD observation consisting of two events; The 1st Annual International Men 's Day Football Tournament & Expo open to the public, and secondly a "Give Boys the Best Possible Start in Life '' Roundtable Discussion as a featured broadcast. Miriam Foster, Acting Programme Coordinator of the Family Resource Centre said, "We feel it is important that boy 's issues are highlighted and we give them an opportunity to express themselves. ''
On 19 November 2014 the Cayman Family Resource Centre (FRC) highlighted men 's contribution to society, and asking them to make pledges for their futures. A short film was also shown to the public featuring local boys talking about serious issues that affect their lives. The Davenport Development International Men 's Day Football Tournament took place on Saturday, 22 November 2014 at the Camana Bay Sports Complex, and Premier Alden McLaughlin delivered an International Men 's Day Message. These events marked the fourth consecutive celebration of International Men 's Day in Cayman.
In 2011 the St. Lucia Crisis Center organized an IMD awareness campaign. Organizers disseminated information about the event and its objectives to media and within educational facilities.
In 2014 the Government of St. Lucia held an IMD event at the auditorium of the Wellness Centre on the Millennium Highway where men of all ages were invited to attend. The event was geared at recognizing and celebrating the achievements of men and boys, and was titled "Appreciating Men 's Leadership and Sacrifice for Family and Country. '' It was organized by the Division of Gender Relations in the Ministry of Health, included a focus on men 's and boy 's health, improving gender relations, promoting gender equality and developing positive male role models, and highlighted discriminations against men.
According to its creators, International Men 's Day is a time to promote positive aspects of male identity based on the premise that ' males of all ages respond more energetically to positive role models than they do to negative gender stereotyping '. During past years the method of commemorating International Men 's Day included public seminars, classroom activities at schools, radio and television programs, peaceful displays and marches, debates, panel discussions, award ceremonies, and art displays. The manner of observing this annual day is optional, and any appropriate forums can be used. Early pioneers of IMD reminded that the day is not intended to compete against International Women 's Day, but is for the purpose of highlighting men 's experiences. In 2009 the following broad objectives were ratified as a basis for all International Men 's Day observations, and are applied equally to men and boys irrespective of their age, ability, social background, ethnicity, sexual orientation, gender identity, religious belief and relationship status:
According to Men 's Activism News Network, International Men 's Day also interfaces with "Movember '' -- a worldwide moustache growing charity event held during November each year that raises funds and awareness for men 's health, one of the key themes promoted on IMD. It also interfaces with Universal Children 's Day on 20 November and forms a 48 - hour celebration firstly of men, then children respectively, with a recognition of the bonds between them.
As well as the six Core Objectives, a secondary theme for IMD is usually suggested by world coordinators such as peace in 2002, men 's health in 2003, healing and forgiveness in 2007, positive male role models in 2009 and ' our children 's future ' in 2010. It is not compulsory to adopt these secondary themes and participants are welcome to establish individual themes to suit local needs and concerns.
In 2011 the theme for international Men 's Day is ' boys ' with the title, "Giving Boys The Best Possible Start In Life ''. This theme asks people around the world to focus on five key challenges that boys all over the world experience in areas of health, education, family life, violence and life choices and to consider local solutions to the global problems that boys face.
The theme for 2012 is ' health ' with the title "Helping Men and Boys Live longer, Happier and Healthier Lives ''. The target areas nominated by IMD Founder Jerome Teelucksingh are; 1. Improving male life expectancy; 2. Helping men get help; 3. Improving boys ' education; 4. Tackling tolerance of violence against men and boys; and 5. Promoting fathers and positive male role models. The 2012 theme highlights World Health Organization figures showing that every year over half a million people die from violence and 83 % of them are men and boys, and that a similar proportion of the global burden of disease (ill - health, disability or early death) from violence is borne by boys and men.
The theme for 2013 as nominated by the IMD Coordination Committee is, "Keeping Men and Boys safe ''. The nominated target areas are, 1. Keeping men and boys Safe by tackling male suicide; 2. Keeping boys safe so they can become tomorrow 's role models; 3. Tackling our tolerance of violence against men and boys; 4. Boosting men 's life expectancy by keeping men and boys safe from avoidable illness and death; 5. and Keeping men and boys safe by promoting fathers and male role models. The 2013 Press Release asks, "People all over the world are used to relating to men as protectors and providers, but how often do we consider the actions we can all take to protect Men and Boys from harm and provide them with a safe world where they can thrive and prosper? ''
2014 International Men 's Day theme was "Working Together For Men and Boys '' and was designed to encourage greater cooperation in addressing a range of issues that affect Men and Boys such as men 's shorter life expectancy, the high male suicide rate, our collective tolerance of violence against men, and the struggles that boys can face in getting an education and the unique challenges of father - child relationships.
The International Men 's Day theme for 2015 -- "Working To Expand Reproductive Options for Men '' -- is designed to encourage cooperation in addressing reproductive issues that affect men and boys around the world, such as family planning, men 's limited reproductive choices, sexual health, and safe sexual practices. The question is asked of how we might improve men 's freedom to choose parenthood through cultural, legal, technological and educational avenues.
2016 's theme for International Men 's Day was "Stop Male Suicide ''. In every country except China, the rate of suicide in men is higher than that of women, in some cases as high as six men for every one woman, and life expectancy is routinely less for men than women in all countries. To this end, "Global Action on Men 's Health (GAMH) wants the World Health Organisation and other international public health bodies, as well as individual governments, to acknowledge the scale of the problems facing men and boys and to take sustained action to tackle them. This work should sit alongside continuing action to improve the health of women and girls. '' Glen Poole, an IMD coordinator wrote a book entitled "How You Can Stop Male Suicide in 7 Simple Steps, '' summarized with the motto "Learn, love, listen. ''
In March 2017 the theme of "Celebrating Men And Boys In All Their Diversity '' was announced by the Global and Regional Coordinators. The emphasis on "... A Call To Action '' for individuals, institutions, and organizations to innovate the manner in which they design and deliver resources and support services which speak to the unique needs and issues of men and boys. ''
The theme of 2018 's International Men 's Day is to be "Positive Male role models, '' and focuses on giving men and boys good positive role models to look up to.
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supreme court judge in international court from india | Raghunandan Swarup Pathak - Wikipedia
Raghunandan Swarup Pathak, (R.S. Pathak) (25 November 1924 -- 17 November 2007) was the 18th Chief Justice of India. He was the son of Gopal Swarup Pathak, a former Vice President of India.
He was one of the three judges from India to have been on the International Court of Justice in The Hague (the others being Nagendra Singh who served as its President from 1985 to 1988 and former Supreme Court justice Dalveer Bhandari, who currently sits upon the World Court). He did his schooling from St. Joseph 's College, Allahabad and had studied law at Allahabad University. After practising law at Allahabad, he became Judge at Allahabad High Court in 1962 and later Chief Justice of Himachal Pradesh High Court in 1972.
Pathak was made a judge at Supreme Court of India in 1978 and became its 18th Chief Justice on 21 December 1986. He is remembered as a judge who was a man of the middle and was able to bring relative peace to the Court. He served as Chief justice for two and a half years during which time a dozen judges were appointed to the Court. Five of them -- Madhukar Hiralal Kania, Lalit Mohan Sharma, Manepalle Narayana Rao Venkatachaliah, Aziz Mushabber Ahmadi, and Jagdish Sharan Verma -- went on to serve as Chief Justices between 1991 and 1998.
Pathak facilitated an out of court settlement between Union Carbide Corporation and the Government of India in 1989 regarding the compensation to be paid for the Bhopal gas tragedy. The government had sought $3.3 billion but received only $470 million and the settlement resulted in the dropping of criminal liability charges against Carbide in the case. Within three months of his retirement Pathak became a member of the International Court of Justice at The Hague. The Supreme Court in 1991 upheld the settlement in 1991 thus ending Carbide 's liability in the case.
Pathak was elected a judge of the International Court of Justice and served in that position from 1989 to 1991. He was elected in "casual election '' that was held following the death of M. Nagendra Singh, an Indian judge who was then serving his second term at the International Court. In 1991 India decided not to renominate Pathak, who however entered the fray with the backing of Ireland. After the Irish government came under attack in the Dáil from MPs who blamed Pathak for approving, as Chief Justice of India, the $470 - million Bhopal gas disaster settlement with Union Carbide, Pathak withdrew from the race.
In November 2005, Justice Pathak was appointed to inquire into alleged Indian links in the Oil - for - Food Programme. On 3 August 2006, he submitted his 90 - page report which indicted suspended Congress leader and former External Affairs Minister K. Natwar Singh.
R.S. Pathak died on 17 November 2007, at the age of 82 following a heart attack.
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us defense budget as percentage of total spending | Military budget of the United States - Wikipedia
The military budget is the portion of the discretionary United States federal budget allocated to the Department of Defense, or more broadly, the portion of the budget that goes to any military - related expenditures. The military budget pays the salaries, training, and health care of uniformed and civilian personnel, maintains arms, equipment and facilities, funds operations, and develops and buys new equipment. The budget funds 4 branches of the U.S. military: the Army, Marine Corps, Navy, and Air Force. In FY 2015, Pentagon and related spending totaled $598 billion, about 54 % of the fiscal year 2015 U.S. discretionary budget. For FY 2017, President Obama proposed the base budget of $523.9 billion, which includes an increase of $2.2 billion over the FY 2016 enacted budget of $521.7 billion.
For the period 2010 - 14, SIPRI found that the United States was the world 's biggest exporter of major arms, accounting for 31 percent of global shares, followed by Russia with 27 percent. The USA delivered weapons to at least 94 recipients. The United States was also the world 's eighth largest importer of major military equipment for the same period. The main imports were 19 transport aircraft from Italy; and equipment produced in the US under license -- including 252 trainer aircraft of Swiss design, 223 light helicopters of German design and 10 maritime patrol aircraft of Spanish design.
The following is historical spending on defense from 1996 - 2015, spending for 2014 - 15 is estimated. The Defense Budget is shown in billions of dollars and total budget in trillions of dollars. The percentage of the total U.S. budget spent on defense is indicated in the third row, and change in defense spending from the previous year in the final row.
For the 2011 fiscal year, the president 's base budget for the Department of Defense and spending on "overseas contingency operations '' combine to bring the sum to US $664.84 billion.
When the budget was signed into law on 28 October 2009, the final size of the Department of Defense 's budget was $680 billion, $16 billion more than President Obama had requested. An additional $37 billion supplemental bill to support the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan was expected to pass in the spring of 2010, but has been delayed by the House of Representatives after passing the Senate.
The recent invasions of Iraq and Afghanistan were largely funded through supplementary spending bills outside the federal budget, which are not included in the military budget figures listed below. However, the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan were categorized as "overseas contingency operations '' in the starting of the fiscal year 2010, and the budget is included in the federal budget.
By the end of 2008, the U.S. had spent approximately $900 billion in direct costs on the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan. The government also incurred indirect costs, which include interests on additional debt and incremental costs, financed by the Veterans Administration, of caring for more than 33,000 wounded. Some experts estimate the indirect costs will eventually exceed the direct costs. As of June 2011, the total cost of the wars was approximately $1.3 trillion.
The federally budgeted (see below) military expenditure of the United States Department of Defense for fiscal year 2013 are as follows. While data is provided from the 2015 budget, data for 2014 and 2015 is estimated, and thus data is shown for the last year for which definite data exists (2013).
The Department of Defense 's FY 2011 $137.5 billion procurement and $77.2 billion RDT&E budget requests included several programs with more than $1.5 billion.
This does not include many military - related items that are outside of the Defense Department budget, such as nuclear weapons research, maintenance, cleanup, and production, which are in the Atomic Energy Defense Activities section, Veterans Affairs, the Treasury Department 's payments in pensions to military retirees and widows and their families, interest on debt incurred in past wars, or State Department financing of foreign arms sales and militarily - related development assistance. Neither does it include defense spending that is not military in nature, such as the Department of Homeland Security, counter-terrorism spending by the Federal Bureau of Investigation, and intelligence - gathering spending by NSA.
Again in 2011, the GAO could not "render an opinion on the 2011 consolidated financial statements of the federal government '', with a major obstacle again being "serious financial management problems at the Department of Defense (DOD) that made its financial statements unauditable ''.
In December 2011, the GAO found that "neither the Navy nor the Marine Corps have implemented effective processes for reconciling their FBWT. '' According to the GAO, "An agency 's FBWT account is similar in concept to a corporate bank account. The difference is that instead of a cash balance, FBWT represents unexpended spending authority in appropriations. '' In addition, "As of April 2011, there were more than $22 billion unmatched disbursements and collections affecting more than 10,000 lines of accounting. ''
The US Government Accountability Office (GAO) was unable to provide an audit opinion on the 2010 financial statements of the US Government because of ' widespread material internal control weaknesses, significant uncertainties, and other limitations '. The GAO cited as the principal obstacle to its provision of an audit opinion ' serious financial management problems at the Department of Defense that made its financial statements unauditable '.
In FY 2010, six out of thirty - three DoD reporting entities received unqualified audit opinions.
Chief financial officer and Under Secretary of Defense Robert F. Hale acknowledged enterprise - wide problems with systems and processes, while the DoD 's Inspector General reported ' material internal control weaknesses... that affect the safeguarding of assets, proper use of funds, and impair the prevention and identification of fraud, waste, and abuse '. Further management discussion in the FY 2010 DoD Financial Report states ' it is not feasible to deploy a vast number of accountants to manually reconcile our books ' and concludes that ' although the financial statements are not auditable for FY 2010, the Department 's financial managers are meeting warfighter needs '.
On February 9, 2016, the US Department of Defense under President Obama released a statement outlining the proposed 2016 and 2017 defense spending budgets that "(reflect) the priorities necessary for our force today and in the future to best serve and protect our nation in a rapidly changing security environment. ''
On March 16, 2017 President Trump submitted his request to Congress for $639 billion in military spending -- $54 billion -- which represents a 10 percent increase -- for FY 2018 as well as $30 billion for FY2017 which ends in September. With a total federal budget of $3.9 trillion for FY2018, the increase in military spending would result in deep cuts to many other federal agencies and domestic programs, as well as the State Department. Trump had pledged to "rebuild '' the military as part of his 2016 Presidential campaign.
In April 2017, journalist Scot J. Paltrow raised concerns about the increase in spending with the Pentagon 's history of "faulty accounting ''.
On the 14th of July, H.R. 2810 the National Defense Authorization Act 2018 was passed by the U.S. House of Representatives 344 - 8, with 8 not voting. 60 % of Democrats voted for this bill, which represented an 18 % increase in defense spending. The Congress increased the budget to total 696 billion dollars.
The currently available budget request for 2017 was filed on February 9, 2016, under now former - President Barack Obama.
The press release of the proposal specifies the structure and goals for the Fiscal Year (FY) 2017 budget:
The FY 2017 budget reflects recent strategic threats and changes that have taken place in Asia, the Middle East and Europe. Russian aggression, terrorism by the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) and others, and China 's island building and claims of sovereignty in international waters all necessitate changes in our strategic outlook and in our operational commitments. Threats and actions originating in Iran and North Korea negatively affect our interests and our allies. These challenges have sharpened the focus of our planning and budgeting.
The proposal also includes a comparison of the 2016 and the proposed 2017 request amounts, a summary of acquisitions requested for 2017 and enacted in 2016, and provides in detail a breakdown of specific programs to be funded.
Amounts are in $ billions.
These are the top 25 DoD weapon programs described in detail:
$ in billions, Qty being the number of items requested.
This program 's purpose is to "invest in and develop capabilities that advance the technical superiority of the U.S. Military to counter new and emerging threats. ''. It has a budget of $12.5 billion, but is apart from the overall Research, Development, Test, and Evaluation (RDT&E) portfolio, which compromises $71.8 billion. Efforts funded apply to the Obama administration 's refocusing of the US military to Asia, identifying investments to "sustain and advance (the) DoD 's military dominance for the 21st century '', counter the "technological advances of U.S. foes '', and support Manufacturing Initiative institutes. A breakdown of the amounts provided, by tier of research, is provided:
Amounts in Thousands of $ USD
* Research, Development, Test and Evaluation
Amounts in thousands of $ USD
This portion of the military budget comprises roughly one third to one half of the total defense budget, considering only military personnel or additionally including civilian personnel, respectively. These expenditures "will likely always be, the single largest expense category for the Department. '' Since 2001, military pay and benefits have increased by 85 %, but remained roughly one third of the total budget due to an overall increased budget. Military pay remains at about the 70th percentile compared to the private sector to attract sufficient amounts of qualified personnel.
The request for 2017 amounts to $48.8 billion. The system has 9.4 million beneficiaries, including active, retired, and eligible Reserve Component military personnel and their families, and dependent survivors.
The role of support service contractors has increased since 2001 and in 2007 payments for contractor services exceeded investments in equipment for the armed forces for the first time. In the 2010 budget, the support service contractors will be reduced from the current 39 percent of the workforce down to the pre-2001 level of 26 percent. In a Pentagon review of January 2011, service contractors were found to be "increasingly unaffordable. ''
The U.S. Department of Defense budget accounted in fiscal year 2010 for about 19 % of the United States federal budgeted expenditures and 28 % of estimated tax revenues. Including non-DOD expenditures, military spending was approximately 28 -- 38 % of budgeted expenditures and 42 -- 57 % of estimated tax revenues. According to the Congressional Budget Office, defense spending grew 9 % annually on average from fiscal year 2000 -- 2009.
Because of constitutional limitations, military funding is appropriated in a discretionary spending account. (Such accounts permit government planners to have more flexibility to change spending each year, as opposed to mandatory spending accounts that mandate spending on programs in accordance with the law, outside of the budgetary process.) In recent years, discretionary spending as a whole has amounted to about one - third of total federal outlays. Department of Defense spending 's share of discretionary spending was 50.5 % in 2003, and has risen to between 53 % and 54 % in recent years.
For FY 2010, Department of Defense spending amounts to 4.7 % of GDP. Because the U.S. GDP has risen over time, the military budget can rise in absolute terms while shrinking as a percentage of the GDP. For example, the Department of Defense budget is slated to be $664 billion in 2010 (including the cost of operations in Iraq and Afghanistan previously funded through supplementary budget legislation), higher than at any other point in American history, but still 1.1 -- 1.4 % lower as a percentage of GDP than the amount spent on military during the peak of Cold - War military spending in the late 1980s. Admiral Mike Mullen, former Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, has called four percent an "absolute floor ''. This calculation does not take into account some other military - related non-DOD spending, such as Veterans Affairs, Homeland Security, and interest paid on debt incurred in past wars, which has increased even as a percentage of the national GDP.
In 2015, Pentagon and related spending totaled $598 billion. Military expenditures exceed the total amount of funds allocated to support social security, transportation, unemployment, labor, science, energy and the environment, international affairs, housing, veteran 's benefits, medicare, education.
In addition, the United States will spend at least $179 billion over the fiscal years of 2010 - 2018 on its nuclear arsenal, averaging $20 billion per year. Despite President Barack Obama 's attempts in the media to reduce the scope of the current nuclear arms race, the U.S. intends to spend an additional $1 trillion over the next 30 years modernizing its nuclear arsenal.
As of September 2014, the Department of Defense was estimated to have "$857 million in excess parts and supplies ''. This figure has risen over the past years and of the Pentagon waste that has been calculated, two figures that are especially worth mentioning is the expenditure of "$150 million on private villas for a handful of Pentagon employees in Afghanistan and the procurement of the JLENS air - defense balloon '' which, throughout the program 's development over the past two decades, is estimated to have cost $2.7 billion. Also, it is important to note that the JLENS air - balloon still does not function properly.
The United States spends more on their defense budget than China, Saudi Arabia, Russia, the United Kingdom, India, France, and Japan combined. The 2009 U.S. military budget accounts for approximately 40 % of global arms spending. The 2012 budget is 6 -- 7 times larger than the $106 billion military budget of China. The United States and its close allies are responsible for two - thirds to three - quarters of the world 's military spending (of which, in turn, the U.S. is responsible for the majority). The US also maintains the largest number of military bases on foreign soil across the world. While there are no freestanding foreign bases permanently located in the United States, there are now around 800 U.S. bases in foreign countries. Military spending makes up nearly 16 % percent of entire federal spending and approximately half of discretionary spending. In a general sense discretionary spending (defense and non-defense spending) makes up one - third of the annual federal budget.
In 2015, out of its budget of 1.11 trillion, the United States spent $598 billion on military. U.S. defense spending is equivalent to the next seven largest military budgets -- India, the United Kingdom, Japan, France, Saudi Arabia, Russia, and China -- combined.
In 2017, the U.S. military budget is 773.5 billion and is estimated to increase in the upcoming years.
In 2005, the United States spent 4.06 % of its GDP on its military (considering only basic Department of Defense budget spending), more than France 's 2.6 % and less than Saudi Arabia 's 10 %. This is historically low for the United States since it peaked in 1944 at 37.8 % of GDP (it reached the lowest point of 3.0 % in 1999 -- 2001). Even during the peak of the Vietnam War the percentage reached a high of 9.4 % in 1968.
The US Military 's budget has plateaued in 2009, but is still considerably larger than any other military power.
In 2009, Secretary of Defense Robert Gates wrote that the U.S. should adjust its priorities and spending to address the changing nature of threats in the world: "What all these potential adversaries -- from terrorist cells to rogue nations to rising powers -- have in common is that they have learned that it is unwise to confront the United States directly on conventional military terms. The United States can not take its current dominance for granted and needs to invest in the programs, platforms, and personnel that will ensure that dominance 's persistence. But it is also important to keep some perspective. As much as the U.S. Navy has shrunk since the end of the Cold War, for example, in terms of tonnage, its battle fleet is still larger than the next 13 navies combined -- and 11 of those 13 navies are U.S. allies or partners. '' Secretary Gates announced some of his budget recommendations in April 2009.
According to a 2009 Congressional Research Service there was a discrepancy between a budget that is declining as a percentage of GDP while the responsibilities of the DoD have not decreased and additional pressures on the military budget have arisen due to broader missions in the post-9 / 11 world, dramatic increases in personnel and operating costs, and new requirements resulting from wartime lessons in the Iraq War and Operation Enduring Freedom.
In 2012, four billion dollars of the five billion dollars in budget cuts mandated by the Congress in the 2013 budget were achieved by declaring that nearly 65 thousand troops were now temporary and no longer part of the permanent forces and so their costs were shifted to the Afghanistan war budget.
In May 2012, as part of Obama 's East Asia "pivot '', his 2013 national military request moved funding from the Army and Marines to favor the Navy, but the Congress has resisted this.
Reports emerged in February 2014 that Secretary of Defense Chuck Hagel was planning to trim the defense budget by billions of dollars. The secretary in his first defense budget planned to limit pay rises, increase fees for healthcare benefits, freeze the pay of senior officers, and reduce military housing allowances. A reduction in the number of soldiers serving in the U.S. Army would reduce the size of the force to levels not seen since prior to the start of World War II.
In July 2014, American Enterprise Institute scholar Michael Auslin opined in the National Review that the Air Force needs to be fully funded as a priority, due to the air superiority, global airlift, and long - range strike capabilities it provides.
In January 2015 Defense Department published its internal study on how to save $125 billion on its military budget from 2016 to 2020 by renegotiating vendor contracts and pushing for stronger deals, and by offering workers early retirement and retraining.
On 5 December 2012, the Department of Defense announced it was planning for automatic spending cuts, which include $500 billion and an additional $487 billion due to the 2011 Budget Control Act, due to the fiscal cliff. According to Politico, the Department of Defense declined to explain to the House of Representatives Appropriations Committee, which controls federal spending, what its plans were regarding the fiscal cliff planning.
This was after half a dozen defense experts either resigned from Congress or lost their reelection fights.
Lawrence Korb has noted that given recent trends military entitlements and personnel costs will take up the entire defense budget by 2039.
The Government Accountability Office was unable to provide an audit opinion on the 2010 financial statements of the U.S. government due to "widespread material internal control weaknesses, significant uncertainties, and other limitations. '' The GAO cited as the principal obstacle to its provision of an audit opinion "serious financial management problems at the Department of Defense that made its financial statements unauditable. ''
In Fiscal Year (FY) 2011, seven out of 33 DoD reporting entities received unqualified audit opinions. Under Secretary of Defense Robert F. Hale acknowledged enterprise - wide weaknesses with controls and systems. Further management discussion in the FY 2011 DoD Financial Report states "we are not able to deploy the vast numbers of accountants that would be required to reconcile our books manually ''. Congress has established a deadline of FY 2017 for the DoD to achieve audit readiness.
For FYs 1998 - 2010 the Department of Defense 's financial statements were either unauditable or such that no audit opinion could be expressed.
In a statement of 6 January 2011 Defense Secretary Robert M. Gates stated: "This department simply can not risk continuing down the same path -- where our investment priorities, bureaucratic habits and lax attitude towards costs are increasingly divorced from the real threats of today, the growing perils of tomorrow and the nation 's grim financial outlook. '' Gates has proposed a budget that, if approved by Congress, would reduce the costs of many DOD programs and policies, including reports, the IT infrastructure, fuel, weapon programs, DOD bureaucracies, and personnel.
The 2015 expenditure for Army research, development and acquisition changed from $32 billion projected in 2012 for FY15, to $21 billion for FY15 expected in 2014.
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when did the beat generation start and end | Beat Generation - wikipedia
The Beat Generation was a literary movement started by a group of authors whose work explored and influenced American culture and politics in the post-World War II era. The bulk of their work was published and popularized throughout the 1950s. Central elements of Beat culture are rejection of standard narrative values, spiritual quest, exploration of American and Eastern religions, rejection of materialism, explicit portrayals of the human condition, experimentation with psychedelic drugs, and sexual liberation and exploration.
Allen Ginsberg 's Howl (1956), William S. Burroughs 's Naked Lunch (1959) and Jack Kerouac 's On the Road (1957) are among the best known examples of Beat literature. Both Howl and Naked Lunch were the focus of obscenity trials that ultimately helped to liberalize publishing in the United States. The members of the Beat Generation developed a reputation as new bohemian hedonists, who celebrated non-conformity and spontaneous creativity.
The core group of Beat Generation authors -- Herbert Huncke, Allen Ginsberg, William S. Burroughs, Lucien Carr, and Jack Kerouac -- met in 1944 in and around the Columbia University campus in New York City. Later, in the mid-1950s, the central figures (with the exception of Burroughs and Carr) ended up together in San Francisco where they met and became friends of figures associated with the San Francisco Renaissance.
In the 1960s, elements of the expanding Beat movement were incorporated into the hippie and larger counterculture movements. Neal Cassady, as the driver for Ken Kesey 's bus Further, was the primary bridge between these two generations. Allen Ginsberg 's work also became an integral element of early 1960s hippie culture.
Jack Kerouac introduced the phrase "Beat Generation '' in 1948 to characterize a perceived underground, anti-conformist youth movement in New York. The name arose in a conversation with writer John Clellon Holmes. Kerouac allows that it was street hustler Herbert Huncke who originally used the phrase "beat '', in an earlier discussion with him. The adjective "beat '' could colloquially mean "tired '' or "beaten down '' within the African - American community of the period and had developed out of the image "beat to his socks '', but Kerouac appropriated the image and altered the meaning to include the connotations "upbeat '', "beatific '', and the musical association of being "on the beat '', and "the Beat to keep '' from the Beat Generation poem.
The origins of the Beat Generation can be traced to Columbia University and the meeting of Kerouac, Ginsberg, Lucien Carr, Hal Chase and others. Jack Kerouac attended Columbia on a football scholarship. Though the beats are usually regarded as anti-academic, many of their ideas were formed in response to professors like Lionel Trilling and Mark Van Doren. Classmates Carr and Ginsberg discussed the need for a "New Vision '' (a term borrowed from W.B. Yeats), to counteract what they perceived as their teachers ' conservative, formalistic literary ideals.
Burroughs had an interest in criminal behavior and got involved in dealing stolen goods and narcotics. He was soon addicted to opiates. Burroughs ' guide to the criminal underworld (centered in particular around New York 's Times Square) was small - time criminal and drug - addict Herbert Huncke. The Beats were drawn to Huncke, who later started to write himself, convinced that he possessed a vital worldly knowledge unavailable to them from their largely middle - class upbringings.
Ginsberg was arrested in 1949. The police attempted to stop Ginsberg while he was driving with Huncke, his car filled with stolen items that Huncke planned to fence. Ginsberg crashed the car while trying to flee and escaped on foot, but left incriminating notebooks behind. He was given the option to plead insanity to avoid a jail term, and was committed for 90 days to Bellevue Hospital, where he met Carl Solomon.
Carl Solomon was arguably more eccentric than psychotic. A fan of Antonin Artaud, he indulged in self - consciously "crazy '' behavior, like throwing potato salad at a college lecturer on Dadaism. Solomon was given shock treatments at Bellevue; this became one of the main themes of Ginsberg 's "Howl '', which was dedicated to Solomon. Solomon later became the publishing contact who agreed to publish Burroughs ' first novel Junky in 1953.
Beat writers and artists flocked to Greenwich Village in New York City in the late 1950s because of low rent and the ' small town ' element of the scene. Folksongs, readings and discussions often took place in Washington Square Park. Allen Ginsberg was a big part of the scene in the Village, as was Burroughs, who lived at 69 Bedford Street. Burroughs, Ginsberg, Kerouac, and other poets frequented many bars in the area including the San Remo at 93 MacDougal Street on the northwest corner of Bleeker, Chumley 's, and Minetta Tavern. Jackson Pollock, Willem de Kooning, Franz Kline, and other abstract expressionists were also frequent visitors and collaborators of the beats.
Cultural critics have written about the transition of Beat culture in the Village into the Bohemian hippie culture of the 1960s.
Allen Ginsberg had visited Neal and Carolyn Cassady in San Jose, California in 1954 and moved to San Francisco in August. He fell in love with Peter Orlovsky at the end of 1954 and began writing Howl. Lawrence Ferlinghetti, of the new City Lights Bookstore, started to publish the City Lights Pocket Poets Series in 1955.
Kenneth Rexroth 's apartment became a Friday night literary salon (Ginsberg 's mentor William Carlos Williams, an old friend of Rexroth, had given him an introductory letter). When asked by Wally Hedrick to organize the Six Gallery reading, Ginsberg wanted Rexroth to serve as master of ceremonies, in a sense to bridge generations.
Philip Lamantia, Michael McClure, Philip Whalen, Allen Ginsberg and Gary Snyder read on October 7, 1955, before 100 people (including Kerouac, up from Mexico City). Lamantia read poems of his late friend John Hoffman. At his first public reading Ginsberg performed the just finished first part of Howl. It was a success and the evening led to many more readings by the now locally famous Six Gallery poets.
It was also a marker of the beginning of the Beat movement, since the 1956 publication of Howl (City Lights Pocket Poets, no. 4) and its obscenity trial in 1957 brought it to nationwide attention.
The Six Gallery reading informs the second chapter of Kerouac 's 1958 novel The Dharma Bums, whose chief protagonist is "Japhy Ryder '', a character who is actually based on Gary Snyder. Kerouac was impressed with Snyder and they were close for a number of years. In the spring of 1955 they lived together in Snyder 's Mill Valley cabin. Most Beats were urbanites and they found Snyder almost exotic, with his rural background and wilderness experience, as well as his education in cultural anthropology and Oriental languages. Lawrence Ferlinghetti called him "the Thoreau of the Beat Generation. ''
As documented in the conclusion of The Dharma Bums, Snyder moved to Japan in 1955, in large measure in order to intensively practice and study Zen Buddhism. He would spend most of the next 10 years there. Buddhism is one of the primary subjects of The Dharma Bums, and the book undoubtedly helped to popularize Buddhism in the West and remains one of Kerouac 's most widely read books.
The Beats also spent time in the Northern Pacific Northwest including Washington and Oregon. Kerouac wrote about sojourns to Washington 's North Cascades in The Dharma Bums and On the Road.
Reed College in Portland, Oregon was also a locale for some of the Beat poets. Gary Snyder studied anthropology there, Philip Whalen attended Reed, and Allen Ginsberg held multiple readings on the campus around 1955 and 1956. Gary Snyder and Philip Whalen were students in Reed 's calligraphy class taught by Lloyd J. Reynolds.
Burroughs was introduced to the group by David Kammerer, who was in love with Lucien Carr. Carr had befriended freshman Allen Ginsberg and introduced him to Kammerer and Burroughs. Carr also knew Kerouac 's girlfriend Edie Parker, through whom Burroughs met Kerouac in 1944.
On August 13, 1944, Carr killed Kammerer with a Boy Scout knife in Riverside Park in what he claimed later was self - defense. He waited, then dumped the body in the Hudson River, later seeking advice from Burroughs, who suggested he turn himself in. He then went to Kerouac, who helped him dispose of the weapon.
Carr turned himself in the following morning and later pleaded guilty to manslaughter. Kerouac was charged as an accessory, and Burroughs as a material witness, but neither was prosecuted. Kerouac wrote about this incident twice in his own works: once in his first novel, The Town and the City, and again in one of his last, Vanity of Duluoz. He wrote a collaboration novel with Burroughs, And the Hippos Were Boiled in Their Tanks, concerning the murder.
Poet Gary Snyder was an important member of the beat movement and is widely regarded as a member of the Beat Generation circle of writers. He was one of the poets who read at the famous Six Gallery reading, and he was written about in one of Kerouac 's most popular novels, The Dharma Bums. Some critics argue that Snyder 's connection with the Beats is exaggerated and that he might better be regarded as a member of the West Coast group the San Francisco Renaissance, which developed independently.
Neal Cassady was introduced to the group in 1947, providing inspiration to several of t he Beat authors. He became something of a muse to Ginsberg; they had a romantic affair, and Ginsberg became Cassady 's personal writing - tutor. Kerouac 's road trips with Cassady in the late 1940s became the focus of his second novel, On the Road. Cassady 's verbal style is one of the sources of the spontaneous, jazz - inspired rapping that later became associated with "beatniks ''. Cassady impressed the group with the free - flowing style of his letters, and Kerouac cited them as a key influence on his spontaneous prose style.
The female contemporaries of Kerouac, Ginsberg and Burroughs were intimately involved in the creation of Beat philosophy and literature, and yet remain markedly absent from the mainstream interpretation of the most important aspects and figures of the movement.
Beat Generation women who have been published include Edie Parker; Joyce Johnson; Carolyn Cassady; Hettie Jones; Joanne Kyger; Harriet Sohmers Zwerling; Diane DiPrima; and Ruth Weiss, who also made films. Poet Elise Cowen took her own life in 1963. Poet Anne Waldman was less influenced by the Beats than by Allen Ginsberg 's later turn to (2). Later, female poets emerged who claimed to be strongly influenced by the Beats, including Janine Pommy Vega in the 1960s, Patti Smith in the 1970s, and Hedwig Gorski in the 1980s.
One of the key beliefs and practices of the Beat Generation was free love and sexual liberation, which strayed from the Christian ideals of American culture at the time. Some Beat writers were openly gay or bisexual, including two of the most prominent (Ginsberg and Burroughs). Some met each other through gay connections, including David Kammerer 's interest in Lucien Carr.
For authorities, one of the most contentious features of Ginsberg 's poem Howl were lines about homosexual sex. William Burroughs ' Naked Lunch contains content dealing with same - sex relations and pedophilia. Both works were unsuccessfully prosecuted for obscenity. Victory by the publishers helped to curtail literary censorship in the United States.
Considered racy at the time, Kerouac 's writings are now considered mild. On the Road mentions Neal Cassady 's bisexuality without comment, while Visions of Cody confronts it. However, the first novel does show Cassady as frankly promiscuous. Kerouac 's novels feature an interracial love affair (The Subterraneans), and group sex (The Dharma Bums). The relationships among men in Kerouac 's novels are predominantly homosocial.
The original members of the Beat Generation used a number of different drugs, including alcohol, marijuana, benzedrine, morphine, and later psychedelic drugs such as peyote, Ayahuasca, and LSD. They often approached drugs experimentally, initially being unfamiliar with their effects; their drug use was broadly inspired by intellectual interest and many Beat writers felt their drug experiences enhanced creativity, insight or productivity. The use of drugs was a key influence on many of the social events of the time that were personal to the Beat generation.
Gregory Corso considered English Romantic poet Percy Bysshe Shelley a hero, and he was buried at the foot of Shelley 's grave in the Protestant Cemetery, Rome. Ginsberg mentions Shelley 's poem Adonais at the beginning of his poem Kaddish, and cites it as a major influence on the composition of one of his most important poems. Michael McClure compared Ginsberg 's Howl to Shelley 's breakthrough poem Queen Mab.
Ginsberg 's main Romantic influence was William Blake, and studied him throughout his life. Blake was the subject of Ginsberg 's self - defining auditory hallucination and revelation in 1948. Romantic poet John Keats was also cited as an influence.
The Beats were inspired by early American figures such as Henry David Thoreau, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Herman Melville and especially Walt Whitman, who is addressed as the subject of one of Ginsberg 's most famous poems, A Supermarket in California. Edgar Allan Poe was occasionally acknowledged, and Ginsberg saw Emily Dickinson as having an influence on Beat poetry. The 1926 novel You Ca n't Win by outlaw author Jack Black was cited as having a strong influence on Burroughs.
In many ways, Surrealism was still considered a vital movement in the 1950s. Carl Solomon introduced the work of French author Antonin Artaud to Ginsberg, and the poetry of André Breton had direct influence on Ginsberg 's poem Kaddish. Rexroth, Ferlinghetti, John Ashbery and Ron Padgett translated French poetry. Second - generation Beat Ted Joans was named "the only Afro - American Surrealist '' by Breton.
Philip Lamantia introduced Surrealist poetry to the original Beats. The poetry of Gregory Corso and Bob Kaufman shows the influence of Surrealist poetry with its dream - like images and its random juxtaposition of dissociated images, and this influence can also be seen in more subtle ways in Ginsberg 's poetry. As the legend goes, when meeting French Surrealist Marcel Duchamp, Ginsberg kissed his shoe and Corso cut off his tie. Other influential French poets for the Beats were Guillaume Apollinaire, Arthur Rimbaud and Charles Baudelaire.
Gertrude Stein was the subject of a book - length study by Lew Welch. Admitted influences for Kerouac include Marcel Proust, Ernest Hemingway and Thomas Wolfe.
While many authors claim to be directly influenced by the Beats, the Beat Generation phenomenon itself has had an influence on American culture leading more broadly to the hippie movements of the 1960s.
In 1982, Ginsberg published a summary of "the essential effects '' of the Beat Generation:
The term "Beatnik '' was coined by Herb Caen of the San Francisco Chronicle on April 2, 1958, a portmanteau on the name of the recent Russian satellite Sputnik and Beat Generation. This suggested that beatniks were (1) "far out of the mainstream of society '' and (2) "possibly pro-Communist. '' Caen 's term stuck and became the popular label associated with a new stereotype -- the man with a goatee and beret reciting nonsensical poetry and playing bongo drums while free - spirited women wearing black leotards dance.
An early example of the "beatnik stereotype '' occurred in Vesuvio 's (a bar in North Beach, San Francisco) which employed the artist Wally Hedrick to sit in the window dressed in full beard, turtleneck, and sandals, creating improvisational drawings and paintings. By 1958 tourists who came to San Francisco could take bus tours to view the North Beach Beat scene, prophetically anticipating similar tours of the Haight - Ashbury district ten years later.
A variety of other small businesses also sprang up exploiting (and / or satirizing) the new craze. In 1959, Fred McDarrah started a "Rent - a-Beatnik '' service in New York, taking out ads in The Village Voice and sending Ted Joans and friends out on calls to read poetry.
"Beatniks '' appeared in many cartoons, movies, and TV shows of the time, perhaps the most famous being the character Maynard G. Krebs in The Many Loves of Dobie Gillis (1959 -- 1963).
While some of the original Beats embraced the beatniks, or at least found the parodies humorous (Ginsberg, for example, appreciated the parody in the comic strip Pogo) others criticized the beatniks as inauthentic poseurs. Jack Kerouac feared that the spiritual aspect of his message had been lost and that many were using the Beat Generation as an excuse to be senselessly wild.
During the 1960s, aspects of the Beat movement metamorphosed into the counterculture of the 1960s, accompanied by a shift in terminology from "beatnik '' to "hippie ''. Many of the original Beats remained active participants, notably Allen Ginsberg, who became a fixture of the anti-war movement. Notably, however, Jack Kerouac broke with Ginsberg and criticized the 1960s politically radical protest movements as an excuse to be "spiteful ''.
There were stylistic differences between beatniks and hippies -- somber colors, dark sunglasses, and goatees gave way to colorful psychedelic clothing and long hair. The beats were known for "playing it cool '' (keeping a low profile),
Beyond style, there were changes in substance: The Beats tended to be essentially apolitical, but the hippies became actively engaged with the civil rights movement and the anti-war movement.
Among the emerging novelists of the 1960s and 1970s, a few were closely connected with Beat writers, most notably Ken Kesey (One Flew Over the Cuckoo 's Nest). Though they had no direct connection, other writers considered the Beats to be a major influence, including Thomas Pynchon (Gravity 's Rainbow) and Tom Robbins (Even Cowgirls Get the Blues).
William S. Burroughs is considered a forefather of postmodern literature; he also inspired the cyberpunk genre.
One - time Beat writer LeRoi Jones / Amiri Baraka helped initiate the Black Arts movement.
As there was focus on live performance among the Beats, many Slam poets have claimed to be influenced by the Beats. Saul Williams, for example, cites Allen Ginsberg, Amiri Baraka, and Bob Kaufman as major influences.
The Postbeat Poets are direct descendants of the Beat Generation. Their association with or tutelage under Ginsberg at The Naropa University 's Jack Kerouac School of Disembodied Poetics and later at Brooklyn College stressed the social - activist legacy of the Beats and created its own body of literature. Known authors are Anne Waldman, Antler, Andy Clausen, David Cope, Eileen Myles, Eliot Katz, Paul Beatty, Sapphire, Lesléa Newman, Jim Cohn, Thomas R. Peters, Jr. (poet and owner of beat book shop), Sharon Mesmer, Randy Roark, Josh Smith, David Evans.
The Beats had a pervasive influence on rock and roll and popular music, including the Beatles, Bob Dylan and Jim Morrison. The Beatles spelled their name with an "a '' partly as a Beat Generation reference, and John Lennon was a fan of Jack Kerouac. The Beatles even put Beat writer William S. Burroughs on the cover of their album Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band. Ginsberg later met and became friends of members of the Beatles, and Paul McCartney played guitar on Ginsberg 's album Ballad of the Skeletons.
Ginsberg was a close friend of Bob Dylan and toured with him on the Rolling Thunder Revue in 1975. Dylan cites Ginsberg and Kerouac as major influences.
Jim Morrison cites Kerouac as one of his biggest influences, and fellow Doors member Ray Manzarek has said "We wanted to be beatniks. '' In his book Light My Fire: My Life with The Doors, Manzarek also writes "I suppose if Jack Kerouac had never written On the Road, The Doors would never have existed. '' Michael McClure was also a friend of members of The Doors, at one point touring with Manzarek.
Ginsberg was a friend of Ken Kesey 's Merry Pranksters, a group of which Neal Cassady was a member, which also included members of the Grateful Dead. In the 1970s, Burroughs was a friend of Mick Jagger, Lou Reed, David Bowie, and Patti Smith.
The musical group Steely Dan is named after a steam - powered dildo in Burroughs ' Naked Lunch. British progressive rock band Soft Machine is named after Burroughs ' novel The Soft Machine.
Singer - songwriter Tom Waits, a Beat fan, wrote "Jack and Neal '' about Kerouac and Cassady, and recorded "On the Road '' (a song written by Kerouac after finishing the novel) with Primus. He later collaborated with Burroughs on the theatrical work The Black Rider.
Jazz musician / film composer Robert Kraft (not to be confused with NFL Team owner Robert Kraft) wrote and released a contemporary homage to Jack Kerouac and Beat Generation aesthetics entitled "Beat Generation '' on the 1988 album Quake City.
Musician Mark Sandman, who was the bass guitarist, lead vocalist and a former member of the alternative jazz rock band Morphine, was interested in the Beat Generation and wrote a song called "Kerouac '' as a tribute to Jack Kerouac and his personal philosophy and way of life.
The band Aztec Two - Step recorded "The Persecution & Restoration of Dean Moriarty (On the Road) '' in 1972.
There was a resurgence of interest in the beats among bands in the 1980s. Ginsberg worked with the Clash and Burroughs worked with Sonic Youth, R.E.M., Kurt Cobain, and Ministry, among others. Bono of U2 cites Burroughs as a major influence, and Burroughs appeared briefly in a U2 video in 1997. Post-punk band Joy Division named a song "Interzone '' after a collection of stories by Burroughs. Laurie Anderson featured Burroughs on her 1984 album Mister Heartbreak and in her 1986 concert film, Home of the Brave. The band King Crimson produced the album Beat inspired by the Beat Generation.
More recently, American artist Lana Del Rey references the Beat movement and Beat poetry in her 2014 song "Brooklyn Baby ''.
The Beat Generation was met with scrutiny and assigned many stereotypes. Several magazines, including Life and Playboy, depicted members of the Beat Generation as nihilists and as unintellectual. This criticism was largely due to the ideological differences between American culture at the time and the Beat Generation, including their Buddhist - inspired beliefs.
Norman Podhoretz, a student at Columbia with Kerouac and Ginsberg, later became a critic of the Beats. His 1958 Partisan Review article "The Know - Nothing Bohemians '' was a vehement critique primarily of Kerouac 's On the Road and The Subterraneans, as well as Ginsberg 's Howl. His central criticism is that the Beat embrace of spontaneity is bound up in an anti-intellectual worship of the "primitive '' that can easily turn toward mindlessness and violence. Podhoretz asserted that there was a link between the Beats and criminal delinquents.
Ginsberg responded in a 1958 interview with The Village Voice, specifically addressing the charge that the Beats destroyed "the distinction between life and literature ''. In the interview, he stated that "the bit about anti-intellectualism is a piece of vanity, we had the same education, went to the same school, you know there are ' Intellectuals ' and there are intellectuals. Podhoretz is just out of touch with twentieth - century literature, he 's writing for the eighteenth - century mind. We have a personal literature now -- Proust, Wolfe, Faulkner, Joyce. ''
In a 1974 interview, Gary Snyder comments on the subject of "casualties '' of the Beat Generation:
Kerouac was a casualty too. And there were many other casualties that most people have never heard of, but were genuine casualties. Just as, in the 60s, when Allen and I for a period there were almost publicly recommending people to take acid. When I look back on that now I realize there were many casualties, responsibilities to bear.
Author Lawrence Durrell comments on the subject "about Eduardo Sanguinetti '' in the preface of Sanguinetti 's Poetry and Philosophical Essay Alter Ego:
This is what the work of Sanguinetti shows us, in the form of a mirror image. Or, to put it in less philosophical terms, Eduardo Sanguinetti, like almost any other creator, has little understanding of what he is going to do and only partially understands what he has done. Sanguinetti in a way of contemplating the world and all his work, whatever the medium, reveals this particular way. Sanguinetti is a style. He is an extraordinarily coherent statement of a way of being in the world.
Three writers do not a generation make.
(sometimes also attributed to Gary Snyder).
Nobody knows whether we were catalysts or invented something, or just the froth riding on a wave of its own. We were all three, I suppose.
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what kind of plate boundary is the himalayan mountains | Convergent boundary - wikipedia
In plate tectonics, a convergent boundary, also known as a destructive plate boundary, is a region of active deformation where two or more tectonic plates or fragments of the lithosphere are near the end of their life cycle. This is in contrast to a constructive plate boundary (also known as a mid-ocean ridge or spreading center). As a result of pressure, friction, and plate material melting in the mantle, earthquakes and volcanoes are common near destructive boundaries, where subduction zones or an area of continental collision (depending on the nature of the plates involved) occurs. The subducting plate in a subduction zone is normally oceanic crust, and moves beneath the other plate, which can be made of either oceanic or continental crust. During collisions between two continental plates, large mountain ranges, such as the Himalayas are formed. In other regions, a divergent boundary or transform faults may be present.
The reason for the existence of convergent boundaries are the mid-ocean ridges that were only beginning to be understood with the acceptance of the theory of plate tectonics in the mid-1960s. The radioactive decay of elements within the rocks in the interior of the earth generates large amounts of heat that moves magma to the surface of the crust in a process called mantle convection. This results in a new oceanic crust or sea floor being formed that slowly moves away from the ridges (sometimes called spreading centers) towards the subduction zones. In other words, new seafloor originates from the upwelling rock as it emerges from the depths of the mantle and it slowly cools as it is transported over the millennia to the collision or subduction zones where it is consumed or recycled.
Large, shallow earthquakes on subduction zone interfaces are the largest types of earthquakes. They accounted for 90 % of the total seismic moment released for the period 1900 -- 1989, but these events usually occur offshore and far from population centers. Non-subduction interface earthquakes also occur in the region of the trench including shallow upper plate shocks, deeper events within the downgoing slab, and events that are related to outer trench swell.
A volcanic arc is formed on the continental plate, above the location of the downgoing oceanic slab. The volcanic arc is the surface expression of the magma that is generated by hydrous melting of the mantle above the downgoing slab. Hydrated minerals (e.g., phlogopite, lawsonite, amphibole) within the oceanic lithosphere become unstable at certain depths due to increased temperature and pressure, causing the crystal structure of the hydrated minerals break down and release water. The buoyant fluids then rise into the asthenosphere, where they lower the melting temperature of the mantle and cause partial melting. These melts rise to the surface and are the source of some of the most explosive volcanism on Earth because of their high volumes of extremely pressurized gases.
When two plates with oceanic crust converge, they typically create an island arc as one plate is subducted below the other. The arc is formed from volcanoes which erupt through the overriding plate as the descending plate melts below it. The arc shape occurs because of the spherical surface of the earth (nick the peel of an orange with a knife and note the arc formed by the straight - edge of the knife). A deep oceanic trench is located in front of such arcs where the descending slab dips downward, such as the Mariana Trench near the Mariana Islands.
Some convergent margins have zones of active seafloor spreading behind the island arc, known as back - arc basins. When one plate is composed of oceanic lithosphere and the other is composed of continental lithosphere, the denser oceanic plate is subducted, often forming an orogenic belt and associated mountain range. This type of convergent boundary is similar to the Andes or the Cascade Range in North America.
An oceanic trench is found where the denser plate is subducted underneath the other plate. There is water in the rocks of the oceanic plate (because they are underwater), and as this plate moves further down into the subduction zone, much of the water contained in the plate is squeezed out when the plate begins to subduct. However, the recrystallization of ocean floor rocks, such as serpentinite, which are unstable in the upper mantle, recrystallize into olivine, causing dehydration through loss of hydroxyl groups. This addition of water to the mantle causes partial melting of the mantle, generating magma, which then rises, and which normally results in volcanoes. This normally happens at a certain depth, about 70 to 80 miles below the Earth 's surface, and so volcanoes are formed fairly close to, but not right next to, the trench.
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is slang that is specific to a particular group | Jargon - wikipedia
Jargon is a type of language that is used in a particular context and may not be well understood outside that context. The context is usually a particular occupation (that is, a certain trade, profession, or academic field), but any ingroup can have jargon. The main trait that distinguishes jargon from the rest of a language is special vocabulary -- including some words specific to it, and often different senses or meanings of words, that outgroups would tend to take in another sense; -- therefore misunderstanding that communication attempt. Jargon is thus "the technical terminology or characteristic idiom of a special activity or group ''. Most jargon is technical terminology, involving terms of art or industry terms, with particular meaning within a specific industry. A main driving force in the creation of technical jargon is precision and efficiency of communication when a discussion must easily range from general themes to specific, finely differentiated details without circumlocution. A side - effect of this is a higher threshold for comprehensibility, which is usually accepted as a trade - off but is sometimes even used as a means of social exclusion (reinforcing ingroup - outgroup barriers) or social aspiration (when intended as a way of showing off).
The philosopher Étienne Bonnot de Condillac observed in 1782 that "every science requires a special language because every science has its own ideas ''. As a rationalist member of the Enlightenment, he continued: "It seems that one ought to begin by composing this language, but people begin by speaking and writing, and the language remains to be composed. ''
Various kinds of language peculiar to ingroups can be named across a semantic field. Slang can be either culture - wide or known only within a certain group or subculture. Argot is slang or jargon purposely used to obscure meaning to outsiders. Conversely, a lingua franca is used for the opposite effect, helping communicators to overcome unintelligibility, as are pidgins and creole languages. For example, the Chinook Jargon was a pidgin. Although technical jargon 's primary purpose is to aid technical communication, not to exclude outsiders by serving as an argot, it can have both effects at once and can provide a technical ingroup with shibboleths. For example, medieval guilds could use this as one means of informal protectionism. On the other hand, jargon that once was obscure outside a small ingroup can become generally known over time. For example, the terms bit, byte, and hexadecimal (which are terms from computing jargon) are now recognized by many people outside computer science.
The French word is believed to have been derived from the Latin word gaggire, meaning "to chatter '', which was used to describe speech that the listener did not understand. Middle English also has the verb jargounen meaning "to chatter '', which comes from the French word. The word may also come from Old French jargon meaning "chatter of birds ''.
"An industry term... is a type of technical terminology that has a particular meaning in a specific industry. It implies that a word or phrase is a typical one in a particular industry and people working in the respective industry or business will be familiar with and use the term. ''
Precise technical terms and their definitions are formally recognised, documented, and taught by educators in the field. Other terms are more colloquial, coined and used by practitioners in the field, and are similar to slang. The boundaries between formal and slang jargon, as in general English, are quite fluid. This is especially true in the rapidly developing world of computers and networking. For instance, the term firewall (in the sense of a device used to filter network traffic) was at first technical slang. As these devices became more widespread and the term became widely understood, the word was adopted as formal terminology.
Technical terminology evolves due to the need for experts in a field to communicate with precision and brevity, but often has the effect of excluding those who are unfamiliar with the particular specialized language of the group. This can cause difficulties as, for example, when a patient is unable to follow the discussions of medical practitioners, and thus can not understand his own condition and treatment. Differences in jargon also cause difficulties where professionals in related fields use different terms for the same phenomena.
With the rise of the self - advocacy movement within the disability movement, jargonised language has been much objected to by advocates and self - advocates. Jargon is largely present in every day language, in newspapers, government documents, and official forms. Several advocacy organisations work on influencing public agents to offer accessible information in different formats. One accessible format that offers an alternative to jargonised language is Easy Read, which consists of a combination of plain English and images. An alternative is a jargon buster, incorporated to certain technical documents. There is a balance to be struck, as excessive removal of technical terminology from a document leads to an equally undesirable outcome -- dumbing down.
Many examples of jargon exist because of its use among specialists and subcultures alike. In the professional world, those who are in the business of filmmaking may use words like "vorkapich '' to refer to a montage when talking to colleagues. In Rhetoric, rhetoricians use words like "arete '' to refer to a person of power 's character when speaking with one another.
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when did the iphone 7 come out uk | IPhone 7 - Wikipedia
7: 12 MP 2nd - generation Sony Exmor RS with six - element lens, quad - LED "True Tone '' flash, autofocus, IR filter, Burst mode, f / 1.8 aperture, 4K video recording at 30 fps or 1080p at 30 or 60 fps, slow - motion video (1080p at 120 fps and 720p at 240 fps), timelapse with stabilization, panorama, facial recognition, digital image stabilization, optical image stabilization
iPhone 7 and iPhone 7 Plus are smartphones designed, developed, and marketed by Apple Inc. They were announced on September 7, 2016, at the Bill Graham Civic Auditorium in San Francisco by Apple CEO Tim Cook, and were released on September 16, 2016, succeeding the iPhone 6S and iPhone 6S Plus as the flagship devices in the iPhone series. Apple also released the iPhone 7 and 7 Plus in numerous countries worldwide throughout September and October 2016. They were succeeded as flagship devices by the iPhone 8 and iPhone 8 Plus on September 22, 2017, and the iPhone X on November 3, 2017.
The iPhone 7 's overall design is similar to the iPhone 6S, but introduces new color options (matte black and jet black), water and dust resistance, a new capacitive, static home button, and removes the 3.5 mm headphone jack. The device 's internal hardware also received upgrades, including a heterogeneous quad - core system - on - chip with improved system and graphics performance, and upgraded 12 megapixel rear - facing cameras with optical image stabilization on all models and an additional telephoto lens on the iPhone 7 Plus model to provide enhanced zoom capabilities.
Reception of the iPhone 7 was mixed. Although reviewers noted the improvements to the camera, especially the dual rear camera on the Plus model, they also stated that the iPhone 7 did not make significant changes to the display or build quality, where competing flagship smartphones surpassed the quality of the iPhone 7. Many reviews highlighted the controversial removal of the 3.5 mm headphone jack; some critics argued that the change was meant to bolster licensing of the proprietary Lightning connector and the sales of Apple 's own wireless headphone products, and questioned the effects of the change on audio quality. Apple was also mocked by critics for Phil Schiller 's statement that such a drastic change required "courage ''.
The iPhone 7 has been the subject of several reported issues, most notably a hissing noise during heavy usage of the phones and significant differences in performance between device variants. Apple has not released sales numbers for iPhone 7, but multiple U.S. carriers reported that it was in high demand on launch. Subsequent reports at the end of 2016 stated that Apple had reduced production of the models due to "sluggish '' sales and decreasing demand, though sales research after the first quarter of 2017 placed the devices as the best - selling smartphones in the world.
Prior to its official announcement, multiple aspects of the iPhone 7 were heavily rumored. Apple 's plans to remove the 3.5 mm headphone jack received significant media attention. Other rumors included a flush camera, stereo speakers, a 256 gigabyte storage option, and a larger 3,100 mAh battery.
On August 29, 2016, invitations to a press event at the Bill Graham Civic Auditorium in San Francisco, California on September 7, 2016 were sent out to members of the media, prompting immediate speculation of the iPhone 7 's upcoming announcement. The iPhone 7 was officially announced at that event, with pre-orders beginning September 9, and general availability on September 16.
The iPhone 7 launched in 30 new countries later in September, with further international rollouts throughout October and November 2016. Indonesia was the last country to release the iPhone 7 and 7 Plus, with availability starting on March 31, 2017, following Apple 's research and development investment in the country.
On March 21, 2017, Apple announced an iPhone 7 with a red color finish (and white front), as part of its partnership with Product Red to highlight its AIDS fundraising campaign. It launched on March 24, 2017, but it was later discontinued after the announcement of the iPhone 8, iPhone 8 Plus and iPhone X in September 2017.
In September 2017, Apple announced the iPhone 8 and iPhone 8 Plus as direct successors to the iPhone 7 and 7 Plus, alongside the iPhone X.
On February 4, 2018, the NYPD began rolling out about 600 phones per day to its officers, who get to choose between an iPhone 7 and an iPhone 7 Plus, switching from the failed Windows Phone.
The iPhone 7 's exterior is similar in shape and volume to iPhone 6 and iPhone 6S. Alongside the existing silver, gold, and rose gold colors, the device is offered in new colors of matte black, glossy "jet black '', and, for a limited time, red. The "jet black '' color is a dark shade, high - gloss black finish. It is created through a multi-step process, beginning with an anodization phase to make the surface of the casing a porous aluminum oxide, and then using a machine to sweep the casing through a powdered compound, absorbed by aluminum oxide. The process is concluded with an "ultrafine particle bath '' for additional finishing; the entire process takes less than an hour.
iPhone 7 is rated IP67 water and dust resistant, although tests have resulted in malfunctions, specifically distorted speakers, after water exposure. The warranty does not cover any water damage to the phone.
iPhone 7 's home button uses a capacitive mechanism for input rather than a physical push - button, as on previous models, meaning direct skin contact (or a capacitive glove) is required to operate the device. Physical feedback is provided via a Taptic Engine vibrator, and the button is also pressure - sensitive. iPhone 7 retains the "3D Touch '' display system introduced on the iPhone 6S, providing pressure - sensitive touchscreen input.
The iPhone 7 does not feature a 3.5 mm headphone jack; it was replaced by a second speaker grille that serves as a vent for the internal barometer. A Lightning - to - 3.5 - mm - connector adapter, as well as in - ear headphones that use the Lightning connector, are bundled with the device, and the adapter is also sold separately as an accessory. The adapter is also compatible with other iPhone, iPad, and iPod Touch devices running iOS 10.
iPhone 7 uses the Apple A10 Fusion 64 - bit system - on - chip, which consists of two low - power cores and two high - power cores (only two cores are used at any point in time). The A10 chip also features a hexa - core graphics chip capable of "console - level gaming ''. As with prior models, iPhone 7 is available in two sizes: one with a 4.7 - inch screen, and a "Plus '' variant with a 5.5 - inch screen. The displays have identical sizes and resolutions to iPhone 6S, but with a wider color gamut and increased brightness. The screen - to - body ratio is about ~ 66 % and ~ 68 % for the 7 and 7 Plus, respectively.
Both device variants also contain a new iteration of Apple 's motion coprocessor, the M10. Unlike previous iPhone models, internal storage options for iPhone 7 begin at 32 GB instead of 16 GB, and max out at 256 GB. iPhone 7 Plus offers 3 GB of RAM, more than any other previous iPhone; the 4.7 - inch iPhone 7 has 2 GB.
The iPhone 7 includes a 12 - megapixel rear - facing camera with a quad - LED "True Tone '' flash; its aperture was widened to f / 1.8, and the standard - size phone model adds optical image stabilization -- a feature that was previously exclusive to Plus models. The iPhone 7 Plus includes a second 12 - megapixel telephoto lens, which can be used to achieve 2 × optical zoom, and up to 10 × digital zoom. The front - facing camera was upgraded to a 7 - megapixel sensor with automatic image stabilization.
iPhone 7 ships with iOS 10 pre-installed. The iPhone 7 Plus received an exclusive portrait camera mode in the iOS 10.1 software update. This camera mode is capable of producing a bokeh effect using depth of field analysis of the second camera of dual - lens in the back of iPhone 7 Plus.
Each iPhone 7 comes with a Lightning - to - 3.5 - mm adapter. Apple sells the adapter independently as well. Apple also unveiled several Bluetooth wireless headphones ostensibly intended for use with iPhone 7, including AirPods, wireless in - ear headphones, and three new Beats headphone products. All four products utilize an in - house wireless chip known as Apple W1, which is designed to provide low - power Bluetooth operation and integration with iOS and macOS products (though they are still compatible with other Bluetooth - supported devices).
Reception to the iPhone 7 was mixed. Gordon Kelly of Forbes noted that rival smartphones, such as the Samsung Galaxy S7, had increased battery life and added water resistance over its predecessor while retaining the headphone jack, and that the iPhone 7 's camera photo quality was improved but still lagging behind some phones already on the market, including the Galaxy S7 and Nexus 6P. Kelly praised how Apple was able to extract improved brightness and accurate color reproduction from its LCD display panel, while noting that it was old technology which was also well behind rivals who had already moved to sharper 1080p or even 2K screens. The iPhone 7 's exterior, which reuses the aging design of the iPhone 6 and iPhone 6S, was criticized, especially the size of the device and thick top / bottom bezels, with Kelly writing that "the iPhone 7 Plus is simply far too big for a smartphone with a 5.5 - inch display ''.
Nilay Patel of The Verge described the devices as being "full of aggressive breaks from convention '' despite their design continuity with previous models (going as far as dubbing them "a prototype of next year 's rumored drastic iPhone redesign disguised as an iPhone 6 ''), citing the headphone jack removal (which he felt was an attempt to encourage the use of wireless headphones), heterogeneous CPU, and home button redesign. The display quality was considered an improvement over previous models, albeit "not as insane '' as the quad HD displays on competing phones. The Taptic Engine was considered the "first really valuable new UI concept I 've seen on phones in years '' (as opposed to the "gimmick '' of 3D Touch), Patel felt that the cameras of the devices were a "step '' above the 6S in terms of performance, and praised the dual - lens camera on the 7 Plus for enhancing the phone 's camera functionality. However, he panned the lack of editing features that made use of them. In regards to the enhanced Bluetooth audio support provided by devices containing the W1 chip, he argued that Apple "took away an established open standard in favor of new technologies, but instead of making the experience of using those new technologies better across the board, it made every third - party wireless audio product a second - class citizen of the Apple ecosystem. '' Giving the iPhone 7 a 9 out of 10, he concluded that the devices were "legitimately among the most interesting, opinionated, powerful phones Apple has ever shipped, and the most confident expressions of the company 's vision in a long time. iOS 10 is excellent, the cameras are better, and the performance is phenomenal. And the batteries last longer. ''
John McCann of TechRadar wrote that for the first time, the phablet - sized iPhone 7 Plus was "markedly better '' than the smaller model. He highlighted improved battery life and praised the camera, calling the Plus ' dual cameras "excellent '' for point - and - shoot, and "much improved '' for low - light performance. McCann wrote that the lack of a headphone jack was "initially frustrating '', but noted that it was a "positive step forward for the mobile industry '', despite the "short - term effects... making the most noise for now ''.
Criticism of the iPhone 7 centered around the removal of the headphone jack, including the inability to use wired headphones with the included adapter and charge the device simultaneously.
In a particularly scathing article, Nilay Patel of The Verge wrote that removing the headphone jack - "ditching a deeply established standard '' - would be "user - hostile and stupid ''. He goes on to list reasons why removing the port is negative, concluding with "No one is asking for this '' and "Vote with your dollars ''.
Gordon Kelly of Forbes noted that wireless audio technology was immature at the moment, with Bluetooth audio quality being inferior while Lightning audio reliability was still in question. The removal of the headphone jack meant "you 're being pushed into an era where you will have to pay more for decent headphones due to their need for an integrated DAC and / or Lightning licensing '', and pointed out that "the only company to profit from this situation is Apple, who will now be charging licensing fees to millions of headphone companies ''.
In particular, Apple 's vice president Phil Schiller, who announced the change, was mocked extensively online for stating that removing the headphone jack took ' courage '. An online petition created by the consumer group SumOfUs, that accuses Apple of planned obsolescence and causing substantial electronic waste by removing the headphone jack, reached over 300,000 signatures.
Some users have reported a strange hissing noise during heavy usage of the phone. CNET reports it as "faint buzzes and hums coming from the backside ''. The Daily Telegraph speculates that the iPhone 7 's new A10 Fusion processor is the source of the noise, linking to tweets that compare the phone 's hissing sound to "hearing the fans spin up loudly whenever your Mac 's CPU gets used to its actual potential. '' The issue has been referred to as Hissgate.
The Guardian reported in October 2016 that storage tests from Unbox Therapy and GSMArena showed that the 32 GB iPhone 7 is "significantly '' slower than the 128 and 256 GB versions, measuring data write speeds of 341 MB / s on a 128 GB iPhone 7 model versus 42 MB / s on a 32 GB model. October 2016 network tests by Cellular Insights showed that models A1660 and A1661 with Qualcomm modems had "a significant performance edge '' over models A1778 and A1784 with Intel modems. Inspection of the modems also found that the Qualcomm version 's ability to use Ultra HD Voice had been turned off, likely to "level the playing field between the Qualcomm, and Intel variants ''. The report concluded with the statement that "We are not sure what was the main reason behind Apple 's decision to source two different modem suppliers for the newest iPhone ''. Bloomberg reported in November 2016 that tests by researchers from Twin Prime and Cellular Insights had shown the two modems to perform similarly on some U.S. cellular networks despite one of the modems being technically capable of faster connectivity. Apple spokeswoman Trudy Muller told the publication that "Every iPhone 7 and iPhone 7 Plus meets or exceeds all of Apple 's wireless performance standards, quality metrics, and reliability testing... In all of our rigorous lab tests based on wireless industry standards, in thousands of hours of real - world field testing, and in extensive carrier partner testing, the data shows there is no discernible difference in the wireless performance of any of the models ''. Bloomberg quoted analysts and technology advisers who stated that "(Apple) do n't want one version to get the reputation that it is better '' and that "This may not impact the fanboys, but it may make other consumers think twice about buying an Apple phone, especially if they think they might be purchasing a sub-standard product ''.
In a similar manner with the now - discontinued Samsung Galaxy Note 7, there have been reports of the iPhone 7 exploding or emitting smoke. In September 2016, one device reportedly exploded while in transit, while another one had a "malfunction that caused the battery to blow up internally ''. Another report about an iPhone 7 emitting smoke and "melting '' was published in October 2016.
The iPhone 7 's "This is 7 '' slogan has been misunderstood when translated to certain other languages. The phone 's slogan in Mainland China is "7, is here; '' (Chinese: 7, 在 此; pinyin: 7, zài cǐ), while in Hong Kong, its slogan is, "This, is iPhone 7; '' (Chinese: 這, 就是 iPhone 7; Jyutping: ze5, zau6 si6 iPhone 7).
In Cantonese, the local language of Hong Kong, the slogan could be mistakenly interpreted as "This is penis ''. "Tsat '', (Chinese: 杘; Jyutping: cat6), is a common slang term for an erect penis, and "seven '', (Chinese: 七; Jyutping: cat1), which varies only in tone, is often used as a eupuemism.
In the iPhone 7, Apple added a software lock that prevents individuals from attempting to replace the home button on their own. Users are now required to go to an Apple Store to have repairs done, with "recalibration '' of the button being necessary. This is a step further than Apple went with iPhone 5S, 6 and 6S, where only Touch ID functionality would get disabled but the "return - to - home '' functionality still worked.
Some iPhone 7 devices with the model numbers A1660, A1780 and A1779 suffer from a problem where they show a "No service '' message even when cellular reception is available. Apple will repair those devices for free within two years of the first retail sale of the unit.
Apple has deliberately withheld pre-order sales numbers, citing that these are "no longer a representative metric for our investors and customers ''. Without releasing specific numbers, T - Mobile US stated that the iPhone 7 had broken the carrier 's all - time record for first - day pre-order sales. The following weekend, T - Mobile US stated that iPhone 7 was its biggest iPhone launch ever, being "up nearly 4x compared to the next most popular iPhone ''.
On September 14, 2016, two days before the iPhone 7 went on sale, Apple announced that due to high demand, they had sold out of all "jet black '' iPhone 7 's, and all colors of the iPhone 7 Plus. This caused issues for customers in the iPhone Upgrade Program, who were unable to reserve new phones. After customer complaints and a class action lawsuit, Apple made changes to ensure members of the program could get new phones as soon as possible.
In May 2017, analytics research company Strategy Analytics announced that iPhone 7 and iPhone 7 Plus were the best - selling smartphones worldwide during the first quarter of 2017, selling 21.5 million and 17.4 million units, respectively.
For the initial U.S. sales of the iPhone 7, all four major wireless carriers announced trade - in deals. Under the deals, the monthly installment plan cost of the iPhone 7 is negated by a monthly credit on consumers ' bill, but consumers who cancel their service with the carrier or pay off the phone prior to the installment contract completion will not receive credits for the remaining months. Jacob Kastrenakes of The Verge noted that the deals effectively constituted a return to two - year phone contracts, in which the deals "essentially lock you into that carrier for two years ''.
In the wake of these deals, Verizon announced they had seen an increase in sales over the release of the previous year 's iPhone 6S, AT&T said that sales had exceeded its expectations, and T - Mobile and Sprint announced "huge increases in sales '', with T - Mobile seeing a demand roughly four times higher for the 7 than the 6.
In December 2016, DigiTimes reported that Apple had reduced production of the iPhone 7 because of decreasing demand for the product after the initial surge of interest waned. A reason cited was consumers and suppliers turning their attention to next year 's iPhone model.
A new report from Nikkei at the end of December included details on sales and production of the iPhone 7. The report, "based on data from suppliers '', stated that Apple would trim production of the iPhone 7 by 10 % in the first quarter of 2017, following "sluggish '' sales. Nikkei reported that Apple previously trimmed production of the iPhone 7 by 20 % due to accumulated inventory of the previous model, but that the new models had "sold more sluggishly than expected ''. Additionally, the report notes that the "iPhone 7 Plus, which features two cameras on its back face, remains popular '', but "a shortage of camera sensors has curbed Apple 's ability to meet demand for the phones ''.
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which figure in the pan-african movement organized the first pan-african conference in 1900 | First Pan-African Conference - wikipedia
The First Pan-African Conference was held in London from 23 to 25 July 1900 (just prior to the Paris Exhibition of 1900 "in order to allow tourists of African descent to attend both events ''). Organized primarily by the Trinidadian barrister Henry Sylvester Williams, it took place in Westminster Hall and was attended by 37 delegates and about 10 other participants and observers from Africa, the West Indies, the US and the UK, including Samuel Coleridge Taylor (the youngest delegate), John Alcindor, Dadabhai Naoroji, John Archer, Henry Francis Downing, and W.E.B. Du Bois, with Bishop Alexander Walters of the AME Zion Church taking the chair. Du Bois played a leading role, drafting a letter ("Address to the Nations of the World '') to European leaders appealing to them to struggle against racism, to grant colonies in Africa and the West Indies the right to self - government and demanding political and other rights for African Americans.
On 24 September 1897, Henry Sylvester Williams had been instrumental in founding the African Association (not to be confused with the Association for Promoting the Discovery of the Interior Parts of Africa), in response to the European partition of Africa that followed the 1884 - 5 Congress of Berlin. The formation of the association marked an early stage in the development of the anti-colonialist movement, and was established to encourage the unity of Africans and people of African descent, particularly in territories of the British empire, concerning itself with injustices in Britain 's African and Caribbean colonies. In March 1898 the association issued a circular calling for a pan-African conference. Booker T. Washington, who had been travelling in the UK in the summer of 1899, wrote in a letter to African - American newspapers:
"In connection with the assembling of so many Negroes in London from different parts of the world, a very important movement has just been put upon foot. It is known as the Pan-African Conference. Representatives from Africa, the West Indian Islands and other parts of the world, asked me to meet them a few days ago with a view to making a preliminary program for this conference, and we had a most interesting meeting. It is surprising to see the strong intellectual mould which many of these Africans and West Indians possess. The object and character of the Pan-African Conference is best told in the words of the resolution, which was adopted at the meeting referred to, viz: ' In view of the widespread ignorance which is prevalent in England about the treatment of native races under European and American rule, the African Association, which consists of members of the race resident in England and which has been in existence for nearly two years, have resolved during the Paris Exposition of 1900 (which many representatives of the race may be visiting) to hold a conference in London in the month of May of the said year, in order to take steps to influence public opinion on existing proceedings and conditions affecting the welfare of the natives in various parts of Africa, the West Indies and the United States. ' The resolution is signed by Mr H. Mason Joseph, President, and Mr H. Sylvester Williams as Honourable Secretary. The Honourable Secretary will be pleased to hear from representative natives who are desirous of attending at an early date. He may be addressed, Common Room, Grey 's (sic) Inn, London, W.C. ''
When the First Pan-African Conference opened on Monday, 23 July 1900, in London 's Westminster Hall, Bishop Alexander Walters in his opening address, "The Trials and Tribulations of the Coloured Race in America '', noted that "for the first time in history black people had gathered from all parts of the globe to discuss and improve the condition of their race, to assert their rights and organize so that they might take an equal place among nations. '' The Bishop of London, Mandell Creighton, gave a speech of welcome "referring to ' the benefits of self - government ' which Britain must confer on ' other races... as soon as possible '. ''
Speakers over the three days addressed a variety of aspects of racial discrimination. Among the papers delivered were: "Conditions Favouring a High Standard of African Humanity '' (C.W. French of St. Kitts), "The Preservation of Racial Equality '' (Anna H. Jones, from Kansas City, Missouri), "The Necessary Concord to be Established between Native Races and European Colonists '' (Benito Sylvain, Haitian aide - de-camp to the Ethiopian emperor), "The Negro Problem in America '' (Anna J. Cooper, from Washington), "The Progress of our People '' (John E. Quinlan of St. Lucia) and "Africa, the Sphinx of History, in the Light of Unsolved Problems '' (D.E. Tobias from the USA). Other topics included Richard Phipps ' complaint of discrimination against black people in the Trinidadian civil service and an attack by William Meyer, a medical student at Edinburgh University, on pseudo-scientific racism. Discussions followed the presentation of the papers, and on the last day George James Christian, a law student from Dominica, led a discussion on the subject "Organized Plunder and Human Progress Have Made Our Race Their Battlefield '', saying that in the past "Africans had been kidnapped from their land, and in South Africa and Rhodesia slavery was being revived in the form of forced labour. ''
The conference culminated in the conversion of the African Association (formed by Sylvester Williams in 1897) into the Pan-African Association, and the implementation of a unanimously adopted "Address to the Nations of the World '', sent to various heads of state where people of African descent were living and suffering oppression. The address implored the United States and the imperial European nations to "acknowledge and protect the rights of people of African descent '' and to respect the integrity and independence of "the free Negro States of Abyssinia, Liberia, Haiti, etc. '' Signed by Walters (President of the Pan-African Association), the Canadian Rev. Henry B. Brown (Vice-President), Williams (General Secretary) and Du Bois (Chairman of the Committee on the Address), the document contained the phrase "The problem of the Twentieth Century is the problem of the colour - line '', which Du Bois would use three years later in the "Forethought '' of his book The Souls of Black Folk.
In September, the delegates petitioned Queen Victoria through the British government to look into the treatment of Africans in South Africa and Rhodesia, including specified acts of injustice perpetrated by whites there, namely:
The response eventually received by Sylvester - Williams on 17 January 1901 stated:
"Sir. I am directed by Mr Secretary Chamberlain to state that he has received the Queen 's commands to inform you that the Memorial of the Pan-African Conference requesting the situation of the native races in South Africa, has been laid before Her Majesty, and that she was graciously pleased to command him to return an answer to it on behalf of her government.
2. Mr. Chamberlain accordingly desires to assure the members of the Pan-African Conference that, it settling the lines on which the administration of the conquered territories is to be conducted, Her Majesty 's Government will not overlook the interests and welfare of the native races.
Days later, Victoria responded more personally, instructing her private secretary, Arthur Bigge, to write, which he did on 21 January - the day before the Queen died. Although the specific injustices in South Africa continued for some time, the conference brought them to the attention of the world.
The conference was reported in major British newspapers, including The Times and the Westminster Gazette, which commented that it "marks the initiation of a remarkable movement in history: the negro is at last awake to the potentialities of his future '' and quoted Williams as saying: "Our object now is to secure throughout the world the same facilities and privileges for the black as the white man enjoys. ''
DuBois recorded in his report,
"On Monday, the 23d of July, the conference was invited to a five o'clock tea given by the Reform Cobden Club of London in honor of the delegates, at its headquarters in the St. Ermin Hotel, one of the most elegant in the city. Several members of Parliament and other notables were present. A splendid repast was served, and for two hours the delegates were delightfully entertained by the members and friends of the club.
At 5 o'clock on Tuesday a tea was given in our honor by the late Dr. Creighton, Lord Bishop of London, at his stately palace at Fulham, which has been occupied by the Bishops of London since the fifteenth century. On our arrival at the palace we found his Lordship and one or two other Bishops, with their wives and daughters, waiting to greet us. After a magnificent repast had been served we were conducted through the extensive grounds which surround the palace...
Through the kindness of Mr. Clark, a member of Parliament, we were invited to tea on Wednesday, at 5 o'clock, on the Terrace of Parliament. After the tea the male members of our party were admitted to the House of Commons, which is considered quite an honor; indeed, the visit to the House of Parliament and tea on the Terrace was the crowning honor of the series. Great credit is due our genial secretary, Mr. H. Sylvester Williams, for these social functions.
Miss Catherine Impey, of London, said she was glad to come in contact with the class of Negroes that composed the Pan-African Conference, and wished that the best and most cultured would visit England and meet her citizens of noble birth, that the adverse opinion which had been created against them in some quarters of late by their enemies might be changed. ''
After the conference ended, Williams set up branches of the Pan-African Association in Jamaica, Trinidad and the USA. He also launched a short - lived journal, The Pan-African, in October 1901. Although plans for the association to meet every two years failed, the 1900 conference encouraged the development of the Pan-African Congress.
As Tony Martin noted, "At least three of the Caribbean delegates later emigrated to Africa. George Christian of Dominica became a successful lawyer and legislator in the Gold Coast (Ghana) where he was a member of the Legislative Council from 1920 to 1940. Richard E. Phipps, the Trinidad barrister, returned home after the conference and emigrated to the Gold Coast in 1911. He remained there until his death around 1926. Williams himself lived in South Africa from 1903 to 1905, 10 and died in Trinidad in 1911. ''
Under the Pan-African Congress banner, a series of gatherings subsequently took place -- in 1919 in Paris, 1921 in London, 1923 in London, 1927 in New York City, 1945 in Manchester, 1974 in Dar es Salaam and 1994 in Kampala -- to address the issues facing Africa as a result of European colonization.
A centenary commemorative event was held in London on 25 July 2000, attended by descendants of some of the delegates at the original conference, as well as descendants of delegates at the 1945 5th Pan-African Congress in Manchester.
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when will the last episode of stuck in the middle air | List of Stuck in the Middle episodes - wikipedia
Stuck in the Middle is an American comedy television series developed by Alison Brown and Linda Videtti Figueiredo and created by Alison Brown that aired on Disney Channel from February 14, 2016 to July 23, 2018. The series stars Jenna Ortega, Ronni Hawk, Isaak Presley, Ariana Greenblatt, Kayla Maisonet, Nicolas Bechtel, Malachi Barton, Cerina Vincent, and Joe Nieves. In addition to the series ' regular episodes, the series also aired six shorts on December 16, 2016.
Harley struggles to get her siblings and parents to the park, where she is to receive a young inventor 's award. She looks to Ethan for help and encouragement that they will make it to the park, but Georgie has a basketball game and Rachel is serving at a soup kitchen. Harley worries the basketball game will not finish on time. Rachel decides to spend time with her boyfriend Cuff after her volunteer work, despite her parents ' admonitions. The Diaz family does eventually arrive at the park, though late for Harley 's award.
When Suzy and Tom refuse to buy the children another tablet to replace the one they broke, Harley comes up with a plan to raise money for that tablet. She decides to rent the family couch to a stranger, picking up the idea from the Peters, who are renting a room in their house. With Ethan 's help, she books an Asian music student, Bai Hsu, to stay in the Diaz home for two nights. Bai 's accommodations are not exactly as he expects since the children are trying to keep Suzy and Tom from becoming suspicious. When Bai can not sleep in the Diaz home on the second night, Harley brings him to her father 's store, where he ends up sleeping by a raft. The next morning, Harley, Ethan and Georgie discover Bai and the raft are gone. Tom tells them he sold the raft to Bai, whom he recognized in selfies Rachel posted online. As Tom did not accept any additional money from Bai, Harley 's effort to fund the new tablet falls short. Meanwhile, the younger children attempt to raise money themselves by promoting frog wrestling.
While using her sure - fire way to get free stuff from companies through her "feedback '' approach, Harley forgets she has a school science project due until her mother reminds her and wants to see that project. Meanwhile, Suzy is preoccupied with the family 's Wi - Fi bill and complains to their provider, but when she follows Harley 's system of company feedback by asking for free service and threatening cancellation, the Wi - Fi provider summarily cancels their service, which causes the children to become restless. To calm them down, Suzy and Tom decide to take the family to the movies. Harley figures she can come up with her project before the movie begins, while monitoring the seats she reserved for the family, but fails even after she manages to build something. The Diaz family ends up having a short stay at the theater as Suzy and Tom notice the movie they are watching is not G - rated. Harley finally settles on her project when Ethan shows her behind - the - scenes family moments he captured on his phone while at the theater; she builds a film projector so the family can watch those moments. It does help them pass the time without Wi - Fi service, which Suzy hopes to get restored.
The annual neighborhood block party is nearing, and Harley persuades her mother to let the family do the big activity for the event. To the shock of Ms. Peters, who is not keen on the seeing the Diaz family handle this responsibility, Suzy tells her the family is taking charge of the activity. Harley is left to come up with ideas and wants to do so undisturbed. She moves out of her bedroom and establishes her quiet space for thinking in a closet, leading Rachel and Georgie to fight for Harley 's space in the bedroom. The quietude deeply affects Harley 's creative mind, and the ideas she is able to muster lack any excitement. Harley realizes she needs the chaos from her siblings for inspiration. She tries to move back into her bedroom with Rachel and Georgie, but when her sisters disallow that, she has Daphne become their roommate. As Harley sees Daphne transport their sisters ' stuff out the bedroom window, it inspires Harley to build a roller coaster for the block party.
At 13, Harley has become old enough to work at her father 's marina store and is eager to do so. However, Tom refuses to give her that opportunity, fearing disaster such as what he experienced with Rachel, Ethan and Georgie, so Harley tries to convince him for her chance and succeeds. She wants to add a slushy machine to the store, but after her father disapproves its $500 price tag, she unveils her cost - efficient alternative, the slushinator, powered by bicycles which she hires Lewie and Beast to pedal. It provides a boost to Tom 's business, but the twins later decide they are done with slushy - making and want to do something else. After Harley gives the two incentive to return, the twins end up fighting, and their war is felt beyond the store. Harley eventually patches things up between the two. Though her slushinator is short - lived, her father commends her for not sinking his business and offers her the opportunity to continue working for him at the store. Meanwhile, Suzy wants the family to prepare for a church photo at the house, while Daphne takes care of what she believes is a cat. When it comes time for the photo, Daphne introduces the animal, which everyone discovers is actually a skunk.
With her three younger siblings at their grandmother 's with Suzy and her older siblings having plans, Harley gets a rare opportunity to do something on her own in the house. After getting her father 's permission, she decides to invite her friends over to an outdoor slumber party for a rare comet viewing. Ellie arrives early for the party, but Harley 's sleepover plans do not go smoothly as she deals with Rachel getting grounded, as well as Ethan and Georgie getting tricked at an event for unique basketball shoes. Also, as Harley goes out her bedroom window with Ellie to prepare for the comet 's arrival, before the other girls arrive, Ellie 's fear of heights causes her to accidentally lock her and Harley out on the roof. Harley tries different ways to get them out of the predicament without her father knowing. One of those ideas ends up distorting the Diaz family 's satellite dish, and since Tom was watching television, she gets caught and grounded. After Tom rescues the two girls, they witness the comet 's passing.
Guest stars: Lulu Lambros as Ellie Peters, Farrah Mackenzie as Sweet Girl
While Tom is away at Georgie 's basketball tournament, Suzy runs the marina store. It worries Harley because her mother is hanging around her too much at the store. Harley and Ethan soon discover that Suzy 's lack of friends -- including not staying in touch with her old ones -- is causing her to cling a lot to the family, so the two use an online site to connect their mother with a new friend who also lives in Marshport. When they find one who is almost a perfect match, they are shocked that it is their own next door neighbor, Bethany Peters. As she and Suzy spend time together as friends, the Diaz children notice radical changes, such as healthy food, limited television time and no dangerous objects, none of which suits them. Attempting to return things to normal, Harley asks her mother to invite Ms. Peters to Daphne 's school play. Thanks to Rachel 's musical direction for the play with Daphne the center of attention, the play turns too wild for Bethany 's taste and effectively ends her brief friendship with Suzy.
Guest stars: Lauren Pritchard as Bethany Peters, Lulu Lambros as Ellie Peters
With school on break, Cuff is spending a lot of time at the Diaz house with Rachel, which also leads to his hanging with the twins. This overwhelms Harley because he is invading her personal stuff and Ethan because Lewie and Beast start thinking of Cuff as their older brother. Harley decides to find a job for Cuff, who winds up working at her father 's marina store with her. Harley later tries to get him to quit by having him do a lot of unpleasant tasks around the store, but Cuff actually likes the work. When Rachel comes into the store to be with her boyfriend, he decides his job is more important, and it devastates Rachel. Cuff 's absence at the house affects the twins as well, and Ethan struggles to be the awesome older brother again in their eyes. Seeing Rachel miserable prompts Harley to talk to Cuff about winning Rachel back. In showing Rachel how much he loves her, Cuff ends up getting fired by Tom for defacing store merchandise.
Guest star: Brett Pierce as Cuff
With Georgie in her sports off - season, outside of basketball, soccer and softball, Harley tries to involve her in another sport during the break. Knowing Georgie 's tendency to score low when she plays, Harley gets her to try out for the golf team and invents a set of remote - controlled balls that will assure her a spot. When Georgie makes the team and starts feeling and acting like a winner, Harley tells her the truth about the golf balls and feels guilty about the cheating. Georgie eventually gives up on sports altogether and wants to become a regular teenage girl, but Harley reminds her how much the sports get the family involved, despite how bad she is. Meanwhile, Suzy challenges Rachel, Lewie, Beast and Daphne to cook dinner after they complain about her meals. After being successful with it once, Rachel and the twins are not thrilled with cooking all the time, so they prepare a less - than palatable meal to get out of it.
Guest star: Jill Basey as Mrs. Sullivan
While Harley is looking for parts for a snow machine she plans to build, her parents discover a gift certificate for a bed and breakfast trip, which Tom 's parents gave to them but is nearly expired. Harley sees that as an opportunity for the two to get away for the weekend and suggests Rachel be in charge. It takes a lot of convincing for Suzy and Tom to believe their 16 - year - old daughter is up to the job, but they go on their trip. Harley builds her snow machine and gives Rachel the opportunity to experience a ski vacation in the backyard; the two share a rare but brief sister bond, which ends when Rachel invites her friends over as well as Cuff. Lewie and Beast tackle a list of "don'ts '' by doing everything forbidden on that list, while Ethan and Georgie wrestle with Daphne over the television remote. None of them know their parents are watching every minute of the action at the house through their tablet, and they occasionally call. When the house becomes a mess, and Suzy and Tom phone they are coming home, Harley looks to Rachel to take charge. With Rachel 's leadership, the house gets clean in time.
Ahead of Marshport 's tricentennial celebration, Harley invents a pedicab for Ethan 's tour business. When the slushy machine breaks down at the marina store, and Harley needs money to replace a part, she teams up with Ethan. Harley 's end of the business becomes a shuttle service and later expands into a daycare service. When Ethan finds out his tours were turned into babysitting rides, he quits and Harley continues solo. Although Harley is enjoying the money she is making from the pedicab venture, she misses her slushy business more and decides to fix the slushy machine. She turns the pedicab back over to Ethan for his tours, after which the two happen to spot singer Rachel Platten, the surprise celebrity guest for the tricentennial parade, who needs a ride to her float. Meanwhile, Georgie is selected to lead the parade by Mrs. Sullivan, who also helps get her in shape to walk the route, while Rachel and Daphne compete for Marshport queen. Georgie winds up directing the parade into the Diaz backyard.
Special appearance by: Rachel Platten
Guest stars: Jill Basey as Mrs. Sullivan, Eva Simone Fisher as Woman, Beau Dylan Hart as Kid 1, Toby Grey as Kid 2
Harley 's latest invention, an efficient laundry transport, leads to trouble. After Daphne uses the invention to transport herself downstairs and nearly gets hurt, she blames Harley when their mother checks on what happened. Suzy sends Harley to her room and puts her on "lockdown '', the severest form of punishment in the Diaz family. With Harley confined to her bedroom, Tom has Rachel and Georgie work at his marina store, while Harley looks to get back at her younger sister for always getting her in trouble. When she sees Daphne doing something suspicious in the backyard, she elicits Ethan 's help and sneaks out of her room. They are ready to bust Daphne as she sells her toys and other things to the neighbors, but when Harley finds out why, she realizes how much she has been neglecting her sister lately. Meanwhile, Rachel and Georgie are put on lockdown after Tom catches them throwing a party in the marina store. Harley manages to return to her bedroom, with her siblings ' help, before her older sisters join her in confinement. When Suzy sees evidence suggesting Harley snuck out, Daphne blames Ethan, but Harley comes clean; Suzy adds Ethan to the lockdown. Daphne then gets herself in trouble to join her sisters and spend time with them. All the while, Lewie and Beast are on a week - long camping trip and manage to make it through one day before Suzy decides they have gotten into enough trouble and brings them home.
Harley needs to go to a music event in Boston, where an invention of hers is entered in a contest. Her mother is unable to drive her there, so she looks to Rachel, who has her learner 's permit, and asks her to take the driving test to get her license. Suzy finds out Rachel 's driving instructor, Phil, is someone she knew in high school. When Rachel fails her test, she and Harley wonder what happened in Phil and Suzy 's past that may have influenced his grading. Harley arranges for Phil to come over to the house so he and Suzy can shed light on their time together. As for Rachel 's driving test, it turns out Suzy is insecure about any of her children driving, so she asked Phil to fail her daughter even though Rachel had demonstrated to her mother that she is a good driver. Having been unfair to Rachel, Suzy asks Phil for a retest and he is able to schedule it before Harley 's trip. Meanwhile, Ethan is doing a buddy cop film and casts Lewie and Beast as the cops. During the filming, the twins happen to tamper with Harley 's invention; when Harley shows Phil her invention, it malfunctions and Phil gets further endangered by the twins for the final scene of the film. Suzy ends up driving the family to Boston.
Guest star: Gabriel Tigerman as Phil
Harley gets to appear on the television series Girl Power to highlight her accomplishments as an inventor. When Mischa and Ken, the two - person crew for the series, see Harley 's large family, they decide to go a different route and feature the family in a reality series called The Diaz of Our Lives. As the crew gets to know the family through filming, they make multiple changes such that the Diazes become displeased with the direction of the series and want to quit. Mischa reminds them that they are under contract, but when Harley shows footage of the crew 's plans, using the camera feature of her vacuum cleaner invention she first showcased on Girl Power, the crew calls off the reality series.
The Diaz family earns a free weekend vacation at Cannon Ball Cove after the waterpark installs Harley 's "Dry - Through '' invention for a test run. The children have to convince Suzy and Tom that this vacation will not cause them grief, and sign a contract to that effect. When they arrive at the waterpark, a four - hour trip by car, they realize their hotel room is not large enough for them. Although the children complain about it, and Suzy and Tom are prepared to take them to Pilgrim Land instead, everyone agrees they have come this far and settle on staying. Harley and Rachel find a place to relax, taking over a cabana that another family gives up, while Georgie hesitates on trying the Doom Funnel ride, which Beast and Lewie are too short to try themselves. Ethan, who also wants to go on that ride but injures his right foot by stepping on a bee, spends his money on a ring toss event, impressing a girl named Hannah. As Harley, Rachel and later the rest of the children enjoy themselves in the cabana, Chester Torvilleton, the park 's supervisor, presents them with a bill totaling $800, for drinks and treats they thought came free with the cabana.
As Suzy and Tom are enjoying the free vacation, the children are not ready to tell their parents about the bill and decide to come up with a way to handle it. They persuade Mr. Torvilleton to forgive the bill, and he is willing to do so after seeing a sad Daphne, but Lewie and Beast ruin that. With the children 's options exhausted, Harley is faced with delivering the unpleasant news until she sees that she can pay off the bill if she and her family participate in the park 's annual "aqualympics '' and win, the prize being $1,000. They face a tough competitor in the Pillman family, a five - time champion whose patriarch Harley and Rachel met earlier when they were in the cabana; Ethan discovers Hannah is also one of the Pillmans. The two families make it to the finals, and as they are about to go head - to - head in the rope tug - of - war, Harley realizes the value of her invention at the park, which no one was using. She has her family dry off in it while the Pillman family chooses to remain wet, the deciding factor which leads to the Diaz family winning.
Guest stars: Gregg Binkley as Chester Torvilleton, Tom Parker as Mr. Pillman, Kate Tomlinson as Hannah, Corey Dorris as Malcolm, Christopher Chen as Fed Up Dad
Tom has bought some ad time on television to promote his bait shop, but when Harley sees a commercial her father plans to submit, made eleven years ago, she feels embarrassed over what happened to her in the commercial and does not want everyone to see it. Knowing Ethan 's skill as a film maker, Harley proposes to make a new commercial for the shop, but also knowing Ethan 's tendency to quit whatever he sets out to do, she is willing to stick with the old commercial should the project fail. To ensure Ethan stays focused, she secretly monitors his filming activity while building a camera rig to use for the final part of the commercial. Difficulties arise while Ethan is filming, including Daphne 's being jinxed by Lewie and Beast, Rachel and Suzy 's trying to buy Adele concert tickets, and Georgie 's looking after her coach 's pet parrot Leo. It becomes a huge mess leading Ethan to quit, but Harley talks sense into him about not giving up. Even with the limited footage, Ethan puts together a commercial worthy of airing on television.
When Suzy sees Harley, Rachel, Ethan and Georgie 's shocking school pictures, she wants to know the story behind them. The four teenagers recount what happened in school three weeks earlier, on picture day. Rachel wanted the right outfit for her picture and resorted to searching for a top in lost and found boxes, while Ethan celebrated the return of sloppy joe to the cafeteria menu, hoping a food fight would not erupt. Georgie was rejoicing about her recent success in a basketball game and wanted everything to happen exactly as it did that day. Meanwhile, Harley was looking forward to the scientific thrill of indoor skydiving after school, but her substitute teacher Mr. Delorco, known for giving detention to her older siblings, stood in her way. Harley did not want to become the latest Diaz to get into trouble with him, so her friend Ellie helped out. When they were around Mr. Delorco, each of them assumed the other 's identity, which ended up carrying over into their pictures because the teacher was present for those. Once the story is over, Suzy hears a knock on the door. Thinking that it is Ms. Peters, Suzy tells Harley, Rachel, Ethan, and Georgie to hide.
Guest stars: Peter Breitmayer as Mr. Delorco, Lulu Lambros as Ellie Peters, Zach Timson as Chet, Bentley Green as Miles, Jamison Reeves as Photographer
Harley hires Phil Durning to assist with her slushy business at the bait shop. Phil is in need of a job after he got fired from the department of motor vehicles, for a single bad review that Harley wrote after he failed Rachel on her driving test. When Phil starts working for Harley, he senses her discomfort about being his boss, but after Harley tells him to pursue his passion, he decides to open a competing slushy service on wheels. Meanwhile, Rachel is teaching Daphne proper etiquette and dress for a birthday party she has been invited to, and while Daphne goes along with Rachel 's advice at first, she comes to the party dressing and acting as herself. Phil becomes furious when he discovers Harley got him fired from his original job, and he works to steal customers away from Harley 's slushy business. Ethan and Harley come up with a plan to shut down Phil 's business, except they fail to think things through in developing the plan. Ultimately, Harley discovers Phil 's passion is to be an instructor for first - time drivers and encourages him to open his own driving school.
Guest stars: Gabriel Tigerman as Phil, Brooke Singleton as Girl
As the Diaz family prepares for their annual garage sale, Harley is not enthusiastic about it because she is always left to organize the event. She wants to call it off, but Ethan encourages her to hold the sale and deliberately make it a failure. After Tom tells Harley he and Suzy will double whatever money the family earns, she scraps Ethan 's plan and wants everyone to make as much money as possible, so they can reach their goal to buy an above - ground swimming pool. Lewie and Beast become so wound up in the process that they end up selling Harley 's invention bag. Seeing how much the bag means to Harley, her siblings work to get it back from the lady who bought it, and their effort cost them nearly all they made in the garage sale.
Guest star: Carol Mansell as Fran
Harley wants Daphne to experience a traditional Diaz Easter and rallies her parents into getting it started on the eve of the holiday. When the children wake up the next morning, though, they see no Easter baskets. Suzy planned to put them together, but she is dealing with a cold and slept through the night. The family, except for Suzy, goes to Easter service at church, but during service, Tom is called to his bait shop because of a malfunctioning refrigerator and brings Ethan with him. With the way the holiday has started out, Daphne becomes disappointed that it will be just another Easter like the others she remembers. Though her other siblings feel the same way, Harley is not about to give up on her promise of a traditional celebration. She, Rachel and Georgie prepare dinner back at the house, while Lewie and Beast work on the Easter baskets, but the result turns into disaster. Meanwhile, the family is unaware that Daphne is still at church, and calls from Ms. Peters to tell them go ignored. When they finally realize where Daphne is, and see that she helped with organizing the Easter dinner at church, they are relieved and proud of what she did, and they also help out with the dinner.
As Harley tries her virtual reality helmet in the attic, which is off - limits to the Diaz children, Lewie and Beast wonder what all the commotion is up there. When the two check on Harley, they discover their birth certificates to find they were born minutes apart on different dates. When Suzy and Tom find out, they promise the twins separate parties for their ninth birthdays in a few months. Lewie and Beast use Harley 's being in the attic as leverage to have her throw Beast a half - birthday party, and as the twins believe Ethan suggested it, Harley has him involved in organizing it as well. Lewie becomes unsatisfied with Harley and Ethan 's planning and decides to take over. Beast seems okay with Lewie 's ideas, but Harley makes Beast realize he should go with what he likes for his party, which leads to Lewie feeling left out. After Suzy and Tom see how Harley has made Beast 's party possible, they decide to clear space in the attic for her to use, until they find her virtual reality helmet already there. Meanwhile, Rachel is stressed over taking the SAT because she worries being distracted by boys who will also be taking the test, so she seeks Georgie 's help. Georgie finds herself distracted during the test after a boy gets her attention but she has no idea who.
Guest stars: Adam Hochstetter as Wyatt, Matt Lowe as Dumpster Jack, Shana Gregory Williams as Proctor
Suzy gets fed up when the children are not paying attention or helping her with the groceries, so she confiscates all their electronic devices and wants the family to come together without the technology - based distractions for two days. Lewie and Beast play a game designed to annoy other family members and manage to recruit Rachel into playing, with the loser doing the winner 's chores for a whole week, while Ethan uses his tech - free time as a magician but fails to impress Daphne, who stumps Ethan with her own magic. Harley and Georgie bond together doing Double Dutch as they did when they were younger, using an invention Harley built after Rachel became boy - crazy, but when Georgie 's response to a text from Wyatt leads him to come to the house to be with her, she pays more attention to him than to Harley. With Rachel, Lewie and Beast tied in their game, they decide to target Wyatt to break the tie, which turns into chaos in the backyard and ruins the picnic Suzy has planned. Realizing she got her point across to the children, Suzy decides to return the electronic devices to everyone except the twins, who were responsible for the backyard mess.
Guest star: Adam Hochstetter as Wyatt
Rachel, Ethan and Georgie prepare for their spring formal at school. Harley has no interest in going or asking some guy she is not friends with, but when she receives a text from her friend Josh, who is a sophomore at a different high school and an inventor like Harley, her sisters suggest she ask him. After Josh accepts, Harley gets ready for her first formal. The two have never met face - to - face, so it comes as a huge surprise when Harley finds out Josh is only nine years old. While at the formal, Harley feels embarrassed being around him, until she sees an interesting gadget he invented and plays with it. Rachel informs Josh and Harley that they have been chosen as the formal 's king and queen, and wants to spare them from doing the spotlight dance, but Harley goes forward with it and gets her siblings and their dates involved in helping her put together a dance that will not attract attention to Josh 's age. Meanwhile, Lewie and Beast decide to camp in the backyard, and Suzy and Tom are not delighted about it. They send Daphne to camp with her brothers, attempting to get them to come inside.
When Harley 's siblings refuse to try out her latest invention called the Grocer - Whee, she turns to Ellie to give it a test run, but Ellie worries she will get hurt. Knowing how sheltered Ellie 's life has become because of her mother, Harley works on being a good influence to her best friend by helping her through her fears. Eventually, the two ride the Grocer - Whee but end up taking out the Peters ' mailbox. Thinking Ellie 's punishment will be no big deal, Harley later feels guilty after Ellie tells her that she is being sent to boarding school called Radistone Academy by her mother. With Daphne, Lewie, and Beast 's help, the two girls concoct a plan to convince Ms. Peters to change her mind, but she sees through their act. Still, Ms. Peters is made aware of her daughter 's feelings about Radistone Academy and cancels her enrollment. Harley is relieved, but after doing research on the school, she realizes Ellie should not pass up the opportunity and has to convince her to go, even though she will miss her. Meanwhile, Rachel joins Ethan 's film club at Tom 's bait shop, but Suzy and Tom do some investigating after seeing what actually goes on there.
Guest stars: Lulu Lambros as Ellie Peters, Lauren Pritchard as Bethany Peters
Suzy and Harley volunteer for a day at the Golden Horizons retirement home. When they see what activities they do there, they choose to volunteer for more days, intending to take advantage of the amenities instead. With Suzy away from home, Ethan and Georgie are put on laundry duty, while Rachel babysits Daphne. Ethan and Georgie decide to leave the dirtiest of the clothes for their mother, who later presents them the opportunity to volunteer at Golden Horizons, which they refuse. When Ethan and Georgie see the commercial that initially inspired Suzy and Harley to help the elderly, they change their mind but are shocked to see their mother and sister getting massages. Upon hearing about a birthday party being thrown for the grumpy resident Mr. Kibbenshaw, Suzy and Harley are not thrilled to be a part of it, but they arrange for the party to take place at the park. Meanwhile, at the park, Rachel tries to get out of babysitting Daphne by joining a group of nannies who look after the children on a daily rotation. When Rachel is suddenly faced with the responsibility, on the day of Mr. Kibbenshaw 's party, she panics and the children run all over the place, leading to the party being ruined. Rachel gets grounded, while Ethan and Georgie are reprimanded for how they handled the dirty laundry.
Guest stars: Davida Williams as Kelly, Tessa Harnetiaux as Natalie, P.L. Brown as Mr. Kibbenshaw, Richard Fancy as Larry
Harley seeks Troy Havana to finance her latest invention, the floor finder, and asks Rachel to drive her to Boston, where he is holding a meet - and - greet. After having no success talking to Troy, Harley finds out he will be at the Dancing with My Dad auditions in Boston, and after noticing her father and Daphne have some dancing chemistry, she asks them to take part as contestants on the show. Though not initially on board, Tom changes his mind after hearing his sports idol Brady Rice will be there. Tom and Daphne audition and secure a spot in the competition, while Harley tracks down Troy, who also happens to be a contestant with his daughter Savannah. Troy shows interest in Harley 's invention, but when his offer includes the condition that her father and sister not compete, Harley not only rejects the offer but is also determined to see Troy lose. Meanwhile, Lewie and Beast are working on over 100 different ways to use peanut butter. One of those uses causes Daphne to get injured right before the dancing competition begins, resulting in Harley taking Daphne 's place. In the end, Tom and Harley score better than Troy and Savannah, but finish second to Brady Rice and his daughter.
Guest star: Laird Macintosh as Troy Havana
Rachel has joined the spirit squad at school and looks to Harley to come up with something creative for the basketball games. Harley decides on a laser light show and quickly develops a controller for it, which malfunctions and catches fire when she exhibits it at school. Though Harley promises Rachel she will fix the problem in time for a pep rally, she fears the controller will malfunction again and ends up bailing. Meanwhile, Georgie meets Olympic gold medalist Laurie Hernandez at a signing in Boston and, through talk about their Latina heritage, persuades Laurie to visit her home for dinner. Georgie feels she is lacking in the customs, dances and language, but she tries to get her parents to make an authentic meal for Laurie, who decides to stop in Marshport and visit the Diaz home. At dinner, Rachel fumes over Harley 's no - show at the pep rally, while the meal is too spicy for Laurie 's taste. Georgie and Harley learn about persevering through failure as Laurie recounts her rougher times as a gymnast to them. At the next school basketball game, Harley 's laser light show runs smoothly, and the crowd gets to see some gymnastics from Laurie as a bonus.
Special guest star: Laurie Hernandez as herself
Guest star: Jaida - Iman Benjamin as Traci
Harley, Rachel and Georgie are planning to attend a night concert on the pier, but after their parents tell them no, concerned over their safety, Harley reveals that Daphne 's playhouse upstairs has been recalled for an unsafe roof. Suzy and Tom remove the playhouse, forcing Daphne to sleep in her sisters ' room and disrupt their lives. Harley figures out a way to make the playhouse safe but finds out it has been discarded, so she, Rachel and Georgie are looking for a store that sells the kind Daphne had. They discover a toy store in Marshport with only one but worry the store owner will not sell it to them because of the family 's history at that store. Although the girls successfully manage to purchase the new playhouse, they realize Daphne had memories with the old one in the form of various dents to it. Feeling sad, Harley discovers from Ethan that the old playhouse is in a nearby dumpster, so she, Rachel and Georgie recover the parts to it and put it back together for Daphne. Meanwhile, Ethan is directing Lewie and Beast 's online channel called "Trash Twins '', but the twins realize eating food from the garbage is harder than they imagined, even to impress Dumpster Jack.
Harley meets a new student at school named Sophie, whom she eventually befriends despite an incident that ruins both of their entries for the Marshport Extreme Science Games. They decide to work together on another project for the contest, but when Sophie wants to come over to the Diaz house, Harley worries their friendship will suffer because of her siblings. After finding out Sophie likes Ethan, she expects Ethan to be kind and thoughtful to her, unlike her other friends. When Ethan misses a movie date with Sophie, though, Harley wants him to show that he regrets it, but ends up regretting her part in helping him do so after Sophie is humiliated. To save her friendship with Sophie, Harley decides to take charge of their entry at the science games when she inadvertently puts a prop in the wrong place. Meanwhile, Rachel discovers a traffic ticket in the mail, believing it to be for her mother when it is actually for her. To avoid paying a $500 fine and going to traffic school, Rachel schemes to fool Suzy into thinking she ran a red light in Rhode Island, with Lewie and Beast 's help, but it backfires when she finds out.
Guest stars: Talitha Bateman as Sophie, Bryan Coffee as Einstein
Colt Bailey, a celebrity fisherman, comes to Marshport for a fishing tournament. Because he signs up late for the competition, he is looking for a place to stay with all the hotels booked. When he offers to pay a large sum, Harley decides to rent out the house to him, and Rachel, Ethan and Georgie offer to help out. Their plan is to save up for a trip to Hawaii, which always eludes them because of the deeds of the younger Diaz siblings. Tom gets sold on the plan with Suzy and the three youngest children away. With Colt staying at the house, Tom and the older children head on a camping trip, which turns out to be an uncomfortable stay at Tom 's store because of the stormy weather. Colt asks for a number of accommodations, including a home security system, fresh bait, someone to look after his dog, and an organized kitchen without any fish products. Harley, Rachel, Ethan and Georgie try to make those accommodations work, but it becomes a disaster, which blows any savings toward the Hawaii trip.
Guest star: Morgan West as Colt Bailey
When the Morelands need a new babysitter for their triplets, Harley feels she is ready for the job based on her experience with Daphne, Lewie and Beast. She gets an opportunity to show she can handle the babysitting duty full - time when Suzy and Tom attend a neighborhood association meeting next door at Bethany Peters ' house, and Rachel heads to a beach party with Ethan and Georgie. The younger siblings usually look forward to Harley 's babysitting since she makes it fun for them, but when she does things differently, they decide to give her a true test of the job. Meanwhile, Rachel, Ethan and Georgie deal with a flat tire on the car while navigating to the beach party, but Ethan runs into trouble himself trying to replace the tire. Suzy and Tom get offended at the neighborhood meeting after Bethany details every little problem she has seen with the Diaz family.
The fifth annual Diaz Awards have arrived. Each year, the Diaz family looks back at their achievements, surprises and disappointments, and the children are awarded in various categories. Whoever wins in the most categories picks up the Diaz of the Year trophy. Harley has never won the Diaz of the Year and is hoping to change her luck, but she falls behind all of her other siblings early in the ceremony. Eventually, she pulls off a winning streak to take the lead in the tally, two ahead of Lewie and Beast with two categories to go. The twins end up taking those remaining categories and force a tiebreaker, which also goes to them. Harley painfully accepts her defeat, but Ethan informs her of a special award not based on votes, unlike the other awards handed out. Because of her overall contribution to the family, Harley is named the Most Valuable Diaz.
Special guest star: Laurie Hernandez as herself
As the Diaz family prepares their home for Christmas, Harley needs to know how long to steam pasteles and winds up calling Abuela to find out. Harley is hoping Abuela will ask whether the family will spend Christmas with her in Florida, but when the question does not come up, Harley is prompted to bring the family there. They initially take a plane to Florida, but when a storm in the flight 's path causes the plane to land in Columbus, Ohio, they settle on two small, uncomfortable rental cars to continue their journey. The discomfort is short - lived as Harley spots a huge tour bus belonging to a rock band that is not around to claim it. With Tom having a license to drive that kind of vehicle, the family continues their trip in the bus and decorates it for the holiday. Daphne suddenly realizes her doll "Deathnee '' is missing, which Harley traces back to the rental cars, so the family tracks down the doll, while Suzy confiscates the children 's electronic devices which had distracted them when the doll went missing. The family ends up at a camp where they meet another family with a little girl named Joyanne, who has Deathnee and is not about to give her up. Georgie makes a deal with Joyanne, getting back Deathnee in exchange for toys she collected for a toy drive. As the Diaz family gets ready to leave, Tom sees a penny he hopes will bring good luck, but as he picks it up, the contents of his pouch, which includes their money, credit cards and electronic devices, falls into the camp fire. Adding to the misery, the bus later breaks down, with the impact causing Harley 's glass ornament for Abuela to break.
Hoping to reach Abuela 's by Christmas, the Diaz family turns to a repairman named Buddy Burtz, whom Harley discovers is a middle child just like her, often ignored by his brothers. With the backlog at the Burtz repair shop, Tom offers to pay double to get the bus fixed, while Suzy attempts to withdraw the necessary funds from the bank, which falls through. Harley finds out that Buddy 's brothers are taking part in an annual holiday race known as the Iron Elf but are not interested in having Buddy on their team due to his fear in one event the year he took part. Harley strikes a deal with Buddy, having him compete with her family in the race, and if they win, he will fix the bus for free. Buddy ends up facing the event he struggled with before, but with Harley believing he will overcome his fear, he succeeds, helping the Diaz family pull out the victory. Harley gives the trophy to Buddy, while the children donate the presents they won on Georgie 's request. Sticking to his end of the deal, Buddy prepares to work on the bus, with his brothers offering to help. The Diaz family makes it to Florida in time, and they surprise Abuela with their visit. She surprises them by celebrating the holiday on the beachside.
Guest stars: Olga Merediz as Abuela, Steve Monroe as Buddy Burtz, Stephen Kramer Glickman as Benny, Judy Kain as Mrs. McDoogan, Eileen O'Connell as Marla, Ron G as Rental Agent, Troy Blendell as Roger, Chloe Perrin as Joyanne, Patrick Faucette as Cop
When Rachel starts acting unusually generous, her siblings become suspicious. Harley and Georgie later find out that during Rachel 's Christmas trip to France, she applied to a fashion internship at a university there and got accepted. The internship starts much sooner than the family was expecting Rachel to leave for college, and she needs the support of her siblings to help with breaking the news to Suzy and Tom, but Daphne and the twins are not on board. With some trickery from Rachel, Ethan takes the three youngsters to the mall and ends up getting a makeup job after displaying his knowledge about it to a store customer, while the other three are reminded about Rachel anywhere they go in the makeup store. Meanwhile, Rachel tells Suzy and Tom about her internship, but they are not convinced she is ready to go so soon and recall a large list of promises she failed to deliver on. They change their mind after she proves she can deliver on those promises, which got fulfilled with her siblings ' help. As Harley and Georgie prepare for Rachel 's leaving, they hear from her that she missed the enrollment deadline at the school and is not going, but later find out she actually withdrew her application. Upon questioning her, they realize she is afraid to leave but they help her through it. After an emotional goodbye at the airport, the family wonders who will take over Rachel 's spot in the car, the sweet seat, but not even Harley is ready to do so.
Special guest star: Ronni Hawk as Rachel Diaz
With the Diaz family missing Rachel, they look to Georgie to fill her shoes as the oldest sibling, and Harley attempts to prepare her for a number of situations that could arise. Unable to deal with the pressure of this responsibility, Georgie panics and Harley finds herself stepping into the job. When faced with resolving two problems her other siblings bring up -- Ethan 's struggles dating Chloe, and how Lewie and Daphne should handle Beast after he reveals the truth about Rachel 's "blackmail book '' -- Harley winds up giving the wrong advice. Both Harley and Georgie realize it is better to just be themselves when tackling the problems of their siblings, and Georgie manages things all right doing just that. In the final scene, Harley and Georgie have an encounter with a boy named Aidan, whose ball was accidentally shot through their bedroom window.
With Ellie on winter break from Radistone Academy for a week, Harley wants to do something fun with her during that time. As the two brainstorm, they settle on running a camp for youngsters in the Diaz backyard, which Harley hopes will also fund a special quinceañera gift. Suzy has no problem with the camp idea as this would keep Daphne, Lewie and Beast occupied. Daphne has no interest in the camp, so Harley has Georgie keep an eye on her. Meanwhile, Harley has to deal with her new neighbor Aidan, who is also Ellie 's cousin and a lacrosse player. His hitting balls into and over the fence separating the Diaz and Peters backyards is disrupting camp activities. Harley tries to be diplomatic by getting him to stop while she is conducting camp, but he refuses to cooperate. Things get worse when Aidan moves the fence deeper into the Diaz backyard, causing Harley to retaliate and her friendship with Ellie to suffer. When her campers, including Lewie and Beast, bring the fence down, it is enough to disturb Suzy, who shuts the camp down and leaves Harley to clean up the mess. Harley realizes this is only the beginning with Aidan, who shows up at her school and plans to be around for the whole semester.
Guest stars: Lulu Lambros as Ellie Peters, Joshua Bassett as Aidan, Antonio Raul Corbo as Hunter
Harley 's dislike of Aidan continues to consume her as it is now affecting her at school. She asks her mother for tips on how to deal with him, knowing her long - term battle with Bethany is similar. Suzy tells Harley to simply agree with Aidan, as that is what she does to avoid arguments with Bethany. The method appears to work at first, while Harley and Aidan work together near the restored fence between their backyards, but when Aidan messes up Harley 's delivery of the school 's announcements, it becomes a battleground that everyone at school witnesses, with Harley accidentally broadcasting her argument with Aidan over the PA system. Suzy and Bethany also hear the two bickering, since they are volunteering at the school 's bake sale, and they start to argue once Harley brings up how she has been coping with Aidan using Suzy 's "yes for no distress '' technique. Meanwhile, Ethan is trying to get new subscribers for his web channel by filming a new segment starring Lewie and Beast at Tom 's store, but when they see the segment is a failure and are no longer allowed to film in the store, they go to the bake sale and end up capturing Suzy and Bethany 's arguing on camera. Harley tries another method to cope with Aidan, developing special earplugs to keep herself from hearing his boasts.
Guest stars: Lauren Pritchard as Bethany Peters, Joshua Bassett as Aidan
Harley feels like a third wheel in Georgie and Wyatt 's relationship, as she is involved in making their decisions. When Harley leaves the two to plan a romantic day, it turns disastrous and leads Georgie to want to break up with Wyatt. Georgie tries to get Harley to do it for her, but upon realizing this is happening on Wyatt 's birthday, Harley does not want to break his heart. Meanwhile, Aidan is looking to become friends with Ethan, but after placing Aidan on the "dead - to - Diaz '' list for what he did to Harley, Ethan is noncommittal to the friendship. Also, Harley is creating and testing a heart - monitor - based lie detector while not solving Georgie and Wyatt 's problems, wanting to know who has stolen Valentine 's Day candy she received as a present from Abuela. She eventually finds out it was Daphne, and the youngest Diaz finds herself trying to deliver Georgie 's news to Wyatt, as well as telling Aidan he is truly "dead to Diaz ''. Despite Daphne 's attempt, Georgie ends up telling Wyatt she is breaking up with him, only to discover that he already did that with her, when he was having laser eye surgery and wanted to see other people; Georgie misunderstood the message.
Guest stars: Joshua Bassett as Aidan, Adam Hochstetter as Wyatt
Harley wants to win a science contest, but Mr. Delorco is considering another student for it, so she needs to prove to him she belongs there. She develops a robot intended to help with her teacher 's mundane tasks and allows Lewie and Beast to help her program it. Afterward, she makes the twins her assistants at the slushy shack, something they have been longing for. When Harley shows Mr. Delorco her robot and demonstrates what it does, disaster happens, leading her to blame Lewie and Beast for costing her a spot in the contest and to fire them from the slushy shack. Seeing how much they hurt their sister, the twins decide to exhibit many of her inventions in Mr. Delorco 's classroom, to show him that Harley is worthy of being in the contest. When Harley sees the display, she tries avoiding another disaster, assuming her brothers would cause further problems. Despite things going awry again, Mr. Delorco sees Harley 's inventions more than qualify her to be in the contest. Meanwhile, Georgie and Tom buy a game set which includes a pool table the children passed on to visit Abuela for Christmas, but they find out the product is defective. Georgie works at getting her father angry enough to deal with the man who sold it to them and refused to give them their money back. Later, after Harley forgives the twins and decides to make them assistants again at the slushy shack, they find out that their father 's store has been robbed.
Guest stars: Peter Breitmayer as Mr. Delorco, Jeremy Guskin as Eddie
Harley organizes an investigation into the robbery of her father 's Bait and Bite store and has Ethan, Daphne, Lewie and Beast helping. They name three suspects -- Rachel 's ex-boyfriend Cuff, fisherman Colt Bailey, and Rod, the owner of a competing store. Cuff and Colt are later cleared, but Suzy and Tom are added as Harley questions their stories about what happened to the store 's security recorder, which were inconsistent. Harley recalls another camera in the store, one installed on her slushy machine, and after viewing what it caught, she finds out Suzy and Tom hid the security recorder. She also finds out, from Daphne, that it is stashed in their bedroom closet, which is locked to the children. Harley and her siblings come up with a plan to get the closet key from their parents so Harley can get hold of the security recorder. Once she does and watches the footage, she realizes she was responsible for the robbery due to accidentally leaving the store 's back door unlocked. Later, the Diaz family is informed by Rod, from the competing store, that the thieves were caught, as they attempted to rob his store as well.
Guest stars: Brett Pierce as Cuff, Morgan West as Colt Bailey, Clint Culp as Rod
Abuela visits, and Harley fears the "curse '' will resurface, as something always goes wrong when Abuela sees her grandchildren, including fighting. Daphne and Georgie complain that Harley is Abuela 's favorite from the extra hugs she is getting, so they set out to change that perception, but they upstage each other around Abuela, which later erupts into a fight between the two at a cycling class. Harley finds out about Ethan 's spending time with Aidan and lying to her about it, but she becomes enraged after discovering Aidan knows a secret of hers, which had been kept between her and Ethan. As revenge, Harley decides to reveal Ethan 's embarrassing secrets around Chloe. Abuela gets to the bottom of all the feuding and makes it clear she does not play favorites -- she loves all her grandchildren equally. She also clears the myth about the "curse '', which was about more than just the fighting among her grandchildren. Later, Harley and Ethan overhear Aidan talking to his father on the phone and understand he is feeling alone, so they invite him to their family game night.
Guest stars: Olga Merediz as Abuela, Joshua Bassett as Aidan, Alana Baer as Chloe, Brandon Black as Greg
The Diaz children want to spend their spring break on vacation rather than cleaning their father 's Bait and Bite store. Tom is upset that a boat he is supposed to deliver down the coast to Sandy Bluffs is without a captain, which becomes an opportunity for the family to travel there. Harley promises her father a pass for the yacht club in Sandy Bluffs, claiming she knows a member. While she actually has no connections with that yacht club, she is later shocked to see a familiar face in Sandy Bluffs -- Mr. Pillman, who gave the Diaz family trouble during their waterpark vacation, but who also happens to own the yacht club. Despite their differences, Mr. Pillman grants Harley and the rest of the Diaz family access to the club. Later, Suzy and Tom reveal that they are selling the Bait and Bite to Mr. Pillman, and the children are on board. After Tom signs the papers transferring ownership, a serious mishap at the hands of Daphne, Lewie and Beast angers Mr. Pillman, who reveals his plan to build another yacht club where the Bait and Bite is standing. As the Diaz family is ready to give up the Bait and Bite, Harley discovers that Mr. Pillman stole her Dry - Through invention from the waterpark and plans to sue him for patent infringement, unless he returns the Bait and Bite to her family.
When Georgie becomes distraught over being cut from the basketball team at school, Harley tries to find a way to cheer her up. After talking with Georgie 's basketball coach, Harley manages to get Georgie the role of the school 's mascot, which ends up not being well - received by the students. The school 's dance squad is impressed by Georgie 's dance moves, however, and so is Harley, who encourages her to join the squad. Georgie 's first practice with them for a pep rally, with other students watching, leads to stage fright and her wanting to be mascot again, but with that role now filled by someone else, Harley invents special glasses to help Georgie feel less nervous, as if she were performing in front of family. That backfires when the glasses fall off and break at the pep rally, so Harley is forced to go to desperate measures to take the focus off her sister. Her effort works in breaking Georgie 's stage fright. Meanwhile, Suzy tries to be the fun parent for Lewie and Beast, who are depressed over not being able to go with their father to a monster truck rally.
Guest stars: Audrey Moore as Coach Heller, Coryn Mabalot as Jo, Lance Lim as Kevin Casey
Ethan hopes that Shane Coleman, the "zombie king '', will view his horror film, and the Diaz family prepares a weekend premiere party for the occasion. As they begin planning, Harley and Ethan unexpectedly invite their neighbor Aidan to their house for the weekend, after his father bails on spending time with him. Harley sees it as an opportunity for Aidan to change his selfish ways by interacting with her family, but when they try to engage him in helping with the party preparation, it turns into a mess. The Diaz family scrambles to get everything set up in the backyard, but even after Shane shows up for the screening, Aidan 's well - intentioned efforts cause havoc and the screening never takes place. Despite the disaster, Harley and Ethan are relieved when Shane later informs them that he liked the film, having received the DVD from Aidan, and that Ethan has potential as a director. The Diaz family, including Harley, has a change of heart about Aidan afterward, and they attend his final lacrosse game of the season, in place of his father.
Guest stars: Joshua Bassett as Aidan, Curt Mega as Shane Coleman
Harley is eager to see Neil deGrasse Tyson in Boston, but Daphne wants to have a sleepover. Despite Daphne being too young for such an occasion, Suzy leaves Harley in charge of the sleepover and will take her to Boston if there are no problems. The sleepover goes fine until Daphne tells Harley that she is afraid of the dark. To rid her sister of the phobia, Harley tries different techniques, including sleeping with her in her dollhouse. Nothing appears to work, and Harley is faced with missing the trip to Boston, until Daphne says it is okay for her to go. After checking on her sister one more time before leaving, Harley decides to stay home and spend more time with her, doing various activities in the dark. Meanwhile, Ethan starts a rock band with three young musical prodigies, but recruits his father and Bethany Peters as additional members.
Guest stars: Lauren Pritchard as Bethany Peters, Callan Farris as Norman
Harley accompanies Lewie and Beast to a wrestling convention, and their neighbor Aidan also comes along. The event winds up changing how Harley feels about Aidan, which Georgie is quick to point out to her. Harley starts to realize she is liking her obnoxious neighbor, and it drives her to avoid him, even at places of interest to her like the science museum. After Georgie informs Lewie and Beast about what is really going on, the twins get Harley and Aidan together, but it is short - lived. Eventually, after seeing why Lewie and Beast set them up, Harley decides to stop avoiding her neighbor and spend time with him. Meanwhile, Georgie and Suzy try to score some television time on a local morning news show, sporting dresses that Rachel designed in France.
Guest stars: Joshua Bassett as Aidan, Geno Segers as The Businessman, Wayne T. Carr as Scott Wayne
Harley struggles to find the right gift for Aidan after he gives her one that turns out to be something she needed. To find out more about Aidan, she orchestrates a fake game show, with Ethan as host, and sees a common thread to Aidan 's answers -- his father, Charles Peters. With this in mind, Harley contacts Charles, who lives in Tokyo, and asks him to come to Marshport to see his son. The surprise visit distresses Aidan, because he has not seen his father in months and was reluctant to ask him to come himself. Still, Aidan tells Harley it is the best gift she could have given him. Later, after being with his father, Aidan tells Harley that he is going back with him to Tokyo, turning down an invitation to be her escort at her quinceañera. Though crushed about his leaving, Harley realizes she chose the perfect gift for Aidan in reuniting him with Charles. Meanwhile, Daphne, Lewie and Beast work to make some money so they can go to laser tag with Tom, but in the process, they accidentally give away an irreplaceable plate that Suzy made.
Guest stars: Joshua Bassett as Aidan, Jeremy John Wells as Charles
The Diaz family car is damaged, from being crashed into the garage, and Suzy and Tom call a family meeting to find out which of their children is the culprit. Four of them have an alibi, but Harley and Ethan, who risk being put on lockdown, can not back up their stories with witnesses, so they are put on trial in Diaz court. Things start looking grim for Harley 's case as the testimony unfolds, and she feels compelled to confess her guilt, until evidence surfaces about a recording Ethan made and then erased. Harley later finds out that the recording was backed up on Tom 's laptop and discovers it to be a video invitation for her quinceañera. After viewing some of the video, she could not hold Ethan responsible for the car damage and decides to take the blame, but Suzy and Tom share news they got from their mechanic about the car. It turns out none of the children are responsible, since the damage was caused by a malfunctioning transmission.
For Tom 's birthday, the rest of the Diaz family takes care of his responsibilities so he can enjoy his special day without worry. Suzy and Ethan handle things at the Bait and Bite, while everyone else tackles cleaning out the garage, determined by Harley 's mañana wheel. As the children start on the garage, Tom shares messages from an old answering machine, dating back to Harley 's birth. One of them, from a radio station, revealed he had won a Crimson Coupe car associated with his favorite television series, Crimson Justice. As Tom had not heard the message before, he could not claim the car. Deciding it would be a wonderful present for their father, Harley and Georgie go to the radio station which gave away the Coupe. They are unable to get information directly from the station, so they find a way to broadcast their inquiry about the car 's winner. They get a call from a woman, whose son won the car but later abandoned it; she offers $300 for it and the girls buy it. Though the Coupe breaks down and Tom needs to rescue the girls, he appreciates the gift. Meanwhile, Suzy and Ethan were intending to have the Bait and Bite closed for the day, but still end up dealing with a lot of customers.
Guest stars: Shane Hartline as Chaz, Brenda Ballard as Ruby, Paul Goetz as Customer, Nick Youssef as Crimson Coupe
To keep her best friend from missing her quinceañera, Harley helps Ellie with a school project. Ellie is shooting a video about Harley as an inventor, but in doing so, Harley notices her struggle with keeping the camera focused on her. Harley attempts to correct Ellie 's problem and has Georgie fill in for her in the video. Ellie gains confidence and wants to be the videographer at Harley 's quinceañera, but Harley feels uneasy letting her take on that responsibility, so she puts together a "fake - ceañera '' to give her some more practice. Harley is actually trying to get Ellie out of doing the video for her big day altogether, knowing she will mess up, but Ellie eventually finds out and is hurt that her best friend has no faith in her. When Harley apologizes, she finds out Ellie wants to spend the special day with her in front of the camera instead of behind it. Meanwhile, Suzy and Tom try to decide what dessert to serve at Harley 's quinceañera, while Ethan unfoils the identity of Daphne, Lewie and Beast 's nemeses, who are bullying them to pay $10.
Harley wakes up late the morning before her quinceañera, and discovers the rest of her family and Ellie are already planning for it without her. Ethan and Tom go to pick up Harley 's dress, but after stopping at a new ice cream shop and noticing their car towed away afterward, they miss their appointment and end up getting the wrong dress. Georgie and Suzy set up at the venue for the quinceañera but struggle with putting the science - themed decorations together. Harley, meanwhile, spends the last day of her childhood completing her "Buck - Kid '' list, and Daphne, Lewie and Beast help her through the list, except one of her goals leads to her getting stained, two hours before the event. The family gets a surprise, and some relief, when Rachel comes home; she helps Harley through her crisis and directs Ethan and Tom to the correct dress. Things start going more smoothly until Harley realizes the box containing her grand entrance plans fails to reach the venue. She surprises her family with her improvised acrobatic entrance, and despite the unexpected, Harley enjoys her quinceañera... and one more twist: Aidan 's return.
Special guest star: Ronni Hawk as Rachel Diaz
Ethan disguises himself as a Mega Mart employee named Boris and helps an old lady carry a giant teddy bear for her grandniece 's birthday party. Meanwhile, Lewie and Beast are sampling some barbecue chicken tenders and each decide to sample one for Ethan. The twins get busted by Rodney for oversampling.
Georgie tries an unsuccessful move to get lettuce for Harley which ends with her crashing into a box of pillows. Daphne sees a huge cake and decides to take ownership by sitting on it as part of her "You butt it, you buy it. '' Rodney gets hold of both Georgie and Daphne.
Rachel uses a store camera to broadcast herself across Mega Mart and to The Squad. Rodney sees her and attempts to grab the camera from her, but the camera breaks and Rodney rips his pants. It is the third strike Rodney was looking for to ban the Diaz family from Mega Mart.
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is a honey bee a vertebrate or invertebrate | Bee - wikipedia
Apiformes (from Latin ' apis ')
Bees are flying insects closely related to wasps and ants, known for their role in pollination and, in the case of the best - known bee species, the European honey bee, for producing honey and beeswax. Bees are a monophyletic lineage within the superfamily Apoidea and are presently considered a clade, called Anthophila. There are nearly 20,000 known species of bees in seven recognized biological families. They are found on every continent except Antarctica, in every habitat on the planet that contains insect - pollinated flowering plants.
Some species including honey bees, bumblebees, and stingless bees live socially in colonies. Bees are adapted for feeding on nectar and pollen, the former primarily as an energy source and the latter primarily for protein and other nutrients. Most pollen is used as food for larvae. Bee pollination is important both ecologically and commercially; the decline in wild bees has increased the value of pollination by commercially managed hives of honey bees.
Bees range in size from tiny stingless bee species whose workers are less than 2 millimetres (0.08 in) long, to Megachile pluto, the largest species of leafcutter bee, whose females can attain a length of 39 millimetres (1.54 in). The most common bees in the Northern Hemisphere are the Halictidae, or sweat bees, but they are small and often mistaken for wasps or flies. Vertebrate predators of bees include birds such as bee - eaters; insect predators include beewolves and dragonflies.
Human beekeeping or apiculture has been practised for millennia, since at least the times of Ancient Egypt and Ancient Greece. Apart from honey and pollination, honey bees produce beeswax, royal jelly and propolis. Bees have appeared in mythology and folklore, through all phases of art and literature, from ancient times to the present day, though primarily focused in the Northern Hemisphere, where beekeeping is far more common.
The ancestors of bees were wasps in the family Crabronidae, which were predators of other insects. The switch from insect prey to pollen may have resulted from the consumption of prey insects which were flower visitors and were partially covered with pollen when they were fed to the wasp larvae. This same evolutionary scenario may have occurred within the vespoid wasps, where the pollen wasps evolved from predatory ancestors. Until recently, the oldest non-compression bee fossil had been found in New Jersey amber, Cretotrigona prisca of Cretaceous age, a corbiculate bee. A bee fossil from the early Cretaceous (~ 100 mya), Melittosphex burmensis, is considered "an extinct lineage of pollen - collecting Apoidea sister to the modern bees ''. Derived features of its morphology (apomorphies) place it clearly within the bees, but it retains two unmodified ancestral traits (plesiomorphies) of the legs (two mid-tibial spurs, and a slender hind basitarsus), showing its transitional status. By the Eocene (~ 45 mya) there was already considerable diversity among eusocial bee lineages.
The highly eusocial corbiculate Apidae appeared roughly 87 Mya, and the Allodapini (within the Apidae) around 53 Mya. The Colletidae appear as fossils only from the late Oligocene (~ 25 Mya) to early Miocene. The Melittidae are known from Palaeomacropis eocenicus in the Early Eocene. The Megachilidae are known from trace fossils (characteristic leaf cuttings) from the Middle Eocene. The Andrenidae are known from the Eocene - Oligocene boundary, around 34 Mya, of the Florissant shale. The Halictidae first appear in the Early Eocene with species found in amber. The Stenotritidae are known from fossil brood cells of Pleistocene age.
The earliest animal - pollinated flowers were shallow, cup - shaped blooms pollinated by insects such as beetles, so the syndrome of insect pollination was well established before the first appearance of bees. The novelty is that bees are specialized as pollination agents, with behavioral and physical modifications that specifically enhance pollination, and are the most efficient pollinating insects. In a process of coevolution, flowers developed floral rewards such as nectar and longer tubes, and bees developed longer tongues to extract the nectar. Bees also developed structures known as scopal hairs and pollen baskets to collect and carry pollen. The location and type differ among and between groups of bees. Most bees have scopal hairs located on their hind legs or on the underside of their abdomens, some bees in the family Apidae possess pollen baskets on their hind legs while very few species lack these entirely and instead collect pollen in their crops. This drove the adaptive radiation of the angiosperms, and, in turn, the bees themselves. Bees have not only coevolved with flowers but it is believed that some bees have coevolved with mites. Some bees provide tufts of hairs called acarinaria that appear to provide lodgings for mites; in return, it is believed that the mites eat fungi that attack pollen, so the relationship in this case may be mutualistc.
This phylogenetic tree is based on Debevic et al, 2012, which used molecular phylogeny to demonstrate that the bees (Anthophila) arose from deep within the Crabronidae, which is therefore paraphyletic. The placement of the Heterogynaidae is uncertain. The small subfamily Mellininae was not included in their analysis.
Ampulicidae (Cockroach wasps)
Heterogynaidae (possible placement # 1)
Sphecidae (sensu stricto)
Crabroninae (part of "Crabronidae '')
Bembicini
Nyssonini, Astatinae
Heterogynaidae (possible placement # 2)
Pemphredoninae, Philanthinae
Anthophila (bees)
This cladogram of the bee families is based on Hedtke et al., 2013, which places the former families Dasypodaidae and Meganomiidae as subfamilies inside the Melittidae. English names, where available, are given in parentheses.
Melittidae (inc. Dasypodainae, Meganomiinae) at least 50 Mya
Apidae (social, inc. honeybees) ≈ 87 Mya
Megachilidae (mason, leafcutter bees) ≈ 50 Mya
Andrenidae (mining bees) ≈ 34 Mya
Halictidae (sweat bees) ≈ 50 Mya
Colletidae (plasterer bees) ≈ 25 Mya
Stenotritidae (large Australian bees) ≈ 2 Mya
Bees are generally easy to recognize. They differ from closely related groups such as wasps by having branched or plume - like setae (hairs), combs on the forelimbs for cleaning their antennae, small anatomical differences in the limb structure and the venation of the hind wings, and in females, by having the seventh dorsal abdominal plate divided into two half - plates.
Behaviourally, one of the most obvious characteristics of bees is that they collect pollen to provide provisions for their young, and have the necessary adaptations to do this. However, certain wasp species such as pollen wasps have similar behaviours, and a few species of bee scavenge from carcases to feed their offspring. The world 's largest species of bee is thought to be the Indonesian resin bee Megachile pluto, whose females can attain a length of 39 millimetres (1.54 in). The smallest species may be dwarf stingless bees in the tribe Meliponini whose workers are less than 2 millimetres (0.08 in) in length.
A bee has a pair of large compound eyes which cover much of the surface of the head. Between and above these are three small simple eyes (ocelli) which provide information for the bee on light intensity. The antennae usually have thirteen segments in males and twelve in females and are geniculate, having an elbow joint part way along. They house large numbers of sense organs that can detect touch (mechanoreceptors), smell and taste, and small, hairlike mechanoreceptors that can detect air movement so as to "hear '' sounds. The mouthparts are adapted for both chewing and sucking by having both a pair of mandibles and a long proboscis for sucking up nectar.
The thorax has three segments, each with a pair of robust legs, and a pair of membranous wings on the hind two segments. The front legs of corbiculate bees bear combs for cleaning the antennae, and in many species the hind legs bear pollen baskets, flattened sections with incurving hairs to secure the collected pollen. The wings are synchronised in flight and the somewhat smaller hind wings connect to the forewings by a row of hooks along their margin which connect to a groove in the forewing. The abdomen has nine segments, the hindermost three being modified into the sting.
According to inclusive fitness theory, organisms can gain fitness not just through increasing their own reproductive output, but also that of close relatives. In evolutionary terms, individuals should help relatives when Cost < Relatedness * Benefit. The requirements for eusociality are more easily fulfilled by haplodiploid species such as bees because of their unusual relatedness structure. In haplodiploid species, females develop from fertilized eggs and males from unfertilized eggs. Because a male is haploid (has only one copy of each gene), his daughters (which are diploid, with two copies of each gene) share 100 % of his genes and 50 % of their mother 's. Therefore, they share 75 % of their genes with each other. This mechanism of sex determination gives rise to what W.D. Hamilton termed "supersisters '', more closely related to their sisters than they would be to their own offspring. Workers often do not reproduce, but they can pass on more of their genes by helping to raise their sisters (as queens) than they would by having their own offspring (each of which would only have 50 % of their genes), assuming they would produce similar numbers. This unusual situation has been proposed as an explanation of the multiple independent evolutions of eusociality (arising at least nine separate times) within the Hymenoptera. However, some eusocial species such as termites are not haplodiploid. Conversely, all bees are haplodiploid but not all are eusocial, and among eusocial species many queens mate with multiple males, creating half - sisters that share only 25 % of their genes. Haplodiploidy is thus neither necessary nor sufficient for eusociality. But, monogamy (queens mating singly) is the ancestral state for all eusocial species so far investigated, so it is likely that haplodiploidy contributed to the evolution of eusociality in bees.
Bees may be solitary or may live in various types of communities. Eusociality appears to have originated from at least three independent origins in halictid bees. The most advanced of these are species with eusocial colonies; these are characterised by having cooperative brood care and a division of labour into reproductive and non-reproductive adults, plus overlapping generations. This division of labour creates specialized groups within eusocial societies which are called castes. In some species, groups of cohabiting females may be sisters, and if there is a division of labour within the group, they are considered semisocial. The group is called eusocial if, in addition, the group consists of a mother (the queen) and her daughters (workers). When the castes are purely behavioural alternatives, with no morphological differentiation other than size, the system is considered primitively eusocial, as in many paper wasps; when the castes are morphologically discrete, the system is considered highly eusocial.
The true honey bees (genus Apis, of which there are seven currently - recognized species) are highly eusocial, and are among the best known of all insects. Their colonies are established by swarms, consisting of a queen and several hundred workers. There are 29 subspecies of one of these species, Apis mellifera, native to Europe, the Middle East, and Africa. Africanized bees are a hybrid strain of A. mellifera that escaped from experiments involving crossing European and African subspecies; they are extremely defensive.
Stingless bees are also highly eusocial. They practise mass provisioning, with complex nest architecture and perennial colonies also established via swarming.
Many bumblebees are eusocial, similar to the eusocial Vespidae such as hornets in that the queen initiates a nest on her own rather than by swarming. Bumblebee colonies typically have from 50 to 200 bees at peak population, which occurs in mid to late summer. Nest architecture is simple, limited by the size of the pre-existing nest cavity, and colonies rarely last more than a year. In 2011, the International Union for Conservation of Nature set up the Bumblebee Specialist Group to review the threat status of all bumblebee species worldwide using the IUCN Red List criteria.
There are many more species of primitively eusocial than highly eusocial bees, but they have been studied less often. Most are in the family Halictidae, or "sweat bees ''. Colonies are typically small, with a dozen or fewer workers, on average. Queens and workers differ only in size, if at all. Most species have a single season colony cycle, even in the tropics, and only mated females hibernate. A few species have long active seasons and attain colony sizes in the hundreds, such as Halictus hesperus. Some species are eusocial in parts of their range and solitary in others, or have a mix of eusocial and solitary nests in the same population. The orchid bees (Apidae) include some primitively eusocial species with similar biology. Some allodapine bees (Apidae) form primitively eusocial colonies, with progressive provisioning: a larva 's food is supplied gradually as it develops, as is the case in honey bees and some bumblebees.
Most other bees, including familiar insects such as carpenter bees, leafcutter bees and mason bees are solitary in the sense that every female is fertile, and typically inhabits a nest she constructs herself. There is no division of labor so these nests lack queens and worker bees for these species. Solitary bees typically produce neither honey nor beeswax.
Solitary bees are important pollinators; they gather pollen to provision their nests with food for their brood. Often it is mixed with nectar to form a paste - like consistency. Some solitary bees have advanced types of pollen - carrying structures on their bodies. A very few species of solitary bees are being cultured for commercial pollination. Most of these species belong to a distinct set of genera which are commonly known by their nesting behavior or preferences, namely: carpenter bees, sweat bees, mason bees, plasterer bees, squash bees, dwarf carpenter bees, leafcutter bees, alkali bees and digger bees.
Most solitary bees nest in the ground in a variety of soil textures and conditions while others create nests in hollow reeds or twigs, holes in wood. The female typically creates a compartment (a "cell '') with an egg and some provisions for the resulting larva, then seals it off. A nest may consist of numerous cells. When the nest is in wood, usually the last (those closer to the entrance) contain eggs that will become males. The adult does not provide care for the brood once the egg is laid, and usually dies after making one or more nests. The males typically emerge first and are ready for mating when the females emerge. Solitary bees are either stingless or very unlikely to sting (only in self - defense, if ever).
While solitary, females each make individual nests. Some species, such as the European mason bee Hoplitis anthocopoides, and the Dawson 's Burrowing bee, Amegilla dawsoni, are gregarious, preferring to make nests near others of the same species, and giving the appearance of being social. Large groups of solitary bee nests are called aggregations, to distinguish them from colonies. In some species, multiple females share a common nest, but each makes and provisions her own cells independently. This type of group is called "communal '' and is not uncommon. The primary advantage appears to be that a nest entrance is easier to defend from predators and parasites when there are multiple females using that same entrance on a regular basis.
The life cycle of a bee, be it a solitary or social species, involves the laying of an egg, the development through several moults of a legless larva, a pupation stage during which the insect undergoes complete metamorphosis, followed by the emergence of a winged adult. Most solitary bees and bumble bees in temperate climates overwinter as adults or pupae and emerge in spring when increasing numbers of flowering plants come into bloom. The males usually emerge first and search for females with which to mate. The sex of a bee is determined by whether or not the egg is fertilised; after mating, a female stores the sperm, and determines which sex is required at the time each individual egg is laid, fertilised eggs producing female offspring and unfertilised eggs, males. Tropical bees may have several generations in a year and no diapause stage.
The egg is generally oblong, slightly curved and tapering at one end. In the case of solitary bees, each one is laid in a cell with a supply of mixed pollen and nectar next to it. This may be rolled into a pellet or placed in a pile and is known as mass provisioning. In social species of bee there is progressive provisioning with the larva being fed regularly while it grows. The nest varies from a hole in the ground or in wood, in solitary bees, to a substantial structure with wax combs in bumblebees and honey bees.
The larvae are generally whitish grubs, roughly oval and bluntly - pointed at both ends. They have fifteen segments and spiracles in each segment for breathing. They have no legs but are able to move within the confines of the cell, helped by tubercles on their sides. They have short horns on the head, jaws for chewing their food and an appendage on either side of the mouth tipped with a bristle. There is a gland under the mouth that secretes a viscous liquid which solidifies into the silk they use to produce their cocoons. The pupa can be seen through the semi-transparent cocoon and over the course of a few days, the insect undergoes metamorphosis into the form of the adult bee. When ready to emerge, it splits its skin dorsally and climbs out of the exuviae as a winged adult and breaks out of the cell.
In Antoine Magnan 's 1934 book Le vol des insectes, he wrote that he and André Sainte - Laguë had applied the equations of air resistance to insects and found that their flight could not be explained by fixed - wing calculations, but that "One should n't be surprised that the results of the calculations do n't square with reality ''. This has led to a common misconception that bees "violate aerodynamic theory '', but in fact it merely confirms that bees do not engage in fixed - wing flight, and that their flight is explained by other mechanics, such as those used by helicopters. In 1996 it was shown that vortices created by many insects ' wings helped to provide lift. High - speed cinematography and robotic mock - up of a bee wing showed that lift was generated by "the unconventional combination of short, choppy wing strokes, a rapid rotation of the wing as it flops over and reverses direction, and a very fast wing - beat frequency ''. Wing - beat frequency normally increases as size decreases, but as the bee 's wing beat covers such a small arc, it flaps approximately 230 times per second, faster than a fruitfly (200 times per second) which is 80 times smaller.
The ethologist Karl von Frisch studied navigation in the honey bee. He showed that honey bees communicate by the waggle dance, in which a worker indicates the location of a food source to other workers in the hive. He demonstrated that bees can recognize a desired compass direction in three different ways: by the sun, by the polarization pattern of the blue sky, and by the earth 's magnetic field. He showed that the sun is the preferred or main compass; the other mechanisms are used under cloudy skies or inside a dark beehive. Bees navigate using spatial memory with a "rich, map - like organization ''.
Most bees are polylectic (generalist) meaning they collect pollen from a range of flowering plants, however, some are oligoleges (specialists), in that they only gather pollen from one or a few species or genera of closely related plants. Specialist pollinators also include bee species which gather floral oils instead of pollen, and male orchid bees, which gather aromatic compounds from orchids (one of the few cases where male bees are effective pollinators). Bees are able to sense the presence of desirable flowers through ultraviolet patterning on flowers, floral odors, and even electromagnetic fields. Once landed, a bee then uses nectar quality and pollen taste to determine whether to continue visiting similar flowers.
In rare cases, a plant species may only be effectively pollinated by a single bee species, and some plants are endangered at least in part because their pollinator is also threatened. There is, however, a pronounced tendency for oligolectic bees to be associated with common, widespread plants which are visited by multiple pollinators. There are some forty oligoleges associated with the creosote bush in the arid parts of the United States southwest, for example.
Many bees are aposematically coloured, typically orange and black, warning of their ability to defend themselves with a powerful sting. As such they are models for Batesian mimicry by non-stinging insects such as bee - flies, robber flies and hoverflies, all of which gain a measure of protection by superficially looking and behaving like bees.
Bees are themselves Müllerian mimics of other aposematic insects with the same colour scheme, including wasps, lycid and other beetles, and many butterflies and moths (Lepidoptera) which are themselves distasteful, often through acquiring bitter and poisonous chemicals from their plant food. All the Müllerian mimics, including bees, benefit from the reduced risk of predation that results from their easily recognised warning coloration.
Bees are also mimicked by plants such as the bee orchid which imitates both the appearance and the scent of a female bee; male bees attempt to mate (pseudocopulation) with the furry lip of the flower, thus pollinating it.
Brood parasites occur in several bee families including the apid subfamily Nomadinae. Females of these bees lack pollen collecting structures (the scopa) and do not construct their own nests. They typically enter the nests of pollen collecting species, and lay their eggs in cells provisioned by the host bee. When the cuckoo bee larva hatches it consumes the host larva 's pollen ball, and often the host egg also. The Arctic bee species, Bombus hyperboreus, in particular are an aggressive species that attack and enslave other bees of the same subgenus. However, unlike many other bee brood parasites, they have pollen baskets and often collect pollen.
In the south of Africa, hives of African honeybees (A. mellifera scutellata) are being destroyed by parasitic workers of the Cape honeybee, A. m. capensis. These lay diploid eggs ("thelytoky ''), escaping normal worker policing, leading to the colony 's destruction; the parasites can then move to other hives.
The cuckoo bees in the Bombus subgenus Psithyrus are closely related to, and resemble, their hosts in looks and size. This common pattern gave rise to the ecological principle "Emery 's rule ''. Others parasitize bees in different families, like Townsendiella, a nomadine apid, two species of which are cleptoparasites of the dasypodaid genus Hesperapis, while the other species in the same genus attacks halictid bees.
Four bee families (Andrenidae, Colletidae, Halictidae, and Apidae) contain some species that are crepuscular. Most are tropical or subtropical, but there are some which live in arid regions at higher latitudes. These bees have greatly enlarged ocelli, which are extremely sensitive to light and dark, though incapable of forming images. Some have refracting superposition compound eyes: these combine the output of many elements of their compound eyes to provide enough light for each retinal photoreceptor. Their ability to fly by night enables them to avoid many predators, and to exploit flowers that produce nectar only or also at night.
Vertebrate predators of bees include bee - eaters, shrikes and flycatchers, which make short sallies to catch insects in flight. Swifts and swallows fly almost continually, catching insects as they go. The honey buzzard attacks bees ' nests and eats the larvae. The greater honeyguide interacts with humans by guiding them to the nests of wild bees. The humans break open the nests and take the honey and the bird feeds on the larvae and the wax. Among mammals, predators such as the badger dig up bumblebee nests and eat both the larvae and any stored food.
Specialist ambush predators of visitors to flowers include crab spiders, which wait on flowering plants for pollinating insects; predatory bugs, and praying mantises, some of which (the flower mantises of the tropics) wait motionless, aggressive mimics camouflaged as flowers. Beewolves are large wasps that habitually attack bees; the ethologist Niko Tinbergen estimated that a single colony of the beewolf Philanthus triangulum might kill several thousand honeybees in a day: all the prey he observed were honeybees. Other predatory insects that sometimes catch bees include robber flies and dragonflies. Honey bees are affected by parasites including acarine and Varroa mites. However, some bees are believed to have a mutualistic relationship with mites.
Three bee maidens with the power of divination and thus speaking truth are described in Homer 's Hymn to Hermes, and the food of the gods is "identified as honey ''; the bee maidens were originally associated with Apollo, and are probably not correctly identified with the Thriae. Honey, according to a Greek myth, was discovered by a nymph called Melissa ("Bee ''); and honey was offered to the Greek gods from Mycenean times. Bees were associated, too, with the Delphic oracle and the prophetess was sometimes called a bee.
The image of a community of honey bees has been used from ancient to modern times, in Aristotle and Plato; in Virgil and Seneca; in Erasmus and Shakespeare; Tolstoy, and by political and social theorists such as Bernard Mandeville and Karl Marx as a model for human society. In English folklore, bees would be told of important events in the household, in a custom known as "Telling the bees ''.
Some of the oldest examples of bees in art are rock paintings in Spain which have been dated to 15,000 BC.
W.B. Yeats 's poem The Lake Isle of Innisfree (1888) contains the couplet "Nine bean rows will I have there, a hive for the honey bee, / And live alone in the bee loud glade. '' At the time he was living in Bedford Park in the West of London. Beatrix Potter 's illustrated book The Tale of Mrs Tittlemouse (1910) features Babbity Bumble and her brood (pictured). Kit Williams ' treasure hunt book The Bee on the Comb (1984) uses bees and beekeeping as part of its story and puzzle. Sue Monk Kidd 's The Secret Life of Bees (2004), and the 2009 film starring Dakota Fanning, tells the story of a girl who escapes her abusive home and finds her way to live with a family of beekeepers, the Boatwrights.
The humorous 2007 animated film Bee Movie used Jerry Seinfeld 's first script and was his first work for children; he starred as a bee named Barry B. Benson, alongside Renée Zellweger. Critics found its premise awkward and its delivery tame. Dave Goulson 's A Sting in the Tale (2014) describes his efforts to save bumblebees in Britain, as well as much about their biology. The playwright Laline Paull 's fantasy The Bees (2015) tells the tale of a hive bee named Flora 717 from hatching onwards.
Humans have kept honey bee colonies, commonly in hives, for millennia. Beekeepers collect honey, beeswax, propolis, pollen, and royal jelly from hives; bees are also kept to pollinate crops and to produce bees for sale to other beekeepers.
Depictions of humans collecting honey from wild bees date to 15,000 years ago; efforts to domesticate them are shown in Egyptian art around 4,500 years ago. Simple hives and smoke were used; jars of honey were found in the tombs of pharaohs such as Tutankhamun. From the 18th century, European understanding of the colonies and biology of bees allowed the construction of the moveable comb hive so that honey could be harvested without destroying the colony. Among Classical Era authors, beekeeping with the use of smoke is described in the History of Animals Book 9 (a book not written by Aristotle himself). The account mentions that bees die after stinging; that workers remove corpses from the hive, and guard it; castes including workers and non-working drones, but "kings '' rather than queens; predators including toads and bee - eaters; and the waggle dance, with the "irresistible suggestion '' of άpοσειονται (aroseiontai, it waggles) and παρακολουθούσιν (parakolouthousin, they watch).
Beekeeping is described in detail by Virgil in his Eclogues; it is also mentioned in his Aeneid, and in Pliny 's Natural History.
Bees play an important role in pollinating flowering plants, and are the major type of pollinator in many ecosystems that contain flowering plants. It is estimated that one third of the human food supply depends on pollination by insects, birds and bats, most of which is accomplished by bees, whether wild or domesticated.
Contract pollination has overtaken the role of honey production for beekeepers in many countries. From 1972 to 2006, feral honey bees declined dramatically in the US, and they are now almost absent. The number of colonies kept by beekeepers declined slightly, through urbanization, systematic pesticide use, tracheal and Varroa mites, and the closure of beekeeping businesses. In 2006 and 2007 the rate of attrition increased, and was described as colony collapse disorder. In 2010 invertebrate iridescent virus and the fungus Nosema ceranae were shown to be in every killed colony, and deadly in combination. Winter losses increased to about 1 / 3. Varroa mites were thought to be responsible for about half the losses.
Apart from colony collapse disorder, losses outside the US have been attributed to causes including pesticide seed dressings, using neonicotinoids such as Clothianidin, Imidacloprid and Thiamethoxam. From 2013 the European Union restricted some pesticides to stop bee populations from declining further. In 2014 the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change report warned that bees faced increased risk of extinction because of global warming. In 2018 the European Union decided to ban field use of all three major neonicotinoids; they remain permitted in veterinary, greenhouse, and vehicle transport usage.
Farmers have focused on alternative solutions to mitigate these problems. By raising native plants, they provide food for native bee pollinators like L. vierecki and L. leucozonium, leading to less reliance on honey bee populations.
Honey is a natural product produced by bees and stored for their own use, but its sweetness has always appealed to humans. Before domestication of bees was even attempted, humans were raiding their nests for their honey. Smoke was often used to subdue the bees and such activities are depicted in rock paintings in Spain dated to 15,000 BC. Indigenous people in many countries eat insects, including the larvae and pupae of bees, mostly stingless species. They also gather larvae, pupae and surrounding cells, known as bee brood, for consumption. In the Indonesian dish botok tawon from Central and East Java, bee larvae are eaten as a companion to rice, after being mixed with shredded coconut, wrapped in banana leaves, and steamed.
Honey bees are used commercially to produce honey. They also produce some substances used as dietary supplements with possible health benefits, pollen, propolis, and royal jelly, though all of these can also cause allergic reactions.
Apitherapy is a branch of alternative medicine that uses honey bee products, including raw honey, royal jelly, pollen, propolis, beeswax and apitoxin (Bee venom). The claim that apitherapy treats cancer, which some proponents of apitherapy make, remains unsupported by evidence - based medicine.
The painful stings of bees are mostly associated with the poison gland and the Dufour 's gland which are abdominal exocrine glands containing various chemicals. In Lasioglossum leucozonium, the Dufour 's Gland mostly contains octadecanolide as well as some eicosanolide. There is also evidence of n - triscosane, n - heptacosane, and 22 - docosanolide. However, the secretions of these glands could also be used for nest construction.
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top thrill dragster cedar point (420 ft.) sandusky ohio | Top Thrill Dragster - wikipedia
Top Thrill Dragster is a steel accelerator roller coaster built by Intamin at Cedar Point in Sandusky, Ohio, United States. It was the sixteenth roller coaster built at the park since the Blue Streak in 1964. When built in 2003, it was the first full circuit roller coaster to exceed 400 feet (120 m) in height, and was the tallest roller coaster in the world, before being surpassed by Kingda Ka at Six Flags Great Adventure in May 2005. Top Thrill Dragster, along with Kingda Ka, are the only strata coasters in existence. It was the second hydraulically launched roller coaster built by Intamin, following Xcelerator at Knott 's Berry Farm. The tagline for Top Thrill Dragster is "Race for the Sky ''.
Planning for Top Thrill Dragster started around 2000 when Millennium Force opened. Footers started being poured during the winter of 2001 / 2002 then were covered up during the 2002 operating season. To construct the roller coaster, the park had to use a 480 feet (150 m) crane, one of only four in the United States. Vertical construction by Martin & Vleminckx started in fall 2002, months before the announcement. By October 2002, the roller coaster had reached 200 feet (61 m). The ride was announced on January 9, 2003 and the structure, built by Intamin 's subcontractor Stakotra, was finished shortly after. It is tied with Millennium Force for being the two largest investments in Cedar Point history. The announcement revealed the park 's goal to build "the tallest and fastest roller coaster on earth '', reaching 420 feet (130 m) and accelerating up to 120 miles per hour (193 km / h) in 3.8 seconds. On March 10, 2003, Cedar Fair Entertainment Company filed a trademark for the name Top Thrill Dragster.
Top Thrill Dragster 's media day was held on May 1, 2003 then it officially opened to the public on May 4. It became the "tallest '' and "fastest '' roller coaster in the world overtaking both world records from Steel Dragon 2000 at Nagashima Spa Land that was just built three years earlier. It lost the title of being the world 's tallest and fastest roller coaster when Kingda Ka at Six Flags Great Adventure opened in May 2005. Intamin designed both Kingda Ka and Top Thrill Dragster, and the two share a similar design and layout that differs primarily by the theme and the additional hill featured on Kingda Ka.
The ride had constant downtime in its first couple seasons. Several problems such as the ride 's hydraulic system and launch cable caused the ride to experience downtime. Top Thrill Dragster was also closed in 2003 for the annual event, CoasterMania.
After leaving the station, the train enters the launch area. To the left of the launch area is a "Christmas tree '' light, similar to those employed at the starting line of a drag strip. A brief message is played to the riders to: "keep arms down, head back, and hold on. '' Once the train is prepared to launch, a motor revving sound effect is played and its magnetic braking fins are lowered from the launch track. It then launches, accelerating to a speed of 120 mph (190 km / h) in 3.8 seconds. Shortly after reaching its maximum velocity, the train begins its ascent up a 90 - degree incline, twisting 90 degrees clockwise before climbing over the 420 - foot (130 m) top hat. Upon descending, the track twists 270 degrees before leveling out, allowing the train to be stopped by the magnetic brakes.
The roller coaster is based on the Top Fuel drag racing motor sport. A real Top Fuel dragster weighs approximately one ton, while each train on the coaster weighs 15 tons. Its dragster themed trains once had decorative spoilers and engines, but these were removed soon after opening, allowing an extra row of seats to be added to each one. Also, when the ride opened, it had only four cars on each train, including the decals. By the middle of the 2003 season, the fifth cars were added to all trains, making them the five cars long that they are now. The fifth cars were added on shortly before the decals were removed. The ride 's theme song, "Ready to Go '' by Republica, is played while in the station.
Occasionally, a train is launched with not enough speed to clear the crest. This typically happens in cool, wet, or breezy weather, or when the wind is working against it. In these conditions, the launch often does not provide it with enough speed to climb over the hill, which causes it to stop short of the top, and roll back down the hill in reverse, hence the term "rollback ''. The launch track is equipped with retractable magnetic braking fins which are raised after the train is launched in order to slow it down in the event it does not crest the hill.
On very rare occasions, a combination of the weight distribution of the train, the force of the launch, and the wind can stall a train on the top of the tower. When this happens, a mechanic takes the elevator to the top and pushes the train down the hill.
When Top Thrill Dragster debuted, it set four new records:
It was the fourth roller coaster to break the 100 miles per hour (160 km / h) speed barrier. It was preceded by Tower of Terror II at Dreamworld, Superman: Escape from Krypton at Six Flags Magic Mountain and Dodonpa at Fuji - Q Highland. The previous record holder for overall height was Superman: Escape from Krypton at Six Flags Magic Mountain, standing at 415 feet (126 m). Its record was broken in 2005 when Kingda Ka opened at Six Flags Great Adventure, standing 456 feet (139 m) tall. The previous record holder for speed was Dodonpa, at 107 miles per hour (172 km / h). This record was broken by Top Thrill Dragster, which reaches speeds up to 120 miles per hour (190 km / h), which was later broken by Kingda Ka which reached a top speed of 128 miles per hour (206 km / h). In November 2010, Formula Rossa at Ferrari World broke the record for fastest roller coaster, with a top speed of 149.1 miles per hour (240.0 km / h).
As of 2015, Top Thrill Dragster has the second tallest lift, the third fastest speed, and the second - highest drop among steel roller coasters in the world.
Top Thrill Dragster is negatively affected by unfavourable weather conditions as both a high altitude and high velocity ride. "Rain, high winds, and / or lightning '' may result in the closing of the ride depending on the severity. It will close in high winds and any kind of precipitation.
There is no minimum age requirement, but passengers must meet the miniumum height requirement of 52 inches and a maximum of 78 inches to ride. Some persons over a certain weight / waist size will not be permitted to ride if the seat and lapbar harness can not accommodate them. Passengers on Dragster may not bring any loose articles onto the train and will be required to wear shirts and footwear. Headphones must be removed before boarding.
Passengers are advised that they must not ride Dragster if they have "a history of recent surgery, heart trouble / high blood pressure, neck trouble, back trouble, or any other condition that may be aggravated by riding, or who are pregnant ''.
On July 14, 2004, four people were struck by flying debris while riding the coaster. Reports indicated that a metal cable frayed during launch, shearing off shards of metal that struck the riders. The injuries were mainly arm abrasions, with one passenger experiencing cuts to the face. They were treated at the park 's first aid station, and two later sought further medical attention.
On August 7, 2016, two people were treated for minor injuries when the launch cable detached from the ride. The ride was closed for the following day while the park and Ohio state officials investigated the incident.
In September 2017, a report with photos surfaced that the braking system on the launch side of the track may have been damaged, causing the ride to close indefinitely. Cedar Point did not acknowledge the incident and stated the closure was for maintenance reasons.
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when did the chevy equinox change body style | Chevrolet Equinox - wikipedia
The Chevrolet Equinox is a Midsize (2004 - 2017 models) or compact (2018 present models) crossover SUV from Chevrolet based on General Motors 's Theta unibody platform, and introduced in 2004 for the 2005 model year.
The Chevrolet Equinox was introduced in 2004 for the 2005 model year. Originally, the Equinox was shown at the 2003 Detroit Auto Show.
The Pontiac Torrent was introduced in 2005 for the 2006 model year. The Pontiac Torrent was originally shown at the 2005 Los Angeles Auto Show.
Riding on the GM Theta platform, the unibody is mechanically similar to the Saturn Vue and the Suzuki XL7. However, the Equinox and the Torrent are larger than the Vue, riding on a 112.5 in (2,858 mm) wheelbase, 5.9 in (150 mm) longer than the Vue. Front - wheel drive is standard, with optional all - wheel drive. They are not designed for serious off - roading like the truck - based Chevrolet Tahoe and Chevrolet TrailBlazer.
For the 2006 model year, GM updated the Equinox for the first time, as GM badges were added on the front doors.
The first generation Equinox and Torrent were produced exclusively at the CAMI Automotive GM / Suzuki joint venture plant in Ingersoll, Ontario, Canada. The 3.4 L LNJ V6 engine is made in China (by Shanghai GM), while the Aisin AF33 transmission is made in Japan. Starting with the 2008 model year, the Equinox Sport and Pontiac GXP were available with a 3.6 L V6 engine that was made in the United States. Production ended in May 2009.
The Chevrolet Equinox was not sold in Mexico during the 2009 model year.
While the Torrent shares its basic body structure and mechanicals with the Equinox, it does have a different front and rear styling. The suspension (FE2) and electronic power steering were both modified to feel firmer and sportier.
The Torrent was discontinued after the 2009 model year as part of the discontinuation of the Pontiac brand, with the last one rolling off the assembly line on September 2, 2009. A Buick Theta crossover SUV was to be made, effectively taking place of the Pontiac Torrent. Instead, GM replaced the Torrent with the GMC Terrain, which shares the Theta platform with the second generation Equinox.
For the 2008 and 2009 model years, GM offered sportier versions of the Equinox and Torrent; called Sport and GXP, respectively. Featuring the new 3.6 LY7 DOHC V6 engine paired with a new 6 - speed automatic transmission (with Manual Tap Up / Down shifting capability). This larger and more powerful (264 hp (197 kW) or 40 % increase) engine allowed acceleration from 0 to 60 mph (97 km / h) in under seven seconds.
These models also received a 1 in (25 mm) lowered ride height with a performance - tuned suspension and unique front and rear body kits. The lower stance is accented by the 18 inch 5 - spoke chrome wheels and the absence of the roof rack, giving them a smoother design flow compared to the standard models. The GXP had twin hood scoops, hydraulic power - assisted steering (as opposed to the electric power - assisted standard Torrent), improved interior trim with unique gauges, and a dual chrome - tipped exhaust.
Optional features included navigation, heated sport leather seats, DVD entertainment system, a sunroof and all - wheel drive. GM stated the Equinox Sport was the first vehicle to reflect its more cautious naming standards. Instead of using the Super Sport badge as it had in the past on higher performance vehicles (such as this one), GM opted to reserve the SS nomenclature for special models worthy of its namesake. GM also prominently promoted the GXP in television advertisements by touting its horsepower advantage over the BMW X3, in an effort to brand Pontiac more as a direct, low - cost rival to BMW.
An Equinox LTZ model was added. It is differentiated by its 17 - inch chrome - clad aluminum wheels, bright chrome door handles and bright chrome luggage rack side rail inserts. Standard interior features include heated front seats, leather seating inserts, head curtain side impact air bags, AM / FM stereo with six - disc in - dash CD changer and MP3 CD playback capability, and a Pioneer premium seven - speaker audio system. Equinox LTZ came with the same ride and handling package as LS and LT models.
Changes to 2008 Equinox and Torrent models included the relocation of the compass readout from the inside rearview mirror to the driver information center (on models so - equipped), and three new exterior colors: Navy Blue Metallic, Black Granite Metallic, and Golden Teal Metallic.
OnStar was standard on the 2008 Equinox and Torrent. This system included for Turn - by - Turn Navigation, the first factory - installed, fully integrated GPS navigation system from OnStar. The 2008 models included an enhanced ride and handling package with stiffer shocks, bushings, and tuned spring rates. Four - wheel disc brakes with ABS and tire pressure monitoring system was standard.
An Electronic Trailer Sway Control was introduced that integrated into the standard StabiliTrak system. This can detect the occurrence of trailer sway that may be caused by improper trailer weight balance or excessive vehicle speed. If the trailer begins to sway, StabiliTrak will apply brakes individually, independent of the driver controlling the brake pedal, to assist stabilizing the vehicle. Under these conditions a light will flash to signal the driver to reduce vehicle speed. If trailer sway continues, the system will reduce engine torque to reduce the speed of the vehicle.
Head curtain side air bags were optional.
For the 2008 model year, in tribute to the Vancouver 2010 Winter Olympic Games, the Equinox and Torrent each received a special edition; the Team Canada Edition and the Podium Edition, respectively. This package added chrome - clad wheels, sunroof, premium sound system, and special badging. These trims were sold only in Canada.
The second generation Equinox was announced by GM on December 21, 2008, and debuted at the 2009 North American International Auto Show in Detroit. The 2010 Equinox went on sale in June 2009. It is built on a stiffened version of the same "Theta '' platform used in the previous model. The second generation Equinox was built with a pair of upgraded gasoline direct injection engines, with better fuel economy claimed by GM. Earlier 2010 models had the GM badges on the front doors, but were later deleted. Marketing of Chevrolet Equinox resumed in Mexico during late November 2009, for the 2010 model year after a year of absence. Sales of the Chevrolet Equinox to Mexico were stopped after the 2011 model year. However, in October 2015 the Equinox was reintroduced in Mexico to replace the Captiva Sport for the 2016 model year.
The second generation Equinox is available standard with a 2.4 - liter straight - 4 engine produced in Tonawanda, New York and Spring Hill, Tennessee, with a 3.0 - liter V6 engine is available as an option. Both powertrains contain six - speed automatics and optional all - wheel - drive systems, with front - wheel - drive being standard.
The second generation Equinox is Chevrolet 's third best - selling vehicle in North America, after the Silverado and Cruze, respectively.
For the 2013 model year, a new direct - injected 3.6 L V - 6 became available on LT and LTZ models, providing 301 horsepower (225 kW) and 272 lb. - ft. of torque (369 Nm). This engine offered 14 percent more horsepower and 22 percent more torque than the previous 3.0 L V - 6, with the same EPA - estimated fuel economy. A new FE2 suspension package was offered, matched with the 3.6 L V - 6 and packaged with 18 - inch or 19 - inch chrome - clad wheels on LTZ models. The 2013 model year introduced Chevrolet MyLink telematics system to the Equinox.
Additional new features for 2013 models included a dual - player DVD entertainment system, a Power convenience package, a safety package with lane departure warning system, forward collision warning and rear park assist, as well as three new exterior colors; Champagne Silver Metallic, Atlantis Metallic and Tungsten Metallic.
For the 2014 model year, chrome - clad wheels became standard on LTZ models, and two new exterior colors, Red Rock Metallic and Silver Topaz Metallic became available.
The 2015 model year saw the addition of OnStar with 4G LTE and built - in Wi - Fi hotspot, which included a 3GB / three - month data trial, standard on LT and LTZ models, with navigation available on LTZ and 2LT. Blue Velvet Metallic and Sea Grass Metallic were added as the list of available exterior colors.
For 2016, the Chevrolet Equinox received its first mid-cycle refresh along with its cousin the GMC Terrain, which was unveiled at the 2015 Chicago Auto Show on February 12, 2015. The refreshed Equinox received a new grille, headlights and front fascia as well as reworked tail lights. In the interior, the Equinox gained a new gear selector, a second storage shelf underneath the dashboard, as well as deletion of the door lock buttons from the dashboard. A new level trim, L, was introduced as the base level, as LS was made the second level, followed by LT and another new trim Premier (replacing LTZ for 2017). Both LT1, LT2, and LTZ level trims were discontinued. Premier took the place of LTZ.
More features are in LTZ and LS trims, while LT is unchanged from 2015. However, the OnStar delete feature was removed along with the discontinuation of five color palates, the CD / AM / FM / MP3 / WMA Playback audio system, the rear seat entertainment system and one set of 19 - inch chrome wheels. In its place are the Chevrolet MyLink system that became standard on all trims, four new color palates, and new 17 - and 18 - inch wheel trims.
Skepticism about the Equinox 's EPA fuel economy ratings has been raised after a number of road tests at the model 's launch achieved 20 to 30 % lower fuel economy than the official EPA ratings. After achieving 18.8 mpg (12.5 L / 100 km; 22.6 mpg) in a road test, Edmunds InsideLine stated, "... our testing did n't come close to achieving (the EPA 's numbers), even though we 're usually within 1 mpg of the EPA combined number. '' Car and Driver recorded another 18 mpg (13 L / 100 km; 22 mpg) figure and noted its "... fuel economy that wo n't live up to the 22 mpg (11 L / 100 km; 26 mpg) / 32 mpg (7.4 L / 100 km; 38 mpg) EPA ratings in real - world use... ''. Green Car Reports recorded as much as 25.8 mpg (9.1 L / 100 km; 31.0 mpg) on a road trip, driving almost exclusively highway miles in "Eco '' mode; this is about 20 % below the published highway EPA rating. AutoWeek only averaged 23 mpg (10 L / 100 km; 28 mpg). The Truth About Cars published an editorial suggesting that GM "inflated '' the Equinox 's fuel economy ratings for public relations purposes and that the trip computer inaccurately reports fuel economy reported to the driver.
Motorweek, however, managed to achieve 29.3 mpg (8.0 L / 100 km; 35.2 mpg) with their test car during mixed driving. LeftlaneNews.com was also able to average 28 mpg (8.4 L / 100 km; 34 mpg) average in mixed city and highway driving.
Chevrolet unveiled the third - generation Equinox on the autumnal equinox on September 22, 2016. Gasoline - powered variants of the 2018 Chevrolet Equinox went on sale in early 2017, while diesel - powered variants arrived in autumn 2017.
The third - generation Equinox is available with up to three engine choices. Gasoline engines are identical to the 2016 Chevrolet Malibu: a 1.5 L turbocharged inline four - cylinder (I4) engine that produces 170 horsepower (12 hp less than the 2.4 L engine in the previous Equinox but more torque), a 2.0 L turbocharged I4 engine that produces 252 horsepower (48 hp less than the 3.6 L V6 engine in the previous Equinox), or a 1.6 L turbo - diesel I4 engine that produces 136 horsepower (the latter will also be available in future Chevrolet Cruze models as well). The 3.6 L V6 engine option did not carry on to the third generation. The 2.0 L unit will also be paired with a nine - speed automatic transmission.
New safety features introduced in the third - generation Equinox include a surround - view camera, forward collision warning, low - speed automatic braking, a Safety Alert Seat that uses vibration pulses to help alert the driver and avoid crashes, as well as a Rear Seat Alert system that alerts drivers who had opened the back door at the start of a trip to check the back seat once they get to their destination, a feature first introduced on the 2017 GMC Acadia.
Chevrolet has released preliminary specifications for the 2018 Equinox. The third - generation Equinox will be available in four distinct trim levels: L, LS, LT, and Premier, all of which in the United States will only offer a single engine option (1.5 L Turbocharged Inline Four - Cylinder: I4). Each trim level will feature its own list of standard equipment:
L / 1SM: 1.5 L Turbocharged Inline Four - Cylinder (I4) engine, six - speed automatic transmission, Seventeen - inch all - season tires, seventeen - inch aluminum alloy wheels, Chevrolet MyLink infotainment system (Seven - inch (7.0 ") color touch - screen display, A / M-F / M radio, Bluetooth with A2DP wireless streaming stereo audio, Apple CarPlay and Android Auto, USB integration, and OnStar 4G LTE connectivity), rear view backup camera system, six - speaker audio system, power windows and door locks, keyless entry, keyless access system, keyless ignition with push - button start, and premium cloth seating surfaces. There are no available options for this trim, being the "base '' Chevrolet Equinox trim. The base trim is available only with Front - Wheel - Drive (FWD).
LS / 1LS: Sixteen - inch compact spare tire with steel spare wheel. Available options are limited for this trim, being one of the less - expensive Chevrolet Equinox trims.
LT / 1LT: SiriusXM Satellite Radio, power - adjustable front driver 's bucket seat, High Intensity Discharge (HID) front head lamps, LED rear tail lamps, and leather - wrapped transmission gear selector. Available options include an eight - inch (8.0 ") Chevrolet MyLink infotainment system, and advanced driver assistance technologies.
Premier / 1LZ: Eighteen - inch all - season tires, Eighteen - inch aluminum alloy wheels Chevrolet MyLink infotainment system (Eight - inch (8.0 ") color touch - screen display, AM - FM radio, HD Radio, SiriusXM Satellite Radio, Bluetooth with A2DP streaming stereo audio, Apple CarPlay and Android Auto, wireless charging capabilities, USB integration, and OnStar 4G LTE connectivity), remote vehicle starter system, leather - trimmed seating surfaces, heated dual front bucket seats, rear park assist system, leather - wrapped steering wheel, front - mounted fog lamps, LED front headlamps and rear tail lamps, and power rear tailgate. Available options include a GPS navigation radio, a Bose premium seven - speaker audio system, and advanced driver assistance technologies.
Also there will be one appearance package available on the Equinox known as the Redline Edition. The Redline Edition is only available on the LT trim without the panoramic sunroof or diesel engine. The Redline Edition will be available in October 2017.
Holden will receive a RHD Equinox for Australia, which will be built in Canada alongside the Chevrolet version and offer the same features, with some customized additions exclusive to Holden. The Holden Equinox will arrive in Australian dealer showrooms in December 2017, where it is expected to replace the Captiva in the small SUV segment.
The Chevrolet Equinox Fuel cell vehicle uses hydrogen for fuel with water as its only exhaust. The Equinox Fuel Cell uses the fourth - generation hydrogen technology found in the Chevrolet Sequel concept, which was unveiled in September 2009. The fuel cell is designed for only 50,000 miles (80,000 km) of driving, but is engineered to be operable in subfreezing temperatures throughout its life. GM states that the Equinox Fuel Cell is about 500 pounds (230 kg) heavier than the original Equinox and has one inch less ground clearance. To reduce weight, it has aluminum doors and a carbon fiber hood. It uses headlights from the Pontiac Torrent.
A dashboard mounted screen calculates the fuel savings to that of a gasoline - powered Equinox. It also includes a kilowatt meter and a fuel cell energy display. The fuel cell has four vapor outlets that replace the exhaust pipe. Three carbon - fiber fuel tanks store up to a maximum of 9.25 pounds (4.2 kg) of gaseous hydrogen at 10,000 psi (70 MPa), and give the Equinox a range of 200 miles (320 km). The Equinox Fuel Cell is certified by the EPA as a zero - emission vehicle (ZEV). GM built 115 Chevrolet Equinox Fuel Cell vehicles and deployed them in 2007 -- 2008 in several target areas including New York and California as part of a comprehensive plan dubbed "Project Driveway ''.
The Equinox Fuel Cell includes safety features such as ABS, traction control system, and GM 's OnStar telematics service, which offers drivers advice on operating the cars as well as information on nearby hydrogen filling stations. The car meets all 2007 federal safety standards.
Motor Trend assessed the vehicle 's performance as nearly the same as the 3.6 litre gasoline powered equivalent, while bemoaning the dearth of high pressure hydrogen filling stations near Riverside, California in 2008.
In 2013, Nat G CNG Solutions and AGA Systems announced that they had begun offering a Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) version of the Chevy Equinox and the GMC Terrain using the 2.4 L Direct Injection engine. The natural gas version is a "bi-fuel '' CNG vehicle, meaning it runs on either gasoline or natural gas, giving it extended range. The Terrain / Equinox were the first direct injection natural gas vehicles ever approved by the US EPA.
Silver Eagle Distributors, a distributor of Anheuser - Busch products, was the launch customer for the natural gas version with an initial order of up to 100 of the natural gas GMC Terrains. CenterPoint Energy was an early customer of the natural gas Chevy Equinox.
The CNG version was available for newly purchased Equinox through select dealers or as a retrofit on 2013 and 2014 models. Nat G CNG Solutions offered the vehicle in two options: a two - seater "cargo version '' and a five - seat "passenger version. '' The cargo version has an 837 - mile combined gasoline / natural gas (9.2 gge of CNG) while the passenger version has a 775 - mile combined highway range (6.8 gge of CNG).
The companies claimed that the natural gas version had tested at the EPA lab at 31 mpg highway on natural gas and had achieved a Bin 3 emissions equivalent to the Toyota Prius.
Amp Electric Vehicles sells an all - electric conversion of the Chevrolet Equinox. They have sold their first electric Equinox to Dayton Power & Light, and had a five - year, 1,000 SUV order from Northern Lights Energy in Iceland.
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in which countries would you most likely see a blue jay | Blue jay - wikipedia
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The blue jay (Cyanocitta cristata) is a passerine bird in the family Corvidae, native to North America. It is resident through most of eastern and central United States, although western populations may be migratory. Resident populations are also found in Newfoundland, Canada, while breeding populations can be found in southern Canada. It breeds in both deciduous and coniferous forests, and is common near and in residential areas. It is predominantly blue with a white chest and underparts, and a blue crest. It has a black, U-shaped collar around its neck and a black border behind the crest. Sexes are similar in size and plumage, and plumage does not vary throughout the year. Four subspecies of the blue jay are recognized.
The blue jay mainly feeds on nuts and seeds such as acorns, soft fruits, arthropods, and occasionally small vertebrates. It typically gleans food from trees, shrubs, and the ground, though it sometimes hawks insects from the air. Like squirrels, blue jays are known to hide nuts for later consumption. It builds an open cup nest in the branches of a tree, which both sexes participate in constructing. The clutch can contain two to seven eggs, which are blueish or light brown with brown spots. Young are altricial, and are brooded by the female for 8 -- 12 days after hatching. They may remain with their parents for one to two months.
The bird 's name derives from its noisy, garrulous nature. It is sometimes called a "jaybird ''.
The blue jay was first described as Pica glandaria cærulea cristata in English naturalist Mark Catesby 's 1731 publication of Natural History of Carolina, Florida, and the Bahamas. It was later described as Corvus cristatus in Carl Linnaeus ' 1758 edition of Systema Naturae. In the 19th century, the jay was described by French ornithologist Charles Lucien Bonaparte in 1838 as Cyanocorax cristatus in A geographical and comparative list of the birds of Europe and North America, and given its modern scientific name Cyanocitta cristata by Hugh Edwin Strickland in 1845. The genus name Cyanocitta derives from the Greek words ' kyaneos ' (blue) and the ' kitta ' and ' kissa ' (chattering bird, jay), and the term ' blue chatterer ' refers to the bright blue plumage of the head, nape, back, and tail of the bird. The specific name cristata (crested, tufted) derives from Latin referring to the prominent blue crest of the jay.
The blue jay measures 22 -- 30 cm (9 -- 12 in) from bill to tail and weighs 70 -- 100 g (2.5 -- 3.5 oz), with a wingspan of 34 -- 43 cm (13 -- 17 in). Jays from Connecticut averaged 92.4 g (3.26 oz) in mass, while jays from southern Florida averaged 73.7 g (2.60 oz). There is a pronounced crest on the head, a crown of feathers, which may be raised or lowered according to the bird 's mood. When excited or aggressive, the crest will be fully raised. When frightened, the crest bristles outwards, brushlike. When the bird is feeding among other jays or resting, the crest is flattened on the head.
Its plumage is lavender - blue to mid-blue in the crest, back, wings, and tail, and its face is white. The underside is off - white and the neck is collared with black which extends to the sides of the head. The wing primaries and tail are strongly barred with black, sky - blue and white. The bill, legs, and eyes are all black. Males and females are almost identical, but the male is slightly larger.
As with most other blue - hued birds, the blue jay 's colouration is not derived from pigments but is the result of light interference due to the internal structure of the feathers; if a blue feather is crushed, the blue disappears because the structure is destroyed. This is referred to as structural colouration.
The blue jay occurs from southern Canada through the eastern and central United States south to Florida and northeastern Texas. The western edge of the range stops where the arid pine forest and scrub habitat of the closely related Steller 's jay (C. stelleri) begins. Recently, the range of the blue jay has extended northwestwards so that it is now a rare but regularly seen winter visitor along the northern US and southern Canadian Pacific Coast. As the two species ' ranges now overlap, C. cristata may sometimes hybridize with Steller 's jay. The increase in trees throughout the Great Plains during the past century due to fire suppression and tree planting facilitated the western range expansion of the blue jay as well as range expansions of many other species of birds.
The northernmost subspecies C. c. bromia is migratory, subject to necessity. It may withdraw several hundred kilometres south in the northernmost parts of its range. Thousands of blue jays have been observed to migrate in flocks along the Great Lakes and Atlantic coasts. It migrates during the daytime, in loose flocks of 5 to 250 birds. Much about their migratory behavior remains a mystery. Some are present throughout winter in all parts of their range. Young jays may be more likely to migrate than adults, but many adults also migrate. Some individual jays migrate south one year, stay north the next winter, and then migrate south again the next year. To date, no one has concretely worked out why they migrate when they do. Likely, it is related to weather conditions and how abundant the winter food sources are, which can determine whether other northern birds will move south.
The blue jay occupies a variety of habitats within its large range, from the pine woods of Florida to the spruce - fir forests of northern Ontario. It is less abundant in denser forests, preferring mixed woodlands with oaks and beeches. It has expertly adapted to human activity, occurring in parks and residential areas, and can adapt to wholesale deforestation with relative ease if human activity creates other means for the jays to get by.
Four subspecies are generally accepted, though the variation within this species is rather subtle and essentially clinal. No firm boundaries can be drawn between the inland subspecies. The ranges of the coastal races are better delimited.
Cyanocitta cristata cristata in Johnston County, North Carolina
C. c. cristata in Ash, North Carolina
C. c. cyanotephra in DeSoto National Wildlife Refuge, Iowa
C. c. semplei, a small form, in Collier County, Florida
C. c. bromia in Muskoka Lakes, Ontario
C. c. bromia, Northern blue jay, juvenile, in Ontario, Canada
C. c. bromia, Northern blue jay in Ontario, Canada
The blue jay is a noisy, bold and aggressive passerine. It is a moderately slow flier (roughly 32 -- 40 km / h (20 -- 25 mph)) when unprovoked. It flies with body and tail held level, with slow wing beats. Due to its slow flying speeds, this species makes easy prey for hawks and owls when flying in open areas. Virtually all the raptorial birds sympatric in distribution with the blue jay may prey upon it, especially swift bird - hunting specialists such as the Accipiter hawks. Diverse predators may prey on jay eggs and young up to their fledging stage, including tree squirrels, snakes, cats, crows, raccoons, opossums, other jays and possibly many of the same birds of prey who attack adults.
The blue jay can be beneficial to other bird species, as it may chase predatory birds, such as hawks and owls, and will scream if it sees a predator within its territory. It has also been known to sound an alarm call when hawks or other dangers are near, and smaller birds often recognize this call and hide themselves away accordingly. It may occasionally impersonate the calls of raptors, especially those of the red - tailed and red - shouldered hawks, possibly to test if a hawk is in the vicinity, though also possibly to scare off other birds that may compete for food sources. It may also be aggressive towards humans who come close to its nest, and if an owl roosts near the nest during the daytime the blue jay mobs it until it takes a new roost. However, blue jays have also been known to attack or kill other smaller birds and sleeping, foliage - roosting bat species such as Lasiurus borealis. Jays are very territorial birds, and they will chase others from a feeder for an easier meal. Additionally, the blue jay may raid other birds ' nests, stealing eggs, chicks, and nests. However, this may not be as common as is typically thought, as only 1 % of food matter in one study was bird material. Despite this, other passerines may still mob jays who come within their breeding territories.
Blue jays, like other corvids, are highly curious and are considered intelligent birds. Young individuals playfully snatch brightly coloured or reflective objects, such as bottle caps or pieces of aluminum foil, and carry them around until they lose interest. While not confirmed to have engaged in tool use in the wild, blue jays in captivity have been observed using strips of newspaper as tools to obtain food, while captive fledglings have been observed attempting to open the doors of their cages.
Blue jays have strong black bills which they use for cracking nuts, usually while holding them with their feet, and for eating corn, grains and seeds. Its food is sought both on the ground and in trees and includes virtually all known types of plant and animal sources, such as acorns and beech mast, weed seeds, grain, fruits and other berries, peanuts, bread, meat, small invertebrates of many types, scraps in town parks, bird - table food and rarely eggs and nestlings. Blue jays will sometimes cache food, though to what extent differs widely among individuals. Although seemingly contentious in their general behavior, Blue jays are frequently subservient to other medium - sized birds who visit bird - feeders. In Florida, Blue jays were dominated at feeders by Eastern gray squirrels, Florida scrub - jays, common grackles and red - headed woodpeckers, all of which were occasionally observed to aggressively prevent the jays from feeding.
The mating season begins in mid-March, peaks in mid-April to May, and extends into July. Any suitable tree or large bush may be used for nesting, though an evergreen is preferred. The nest is preferentially built at a height in the trees of 3 to 10 m (9.8 to 32.8 ft). It is cup - shaped and composed of twigs, small roots, bark strips, moss, other plant material, cloth, paper, and feathers, with occasional mud added to the cup.
Blue jays are not very picky about nesting locations. If no better place is available -- e.g. in a heavily deforested area -- they will even use places like the large mailboxes typical of the rural United States. They also appropriate nests of other mid-sized songbirds as long as these are placed in suitable spots; American robin nests are commonly used by blue jays, for example.
Blue jays typically form monogamous pair bonds for life. Both sexes build the nest and rear the young, though only the female broods them. The male feeds the female while she is brooding the eggs. There are usually between 3 and 6 (averaging 4 or 5) eggs laid and incubated over 16 -- 18 days. The young fledge usually between 17 -- 21 days after hatching.
After the juveniles fledge, the family travels and forages together until early fall, when the young birds disperse to avoid competition for food during the winter. Sexual maturity is reached after one year of age. Blue jays have been recorded to live for more than 26 years in captivity and one wild jay was found to have been around 17 and a half years old. A more common lifespan for wild birds that survive to adulthood is around 7 years. Beyond predation and the occasional collision with man - made objects, a common cause of mortality in recent decades has been the West Nile Virus, which corvids as a whole seem especially susceptible to. However, despite several major local declines, overall blue jays have not seemed to have been depleted by the disease.
Blue jays can make a large variety of sounds, and individuals may vary perceptibly in their calling style. Like other corvids, they may learn to mimic human speech. Blue jays can also copy the cries of local hawks so well that it is sometimes difficult to tell which it is. Their voice is typical of most jays in being varied, but the most commonly recognized sound is the alarm call, which is a loud, almost gull - like scream. There is also a high - pitched jayer - jayer call that increases in speed as the bird becomes more agitated. This particular call can be easily confused with the chickadee 's song because of the slow starting chick - ah - dee - ee. Blue jays will use these calls to band together to mob potential predators such as hawks and drive them away from the jays ' nests.
Blue jays also have quiet, almost subliminal calls which they use among themselves in proximity. One of the most distinctive calls of this type is often referred to as the "rusty pump '' owing to its squeaky resemblance to the sound of an old hand - operated water pump. The blue jay (and other corvids) are distinct from most other songbirds for using their call as a song.
In old African American folklore of the southern United States, the blue jay was held to be a servant of the Devil, and "was not encountered on a Friday as he was fetching sticks down to Hell; furthermore, he was so happy and chirpy on a Saturday as he was relieved to return from Hell ''.
The blue jay was adopted as the team symbol of the Toronto Blue Jays Major League Baseball team, as well as some of their minor league affiliates. Their mascot is Ace, also a blue jay.
The blue jay is featured in Mark Twain 's "A Tramp Abroad '', Chapter 3 "Baker 's Blue - Jay Yarn ''. The blue jay is also the official mascot for Johns Hopkins University.
One of the main protagonists of the Cartoon Network show Regular Show is an anthropomorphic blue jay named Mordecai.
The blue jay is the provincial bird of the province of Prince Edward Island in Canada.
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bb king the thrill is gone album version | The Thrill Is Gone - wikipedia
"The Thrill Is Gone '' is a slow minor - key blues song written by West Coast blues musician Roy Hawkins and Rick Darnell in 1951. Hawkins ' recording of the song reached number six in the Billboard R&B chart in 1951. In 1970, "The Thrill Is Gone '' became a major hit for B.B. King. Subsequently, many blues and other artists have recorded their interpretations of the song.
B.B. King recorded his version of "The Thrill Is Gone '' in June 1969 for his album Completely Well, released the same year. King 's version is a slow 12 - bar blues notated in the key of B minor in 4 / 4 time. The song 's polished production and use of strings marked a departure from both the original song and King 's previous material. When released as a single in December 1969, the song became one of the biggest hits of King 's career, appearing in the R&B chart at number three and the Billboard Hot 100 pop chart at number 15 and became one of his signature songs.
B.B. King 's recording earned him a Grammy Award for Best Male R&B Vocal Performance in 1970 and a Grammy Hall of Fame award in 1998. King 's version of the song was also placed at number 183 on Rolling Stone magazine 's list of the 500 greatest songs of all time. Memorable live versions of the song were included on King 's albums Live in Cook County Jail (1971), Bobby Bland and B.B. King Together Again... Live (1976), and Live at San Quentin (1991).
"The Thrill Is Gone '' has been recorded by numerous artists since B.B. King 's hit version, including Aretha Franklin from the album Spirit in the Dark (1970) that was released as a B - side to her single, "Spirit in the Dark ''; Little Milton from Waiting for Little Milton (1973); Chicken Shack / Stan Webb from Poor Boy (The Deram Years 1972 -- 1974) (1973); Luther Allison from Live in Paris (1979); the Crusaders from Royal Jam (1981); Barbara Mandrell from... In Black and White (1982); Jerry Garcia and David Grisman from their eponymous album (1991); Tuxedomoon 's Steven Allan Brown sing his version of the Roy Hawkins and B.B. King cult classics which is called "The Thrill '' from his third album from 1991 's Half Out (1991); the Manhattan Transfer from Tonin ' (1995); Dishwalla from the soundtrack to Things to Do in Denver When You 're Dead (1995); Diamanda Galas on her live album Malediction & Prayer (1998); Willie Nelson from Milk Cow Blues (2000); the Marshall Tucker Band from Stompin ' Room Only (2003, recorded from a Volunteer Jam show in 1975); Pappo from Buscando un amor (2003); and Leslie West from Got Blooze (2005). M.C. Hammer 's song by the same name from his Feel My Power album samples King 's song. Most recently covered by Christone "Kingfish '' Ingram on the soundtrack for season two of Netflix 's Luke Cage.
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when did we land on the moon date | Moon landing - Wikipedia
Luna programme (USSR) Chang'e 3 (China)
Surveyor program (USA) Apollo program (USA)
A Moon landing is the arrival of a spacecraft on the surface of the Moon. This includes both manned and unmanned (robotic) missions. The first human - made object to reach the surface of the Moon was the Soviet Union 's Luna 2 mission, on 13 September 1959.
The United States ' Apollo 11 was the first manned mission to land on the Moon, on 20 July 1969. There have been six manned U.S. landings (between 1969 and 1972) and numerous unmanned landings, with no soft landings happening from 22 August 1976 until 14 December 2013.
To date, the United States is the only country to have successfully conducted manned missions to the Moon, with the last departing the lunar surface in December 1972.
After the unsuccessful attempt by the Luna 1 to land on the moon in 1959, the Soviet Union performed the first hard (unpowered) moon landing later that same year with the Luna 2 spacecraft, a feat the U.S. duplicated in 1962 with Ranger 4. Since then, twelve Soviet and U.S. spacecraft have used braking rockets to make soft landings and perform scientific operations on the lunar surface, between 1966 and 1976. In 1966 the USSR accomplished the first soft landings and took the first pictures from the lunar surface during the Luna 9 and Luna 13 missions. The U.S. followed with five unmanned Surveyor soft landings.
The Soviet Union achieved the first unmanned lunar soil sample return with the Luna 16 probe on 24 September 1970. This was followed by Luna 20 and Luna 24 in 1972 and 1976, respectively. Following the failure at launch in 1969 of the first Lunokhod, Luna E-8 No. 201, the Luna 17 and Luna 21 were successful unmanned lunar rover missions in 1970 and 1973.
Many missions were failures at launch. In addition, several unmanned landing missions achieved the Lunar surface but were unsuccessful, including: Luna 15, Luna 18, and Luna 23 all crashed on landing; and the U.S. Surveyor 4 lost all radio contact only moments before its landing.
More recently, other nations have crashed spacecraft on the surface of the Moon at speeds of around 8,000 kilometres per hour (5,000 mph), often at precise, planned locations. These have generally been end - of - life lunar orbiters that, because of system degradations, could no longer overcome perturbations from lunar mass concentrations ("masscons '') to maintain their orbit. Japan 's lunar orbiter Hiten impacted the Moon 's surface on 10 April 1993. The European Space Agency performed a controlled crash impact with their orbiter SMART - 1 on 3 September 2006.
Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) performed a controlled crash impact with its Moon Impact Probe (MIP) on 14 November 2008. The MIP was an ejected probe from the Indian Chandrayaan - 1 lunar orbiter and performed remote sensing experiments during its descent to the lunar surface.
The Chinese lunar orbiter Chang'e 1 executed a controlled crash onto the surface of the Moon on 1 March 2009. The rover mission Chang'e 3 was launched on 1 December 2013 and soft - landed on 14 December.
A total of twelve men have landed on the Moon. This was accomplished with two US pilot - astronauts flying a Lunar Module on each of six NASA missions across a 41 - month period starting on 20 July 1969 UTC, with Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin on Apollo 11, and ending on 14 December 1972 UTC with Gene Cernan and Jack Schmitt on Apollo 17. Cernan was the last to step off the lunar surface.
All Apollo lunar missions had a third crew member who remained on board the Command Module. The last three missions had a rover for increased mobility.
In order to go to the Moon, a spacecraft must first leave the gravity well of the Earth. The only practical way of accomplishing this currently is with a rocket. Unlike other airborne vehicles such as balloons or jets, a rocket is the only known form of propulsion which can continue to increase its speed at high altitudes in the vacuum outside the Earth 's atmosphere.
Upon approach of the target moon, a spacecraft will be drawn ever closer to its surface at increasing speeds due to gravity. In order to land intact it must decelerate to less than about 160 kilometres per hour (99 mph) and be ruggedized to withstand a "hard landing '' impact, or it must decelerate to negligible speed at contact for a "soft landing '' (which is the only viable option with human occupants). The first three attempts by the U.S. to perform a successful hard moon landing with a ruggedized seismometer package in 1962 all failed. The Soviets first achieved the milestone of a hard lunar landing with a ruggedized camera in 1966, followed only months later by the first unmanned soft lunar landing by the U.S.
The speed of a crash landing on its surface is typically between 70 and 100 % of the escape velocity of the target moon, and thus this is the total velocity which must be shed from the target moon 's gravitational attraction for a soft landing to occur. For Earth 's Moon, the escape velocity is 2.38 kilometres per second (1.48 mi / s). The change in velocity (referred to as a delta - v) is usually provided by a landing rocket, which must be carried into space by the original launch vehicle as part of the overall spacecraft. An exception is the soft moon landing on Titan carried out by the Huygens probe in 2005. As the moon with the thickest atmosphere, landings on Titan may be accomplished by using atmospheric entry techniques that are generally lighter in weight than a rocket with equivalent capability.
The Soviets succeeded in making the first crash landing on the Moon in 1959. Crash landings may occur because of malfunctions in a spacecraft, or they can be deliberately arranged for vehicles which do not have an onboard landing rocket. There have been many such moon crashes, often with their flight path controlled to impact at precise locations on the lunar surface. For example, during the Apollo program the S - IVB third stage of the Saturn V moon rocket as well as the spent ascent stage of the lunar module were deliberately crashed on the Moon several times to provide impacts registering as a moonquake on seismometers that had been left on the lunar surface. Such crashes were instrumental in mapping the internal structure of the Moon.
To return to Earth, the escape velocity of the Moon must be overcome for the spacecraft to escape the gravity well of the Moon. Rockets must be used to leave the Moon and return to space. Upon reaching Earth, atmospheric entry techniques are used to absorb the kinetic energy of a returning spacecraft and reduce its speed for safe landing. These functions greatly complicate a moon landing mission and lead to many additional operational considerations. Any moon departure rocket must first be carried to the Moon 's surface by a moon landing rocket, increasing the latter 's required size. The Moon departure rocket, larger moon landing rocket and any Earth atmosphere entry equipment such as heat shields and parachutes must in turn be lifted by the original launch vehicle, greatly increasing its size by a significant and almost prohibitive degree.
The intense efforts devoted in the 1960s to achieving first an unmanned and then ultimately a manned moon landing become easier to understand in the political context of its historical era. World War II had introduced many new and deadly innovations including blitzkrieg - style surprise attacks used in the invasion of Poland and in the attack on Pearl Harbor; the V - 2 rocket, a ballistic missile which killed thousands in attacks on London and Antwerp; and the atom bomb, which killed hundreds of thousands in the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. In the 1950s, tensions mounted between the two ideologically opposed superpowers of the United States and the Soviet Union that had emerged as victors in the conflict, particularly after the development by both countries of the hydrogen bomb.
Willy Ley wrote in 1957 that a rocket to the Moon "could be built later this year if somebody can be found to sign some papers ''. On 4 October 1957, the Soviet Union launched Sputnik 1 as the first artificial satellite to orbit the Earth and so initiated the Space Race. This unexpected event was a source of pride to the Soviets and shock to the U.S., who could now potentially be surprise attacked by nuclear - tipped Soviet rockets in under 30 minutes. Also, the steady beeping of the radio beacon aboard Sputnik 1 as it passed overhead every 96 minutes was widely viewed on both sides as effective propaganda to Third World countries demonstrating the technological superiority of the Soviet political system compared to that of the U.S. This perception was reinforced by a string of subsequent rapid - fire Soviet space achievements. In 1959, the R - 7 rocket was used to launch the first escape from Earth 's gravity into a solar orbit, the first crash impact onto the surface of the Moon, and the first photography of the never - before - seen far side of the Moon. These were the Luna 1, Luna 2, and Luna 3 spacecraft.
The U.S. response to these Soviet achievements was to greatly accelerate previously existing military space and missile projects and to create a civilian space agency, NASA. Military efforts were initiated to develop and produce mass quantities of intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) that would bridge the so - called missile gap and enable a policy of deterrence to nuclear war with the Soviets known as mutual assured destruction or MAD. These newly developed missiles were made available to civilians of NASA for various projects (which would have the added benefit of demonstrating the payload, guidance accuracy and reliabilities of U.S. ICBMs to the Soviets).
While NASA stressed peaceful and scientific uses for these rockets, their use in various lunar exploration efforts also had secondary goal of realistic, goal - oriented testing of the missiles themselves and development of associated infrastructure, just as the Soviets were doing with their R - 7.
After the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991, historical records were released to allow the true accounting of Soviet lunar efforts. Unlike the U.S. tradition of assigning a particular mission name in advance of a launch, the Soviets assigned a public "Luna '' mission number only if a launch resulted in a spacecraft going beyond Earth orbit. The policy had the effect of hiding Soviet Moon mission failures from public view. If the attempt failed in Earth orbit before departing for the Moon, it was frequently (but not always) given a "Sputnik '' or "Cosmos '' Earth - orbit mission number to hide its purpose. Launch explosions were not acknowledged at all.
In contrast to Soviet lunar exploration triumphs in 1959, success eluded initial U.S. efforts to reach the Moon with the Pioneer and Ranger programs. Fifteen consecutive U.S. unmanned lunar missions over a six - year period from 1958 to 1964 all failed their primary photographic missions; however, Rangers 4 and 6 successfully repeated the Soviet lunar impacts as part of their secondary missions.
Failures included three U.S. attempts in 1962 to hard land small seismometer packages released by the main Ranger spacecraft. These surface packages were to use retrorockets to survive landing, unlike the parent vehicle, which was designed to deliberately crash onto the surface. The final three Ranger probes performed successful high altitude lunar reconnaissance photography missions during intentional crash impacts between 2.62 and 2.68 kilometres per second (9,400 and 9,600 km / h).
Three different designs of Pioneer lunar probes were flown on three different modified ICBMs. Those flown on the Thor booster modified with an Able upper stage carried an infrared image scanning television system with a resolution of 1 milliradian to study the Moon 's surface, an ionization chamber to measure radiation in space, a diaphragm / microphone assembly to detect micrometeorites, a magnetometer, and temperature - variable resistors to monitor spacecraft internal thermal conditions. The first, a mission managed by the United States Air Force, exploded during launch; all subsequent Pioneer lunar flights had NASA as the lead management organization. The next two returned to Earth and burned up upon reentry into the atmosphere after achieved maximum altitudes of around 110,000 kilometres (68,000 mi) and 1,450 kilometres (900 mi), far short of the roughly 400,000 kilometres (250,000 mi) required to reach the vicinity of the Moon.
NASA then collaborated with the United States Army 's Ballistic Missile Agency to fly two extremely small cone - shaped probes on the Juno ICBM, carrying only photocells which would be triggered by the light of the Moon and a lunar radiation environment experiment using a Geiger - Müller tube detector. The first of these reached an altitude of only around 100,000 kilometres (62,000 mi), serendipitously gathering data that established the presence of the Van Allen radiation belts before reentering Earth 's atmosphere. The second passed by the Moon at a distance of more than 60,000 kilometres (37,000 mi), twice as far as planned and too far away to trigger either of the on - board scientific instruments, yet still becoming the first U.S. spacecraft to reach a solar orbit.
The final Pioneer lunar probe design consisted of four "paddlewheel '' solar panels extending from a one - meter diameter spherical spin - stabilized spacecraft body that was equipped to take images of the lunar surface with a television - like system, estimate the Moon 's mass and topography of the poles, record the distribution and velocity of micrometeorites, study radiation, measure magnetic fields, detect low frequency electromagnetic waves in space and use a sophisticated integrated propulsion system for maneuvering and orbit insertion as well. None of the four spacecraft built in this series of probes survived launch on its Atlas ICBM outfitted with an Able upper stage.
Following the unsuccessful Atlas - Able Pioneer probes, NASA 's Jet Propulsion Laboratory embarked upon an unmanned spacecraft development program whose modular design could be used to support both lunar and interplanetary exploration missions. The interplanetary versions were known as Mariners; lunar versions were Rangers. JPL envisioned three versions of the Ranger lunar probes: Block I prototypes, which would carry various radiation detectors in test flights to a very high Earth orbit that came nowhere near the Moon; Block II, which would try to accomplish the first Moon landing by hard landing a seismometer package; and Block III, which would crash onto the lunar surface without any braking rockets while taking very high resolution wide - area photographs of the Moon during their descent.
The Ranger 1 and 2 Block I missions were virtually identical. Spacecraft experiments included a Lyman - alpha telescope, a rubidium - vapor magnetometer, electrostatic analyzers, medium - energy - range particle detectors, two triple coincidence telescopes, a cosmic - ray integrating ionization chamber, cosmic dust detectors, and scintillation counters. The goal was to place these Block I spacecraft in a very high Earth orbit with an apogee of 110,000 kilometres (68,000 mi) and a perigee of 60,000 kilometres (37,000 mi).
From that vantage point, scientists could make direct measurements of the magnetosphere over a period of many months while engineers perfected new methods to routinely track and communicate with spacecraft over such large distances. Such practice was deemed vital to be assured of capturing high - bandwidth television transmissions from the Moon during a one - shot fifteen - minute time window in subsequent Block II and Block III lunar descents. Both Block I missions suffered failures of the new Agena upper stage and never left low Earth parking orbit after launch; both burned up upon reentry after only a few days.
The first attempts to perform a Moon landing took place in 1962 during the Rangers 3, 4 and 5 missions flown by the United States. All three Block II missions basic vehicles were 3.1 m high and consisted of a lunar capsule covered with a balsa wood impact - limiter, 650 mm in diameter, a mono - propellant mid-course motor, a retrorocket with a thrust of 5,050 pounds - force (22.5 kN), and a gold - and chrome - plated hexagonal base 1.5 m in diameter. This lander (code - named Tonto) was designed to provide impact cushioning using an exterior blanket of crushable balsa wood and an interior filled with incompressible liquid freon. A 42 kg (56 pounds) 30 - centimetre - diameter (0.98 ft) metal payload sphere floated and was free to rotate in a liquid freon reservoir contained in the landing sphere.
This payload sphere contained six silver - cadmium batteries to power a fifty - milliwatt radio transmitter, a temperature sensitive voltage controlled oscillator to measure lunar surface temperatures, and a seismometer that was designed with sensitivity high enough to detect the impact of a 5 lb (2.3 kg) meteorite on the opposite side of the Moon. Weight was distributed in the payload sphere so it would rotate in its liquid blanket to place the seismometer into an upright and operational position no matter what the final resting orientation of the external landing sphere. After landing, plugs were to be opened allowing the freon to evaporate and the payload sphere to settle into upright contact with the landing sphere. The batteries were sized to allow up to three months of operation for the payload sphere. Various mission constraints limited the landing site to Oceanus Procellarum on the lunar equator, which the lander ideally would reach 66 hours after launch.
No cameras were carried by the Ranger landers, and no pictures were to be captured from the lunar surface during the mission. Instead, the 3.1 metres (10 ft) Ranger Block II mother ship carried a 200 - scan - line television camera which was to capture images during the free - fall descent to the lunar surface. The camera was designed to transmit a picture every 10 seconds. Seconds before impact, at 5 and 0.6 kilometres (3.11 and 0.37 mi) above the lunar surface, the Ranger mother ships took picture (which may be viewed here).
Other instruments gathering data before the mother ship crashed onto the Moon were a gamma ray spectrometer to measure overall lunar chemical composition and a radar altimeter. The radar altimeter was to give a signal ejecting the landing capsule and its solid - fueled braking rocket overboard from the Block II mother ship. The braking rocket was to slow and the landing sphere to a dead stop at 330 metres (1,080 ft) above the surface and separate, allowing the landing sphere to free fall once more and hit the surface.
On Ranger 3, failure of the Atlas guidance system and a software error aboard the Agena upper stage combined to put the spacecraft on a course that would miss the Moon. Attempts to salvage lunar photography during a flyby of the Moon were thwarted by in - flight failure of the onboard flight computer. This was probably because of prior heat sterilization of the spacecraft by keeping it above the boiling point of water for 24 hours on the ground, to protect the Moon from being contaminated by Earth organisms. Heat sterilization was also blamed for subsequent in - flight failures of the spacecraft computer on Ranger 4 and the power subsystem on Ranger 5. Only Ranger 4 reached the Moon in an uncontrolled crash impact on the far side of the Moon.
Heat sterilization was discontinued for the final four Block III Ranger probes. These replaced the Block II landing capsule and its retrorocket with a heavier, more capable television system to support landing site selection for upcoming Apollo manned Moon landing missions. Six cameras were designed to take thousands of high - altitude photographs in the final twenty - minute period before crashing on the lunar surface. Camera resolution was 1,132 scan lines, far higher than the 525 lines found in a typical U.S. 1964 home television. While Ranger 6 suffered a failure of this camera system and returned no photographs despite an otherwise successful flight, the subsequent Ranger 7 mission to Mare Cognitum was a complete success.
Breaking the six - year string of failures in U.S. attempts to photograph the Moon at close range, the Ranger 7 mission was viewed as a national turning point and instrumental in allowing the key 1965 NASA budget appropriation to pass through the United States Congress intact without a reduction in funds for the Apollo manned Moon landing program. Subsequent successes with Ranger 8 and Ranger 9 further buoyed U.S. hopes.
The Luna 9 spacecraft, launched by the Soviet Union, performed the first successful soft Moon landing on 3 February, 1966. Airbags protected its 99 kilograms (218 lb) ejectable capsule which survived an impact speed of over 15 metres per second (54 km / h). Luna 13 duplicated this feat with a similar Moon landing on 24 December 1966. Both returned panoramic photographs that were the first views from the lunar surface.
Luna 16 was the first robotic probe to land on the Moon and safely return a sample of lunar soil back to Earth. It represented the first lunar sample return mission by the Soviet Union, and was the third lunar sample return mission overall, following the Apollo 11 and Apollo 12 missions. This mission was later successfully repeated by Luna 20 (1972) and Luna 24 (1976).
In 1970 and 1973 two Lunokhod ("Moonwalker '') robotic lunar rovers were delivered to the Moon, where they successfully operated for 10 and 4 months respectively, covering 10.5 km (Lunokhod 1) and 37 km (Lunokhod 2). These rover missions were in operation concurrently with the Zond and Luna series of Moon flyby, orbiter and landing missions.
The U.S. robotic Surveyor program was part of an effort to locate a safe site on the Moon for a human landing and test under lunar conditions the radar and landing systems required to make a true controlled touchdown. Five of Surveyor 's seven missions made successful unmanned Moon landings. Surveyor 3 was visited two years after its Moon landing by the crew of Apollo 12. They removed parts of it for examination back on Earth to determine the effects of long - term exposure to the lunar environment.
Within four months of each other in early 1966 the Soviet Union and the United States had accomplished successful Moon landings with unmanned spacecraft. To the general public both countries had demonstrated roughly equal technical capabilities by returning photographic images from the surface of the Moon. These pictures provided a key affirmative answer to the crucial question of whether or not lunar soil would support upcoming manned landers with their much greater weight.
However, the Luna 9 hard landing of a ruggedized sphere using airbags at a 50 kilometres (31 mi) - per - hour ballistic impact speed had much more in common with the failed 1962 Ranger landing attempts and their planned 160 kilometres (99 mi) - per - hour impacts than with the Surveyor 1 soft landing on three footpads using its radar - controlled, adjustable - thrust retrorocket. While Luna 9 and Surveyor 1 were both major national accomplishments, only Surveyor 1 had reached its landing site employing key technologies that would be needed for a manned flight. Thus as of mid-1966, the United States had begun to pull ahead of the Soviet Union in the so - called Space Race to land a man on the Moon.
Advances in other areas were necessary before manned spacecraft could follow unmanned ones to the surface of the Moon. Of particular importance was developing the expertise to perform flight operations in lunar orbit. Ranger, Surveyor and initial Luna Moon landing attempts all utilized flight paths from Earth that traveled directly to the lunar surface without first placing the spacecraft in a lunar orbit. Such direct ascents use a minimum amount of fuel for unmanned spacecraft on a one - way trip.
In contrast, manned vehicles need additional fuel after a lunar landing to enable a return trip back to Earth for the crew. Leaving this massive amount of required Earth - return fuel in lunar orbit until it is used later in the mission is far more efficient than taking such fuel down to the lunar surface in a Moon landing and then hauling it all back into space yet again, working against lunar gravity both ways. Such considerations lead logically to a lunar orbit rendezvous mission profile for a manned Moon landing.
Accordingly, beginning in mid-1966 both the U.S. and U.S.S.R. naturally progressed into missions which featured lunar orbit operations as a necessary prerequisite to a manned Moon landing. The primary goals of these initial unmanned orbiters were extensive photographic mapping of the entire lunar surface for the selection of manned landing sites and, for the Soviets, the checkout of radio communications gear that would be used in future soft landings.
An unexpected major discovery from initial lunar orbiters were vast volumes of dense materials beneath the surface of the Moon 's maria. Such mass concentrations ("mascons '') can send a manned mission dangerously off course in the final minutes of a Moon landing when aiming for a relatively small landing zone that is smooth and safe. Mascons were also found over a longer period of time to greatly disturb the orbits of low - altitude satellites around the Moon, making their orbits unstable and forcing an inevitable crash on the lunar surface in the relatively short period of months to a few years.
Controlling the location of impact for spent lunar orbiters can have scientific value. For example, in 1999 the NASA Lunar Prospector orbiter was deliberately targeted to impact a permanently shadowed area of Shoemaker Crater near the lunar south pole. It was hoped that energy from the impact would vaporize suspected shadowed ice deposits in the crater and liberate a water vapor plume that would be detectable from Earth. No such plume was observed. However, a small vial of ashes from the body of pioneer lunar scientist Eugene Shoemaker was delivered by the Lunar Prospector to the crater named in his honor -- currently the only human remains on the Moon.
Luna 10 became the first spacecraft to orbit the Moon on 3 April 1966.
It is possible to aim a spacecraft from Earth so that it will loop around the Moon and return to Earth without entering lunar orbit, following the so - called free return trajectory. Such circumlunar loop missions are simpler than lunar orbit missions because rockets for lunar orbit braking and Earth return are not required. However, a manned circumlunar loop trip poses significant challenges above and beyond those found in a manned low - Earth - orbit mission, offering valuable lessons in preparation for a manned Moon landing. Foremost among these are mastering the demands of re-entering the Earth 's atmosphere upon returning from the Moon.
Manned Earth - orbiting vehicles such as the Space Shuttle return to Earth from speeds of around 17,000 miles per hour (27,000 km / h; 7,600 m / s). Due to the effects of gravity, a vehicle returning from the Moon hits Earth 's atmosphere at a much higher speed of around 25,000 miles per hour (40,000 km / h; 11,000 m / s). The g - loading on astronauts during the resulting deceleration can be at the limits of human endurance even during a nominal reentry. Slight variations in the vehicle flight path and reentry angle during a return from the Moon can easily result in fatal levels of deceleration force.
Achieving a manned circumlunar loop flight prior to a manned lunar landing became a primary goal of the Soviets with their Zond spacecraft program. The first three Zonds were unmanned planetary probes; after that, the Zond name was transferred to a completely separate manned program. The initial focus of these later Zonds was extensive testing of required high - speed reentry techniques. This focus was not shared by the U.S., who chose instead to bypass the stepping stone of a manned circumlunar loop mission and never developed a separate spacecraft for this purpose.
Initial manned spaceflights in the early 1960s placed a single person in low Earth orbit during the Soviet Vostok and U.S. Mercury programs. A two - flight extension of the Vostok program known as Voskhod effectively used Vostok capsules with their ejection seats removed to achieve Soviet space firsts of multiple person crews in 1964 and spacewalks in early 1965. These capabilities were later demonstrated by the U.S. in ten Gemini low Earth orbit missions throughout 1965 and 1966, using a totally new second - generation spacecraft design that had little in common with the earlier Mercury. These Gemini missions went on to prove critical techniques for orbital rendezvous and docking that were crucial to a manned lunar landing mission profile.
After the end of the Gemini program, the Soviets Union began flying their second - generation Zond manned spacecraft in 1967 with the ultimate goal of looping a cosmonaut around the Moon and returning him immediately to Earth. The Zond spacecraft was launched with the simpler and already operational Proton launch rocket, unlike the parallel Soviet manned Moon landing effort also underway at the time based on third - generation Soyuz spacecraft requiring development of the advanced N - 1 booster. The Soviets thus believed they could achieve a manned Zond circumlunar flight years before a U.S. manned lunar landing and so score a propaganda victory. However, significant development problems delayed the Zond program and the success of the U.S. Apollo lunar landing program led to the eventual termination of the Zond effort.
Like Zond, Apollo Moon flights were generally launched on a free return trajectory that would return them to Earth via a circumlunar loop in the event that a Service Module malfunction failed to place them in lunar orbit as planned. This option was implemented after an explosion aboard the Apollo 13 mission in 1970, which is the only manned circumlunar loop mission flown to date.
Zond 5 was the first spacecraft to carry life from Earth to the vicinity of the Moon and return, initiating the final lap of the Space Race with its payload of turtles, insects, plants and bacteria. Despite the failure suffered in its final moments, the Zond 6 mission was reported by Soviet media as being a success as well. Although hailed worldwide as remarkable achievements, both of these Zond missions flew off - nominal reentry trajectories resulting in deceleration forces that would have been fatal to human crewmembers had they been aboard.
As a result, the Soviets secretly planned to continue unmanned Zond tests until their reliability to support manned flight had been demonstrated. However, due to NASA 's continuing problems with the lunar module, and because of CIA reports of a potential Soviet manned circumlunar flight in late 1968, NASA fatefully changed the flight plan of Apollo 8 from an Earth - orbit lunar module test to a lunar orbit mission scheduled for late December 1968.
In early December 1968 the launch window to the Moon opened for the Soviet launch site in Baikonur, giving the USSR their final chance to beat the US to the Moon. Cosmonauts went on alert and asked to fly the Zond spacecraft then in final countdown at Baikonur on the first manned trip to the Moon. Ultimately, however, the Soviet Politburo decided the risk of crew death was unacceptable given the combined poor performance to that point of Zond / Proton and so scrubbed the launch of a manned Soviet lunar mission. Their decision proved to be a wise one, since this unnumbered Zond mission was destroyed in another unmanned test when it was finally launched several weeks later.
By this time flights of the third generation U.S. Apollo spacecraft had begun. Far more capable than the Zond, the Apollo spacecraft had the necessary rocket power to slip into and out of lunar orbit and to make course adjustments required for a safe reentry during the return to Earth. The Apollo 8 mission carried out the first manned trip to the Moon on 24 December 1968, certifying the Saturn V booster for manned use and flying not a circumlunar loop but instead a full ten orbits around the Moon before returning safely to Earth. Apollo 10 then performed a full dress rehearsal of a manned Moon landing in May 1969. This mission orbited within 47,400 feet (14.4 km) altitude above the lunar surface, performing necessary low - altitude mapping of trajectory - altering mascons using a factory prototype lunar module that was too overweight to allow a successful landing. With the failure of the unmanned Soviet sample return Moon landing attempt Luna 15 in July 1969, the stage was set for Apollo 11.
Plans for manned Moon exploration originated during the Eisenhower administration. In a series of mid-1950s articles in Collier 's magazine, Wernher von Braun had popularized the idea of a manned expedition to the Moon to establish a lunar base. A manned Moon landing posed several daunting technical challenges to the US and USSR. Besides guidance and weight management, atmospheric re-entry without ablative overheating was a major hurdle. After the Soviet Union 's launch of Sputnik, von Braun promoted a plan for the United States Army to establish a military lunar outpost by 1965.
After the early Soviet successes, especially Yuri Gagarin 's flight, US President John F. Kennedy looked for a US project that would capture the public imagination. He asked Vice President Lyndon Johnson to make recommendations on a scientific endeavor that would prove US world leadership. The proposals included non-space options such as massive irrigation projects to benefit the Third World. The Soviets, at the time, had more powerful rockets than the United States, which gave them an advantage in some kinds of space mission.
Advances in US nuclear weapon technology had led to smaller, lighter warheads, and consequently, rockets with smaller payload capacities. By comparison, Soviet nuclear weapons were much heavier, and the powerful R - 7 rocket was developed to carry them. More modest potential missions such as flying around the Moon without landing or establishing a space lab in orbit (both were proposed by Kennedy to von Braun) were determined to offer too much advantage to the Soviets, since the US would have to develop a heavy rocket to match the Soviets. A Moon landing, however, would capture world imagination while functioning as propaganda.
Johnson had championed the US manned space program ever since the Sputnik scare, sponsoring the legislation which created NASA when he was in the Senate in 1958. When Kennedy asked him in 1961 to research the best manned space achievement to counter the Soviets ' lead, Johnson responded that the US had an even chance of beating the USSR to a manned lunar landing, but not for anything less. Kennedy seized on Apollo as the ideal focus for efforts in space. He ensured continuing funding, shielding space spending from the 1963 tax cut, but diverting money from other NASA scientific projects. This last dismayed NASA 's leader, James E. Webb, who perceived the need for NASA 's support from the scientific community.
The Moon landing required development of the large Saturn V launch vehicle, which achieved a perfect record of zero catastrophic failures or launch vehicle - caused mission failures, in thirteen launches.
For the program to succeed, its proponents would have to defeat criticism from politicians on the left, who wanted more money spent on social programs, and on those on the right, who favored a more military project. By emphasizing the scientific payoff and playing on fears of Soviet space dominance, Kennedy and Johnson managed to swing public opinion: by 1965, 58 percent of Americans favored Apollo, up from 33 percent two years earlier. After Johnson became President in 1963, his continuing defense of the program allowed it to succeed in 1969, as Kennedy planned.
Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev said in October 1963 that the USSR was "not at present planning flight by cosmonauts to the Moon, '' while insisting that the Soviets had not dropped out of the race. Only after another year would the USSR fully commit itself to a Moon - landing attempt, which ultimately failed.
At the same time, Kennedy had suggested various joint programs, including a possible Moon landing by Soviet and U.S. astronauts and the development of better weather - monitoring satellites. Khrushchev, sensing an attempt by Kennedy to steal Russian space technology, rejected the idea: if the USSR went to the Moon, it would go alone. Sergey Korolev, the Soviet space program 's chief designer, had started promoting his Soyuz craft and the N1 launcher rocket that would have the capability of carrying out a manned Moon landing.
Khrushchev directed Korolev 's design bureau to arrange further space firsts by modifying the existing Vostok technology, while a second team started building a completely new launcher and craft, the Proton booster and the Zond, for a manned cislunar flight in 1966. In 1964 the new Soviet leadership gave Korolev the backing for a Moon landing effort and brought all manned projects under his direction.
With Korolev 's death and the failure of the first Soyuz flight in 1967, the co-ordination of the Soviet Moon landing program quickly unraveled. The Soviets built a landing craft and selected cosmonauts for the mission that would have placed Aleksei Leonov on the Moon 's surface, but with the successive launch failures of the N1 booster in 1969, plans for a manned landing suffered first delay and then cancellation.
A program of automated return vehicles was begun, in the hope of being the first to return lunar rocks. This had several failures. It eventually succeeded with Luna 16. But this had little impact, because the Apollo 11 and Apollo 12 lunar landings and rock returns had already taken place by then.
In total, twenty - four U.S. astronauts have traveled to the Moon. Three have made the trip twice, and twelve have walked on its surface. Apollo 8 was a lunar - orbit - only mission, Apollo 10 included undocking and Descent Orbit Insertion (DOI), followed by LM staging to CSM redocking, while Apollo 13, originally scheduled as a landing, ended up as a lunar fly - by, by means of free return trajectory; thus, none of these missions made landings. Apollo 7 and Apollo 9 were Earth - orbit - only missions. Apart from the inherent dangers of manned Moon expeditions as seen with Apollo 13, one reason for their cessation according to astronaut Alan Bean is the cost it imposes in government subsidies.
Unlike other international rivalries, the Space Race has remained unaffected in a direct way regarding the desire for territorial expansion. After the successful landings on the Moon, the U.S. explicitly disclaimed the right to ownership of any part of the Moon.
President Richard Nixon had speechwriter William Safire prepare a condolence speech for delivery in the event that Armstrong and Aldrin became marooned on the Moon 's surface and could not be rescued.
In 1951, science fiction writer Arthur C. Clarke forecast that man would reach the Moon by 1978.
On 16 August 2006, the Associated Press reported that NASA is missing the original Slow - scan television tapes (which were made before the scan conversion for conventional TV) of the Apollo 11 Moon walk. Some news outlets have mistakenly reported that the SSTV tapes were found in Western Australia, but those tapes were only recordings of data from the Apollo 11 Early Apollo Surface Experiments Package.
Scientists believe the six American flags planted by astronauts have been bleached white because of more than 40 years of exposure to solar radiation. Using LROC images, five of the six American flags are still standing and casting shadows at all of the sites, except Apollo 11. Astronaut Buzz Aldrin reported that the flag was blown over by the exhaust from the ascent engine during liftoff of Apollo 11.
Launched on 24 January 1990, 11: 46 UTC. At the end of its mission, the Japanese lunar orbiter Hiten was commanded to crash into the lunar surface and did so on 10 April 1993 at 18: 03: 25.7 UT (11 April 03: 03: 25.7 JST).
Lunar Prospector was launched on 7 January 1998. The mission ended on 31 July 1999, when the orbiter was deliberately crashed into a crater near the lunar south pole after the presence of water ice was successfully detected.
Launched 27 September 2003, 23: 14 UTC from the Guiana Space Centre in Kourou, French Guiana. At the end of its mission, the ESA lunar orbiter SMART - 1 performed a controlled crash into the Moon, at about 2 km / s. The time of the crash was 3 September 2006, at 5: 42 UTC.
SELENE or Kaguya was launched on 14 September 2007. After successfully orbiting the Moon for a year and eight months, the main orbiter was instructed to impact on the lunar surface near the crater Gill at 18: 25 UTC on 10 June 2009.
The Chinese lunar orbiter Chang'e 1, launched 24 October 2007, 10: 05 UTC, executed a controlled crash onto the surface of the Moon on 1 March 2009, 20: 44 GMT, after a 16 - month mission.
Chandrayaan - 1 was launched on 22 October 2008, 00: 52 UTC. The impactor, the Moon Impact Probe, impacted near Shackleton Crater at the south pole of the lunar surface at 14 November 2008, 20: 31 IST. Chandrayaan - 2 is scheduled for launch in 2019.
The LCROSS data collecting shepherding spacecraft was launched together with the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) on 18 June 2009 on board an Atlas V rocket with a Centaur upper stage. On 9 October 2009, at 11: 31 UTC, the Centaur upper stage impacted the lunar surface, releasing the kinetic energy equivalent of detonating approximately 2 tons of TNT (8.86 GJ). Six minutes later at 11: 37 UTC, the LCROSS shepherding spacecraft also impacted the surface.
The GRAIL mission consisted of two small spacecraft: GRAIL A (Ebb), and GRAIL B (Flow). They were launched on 10 September 2011 on board a Delta II rocket. GRAIL A separated from the rocket about nine minutes after launch, and GRAIL B followed about eight minutes later. The first probe entered orbit on 31 December 2011 and the second followed on 1 January 2012. The two spacecraft impacted the Lunar surface on 17 December 2012.
LADEE was launched on 7 September 2013. The mission ended on 18 April 2014, when the spacecraft 's controllers intentionally crashed LADEE into the far side of the Moon, which, later, was determined to be near the eastern rim of Sundman V crater.
On 14 December 2013 at 13: 12 UTC Chang'e 3 soft - landed a rover on the Moon. This was the first lunar soft landing since Luna 24 on 22 August 1976.
Progress in space exploration has recently broadened the phrase moon landing to include other moons in the Solar System as well. The Huygens probe of the Cassini -- Huygens mission to Saturn performed a successful unmanned moon landing on Titan in 2005. Similarly, the Soviet probe Phobos 2 came within 120 mi (190 km) of performing an unmanned moon landing on Mars ' moon Phobos in 1989 before radio contact with that lander was suddenly lost. A similar Russian sample return mission called Fobos - Grunt ("grunt '' means "soil '' in Russian) launched in November 2011, but stalled in low Earth orbit. There is widespread interest in performing a future moon landing on Jupiter 's Europa moon to drill down and explore the possible liquid water ocean beneath its icy surface.
China is planning to land another rover and collect samples in the Chang'e 4 mission and return lunar soil samples by 2018 in the Chang'e 5 mission.
ISRO, the Indian National Space agency, is planning a second version of Chandrayaan named Chandrayaan 2. According to former ISRO Chairman G. Madhavan Nair, "The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) hopes to land two rovers -- one Indian and another Russian -- on the Moon in 2018, as a part of its second Chandrayaan mission. The rover will be designed to move on wheels on the lunar surface, pick up samples of soil or rocks, do on - site chemical analysis and send the data to the mother - spacecraft Chandrayaan II, which will be orbiting above. Chandrayaan II will transmit the data to Earth. '' The payloads have already been finalized. ISRO has mentioned that due to weight restrictions it will not be carrying any overseas payloads on this mission. The lander weight is projected to be 1,250 kg, and the spacecraft will be launched by the Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle.
Russia 's Luna - Glob 1 is expected to be launched in 2018. In 2007 the head of the Russian Space Agency announced plans to send cosmonauts to the Moon by 2025 and establish a permanent robotically operated base there in 2027 -- 2032. In 2015, Roscosmos stated that Russia plans to place a cosmonaut on the Moon by 2030, leaving Mars to NASA. The purpose is to work jointly with NASA and avoid another Space Race.
The Lunar Precursor Robotic Program (LPRP) is a program of robotic spacecraft missions which NASA will use to prepare for future Moon landings. Three orbiters have been launched in the program, the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO), the Lunar Crater Observation and Sensing Satellite (LCROSS), and the Lunar Atmosphere and Dust Environment Explorer (LADEE), launched in 2013, but no Moon landings are scheduled yet.
The Google Lunar X Prize competition offers a $20 million award for the first privately funded team to land a robotic probe on the Moon. Like the Ansari X Prize before it, the competition aims to advance the state of the art in private space exploration. Of the several competing teams, Puli Space Technologies at one time (2012) planned to launch in 2014 and Astrobotic Technology plans to launch in the second half of 2016 with their own rover plus another team 's lunar rovers from Hakuto.
In 2019, a consortium of Vodafone, Audi and PT Scientists are planning a moon landing. The mission is to launch a lander and two small rovers to the moon from Cape Canaveral, Florida on a SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket during the 50th - anniversary year of NASA 's Apollo 11 moon landing. Nokia will assist to setup a LTE network in moon to manage lunar terrestrial communication system of the mission.
Many conspiracy theorists hold that the Apollo Moon landings were a hoax; however, empirical evidence is readily available to show that manned moon landings did indeed occur. Anyone on Earth with an appropriate laser and telescope system can bounce laser beams off three retroreflector arrays left on the Moon by Apollo 11, 14 and 15, verifying deployment of the Lunar Laser Ranging Experiment at historically documented Apollo Moon landing sites and so proving equipment constructed on Earth was successfully transported to the surface of the Moon. In addition, in August 2009 NASA 's Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter began to send back high resolution photos of the Apollo landing sites. These photos show not only the large Descent Stages of the lunar landers left behind but also tracks of the astronauts ' walking paths in the lunar dust.
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which state shares a political border with louisiana | Mexico -- United States border - wikipedia
The Mexico -- United States border is an international border separating Mexico and the United States, extending from the Pacific Ocean to the west and Gulf of Mexico to the east. The border traverses a variety of terrains, ranging from major urban areas to uninhabitable deserts. Approximately 350 million legal crossings occur annually, and is the most frequently crossed border in the world.
The total length of the continental border is 3,201 kilometers (1,989 mi). From the Gulf of Mexico, it follows the course of the Rio Grande (Río Bravo del Norte) to the border crossing at Ciudad Juárez, Chihuahua and El Paso, Texas. Westward from El Paso -- Juárez, it crosses vast tracts of the Chihuahuan and Sonoran deserts to the Colorado River Delta and San Diego -- Tijuana, before reaching the Pacific Ocean.
Following the Boundary Treaty of 1970 between Mexico and the United States that settled all the pending boundary disputes and uncertainties related to the Rio Grande (Río Bravo del Norte) border, the national continental border extends 3,145 kilometers (1,954 mi), excluding the maritime boundaries of 29 km (18 mi) in the Pacific Ocean and 19 km (12 mi) in the Gulf of Mexico.
According to the International Boundary and Water Commission, this continental border follows the middle of the Rio Grande -- according to the 1848 Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo between the two nations, "along the deepest channel '' (also known as the thalweg) -- from its mouth on the Gulf of Mexico a distance of 2,019 km (1,255 mi) to a point just upstream of El Paso and Ciudad Juárez. It then follows an alignment westward overland and it is marked by monuments for a distance of 859 km (534 mi) to the Colorado River, when it reaches its highest elevation at the intersection with the Continental Divide. It then follows the middle of that river toward the north with a distance of 38 km (24 mi), and ultimately follows an alignment overland toward the west and marked by monuments with a distance of 227 km (141 mi) to the Pacific Ocean (excluding the maritime boundaries of 18 miles (29 km) in the Pacific Ocean and 12 miles (19 km) in the Gulf of Mexico).
The official ' border region ' extends 60 km (37 mi) north and south of the aforementioned boundaries and 60 km (37 mi) east into the Gulf of Mexico and 60 km (37 mi) west into the Pacific Ocean.
The region is characterized by deserts, rugged hills, abundant sunshine, and two major rivers -- the Colorado and the Rio Grande (Río Bravo del Norte) -- which provide life - giving water to the largely arid but fertile lands along the rivers in both countries.
Border Patrol patrolling the Rio Grande in an airboat in Laredo, Texas
The start of the border fence in the state of New Mexico -- just west of El Paso, Texas
U.S. Border Patrol helicopter along El Camino del Diablo, Arizona -- Sonora border, 2004
Border between Nogales, Arizona, on the left, and Nogales, Sonora, on the right
On the left: Nogales, Arizona; on the right, Nogales, Sonora
Beach in Tijuana at the border
The U.S. states along the border, from west to east, are California, Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas. The Mexican states along the border are Baja California, Sonora, Chihuahua, Coahuila, Nuevo León, and Tamaulipas.
Among these states in the United States, Texas has the longest stretch of the border with Mexico, while California has the shortest. In Mexico, Chihuahua has the longest border with the United States, while Nuevo León has the shortest.
Texas borders four Mexican states -- Tamaulipas, Nuevo León, Coahuila, and Chihuahua -- the most of any U.S. states. New Mexico and Arizona each borders two Mexican states (Chihuahua and Sonora; Sonora and Baja California, respectively). California borders only Baja California. Texas is more adjacent to Mexico than California.
Three Mexican states border two U.S. states each: Baja California borders California and Arizona; Sonora borders Arizona and New Mexico; and Chihuahua borders New Mexico and Texas. Tamaulipas, Nuevo León, and Coahuila each borders only one U.S. state: Texas.
The border separating Mexico and the United States is the most frequently crossed international boundary in the world, with approximately 350 million legal crossings taking place annually.
There are 48 U.S. -- Mexico border crossings, with 330 ports of entry. At these points of entry, people trying to get into the U.S. are required to open their bags for inspection. Border crossings take place by roads, pedestrian walkways, railroads and ferries. From west to east, below is a list of the border city "twinnings ''; cross-border municipalities connected by one or more legal border crossings.
The total population of the borderlands -- defined as those counties and municipios lining the border on either side -- stands at some 12 million people.
In the mid-16th century, with the discovery of silver, settlers from a various countries and backgrounds began to arrive in the area. This period of sparse settlement included colonizers from different backgrounds. The area was technically part of the Kingdom of New Spain, but due to the lack of population and the diverse citizenry it had, it did not seem to belong to any country. This period lasted until the early 19th century, at which point the United States bought the lands known as the Louisiana Purchase from France and began to expand steadily (militarily) westward in its pursuit of Manifest Destiny.
The border itself was not clearly defined and remained so until the Mexican colony became independent from Spain and entered a period of political instability. Mexico attempted to create a buffer zone at the border that would prevent possible invasion from the North. The Mexican government encouraged thousands of their own citizens to settle in the region that is now known as Texas and even offered inexpensive land to settlers from the United States in exchange for populating the area. The influx of people did not provide the defense that Mexico had hoped for and instead Texas declared its independence in 1836, which lasted until 1845 when the U.S. annexed it.
The constant conflicts in the Texas region in the mid-19th century eventually led to the Mexican -- American War, which began in 1846 and ended in 1848 with the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. In the terms of the peace treaty, Mexico lost more than 960,000 square miles (2,500,000 km) of land, 55 % of its territory, including what is today California, Arizona, New Mexico, Utah, Nevada and parts of Colorado, Wyoming, Kansas, and Oklahoma. In addition, all disputes over Texas and the disputed territory between Rio Grande and Rio Nueces were abandoned. Five years later the Gadsden Purchase completed the creation of the current United States -- Mexico border. The purchase was initially to accommodate a planned railway right - of - way. These purchases left approximately 300,000 people living in the once disputed lands, many of whom were Mexican nationals. Following the establishment of the current border a number of towns sprang up along this boundary and many of the Mexican citizens were given free land in the northern regions of Mexico in exchange for returning and repopulating the area.
The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo and another treaty in 1884 were the agreements originally responsible for the settlement of the international border, both of which specified that the middle of Rio Grande was the border -- irrespective of any alterations in the channels or banks. The Rio Grande shifted south between 1852 and 1868, with the most radical shift in the river occurring after a flood in 1864. By 1873 the moving river - center border had cut off approximately 600 acres (2.4 km) of Mexican territory in the El Paso - Juarez area, in effect transferring the land to the United States. By a treaty negotiated in 1963, Mexico regained most of this land in what became known as the Chamizal dispute and transferred 264 acres (1.07 km) in return to the United States. Border treaties are jointly administered by the International Boundary and Water Commission (IBWC), which was established in 1889 to maintain the border, allocate river waters between the two nations, and provide for flood control and water sanitation. Once viewed as a model of international cooperation, in recent decades the IBWC has been heavily criticized as an institutional anachronism, by - passed by modern social, environmental and political issues.
The economic development of the border region on the Mexican side of the border depended largely on its proximity to the United States, due to its remoteness from commercial centers in Mexico. During the years of Mexican President Porfirio Díaz, between 1876 and 1910, the border communities boomed, due mostly to close ties to the United States, and the Mexican government 's support for financial investments from the United States. Railroads were built that connected the northern Mexican states more to the United States than to Mexico and the population grew tremendously. The mining industry also developed, as did the United States ' control of it. By the early 20th century companies from the United States controlled 81 % of the mining industry and had invested five hundred million dollars in the Mexican economy overall, twenty - five percent of it in the border regions.
The Mexican Revolution, caused at least partially by animosity toward foreign ownership of Mexican properties, began in 1910. The Revolution increased the political instability in Mexico, but did not significantly slow United States investment. It did reduce economic development within Mexico, however, and the border regions reflected this. As the infrastructure of communities on the United States side continued to improve, the Mexican side began to fall behind in the construction and maintenance of important transportation networks and systems necessary to municipal development.
Data from the U.S. Border Patrol Agency 's 2010 annual report shows that among the total number of illegal border crossings from various countries into the United States, 90 percent were from Mexico alone. Also, there are more than 6 million undocumented Mexican nationals residing in the United States. The border, with its 1,951 miles (3,140 km) in length, has a very high rate of legal and illegal migrant crossings every year. With such a high rate of people crossing annually to the United States, the country has invested in several distinct security measures. The U.S. Border Patrol is perhaps the most important security measure. In 2010, due to insecurity and instability at the southern border of the U.S. President Barack Obama signed an appropriation bill, which gave the Customs and Border Protection, specifically the Border Patrol, 600 million dollars to implement and improve security. The U.S. government has invested many millions of dollars on border security, although this has not stopped undocumented immigrants from entering the United States.
The border has the highest number of registered legal crossings of any land border in the world. Over five million cars and trucks travel through the border annually. According to Vulliamy, one in five Mexican nationals will visit or work in the United States at one point in their lifetime. As of 2010, the border is guarded by more than twenty thousand Border Patrol agents, more than at any time in its history. However, they only have "effective control '' of less than 700 miles (1,100 km) of the 1,954 miles (3,145 km) of total border, with an ability to actually prevent or stop illegal entries along 129 miles (208 km) of that border. The border is paralleled by United States Border Patrol Interior Checkpoints on major roads generally between 25 and 75 miles (40 and 121 km) from the U.S. side of the border, and garitas generally within 50 km of the border on the Mexican side.
There are an estimated half a million illegal entries into the United States each year. Border Patrol activity is concentrated around border cities such as San Diego and El Paso which have extensive border fencing. This means that the flow of illegal aliens is diverted into rural mountainous and desert areas, leading to several hundred migrant deaths along the Mexico -- U.S. border of those attempting to cross into the United States from Mexico illegally and vice versa.
The Secure Fence Act of 2006 was passed providing for the construction of 700 miles (1,100 km) of high - security fencing. Attempts to complete the construction of the Mexico -- United States barrier have been challenged by the Mexican government and various U.S. -- based organizations.
In January 2013, the Government Accountability Office released a report stating that the United States Border Patrol only intercepted sixty - one percent of individuals illegally crossing the border in 2011, which translated to 208,813 individuals not apprehended. 85,827 of the 208,813 would go on to illegally enter the United States, while the rest returned to Mexico and other Central American countries. The report also showed that the number of illegal border crossings has dropped.
According to the U.S. Border Patrol, in the fiscal year of 2006, there were twenty - nine confirmed border incursions by Mexican government officials, of which seventeen were by armed individuals. Since 1996 there have been 253 incursions by Mexican government officials. In 2014 the U.S. Department of Homeland Security informed California Representative Duncan D. Hunter that since 2004, there have been 300 documented border incursions, which resulted in 131 individuals being detained.
The Washington Times has reported that on Sunday, August 3, 2008, Mexican military personnel who crossed into Arizona from Mexico encountered a U.S. Border Patrol agent, whom they held at gunpoint. The soldiers later returned to Mexico, as backup Border Patrol agents came to investigate.
Proponents of greater spending on the border argue that continuing the buildup is necessary due to increased violence and drug trafficking from Mexico spilling into the United States. However, critics such as the Washington Office on Latin America (WOLA) have argued that further buildup will have fewer desired effects and may even be counterproductive. Furthermore, WOLA has emphasized that the diminishing number of border crossings can only be partially attributed to U.S. security measures. Unintentional factors, such as a weakened U.S. economy in the wake of the 2008 financial crisis and increased violence in northern Mexico have made attempting illegal border crossings more risky and less rewarding.
In 2016, Donald Trump, then the Republican presidential nominee in the then forthcoming U.S. election repeatedly stated that he wanted to build a wall along the border, for the purpose of immigration control. He declared that Mexico would be forced to pay for the entire wall. Following his Inauguration on January 20, 2017, on January 25 President Trump signed Executive Order 13767 to enable the building of the wall. Shortly afterwards, the Mexican President stated that Mexico will not pay for the wall. Trump, who regards himself as an expert negotiator, had planned to meet Mexican President Enrique Peña Nieto on January 27 in Washington, D.C. to discuss topics including border security. The meeting was cancelled by Peña Nieto, and shortly after, Trump announced that he intended to impose a 20 % tariff on Mexican goods to effectively pay for the wall.
As of the end of October 2017, Mexico has not entered into any agreement to pay for any amount of the wall, and no new tariffs on Mexican goods has been considered by the U.S. Congress. Also the U.S. Congress has not appropriated funding for a wall, and no further wall construction has started beyond what was already planned during the Obama administration.
On 20 September 2017, California Attorney General Becerra has filed a lawsuit alleging that the Trump administration has overstepped its powers in expediting construction of a border wall.
A National Border Patrol Strategic Plan was first developed in 1994 to deal with the fact that borders were being overrun by illegal immigrants and drug dealers. It was then updated in 2004 and 2012. In 2004 the updated strategy focused on command structures, intelligence and surveillance, enforcement and deployment of U.S. Border Patrol agents to better respond to threats at the border. The strategic planning led to broader policy development for the Department of Homeland Security which led to the Secure Border Initiative (SBI) in 2005 to secure U.S. borders and reduce illegal migration. The main components of SBI dealt with staffing concerns, removal capacity, surveillance and tactical infrastructure and interior enforcement.
An additional component was "high consequence enforcement '', which was not the subject of a formal public policy document. There was the allowance, historically, for voluntary returns of individuals apprehended at the border by Border Patrol agents. These voluntary returns, after the SBI of 2005, were limited to three "high consequence outcomes ''.
One "high consequence outcome '' was formal removal, which meant the individual would be deemed ineligible for a visa for at least five years and subject to criminal charges if caught re-entering illegally. The Immigration and Nationality Act permitted aliens to be formally removed with "limited judicial processing '' known as expedited removal. The Department of Homeland Security has expanded between 2002 and 2006, expedited removal for "certain aliens that entered within previous two weeks and were apprehended within 100 miles (160 km) of the border ''.
Another "high consequence outcome '' is the increase in criminal charges. Department of Homeland Security has also worked with the Department of Justice to increase the number of apprehended individuals crossing the border illegally who are charged with criminal offenses. Most of these cases are prosecuted under Operation Streamline. The third "high consequence outcome '' is known as remote repatriation. This is the return of apprehended Mexicans to remote locations by Border Patrol rather than the nearest Mexican port of entry.
Regulations establishing the 100 - mile (160 km) zone were adopted by the U.S. Department of Justice as the result of an interpretation of the Immigration and Nationality Act in 1953. Customs and Border Protection 's (CBP) officials have authority for stop and search within this 100 miles (160 km) from any external boundary. This allows for CBP officials to enter private property without a warrant within 25 miles (40 km) of the border as well as the operation of checkpoints.
The Fourth Amendment of the U.S. Constitution protects against unreasonable search and seizure; however, according to the government this does not fully apply at borders or border crossings (also known as ports of entry). This means that much of the U.S. population is subject to CBP regulations for stop and search. The 100 Mile Border Zone includes two thirds of the population, a majority of the largest cities in the U.S. and several entire states (namely Connecticut, Delaware, Florida, Hawaii, Maine, Massachusetts, Michigan, New Hampshire, and New Jersey).
There are some limits to CBP officials ability to stop and search. For instance CBP officials are not allowed to pull anyone over without a reasonable suspicion of immigration violation or crime, or search vehicles without warrant or probable cause. The ACLU, however, found that CBP officials routinely ignore or misunderstand the limits of authority, and this is compounded by inadequate training, lack of oversight and failure to hold officials accountable for abuse -- incidence of abuse is common.
Operation Streamline refers collectively to zero - tolerance policies implemented at the Mexico -- U.S. border that seek to remove undocumented immigrants through an expedited process if they have arrived with missing or fraudulent identification or have previously been convicted for an immigration crime.
Operation Streamline was first implemented in Del Rio, Texas, in 2005. The program has since expanded to four out of the five federal judicial districts on the U.S. - Mexico border: Yuma, Arizona; Laredo, Texas; Tucson, Arizona; and Rio Grande Valley, Texas.
Previously, immigrants apprehended at the border were either given the option to voluntarily return to their home country or they were placed in civil immigration proceedings. After Operation Streamline was implemented, nearly all people apprehended at the border who are suspected of having crossed illegally are subject to criminal prosecution. Defendants who are charged with crossing into the U.S. illegally are tried en masse to determine their guilt. Defense attorneys often are responsible for representing anywhere from six to forty immigrants at once. Around 99 % of defendants in Operation Streamline proceedings plead guilty. The defendants are charged with a misdemeanor if convicted of crossing the border illegally for the first time, and a felony if it is a repeat offense.
In December 2009, it was decided in United States v. Roblero - Solis that en masse judicial proceedings like those in Operation Streamline violated Rule 11 in the Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure. Rule 11 states that the court must determine that a guilty plea is voluntarily made by addressing the defendant personally in court. The Roblero - Solis case determined that "personally '' means that the judge must address the defendant in a person - to - person manner. Though many courts have changed their procedures to adapt to the ruling, there are still forms of en masse trials practiced at the border.
Proponents of Operation Streamline claim that the harsher prosecution has been an important factor in deterring immigrants from crossing the border illegally. Apprehensions have decreased in certain sectors after 2005, which is seen as a sign of success. For example, the Del Rio, Texas sector saw a decline from 2005 to 2009 of 75 % (from 68,510 to 17,082). Similarly, apprehensions declined in Yuma, Arizona by 95 % (from 138,438 to 6,951) from 2006 to 2009.
Criticisms of Operation Streamline point to the program 's heavy use of federal court and enforcement resources as a negative aspect. In addition, the prosecution of all illegal border crossings takes the focus away from prosecuting more serious crimes. They claim that the program 's cost is too high for the effectiveness of the work it is accomplishing. In response to the claim that Operation Streamline is an effective deterrent, critics of the program claim that the incentives to cross the border in order to work or be with family are much stronger.
The Agreement on Cooperation for the Protection and Improvement of the Environment in the Border Area, known as the La Paz Agreement, was signed into law on August 14, 1983, and became enforceable on February 16, 1984. This agreement to protect the environment is the political foundation between the U.S. and Mexico for 4 subsequent programs. Each program has addressed environmental destruction in the border region resulting from the rise of the maquiladora industries, those who migrated to Northern Mexico to work in the industries, the lack of infrastructure to accommodate the people, Mexico 's lax regulations concerning all these factors, the resulting spillover into the U.S., and the U.S. 's own environmentally destructive tendencies. The programs were: IBEP (1992), Border XXI (1996), Border 2012 (2003) and Border 2020 (2012).
In late 2006, the United States Department of Homeland Security (DHS) announced a rule regarding new identification requirements for U.S. citizens and international travelers entering the United States implemented on January 23, 2007. This final rule and first phase of the WHTI specifies nine forms of identification, one of which is required to enter the United States by air: a valid passport; a passport card; a state enhanced driver 's license or state enhanced non-driver ID card (available in Michigan, New York, Vermont, and Washington) approved by the Secretary of Homeland Security; a trusted traveler program card (NEXUS, FAST, or SENTRI); an enhanced tribal identification card; a Native American Tribal Photo Identification Card; Form I - 872 -- American Indian Card; a valid Merchant Mariner Document when traveling in conjunction with official maritime business; or a valid U.S. military identification card when traveling on official orders.
The Mexico -- United States border is the world 's busiest border, specifically the crossing at San Diego, California to Tijuana, Mexico (15.6 miles between the cities), known as the San Ysidro Port of Entry. In the U.S., Interstate 5 crosses directly to Tijuana, and the highway 's southern terminus is this crossing. In 2005, more than 17 million vehicles and 50 million people entered the U.S. through San Ysidro. Among those who enter the United States through San Ysidro are transfronterizos, American citizens who live in Mexico and attend school in the United States.
Along the Mexican coast of Baja California, there are neighborhoods of Americans living in Tijuana, Rosarito Beach, and Ensenada, whose residents commute to the United States daily to work. Additionally, many Mexicans also enter the United States to commute daily to work. In 1999, 7.6 % of the labor force of Tijuana was employed in San Diego.
The U.S. government had plans in 2006, during the Bush administration, to erect a border fence along the Mexico -- U.S. border. The controversial proposal included creating many individual fences. Almost 600 miles (970 km) of fence was constructed, with each of the individual fences composed of steel and concrete. In between these fences are infrared cameras and sensors, National Guard soldiers, and SWAT teams on alert, giving rise to the term "virtual fence ''. Construction on the fence began in 2006, with each mile costing the U.S. government about $2.8 million. In 2010, the initiative was terminated due to costs, after having completed 640 miles (1,030 km) of either barrier fence or vehicle barriers, that were either new or had been rebuilt over older, inferior fencing. The Boeing - built SBI - net systems of using radar, watchtowers, and sensors (without a fence or physical barrier) were scrapped for being over budget, full of glitches, and far behind schedule.
The U.S. -- Mexico border fence near El Paso, Texas
Portion of border near Jacumba, California in 2003
Portion of border near Jacumba, California, in 2009 with enhanced security
When animals are imported from one country to another, there is the possibility that diseases and parasites can move with them. Thus, most countries impose animal health regulations on the import of animals. Most animals imported to the United States must be accompanied by import permits obtained in advance from the U.S. Department of Agriculture 's Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) and / or health certification papers from the country of origin.
Veterinary inspections are often required, and are available only at designated ports; advance contact with port veterinarians is recommended. Animals crossing the United States -- Mexico border may have a country of origin other than the country where they present for inspection. Such animals include those from the U.S. that cross to Mexico and return, and animals from other countries that travel overland through Mexico or the U.S. before crossing the border.
APHIS imposes precautions to keep out several equine diseases, including glanders, dourine, equine infectious anemia (EIA), equine piroplasmosis (EP), Venezuelan equine encephalitis (VEE), and contagious equine metritis (CEM). APHIS also checks horses to prevent the introduction of ticks and other parasites. In the Lower Rio Grande Valley, U.S. Department of Agriculture inspectors look for horses and livestock that stray across the border carrying ticks. These animals are often called wetstock, and the inspectors are referred to as tickriders.
Per APHIS, horses originating from Canada can enter the United States with a Canadian government veterinary health certificate and a negative test for EIA. Horses from Mexico must have a health certificate; pass negative tests for EIA, dourine, glanders, and EP at a USDA import center; and undergo precautionary treatments for external parasites at the port of entry. Horses from other Western Hemisphere countries must have the same tests as those from Mexico and, except for horses from Argentina, must be held in quarantine for at least seven days as a check for VEE.
APHIS imposes similar testing and certification requirements on horses from other parts of the world but without the quarantine for VEE. These horses are held in quarantine -- usually three days -- or until tests are completed. Because the disease equine piroplasmosis (equine babesiosis) is endemic in Mexico but not established in the United States, transportation of horses from Mexico to the United States requires evaluation of horses for the presence of this disease.
Transportation of horses from Mexico to the United States normally requires at least three days in quarantine, which is incompatible with most recreational equestrian travel across the border. A leading exception to this rule is the special waiver obtained by riders participating in the Cabalgata Binacional Villista (see cavalcade).
Import from the United States to Mexico requires evidence within the prior 45 days of freedom from equine infectious anemia, among other requirements. In August 2015, Mexico began enforcing a rule that all non-Mexican citizens that plan to stay in Mexico for more than seven days or are travelling on business will have to pay a 330 peso (21 dollar) fee and show their passport.
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what are the gun control laws in switzerland | Gun laws in Switzerland - wikipedia
Firearms legislation in Switzerland comes from a long tradition of shooting (tirs) as a formative element of national identity in the post-Napoleonic Restoration of the Confederacy, and the long - standing practice of a militia organization of the Swiss Army in which soldiers ' service rifles are stored privately at home. In addition to this, many cantons (notably the alpine cantons of Grisons and Valais) have strong traditions of hunting, accounting for a large but unknown number of privately held hunting rifles.
The applicable federal legislations are SR 514.54 Federal Law on Weapons, Weapon Equipment and Ammunition (German: Waffengesetz, WG, French: Loi sur les armes, LArm, Italian: Legge sulle armi, LArm) of 20 June 1997 (current edition of 1. July 2016, revised 01.01. 1999), and SR 514.541 Ordinance on Weapons, Armament Accessories and Ammunition (German: Waffenverordnung, WV, French: Ordonnance sur les armes, OArm, Italian: Ordinanza sulle armi, OArm) of 2 July 2008 (current edition of 1. July 2016, revised 12.12. 2008). The Weapons Law recognises a qualified "right to acquire, possess and carry arms ''.
The legislation is considered liberal and allows the free purchase of semi-automatic, but not fully automatic, firearms by Swiss citizens and foreigners with permanent residence.
Permits for concealed carrying in public are issued only extremely restrictively.
Switzerland thus has a relatively high gun ownership rate. There are no official statistics, and estimates vary considerably. The Small Arms Survey of 2016 placed Swiss gun ownership per capita at 24.45 %.
In 2016, the defence ministry estimated that 2 million privately owned guns are in circulation, which given a population of 8.3 million corresponds to a gun ownership rate of around 24 guns per 100 residents. This is roughly a quarter of the rate in the United States, and lower than that in the neighbouring countries of Germany, and Austria, but about the double of Italy and France.
Traditionally liberal Swiss gun legislation has, however, been somewhat tightened in 2008, when Switzerland has complied with European Firearms Directive. Throughout the modern political history of Switzerland, there have been advocates for tighter gun control.
The most recent suggestion for tighter gun control was rejected in a popular referendum in February 2011.
Switzerland 's Weapons Law (WG, LArm) and Weapons Act (WV, OArm) has been revised to accede to the Schengen Treaty effective 12 December 2008. The Act on Personal Military Equipement (VPAA, OEPM) governs the handling of military equipement, and in particular the handling of personal weapons by military personnel.
The law is applied to the following weapons:
Generally prohibited arms are:
In order to purchase most weapons, the purchaser must obtain a weapon acquisition permit (art. 8 WG / LArm). Swiss citizens and foreigners with a C permit over the age of 18 who are not psychiatrically disqualified nor identified as posing security problems, and who have a clean criminal record can request such a permit. Foreigners with the following citizenship are explicitly excluded from the right to possess weapons: Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Kosovo, Macedonia, Turkey, Sri Lanka, Algeria and Albania. The following information must be provided to the cantonal weapon bureau together with the weapon application form:
For each transfer of a weapon or an essential weapon component without weapons acquisition permit (art. 10 WG / LArm), a written contract must be concluded. Each Party shall keep them at least ten years. The contract must include the following information (art. 11 WG / LArm):
This information must be sent within 30 days to the cantonal weapon registration bureau, where the weapon holders are registered (art. 9 WG / LArm).
Some weapons do not need a weapon acquisition permit (art. 10 WG / LArm):
In order to purchase ammunition the buyer must follow the same legal rules that apply to buying guns. The buyer can only buy ammunition for guns that he / she legally owns and must provide the following information to the seller (art. 15, 16 WG / LArm; art. 24 WV / OArm):
This also applies for weapons which do not require a weapon acquisition permit (see above, excluding the weapon acquisition permit, of course).
This information must be sent within 30 days to the cantonal weapon registration bureau, where the weapon holder is registered.
The same applies to black powder and modern black powder substitutes for use in firing historical rifles.
The possession of the following munition is generally prohibited:
To carry a firearm in public or outdoors (and for a militia member to carry a firearm other than his issued weapons while off - duty), a person must have a gun carrying permit (German: Waffentragbewilligung, French: permis de port d'armes, Italian: permesso di porto di armi; art. 27 WG / LArm), which in most cases is issued only to private citizens working in occupations such as security. It is, however, quite common to see a person in military service to be en route with his rifle, albeit unloaded. The issue of such exceptional permits are extremely selective.
However, it is permissible to carry firearms in public or outdoors if the holder (art. 27 § 4 WG / LArm):
Furthermore, any licensed holder of a gun may transport an unloaded firearm for special situations (see # Transporting guns).
There are three conditions (art. 27 § 2 WG / LArm):
The carrying permit remains valid for a term of five years (unless otherwise surrendered or revoked), and applies only to the type of firearm for which the permit was issued. Additional constraints may be invoked to modify any specific permit. (art. 27 § 3 WG / LArm)
Guns may be transported in public as long as an appropriate justification is present. This means to transport a gun in public, the following requirements apply (art. 28 WG / LArm):
A 2017 amendment to the EU Firearms Directive, known as the "EU Gun Ban '', introduces new restrictions on firearms possession and acquisition, especially on semi-automatic firearms, personal defense weapons, magazine capacity, blank firing guns and historical firearms. The restrictions must be introduced into the Swiss legal system by August 2018 due to its membership of the Schengen area.
The Directive also includes an exemption covering a specific Swiss issue -- it allows possession to a target shooter of one firearm used during the mandatory military period after leaving the army, provided it was converted to semi-automatic only (art. 6 (6) of the Amendment Directive). This part of the Directive specifically was however challenged by the Czech Republic in front of the European Court of Justice due to its discriminatory nature. The Czech Republic seeks nullification of the "Swiss exemption '' as well as of other parts of the Directive.
Civil rights organizations plan to hold a referendum to reject the recent EU directive. According to Swiss People 's Party vice-president Christoph Blocher, Switzerland should consider abandoning EU 's borderless Schengen Area if the Swiss people reject the proposed measures in a referendum.
The Swiss army has long been a militia trained and structured to rapidly respond against foreign aggression. Swiss males grow up expecting to undergo basic military training, usually at age 20 in the recruit school, the basic - training camp, after which Swiss men remain part of the "militia '' in reserve capacity until age 30 (age 34 for officers).
Prior to 2007 members of the Swiss Militia were supplied with 50 - rounds of ammunition for their military weapon in a sealed ammo box that was regularly audited by the government. This was so that, in the case of an emergency, the militia could respond quickly.
In December 2007, the Swiss Federal Council decided that the distribution of ammunition to soldiers would stop and that previously issued ammo would be returned. By March 2011, more than 99 % of the ammo has been received. Only 2,000 specialist militia members (who protect airports and other sites of particular sensitivity) are permitted to keep their military - issued ammunition at home. The rest of the militia get their ammunition from their military armory in the event of an emergency.
When their period of service has ended, militia men have the choice of keeping their personal weapon and other selected items of their equipment. However, keeping the weapon after end of service requires a weapon acquisition permit (art. 11 - 15 VPAA / OEPM).
The government sponsors training with rifles and shooting in competitions for interested adolescents, both male and female. The sale of ammunition -- including Gw Pat. 90 rounds for army - issue assault rifles -- is subsidized by the Swiss government and made available at the many Federal Council licensed shooting ranges. That ammunition sold at ranges must be immediately used there under supervision (art. 16 WG / LArm).
The Swiss Army maintains tightened adherence to high standards of lawful military conduct. In 2005, for example, when the Swiss prosecuted recruits who had reenacted the torture scenes of Abu Ghraib, one of the charges was improper use of service weapons.
Recreational shooting is widespread in Switzerland. Practice with guns is a popular form of recreation, and is encouraged by the government, particularly for the members of the militia.
Prior to the turn of the century, about 200,000 people used to attend the annual Feldschiessen, which is the largest rifle shooting competition in the world. In 2012 they counted 130,000 participants. For the 2015 Federal Shooting (Eidg. Schützenfest) 37,000 shooters are registered. In addition, there are several private shooting ranges which rent guns.
Switzerland has a strong gun culture compared to other countries in the world. Groups like ProTell lobby for the preservation of Switzerland 's gun rights. Additionally, the Schweizerischer Schützenverein, a Swiss shooting association, organizes the Eidgenössische Schützenfeste, in intervals of five years.
The vast majority of firearm - related deaths in Switzerland are suicides. The suicide method of shooting oneself with a firearm accounted for 21.5 % of suicides in Switzerland in the period of 2001 -- 2012 (with significant gender imbalance: 29.7 % of male suicides vs. 3.0 % of female suicides).
By contrast, gun crime is comparatively limited. In 2016, there were 187 attempted and 45 completed homicides, for a homicide rate of 0.50 per 100,000 population. Of the recorded homicides (attempted or completed), 20.3 % were committed with a gun (47 cases, compared to an average of 41 cases in the period of 2009 -- 2015). In addition, there were 7 cases of bodily harm and 233 cases of robbery committed with firearms.
There were 16 completed homicides with a firearm in 2016. Of these, 14 were committed with a handgun, one with a long gun and one case marked "other / unspecified ''. None of the involved weapons were ordinance weapons issued by the Swiss Armed Forces. Similarly, out of 31 attempted homicides with firearms, 25 were committed with handguns, two with long guns and four "other / unspecified '', with no use of ordinance weapons on record. For the period of 2009 -- 2016, on average 16.5 out of 49.4 completed homicides were committed with a firearm, 13.8 with handguns, 1.9 with long guns and 0.9 "other / unspecified ''; an average 0.75 cases per year (6 cases in eight years) involved ordinance weapons.
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who wrote the lyrics of shape of you | Shape of You - wikipedia
"Shape of You '' is a song by English singer - songwriter Ed Sheeran. It was released as a digital download on 6 January 2017 as one of the double lead singles from his third studio album ÷ (2017), along with "Castle on the Hill ''.
The dancehall - infused pop song was written and produced by Ed Sheeran and Steve Mac, along with additional writing contributions from Johnny McDaid, Kandi Burruss, Tameka "Tiny '' Cottle, and Kevin "She'kspere '' Briggs.
"Shape of You '' peaked at number - one on the singles charts of 35 different countries, including the US Billboard Hot 100, as well as the UK, Australian and Canadian singles charts. It has stayed at number one for 16 consecutive weeks on the Canadian Hot 100 tied for the record, and 14 non-consecutive weeks on the UK Singles Chart, and 12 non-consecutive weeks on the Billboard Hot 100. On September 21, 2017, it became the most streamed song on Spotify, with over 1.32 billion streams.
On 20 January 2017, Sheeran uploaded a six - second teaser video of a blue background to social media, with lyrics "the club is n't the best place to find a lover '', which is the first line of "Shape of You ''. On 6 January 2017, when hosting The Radio 1 Breakfast Show, Sheeran revealed that "Shape of You '' had originally been written with Rihanna in mind. To further tease the release, Sheeran and his label used a sponsored Snapchat lens filter with 30 seconds on the song to increase buzz among the general public. He said:
"(' Shape of You ') is actually a really random one because I went in to write songs for other people with a guy called Steve Mac and Johnny McDaid, and we were writing this song and I was like ' this would really work for Rihanna, ' '' he explained. "And then I started singing lyrics like ' putting Van The Man on the jukebox ' and I was like ' well she 's not really going to sing that, is she? ' And then we sort of decided halfway through that we were just going to make it for me. ''
He continued, "This was the last song that was finished, and I just did n't put two and two together that this was even going to be on the album. I just kind of wrote it and was like ' oh, that was fun. ' ''
"Shape of You '' is a pop, dancehall and tropical house song with "strummy acoustics. '' In the song, Sheeran sings over a marimba - fueled percussive sway about a budding romance. "The club is n't the best place to find a lover, so the bar is where I go / Me and my friends at the table doing shots drinking fast and then we talk slow, '' he sings. "Come over and start up a conversation with just me / And trust me I 'll give it a chance. '' According to NT News, the song "tells the story of loved (or lusted) up Sheeran meeting a girl in a bar where he and his mates are doing shots. '' "Shape of You '' is written in the key of C ♯ minor with a tempo of 96 beats per minute. The song is composed in common time (4 4 time), and follows a basic chord progression of C ♯ m -- F ♯ m -- A -- B (i -- iv -- VI -- VII), and Sheeran 's vocals span from G ♯ to G ♯.
The song 's lyrical rhythm drew comparisons to the TLC song "No Scrubs '', particularly in the pre-chorus line, "Boy, let 's not talk too much / Grab on my waist and put that body on me. '' As a result, the composers of "No Scrubs, '' Kandi Burruss, Tameka "Tiny '' Cottle, and Kevin "She'kspere '' Briggs, were awarded co-writing credits on "Shape of You ''.
Jon Caramanica from The New York Times said, "' Shape of You ' is trickier, a nimble and effective song that takes the aggressive thinning of ' Caribbean music '. '' Billboard 's Taylor Weatherby wrote about the song saying, "' Shape of You ' does n't quite sound like your typical Sheeran tune. But that almost serves as an indication of what the "Thinking Out Loud '' singer has been up to during his hiatus: creating music that still feels like Sheeran, just with a new twist. '' Jeremy Gordon of Spin gave the song a positive review, stating that the song "is a plausible attempt at convincing us he has had sex... a lot of it. It kind of slaps, though you ca n't really picture Sheeran ever saying ' put that body on me ' to a real human woman. '' News website Metro wrote that it sounds similar to the song "Cheap Thrills '' by Sia.
"Shape of You '' reached number one in the official charts of 30 countries, and has received various certifications. It debuted at number one on the UK Singles Chart on 13 January, selling 227,000 combined units in its first week. Sheeran also debuted at number 2 with the song "Castle on the Hill '', making him the only artist in UK chart history to debut in the top two positions. "Shape of You '' debuted at number two on the Scottish Singles Chart behind "Castle on the Hill ''. The song was certified Silver in the first week due to selling 200,000 units and Gold in the second week selling 400,000 units. The song remained at number one in its second week, selling 139,000. It has stayed at number one for 13 consecutive weeks on the UK Singles Chart, and a further week at the top after a week 's interruption by Harry Styles ' "Sign of the Times ''. In July 2017, the song reached 184 million in streams, making it the most - streamed song in the UK of all time. As of September 2017, the song has sold 755,000 copies with 212 million streams, making a combined sales of 2.88 million units across all platform in the UK.
The song debuted at number one on the Billboard Hot 100, selling 240,000 downloads and gaining 20 million streams in its debut week in the US, becoming Sheeran 's first number one song in the country. Sheeran also became the first artist to debut two songs in the top 10 the same week in the history of the Hot 100, with "Castle on the Hill '' also debuting at number six. "Shape of You '' topped the Hot 100 for 12 non-consecutive weeks. In its fourth week at number one, the song also topped the Mainstream Top 40, becoming Sheeran 's second number - one single on the chart (after 2015 's "Thinking Out Loud ''). On 6 May 2017, it fell to number two on the Hot 100, being displaced by "Humble '' by Kendrick Lamar. On the issue date September 2, 2017, "Shape of You '' spent its 32nd week in the top ten of Hot 100, tying the record for most week on that chart with LeAnn Rimes ' "How Do I Live '' and "Closer '' by The Chainsmokers featuring Halsey. The following week, "Shape of You '' spent its 33rd consecutive week in the top 10, breaking the 20 - year - old record. On Billboard 's Dance / Mix Show Airplay chart, "Shape of You '' became Sheeran 's first number one on a Dance / EDM chart (his third top ten and sixth overall at Dance / Mix Show Airplay) in the United States. Afterwards, the song topped Dance Club Songs in its 18 March 2017 issue, his first as a solo artist and his second entry on this chart, when he was a featured artist on Rudimental 's "Lay It All on Me '', which peaked at No. 38 in 2016. As of August 2017, "Shape of You '' is the best selling song of 2017 in the US with 2.3 million copies sold, the only one to sell over two million. It is also the most streamed song with 799.7 million combined audio and video streams.
It debuted at number one in France, and was later certified diamond there. According to Pure Charts, in the first half of the year 2017, the song reached 631,000 units (105,000 sales and 526,000 units from streams) and as of September 2017, it exceeds 812,109 units (707,109 from streams). In Australia, the song stayed at No. 1 for 15 weeks, breaking a record set 22 years ago by Coolio 's "Gangsta 's Paradise ''. In doing this, it also broke ABBA 's record of fourteen weeks at number one, which was set on the previous Australian charts before the ARIA charts became Australia 's official charts. In Australia it also achieved 24 weeks inside the top ten, equaling the record with The Prodigy 's "Breathe ''. The song is the first ever number one single of the Philippine Hot 100 upon the chart 's inception on June 12, 2017. It stayed at the peak position for 4 consecutive weeks before it was dethroned by Despacito by Luis Fonsi and Daddy Yankee featuring Justin Bieber.
Worldwide, the song reached one billion streams on Spotify in June 2017. It became the most streamed song on Spotify in September 2017, reaching 1,318,420,396 streams overtaking Drake 's "One Dance ''.
On 5 January 2017, to accompany the song 's release, a lyric video for "Shape of You '' was released on Sheeran 's YouTube channel with "Castle on the Hill ''. As of September 2017, the official lyric video has amassed over 710 million views on YouTube.
On 30 January 2017, the song 's official music video, starring American dancer and model Jennie Pegouskie and retired professional sumo wrestler Yamamotoyama Ryūta (credited as "Yama ''), was released on Sheeran 's channel. It was shot on location in Seattle, and was directed by Jason Koenig. On 8 May 2017, 97 days after its release, it became one of the fastest music videos to reach 1 billion views on YouTube, and as of September 2017, the music video has amassed over 2.4 billion views on the site. and is the site 's seventh most - watched video.
The official remix of "Shape of You '' features newly additional verses and guest vocals by English grime artist Stormzy. The remix premiered during Sheeran and Stormzy 's live collaboration at the 2017 Brit Awards at The O2 in London on 22 February 2017. Sheeran announced on Twitter that the remix would be released officially on 24 February 2017. On the same date, various remixes of the song were released on digital music services. Sheeran teased the releases ahead of 2017 Brit Awards ceremony. "I 've got two things dropping on Friday that are pretty interesting, '' he revealed in a BBC Radio 1 interview just hours before the big show. "One that gets debuted at the Brits, which I think people will go a bit nuts for. '' He added, "It 's something that I think nobody is expecting. I think it 'll be decent. '' The Stormzy remix reached No. 1 on The Vodafone Big Top 40. Remixes by Galantis and Major Lazer were also released, the latter of these featuring guest vocals by Jamaican reggae artists Nyla and Kranium, who had both collaborated with Lazer in the past.
In the United States, "Shape of You '' has immediately become a favorite among DJs and remixers, prompting several of them to create their own versions. One DJ, Joe "Maz '' Masurka, told Billboard that after he did his own remix on the single that he received a lot of great feedback and response: "I absolutely love the track, so I had to remix it myself so that I could play it in all my live shows. Ed is a genius; best song in the last few years. I 've been playing it literally everywhere I 've been booked since about mid-January: Hyde Bellagio in Las Vegas, E11even and Ora in Miami, Parq in San Diego, Premier Atlantic City... the dance floor loves it. '' A Latin remix featuring reggaeton duo Zion & Lennox was released on 17 March 2017. Sheeran and American rapper Lil Uzi Vert performed a live remix of "Shape Of You '' during the 2017 MTV Video Music Awards, followed by a rendition of Lil Uzi Vert 's song "XO Tour Llif3 ''.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
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real character of ye un dino ki baat hai | Yeh Un Dinon Ki Baat Hai - wikipedia
Sony SET India
Yeh Un Dinon Ki Baat Hai (English: It 's About Those Days) is a Hindi drama series on SET and produced by Shashi Sumeet Productions, which started airing from 5 September 2017. Newbie Ashi Singh and TV actor Randeep Rai play the lead roles of Naina and Sameer respectively. The show is based on the youngsters ' love story and is set in the 1990s.
The show has been critically acclaimed for its performances and script. This show has also been dubbed in Tamil known as Ninaithale Inikkum.
The story starts in 1990, place being Ahmadabad, Gujarat. Naina Aggarwal (Ashi Singh) is a quintessential good girl who tops her school every year. She is excellent in studies. She is looked after by Bela chachi and Anand chacha. Her mother passed away when she was young. Her father, Rakesh Aggarwal is a librarian in her school, who is a strict and stubborn person. Her elder brother Arjun is a cricketer.
Sameer Maheshwari (Randeep Rai) is a good looking happy - go - lucky, spoilt brat. He studied in a boarding school in Nainital, after which he is transferred to Naina 's school. Naina, after meeting Sameer, falls for him instantly. She constantly tries to get his attention. Sameer 's enemies in the school challenge him to make Naina say "I Love You '' to him, to which Sameer agrees. Thereafter, their school goes for a school trip, where she realizes that she is in love with him. Sameer also makes her fall for him. One day, Naina gathers courage to propose Sameer, where his enemies reveal that it was just a bet. Naina is heartbroken, and vows never to love anyone. Sameer realizes that he too has fallen for her, as he was never taken care of as Naina did. Sameer tries to gain her love, which he does but with much difficulty. Sameer and Naina are now in a happy relation.
2 years pass by, and the couple is in the same college. They continue their relation. After Arjun - Shefali break up, Naina fears of facing her family 's wrath and she breaks - up with Sameer. Both are heartbroken. Naina 's taiji forces her to get married, which she unwillingly agrees to and gets engaged to a to - be C.A, Sharad. Sameer also decides to move on and establishes a relation with Sunaina.
The opening theme of the show Yeh Un Dinon Ki Baat Hai is composed by Anu Malik. The lyrics are written by Sanjay Chhel and it comprises the voices of legendary singers Kumar Sanu and Sadhana Sargam.
The show has received mostly positive reviews and is considered to be doing well. It was particularly hailed for a fresh outlook and for bringing out the nostalgia and the flavours of the 90s well. The show topped the Sony TV shows by gaining a TRP of 1.1 its first week.
Bollywood Life hailed it as one of the best TV shows launched in 2017 and praised the performances of newcomers Ashi Singh and Randeep Rai.
UK 's weekly Asian newspaper Eastern Eye praised the creative team of the show for leaving no stone unturned to recreate the city of Ahmedabad from an earlier era and called it a tribute to the city.
This show has also earned compliments from various television as well as film actors.
For the Gold Awards 2018, Ashi Singh was nominated for ' Best Debut in a Leading Role ' in Female category.
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when one species cannot live without another we use the term | Competitive exclusion principle - wikipedia
In ecology, the competitive exclusion principle, sometimes referred to as Gause 's law, is a proposition named for Georgy Gause that two species competing for the same limiting resource can not coexist at constant population values. When one species has even the slightest advantage over another, the one with the advantage will dominate in the long term. This leads either to the extinction of the weaker competitor or to an evolutionary or behavioral shift toward a different ecological niche. The principle has been paraphrased in the maxim "complete competitors can not coexist ''.
The competitive exclusion principle is classically attributed to Georgii Gause, although he actually never formulated it. The principle is already present in Darwin 's theory of natural selection.
Throughout its history, the status of the principle has oscillated between a priori (' two species coexisting must have different niches ') and experimental truth (' we find that species coexisting do have different niches ').
Based on field observations, Joseph Grinnell formulated the principle of competitive exclusion in 1904: "Two species of approximately the same food habits are not likely to remain long evenly balanced in numbers in the same region. One will crowd out the other ''. Russian ecologist Georgy Gause formulated the law of competitive exclusion based on laboratory competition experiments using two species of Paramecium, P. aurelia and P. caudatum. The conditions were to add fresh water every day and input a constant flow of food. Although P. caudatum initially dominated, P. aurelia recovered and subsequently drove P. caudatum extinct via exploitative resource competition. However, Gause was able to let the P. caudatum survive by differing the environmental parameters (food, water). Thus, Gause 's law is valid only if the ecological factors are constant.
Gause also studied competition between two species of yeast, finding that Saccharomyces cerevisiae consistently outcompeted Schizosaccharomyces kefir by producing a higher concentration of ethyl alcohol.
Competitive exclusion is predicted by mathematical and theoretical models such as the Lotka - Volterra models of competition. However, for poorly understood reasons, competitive exclusion is rarely observed in natural ecosystems, and many biological communities appear to violate Gause 's law. The best - known example is the so - called "paradox of the plankton ''. All plankton species live on a very limited number of resources, primarily solar energy and minerals dissolved in the water. According to the competitive exclusion principle, only a small number of plankton species should be able to coexist on these resources. Nevertheless, large numbers of plankton species coexist within small regions of open sea.
Some communities that appear to uphold the competitive exclusion principle are MacArthur 's warblers and Darwin 's finches, though the latter still overlap ecologically very strongly, being only affected negatively by competition under extreme conditions.
A partial solution to the paradox lies in raising the dimensionality of the system. Spatial heterogeneity, trophic interactions, multiple resource competition, competition - colonization trade - offs, and lag may prevent exclusion (ignoring stochastic extinction over longer time - frames). However, such systems tend to be analytically intractable. In addition, many can, in theory, support an unlimited number of species. A new paradox is created: Most well - known models that allow for stable coexistence allow for unlimited number of species to coexist, yet, in nature, any community contains just a handful of species.
Recent studies addressing some of the assumptions made for the models predicting competitive exclusion have shown these assumptions need to be reconsidered. For example, a slight modification of the assumption of how growth and body size are related leads to a different conclusion, namely that, for a given ecosystem, a certain range of species may coexist while others become outcompeted.
One of the primary ways niche - sharing species can coexist is the competition - colonization trade - off. In other words, species that are better competitors will be specialists, whereas species that are better colonizers are more likely to be generalists. Host - parasite models are effective ways of examining this relationship, using host transfer events. There seem to be two places where the ability to colonize differs in ecologically closely related species. In feather lice, Bush and Clayton provided some verification of this by showing two closely related genera of lice are nearly equal in their ability to colonize new host pigeons once transferred. Harbison continued this line of thought by investigating whether the two genera differed in their ability to transfer. This research focused primarily on determining how colonization occurs and why wing lice are better colonizers than body lice. Vertical transfer is the most common occurrence, between parent and offspring, and is much - studied and well understood. Horizontal transfer is difficult to measure, but in lice seems to occur via phoresis or the "hitchhiking '' of one species on another. Harbison found that body lice are less adept at phoresis and excel competitively, whereas wing lice excel in colonization.
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who won sa re ga ma pa little champs 2017 | Sa Re Ga Ma Pa L'il Champs 2017 - wikipedia
Sa Re Ga Ma Pa L'il Champs 2017 (stylised as Saregamapa Li'l Champs) is a singing competition television series, which premiered on February 25, 2017 on Zee TV. The series airs every Saturday and Sunday nights at 9 pm. In a ' Back to School ' format that lends itself to a spirited atmosphere of camaraderie and fun, the L'il Champs will represent their schools.
For the first time in L'il Champs, they have incorporated the format created for Sa Re Ga Ma Pa 2016. There is a 30 - member Grand Jury which grades the contestants and the average percentage of their scores is displayed. Himesh Reshammiya, Neha Kakkar & Javed Ali are the mentors in the show, whereas Aditya Narayan is the host. The show went off air on 29 october 2017. With GREAT GRAND FINALE JAIPUR
Children aged 5 - 14 years participate in a singing competition. In the auditions round, they have 100 seconds to impress the three judges and the 30 - members of the grand jury. If two of the three judges say YES and they secure at least 50 per cent of the support of the Grand Jury, then the contestant progresses to the next round.
In the Gala round, the judges select the ' Student of the Week ' who is the best performer according to them. The contestant gets to sit on a ' flying sofa ', which indicates that the contestant is safe from next week 's elimination.
The audience vote will come in later in the competition. The contestant with the highest votes in the final round will win the competition.
The show has a panel of 30 jury members who are experts from the music industry. They closely assess the contestants from the audition stage wherein they help the mentors in the selection process and are present in the show during the studio rounds too.
Some of them are:
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what are the different form of inheritance in c++ | Inheritance (object - oriented programming) - wikipedia
In object - oriented programming, inheritance is when an object or class is based on another object (prototypal inheritance) or class (class - based inheritance), using the same implementation. Inheritance in most class - based object - oriented languages is a mechanism in which one object acquires all the properties and behaviours of the parent object. Inheritance allows programmers to: create classes that are built upon existing classes, to specify a new implementation to maintain the same behaviour (realizing an interface), to reuse code and to independently extend original software via public classes and interfaces. The relationships of objects or classes through inheritance give rise to a directed graph.
An inherited class is called a subclass of its parent class or super class. The term "inheritance '' is loosely used for both class - based and prototype - based programming, but in narrow use is reserved for class - based programming (one class inherits from another), with the corresponding technique in prototype - based programming being instead called delegation (one object delegates to another).
Inheritance should not be confused with subtyping. In some languages inheritance and subtyping agree, whereas in others they differ; in general, subtyping establishes an is - a relationship, whereas inheritance only reuses implementation and establishes a syntactic relationship, not necessarily a semantic relationship (inheritance does not ensure behavioral subtyping). To distinguish these concepts, subtyping is also known as interface inheritance, whereas inheritance as defined here is known as implementation inheritance or code inheritance. Still, inheritance is a commonly used mechanism for establishing subtype relationships.
Inheritance is contrasted with object composition, where one object contains another object (or objects of one class contain objects of another class); see composition over inheritance. Composition implements a has - a relationship, in contrast to the is - a relationship of subtyping.
Inheritance was invented in 1969 for Simula.
There are various types of inheritance, based on paradigm and specific language.
"Multiple Inheritance (object - oriented programming) was widely supposed to be very difficult to implement efficiently. For example, in a summary of C++ in his book on objective C Brd. Cox actually claimed that adding Multiple inheritance to C++ was impossible. Thus, multiple inheritance seemed more of a challenge. Since I had considered multiple inheritance as early as 1982 and found a simple and efficient implementation technique in 1984. I could n't resist the challenge. I suspect this to be the only case in which fashion affected the sequence of events. ''
In JDK 1.8, Java now has support for multiple inheritance.
A derived class with multilevel inheritance is declared as follows:
This process can be extended to any number of levels.
A Subclass, "derived class '', heir class, or child class is a modular, derivative class that inherits one or more language entities from one or more other classes (called superclass, base classes, or parent classes). The semantics of class inheritance vary from language to language, but commonly the subclass automatically inherits the instance variables and member functions of its superclasses. The general form of defining a derived class is:
Some languages support the inheritance of other constructs also. For example, in Eiffel, contracts that define the specification of a class are also inherited by heirs. The superclass establishes a common interface and foundational functionality, which specialized subclasses can inherit, modify, and supplement. The software inherited by a subclass is considered reused in the subclass. A reference to an instance of a class may actually be referring to one of its subclasses. The actual class of the object being referenced is impossible to predict at compile - time. A uniform interface is used to invoke the member functions of objects of a number of different classes. Subclass may replace superclass functions with entirely new functions that must share the same method signature.
In some languages a class may be declared as uninheritable by adding certain class modifiers to the class declaration. Examples include the "final '' keyword in Java and C + + 11 onwards or the "sealed '' keyword in C#. Such modifiers are added to the class declaration before the "class '' keyword and the class identifier declaration. Such sealed classes restrict reusability, particularly when developers only have access to precompiled binaries and not source code.
The sealed class has no subclasses, so it can be easily deduced at compile time that references or pointers to objects of that class are actually referencing instances of that class and not instances of subclasses (they do n't exist) or instances of superclasses (upcasting a reference type violates the type system). subtype polymorphism. Because the exact type of the object being referenced is known before execution, early binding (or "static dispatch '') can be used instead of late binding (also called "dynamic dispatch '' or "dynamic binding ''), which requires one or more virtual method table lookups depending on whether multiple inheritance or only single inheritance are supported in the programming language that is being used.
Just as classes may be sealed / finalized method declarations may contain method modifiers that prevent the method from being overridden (i.e. replaced with a new function with the same name and type signature in a subclass). A private method is unoverridable simply because it is not accessible by classes other than the class it is a member function of (this is not true for C++, though). A "final '' method in Java, a "sealed '' method in C# or a frozen feature in Eiffel can not be overridden.
If the superclass method is a virtual method, then invocations of the superclass method will be dynamically dispatched. Some languages require methods to be specifically declared as virtual (e.g. C++) and in others all methods are virtual (e.g. Javarice). An invocation of a non-virtual method will always be statically dispatched (i.e. the address of the function call is determined at compile - time). Static dispatch is faster than dynamic dispatch and allows optimisations such as inline expansion.
Inheritance is used to co-relate two or more classes to each other.
Many object - oriented programming languages permit a class or object to replace the implementation of an aspect -- typically a behavior -- that it has inherited. This process is usually called overriding. Overriding introduces a complication: which version of the behavior does an instance of the inherited class use -- the one that is part of its own class, or the one from the parent (base) class? The answer varies between programming languages, and some languages provide the ability to indicate that a particular behavior is not to be overridden and should behave as defined by the base class. For instance, in C#, the base method or property can only be overridden in a subclass if it is marked with the virtual, abstract, or override modifier. An alternative to overriding is hiding the inherited code.
Implementation inheritance is the mechanism whereby a subclass re-uses code in a base class. By default the subclass retains all of the operations of the base class, but the subclass may override some or all operations, replacing the base - class implementation with its own.
In the following Python example, subclasses SquareSumComputer and CubeSumComputer override the transform () method of the base class SumComputer. The base class comprises operations to compute the sum of the squares between two integers. The subclass re-uses all of the functionality of the base class with the exception of the operation that transforms a number into its square, replacing it with an operation that transforms a number into its square and cube respectively. The subclasses therefore compute the sum of the squares / cubes between two integers.
In most quarters, class inheritance for the sole purpose of code reuse has fallen out of favor. The primary concern is that implementation inheritance does not provide any assurance of polymorphic substitutability -- an instance of the reusing class can not necessarily be substituted for an instance of the inherited class. An alternative technique, explicit delegation, requires more programming effort, but avoids the substitutability issue. In C++ private inheritance can be used as a form of implementation inheritance without substitutability. Whereas public inheritance represents an "is - a '' relationship and delegation represents a "has - a '' relationship, private (and protected) inheritance can be thought of as an "is implemented in terms of '' relationship.
Another frequent use of inheritance is to guarantee that classes maintain a certain common interface; that is, they implement the same methods. The parent class can be a combination of implemented operations and operations that are to be implemented in the child classes. Often, there is no interface change between the supertype and subtype - the child implements the behavior described instead of its parent class.
Inheritance is similar to but distinct from subtyping. Subtyping enables a given type to be substituted for another type or abstraction, and is said to establish an is - a relationship between the subtype and some existing abstraction, either implicitly or explicitly, depending on language support. The relationship can be expressed explicitly via inheritance in languages that support inheritance as a subtyping mechanism. For example, the following C++ code establishes an explicit inheritance relationship between classes B and A, where B is both a subclass and a subtype of A, and can be used as an A wherever a B is specified (via a reference, a pointer or the object itself).
In programming languages that do not support inheritance as a subtyping mechanism, the relationship between a base class and a derived class is only a relationship between implementations (a mechanism for code reuse), as compared to a relationship between types. Inheritance, even in programming languages that support inheritance as a subtyping mechanism, does not necessarily entail behavioral subtyping. It is entirely possible to derive a class whose object will behave incorrectly when used in a context where the parent class is expected; see the Liskov substitution principle. (Compare connotation / denotation.) In some OOP languages, the notions of code reuse and subtyping coincide because the only way to declare a subtype is to define a new class that inherits the implementation of another.
Using inheritance extensively in designing a program imposes certain constraints.
For example, consider a class Person that contains a person 's name, date of birth, address and phone number. We can define a subclass of Person called Student that contains the person 's grade point average and classes taken, and another subclass of Person called Employee that contains the person 's job - title, employer, and salary.
In defining this inheritance hierarchy we have already defined certain restrictions, not all of which are desirable:
The composite reuse principle is an alternative to inheritance. This technique supports polymorphism and code reuse by separating behaviors from the primary class hierarchy and including specific behavior classes as required in any business domain class. This approach avoids the static nature of a class hierarchy by allowing behavior modifications at run time and allows one class to implement behaviors buffet - style, instead of being restricted to the behaviors of its ancestor classes.
Implementation inheritance is controversial among programmers and theoreticians of object - oriented programming since at least the 1990s. Among them are the authors of Design Patterns, who advocate interface inheritance instead, and favor composition over inheritance. For example, the decorator pattern (as mentioned above) has been proposed to overcome the static nature of inheritance between classes. As a more fundamental solution to the same problem, role - oriented programming introduces a distinct relationship, played - by, combining properties of inheritance and composition into a new concept.
According to Allen Holub, the main problem with implementation inheritance is that it introduces unnecessary coupling in the form of the "fragile base class problem '': modifications to the base class implementation can cause inadvertent behavioral changes in subclasses. Using interfaces avoids this problem because no implementation is shared, only the API. Another way of stating this is that "inheritance breaks encapsulation ''. The problem surfaces clearly in open object - oriented systems such as frameworks, where client code is expected to inherit from system - supplied classes and then substituted for the system 's classes in its algorithms.
Reportedly, Java inventor James Gosling has spoken against implementation inheritance, stating that he would not include it if he were to redesign Java. Language designs that decouple inheritance from subtyping (interface inheritance) appeared as early as 1990; a modern example of this is the Go programming language.
Complex inheritance, or inheritance used within an insufficiently mature design, may lead to the yo - yo problem.
Another issue with inheritance is that subclasses must be defined in code, which means that program users can not add new subclasses. Other design patterns (such as Entity -- component -- system) allow program users to define variations of an entity at runtime.
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when the sun goes down on a california town | John Stewart (musician) - wikipedia
John Coburn Stewart (September 5, 1939 -- January 19, 2008) was an American songwriter and singer. He is known for his contributions to the American folk music movement of the 1960s while with The Kingston Trio (1961 -- 1967) and as a popular music songwriter of The Monkees ' No. 1 hit "Daydream Believer '' and his own No. 5 hit "Gold '' during a solo career spanning 40 years that included almost four dozen albums and more than 600 recorded songs.
Born in San Diego, Stewart was the son of horse trainer John S. Stewart and spent his childhood and adolescence in southern California, living mostly in the cities of Pasadena and Claremont. He graduated in 1957 from Pomona Catholic High School, which at the time was a coeducational school. Following graduation from High School, John went on to attend Mt. San Antonio Junior College in Pomona, California, during 1957 - 1958, when he was active in its music and theater programs. He demonstrated an early talent for music, learning the guitar and banjo. He composed his first song, "Shrunken Head Boogie, '' when he was ten years old. In an interview in Michael Oberman 's Music makers column (The Washington, DC Star Newspaper) on 30 October, 1971, Stewart said, "I bought a ukulele when I was in Pasadena. I would listen to Sons of the Pioneers records. Tex Ritter really turned me on to music. ' I Love My Rooster ' was Top Ten as far as I was concerned. ''
Stewart 's first venture into popular music was with a high school garage band known as Johnny Stewart and the Furies. Influenced by the reigning icons of the day, Elvis Presley and Buddy Holly, the Furies toured southern California colleges and coffee houses, releasing one single, "Rockin ' Anna, '' which was a minor, regional hit.
Following the breakup of the Furies and a short time as a member of The Woodsmen, Stewart teamed up with Gil Robbins (father of actor Tim Robbins) and John Montgomery to form The Cumberland Three, a group patterned after, and heavily influenced by, the increasingly popular Kingston Trio. The major accomplishment of The Cumberland Three was a two - LP set of Songs from the Civil War, with the albums containing a compilation of songs from the Confederacy and the Union, respectively. In all, the Cumberland Three released three albums, after which Stewart left the group to join the Kingston Trio, replacing Trio founder Dave Guard in 1961.
The Kingston Trio had emerged from the relatively crowded San Francisco folk music culture in 1957, using a mixture of calypso, pop, and folk styles, along with several forms of comedy, in their act. Relying on new pop - oriented arrangements of folk music classics as well as some original compositions, the Trio earned their first gold record with "Tom Dooley '' and thereby launched a major revival in folk music that would lead to and influence the careers of Bob Dylan, Peter, Paul, & Mary, and John Denver, among others. The group had become one of the best - known and best - selling acts on the folk music scene and were enjoying a lucrative recording and touring contract with Capitol Records, having ten albums under their collective belts, when Dave Guard departed the group in 1961 to explore other musical directions. Stewart was selected by the remaining members Nick Reynolds and Bob Shane as Guard 's successor, bringing with him his respected skills as a musician, composer, and performer.
Reynolds, Shane, and Stewart would record a dozen albums together, taking the music of the Trio into new directions, including more original material, and performing covers of songs by relative newcomers Tom Paxton, Mason Williams and Gordon Lightfoot.
The pop - folk era began to wane as the music of groups such as The Beatles, The Rolling Stones, and fellow Californians The Beach Boys increasingly dominated the charts, and in 1967 the members of the Kingston Trio decided to disband.
Stewart continued to write songs and record for Capitol, while touring as a solo act. It was during this time that he composed the hit "Daydream Believer '' for The Monkees, which was a hit for Anne Murray as well, and the closest Stewart came to writing a "standard ''. He later toured with Robert F. Kennedy 's ill - fated 1968 presidential campaign and met and married fellow folk singer Buffy Ford (with whom he remained until his death) and began recording a string of albums, including his signature album, California Bloodlines, as well as Willard, Cannons in the Rain, and Wingless Angels (1).
Though usually successful with critics and a core group of fans, Stewart 's albums were not considered commercial successes. He left Capitol after only two solo releases and was signed by Warner Bros. Records, where he also recorded just two albums before moving on to RCA Records. There he recorded three LPs (including a live performance album, The Phoenix Concerts). Stewart followed his release from RCA with a contract at the Robert Stigwood organization, the same organization that serviced the recording contracts for Eric Clapton, the Bee Gees, as well as several other disco performers. It was at RSO Records that Stewart enjoyed his most commercially successful years as a solo artist. Teaming with Stevie Nicks and Lindsey Buckingham (then in Fleetwood Mac), Stewart recorded and released Bombs Away Dream Babies, which included the No. 5 hit, "Gold, '' in 1979. He would later stop performing the song, calling it "vapid '' and "empty '', meaning nothing to him, having done it for the money and to please his record company. Two other tracks from the album, "Midnight Wind '' and "Lost Her in the Sun '', would also hit the Top 40. The follow - up album, Dream Babies Go Hollywood, proved to be a commercial disappointment, and shortly thereafter Stewart dropped from the pop charts, though he continued to perform right up to the time of his death.
Stewart 's later and most significant success was as a songwriter. Several of his songs were recorded by a number of popular acts, including Nanci Griffith ("Sweet Dreams Will Come ''), Rosanne Cash ("Runaway Train '', "Dance with the Tiger ''), Joan Baez ("Strange Rivers ''). He also continued to record new material, producing CDs on his own "Neon Dreams '' label in between commercial releases. They usually coincided with one of his tours. His last album was The Day the River Sang in 2006.
Over his last years, Stewart teamed up with former Kingston Trio member Nick Reynolds to offer fans the ultimate Trio Fantasy: performing for and with Stewart and Reynolds. In 2005 and 2006 Bob Shane attended and performed a few songs with Stewart and Reynolds at the Trio Fantasy Camp, which is held annually in Scottsdale, Arizona.
Stewart had a passion for painting, doing art shows and covers for his recordings and books. He continued to be a prolific songwriter and toured the United States and Europe regularly. He resided in Marin County, California with his wife, Buffy Ford Stewart. Stewart 's brother Mike, who died in 2002, founded the folk - rock group We Five in the mid 1960s. He was the uncle of Jamie Stewart of the band Xiu Xiu.
In mid-2007, Stewart was diagnosed with the early stages of Alzheimer 's Disease, but resolved to continue performing as long as he was able. On January 19, 2008, he died from a brain aneurysm at a San Diego hospital, at the age of 68.
In addition to his wife, Buffy, he was survived by their son Luke, along with three children from a previous marriage: Jeremy, Amy, and Mikael (a sound technician).
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which is not one of the protestant principles | Protestantism - wikipedia
Protestantism is the second largest form of Christianity with collectively more than 900 million adherents worldwide or nearly 40 % of all Christians. It originated with the Reformation, a movement against what its followers considered to be errors in the Roman Catholic Church. Ever since, Protestants reject the Roman Catholic doctrine of papal supremacy and sacraments, but disagree among themselves regarding the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist. They emphasize the priesthood of all believers, justification by faith alone (sola fide) rather than by good works, and the highest authority of the Bible alone (rather than with sacred tradition) in faith and morals (sola scriptura). The "Five solae '' summarize basic theological differences in opposition to the Roman Catholic Church.
Protestantism is popularly considered to have begun in Germany in 1517 when Martin Luther published his Ninety - five Theses as a reaction against abuses in the sale of indulgences by the Roman Catholic Church, which purported to offer remission of sin to their purchasers. However, the term derives from the letter of protestation from German Lutheran princes in 1529 against an edict of the Diet of Speyer condemning the teachings of Martin Luther as heretical. Although there were earlier breaks and attempts to reform the Roman Catholic Church -- notably by Peter Waldo, John Wycliffe, and Jan Hus -- only Luther succeeded in sparking a wider, lasting, and modern movement. In the 16th century, Lutheranism spread from Germany into Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Finland, Latvia, Estonia, and Iceland. Reformed (or Calvinist) denominations spread in Germany, Hungary, the Netherlands, Scotland, Switzerland and France by reformers such as John Calvin, Huldrych Zwingli, and John Knox. The political separation of the Church of England from the pope under King Henry VIII began Anglicanism, bringing England and Wales into this broad Reformation movement.
Protestants developed their own culture, with major contributions in education, the humanities and sciences, the political and social order, the economy and the arts, and many other fields.
Protestantism is diverse, being more divided theologically and ecclesiastically than either the Roman Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church, or Oriental Orthodoxy. Without structural unity or central human authority, Protestants developed the concept of an invisible church, in contrast to the Roman Catholic view of the Catholic Church as the visible one true Church founded by Jesus Christ. Some denominations do have a worldwide scope and distribution of membership, while others are confined to a single country. A majority of Protestants are members of a handful of Protestant denominational families: Adventists, Anabaptists, Anglicans, Baptists, Reformed, Lutherans, Methodists, and Pentecostals. Nondenominational, evangelical, charismatic, independent and other churches are on the rise, and constitute a significant part of Protestant Christianity. Proponents of the branch theory consider Protestantism one of the three major divisions of Christendom, together with the Roman Catholic Church and Orthodoxy (both Eastern and Oriental).
During the Reformation, the term protestant was hardly used outside of German politics. People who were involved in the religious movement used the word evangelical (German: evangelisch). For further details, see the section below. Gradually, protestant became a general term, meaning any adherent of the Reformation in the German - speaking area. It was ultimately somewhat taken up by Lutherans, even though Martin Luther himself insisted on Christian or evangelical as the only acceptable names for individuals who professed Christ. French and Swiss Protestants instead preferred the word reformed (French: réformé), which became a popular, neutral, and alternative name for Calvinists.
Six princes of the Holy Roman Empire and rulers of fourteen Imperial Free Cities, who issued a protest (or dissent) against the edict of the Diet of Speyer, were the first individuals to be called Protestants. The edict reversed concessions made to the Lutherans with the approval of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V three years earlier. The term protestant later acquired a broader sense, referring to a member of any Western church which subscribed to the main Protestant principles. However, it is often misused to mean any church outside the Roman and Eastern Orthodox communions. Protestantism as a general term is now used in contradistinction to the other major Christian traditions, i.e. Roman Catholicism and Orthodoxy.
The word evangelical (German: evangelisch), which refers to the gospel, was widely used for those involved in the religious movement in the German - speaking area. Nowadays, evangelical is still preferred among some of the historical Protestant denominations in the Lutheran, Calvinist, and United Protestant (Lutheran & Reformed) traditions in Europe, and those with strong ties to them (e.g. Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod). Above all the term is used by Protestant bodies in the German - speaking area, such as the Evangelical Church in Germany. In continental Europe, an Evangelical is either a Lutheran, a Calvinist, or a United Protestant (Lutheran & Reformed). The German word evangelisch means Protestant, and is different from the German evangelikal, which refers to churches shaped by Evangelicalism. The English word evangelical usually refers to evangelical Protestant churches, and therefore to a certain part of Protestantism rather than to Protestantism as a whole. The English word traces its roots back to the Puritans in England, where Evangelicalism originated, and then was brought to the United States. The word reformatorisch is used as an alternative for evangelisch in German, and is different from English reformed (German: reformiert), which refers to churches shaped by ideas of John Calvin, Huldrych Zwingli and other Reformed theologians.
Martin Luther always disliked the term Lutheran, preferring the term evangelical, which was derived from euangelion, a Greek word meaning "good news '', i.e. "gospel ''. The followers of John Calvin, Huldrych Zwingli, and other theologians linked to the Reformed tradition also began to use that term. To distinguish the two evangelical groups, others began to refer to the two groups as Evangelical Lutheran and Evangelical Reformed. Nowadays, the word also pertains in the same way to some other mainline groups, for example Evangelical Methodist. As time passed by, the word evangelical was dropped. Lutherans themselves began to use the term Lutheran in the middle of the 16th century, in order to distinguish themselves from other groups such as the Philippists and Calvinists.
Various experts on the subject tried to determine what makes a Christian denomination a part of Protestantism. A common consensus approved by most of them is that if a Christian denomination is to be considered Protestant, it must acknowledge the following three fundamental principles of Protestantism.
"Biblical Christianity '' focused on a deep study of the Bible is characteristic of most Protestants as opposed to "Church Christianity, '' focused on performing rituals and good works, represented by Catholic and Orthodox traditions. However Quakers and Pentecostalists, emphasize the Holy Spirit and personal closeness to God..
Protestants who adhere to the Nicene Creed believe in three persons (God the Father, God the Son, and the Holy Spirit) as one God.
Movements emerging around the time of the Protestant Reformation, but not a part of Protestantism, e.g. Unitarianism also reject the Trinity. This often serves as a reason for exclusion of the Stone - Campbell Restoration Movement, Unitarian Universalism, Oneness Pentecostalism and other movements from Protestantism by various observers. Unitarianism continues to have a presence mainly in Transylvania, England and the United States, as well as elsewhere.
The Five solae are five Latin phrases (or slogans) that emerged during the Protestant Reformation and summarize the reformers ' basic differences in theological beliefs in opposition to the teaching of the Catholic Church of the day. The Latin word sola means "alone '', "only '', or "single ''.
The use of the phrases as summaries of teaching emerged over time during the Reformation, based on the overarching principle of sola scriptura (by scripture alone). This idea contains the four main doctrines on the Bible: that its teaching is needed for salvation (necessity); that all the doctrine necessary for salvation comes from the Bible alone (sufficiency); that everything taught in the Bible is correct (inerrancy); and that, by the Holy Spirit overcoming sin, believers may read and understand truth from the Bible itself, though understanding is difficult, so the means used to guide individual believers to the true teaching is often mutual discussion within the church (clarity).
The necessity and inerrancy were well - established ideas, garnering little criticism, though they later came under debate from outside during the Enlightenment. The most contentious idea at the time though was the notion that anyone could simply pick up the Bible and learn enough to gain salvation. Though the reformers were concerned with ecclesiology (the doctrine of how the church as a body works), they had a different understanding of the process in which truths in scripture were applied to life of believers, compared to the Catholics ' idea that certain people within the church, or ideas that were old enough, had a special status in giving understanding of the text.
The second main principle, sola fide (by faith alone), states that faith in Christ is sufficient alone for eternal salvation. Though argued from scripture, and hence logically consequent to sola scriptura, this is the guiding principle of the work of Luther and the later reformers. Because sola scriptura placed the Bible as the only source of teaching, sola fide epitomises the main thrust of the teaching the reformers wanted to get back to, namely the direct, close, personal connection between Christ and the believer, hence the reformers ' contention that their work was Christocentric.
The other solas, as statements, emerged later, but the thinking they represent was also part of the early Reformation.
The Protestant movement began to diverge into several distinct branches in the mid-to - late 16th century. One of the central points of divergence was controversy over the Eucharist. Early Protestants rejected the Roman Catholic dogma of transubstantiation, which teaches that the bread and wine used in the sacrificial rite of the Mass lose their natural substance by being transformed into the body, blood, soul, and divinity of Christ. They disagreed with one another concerning the presence of Christ and his body and blood in Holy Communion.
In the late 1130s, Arnold of Brescia, an Italian canon regular became one of the first theologians to attempt to reform the Roman Catholic Church. After his death, his teachings on apostolic poverty gained currency among Arnoldists, and later more widely among Waldensians and the Spiritual Franciscans, though no written word of his has survived the official condemnation. In the early 1170s, Peter Waldo founded the Waldensians. He advocated an interpretation of the Gospel that led to conflicts with the Roman Catholic Church. By 1215, the Waldensians were declared heretical and subject to persecution. Despite that, the movement continues to exist to this day in Italy, as a part of the wider Reformed tradition.
In the 1370s, John Wycliffe -- later dubbed the "Morning Star of Reformation '' -- started his activity as an English reformer. He rejected papal authority over secular power, translated the Bible into vernacular English, and preached anticlerical and biblically - centred reforms.
Beginning in the first decade of the 15th century, Jan Hus -- a Roman Catholic priest, Czech reformist and professor -- influenced by John Wycliffe 's writings, founded the Hussite movement. He strongly advocated his reformist Bohemian religious denomination. He was excommunicated and burned at the stake in Constance, Bishopric of Constance in 1415 by secular authorities for unrepentant and persistent heresy. After his execution, a revolt erupted. Hussites defeated five continuous crusades proclaimed against them by the Pope.
Later on, theological disputes caused a split within the Hussite movement. Utraquists maintained that both the bread and the wine should be administered to the people during the Eucharist. Another major faction were the Taborites, who opposed the Utraquists in the Battle of Lipany during the Hussite Wars. There were two separate parties among the Hussites: moderate and radical movements. Other smaller regional Hussite branches in Bohemia included Adamites, Orebites, Orphans and Praguers.
The Hussite Wars concluded with the victory of Holy Roman Emperor Sigismund, his Catholic allies and moderate Hussites and the defeat of the radical Hussites. Tensions arised as the Thirty Years ' War reached Bohemia in 1620. Both moderate and radical Hussitism was increasingly persecuted by Catholics and Holy Roman Emperor 's armies.
Starting in 1475, an Italian Dominican friar Girolamo Savonarola was calling for a Christian renewal. Later on, Martin Luther himself read some of the friar 's writings and praised him as a martyr and forerunner whose ideas on faith and grace anticipated Luther 's own doctrine of justification by faith alone.
Some of Hus ' followers founded the Unitas Fratrum -- "Unity of the Brethren '' -- which was renewed under the leadership of Count Nicolaus von Zinzendorf in Herrnhut, Saxony in 1722 after its almost total destruction in the Thirty Years ' War and the Counter-Reformation. Today, it is usually referred to in English as the Moravian Church and in German as the Herrnhuter Brüdergemeine.
The Protestant Reformation began as an attempt to reform the Roman Catholic Church.
On 31 October 1517 (All Hallows ' Eve) Martin Luther allegedly nailed his Ninety - five Theses (Disputation on the Power of Indulgences) on the door of the All Saints ' Church in Wittenberg, Germany, detailing doctrinal and practical abuses of the Roman Catholic Church, especially the selling of indulgences. The theses debated and criticized many aspects of the Church and the papacy, including the practice of purgatory, particular judgment, and the authority of the pope. Luther would later write works against the Catholic devotion to Virgin Mary, the intercession of and devotion to the saints, the sacraments, mandatory clerical celibacy, monasticism, the authority of the pope, the ecclesiastical law, censure and excommunication, the role of secular rulers in religious matters, the relationship between Christianity and the law, good works, and the sacraments.
The Reformation was a triumph of literacy and the new printing press invented by Johannes Gutenberg. Luther 's translation of the Bible into German was a decisive moment in the spread of literacy, and stimulated as well the printing and distribution of religious books and pamphlets. From 1517 onward, religious pamphlets flooded much of Europe.
Following the excommunication of Luther and condemnation of the Reformation by the Pope, the work and writings of John Calvin were influential in establishing a loose consensus among various groups in Switzerland, Scotland, Hungary, Germany and elsewhere. After the expulsion of its Bishop in 1526, and the unsuccessful attempts of the Bern reformer William Farel, Calvin was asked to use the organisational skill he had gathered as a student of law to discipline the city of Geneva. His Ordinances of 1541 involved a collaboration of Church affairs with the City council and consistory to bring morality to all areas of life. After the establishment of the Geneva academy in 1559, Geneva became the unofficial capital of the Protestant movement, providing refuge for Protestant exiles from all over Europe and educating them as Calvinist missionaries. The faith continued to spread after Calvin 's death in 1563.
Protestantism also spread from the German lands into France, where the Protestants were nicknamed Huguenots. Calvin continued to take an interest in the French religious affairs from his base in Geneva. He regularly trained pastors to lead congregations there. Despite heavy persecution, the Reformed tradition made steady progress across large sections of the nation, appealing to people alienated by the obduracy and the complacency of the Catholic establishment. French Protestantism came to acquire a distinctly political character, made all the more obvious by the conversions of nobles during the 1550s. This established the preconditions for a series of conflicts, known as the French Wars of Religion. The civil wars gained impetus with the sudden death of Henry II of France in 1559. Atrocity and outrage became the defining characteristics of the time, illustrated at their most intense in the St. Bartholomew 's Day massacre of August 1572, when the Roman Catholic party annihilated between 30,000 and 100,000 Huguenots across France. The wars only concluded when Henry IV of France issued the Edict of Nantes, promising official toleration of the Protestant minority, but under highly restricted conditions. Roman Catholicism remained the official state religion, and the fortunes of French Protestants gradually declined over the next century, culminating in Louis XIV 's Edict of Fontainebleau which revoked the Edict of Nantes and made Roman Catholicism the sole legal religion once again. In response to the Edict of Fontainebleau, Frederick William I, Elector of Brandenburg declared the Edict of Potsdam, giving free passage to Huguenot refugees. In the late 17th century many Huguenots fled to England, the Netherlands, Prussia, Switzerland, and the English and Dutch overseas colonies. A significant community in France remained in the Cévennes region.
Parallel to events in Germany, a movement began in Switzerland under the leadership of Huldrych Zwingli. Zwingli was a scholar and preacher, who in 1518 moved to Zurich. Although the two movements agreed on many issues of theology, some unresolved differences kept them separate. A long - standing resentment between the German states and the Swiss Confederation led to heated debate over how much Zwingli owed his ideas to Lutheranism. The German Prince Philip of Hesse saw potential in creating an alliance between Zwingli and Luther. A meeting was held in his castle in 1529, now known as the Colloquy of Marburg, which has become infamous for its failure. The two men could not come to any agreement due to their disputation over one key doctrine.
In 1534, King Henry VIII put an end to all papal jurisdiction in England, after the Pope failed to annul his marriage to Catherine of Aragon; this opened the door to reformational ideas. Reformers in the Church of England alternated between sympathies for ancient Catholic tradition and more Reformed principles, gradually developing into a tradition considered a middle way (via media) between the Roman Catholic and Protestant traditions. The English Reformation followed a particular course. The different character of the English Reformation came primarily from the fact that it was driven initially by the political necessities of Henry VIII. King Henry decided to remove the Church of England from the authority of Rome. In 1534, the Act of Supremacy recognized Henry as the only Supreme Head on earth of the Church of England. Between 1535 and 1540, under Thomas Cromwell, the policy known as the Dissolution of the Monasteries was put into effect. Following a brief Roman Catholic restoration during the reign of Mary I, a loose consensus developed during the reign of Elizabeth I. The Elizabethan Religious Settlement largely formed Anglicanism into a distinctive church tradition. The compromise was uneasy and was capable of veering between extreme Calvinism on the one hand and Roman Catholicism on the other. It was relatively successful until the Puritan Revolution or English Civil War in the 17th century.
The success of the Counter-Reformation on the Continent and the growth of a Puritan party dedicated to further Protestant reform polarised the Elizabethan Age. The early Puritan movement was a movement for reform in the Church of England. The desire was for the Church of England to resemble more closely the Protestant churches of Europe, especially Geneva. The later Puritan movement, often referred to as dissenters and nonconformists, eventually led to the formation of various Reformed denominations.
The Scottish Reformation of 1560 decisively shaped the Church of Scotland. The Reformation in Scotland culminated ecclesiastically in the establishment of a church along Reformed lines, and politically in the triumph of English influence over that of France. John Knox is regarded as the leader of the Scottish Reformation. The Scottish Reformation Parliament of 1560 repudiated the pope 's authority by the Papal Jurisdiction Act 1560, forbade the celebration of the Mass and approved a Protestant Confession of Faith. It was made possible by a revolution against French hegemony under the regime of the regent Mary of Guise, who had governed Scotland in the name of her absent daughter.
Some of the most important activists of the Protestant Reformation included Jacobus Arminius, Theodore Beza, Martin Bucer, Andreas von Carlstadt, Heinrich Bullinger, Balthasar Hubmaier, Thomas Cranmer, William Farel, Thomas Müntzer, Laurentius Petri, Olaus Petri, Philipp Melanchthon, Menno Simons, Louis de Berquin, Primož Trubar and John Smyth.
In the course of this religious upheaval, the German Peasants ' War of 1524 -- 25 swept through the Bavarian, Thuringian and Swabian principalities. After the Eighty Years ' War in the Low Countries and the French Wars of Religion, the confessional division of the states of the Holy Roman Empire eventually erupted in the Thirty Years ' War between 1618 and 1648. It devastated much of Germany, killing between 25 % and 40 % of its population. The main tenets of the Peace of Westphalia, which ended the Thirty Years ' War, were:
The Great Awakenings were periods of rapid and dramatic religious revival in Anglo - American religious history.
The First Great Awakening was an evangelical and revitalization movement that swept through Protestant Europe and British America, especially the American colonies in the 1730s and 1740s, leaving a permanent impact on American Protestantism. It resulted from powerful preaching that gave listeners a sense of deep personal revelation of their need of salvation by Jesus Christ. Pulling away from ritual, ceremony, sacramentalism and hierarchy, it made Christianity intensely personal to the average person by fostering a deep sense of spiritual conviction and redemption, and by encouraging introspection and a commitment to a new standard of personal morality.
The Second Great Awakening began around 1790. It gained momentum by 1800. After 1820, membership rose rapidly among Baptist and Methodist congregations, whose preachers led the movement. It was past its peak by the late 1840s. It has been described as a reaction against skepticism, deism, and rationalism, although why those forces became pressing enough at the time to spark revivals is not fully understood. It enrolled millions of new members in existing evangelical denominations and led to the formation of new denominations.
The Third Great Awakening refers to a hypothetical historical period that was marked by religious activism in American history and spans the late 1850s to the early 20th century. It affected pietistic Protestant denominations and had a strong element of social activism. It gathered strength from the postmillennial belief that the Second Coming of Christ would occur after mankind had reformed the entire earth. It was affiliated with the Social Gospel Movement, which applied Christianity to social issues and gained its force from the Awakening, as did the worldwide missionary movement. New groupings emerged, such as the Holiness, Nazarene, and Christian Science movements.
The Fourth Great Awakening was a Christian religious awakening that some scholars -- most notably, Robert Fogel -- say took place in the United States in the late 1960s and early 1970s, while others look at the era following World War II. The terminology is controversial. Thus, the idea of a Fourth Great Awakening itself has not been generally accepted.
In 1814, Le Réveil swept through Calvinist regions in Switzerland and France.
In 1904, a Protestant revival in Wales had tremendous impact on the local population. A part of British modernization, it drew many people to churches, especially Methodist and Baptist ones.
A noteworthy development in 20th - century Protestant Christianity was the rise of the modern Pentecostal movement. Sprung from Methodist and Wesleyan roots, it arose out of meetings at an urban mission on Azusa Street in Los Angeles. From there it spread around the world, carried by those who experienced what they believed to be miraculous moves of God there. These Pentecost - like manifestations have steadily been in evidence throughout the history, such as seen in the two Great Awakenings. Pentecostalism, which in turn birthed the Charismatic movement within already established denominations, continues to be an important force in Western Christianity.
In the United States and elsewhere in the world, there has been a marked rise in the evangelical wing of Protestant denominations, especially those that are more exclusively evangelical, and a corresponding decline in the mainstream liberal churches. In the post -- World War I era, Liberal Christianity was on the rise, and a considerable number of seminaries held and taught from a liberal perspective as well. In the post -- World War II era, the trend began to swing back towards the conservative camp in America 's seminaries and church structures.
In Europe, there has been a general move away from religious observance and belief in Christian teachings and a move towards secularism. The Enlightenment is largely responsible for the spread of secularism. Several scholars have argued for a link between the rise of secularism and Protestantism, attributing it to the wide - ranging freedom in the Protestant countries. In North America, South America and Australia Christian religious observance is much higher than in Europe. United States remains particularly religious in comparison to other developed countries. South America, historically Roman Catholic, has experienced a large Evangelical and Pentecostal infusion in the 20th and 21st centuries.
Unlike mainstream Lutheran, Calvinist and Zwinglian movements, the Radical Reformation, which had no state sponsorship, generally abandoned the idea of the "Church visible '' as distinct from the "Church invisible ''. It was a rational extension of the state - approved Protestant dissent, which took the value of independence from constituted authority a step further, arguing the same for the civic realm. The Radical Reformation was non-mainstream, though in parts of Germany, Switzerland and Austria, a majority would sympathize with the Radical Reformation despite the intense persecution it faced from both Roman Catholics and Magisterial Protestants.
The early Anabaptists believed that their reformation must purify not only theology but also the actual lives of Christians, especially their political and social relationships. Therefore, the church should not be supported by the state, neither by tithes and taxes, nor by the use of the sword; Christianity was a matter of individual conviction, which could not be forced on anyone, but rather required a personal decision for it. Protestant ecclesial leaders such as Hubmaier and Hofmann preached the invalidity of infant baptism, advocating baptism as following conversion ("believer 's baptism '') instead. This was not a doctrine new to the reformers, but was taught by earlier groups, such as the Albigenses in 1147. Though most of the Radical Reformers were Anabaptist, some did not identify themselves with the mainstream Anabaptist tradition. Thomas Müntzer was involved in the German Peasants ' War. Andreas Karlstadt disagreed theologically with Huldrych Zwingli and Martin Luther, teaching nonviolence and refusing to baptize infants while not rebaptizing adult believers. Kaspar Schwenkfeld and Sebastian Franck were influenced by German mysticism and spiritualism.
In the view of many associated with the Radical Reformation, the Magisterial Reformation had not gone far enough. Radical Reformer, Andreas von Bodenstein Karlstadt, for example, referred to the Lutheran theologians at Wittenberg as the "new papists ''. Since the term "magister '' also means "teacher '', the Magisterial Reformation is also characterized by an emphasis on the authority of a teacher. This is made evident in the prominence of Luther, Calvin, and Zwingli as leaders of the reform movements in their respective areas of ministry. Because of their authority, they were often criticized by Radical Reformers as being too much like the Roman Popes. A more political side of the Radical Reformation can be seen in the thought and practice of Hans Hut, although typically Anabaptism has been associated with pacifism.
Anabaptism in shape of its various diversification such as the Amish, Mennonites and Hutterites came out of the Radical Reformation. Later in history, Schwarzenau Brethren, Bruderhof, and the Apostolic Christian Church would emerge in Anabaptist circles.
Protestants refer to specific groupings of congregations or churches that share in common foundational doctrines and the name of their groups as denominations. The term denomination (national body) is to be distinguished from branch (denominational family; tradition), communion (international body) and congregation (church). An example (this is no universal way to classify Protestant churches, as these may sometimes vary broadly in their structures) to show the difference:
Branch / denominational family / tradition: Methodism Communion / international body: World Methodist Council Denomination / national body: United Methodist Church Congregation / church: First United Methodist Church (Paintsville, Kentucky)
Protestants reject the Roman Catholic Church 's doctrine that it is the one true church, believing in the invisible church, which consists of all who profess faith in Jesus Christ. Some Protestant denominations are less accepting of other denominations, and the basic orthodoxy of some is questioned by most of the others. Individual denominations also have formed over very subtle theological differences. Other denominations are simply regional or ethnic expressions of the same beliefs. Because the five solas are the main tenets of the Protestant faith, non-denominational groups and organizations are also considered Protestant.
Various ecumenical movements have attempted cooperation or reorganization of the various divided Protestant denominations, according to various models of union, but divisions continue to outpace unions, as there is no overarching authority to which any of the churches owe allegiance, which can authoritatively define the faith. Most denominations share common beliefs in the major aspects of the Christian faith while differing in many secondary doctrines, although what is major and what is secondary is a matter of idiosyncratic belief.
Several countries have established their national churches, linking the ecclesiastical structure with the state. Jurisdictions where a Protestant denomination has been established as a state religion include several Nordic countries; Denmark (including Greenland), the Faroe Islands (its church being independent since 2007), Iceland and Norway have established Evangelical Lutheran churches. Tuvalu has the only established church in Reformed tradition in the world, while Tonga -- in the Methodist tradition. The Church of England is the officially established religious institution in England, and also the Mother Church of the worldwide Anglican Communion.
In 1869, Finland was the first Nordic country to disestablish its Evangelical Lutheran church by introducing the Church Act. Although the church still maintains a special relationship with the state, it is not described as a state religion in the Finnish Constitution or other laws passed by the Finnish Parliament. In 2000, Sweden was the second Nordic country to do so.
United and uniting churches are churches formed from the merger or other form of union of two or more different Protestant denominations.
Historically, unions of Protestant churches were enforced by the state, usually in order to have a stricter control over the religious sphere of its people, but also other organizational reasons. As modern Christian ecumenism progresses, unions between various Protestant traditions are becoming more and more common, resulting in a growing number of united and uniting churches. Some of the recent major examples are the United Protestant Church of France (2013) and the Protestant Church in the Netherlands (2004). As mainline Protestantism shrinks in Europe and North America due to the rise of secularism, Reformed and Lutheran denominations merge, often creating large nationwide denominations. The phenomenon is much less common among evangelical, nondenominational and charismatic churches as new ones arise and plenty of them remain independent of each other.
Perhaps the oldest official united church is found in Germany, where the Evangelical Church in Germany is a federation of Lutheran, United (Prussian Union) and Reformed churches, a union dating back to 1817. The first of the series of unions was at a synod in Idstein to form the Protestant Church in Hesse and Nassau in August 1817, commemorated in naming the church of Idstein Unionskirche one hundred years later.
Around the world, each united or uniting church comprises a different mix of predecessor Protestant denominations. Trends are visible, however, as most united and uniting churches have one or more predecessors with heritage in the Reformed tradition and many are members of the World Alliance of Reformed Churches.
Protestants can be differentiated according to how they have been influenced by important movements since the Reformation, today regarded as branches. Some of these movements have a common lineage, sometimes directly spawning individual denominations. Due to the earlier stated multitude of denominations, this section discusses only the largest denominational families, or branches, widely considered to be a part of Protestantism. These are, in alphabetical order: Adventist, Anglican, Baptist, Calvinist (Reformed), Lutheran, Methodist and Pentecostal. A small but historically significant Anabaptist branch is also discussed.
The chart below shows the mutual relations and historical origins of the main Protestant denominational families, or their parts.
Adventism began in the 19th century in the context of the Second Great Awakening revival in the United States. The name refers to belief in the imminent Second Coming (or "Second Advent '') of Jesus Christ. William Miller started the Adventist movement in the 1830s. His followers became known as Millerites.
Although the Adventist churches hold much in common, their theologies differ on whether the intermediate state is unconscious sleep or consciousness, whether the ultimate punishment of the wicked is annihilation or eternal torment, the nature of immortality, whether or not the wicked are resurrected after the millennium, and whether the sanctuary of Daniel 8 refers to the one in heaven or one on earth. The movement has encouraged the examination of the whole Bible, leading Seventh - day Adventists and some smaller Adventist groups to observe the Sabbath. The General Conference of Seventh - day Adventists has compiled that church 's core beliefs in the 28 Fundamental Beliefs (1980 and 2005), which use Biblical references as justification.
In 2010, Adventism claimed some 22 million believers scattered in various independent churches. The largest church within the movement -- the Seventh - day Adventist Church -- has more than 18 million members.
James Springer White and his wife, Ellen G. White founded the Seventh - day Adventist Church.
An Adventist pastor baptizes a young man in Mozambique.
Loma Linda University Seventh - day Adventist Church in Loma Linda, California, United States.
Anabaptism traces its origins to the Radical Reformation. Anabaptists believe in delaying baptism until the candidate confesses his or her faith. Although some consider this movement to be an offshoot of Protestantism, others see it as a distinct one. The Amish, Hutterites, and Mennonites are direct descendants of the movement. Schwarzenau Brethren, Bruderhof, and the Apostolic Christian Church are considered later developments among the Anabaptists.
The name Anabaptist, meaning "one who baptizes again '', was given them by their persecutors in reference to the practice of re-baptizing converts who already had been baptized as infants. Anabaptists required that baptismal candidates be able to make their own confessions of faith and so rejected baptism of infants. The early members of this movement did not accept the name Anabaptist, claiming that since infant baptism was unscriptural and null and void, the baptizing of believers was not a re-baptism but in fact their first real baptism. As a result of their views on the nature of baptism and other issues, Anabaptists were heavily persecuted during the 16th century and into the 17th by both Magisterial Protestants and Roman Catholics. While most Anabaptists adhered to a literal interpretation of the Sermon on the Mount, which precluded taking oaths, participating in military actions, and participating in civil government, some who practiced re-baptism felt otherwise. They were thus technically Anabaptists, even though conservative Amish, Mennonites, and Hutterites and some historians tend to consider them as outside of true Anabaptism. Anabaptist reformers of the Radical Reformation are divided into Radical and the so - called Second Front. Some important Radical Reformation theologians were John of Leiden, Thomas Müntzer, Kaspar Schwenkfeld, Sebastian Franck, Menno Simons. Second Front Reformers included Hans Denck, Conrad Grebel, Balthasar Hubmaier and Felix Manz.
Balthasar Hubmaier, one of the earliest and most prominent Anabaptist theologians.
An Amish family in a horse - drawn square buggy.
Alexanderwohl Mennonite Church in rural Goessel, Kansas, United States.
Anglicanism comprises the Church of England and churches which are historically tied to it or hold similar beliefs, worship practices and church structures. The word Anglican originates in ecclesia anglicana, a medieval Latin phrase dating to at least 1246 that means the English Church. There is no single "Anglican Church '' with universal juridical authority, since each national or regional church has full autonomy. As the name suggests, the communion is an association of churches in full communion with the Archbishop of Canterbury. The great majority of Anglicans are members of churches which are part of the international Anglican Communion, which has 85 million adherents.
The Church of England declared its independence from the Catholic Church at the time of the Elizabethan Religious Settlement. Many of the new Anglican formularies of the mid-16th century corresponded closely to those of contemporary Reformed tradition. These reforms were understood by one of those most responsible for them, the then Archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Cranmer, as navigating a middle way between two of the emerging Protestant traditions, namely Lutheranism and Calvinism. By the end of the century, the retention in Anglicanism of many traditional liturgical forms and of the episcopate was already seen as unacceptable by those promoting the most developed Protestant principles.
Unique to Anglicanism is the Book of Common Prayer, the collection of services that worshippers in most Anglican churches used for centuries. While it has since undergone many revisions and Anglican churches in different countries have developed other service books, the Book of Common Prayer is still acknowledged as one of the ties that bind the Anglican Communion together.
Thomas Cranmer, one of the most influential figures in shaping Anglican theology and self - identity.
The various editions of the Book of Common Prayer contain the words of structured services of worship in the Anglican Church.
British coronations are held in Westminster Abbey, a royal peculiar under the direct jurisdiction of the monarch.
Baptists subscribe to a doctrine that baptism should be performed only for professing believers (believer 's baptism, as opposed to infant baptism), and that it must be done by complete immersion (as opposed to affusion or sprinkling). Other tenets of Baptist churches include soul competency (liberty), salvation through faith alone, Scripture alone as the rule of faith and practice, and the autonomy of the local congregation. Baptists recognize two ministerial offices, pastors and deacons. Baptist churches are widely considered to be Protestant churches, though some Baptists disavow this identity.
Diverse from their beginning, those identifying as Baptists today differ widely from one another in what they believe, how they worship, their attitudes toward other Christians, and their understanding of what is important in Christian discipleship.
Historians trace the earliest church labeled Baptist back to 1609 in Amsterdam, with English Separatist John Smyth as its pastor. In accordance with his reading of the New Testament, he rejected baptism of infants and instituted baptism only of believing adults. Baptist practice spread to England, where the General Baptists considered Christ 's atonement to extend to all people, while the Particular Baptists believed that it extended only to the elect. In 1638, Roger Williams established the first Baptist congregation in the North American colonies. In the mid-18th century, the First Great Awakening increased Baptist growth in both New England and the South. The Second Great Awakening in the South in the early 19th century increased church membership, as did the preachers ' lessening of support for abolition and manumission of slavery, which had been part of the 18th - century teachings. Baptist missionaries have spread their church to every continent.
The Baptist World Alliance reports more than 41 million members in more than 150,000 congregations. In 2002, there were over 100 million Baptists and Baptistic group members worldwide and over 33 million in North America. The largest Baptist association is the Southern Baptist Convention, with the membership of associated churches totaling more than 15 million.
Roger Williams was an early proponent of religious freedom and the separation of church and state.
Baptists subscribe to a doctrine that baptism should be performed only for professing believers.
The First Baptist Church in America. Baptists are roughly one - third of U.S. Protestants.
Calvinism, also called the Reformed tradition, was advanced by several theologians such as Martin Bucer, Heinrich Bullinger, Peter Martyr Vermigli, and Huldrych Zwingli, but this branch of Christianity bears the name of the French reformer John Calvin because of his prominent influence on it and because of his role in the confessional and ecclesiastical debates throughout the 16th century.
Today, this term also refers to the doctrines and practices of the Reformed churches of which Calvin was an early leader. Less commonly, it can refer to the individual teaching of Calvin himself. The particulars of Calvinist theology may be stated in a number of ways. Perhaps the best known summary is contained in the five points of Calvinism, though these points identify the Calvinist view on soteriology rather than summarizing the system as a whole. Broadly speaking, Calvinism stresses the sovereignty or rule of God in all things -- in salvation but also in all of life. This concept is seen clearly in the doctrines of predestination and total depravity.
The biggest Reformed association is the World Communion of Reformed Churches with more than 80 million members in 211 member denominations around the world. There are more conservative Reformed federations like the World Reformed Fellowship and the International Conference of Reformed Churches, as well as independent churches.
John Calvin 's theological thought influenced a variety of Congregational, Continental Reformed, United, Presbyterian, and other Reformed churches.
The Ordination of Elders in a Scottish Kirk, by John Henry Lorimer, 1891.
A Congregational church in Cheshire, Connecticut, United States.
Lutheranism identifies with the theology of Martin Luther -- a German friar, ecclesiastical reformer, and theologian.
Lutheranism advocates a doctrine of justification "by grace alone through faith alone on the basis of Scripture alone '', the doctrine that scripture is the final authority on all matters of faith, denying the belief of the Catholic Church defined at the Council of Trent concerning authority coming from both the Scriptures and Tradition. In addition, Lutheranism accepts the teachings of the first four ecumenical councils of the undivided Christian Church.
Unlike the Reformed tradition, Lutherans retain many of the liturgical practices and sacramental teachings of the pre-Reformation Church, with a particular emphasis on the Eucharist, or Lord 's Supper. Lutheran theology differs from Reformed theology in Christology, the purpose of God 's Law, the divine grace, the concept of perseverance of the saints, and predestination.
Today, Lutheranism is one of the largest branches of Protestantism. With approximately 80 million adherents, it constitutes the third most common Protestant confession after historically Pentecostal denominations and Anglicanism. The Lutheran World Federation, the largest global communion of Lutheran churches represents over 72 million people. Additionally, there are also many smaller bodies such as the International Lutheran Council and the Confessional Evangelical Lutheran Conference, as well as independent churches.
Martin Luther initiated the Protestant Reformation in 1517.
Philip Melanchthon, the co-founder of Lutheranism, baptizing an infant.
Martin Luther nailed the Ninety - five Theses to the main door of the Schlosskirche.
Methodism identifies principally with the theology of John Wesley -- an Anglican priest and evangelist. This evangelical movement originated as a revival within the 18th - century Church of England and became a separate Church following Wesley 's death. Because of vigorous missionary activity, the movement spread throughout the British Empire, the United States, and beyond, today claiming approximately 80 million adherents worldwide. Originally it appealed especially to labourers and slaves.
Soteriologically, most Methodists are Arminian, emphasizing that Christ accomplished salvation for every human being, and that humans must exercise an act of the will to receive it (as opposed to the traditional Calvinist doctrine of monergism). Methodism is traditionally low church in liturgy, although this varies greatly between individual congregations; the Wesleys themselves greatly valued the Anglican liturgy and tradition. Methodism is known for its rich musical tradition; John Wesley 's brother, Charles, was instrumental in writing much of the hymnody of the Methodist Church, and many other eminent hymn writers come from the Methodist tradition.
John Wesley, the primary founder of the Methodism.
A United Methodist elder celebrating the Eucharist.
Methodist Central Hall in Westminster, London.
Pentecostalism is a movement that places special emphasis on a direct personal experience of God through the baptism with the Holy Spirit. The term Pentecostal is derived from Pentecost, the Greek name for the Jewish Feast of Weeks. For Christians, this event commemorates the descent of the Holy Spirit upon the followers of Jesus Christ, as described in the second chapter of the Book of Acts.
This branch of Protestantism is distinguished by belief in the baptism with the Holy Spirit as an experience separate from conversion that enables a Christian to live a Holy Spirit -- filled and empowered life. This empowerment includes the use of spiritual gifts such as speaking in tongues and divine healing -- two other defining characteristics of Pentecostalism. Because of their commitment to biblical authority, spiritual gifts, and the miraculous, Pentecostals tend to see their movement as reflecting the same kind of spiritual power and teachings that were found in the Apostolic Age of the early church. For this reason, some Pentecostals also use the term Apostolic or Full Gospel to describe their movement.
Pentecostalism eventually spawned hundreds of new denominations, including large groups such as the Assemblies of God and the Church of God in Christ, both in the United States and elsewhere. There are over 279 million Pentecostals worldwide, and the movement is growing in many parts of the world, especially the global South. Since the 1960s, Pentecostalism has increasingly gained acceptance from other Christian traditions, and Pentecostal beliefs concerning Spirit baptism and spiritual gifts have been embraced by non-Pentecostal Christians in Protestant and Catholic churches through the Charismatic Movement. Together, Pentecostal and Charismatic Christianity numbers over 500 million adherents.
Charles Fox Parham, who associated glossolalia with the baptism in the Holy Spirit.
A modern Protestant worship band leading a contemporary worship session.
A Pentecostal church in Ravensburg, Germany.
There are many other Protestant denominations that do not fit neatly into the mentioned branches, and are far smaller in membership. Some groups of individuals who hold basic Protestant tenets identify themselves simply as "Christians '' or "born - again Christians ''. They typically distance themselves from the confessionalism and / or creedalism of other Christian communities by calling themselves "non-denominational '' or "evangelical ''. Often founded by individual pastors, they have little affiliation with historic denominations.
Hussitism follows the teachings of Czech reformer Jan Hus, who became the best - known representative of the Bohemian Reformation and one of the forerunners of the Protestant Reformation. This predominantly religious movement was propelled by social issues and strengthened Czech national awareness. Among present - day Christians, Hussite traditions are represented in the Moravian Church, Unity of the Brethren, and the refounded Czechoslovak Hussite churches.
The Plymouth Brethren are a conservative, low church, evangelical movement, whose history can be traced to Dublin, Ireland, in the late 1820s, originating from Anglicanism. Among other beliefs, the group emphasizes sola scriptura. Brethren generally see themselves not as a denomination, but as a network, or even as a collection of overlapping networks, of like - minded independent churches. Although the group refused for many years to take any denominational name to itself -- a stance that some of them still maintain -- the title The Brethren, is one that many of their number are comfortable with in that the Bible designates all believers as brethren.
The Holiness movement refers to a set of beliefs and practices emerging from 19th - century Methodism, and a number of evangelical denominations, parachurch organizations, and movements which emphasized those beliefs as a central doctrine. There are an estimated 12 million adherents in Holiness movement churches. The Salvation Army and The Wesleyan Church are notable examples.
Quakers, or Friends, are members of a family of religious movements collectively known as the Religious Society of Friends. The central unifying doctrine of these movements is the priesthood of all believers. Many Friends view themselves as members of a Christian denomination. They include those with evangelical, holiness, liberal, and traditional conservative Quaker understandings of Christianity. Unlike many other groups that emerged within Christianity, the Religious Society of Friends has actively tried to avoid creeds and hierarchical structures.
Unitarianism is sometimes considered Protestant due to its origins in the Reformation and strong cooperation with other Protestants since the 16th century. It is excluded due to its Nontrinitarian nature. Unitarians can be regarded as Nontrinitarian Protestants, or simply Nontrinitarians. Unitarianism has been popular in the region of Transylvania within today 's Romania, England, and the United States. It originated almost simultaneously in Transylvania and the Polish - Lithuanian Commonwealth.
George Fox was an English dissenter and a founder of the Religious Society of Friends, commonly known as the Quakers or Friends.
Friedensthal Moravian Church Christiansted, St Croix, USVI founded in 1755.
A night shelter of The Salvation Army in Geneva, Switzerland.
There are also Christian movements which cross denominational lines and even branches, and can not be classified on the same level previously mentioned forms. Evangelicalism is a prominent example. Some of those movements are active exclusively within Protestantism, some are Christian - wide. Transdenominational movements are sometimes capable of affecting parts of the Roman Catholic Church, such as does it the Charismatic Movement, which aims to incorporate beliefs and practices similar to Pentecostals into the various branches of Christianity. Neo-charismatic churches are sometimes regarded as a subgroup of the Charismatic Movement. Both are put under a common label of Charismatic Christianity (so - called Renewalists), along with Pentecostals. Nondenominational churches and various house churches often adopt, or are akin to one of these movements.
Megachurches are usually influenced by interdenominational movements. Globally, these large congregations are a significant development in Protestant Christianity. In the United States, the phenomenon has more than quadrupled in the past two decades. It has since spread worldwide.
The chart below shows the mutual relations and historical origins of the main interdenominational movements and other developments within Protestantism.
Evangelicalism, or evangelical Protestantism, is a worldwide, transdenominational movement which maintains that the essence of the gospel consists in the doctrine of salvation by grace through faith in Jesus Christ 's atonement.
Evangelicals are Christians who believe in the centrality of the conversion or "born again '' experience in receiving salvation, believe in the authority of the Bible as God 's revelation to humanity and have a strong commitment to evangelism or sharing the Christian message.
It gained great momentum in the 18th and 19th centuries with the emergence of Methodism and the Great Awakenings in Britain and North America. The origins of Evangelicalism are usually traced back to the English Methodist movement, Nicolaus Zinzendorf, the Moravian Church, Lutheran pietism, Presbyterianism and Puritanism. Among leaders and major figures of the Evangelical Protestant movement were John Wesley, George Whitefield, Jonathan Edwards, Billy Graham, Harold John Ockenga, John Stott and Martyn Lloyd - Jones.
There are an estimated 285,480,000 Evangelicals, corresponding to 13.1 % of the Christian population and 4.1 % of the total world population. The Americas, Africa and Asia are home to the majority of Evangelicals. The United States has the largest concentration of Evangelicals. Evangelicalism is gaining popularity both in and outside the English - speaking world, especially in Latin America and the developing world.
William Wilberforce, a British evangelical abolitionist.
Billy Graham, a prominent evangelical revivalist, preaching in Duisburg, Germany in 1954.
Calvary Church, a non-denominational evangelical church in Charlotte, North Carolina.
The Charismatic movement is the international trend of historically mainstream congregations adopting beliefs and practices similar to Pentecostals. Fundamental to the movement is the use of spiritual gifts. Among Protestants, the movement began around 1960.
In America, Episcopalian Dennis Bennett is sometimes cited as one of the charismatic movement 's seminal influence. In the United Kingdom, Colin Urquhart, Michael Harper, David Watson and others were in the vanguard of similar developments. The Massey conference in New Zealand, 1964 was attended by several Anglicans, including the Rev. Ray Muller, who went on to invite Bennett to New Zealand in 1966, and played a leading role in developing and promoting the Life in the Spirit seminars. Other Charismatic movement leaders in New Zealand include Bill Subritzky.
Larry Christenson, a Lutheran theologian based in San Pedro, California, did much in the 1960s and 1970s to interpret the charismatic movement for Lutherans. A very large annual conference regarding that matter was held in Minneapolis. Charismatic Lutheran congregations in Minnesota became especially large and influential; especially "Hosanna! '' in Lakeville, and North Heights in St. Paul. The next generation of Lutheran charismatics cluster around the Alliance of Renewal Churches. There is considerable charismatic activity among young Lutheran leaders in California centered around an annual gathering at Robinwood Church in Huntington Beach. Richard A. Jensen 's Touched by the Spirit published in 1974, played a major role of the Lutheran understanding to the charismatic movement.
In Congregational and Presbyterian churches which profess a traditionally Calvinist or Reformed theology there are differing views regarding present - day continuation or cessation of the gifts (charismata) of the Spirit. Generally, however, Reformed charismatics distance themselves from renewal movements with tendencies which could be perceived as overemotional, such as Word of Faith, Toronto Blessing, Brownsville Revival and Lakeland Revival. Prominent Reformed charismatic denominations are the Sovereign Grace Churches and the Every Nation Churches in the US, in Great Britain there is the Newfrontiers churches and movement, which leading figure is Terry Virgo.
A minority of Seventh - day Adventists today are charismatic. They are strongly associated with those holding more "progressive '' Adventist beliefs. In the early decades of the church charismatic or ecstatic phenomena were commonplace.
Neo-charismatic churches are a category of churches in the Christian Renewal movement. Neo-charismatics include the Third Wave, but are broader. Now more numerous than Pentecostals (first wave) and charismatics (second wave) combined, owing to the remarkable growth of postdenominational and independent charismatic groups.
Neo-charismatics believe in and stress the post-Biblical availability of gifts of the Holy Spirit, including glossolalia, healing, and prophecy. They practice laying on of hands and seek the "infilling '' of the Holy Spirit. However, a specific experience of baptism with the Holy Spirit may not be requisite for experiencing such gifts. No single form, governmental structure, or style of church service characterizes all neo-charismatic services and churches.
Some nineteen thousand denominations, with approximately 295 million individual adherents, are identified as neo-charismatic. Neo-charismatic tenets and practices are found in many independent, nondenominational or post-denominational congregations, with strength of numbers centered in the African independent churches, among the Han Chinese house - church movement, and in Latin American churches.
A plenty of other movements and thoughts to be distinguished from the widespread transdenominational ones and branches appeared within Protestant Christianity. Some of them are also in evidence today. Others appeared during the centuries following the Reformation and disappeared gradually with the time, such as much of Pietism. Some inspired the current transdenominational ones, such as Evangelicalism which has its foundation in the Christian fundamentalism.
Arminianism is based on theological ideas of the Dutch Reformed theologian Jacobus Arminius (1560 -- 1609) and his historic supporters known as Remonstrants. His teachings held to the five solae of the Reformation, but they were distinct from particular teachings of Martin Luther, Huldrych Zwingli, John Calvin, and other Protestant Reformers. Jacobus Arminius was a student of Theodore Beza at the Theological University of Geneva. Arminianism is known to some as a soteriological diversification of Calvinism. However, to others, Arminianism is a reclamation of early Church theological consensus. Dutch Arminianism was originally articulated in the Remonstrance (1610), a theological statement signed by 45 ministers and submitted to the States General of the Netherlands. Many Christian denominations have been influenced by Arminian views on the will of man being freed by grace prior to regeneration, notably the Baptists in the 16th century, the Methodists in the 18th century and the Seventh - day Adventist Church in the 19th century.
The original beliefs of Jacobus Arminius himself are commonly defined as Arminianism, but more broadly, the term may embrace the teachings of Hugo Grotius, John Wesley, and others as well. Classical Arminianism and Wesleyan Arminianism are the two main schools of thought. Wesleyan Arminianism is often identical with Methodism. The two systems of Calvinism and Arminianism share both history and many doctrines, and the history of Christian theology. However, because of their differences over the doctrines of divine predestination and election, many people view these schools of thought as opposed to each other. In short, the difference can be seen ultimately by whether God allows His desire to save all to be resisted by an individual 's will (in the Arminian doctrine) or if God 's grace is irresistible and limited to only some (in Calvinism). Some Calvinists assert that the Arminian perspective presents a synergistic system of Salvation and therefore is not only by grace, while Arminians firmly reject this conclusion. Many consider the theological differences to be crucial differences in doctrine, while others find them to be relatively minor.
Pietism was an influential movement within Lutheranism that combined the 17th century Lutheran principles with the Reformed emphasis on individual piety and living a vigorous Christian life.
It began in the late 17th century, reached its zenith in the mid-18th century, and declined through the 19th century, and had almost vanished in America by the end of the 20th century. While declining as an identifiable Lutheran group, some of its theological tenets influenced Protestantism generally, inspiring the Anglican priest John Wesley to begin the Methodist movement and Alexander Mack to begin the Brethren movement among Anabaptists.
Though Pietism shares an emphasis on personal behavior with the Puritan movement, and the two are often confused, there are important differences, particularly in the concept of the role of religion in government.
Philipp Jakob Spener, German pioneer and founder of Pietism.
Pietism has been a strong cultural influence in Scandinavia.
The Broad and the Narrow Way, a popular German Pietist painting, 1866.
The Puritans were a group of English Protestants in the 16th and 17th centuries, which sought to purify the Church of England of what they considered to be Roman Catholic practices, maintaining that the church was only partially reformed. Puritanism in this sense was founded by some of the returning clergy exiled under Mary I shortly after the accession of Elizabeth I of England in 1558, as an activist movement within the Church of England.
Puritans were blocked from changing the established church from within, and were severely restricted in England by laws controlling the practice of religion. Their beliefs, however, were transported by the emigration of congregations to the Netherlands (and later to New England), and by evangelical clergy to Ireland (and later into Wales), and were spread into lay society and parts of the educational system, particularly certain colleges of the University of Cambridge. They took on distinctive beliefs about clerical dress and in opposition to the episcopal system, particularly after the 1619 conclusions of the Synod of Dort they were resisted by the English bishops. They largely adopted Sabbatarianism in the 17th century, and were influenced by millennialism.
They formed, and identified with various religious groups advocating greater purity of worship and doctrine, as well as personal and group piety. Puritans adopted a Reformed theology, but they also took note of radical criticisms of Zwingli in Zurich and Calvin in Geneva. In church polity, some advocated for separation from all other Christians, in favor of autonomous gathered churches. These separatist and independent strands of Puritanism became prominent in the 1640s, when the supporters of a Presbyterian polity in the Westminster Assembly were unable to forge a new English national church.
Nonconforming Protestants along with the Protestant refugees from continental Europe were the primary founders of the United States of America.
John Cotton, who sparked the Antinomian Controversy with his free grace theology.
Pilgrim Fathers landing at Plymouth Rock in 1620.
Built in 1681, the Old Ship Church in Hingham, Massachusetts is the oldest church in America in continuous ecclesiastical use.
A non-fundamentalist rejection of liberal Christianity, associated primarily with Karl Barth and Jürgen Moltmann, neo-orthodoxy sought to counter-act the tendency of liberal theology to make theological accommodations to modern scientific perspectives. Sometimes called "Crisis theology '', according to the influence of philosophical existentialism on some important segments of the movement; also, somewhat confusingly, sometimes called neo-evangelicalism.
Paleo - orthodoxy is a movement similar in some respects to neo-evangelicalism but emphasizing the ancient Christian consensus of the undivided church of the first millennium AD, including in particular the early creeds and church councils as a means of properly understanding the scriptures. This movement is cross-denominational and the most notable exponent in the movement is United Methodist theologian Thomas Oden.
In reaction to liberal Bible critique, fundamentalism arose in the 20th century, primarily in the United States, among those denominations most affected by Evangelicalism. Fundamentalist theology tends to stress Biblical inerrancy and Biblical literalism.
Toward the end of the 20th century, some have tended to confuse evangelicalism and fundamentalism; however, the labels represent very distinct differences of approach that both groups are diligent to maintain, although because of fundamentalism 's dramatically smaller size it often gets classified simply as an ultra-conservative branch of evangelicalism.
Modernism and liberalism do not constitute rigorous and well - defined schools of theology, but are rather an inclination by some writers and teachers to integrate Christian thought into the spirit of the Age of Enlightenment. New understandings of history and the natural sciences of the day led directly to new approaches to theology. Its opposition to the fundamentalist teaching resulted in religious debates, such as the Fundamentalist -- Modernist Controversy within the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America in the 1920s.
Although the Reformation was a religious movement, it also had a strong impact on all other aspects of life: marriage and family, education, the humanities and sciences, the political and social order, the economy, and the arts. Protestant churches reject the idea of a celibate priesthood and thus allow their clergy to marry. Many of their families contributed to the development of intellectual elites in their countries. Since about 1950, women have entered the ministry, and some have assumed leading positions (e.g. bishops), in most Protestant churches.
As the Reformers wanted all members of the church to be able to read the Bible, education on all levels got a strong boost. By the middle of the eighteenth century, the literacy rate in England was about 60 per cent, in Scotland 65 per cent, and in Sweden eight of ten men and women were able to read and to write. Colleges and universities were founded. For example, the Puritans who established Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1628 founded Harvard College only eight years later. About a dozen other colleges followed in the 18th century, including Yale (1701). Pennsylvania also became a centre of learning.
Members of mainline Protestant denominations have played leadership roles in many aspects of American life, including politics, business, science, the arts, and education. They founded most of the country 's leading institutes of higher education.
The Protestant concept of God and man allows believers to use all their God - given faculties, including the power of reason. That means that they are allowed to explore God 's creation and, according to Genesis 2: 15, make use of it in a responsible and sustainable way. Thus a cultural climate was created that greatly enhanced the development of the humanities and the sciences. Another consequence of the Protestant understanding of man is that the believers, in gratitude for their election and redemption in Christ, are to follow God 's commandments. Industry, frugality, calling, discipline, and a strong sense of responsibility are at the heart of their moral code. In particular, Calvin rejected luxury. Therefore, craftsmen, industrialists, and other businessmen were able to reinvest the greater part of their profits in the most efficient machinery and the most modern production methods that were based on progress in the sciences and technology. As a result, productivity grew, which led to increased profits and enabled employers to pay higher wages. In this way, the economy, the sciences, and technology reinforced each other. The chance to participate in the economic success of technological inventions was a strong incentive to both inventors and investors. The Protestant work ethic was an important force behind the unplanned and uncoordinated mass action that influenced the development of capitalism and the Industrial Revolution. This idea is also known as the "Protestant ethic thesis. ''
However, eminent historian Fernand Braudel (d. 1985), a leader of the important Annales School wrote: "all historians have opposed this tenuous theory (the Protestant Ethic), although they have not managed to be rid of it once and for all. Yet it is clearly false. The northern countries took over the place that earlier had been so long and brilliantly been occupied by the old capitalist centers of the Mediterranean. They invented nothing, either in technology or business management. '' Social scientist Rodney Stark moreover comments that "during their critical period of economic development, these northern centers of capitalism were Catholic, not Protestant -- the Reformation still lay well into the future, '' while British historian Hugh Trevor - Roper (d. 2003) said, "The idea that large - scale industrial capitalism was ideologically impossible before the Reformation is exploded by the simple fact that it existed. ''
In a factor analysis of the latest wave of World Values Survey data, Arno Tausch (Corvinus University of Budapest) found that Protestantism emerges to be very close to combining religion and the traditions of liberalism. The Global Value Development Index, calculated by Tausch, relies on the World Values Survey dimensions such as trust in the state of law, no support for shadow economy, postmaterial activism, support for democracy, a non-acceptance of violence, xenophobia and racism, trust in transnational capital and Universities, confidence in the market economy, supporting gender justice, and engaging in environmental activism, etc.
Episcopalians and Presbyterians, as well as other WASPs, tend to be considerably wealthier and better educated (having graduate and post-graduate degrees per capita) than most other religious groups in United States, and are disproportionately represented in the upper reaches of American business, law and politics, especially the Republican Party. Numbers of the most wealthy and affluent American families as the Vanderbilts and the Astors, Rockefeller, Du Pont, Roosevelt, Forbes, Whitneys, the Morgans and Harrimans are Mainline Protestant families.
Protestantism has had an important influence on science. According to the Merton Thesis, there was a positive correlation between the rise of English Puritanism and German Pietism on the one hand and early experimental science on the other. The Merton Thesis has two separate parts: Firstly, it presents a theory that science changes due to an accumulation of observations and improvement in experimental technique and methodology; secondly, it puts forward the argument that the popularity of science in 17th - century England and the religious demography of the Royal Society (English scientists of that time were predominantly Puritans or other Protestants) can be explained by a correlation between Protestantism and the scientific values. Merton focused on English Puritanism and German Pietism as having been responsible for the development of the scientific revolution of the 17th and 18th centuries. He explained that the connection between religious affiliation and interest in science was the result of a significant synergy between the ascetic Protestant values and those of modern science. Protestant values encouraged scientific research by allowing science to identify God 's influence on the world -- his creation -- and thus providing a religious justification for scientific research.
According to Scientific Elite: Nobel Laureates in the United States by Harriet Zuckerman, a review of American Nobel prizes awarded between 1901 and 1972, 72 % of American Nobel Prize laureates identified a Protestant background. Overall, 84.2 % of all the Nobel Prizes awarded to Americans in Chemistry, 60 % in Medicine, and 58.6 % in Physics between 1901 and 1972 were won by Protestants.
According to 100 Years of Nobel Prize (2005), a review of Nobel prizes awarded between 1901 and 2000, 65.4 % of Nobel Prize Laureates, have identified Christianity in its various forms as their religious preference (423 prizes). While 32 % have identified with Protestantism in its various forms (208 prizes), although Protestant comprise 11.6 % to 13 % of the world 's population.
In the Middle Ages, the Church and the worldly authorities were closely related. Martin Luther separated the religious and the worldly realms in principle (doctrine of the two kingdoms). The believers were obliged to use reason to govern the worldly sphere in an orderly and peaceful way. Luther 's doctrine of the priesthood of all believers upgraded the role of laymen in the church considerably. The members of a congregation had the right to elect a minister and, if necessary, to vote for his dismissal (Treatise On the right and authority of a Christian assembly or congregation to judge all doctrines and to call, install and dismiss teachers, as testified in Scripture; 1523). Calvin strengthened this basically democratic approach by including elected laymen (church elders, presbyters) in his representative church government. The Huguenots added regional synods and a national synod, whose members were elected by the congregations, to Calvin 's system of church self - government. This system was taken over by the other reformed churches.
Politically, Calvin favoured a mixture of aristocracy and democracy. He appreciated the advantages of democracy: "It is an invaluable gift, if God allows a people to freely elect its own authorities and overlords. '' Calvin also thought that earthly rulers lose their divine right and must be put down when they rise up against God. To further protect the rights of ordinary people, Calvin suggested separating political powers in a system of checks and balances (separation of powers). Thus he and his followers resisted political absolutism and paved the way for the rise of modern democracy. Besides England, the Netherlands were, under Calvinist leadership, the freest country in Europe in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. It granted asylum to philosophers like Baruch Spinoza and Pierre Bayle. Hugo Grotius was able to teach his natural - law theory and a relatively liberal interpretation of the Bible.
Consistent with Calvin 's political ideas, Protestants created both the English and the American democracies. In seventeenth - century England, the most important persons and events in this process were the English Civil War, Oliver Cromwell, John Milton, John Locke, the Glorious Revolution, the English Bill of Rights, and the Act of Settlement. Later, the British took their democratic ideals to their colonies, e.g. Australia, New Zealand, and India. In North America, Plymouth Colony (Pilgrim Fathers; 1620) and Massachusetts Bay Colony (1628) practised democratic self - rule and separation of powers. These Congregationalists were convinced that the democratic form of government was the will of God. The Mayflower Compact was a social contract.
Protestants also took the initiative in advocating for religious freedom. Freedom of conscience had high priority on the theological, philosophical, and political agendas since Luther refused to recant his beliefs before the Diet of the Holy Roman Empire at Worms (1521). In his view, faith was a free work of the Holy Spirit and could, therefore, not be forced on a person. The persecuted Anabaptists and Huguenots demanded freedom of conscience, and they practised separation of church and state. In the early seventeenth century, Baptists like John Smyth and Thomas Helwys published tracts in defense of religious freedom. Their thinking influenced John Milton and John Locke 's stance on tolerance. Under the leadership of Baptist Roger Williams, Congregationalist Thomas Hooker, and Quaker William Penn, respectively, Rhode Island, Connecticut, and Pennsylvania combined democratic constitutions with freedom of religion. These colonies became safe havens for persecuted religious minorities, including Jews. The United States Declaration of Independence, the United States Constitution, and the American Bill of Rights with its fundamental human rights made this tradition permanent by giving it a legal and political framework. The great majority of American Protestants, both clergy and laity, strongly supported the independence movement. All major Protestant churches were represented in the First and Second Continental Congresses. In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, the American democracy became a model for numerous other countries and regions throughout the world (e.g., Latin America, Japan, and Germany). The strongest link between the American and French Revolutions was Marquis de Lafayette, an ardent supporter of the American constitutional principles. The French Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen was mainly based on Lafayette 's draft of this document. The United Nations Declaration and Universal Declaration of Human Rights also echo the American constitutional tradition.
Democracy, social - contract theory, separation of powers, religious freedom, separation of church and state -- these achievements of the Reformation and early Protestantism were elaborated on and popularized by Enlightenment thinkers. Some of the philosophers of the English, Scottish, German, and Swiss Enlightenment -- Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, John Toland, David Hume, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, Christian Wolff, Immanuel Kant, and Jean - Jacques Rousseau -- had Protestant backgrounds. For example, John Locke, whose political thought was based on "a set of Protestant Christian assumptions '', derived the equality of all humans, including the equality of the genders ("Adam and Eve ''), from Genesis 1, 26 -- 28. As all persons were created equally free, all governments needed "the consent of the governed. '' These Lockean ideas were fundamental to the United States Declaration of Independence, which also deduced human rights from the biblical belief in creation: "We hold these truths to be self - evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness. ''
Also, other human rights were advocated for by some Protestants. For example, torture was abolished in Prussia in 1740, slavery in Britain in 1834 and in the United States in 1865 (William Wilberforce, Harriet Beecher Stowe, Abraham Lincoln -- against Southern Protestants). Hugo Grotius and Samuel Pufendorf were among the first thinkers who made significant contributions to international law. The Geneva Convention, an important part of humanitarian international law, was largely the work of Henry Dunant, a reformed pietist. He also founded the Red Cross.
Protestants have founded hospitals, homes for disabled or elderly people, educational institutions, organizations that give aid to developing countries, and other social welfare agencies. In the nineteenth century, throughout the Anglo - American world, numerous dedicated members of all Protestant denominations were active in social reform movements such as the abolition of slavery, prison reforms, and woman suffrage. As an answer to the "social question '' of the nineteenth century, Germany under Chancellor Otto von Bismarck introduced insurance programs that led the way to the welfare state (health insurance, accident insurance, disability insurance, old - age pensions). To Bismarck this was "practical Christianity ''. These programs, too, were copied by many other nations, particularly in the Western world.
The arts have been strongly inspired by Protestant beliefs.
Martin Luther, Paul Gerhardt, George Wither, Isaac Watts, Charles Wesley, William Cowper, and many other authors and composers created well - known church hymns.
Musicians like Heinrich Schütz, Johann Sebastian Bach, George Frideric Handel, Henry Purcell, Johannes Brahms, Philipp Nicolai and Felix Mendelssohn - Bartholdy composed great works of music.
Prominent painters with Protestant background were, for example, Albrecht Dürer, Hans Holbein the Younger, Lucas Cranach the Elder, Lucas Cranach the Younger, Rembrandt, and Vincent van Gogh.
World literature was enriched by the works of Edmund Spenser, John Milton, John Bunyan, John Donne, John Dryden, Daniel Defoe, William Wordsworth, Jonathan Swift, Johann Wolfgang Goethe, Friedrich Schiller, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Edgar Allan Poe, Matthew Arnold, Conrad Ferdinand Meyer, Theodor Fontane, Washington Irving, Robert Browning, Emily Dickinson, Emily Brontë, Charles Dickens, Nathaniel Hawthorne, Thomas Stearns Eliot, John Galsworthy, Thomas Mann, William Faulkner, John Updike, and many others.
Martin Luther Memorial in Worms, Germany, which features some of the Reformation 's crucial figures.
The International Monument to the Reformation in Geneva, Switzerland.
The Adoration of the Trinity by Albrecht Dürer.
The Crucifixion of Christ by Lucas Cranach the Elder.
The Adam and Eve by Lucas Cranach the Younger.
A Huguenot, on St. Bartholomew 's Day, Refusing to Shield Himself from Danger by Wearing the Roman Catholic Badge by John Everett Millais.
The Return of the Prodigal Son, detail, c. 1669 by Rembrandt.
The Church at Auvers, 1890. Musée d'Orsay, Paris. By Vincent van Gogh.
The view of the Roman Catholic Church is that Protestant denominations can not be considered churches but rather that they are ecclesial communities or specific faith - believing communities because their ordinances and doctrines are not historically the same as the Catholic sacraments and dogmas, and the Protestant communities have no sacramental ministerial priesthood and therefore lack true apostolic succession. According to Bishop Hilarion (Alfeyev) the Eastern Orthodox Church shares the same view on the subject.
Contrary to how the Protestant Reformers were often characterized, the concept of a catholic or universal Church was not brushed aside during the Protestant Reformation. On the contrary, the visible unity of the catholic or universal church was seen by the Protestant reformers as an important and essential doctrine of the Reformation. The Magisterial reformers, such as Martin Luther, John Calvin, and Huldrych Zwingli, believed that they were reforming the Roman Catholic Church, which they viewed as having become corrupted. Each of them took very seriously the charges of schism and innovation, denying these charges and maintaining that it was the Roman Catholic Church that had left them. In order to justify their departure from the Roman Catholic Church, Protestants often posited a new argument, saying that there was no real visible Church with divine authority, only a spiritual, invisible, and hidden church -- this notion began in the early days of the Protestant Reformation.
Wherever the Magisterial Reformation, which received support from the ruling authorities, took place, the result was a reformed national Protestant church envisioned to be a part of the whole invisible church, but disagreeing, in certain important points of doctrine and doctrine - linked practice, with what had until then been considered the normative reference point on such matters, namely the Papacy and central authority of the Roman Catholic Church. The Reformed churches thus believed in some form of Catholicity, founded on their doctrines of the five solas and a visible ecclesiastical organization based on the 14th and 15th century Conciliar movement, rejecting the papacy and papal infallibility in favor of ecumenical councils, but rejecting the latest ecumenical council, the Council of Trent. Religious unity therefore became not one of doctrine and identity but one of invisible character, wherein the unity was one of faith in Jesus Christ, not common identity, doctrine, belief, and collaborative action.
There are Protestants, especially of the Reformed tradition, that either reject or down - play the designation Protestant because of the negative idea that the word invokes in addition to its primary meaning, preferring the designation Reformed, Evangelical or even Reformed Catholic expressive of what they call a Reformed Catholicity and defending their arguments from the traditional Protestant confessions.
The ecumenical movement has had an influence on mainline churches, beginning at least in 1910 with the Edinburgh Missionary Conference. Its origins lay in the recognition of the need for cooperation on the mission field in Africa, Asia and Oceania. Since 1948, the World Council of Churches has been influential, but ineffective in creating a united church. There are also ecumenical bodies at regional, national and local levels across the globe; but schisms still far outnumber unifications. One, but not the only expression of the ecumenical movement, has been the move to form united churches, such as the Church of South India, the Church of North India, the US - based United Church of Christ, the United Church of Canada, the Uniting Church in Australia and the United Church of Christ in the Philippines which have rapidly declining memberships. There has been a strong engagement of Orthodox churches in the ecumenical movement, though the reaction of individual Orthodox theologians has ranged from tentative approval of the aim of Christian unity to outright condemnation of the perceived effect of watering down Orthodox doctrine.
A Protestant baptism is held to be valid by the Catholic Church if given with the trinitarian formula and with the intent to baptize. However, as the ordination of Protestant ministers is not recognized due to the lack of apostolic succession and the disunity from Catholic Church, all other sacraments (except marriage) performed by Protestant denominations and ministers are not recognized as valid. Therefore, Protestants desiring full communion with the Catholic Church are not re-baptized (although they are confirmed) and Protestant ministers who become Catholics may be ordained to the priesthood after a period of study.
In 1999, the representatives of Lutheran World Federation and Catholic Church signed the Joint Declaration on the Doctrine of Justification, apparently resolving the conflict over the nature of justification which was at the root of the Protestant Reformation, although Confessional Lutherans reject this statement. This is understandable, since there is no compelling authority within them. On 18 July 2006, delegates to the World Methodist Conference voted unanimously to adopt the Joint Declaration.
There are more than 900 million Protestants worldwide, among approximately 2.4 billion Christians. In 2010, a total of more than 800 million included 300 million in Sub-Saharan Africa, 260 million in the Americas, 140 million in Asia - Pacific region, 100 million in Europe and 2 million in Middle East - North Africa. Protestants account for nearly forty percent of Christians worldwide and more than one tenth of the total human population. Various estimates put the percentage of Protestants in relation to the total number of world 's Christians at 33 %, 36 %, 36.7 %, and 40 %, while in relation to the world 's population at 11.6 % and 13 %.
In European countries which were most profoundly influenced by the Reformation, Protestantism still remains the most practiced religion. These include the Nordic countries and the United Kingdom. In other historical Protestant strongholds such as Germany, the Netherlands, Switzerland, Latvia, Estonia and Hungary, it remains one of the most popular religions. Although Czech Republic was the site of one of the most significant pre-reformation movements, there are only few Protestant adherents; mainly due to historical reasons like persecution of Protestants by the Catholic Habsburgs, restrictions during the Communist rule, and also the ongoing secularization. Over the last several decades, religious practice has been declining as secularization has increased. According to a 2012 study about Religiosity in the European Union in 2012 by Eurobarometer, Protestants made up 12 % of the EU population. According to Pew Research Center, Protestants constituted nearly one fifth (or 17.8 %) of the continent 's Christian population in 2010. Clarke and Beyer estimate that Protestants constituted 15 % of all Europeans in 2009, while Noll claims that less than 12 % of them lived in Europe in 2010.
Changes in worldwide Protestantism over the last century have been significant. Since 1900, Protestantism has spread rapidly in Africa, Asia, Oceania and Latin America. That caused Protestantism to be called a primarily non-Western religion. Much of the growth has occurred after World War II, when decolonization of Africa and abolition of various restrictions against Protestants in Latin American countries occurred. According to one source, Protestants constituted respectively 2.5 %, 2 %, 0.5 % of Latin Americans, Africans and Asians. In 2000, percentage of Protestants on mentioned continents was 17 %, more than 27 % and 5.5 %, respectively. According to Mark A. Noll, 79 % of Anglicans lived in the United Kingdom in 1910, while most of the remainder was found in the United States and across the British Commonwealth. By 2010, 59 % of Anglicans were found in Africa. In 2010, more Protestants lived in India than in the UK or Germany, while Protestants in Brazil accounted for as many people as Protestants in the UK and Germany combined. Almost as many lived in each of Nigeria and China as in all of Europe. China is home to world 's largest Protestant minority.
Protestantism is growing in Africa, Asia, Latin America, and Oceania, while declining in Anglo America and Europe, with some exceptions such as France, where it was eradicated after the abolition of the Edict of Nantes by the Edict of Fontainebleau and the following persecution of Huguenots, but now is claimed to be stable in number or even growing slightly. According to some, Russia is another country to see a Protestant revival.
In 2010, the largest Protestant denominational families were historically Pentecostal denominations (10.8 %), Anglican (10.6 %), Lutheran (9.7 %), Baptist (9 %), United and uniting churches (unions of different denominations) (7.2 %), Presbyterian or Reformed (7 %), Methodist (3.4 %), Adventist (2.7 %), Congregationalist (0.5 %), Brethren (0.5 %), The Salvation Army (0.3 %) and Moravian (0.1 %). Other denominations accounted for 38.2 % of Protestants.
United States is home to approximately 20 % of Protestants. According to a 2012 study, Protestant share of U.S. population dropped to 48 %, thus ending its status as religion of the majority for the first time. The decline is attributed mainly to the dropping membership of the Mainline Protestant churches, while Evangelical Protestant and Black churches are stable or continue to grow.
By 2050, Protestantism is projected to rise to slightly more than half of the world 's total Christian population. According to other experts such as Hans J. Hillerbrand, Protestants will be as numerous as Catholics.
According to Mark Jürgensmeyer of the University of California, popular Protestantism is the most dynamic religious movement in the contemporary world, alongside the resurgent Islam.
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when is election day in alabama for senate | United States Senate special election in Alabama, 2017 - Wikipedia
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Luther Strange Republican
Doug Jones Democratic
A special election for the United States Senate in Alabama took place on December 12, 2017, to fill a vacancy in the Senate through the end of the term ending on January 3, 2021, arising from the resignation on February 8, 2017, of Jeff Sessions to serve as U.S. Attorney General. Democratic candidate Doug Jones defeated Republican candidate Roy Moore by a margin of 21,924 votes (1.7 %). Jones is the first Democrat to win a U.S. Senate seat in the state since 1992.
On February 9, 2017, Governor Robert J. Bentley named Luther Strange, the Attorney General of Alabama, to fill the vacancy until a special election could take place. Bentley controversially scheduled the special election to align with the 2018 general election instead of sooner. When Kay Ivey succeeded Bentley as Governor, she rescheduled the special election for December 12, 2017.
Jones, a former U.S. Attorney for the Northern District of Alabama, won the Democratic primary election. Moore, a former Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Alabama, competed with Strange and Mo Brooks in the Republican primary, and Moore advanced with Strange to a runoff. President Donald Trump supported Moore 's opponent Strange during the primary runoff, and almost the whole national Republican establishment wanted Strange to win, including Senate Majority Leader Mitch McConnell, who made the success of Strange 's candidacy a major priority. Trump 's efforts on behalf of Strange included a rally in Huntsville, Alabama, plus tweeting, and Vice-President Mike Pence also campaigned for Strange. With McConnell 's help, Strange outspent Moore by a margin of 10 - to - 1. However, Moore won the primary runoff in September 2017. This was the first time that an incumbent U.S. Senator having active White House support lost a primary since Arlen Specter lost to Joe Sestak in 2010.
In mid-November, multiple women alleged that Moore had made unwanted advances or sexual assaults on them when he was in his early thirties and they were in their teens (the youngest was 14 at the time). As a result of these allegations, many national Republican leaders and office holders called for Moore to withdraw from the special election or withdrew their endorsements of him. However, Donald Trump and many Alabama Republicans reaffirmed their support. At the time of the revelations, it was too late to remove his name from the ballot. Many Republican leaders proposed shifting their support to a write - in candidate such as Strange. Moore has stated that he never engaged in sexual misconduct, although he has not denied that he approached or dated teenagers over the age of 16 while he was in his 30s. Sixteen is the legal age of consent in Alabama. In late November, retired Marine Colonel Lee Busby launched a write - in campaign.
At 9: 23 p.m. CST, the Associated Press called the election for Jones, though Moore refused to concede. Jones is the first Democratic candidate to win a statewide election in Alabama since former Lieutenant Governor Lucy Baxley was elected president of the Alabama Public Service Commission in 2008.
Jones was sworn into office on January 3, 2018, becoming the first Democratic U.S. Senator from Alabama since Howell Heflin 's retirement in 1997.
Following then - President - elect Donald Trump 's nomination of then - Senator Sessions to be U.S. Attorney General, Robert Aderholt, a member of the United States House of Representatives, had asked to be appointed to the seat. Representative Mo Brooks had also expressed interest in the seat, while Strange had stated before being selected that he would run for the seat in the special election whether or not he was appointed. Other potential choices Bentley interviewed for the appointment included Moore, Del Marsh, the President Pro Tem of the Alabama Senate, and Jim Byard, the director of the Alabama Department of Economic and Community Affairs.
The Republican primary attracted national attention, especially following Trump 's endorsement of incumbent Senator Luther Strange. Strange was backed by several key figures within the Republican establishment, most notably Mitch McConnell. His two main rivals in the primary consisted of former state judge Roy Moore and Mo Brooks. While Strange showed no signs of losing the first round of the primary, almost every opinion poll showed him trailing Roy Moore in a runoff. Strange came in second place in the first round of the primary behind Roy Moore, securing a spot in the runoff.
National interest in the race dramatically increased in the month before the runoff. Strange maintained his endorsement from Trump, who campaigned for him in Huntsville during the closing days of the campaign. Trump 's endorsement of Strange sparked criticism among his own base, many of whom preferred Moore and detested Strange for his seemingly establishment feel. Several notable people close to Trump broke from the President to endorse Moore, including HUD Secretary Ben Carson and Breitbart Executive Chairman Steve Bannon. Despite the endorsement of Trump, Strange was handily defeated by Roy Moore in the runoff.
President Donald Trump supported Moore 's opponent Strange during the primary runoff, and almost the whole national Republican establishment wanted Strange to win. Trump 's efforts on behalf of Strange included a rally in Alabama, plus tweeting.
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On November 9, The Washington Post reported that four women had accused Roy Moore of engaging in sexual conduct with them when they were teenagers and he was an assistant district attorney in his thirties. One of the women was 14 years old at the time, below the legal age of consent. A few days later a fifth woman said that she had received unwanted attention from Moore when she was 15 years old, and that in December 1977 or January 1978, when she was 16, Moore sexually assaulted her. Moore denied the allegations.
After this, certain Republican leaders and conservative organizations withdrew their endorsements of Moore or asked him to drop out of the campaign. These included Texas Senator Ted Cruz, U.S. Attorney General Jeff Sessions, Ivanka Trump, the National Republican Senatorial Committee, former Republican presidential nominees Mitt Romney and John McCain, Republican Senate Majority Leader Mitch McConnell, Ohio Governor John Kasich, Utah Senator Mike Lee, Montana Senator Steve Daines, and House Representatives Barbara Comstock, Carlos Curbelo, and Adam Kinzinger, as well as the Young Republican Federation of Alabama. Other conservative websites and organizations such as National Review urged readers not to vote for Moore. Moore continued to receive support from the state party. A week before the election, President Donald Trump strongly endorsed Moore. Following Trump 's endorsement, the RNC reinstated their support for him, and Republican leaders said they would "let the people of Alabama decide '' whether to elect Moore.
At the time of the revelations, it was too close to the election for Moore 's name to be removed from the ballot. Republican officials proposed various ways to promote an alternate Republican candidate. One suggestion was to ask Governor Kay Ivey to delay the special election until 2018, but Ivey said she had no plans to change the election date. Some Republicans such as Senator Lisa Murkowski floated the prospect of a write - in campaign to elect Luther Strange, with Utah Senator Orrin Hatch actively endorsing a write - in campaign for Strange. However, Strange said it was "highly unlikely '' that he would run a write - in campaign. Senate Majority Leader Mitch McConnell proposed Attorney General Jeff Sessions, who formerly held the Senate seat, as a write - in candidate. In late November, Retired Marine Col. Lee Busby launched a write - in campaign stating that he thought there is room for a centrist in the race.
Republican nominee Roy Moore refused to debate Democratic nominee Doug Jones. Moore turned down debate invitations extended by the League of Women Voters, WHNT - TV and AL.com. Jones ' campaign said that Jones was "willing to debate Roy Moore anytime, anywhere '' and accused Moore of "hiding from the voters, from the media and from his record for weeks. '' Moore and his campaign stated that he refused to debate Jones because their policy positions were already clear to voters and thus there was no need for a formal debate.
* Unpublished poll released on December 15
Doug Jones defeated Roy Moore by a margin of 21,924 votes. Voter turnout was 40.54 % of Alabama 's 3,326,812 registered voters.
Jones won primarily by running up huge margins in the state 's major cities. The state 's four largest counties -- Jefferson (home to the state 's largest city of Birmingham), Mobile (home to Mobile), Montgomery (home to the state capital of Montgomery) and Madison (home to Huntsville) -- all gave Jones 56 percent or more of the vote. He carried Jefferson by over 83,800 votes, and Montgomery by almost 30,500 votes; either county would have been more than enough to give him the victory. Jones also dominated the Black Belt. He took over 96 percent of the black vote, and 61 percent of votes from those under 45. While Moore dominated the state 's rural areas, he significantly underperformed Trump 's totals in those areas, as well as the suburbs.
As of December 15, Moore demanded a recount and refused to concede the race, despite being urged by Trump, Bannon, and others to do so. If the final margin of victory is less than 0.5 %, then a recount would have been automatically triggered. If not, then either candidate can request a recount at his expense. However, Alabama Secretary of State John Merrill estimates that a recount could cost anywhere from $1 million to $1.5 million, an amount that must be paid in full when the request is made. Moore had only $636,046 on hand by the time the campaign ended. A number of right - leaning websites have pushed conspiracy theories about voter fraud providing the margin for Jones. Merrill noted on December 20 that the only remaining ballots to count are 366 military ballots and 4,967 provisional ballots left to be counted; even if all those votes were for Moore, the margin would not be sufficient to trigger an automatic recount.
Because the number of write - in votes was larger than Jones ' margin of victory, the names written in were both counted and listed. Luther Strange, who lost the Republican primary to Moore, received the most write - in votes, followed by former White House aide Lee Busby, U.S. Rep. Mo Brooks, who also ran in the Republican Senate primary, Libertarian write - in candidate Ron Bishop, Attorney General Jeff Sessions, and Alabama football coach Nick Saban.
After the election, Moore filed a lawsuit attempting to block the state from certifying the election and calling for an investigation into voter fraud. On December 28, 2017, a judge dismissed this lawsuit and state officials certified the election results, officially declaring Doug Jones the winner. Jones was sworn into office on January 3, 2018, by Vice President Mike Pence. Jones became the first Democrat to win a statewide race in Alabama since former Lieutenant Governor Lucy Baxley was elected President of the Alabama Public Service Commission in 2008 over Republican Twinkle Andress Cavanaugh. Prior to that, Democrat Jim Folsom Jr. was elected Lieutenant Governor of Alabama in 2006 over Republican Luther Strange. The last Democrat to win a federal statewide election in Alabama was Richard Shelby in 1992, who switched to the Republican Party in late 1994.
Official Sample Ballot
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which of the following italian nationalists held republican beliefs | Italian nationalism - wikipedia
Italian nationalism builds upon the idea that Italians are the ethnic, cultural, and linguistic successors of the ancient Romans who inhabited the Italian Peninsula for over a millennium. The origins of Italian nationalism have been traced to the Renaissance. Italian nationalism first arose as a potent political force in the 1830s in the Italian peninsula under the leadership of Giuseppe Mazzini. It served as a cause for Risorgimento in the 1860s to 1870s. Italian nationalism became strong again in World War I with Italian irredentist claims to territories held by Austria - Hungary, and during the era of Italian Fascism.
The origins of Italian nationalism have been traced to the Renaissance where Italy led a European revival of classical Greco - Roman style of culture, philosophy, and art. Renaissance - era diplomat and political theorist Niccolò Machiavelli in his work The Prince (1532) appealed to Italian patriotism urging Italians "to seize Italy and free her from the Barbarians '', the "Barbarians '' he referred to were foreign powers occupying the Italian Peninsula.
The initial important figure in the development of Italian nationalism was Giuseppe Mazzini who became a nationalist in the 1820s. In his political career, Mazzini held as objectives the freeing of Italy from Austrian occupation, indirect control by Austria, princely despotism, aristocratic privilege, and clerical authority. Mazzini was captivated by ancient Rome that he considered the "temple of humanity '' and sought to establish a united Italy as a "Third Rome '' that emphasized Roman spiritual values that Italian nationalists claimed were preserved by the Catholic Church. Mazzini and Italian nationalists in general promoted the concept of Romanità (the Roman ideal) that claimed that Roman culture made invaluable contributions to both Italian and Western civilization. Since the 1820s, Mazzini supported a revolution to create of an ideal Italian utopian republic based in Rome. Mazzini formed revolutionary patriotic Young Italy society in 1832. Upon Young Italy breaking apart in the 1830s, Mazzini reconstituted it in 1839 with the intention to gain the support of workers ' groups. However, at the time Mazzini was hostile to socialism due to his belief that all classes needed to be united in the cause of creating a united Italy rather than divided against each other.
Vincenzo Gioberti in 1843 in his book On the Civil and Moral Primacy of the Italians, advocated a federal state of Italy led by the Pope.
Camillo Benso, the future Prime Minister of the Kingdom of Sardinia and afterwards the Kingdom of Italy, worked as an editor for the nationalist Italian newspaper Il Risorgimento in the 1840s. Cavour was a clear example of civic nationalism with a high consideration for values including freedom, tolerance, equality, and individual rights compatible with a sober nationalism.
Economic nationalism influenced businessmen and government authorities to promote a united Italy. Prior to unification, tariff walls held between the Italian states and disorganized railway system prevented economic development of Italy. Prior to the revolutions of 1848, Carlo Cattaneo advocated an economic federation of Italy.
Supporters of Italian nationalism ranged from across the political spectrum, it appealed to both conservatives and liberals. The Revolutions of 1848 resulted in a major development of Italian nationalist culture. Liberalization of press laws in Piedmont allowed nationalist activity to flourish.
Following the Revolutions of 1848 and the liberalization of press laws, the Italian nationalist organization called the Italian National Society was created in 1857 by Daniele Manin and Giorgio Pallevicino. The National Society was created to promote and spread nationalism to political moderates in Piedmont and raised money, held public meetings, and produced newspapers. The National Society helped to establish a base for Italian nationalism amongst the educated middle class. By 1860, the National Society influenced dominant liberal circles in Italy and won over middle class support for the union of Piedmont and Lombardy.
Statesman Daniele Manin seems to have believed in Italian unification years before Camillo Benso of Cavour, who with Giuseppe Garibaldi actually unified the country through diplomatic and military actions. During the 1856 Congress of Paris, Manin talked to Cavour about several plans and strategies to achieve the unification of Italy; Cavour clearly considered those plans as vain things, and after the meeting wrote that Manin had talked about "l'unità d'Italia ed altre corbellerie '' ("the unity of Italy and other nonsense '').
The Risorgimento was an ideological movement that helped incite the feelings of brotherhood and nationalism in the imagined Italian community, which called for the unification of Italy and pushing out of foreign powers. Literature, music, and other outlets of expression frequently alluded back to the glorious past of Rome and the miraculous feats their ancestors had accomplished in defending the homeland and kicking out foreign occupants.
After the unification of Italy was completed in 1870, the Italian government faced domestic political paralysis and internal tensions, resulting in it resorting to embarking on a colonial policy to divert the Italian public 's attention from internal issues.
In these years, one of the most prominent figures of Italian nationalism was Francesco Crispi whose actions as prime minister were characterised by a high patriotism that often appeared as a form of obsession for the national unity and defence from hostile foreign countries. Italy managed to colonize the East African coast of Eritrea and Somalia but failed to conquer Ethiopia with 15,000 Italians dying in the war and being forced to retreat. Next Italy waged war with Turkey from 1911 to 1912 and gained Libya and the Dodecanese Islands from Turkey. However, these attempts to gain popular support from the public failed, and rebellions and violent protests became so intense that many observers believed that the young Kingdom of Italy would not survive.
Tired of the internal conflicts in Italy, a movement of bourgeois intellectuals led by Gabriele d'Annunzio, Gaetano Mosca, and Vilfredo Pareto declared war on the parliamentary system, and their position gained respect among Italians. D'Annunzio called upon young Italians to seek fulfillment in violent action and put an end to the politically maneuvering parliamentary government. The Italian Nationalist Association was founded in 1910 by the jingoist nationalist Enrico Corradini who emphasized the need for martial heroism, of total sacrifice of individualism and equality to one 's nation, the need of discipline and obedience in society, the grandeur and power of ancient Rome, and the need for people to live dangerously. Corradini 's ANI 's extremist appeals were enthusiastically supported by many Italians.
At the outbreak of World War I in 1914, Italy initially maintained neutrality, despite its official alliance with Germany and Austria - Hungary since 1882 on the grounds that Germany and Austria - Hungary were waging an aggressive war that it refused to take part in. In 1915 Italy entered the war on the side of the British and the French against Austria - Hungary and Germany.
Nationalist pride soared in Italy after the end of hostilities in November 1918 with the victory of Italy and Allied forces over Austria - Hungary and the seizure by Italy of former Austro - Hungarian territories. Citizens in Rome celebrated the victory. The Italian population of newly liberated Trieste (140,000 of 240, 00 inhabitants) attended the arrival of General Carlo Petitti di Roreto, the newly proclaimed Governor - General of Trieste, who arrived at Trieste by warship and met cheering mass crowds.
Italy 's demands in the Paris peace settlement of 1919 were not fully achieved, Italy did attain Trentino, Trieste, the Istrian peninsula, and South Tyrol from Austria - Hungary, though other territories previously promised to Italy were not given to it.
In particular, Italian nationalists were enraged by the Allies denying Italy the right to annex Fiume, that had a slight majority Italian population but was not included in Italy 's demands agreed with the Allies in 1915, and a larger part of Dalmatia which had a vast majority Slavic population and a minority Italian, claiming that Italian annexation of large part of Dalmatia would violate Woodrow Wilson 's Fourteen Points. D'Annunzio responded to this by mobilizing two thousand veterans of the war who seized Fiume by force, this action was met with international condemnation of d'Annunzio's actions but was supported by a majority of Italians. Though d'Annunzio's government in Fiume was forced from power, Italy annexed Fiume a few years later.
The seizure of power by Italian Fascist leader Benito Mussolini as Prime Minister of Italy in 1922 and his development of a fascist totalitarian state in Italy involved appeal to Italian nationalism, advocating building an Italian Empire in the Mediterranean Sea. Mussolini sought to build closer relations with Germany and the United Kingdom while showing hostility towards France and Yugoslavia.
After the fall of Fascism and following the birth of the Republic, the interest of scholars and politicians, and in general of the masses in Italian nationalism was relatively low, mainly because of the connections that it had with Fascism and consequently with the bad memories of World War II. The only notable and active political party who clearly declared Italian nationalism as its main ideology was the Italian Social Movement which became the fourth largest party in Italy by the early 1960s. In these years, Italian nationalism was considered an ideology totally linked to the right - wing political parties and organisations. Nevertheless, two significant events seemed to revitalise Italian nationalism among Italians, the first one in 1953 during the Question of Trieste when the claim of Italy on the full control of the city of Trieste was largely endorsed by most of the Italian society with patriotic demonstrations, the second one in 1985 during the Sigonella crisis between Italy and United States.
In the years 2000s, Italian nationalism seems to have gained a moderate support by the society, in particular during important days such as the National Day Festa della Repubblica (Republic day) and the Anniversary of the Liberation. The President of the Republic Carlo Azeglio Ciampi has often praised patriotism among Italians by mentioning in his speeches national events including Risorgimento or Resistenza, and national symbols like the Flag of Italy and the National Anthem, although he seems to want to stress self - confidence rather than nationalism. In 2011, the 150th Anniversary of Italian Unification showed a moderately renewed interest in Italian nationalism among the society. Nationalist ideologies are often present during Italian anti-globalisation protests. Today, Italian nationalism is mainly supported by right - wing political parties including Brothers of Italy - National Alliance who has gained nine seats in the Italian Parliament in the last general election, and by far - right - wing political parties like The Right or Tricolour Flame. Nonetheless, in recent times Italian nationalism has been occasionally embraced as a form of banal nationalism by liberal parties like Forza Italia, centrist parties like the Union of the Centre or even by centre - left parties like the Democratic Party.
Italian nationalism has also faced opposition from within Italy. Regionalism and municipal identities have challenged a unified Italian identity, such as those in Friuli - Venezia Giulia, Naples, Sardinia, Sicily and Veneto. Such regional identities evoked strong opposition after the Piedmontese - led unification of Italy to plans for "Piedmontization '' of Italy. Italian identity has long been strained by a larger regional North - South divide that developed partly from the economic differences of a highly industrialized North and a highly agricultural South.
Civil flag of Italy, originally designed in 1797. A symbol of the Italian nation since the early - 19th century and symbol of the Italian Republic since 1946.
Civil flag of the Kingdom of Italy from 1861 to 1946. Presently used by Italian monarchists.
War flag of the Italian Social Republic, the incarnation of Fascist Italy from 1943 to 1945 after the Fascist regime in the Kingdom of Italy was dismantled in 1943. It is a prominent symbol used by Italian neo-fascists.
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who plays crazy ira on parks and rec | List of Parks and Recreation characters - wikipedia
The primary characters of the American television comedy series Parks and Recreation are the employees of the parks department of Pawnee, a fictional Indiana town. The protagonist is Leslie Knope (Amy Poehler), the deputy parks director as well as serving on city council, and the rest of the ensemble cast consists of her friends and co-workers, including nurse Ann Perkins (Rashida Jones), parks director Ron Swanson (Nick Offerman), and parks department employees Tom Haverford (Aziz Ansari), April Ludgate (Aubrey Plaza), Andy Dwyer (Chris Pratt), Jerry Gergich (Jim O'Heir), and Donna Meagle (Retta).
While most of the main cast have been with the series since it debuted in April 2009, actors Rob Lowe and Adam Scott joined the cast late in the second season portraying Chris Traeger and Ben Wyatt, two state auditors who later take permanent jobs in Pawnee. Paul Schneider was a permanent cast member during the first two seasons as city planner Mark Brendanawicz, but he departed at the end of season two. Billy Eichner who portrays Craig Middlebrooks, the "associate administrator '' of the Pawnee parks department, recurred throughout the show 's sixth season until he was promoted to the main cast in the fourth episode of the seventh season. The majority of Parks and Recreation episodes are set in Pawnee, and most of the recurring and supporting characters are friends of the main characters or residents of the town.
Several guest stars have made appearances on the show, including Louis C.K., John Larroquette, Justin Theroux and Parker Posey. Megan Mullally, Offerman 's real - life wife, played his character 's ex-wife Tammy Swanson, and Poehler 's former husband Will Arnett made an appearance as a man on a blind date with Leslie. Several of Poehler 's past colleagues on the sketch comedy series Saturday Night Live have appeared on Parks and Recreation, including Fred Armisen, Will Forte and Andy Samberg.
Each of the following primary characters were played by members of the Parks and Recreation regular cast, rather than guest stars or non-regular supporting cast members.
Leslie Knope (Amy Poehler) is the deputy director of the Pawnee Parks and Recreation Department, and the protagonist of Parks and Recreation. Leslie is a passionate, hard - working and ambitious woman who loves her hometown of Pawnee and, unlike many around her, has not lost her optimism in the face of government bureaucracy. She believes strongly in the mission of her job, sometimes going over-the - top in her dedication to helping people. Her dream is to become the first female President of the United States. During the first two seasons, Leslie seeks to turn a construction pit into a park, despite several government obstacles and red tape. When the parks department is hindered by Pawnee 's budget problems, Leslie successfully relaunches the town 's harvest festival, which makes her department sustainable again. The third season ends with political scouts approaching her about possibly running for elected office, although she declines to inform them of her secret affair with Ben Wyatt, which could prove to be a political scandal. In season four, Leslie furthers her political ambitions when she successfully runs for city council. Season 5 focused mainly on Leslie 's experiences on the Pawnee City Council. In season six, however, she is recalled and returns full - time to work in the Parks and Recreation department.
Ron Swanson (Nick Offerman) is the parks and recreation director, although he allows Leslie to do almost all the real work in the department. Despite working in a government job, Ron is a steadfast libertarian who believes in as little government as possible and feels the parks department should not even run or maintain parks. He advocates for program cuts wherever possible, actively works to make city hall less effective, and especially detests interacting with Pawnee taxpayers. Nevertheless, Ron has a deep respect for Leslie and genuinely cares about his fellow employees, despite his efforts to hide it. Ron has a deadpan, inexpressive personality, and loves meat, hunting and breakfast foods. He has two ex-wives, both named Tammy, both of whom he hates. Ron Swanson has been praised as the show 's breakout character, and some of his traits were based on elements of Offerman 's real - life personality, like their shared affinity for woodworking and saxophone - playing.
Tom Haverford (Aziz Ansari) was an administrator in the parks department for most of the show, although he also became a minor investor in the Snake Hole Lounge and quit at the end of the third season to form an entertainment company with his friend Jean - Ralphio. Tom was Leslie 's immediate subordinate on the parks department and the two would often work together on tasks. The sarcastic Tom seemed to care little for his mid-level government job and seldom showed any initiative or work ethic. This made him a favorite of Ron Swanson, who once quipped, "I like Tom. He does n't do a lot of work around here. He shows zero initiative. He 's not a team player. He 's never one to go that extra mile. Tom is exactly what I 'm looking for in a government employee. '' However, Tom harbors strong aspirations of becoming a media mogul, and sometimes used his parks department job to increase his stature and curry favors with others. Tom considers himself an extremely stylish dresser and smooth pickup artist, and believes he carries himself in the style of rapper Jay - Z. He constantly hits on women, particularly Ann Perkins, but usually to little success. Tom was married to an attractive surgeon named Wendy at the start of the show, but it is eventually revealed to be a green card marriage that amicably ends in divorce.
Ann Perkins (Rashida Jones), Leslie 's best friend, is a nurse who eventually takes a part - time position with Pawnee 's department of public health. Ann and Leslie meet after Ann requests at a town meeting that an abandoned construction pit be filled, and Leslie pushes to have it turned into a park. Even before getting her part - time Pawnee job, Ann often spent time at city hall and helped the parks department on their endeavors due to her friendship with Leslie. Ann was dating Andy Dwyer at the start of the show, but she broke up with him after the first season after learning Andy faked the severity of an injury so that Ann would pamper him. She started dating city planner Mark Brendanawicz, but they split up by the end of the second season. Ann briefly dated Chris Traeger until he broke up with her, leaving Ann emotionally distraught and prompting her to go on a string of dates with multiple men. The two secretly got back together in the sixth season and Ann became pregnant. Shortly after, Ann and Chris moved to Ann Arbor, Michigan. She had a son, Oliver, in Galentine 's Day.
April Ludgate (Aubrey Plaza) is the extremely sarcastic, apathetic and goth - like college student who started the show working as an intern in the parks and recreation department, but is eventually hired as Ron Swanson 's full - time assistant. She always speaks in a deadpan and uninterested tone of voice, often making dry comments or mocking those around her, and expresses little interest in her job. Nevertheless, she secretly has a deep appreciation for Leslie Knope. In contrast to April 's personality, her parents are extremely positive and enthusiastic people. At the start of the show, April was dating her openly gay boyfriend, Derek, who was simultaneously dating his gay boyfriend, Ben. April and Derek eventually broke up, and April harbored a crush on Andy Dwyer for most of the second season. They started dating in the third season and, after a very short period, were married during an impromptu ceremony in the episode "Andy and April 's Fancy Party ''. She also became the manager of Andy 's band, Mouse Rat, previously known as Scarecrow Boat. When Pawnee 's Animal Control division is threatened, April recommends that the Animal Control division should be absorbed into the Parks and Recreation division. She is put in charge as the deputy director of the animal control part of Parks and Recreation. With Ann 's help, she applies and is accepted into veterinary school, which she declines to attend. Eventually she finds enjoyment in a job in Washington D.C. as a career placement counselor.
Andy Dwyer (Chris Pratt) is a goofy and dim - witted but lovable slacker who works as a shoeshiner at Pawnee city hall, and later works for Leslie in the Parks Department. He was dating Ann at the start of the show and, prior to the events of the first episode, he falls into a construction pit and breaks both his legs. This inadvertently caused Ann to meet Leslie after Ann attends a city hall meeting to demand the pit be filled in. Ann broke up with Andy after learning he faked the severity of his injuries so she would pamper him. The unemployed and homeless Andy initially lives in the pit, but became more self - sufficient when Leslie gets him the shoeshiner job. Andy started dating April Ludgate during the third season and, after a very short period, the two got married on a whim in the episode "Andy and April 's Fancy Party ''. Andy is the lead singer and guitarist for his band, Mouse Rat. In the final season, he is shown hosting a children 's TV show as the character "Johnny Karate ''. Andy was originally only meant to appear in the first season, but the Parks and Recreation producers liked Chris Pratt so much that, almost immediately after casting him, they decided to make him a regular cast member.
Ben Wyatt (Adam Scott) is Leslie 's husband. He joined the show in the penultimate second season episode "The Master Plan '' as an Indiana state auditor, but eventually took a job at Pawnee working for Chris. When he was 18, Ben was elected mayor of his Minnesota hometown, but was impeached after two months because he had no government experience and bankrupted the town. He became an auditor as an attempt to redeem himself and prove he can responsibly manage city government. At the start of the show, Ben contrasted Chris ' cheery personality by bluntly describing the need for economic cuts in Pawnee, which caused conflicts between Leslie and Ben. While Ben never previously established roots in a town due to the constant traveling from his job, Ben gradually came to develop a love of Pawnee, which coincided with his developing romantic interest in Leslie herself. The two start dating in the episode "Road Trip '', despite Chris ' strict policy forbidding workplace romances. When he learns Leslie is running for office in the episode "I 'm Leslie Knope '', they break up for fear of jeopardizing Leslie 's chance of winning the election in the event they could get caught and create a scandal. However, they decide to get back together in "Smallest Park ''.
Chris Traeger (Rob Lowe) first appeared in "The Master Plan '', along with Ben Wyatt, as an Indiana state auditor who visits Pawnee to help solve their crippling financial problems. This led to major budget cutbacks and, eventually, a three - month government shutdown. In the episode "Camping '', he took a job as acting city manager after the previous manager, Paul Iaresco, suffered a heart attack. Chris is an extremely positive person who is always upbeat and energetic. Extremely health - conscious, he exercises constantly and eats only healthy foods, and hopes to be the first human being to live 150 years. He briefly dated Ann Perkins, but the two split up in the third season. Chris imposed a strict policy against workplace dating at city hall, which serves as a detriment to Leslie and Ben. Rob Lowe was originally expected to appear in only eight episodes as a guest star, but eventually signed on to remain on the show as a permanent cast member.
Garry "Jerry '' / "Larry '' / "Terry '' / "Gengurch '' / Gergich (Jim O'Heir) is a parks and recreation department employee who is regularly mocked and taunted by his fellow co-workers. Jerry is clumsy, overweight and often mangles his speech while speaking publicly. He is teased so badly that, after falling and dislocating his shoulder in the episode "Park Safety '', he falsely claimed he was robbed just so his co-workers would not make fun of him. However, despite their jokes at his expense, the parks department employees like Jerry, and Jerry himself claims not to mind the jokes because he is nearing retirement with a full pension. Jerry often demonstrates great artistic talent and is an excellent pianist and painter, although his talents are usually overlooked, ignored or even mocked by his colleagues as though they were character faults. Jerry 's personality was not established until the second season, but the producers cast O'Heir at the start of the show because they liked the actor and decided they would develop the character later in the series. In an episode of season 4 during Leslie 's trial for the relationship she had with Ben, Jerry reveals his real first name, Garry, while under oath. He then goes on to explain that he was accidentally called Jerry by a high - ranking employee of the city and thought it was rude to correct him. It was also revealed that he has a Leap Day birthday and is 64 / 16 years old. In contrast to his awkwardness at work, Jerry leads an idyllic family life with his gorgeous wife, Gayle (played by Christie Brinkley), and their children, as shown when he hosts a holiday party in the Season 5 episode "Ron and Diane ''. In season six, his coworkers take to permanently calling him Larry instead of Jerry. In a flash forward sequence in the season six finale, Jerry is shown working for Leslie at her new job three years in the future, with Leslie now calling him Terry. He is named mayor of Pawnee in the second to last episode of season 7. In flash forwards in the series finale, it is revealed that he was elected mayor multiple times before retiring and dying peacefully in Gayle 's arms surrounded by his family on his 100th birthday.
Donna Meagle (Retta) is an employee for the parks and recreation department. Confident and lively, she has been described by NBC as the "parks diva ''. Donna enjoys partying, and often takes two shots of alcohol at once without any problem. She can be extremely competitive, especially when it comes to dating, where she has an every woman for herself philosophy. Nevertheless, Donna helped Ann recover from her bad break - up with Chris by giving her advice and encouraging her to pursue rebound dates. Donna has worked at the parks department longer than Leslie, and is one of the few people who can speak sternly to Ron Swanson. She is the proud owner of a Mercedes, which she is extremely protective of and often brags about. As with Jerry Gergich, the personality for Donna was not established until the second season, but Retta was cast during the first season because the producers liked her, and they decided they would establish her character as the series progressed.
Mark Brendanawicz (Paul Schneider) was a Pawnee city planner who dated Ann Perkins for much of the second season. According to Aziz Ansari 's character, Tom Haverford, "He 's stuck it in some crazy chicks. '' At the start of the show, Mark was an unrequited love interest for Leslie Knope. The two had once had a one - night stand six years earlier and Leslie never got over him, although Mark did not return her affections. Jaded and disillusioned with his job due to government red tape, Mark often pragmatically insisted to Leslie that her ambitions to turn a construction pit into a park were unlikely to succeed. Nevertheless, he admired Leslie 's unwavering optimism in the face of government ineffectiveness and tried to help her. In the first season finale "Rock Show '', a drunken Mark tried to kiss Leslie, but she rejected him and he accidentally falls into the pit. Although Mark is selfish and promiscuous with women at the start of the show, he becomes kinder when he starts dating Ann, and even plans to propose to her. After she broke up with him, Mark left his city hall position for a job in the private sector, marking Schneider 's departure from the series. He did not appear in any episodes after Season 2, and the show pointedly made no references to him ever having been there at all, most notably in the episode where Ann Perkins left Pawnee and the storyline reviewed her many pre-marriage / pregnancy romances but erased Mark from that listing even though they dated for almost all of Season 2. The only remaining references are that the mural mock - up he made hangs in Ron 's office through season 6, and a laptop bag he gives to Ann Perkins appears as a prop through season 5.
Craig Middlebrooks (Billy Eichner) is the former office manager of Eagleton 's parks department, the equivalent of Donna 's position in Pawnee. In the episode "Doppelgangers '', he and other Eagleton employees were brought in to Pawnee 's offices after the Pawnee -- Eagleton city merger. Craig is the one former Eagleton Parks employee not laid off after the merger, and continues to work at the Pawnee offices under the title of "Associate Administrator ''. By 2017, he has replaced Ron Swanson as director of the Pawnee Parks department.
Craig at first seemed to be the polar opposite to Donna 's more laid - back personality (with layoffs imminent, Donna actually suggested to Leslie that Craig should have her job because he was much more passionate). The two of them bonded over their mutual love of the TV series Scandal.
The overdramatic Craig often raises his voice to the point of shouting, and frequently blows things out of proportion, although he proves to be a highly efficient employee who is familiar with city politics and a strong negotiator.
After recurring heavily during the show 's sixth season, Eichner was promoted to a main cast member in the seventh season, beginning with the fourth episode "Leslie and Ron ''.
Dave Sanderson (Louis C.K.) is a former boyfriend of Leslie Knope and ex-police sergeant in Pawnee. Socially awkward, Dave always speaks in an extremely deadpan and technical tone of voice, but has a sweet personality despite his serious and sometimes gruff exterior, with one Pawnee cop telling Leslie that Dave had been the crankiest member of the force until he met her. He first appears in "The Stakeout '', where he arrested Tom after finding him suspiciously lingering in a parked van. Leslie angrily demanded that Dave set Tom free, and Dave immediately found Leslie attractive. He asked her on a date in "Beauty Pageant '' and she accepted, although she initially hesitated when Dave failed to recognize photos of major female political figures hanging in Leslie 's office. Nervous about the upcoming first date, Leslie became drunk in "Practice Date '' and visited Dave 's house in the middle of the night, acting foolish until Dave brought her home. Leslie was humiliated, but Dave comforted her the next day and they continued dating. In "Greg Pikitis '', Dave helped Leslie monitor her nemesis, high school student Greg Pikitis, on Halloween night and ultimately helped catch him in the middle of committing a prank. Dave made what seemed to be his final appearance in "Christmas Scandal '', when he told Leslie he is in the United States Army Reserve and has been called for maintenance work in San Diego. He invited Leslie to move there with him, but she insisted she could not leave her home of Pawnee, so they amicably split up. In "Dave Returns '', Dave comes back to Pawnee for the retirement party of the current police chief. On a whim, Leslie invites Dave out to dinner with her and Ben and while Ben is in the bathroom, Dave reveals to Leslie that he still has feelings for her. He then handcuffed Ben in the bathroom, but Ben had access to his cell phone and called Leslie, who then sat down for a friendly but firm chat with Dave where she said she was in love with Ben. Dave apologized for his behavior and accepted the situation, being glad to know that Leslie is happy. At the end of the episode, he finally convinced Ben to use the bathroom (Ben has a fear of cops) in the form of a command, which Ben gratefully accepts.
Derek (Blake Lee) is April Ludgate 's openly gay ex-boyfriend, who himself had a gay boyfriend named Ben (Josh Duvendeck) while dating her. Like April, both Derek and Ben are cynical and sarcastic, often mocking others around them. The two first appear together in "Pawnee Zoo '', where they and April congratulate Leslie for organizing a publicity stunt that married two homosexual penguins at the local zoo. In "Sweetums '', they begin to notice April is spending more time with Andy Dwyer, and they mock his personality, upsetting and embarrassing April. In "Galentine 's Day '', Derek and Ben attend a senior citizen dance party, where they mock the seniors. Tired of their constantly sarcastic behavior, and growing more romantically interested in Andy, April breaks up with them. Derek and Ben reappear again, in the episode "Andy and April 's Fancy Party '', making brief cameos as flower - men at Andy 's and April 's wedding.
Dr. Harris (Cooper Thornton) is a doctor who works at the hospital with Ann Perkins. He has an extremely sarcastic personality and responds to everything in a deadpan manner. He first appeared in the first season finale "Rock Show '', where he tended to Andy Dwyer, who broke his legs falling into a construction pit. He appeared again in "Greg Pikitis '', where he attended Ann 's Halloween party dressed as a doctor. When the party proves boring, Dr. Harris left early and took the bottle of wine he brought to Ann 's party because no one drank it. Dr. Harris tended to Andy again in "Freddy Spaghetti '', after Andy was struck by a car while riding his motorcycle. When Andy asked whether Dr. Harris can have him fully healed in the next 10 minutes, the doctor sarcastically responded, "Sure, I 'll just advance medical science 30 years. '' He also appeared in the third season finale "Li'l Sebastian '', where he treated Chris Traeger for a case of tendinitis. Chris responded to Dr. Harris ' sarcasm by declaring him "literally the meanest person I have ever met. ''
Jean - Ralphio Saperstein (Ben Schwartz) is the idiotic and cocky friend of Tom Haverford who, like Tom himself, fancies himself a pickup artist and baller, although he is looked upon with contempt by most people around him except Tom. He tries to dress stylishly, makes up and raps spontaneous rhymes and often speaks in slang terms such as variations of the suffix - izzle as popularized by rapper Snoop Dogg. Jean - Ralphio is first introduced in "The Set Up '', when Tom brought him in for an interview to be Ron Swanson 's new assistant; he was quickly rejected. Jean - Ralphio contributed $5,000 when Tom was seeking a $10,000 investment in the Snakehole Lounge nightclub. In the third season finale, "Li'l Sebastian '', Tom quit his city hall job to form an entertainment company with Jean - Ralphio called Entertainment 720. The role of Jean - Ralphio was created specifically for Schwartz because the Parks and Recreation producers liked the actor so much.
Justin Anderson (Justin Theroux) is a lawyer and long - time friend of Ann who briefly dated Leslie. He is very charming, regularly travels around the world and has done many extravagant things, such as mountain climbing. He loves telling entertaining stories, and sometimes seems less interested in the people around him than he is in listening to and learning new stories. Justin and Ann never dated, but she seems to secretly harbor romantic feelings for him, something that caused difficulties between Ann and Andy when they were dating. Justin first appears in "The Set Up '', when he provided legal advice to the Parks and Recreation department, and Leslie developed a romantic interest in him. She asks Ann to set them up, but she hesitated to do so, prompting Mark to accuse her of still having feelings for Justin. Ann finally sets up a date, and the two start dating regularly. Impressed by Justin 's worldliness, Leslie was so determined to impress him with a house party that, in "Leslie 's House '', she abused her government power by recruiting town employees to provide entertainment. Justin made his final appearance in "Galentine 's Day '', when Justin and Leslie tried to find Frank Beckerson, the long - lost love of Leslie 's mother Marlene, and reunite the two. Upon finding him, Leslie quickly realized Frank is too strange and tried to call the plan off, but Justin insisted on going through with it. After the evening ends disastrously, Ron points out to Leslie that Justin is a selfish person who only cares about getting more stories, so she breaks up with him. Tom, who strongly admired Justin 's hipness and idolized him, became extremely disappointed by the break - up and reacted like a child whose parents are divorcing.
Li'l Sebastian is a miniature horse, who debuted at the Pawnee Harvest Festival in 1987, as an instant sensation. That week he was the eighth most photographed item in the United States. He also received an honorary degree from Notre Dame. Leslie brings him back for the Harvest Festival in season three, although he was much older and had many ailments, including cataracts, diabetes, and arthritis. His return brought excitement and joy to all of Pawnee, except for Ben, who did n't understand what made him so special. In the season three finale, Li'l Sebastian dies, and everyone is devastated. Leslie used Tom 's company, Entertainment 720, to give Li'l Sebastian a funeral. Andy then writes the song "5000 Candles in the Wind '' to honor Li'l Sebastian.
Professor Linda Lonegan (Danielle Bisutti) was Andy 's Women 's Studies professor. She first appeared in Smallest Park, where she made an quite an impression on Andy, April, and particularly Ron. Ron even stated "If that woman was n't so violently opposed to marriage, I 'd propose to her ''. When Andy finished the course, Linda went to dinner with them to celebrate, where April tried to set her up with Chris. Although Linda seemed to have a connection with Chris, she went home with Ron, revealing her attraction to him, for the entire night.
Lucy (Natalie Morales) is a bartender at the Snakehole Lounge and the eventual wife of Tom Haverford. Lucy meets Tom in "The Master Plan '' after he came to the bar to settle his tab from the night before, when he unsuccessfully attempted to pick up several girls by buying drinks for them. Rather than try to pick up Lucy like the other girls, he simply acts like himself, and the two end up hitting it off and started dating. Lucy is intelligent and funny, and she freely accepts Tom 's immature and sometimes inappropriate personality. She jokingly claimed to be attracted to Tom because, "You 're cute and you 're small enough for me to throw you around. '' However, it eventually became clear to Lucy that Tom was not over his ex-wife Wendy, particularly due to how upset he got when Ron Swanson starts dating her. In "Time Capsule '', Lucy broke up with Tom, but told him he should call her if he ever gets over Wendy. In "End of the World, '' Lucy attends Tom 's "best party of all time, '' the two have a good time, and she kisses Tom the next morning, hinting at the possibility of their relationship starting up again. Tom and Lucy rekindle their relationship in Season 7, and Tom proposes to Lucy, which she accepts, in "Two Funerals ''.
April Ludgate 's parents, Larry (John Ellison Conlee) and Rita (Terri Hoyos) are, in contrast to April 's sarcastic and apathetic personality, extremely enthusiastic and positive people, who affectionally call their daughter Zuzu. Rita is from Puerto Rico, which April sardonically claims is what makes herself so "lively and colorful ''; otherwise, however, Larry and Rita represent the archetypical Midwesterner couple. Their other daughter and April 's younger sister, Natalie (Minni Jo Mazzola), is much more like April in personality: she is sullen, dismissive of others and seemingly uninterested in everything around her. The Ludgate family is first introduced in "94 Meetings '', when Ron met them after coming to the Ludgate home to speak with April. Larry and Rita were extremely pleased to meet him, and April revealed Rita is a big fan of Ron 's secret jazz saxophonist alter ego, Duke Silver. The family also attended April and Andy 's surprise wedding ceremony in "Andy and April 's Fancy Party '', where they voiced their approval of the marriage. Natalie gave an unsentimental and indifferent speech about her sister during the reception, calling April "lame '', but Andy "sort of cool '', but the speech was still enough to reduce an emotional April to tears, leading to her hugging Natalie.
Marlene Griggs - Knope (Pamela Reed) is Leslie 's mother and a major political figure in Pawnee 's school system. She is a shrewd and cunning politician who is willing to resort to unethical tactics to get her way. Although Leslie has very different standards, she nevertheless sees Marlene as a source of inspiration, and is extremely eager to impress her mother. Marlene has low expectations for her daughter 's ability to succeed, but is ultimately supportive of her, as indicated in "Canvassing '' when Marlene attended Leslie 's public forum in support of her despite privately predicting it would be a "train wreck ''. In "The Banquet '', Marlene encouraged Leslie to use scandalous information to blackmail a Pawnee zoning official into supporting Leslie 's park project. In "The Bubble '', Leslie secretly prepared her boyfriend Ben for a meeting with Marlene with the hopes her mother would be impressed with him. The plan backfired, however, when Marlene became attracted to Ben and made a pass at him.
Mona - Lisa Saperstein (Jenny Slate) is the crazy, outgoing twin sister of Jean - Ralphio Saperstein, described by him as "a klepto, and a nympho, and a pyro ''. She is also the former girlfriend of Tom Haverford. She is partly responsible for the opening of her father 's, Dr. Saperstein 's, store which eventually runs Tom Haverford 's Rent - a-Swag store out of business. She first appeared in season 5 and continued to appear in the final two seasons (particularly Season 6) as an unreformed lunatic who frightened / terrorized anyone in her path. When she appears in Season 7 her father offers an embarrassed explanation for her insanity by telling Ben and April one word: "pills. ''
Dr. Saperstein (Henry Winkler), the father of Jean - Ralphio and Mona - Lisa, is a gynecologist in Pawnee who invests in several area businesses. Though he openly admits his two children are ne'er - do - well leeches, he loves them unconditionally anyway. After Tom and Mona - Lisa break up, Dr. Saperstein opens a store similar to Tom 's Rent - a-Swag directly across the street for the express purpose of ruining Tom and forcing him to sell his store cheaply. He later relents a bit and offers Tom a deal that will let him break even as well as get a small portion of "Tommy 's Closet '' revenues going forward, which Tom glumly accepts. He is also the doctor whom Ann and Chris go to while the former is pregnant. In the season six finale, he shows up to the opening of Tom 's Bistro (Tom is aghast to see him, but Mona - Lisa cluelessly followed up on Tom 's request to bring in big names) and is happy when it appears the restaurant is going to flop. However, he later states the food is incredible and asks Tom if he can be a minority investor, to which Tom coolly replies that he will give Dr. Saperstein 's offer some time and thought.
Orin (Eric Isenhower) is the creepy and intense friend of April Ludgate. He seldom speaks and often stares at people and makes them feel awkward. He first appeared in "April and Andy 's Fancy Party '', where he made Ben feel uncomfortable; at one point Ben said to him, "No, Orin, I do n't know how I 'm going to die. Wait, are you asking me or telling me? '' At that same party, Orin spoke to Chris, but Chris was so positive he overwhelmed Orin. Orin reappeared in an art show at "Jerry 's Painting '', where he stood silently and motionlessly next to his exhibition: a completely blank canvas. Orin was originally mentioned in a throw - away joke in "Time Capsule '', but Parks and Recreation screenwriter Katie Dippold liked the idea of the character so much she worked him into her script for "Andy and April 's Fancy Party ''. When Leslie had everyone bring a potential date for single Ann Perkins to a Valentine 's Day dance, April (who does n't like Ann) brought Orin; Leslie proceeded to insult Orin and then told him she meant every word of it, before lambasting April for bringing someone that unpleasant and unlikable to a romantic dance. This marked the first time someone on the show directly let Orin know they did n't like him. When he applied for the job of Animal Control director in Season 5, his resume contained one word: his name, in regular font. Leslie told him to go away, and after April asked him what qualified him to work in animal control, and he responded, "I studied zoology in college. And I can control animals with my mind '', to which Leslie curtly says he will not be hired and repeats that he needs to get lost, which he does. He appeared briefly in Season 6 twice, in the episode "Ann and Chris '' dressed up as the Easter Bunny at Ann and Chris 's going away party and in the episode "Prom '' pretending to be April 's mom when Andy picked her up to go to the senior prom.
Tammy Swanson (Patricia Clarkson) is the first ex-wife of Ron Swanson. Ron has been married to two different women, both named Tammy, and he hates and fears both of them. Ron explains that Tammy had been present throughout most of his young life: she delivered him as a baby, was his teacher, and she even took his virginity. Tammy returns as an IRS agent who arrives at the end of the third season (although she is not shown to the audience until the fourth season premiere) to audit Ron. Both Ron and his second wife named Tammy panic at the news of her arrival, and Ron attempts to flee before deciding to return to face her. Leslie then enlists Ron 's eccentric mother (also named Tammy) in a drinking contest to drive Tammy I away once and for all. Since Tammy I 's claim she was auditing Ron was a lie designed to let her search for his hidden gold, she ends up leaving with nothing, as Ron had deliberately put a tiny amount of gold out as a decoy, and was happy to sacrifice it in order to get rid of Tammy I.
Tammy Swanson (Megan Mullally) is the second ex-wife of Ron Swanson; Ron has been married to two women named Tammy, and he hates both of them. Tammy is a manipulative woman who uses sex as a weapon, and she constantly tries to make Ron miserable. However, the two maintain a strong sexual attraction to each other. Tammy is director of the Pawnee Library, which is widely considered a horrible place by Leslie Knope and the parks department employees. Tammy is introduced in "Ron and Tammy '', when she approached Leslie in a friendly way under the guise that she wants to talk to Ron and work out her differences with him. Secretly, she was scheming for Ron to give her a lot Leslie wanted to turn into a park, so she can instead turn it into a library branch. Once she and Ron reconnected, the two fight loudly, but quickly began having sex and briefly reunited. Ron eventually realized he was being manipulated and, with Leslie 's help, resisted Tammy 's efforts. Tammy returns in "Ron & Tammy: Part Two '', where she went on a date with Tom to make Ron jealous. Tammy and Ron ended up having a night of drunken sex and mayhem, which ended with the two of them getting remarried. However, when Tom tried to intervene and Tammy brutally beat him up, Ron remembered how horrible Tammy was and ended their marriage again. Tammy briefly appeared in the third season finale, "Li'l Sebastian '', where she and Ron learned together that Ron 's first wife, "Tammy I '', had arrived in town, which made Tammy flee in terror. In Season 5, Tammy turned up during "Ron and Diane '' with plans to seduce Ron at the woodworking show where he was getting an award, leading to much pain for Leslie when she painfully made sure Tammy never got near Ron (Diane was wrongly more worried about Leslie 's friendship with Ron than Tammy 's behavior, and Tammy ended up locking Leslie in the trunk of her own car and taking off in it), but in the end it all worked out: Diane was aware Tammy was psychotic and said if the cops let her go she would happily pummel her, and Ron pressed charges against his criminal ex.
Mullally is the real - life wife of Nick Offerman, who plays Ron. Michael Schur conceived the idea for "Ron and Tammy '', and asked Offerman whether he and Mullally would be opposed to her playing such a terrible character. Offerman was extremely responsive to the idea. Offerman and Mullally improvised many of their on - screen fights, as well as their unusual kissing and sexual encounters. During one scene in "Ron and Tammy '', where the two characters run into a motel to have sex, Mullally removed her top and threw it into the air. Mullally improvised the move and did not tell the crew she planned to do it. Mullally 's performance was well received by viewers, which made the Parks and Recreation producers feel more comfortable about using celebrity guest actors in later episodes.
Tamara "Tammy '' Swanson (Paula Pell) is Ron 's mother. She shares many personality traits with her son, and seems more than aware of the effect his ex-wives have on him. She first appeared in the episode "Ron & Tammys ''. She lives on the farm Ron grew up on, and has an entire room devoted to guns.
Wendy Haverford (Jama Williamson) started the season as the wife of Tom Haverford, although it is later revealed to be a green card marriage that amicably ends in a divorce. Wendy came to Pawnee from Ottawa, Canada and married Tom so she could remain in the country. Introduced in the first season finale "Rock Band '', Wendy is an attractive, outgoing and wealthy pediatric surgeon, and the other characters are surprised she is married to Tom, who often brags about her attractiveness. Although Tom outwardly claims he is fine with the divorce, he secretly harbors romantic feelings for Wendy and wishes for the marriage to continue. When the parks department employees hold a contest in "Practice Date '' about who can find out the biggest secret about the others, Ron learns about the green card marriage, but he keeps it a secret at Tom 's request.
The divorce proceedings begin in "Tom 's Divorce '', and Tom continued to pretend he is alright with the arrangement. However, when Ron asked Tom whether he could ask Wendy out after the divorce, Tom was secretly heartbroken, despite giving Ron his blessing. In "Galentine 's Day '', Tom admitted to Wendy his true feelings for her, but she rejected him, prompting an angry Tom to sue her for alimony in an attempt to blackmail her into going out with him. This effort was short - lived, however, and Tom eventually apologized and the two parted on good terms. A horrified Tom learned in the second season finale, "Freddy Spaghetti '', that Wendy and Ron are indeed dating. Although the pairing caused tension between Ron and Tom, Ron proved so happy in his relationship with Wendy that it allowed him to resist the temptations of his horrible ex-wife Tammy. In "Ron & Tammy: Part Two '', Ron and Wendy broke up after she decided to move back to Canada to take care of her ailing parents.
Diane Elizabeth Lewis (Lucy Lawless) was introduced in the third episode of Season 5, "How a Bill Becomes a Law ''. She is a junior high school vice principal and a single mother of two young girls, Ivy (Sadie Salizar) and Zoey (Rylan Lee). Ron Swanson meets her when he goes to fix a pothole in front of her house (since the Department of Public Works had been ignoring her complaints, Ron decided to simply take the matter into his own hands). Diane is far from Ron 's usual "type ''. She 's not named "Tammy '' and she has two small girls. Ron is not good with children, or more specifically, with little girls (Ron had previously taken teenage and pre-teen boys camping to teach them survival skills, and also coached a basketball team). After he fixes the pothole, Diane 's girls put makeup on Ron and Andy 's faces (Ron had taken Andy with him to help fix the pothole), and have a little girl 's tea party with them, which Ron tolerates surprisingly well. Ron really likes Diane and in episode 5 of season 5 ("Halloween Surprise '') begins a dating relationship with her, deciding that dealing with a single mother and her girls might help him to expand his life experience. Diane, in return, in the episode "Ron and Diane '', shows an impressive level of patience and understanding at Tammy II 's psychotic attempts to ruin her relationship with Ron. In a private conversation with Leslie, Diane admits that she feels more threatened by Leslie than by Tammy II, as she feels that Leslie knows Ron in a way that she never can. When she confesses this fear to Ron, he assures her that, while Leslie is a loyal friend and colleague, he could never have any romantic feelings towards her. Then, to prove his commitment to Diane, he reveals to her his Duke Silver identity (a night club saxophone player, something even Leslie did n't know), and he plays Diane a song, naming her as his "duchess ''. In the same episode, Leslie decides that Diane is a good guardian of Ron 's well - being and a shield against the disruptive antics of Tammy II. Later, during the episode "Women in Garbage '', Ron is babysitting her daughters in the office with Ann, and accidentally allows them to lock themselves in his office with the contents of Ann 's medical bag. The girls cut each other 's hair before Ron and Ann can stop them, which destroys their hairstyles. Ron and Ann are horrified by this, and when Ron considers Diane 's potential reaction, he blurts out to Ann that he has fallen in love with Diane (a statement he immediately tries to take back). Diane, however, is understanding of the accident, saying that it was just kids being kids. She tells him that she is touched by how much he cared, and that she loves him. Ron sheepishly admits that he loves her as well. It is implied at the end of the fifth season that Diane may be pregnant. In the beginning of the first episode of the sixth season, Diane confirms her pregnancy and Ron proposes marriage to which she accepts under one condition: that the wedding is as plain as possible. With that in mind, the two head up to the fourth floor with Leslie and April in tow. Leslie is asked to be the matron of honour and April appoints herself as Ron 's ' Best Man '. The two are married in an extremely fast paced wedding filmed on April 's phone and with highlighter pens acting as a bouquet. Later on in the episode where Leslie, Ron, April and Andy are in London, it is revealed that Diane suggested tagging along to make the trip hers and Ron 's honeymoon, however her morning sickness meant she could n't go and Ron had to take plenty of photos for her. Ron and Diane 's baby, John Swanson, is born later in the season. Although Diane does not appear in Season 7, she is frequently mentioned as still being married to Ron.
Gayle Gergich (Christie Brinkley) is Jerry 's inexplicably gorgeous wife, as well as the mother of Millicent, Miriam, and Gladys. Gayle has a solid and overly - affectionate relationship with Jerry, puzzling to his coworkers. She is referenced until she makes an appearance in "Ron and Diane ''. She also appears again in "Jerry 's retirement. ''
Millicent "Millie '' Gergich (Sarah Wright) is the gorgeous daughter of Gayle and Jerry. She was introduced in season 4 as Chris 's love interest. In "Bowling for Votes '', Chris mentions his plans to move in with Millicent, but she breaks up with him off screen that same episode. In "Ron and Diane '' it 's revealed that Millicent is engaged to a rafting instructor named Carl. She makes another appearance in "Jerry 's Retirement. ''
Gladys Gergich (Katie Gill) is one of Gayle and Jerry 's other daughters. She first appears in "Ron and Diane '', singing Christmas carols with her mother, father, and sister, Miriam. She also appears again in "Jerry 's Retirement. ''
Miriam Gergich (Maliabeth Johnson) is one of Gayle and Jerry 's other daughters. She first appears in "Ron and Diane '', singing Christmas carols with her mother, father, and Gladys. She also appears again in "Jerry 's retirement. ''
Norman "Typhoon '' Montalban (Rodney To) is a hairdresser in Pawnee who marries Craig Middlebrooks (Billy Eichner) in the flash forwards of the season finale. Typhoon was introduced in the 5th episode of Season 6 as Donna 's hairdresser after she recommends him to Ron, following the passing of Ron 's former regular barber. Ron is at first reluctant to take on a new stylist, but bonds with Typhoon over their shared hatred of Europe and bicycles. He appears again in the 7th episode of Season 7 as Donna 's stylist for her wedding, and again in the final episode when he marries Craig. Ron is shown to be the best man at their wedding.
Bill Dexhart (Kevin Symons) is a Pawnee councilman who regularly participates in outrageous sex scandals with multiple partners. His character was inspired by South Carolina Governor Mark Sanford and his 2009 scandal, in which he admitted to a long - time extramarital affair with an Argentinian woman. Dexhart first appeared in "Practice Date '', when he publicly admitted to having participated in a foursome in a Brazil cave under the guise of building houses for the underprivileged. Dexhart was featured prominently in "Christmas Scandal '', which began with Leslie portraying him in a satirical holiday skit in which he discussed his an affair with multiple women that resulted in a love child. Unbeknownst to Leslie, Dexhart turned out to be involved in a sexual arrangement very similar to that one: four - way sex in a hospital room where he has just overseen the birth of his love child. When he confronted her about it, members of the media took pictures of Leslie and Dexhart together and speculated that the two of them were having an affair. Dexhart refused to deny the allegations, and even went so far as to confirm them, because the fictional affair was less scandalous than his actual sexual discretions. As proof of the affair, he claimed Leslie had a mole on her right buttock, but she publicly proved him wrong by dropping her pants on live television and revealing there is no mole. In Season 5 he was something of a swing vote for Leslie on the City Council because he was less likely to fully support her than Howser, but also less likely to thoughtlessly oppose her than either Milton or Jamm. That has changed during the recall campaign against Leslie in Season 6, as Dexhart has cheerfully joined Jamm in blocking any initiatives by her and making it clear they both hope she is booted from office. In the episode "Second Chunce '', Dexhart publicly confesses to "texting, sexting and Tex - Mexting '' approximately one hundred women under a series of implausible pseudonyms, parodying the Anthony Weiner sexting scandals. In fact, "Anthony Weiner '' is the last in the list of pseudonyms Dexhart reads out at a press conference. Leslie briefly considers running for his seat after being impeached, but is dissuaded by Jennifer Barkley. The district that Dexhart is in charge of is a run - down, crime - ridden part of town that he had promised to clean up, but his only action has been to rename it Beach View Terrace.
Carl Lorthner (Andy Samberg) is a park ranger and the head of outdoor security for Pawnee. He constantly talks extremely loudly, speaking at screaming levels even when asked to talk quietly, and works as a ranger because he can not hold down a job that involves working indoors due to his inability to control the volume of his voice. Carl appeared in "Park Safety '', in which Jerry claimed to be mugged in Ramsett Park, which fell under Carl 's territory. Leslie launched efforts to make the parks safer and had Carl take them on a tour of the area; he showed Leslie, Tom and Jerry around on a mobile cart that had been attacked and urinated upon by raccoons. Carl eventually discovered that Jerry was not mugged at all, but accidentally fell into a creek by himself. Angry that Leslie blamed Carl 's security measures for the mugging, he threatened to reveal the truth on Joan Callamezzo 's morning news show, Pawnee Today. Leslie convinced him not to do so at the last minute, and they instead angered Callamezzo by discussing the 2009 film Avatar and whether it lived up to its hype.
George Williams (Biff Yeager) works in the Public Works Department, first seen in the season three episode Jerry 's Painting, although he was referred to as "Lenny ''. In Li'l Sebastian, he worked as a maintenance worker for Li'l Sebastian 's funeral, as witnessed Ben and Leslie kissing. To keep him from revealing their secret, Ben and Leslie give him a $50 spa gift certificate. He reappears in The Trial of Leslie Knope, where it is revealed he is a NASCAR enthusiast. He testifies against Leslie and provides the key evidence against her.
Councilman Howser (Yvans Jourdain) is a Pawnee councilman who repeatedly encounters Leslie in embarrassing or awkward situations around city hall, during which time Leslie nevertheless tries to discuss politics with him. For example, in "94 Meetings '', Leslie ran into Councilman Howser in the men 's bathroom, which she entered while following Ron Swanson and trying to discuss something with him. Afterward, Leslie awkwardly blurted to Howser, "Councilman Howser. I saw your penis. '' That being said, he is depicted as by far the most rational Council member and has consistently supported her proposals and plans since she was elected. In "Filibuster '' he can be seen as visibly pleased that Leslie had successfully filibustered Jamm 's attempt to block former Eagletonians 's right to vote.
Hugh Trumple (Eric Pierpoint) is chief of the Pawnee police department. He has a very serious and gruff personality, and speaks in a dry, monotonic manner. Trumple has great respect for Leslie Knope because of her passion for helping those around her. Chief Trumple first appeared in "Ron & Tammy: Part Two '', when Ron Swanson gets arrested for a night of debauchery with his ex-wife Tammy. The chief agreed to Leslie 's request that he release him to Leslie 's custody. Ben feared Leslie cashing in this favor meant the chief would not agree to provide security for the upcoming harvest festival, but Chief Trumple agreed to do so anyway out of his respect for Leslie, telling Ben he will always do favors for Leslie because she is the kind of person who uses those favors to help people. The chief reappeared in the episode "Eagleton '', where he arrested Leslie when she refused to apologize after getting in a fight with Lindsay Carlisle Shay, her rival from the neighboring city of Eagleton. Trumple retired as police chief in Season 4.
An orthodontist by day, Jamm (Jon Glaser) is a member of the Pawnee City Council, and has made himself Leslie 's major nemesis. He also appears to have a grudge against the entire Parks Department, angry over the fact that Leslie ruined his Paunch Burger plan. Tom shoved him into a swimming pool, Ann refused to sleep with him, and Ron punched him in the mouth. After fighting with Leslie over the use of her private bathroom for her office, he becomes a continual thorn in Leslie 's side for any proposal she makes. His catch phrase, "you just got Jammed, '' is used whenever he one - ups Leslie or any other adversary. He failed to turn Lot 48 into a new Paunch Burger restaurant when Leslie won over the city planning committee and got the Pawnee Commons park project approved, leading to him getting drunk and temporarily ruining Ben and Leslie 's impromptu on - site wedding. Afterward, he was punched by Ron Swanson; both of them were thrown in jail but Ron was quickly released while Jamm was left to sober up in his cell, and the wedding took place at City Hall. He then sued Ron and it looked he would win, but Tom, Andy and April threatened a similarly bogus lawsuit that Jamm knew he would lose, so both sides backed off. When Leslie is under political pressure to resign, Jamm complicates Leslie 's role on the council by teaming up with councilman Dexhart and voting down any proposal Leslie has, to spite her. When Donna Meagle accidentally sends a sexually suggestive tweet from the department Twitter, Jamm uses this as an opportunity to hold public hearings that put Leslie 's ethics into question. After he holds a series of hearings to drag out Leslie 's ordeal, Leslie publicly stands up to Jamm and says that she 's going to get back to work as a councilwoman and wo n't attend any more of the hearings. In the season six finale, Jamm is shown at the Pawnee / Eagleton unity concert leading a secession effort. Jamm reappears in the Season 7 episode "Ron and Jammy '', where he is revealed to be dating Tammy, Ron 's second ex-wife. Leslie and Ron are feuding over the Newport land rights at this time, and Jamm is the swing vote on the issue. Leslie initially sees the relationship as an advantage, since Tammy would influence Jamm to vote against Ron; however, it becomes apparent that being with Tammy is detrimental to Jamm 's physical and mental well - being. Leslie and Ron decide to put aside their differences and successfully coach Jamm into breaking up with her. Jamm then abstains from the land rights vote, leaving the issue deadlocked.
Milton (James Greene) is the longest - serving Pawnee Councilman, having been elected in 1948 as a Dixiecrat largely due to his commitment to de-integrating Major League Baseball, as well as a plan to re-open a former WWII Japanese - American Internment Camp in Pawnee and get it back up to speed. He is generally senile except on matters of racism and sexism, where his memory seems to be intact (he was able to calculate when Leslie Knope 's next menstrual period would start during "Women in Garbage ''), and he has generally -- though not always -- been on the other side of Leslie 's initiatives.
Joe Fantringham (Kirk Fox), also sometimes called "Sewage Joe '', works for the Pawnee sewer department, which he calls the "Toilet Party ''. Despite the nature of his department, Joe regularly hires supermodel - like interns. The parks and sewer departments have an ongoing rivalry and Joe regularly mocks them, much to the confusion of Leslie, who does not understand why he considers the sewer department better than parks and recreation. Joe first appeared in "The Camel '', when the various Pawnee departments competed to design a mural for city hall. Joe was arrogant and bragged to Leslie about his department 's chances at success, and his department ultimately designed a good mural, but the contest ended without a winner. In "Telethon '', Joe made a pass at April. When she rejected him, he insisted he did not care because the sewer department is "waist deep in hot snizz '', a reference to the sewer department interns. Joe also appeared in "Soulmates '', where he made a pass at Leslie, prompting her to wonder why only jerks have recently seemed to be attracted to her. When Leslie asked Joe his standards for women, he replied only that they can not be elderly. Ben Wyatt fired him after Joe sent a cell - phone picture of his penis to everyone in the Pawnee government. Also, Ann noticed from the picture that Joe had the mumps. In Bus Tour, Joe later tried twice to hit Ben in the face with a pie in revenge, failing the first time (at one of Leslie Knope 's campaign rallies, where he hit Jerry) before succeeding (at Bobby Newport 's mansion) due to inept security from Andy 's FBI agent alter - ego ' Bert Macklin ' and then getting arrested. He later appears briefly in the fifth season, at the local sperm bank when he tells Ann and Leslie (Who were there because Ann was trying to have a baby) that he and his friends were regular donors.
Ken Hotate (Jonathan Joss) is the leader of Pawnee 's local Wamapoke Native American tribe. He also runs a casino in the city. He appeared in "Harvest Festival '', where he asked Leslie to relocate her festival because it was taking place on the sacred burial grounds of the Battle of Indian Hill, where his ancestors were killed in a seven - day battle. When Leslie insisted there was nowhere she could move the festival without being offensive due to Pawnee 's extremely bloody history, Ken threatened to place a curse on the festival. He knew the curse to be fake, but believed it would frighten people enough to ruin the festival, insisting, "There are two things I know about white people: they love Matchbox Twenty, and they are terrified of curses. '' Ken 's efforts proved successful, as the local media learned about the curse and reported on it so extensively that the festival was nearly ruined. Leslie and Ken came to a compromise after Leslie agreed to place a Wamapoke history exhibit by the entrance of the festival, and Ken lifted the fake curse during a phony ceremony, where he said nonsense chants including "Doobee doobee do ''. Although Ken enjoyed giving Leslie some tsuris at this point, later on it is shown he fully respects her; when Leslie desperately plants Wamapoke artifacts on the Lots 42 site after Councilman Jamm and the Pawnee Restaurant Association henchwoman have broken an agreement to leave the site alone until a city meeting, Ken first accepts Leslie 's apology and then bluntly threatens reprisals unless the agreement is reinstated, which a cowardly Jamm quickly agrees to do. Jonathan Joss previously voiced John Redcorn in the animated television series King of the Hill, which was co-created by Parks and Recreation co-creator Greg Daniels.
Kyle (Andy Forrest) is a government employee and regular customer at Andy 's shoeshine stand. He is routinely mocked and laughed at, not only by Andy but others at city hall as well, even Jerry Gergich, who himself is usually scorned by his co-workers. For example, in the episode "Camping '', Kyle told Andy that his identity had been stolen and his bank account frozen, and Andy reacted by laughing hysterically. Andy and April have also stolen money from Kyle 's wallet and ejected him from the shoeshine chair (but not before Andy poured Pepto - Bismol on Kyle 's shoes). Kyle also appeared in "Soulmates '', where he was one of the judges in a contest between Chris and Ron to determine whether red or lean meat is better. Kyle complimented the umami taste in one of the burgers, prompting fellow judge Jerry to condemn him for acting pretentious. Ron Swanson also pawned Kyle off on Chris when Chris was trying to be friendly to Ron, with Ron knowing very little about Kyle beyond his first name, and Chris being politely distant to him.
Mayor Gunderson (Bill Murray) is the mayor of Pawnee during most of the show 's run. In the final season, set in 2017, Perd Hapley announces Mayor Gunderson 's death and an open - casket memorial is held in the city council chambers. In a video Gunderson assigned to be shown at his funeral, he remarks at how little attention he had been paying, and that he would take credit if any needed to be taken. He then points out that if there was any blame, it was the citizens ' fault. His last statement is "Goodbye forever. '' This posthumous appearance by Bill Murray as Gunderson, is the only time he is seen on Parks and Recreation, although he had been mentioned in multiple episodes of the show. He was first mentioned in "Christmas Scandal '', when the parks and recreation department held a satirical holiday skit full of inside jokes about Pawnee, and April declared, "That 's crazier than Mayor Gunderson 's dog, Rufus. '' He is also mentioned in the episode "Leslie 's House, '' when Mark asks everyone if they heard about the incident involving his dog, prompting Ron to say, "Oh my god, it was a bloodbath. '' Mark later adds that as a result of the incident, someone from animal services would be fired. The mayor and his dog played a major part in the episode "The Possum '', when Mayor Gunderson 's assistant ordered the parks department to capture an opossum that bit Rufus on a Pawnee golf course. Andy, who helps Leslie capture the opossum, said at one point, "We 're acting under direct orders from Mayor Gunderson 's dog. '' For the funeral scene in the third season finale "Li'l Sebastian '', Michael Schur said the writing staff considered killing off Mayor Gunderson, but they instead went with miniature horse Li'l Sebastian because it was decided having an animal die would be more appropriate and less morbid. Having Bill Murray play the mayor was a long - time goal of the cast and crew of the show. Amy Poehler stated she would love Murray to play Mayor Gunderson and, during an appearance on Late Night with Jimmy Fallon, jokingly announced she would pay him $250 if he played the role.
After Gunderson 's death, Gerry Gergich was appointed interim mayor of the town.
Paul Iaresco (Phil Reeves) is the Pawnee city manager, which makes him supervisor of all the departments and staff in city hall. He was first introduced in "Canvassing '', when he asked Ron to fast - track Leslie 's plans to convert a construction pit into a park. This inadvertently led to a disastrous public forum, where most attendees forcefully opposed the project. Paul appeared in several other Parks and Recreation episodes, including "The Master Plan '', where he announced the pending arrival of state auditors Ben Wyatt and Chris Traeger due to Pawnee 's crippling budget problems. In "Camping '', Paul held a press conference to commend Leslie for her successful relaunch of the city 's harvest festival. During the conference, he suffered a massive heart attack and accidentally clutched Leslie 's breast as he fell to the ground; one newspaper 's story about the incident read, "Knope Grope is Last Hope! '' Paul took a leave of absence after an octuple bypass, and Chris Traeger took over as interim city manager.
Scott Braddock (H. Jon Benjamin) is a high - strung Pawnee city attorney who becomes extremely nervous about anything that could lead to a lawsuit. He appeared in "Kaboom '', where Leslie accidentally injured Andy by arranging for a bulldozer to fill in a giant pit, unaware that Andy was inside it. He became hospitalized, and Scott encouraged Leslie not to apologize or admit fault in the incident because it would risk Pawnee getting sued. Scott constantly admonished Leslie when she tries to apologize, at one point shouting, "No miming! '' when she made a motion indicating how badly she feels. Andy did file a lawsuit with the hopes of winning enough money to impress his ex-girlfriend Ann, but it ended with a settlement that resulted in the pit getting filled in.
William (Johnny Sneed) and Elizabeth (Antonia Raftu) first approached Leslie in the third season finale, Li'l Sebastian, about Leslie potentially running for city council. After she agrees, in season four, they start working on her campaign, as her advisors. In Citizen Knope, Leslie gives a Christmas ornament with "Knope 2012 '' written on it, to William as a present, and attempts to give Elizabeth a Knope 2012 menorah because she thinks but is not sure Elizabeth is Jewish (she is n't). When Leslie and Ben turn themselves in, and Ben resigns after Leslie 's trial, William and Elizabeth inform her that she is polling at 1 %, and they will no longer advise her on her campaign. Leslie accuses them of hypocrisy as she believes that they are romantically involved, however Elizabeth bluntly responds "I 'm gay ''. William and Elizabeth make their final appearance in The Comeback Kid, as they tell Leslie that they are looking for other potential candidates.
Ethel Beavers (Helen Slayton - Hughes) is an elderly town employee, who continues to work as the municipal stenographer.
Harris (show writer Harris Wittels) and Brett (Colton Dunn) are the two useless stoner employees of the Animal Control department. They are first seen in the second season episode The Possum; Brett appears in six episodes and Harris in eight. In "Andy and April 's Fancy Party '', Harris and Brett attend the wedding party; despite this, Harris later asks if April is single. In "Operation Ann '' in the fourth season, Harris is one of the men Leslie and Tom set up with Ann during the Valentine 's Day dance. Tom tells her Harris still lives with his parents and has been to at least 200 Phish concerts; Harris informs them he has been to 308.
In the season five episode "Animal Control, '' Chris Traeger fires Brett and Harris after he steps on a coyote trap in the animal control office. Both subsequently reapply for the position and are the only two applicants; by this time they also live together. On his application, Brett lists his love of hamburgers under his qualifications for the job. When April asks why there are so many police outside city hall, the presumably stoned Harris and Brett quickly run off.
In the season seven episode "Pie '', Brett and Harris are revealed to be secretly living in the basement of city hall. Ron, April and Andy ask them the location of the shoeshine stand while searching for a hidden key to Ron 's home.
Crazy Ira (Matt Besser) and Howard "The Douche '' Tuttleman (Nick Kroll) are two shock jocks of a morning zoo - style Pawnee radio program. They serve primarily as a parody of those types of radio shows, especially in a small - town market like Pawnee. The show prominently features fart jokes and "your mom '' insults, as well as constant sound effects from their sound man "China Joe '', who hates his job. Crazy Ira and The Douche are widely admired in Pawnee, especially by Tom Haverford, and are considered much better than their rival radio show, "Tubby Tony and The Papaya '' (who never appear on - screen). They first appeared on "Media Blitz '' when, during an interview with Leslie and Tom about the upcoming harvest festival, they revealed their true motive was to lambast Ben for his failed tenure as a city mayor during his teen years. The interview proved disastrous for Ben, who was so socially awkward he could barely talk, and it led to other Pawnee media taking on the story and nearly ruining the harvest festival. The Douche reappeared in "The Fight '', when he went on a date with Ann to the Snakehole Lounge bar. This came at a time when Ann was regularly going on a string of dates with random, underachieving men, and the date with The Douche led to a major argument between Ann and Leslie because Ann was supposed to be preparing for a job interview Leslie had arranged for her. Later, on his radio show, The Douche dismissed both Ann and Leslie as likely lesbians.
Before his appearance as Crazy Ira, Matt Besser was a comedian with the Upright Citizens Brigade, a sketch comedy show and troupe which also featured Parks and Recreation star Amy Poehler.
During the last seasons of Parks and Recreation, Nick Kroll was dating Amy Poehler (Leslie Knope) in real life and she also starred in his show, "Kroll Show ''
Derry Murbles (Dan Castellaneta) and August Clementine (John Hodgman) are the hosts of the public radio talk show "Thought for your Thoughts. '' The show is known for its particularly boring content and terrible song selections. August Clementine joined the show after the Pawnee - Eagleton merger.
Joan Callamezzo (Mo Collins) is the hostess of Pawnee Today, a local news magazine / talk show that combines elements of NBC 's Today show and news shows like Nancy Grace. She often serves as a parody of the media in her tendency to turn small matters into big stories and her desire to find the most negative possible aspects of any given story. Joan refers to herself as a "legendary newswoman '' and is more intimidating than other members of the Pawnee media, as Leslie declares that she "runs this town ''. However, Leslie also has a tendency of taking over Joan 's show when she appears on it and discussing whatever she wants. In "Christmas Scandal '', Leslie appeared on Pawnee Today to refute accusations that she was having an affair with Councilman Bill Dexhart. When Dexhart himself appeared on the show and offered proof of the affair by claiming Leslie has a mole on her buttock, Leslie pulled her pants down on the show to prove him wrong. Upon realizing Leslie has no mole, Joan called Dexhart 's lies about Leslie "No mole-gate '', named after the Watergate scandal. In "Media Blitz '', Leslie and Ben appeared on Pawnee Today to combat rumors that he was going to bankrupt the town due to his past as a failed teen mayor. Ben was bombarded with angry callers and labeled a "human disaster '' on the show 's subtitles. Joan reappeared in "Harvest Festival '', where she was determined to find a problem with the festival Leslie organized. Initially disappointed to find no problems, she eventually learned about a supposed Indian curse placed upon the harvest festival by a local Pawnee tribe, which she turned into a major scandalous story. In later episodes, Joan has gone through an ugly divorce and become an alcoholic; when Ron Swanson appears on her show, she has just returned from a "singles cruise '' and simply passes out during their taping, leading Ron to take over as host and do such a great job that the on - camera graphics show the episode as "You 're on With Ron ''.
Collins was originally expected to appear only in one Parks and Recreation episode, but returned for subsequent episodes because the writing staff enjoyed her performance.
Perderick L. "Perd '' Hapley (Jay Jackson) is a Pawnee television journalist and host of the television news programs Ya Heard? With Perd! and The Final Word With Perd. He also hosts a news segment called "Are You There Perd - verts? It 's Me Perd, Hosting a New Segment ''. He often speaks in awkward tautologies such as "One more shocking revelation in a story that wo n't stop unfolding '', "The statement this reporter has is a question '', and "Also joining us today is a different person ''. Like other reporters on Parks and Recreation, Perd often serves as a parody of the pack mentality of the media and their tendency to generate scandals. Perd reported on the sex scandal involving Councilman Bill Dexhart in "Practice Date '', the rumors of Leslie 's sexual affair with Dexhart in "Christmas Scandal '', and the supposed Indian curse on the harvest festival in "Harvest Festival ''. He also appears in "Telethon '' as a guest of Leslie 's 24 - hour telethon, where he performed the dance move the worm to "Axel F ''. In "Media Blitz '', Ben Wyatt appeared on Perd Hapley 's show amid a media controversy about Ben 's failed tenure as a child mayor. Although Perd only asked simple questions, the nervous Ben had a complete meltdown, which ended with him angrily referring to Perd Hapley as "Turd Crapley ''. Perd interviewed Leslie and porn star Brandi Maxxxx in "Jerry 's Painting '' to discuss whether a painting featuring Leslie nude can be considered art. In his younger days on Pawnee TV, Perd was a film critic who famously gave E.T.: The Extra-Terrestrial only 1 and 1 / 2 stars because "it 's a good story, but it 's just not believable ''. In the final season, he is shown dressed as a judge and hosting a TV show called The Perdples Court, while onscreen subtitles remind viewers that Perd is "not a real judge ''.
Jackson was originally expected to appear only in one Parks and Recreation episode, during which his character was seen only on a television screen. He returned for subsequent episodes, however, because the writing staff enjoyed his performance and liked writing jokes for him.
Shauna Malwae - Tweep (Alison Becker) is a reporter with the local newspaper, The Pawnee Journal. Shauna meets Leslie Knope in "The Reporter '', when she was assigned to write a story about the parks department 's efforts to turn a construction pit into a park. When the interviews went badly, Leslie asked Mark Brendanawicz for help dealing with Shauna, and Mark ended up sleeping with her. Mark told Shauna he does not believe the park will ever be built. Later, Shauna agreed not to publish the story since she and Mark are in a relationship and it would be a conflict. When Mark says he can not commit to a relationship, however, she goes ahead with the story. Shauna returned in "The Possum '', where she interviewed Andy Dwyer for a story about his successful capture of an opossum that had bitten Mayor Gunderson 's dog. During that interview, Andy made Shauna feel awkward by openly discussing her having previously slept with Mark. During scenes cut from the episode "The Master Plan '', Shauna and Andy flirted with each other, but he ultimately rejected her due to his feelings for April, prompting her to declare, "I ca n't even land the shoeshine guy. '' Michael Schur said of the character, "She 's just unlucky in love. '' Shauna also appears in "Time Capsule '', where she initially started writing a story about Leslie 's plans for a Pawnee time capsule. However, after Kelly Larson handcuffed himself to a pipe when she did not include the Twilight novel in the capsule, Shauna wrote that story instead, with the headline, "Parks Department Foiled by Pipe Dreams ''. Shauna also appeared in "Media Blitz '' as one of the many reporters who wrote about Ben Wyatt 's past as a failed teen mayor. In season 5, she briefly dates Chris Traeger. Shauna is increasingly shown throughout the show to have a particularly messy personal life. The season six episode "Galentine 's Day '' revealed that she had recently ended a relationship with a married man, and that she found out in college that her family was actually her father 's secret second family. In the extended edition of the show 's final episode, Leslie reassures Shauna that one day she will find happiness. In a flash - forward, Shauna is shown to have been left at the altar in 2018, crying on a park bench. Bobby Newport walks by and consoles her, and five hours later the two are happily married. Shauna is the only non-main character to appear in every season.
Kim (Jamie Denbo) is an obnoxious, untalented tabloid reporter working at the local rag "Pawnee Sun '' who made her only appearance to date in Season 5 's "Correspondents Lunch ''. Leslie was eager to perform a great skit at the event, but Kim (whose paper has been suspiciously capable of finding and printing embarrassing information about Leslie) ends up delivering all of Leslie 's jokes. Unfortunately for Kim, Leslie and Donna find proof that Kim has illegally hacked into Leslie 's e-mails, when Leslie sends a bait message about "midichlorians '' in the soil near the Pawnee Commons project. Kim asks a question about the "news '' only to have Leslie bluntly tell her that the substance in question is from Star Wars: Episode I -- The Phantom Menace and she 's just revealed that she 's broken the law. Kim tries to act dismissive, but gets scared out of the room by Donna.
Barney Varmn (John Balma) is an accountant who first appeared in the season 2 episode "Leslie 's House '' where he gives a presentation to Leslie to try and save an accounting class he teaches at the William Percy Recreation Center. He works at an unnamed accounting firm in Pawnee. He has offered Ben Wyatt a job at his accounting firm on multiple occasions, however, Ben always refuses to accept the position. Nonetheless, he is known for laughing raucously when Ben makes accounting puns, often calling in an unseen character named Ted to hear the pun after he laughs at it. He is also a fan of the Cones of Dunshire, a board game that Ben invented in season 6.
Brandi Maxxxx (Mara Marini) is a pornography star who has appeared in more than 200 adult films, despite having been in the business only one year. She appeared in "Jerry 's Painting '' as a guest on the news show Ya Heard? With Perd!, where host Perd Hapley was interviewing Leslie Knope about a painting she appeared nude in. Brandi was also brought on as a guest and, to Leslie 's chagrin, compared Leslie 's painting to pornography and defended them both. She claimed anyone should be allowed to have sex anywhere they wanted, and falsely believed Leslie felt the same way. When Leslie quoted United States Supreme Court Associate Justice Potter Stewart 's famous claim that he can not define pornography but "I know it when I see it '', Brandi was asked to define it and she replied, "For me, it 's when the penis goes in. '' Brandi also invited Leslie to appear in her next film. Tom tried to flirt with Brandi, but his efforts were ruined when she recognized him as the basis of a baby - like cherub in the painting. In the (4X17) episode "Campaign Shake Up '', Brandi Maxxxx is also running for the City Council election, in third place in polls with 8 % of the vote behind Bobby Newport 's 45 % and second place Leslie Knope with 30 %. In the final episode One Last Ride, a flashfoward shows that she eventually becomes the head of the Pawnee City Council, swearing in Garry Gergich for his fourth term as Mayor. Her character may be a reference to adult film star and candidate for Governor of California Mary Carey.
Chris (Will Arnett) is an MRI technologist at the hospital where Ann Perkins works. Ann sets Chris and Leslie up on a blind date in "The Set Up '', which goes extremely poorly. Chris is openly rude to Leslie during the dinner, criticizing Leslie 's alma mater of Indiana University and expressing disappointment that she only works in regular parks rather than amusement parks. Upon learning Leslie has never had an MRI, Chris insists on immediately taking her to the hospital and giving her one, a plan to which she reluctantly agrees. His inappropriate behavior continues at the hospital, where he makes creepy comments about her "industrial - sized '' womb during the MRI and unsubtle comments about expecting to have sex with her later, including asking whether she is having her period. They part on bad terms, with Chris angry that Leslie refused to have sex with him after the date.
At the time of the episode, Arnett was the real - life husband of Amy Poehler, who played Leslie. However, it was not Poehler who arranged for him to be on the show, but rather Michael Schur, who is a good friend of Arnett and felt he would be a good fit for the character.
Jessica Wicks (Susan Yeagley) is a Miss Pawnee beauty pageant winner who became the younger trophy wife of the elderly but wealthy Nick Newport, Sr. Speaking with a slight Southern accent, Jessica is a superficial woman who cares deeply about her own physical appearance and tries hard to charm others around her. She won the Miss Pawnee contest in 1994 primarily based on her looks; her talent during the pageant was packing a suitcase. This was most likely intended by the writers to be an homage to the 1975 beauty pageant film "Smile '', where Miss Imperial Valley packed a suitcase as her talent. Jessica first appeared in "Beauty Pageant '' as a Miss Pawnee panel judge along with Leslie and Tom. When Tom voted for the beautiful Trish Ianetta but Leslie pushed for a smarter but less attractive contestant, the superficial Jessica sided with Tom. She reappeared in "94 Meetings '', where she organized a birthday party for Nick Newport, Sr. by completely renovating and tearing down portions of the historic Turnbill Mansion. Leslie unsuccessfully tried to stop her, while Tom simply flirted with her, acknowledging she was a gold digger but calling himself a "gold digger digger ''. Jessica sang a horribly out - of - key song for her husband with an accompanist on the harp. Her husband, Nick Newport, Sr. dies in Bus Tour, making her a widow. She takes over the family business, "Sweetums, '' making Ben the new Director of Charitable projects.
Kelly Larson (Will Forte) is a Pawnee resident who advocated for Leslie to include the Twilight novel in a time capsule she was organizing. Appearing in "Time Capsule '', Kelly is obsessed with Twilight and knows every detail about the books, the film series and Twilight author Stephenie Meyer. When Kelly visited Leslie 's office to advocate for the novel, she politely refused, and Kelly responded by handcuffing himself to a pipe in her office, promising to stay there until she agrees. He spent three days in the office, where he got Tom interested in Twilight and held book discussions with Tom and Donna. Finally, Leslie revealed she knows Kelly 's true motivations: he had recently gone through a divorce and was trying to impress his teenage daughter, who loves Twilight. Although sympathetic, Leslie can not agree to Kelly 's request or she would have to accept demands from all Pawnee residents. As a compromise, she held a public meeting where she listened to all demands. Ultimately, when the citizens could not agree on anything, Leslie submitted a video tape of that very meeting, which she believed symbolizes the spirit and passion of Pawnee.
Lawrence (Eric Edelstein) is a Pawnee resident who has criticized the parks and recreation department 's plans at public forums, which embodied a recurring Parks and Recreation theme that only citizens opposed to projects bother to attend town meetings. He first appeared in "Canvassing '' at a forum Leslie held to raise support for her proposed park project. Lawrence only complained about the loud music his neighbor Andy played. Andy said in an interview with the documentary crew "Lawrence lives with his uh grandmother, which is pretty awesome. He takes care of her, I guess. But whatever, he 's a douchebag. '' He complained that Andy 's music was "loud,... abusive, and (was) waking up (his) birds, '' causing Lawrence to admit that he had "... nice, pretty, expensive birds... '' Lawrence was also the one who pointed out in the same meeting that April Ludgate had been planted by Leslie as a supporter for the park, having recognized her since she was at his door the day before. He ended the night by telling Leslie, "Hey park lady, you suck, '' to which she proudly replied, "Hear that? He called me park lady. '' The line was originally meant to be said by someone else, but Michael Schur said it was given to Lawrence because the Parks and Recreation crew liked Edelstein so much. Lawrence reappeared in "Boys ' Club '', where he angrily stole Andy 's radio while Andy was bathing himself in a children 's pool in the back yard. This prompted Andy to chase Lawrence through the street naked while using crutches. Lawrence also appeared in a scene that was deleted from "Ron and Tammy '', but included in the second season DVD, in which he mocked Andy 's new city hall job as a shoeshiner by giving him dozens of soiled shoes to clean.
Marcia Langman (Darlene Hunt) is a conservative activist with the Pawnee organization, the Society for Family Stability Foundation. She often serves as an antagonist to Leslie by objecting to her plans and arguing against issues she considers offensive. Marcia uses fear - mongering tactics and often expresses racist and homophobic sentiments. In her first appearance, "Pawnee Zoo '', she objected to Leslie 's marriage of two male penguins during a publicity stunt for the zoo. Offended by what she perceived as a public show of support for same - sex marriage, Marcia demanded Leslie 's resignation and appeared on the morning news program Pawnee Today to debate the matter with Leslie. She next appeared in "Time Capsule '', where Marcia objected to a proposal to include the Twilight novel in a Pawnee time capsule, claiming it included offensive sexual content and went against Christian values. Marcia reappeared in "Jerry 's Painting '', where she demanded the destruction of a painting that depicted Leslie as a bare - chested centaur. Condemning it as "government - funded animal porn '', she took the matter to the city arts commission, which agreed to destroy it because they do not want to offend anybody. Marcia planned to publicly burn the painting, but Leslie had it switched with a decoy painting and kept the original herself. She initially blocked Leslie 's sensible plan to teach safe sexual practices to senior citizens in Season 5, citing city laws that banned anything other than promoting abstinence (which had always only been applied to teenagers) but Leslie ignored the laws and proudly accepted a censure for doing so. One of Marcia 's odd personality quirks is that she seems completely unaware of the fact that her husband, Marshall, is possibly gay or bisexual, as he has a flamboyant personality and speaks with an effeminate voice. Marshall 's sexuality was never confirmed, but, when speaking to Chris Traeger, he smiles in a way that could be interpreted as attraction.
The Newport family are the owners of the Sweetums candy manufacturer in Pawnee and one of the city 's richest and most prominent families. The company has operated and thrived in the city for years, as indicated in the episode "Sweetums '', where Leslie screened 30 - year - old video footage of a then - young Nick Newport, Sr. discussing how corn syrup was used to fatten cattle at farms. By the time of Parks and Recreation, Nick Newport, Sr. (Christopher Murray) is an elderly man in a wheelchair so senile he can barely speak, and the company is run by his son Nick Newport, Jr. (Gary Weeks), who himself appears in Sweetums commercials along with his two children, Dakota (Harley Graham) and Denver (Ryan Hartwig). In "Sweetums '', the company formed a partnership with the city hall to run the concessions stands in Pawnee parks, and Nick Newport, Jr. unveiled their new, supposedly - healthy energy bars Nutriyums. He promotes the energy bars through commercials that use similar propagandistic techniques as the commercials of real - life corn refiners: they feature warm images of Nick Newport, Jr. with his dog Shoelace insisting corn syrup is "fine in moderation ''. Ann and Leslie held public forums to inform people the energy bars are not actually healthy, but the citizenry of Pawnee ultimately rejected their arguments and were won over by the charisma of Nick Newport, Jr. and his family, particularly when Denver announced they should look under their seats for free Sweetums candy. Nick Newport, Sr. appeared in the episode "94 Meetings '', where his young and attractive gold digger wife Jessica Wicks held his 85th birthday party at the Turnbill Mansion. Jessica made major alterations to the historic mansion, and Leslie unsuccessfully tried to intervene to stop her.
Newport (Paul Rudd) is Leslie 's chief opponent in her fourth season campaign for City Council. Bobby would appear to be the second son of Nick Newport, Sr., who paid $250,000 to his campaign manager (Jennifer Barkley) in order to get Bobby elected. Bobby Newport is friendly and superficially charming, but extremely naive and clueless (who at times acts mentally handicapped despite the fact that he is n't), and has gotten everything he ever wanted in life either by fiat or by whining / pleading for those things. When Leslie puts together a viral video that makes him look pathetic and stupid (in lieu of a nasty attack ad she ultimately refused to air), Bobby has a meeting where he complains she hurt his feelings, then asks her to drop out of the election and simply hand the office to him. He also tells Leslie he 'll give her an invitation to his victory party, and even offers to let her do the job for him once he 's elected; Leslie tells him that 's not going to happen, and that he needs to know his stuff or she 'll destroy him when they have a debate. During that debate, Bobby first appears to be in the lead by saying short quips rather than longer speeches, but Leslie eventually attacks his character and wins the debate. Afterwards, Bobby asks her if she would like to come to his house for a party. Later, he spends much of the campaign away from Pawnee, and gets involved in a sex scandal while vacationing in Majorca. He comes to think of Leslie as a really awesome lady, tells reporters people who do n't vote for him should definitely vote for her, and then says on TV that he 's very relieved he lost the election to her. He is later considered a possible candidate for interim mayor after Mayor Gunderson dies. In the extended edition of the series finale, he is revealed to have married Shauna Malwae - Tweep.
Trish Ianetta (April Marie Eden) is an attractive young woman who won the title Miss Pawnee in "Beauty Pageant ''. She gave unintelligent answers during the pageant and displayed no actual talent: during her talent portion, she did a baton twirling act that involved simply moving the baton around without twirling it. In describing herself, she says, "I 've been on YouTube. I love wearing bikinis at the beach with everyone there. '' Trish has been compared to Caitlin Upton, the 2007 Miss South Carolina Teen USA who made an incoherent response during the Miss Teen USA 2007 pageant. Based solely on her physical attractiveness, Trish was favored by the panel of judges, which included Tom Haverford and Jessica Wicks. Only Leslie objected to Trish and unsuccessfully argued for Susan, an intelligent and talented contestant who was less pretty. Trish made another appearance in "The Master Plan '', where she was among the girls Tom tried to flirt with during a night at the Snakehole Lounge bar.
Greg Pikitis (Cody Klop), a teenage boy living in Pawnee, Indiana, is Leslie 's mortal enemy. His first appearance is in "Greg Pikitis, '' where he has a very important role. He is convicted of crimes that Leslie tries to prove him guilty of, but he refuses to admit. Finally, Leslie hunts him down and he is given probation. His second appearance is in "Prom '' in season 6, where he plays the boyfriend of Leslie 's mentee.
Ron Dunn (Sam Elliott) is the former director of Eagleton 's parks department, the equivalent position of Ron Swanson 's in Pawnee. In the Season 6 episode "Doppelgangers '', he was brought over to the Pawnee offices along with other Eagleton employees when the towns merged. Swanson at first took a liking to Dunn, as the latter was mustachioed, taciturn and also named Ron. However, Dunn later revealed himself to be a hippie with New Age ideals, and Swanson found him insufferable. Dunn was laid off along with most other Eagleton employees (excepting Craig), which he took in stride. He reappeared in "Flu Season 2 '', where Swanson and a drunk Ben encounter him at night, and he helps Ben overcome his anger at his parents ' selling their vacation home. His final appearance is in the Season 7 episode "Two Funerals ''.
Tynnyfer (June Diane Raphael) is a former employee of Eagleton 's parks department whose position was the equivalent of April 's. In the Season 6 episode "Doppelgangers '', she was brought over during the Pawnee - Eagleton merger. She is a stereotypical vacuous, rich housewife. With the inevitability of one of them being laid off, April ingratiated herself to Tynnyfer by mirroring her personality and vocal inflections, and encouraged her to quit her job. Tynnyfer replied that she was planning on doing that anyway, as she wanted to move somewhere warmer while her husband served time in prison. April gave her an address in Miami that she claimed was hers, and said Tynnyfer was welcome to climb over the fence and stay there. April then revealed in a cutaway that the house belongs to Dwyane Wade and she got the address off the Internet.
Dr. Richard Nygard is a character who is mentioned several times, but never appears on screen. He is first mentioned to be Chris 's therapist, whom he sees near constantly. Chris 's anxiety improves under his care. Later Leslie recommends Dr. Nygard to a troubled Malwae - Tweep, but then comments that she is not completely certain he is n't an imaginary creation of Chris 's. Later, however, it is confirmed that he is a real person because he also acts as the off - screen therapist to Craig Middlebrooks.
"Pistol Pete '' Disellio (Tuc Watkins) is a local celebrity, only remembered for his last - second game - winning dunk in the annual Pawnee - Eagleton high school basketball game in 1992. As a middle - aged man he resents the fact that everyone in town still sees him this way. He appears in three episodes across Seasons 4 - 6, during which Leslie secures his endorsement for City Council, Ann considers him as a sperm donor, and Pete refuses to endorse Sweetums ' new sports drink.
First appearing in Season 3 's "Indianapolis '', Dennis Feinstein (Jason Mantzoukas) is at The Snakehole Lounge for his "Allergic '' cologne launch party. Tom Haverford attempts to pitch his cologne to Dennis while there. Dennis laughs at him when Tom sprays the cologne, telling him it smells terrible, and dismisses him. Later, Feinstein buys out JJ 's Diner, completely unsympathetic to the townspeople 's protests. He changed his original Italian name to something considered "more exotic in Pawnee. ''
Detlef Schrempf is a real - life retired basketball player for the Indiana Pacers who portrays himself on Parks and Recreation. He first appeared in "Telethon '', where Leslie invited him to make a guest appearance on a 24 - hour diabetes telethon. Tom picked him up from the airport, but first took him for a drink to the Snakehole Lounge, where Detlef proved so popular that bar owner Freddy would not let them leave. After Tom got drunk on two light beers, Detlef took him to the telethon, where he made his scheduled appearance. Detlef made another appearance in the third season finale "Li'l Sebastian '', where Tom and Jean - Ralphio hired him to work for their new entertainment company, Entertainment 720. His only job was to shoot basketballs around the office; Detlef tried giving them business advice, but they disregarded it. In Season 4, he remained at Entertainment 720, and was hanging out with Roy Hibbert, who had the free time to work with them due to the NBA lockout; both men roundly mocked Tom and Jean - Ralphio 's lack of business sense.
Prior to filming "Telethon '', Schrempf 's acting skills had been limited to appearances on the American comedy series Married... with Children and the German soap opera Gute Zeiten, schlechte Zeiten. Michael Schur said of his performance, "For a guy who literally never acted before in his life, he was really funny. ''
Eduardo (Carlo Mendez) was an attractive young Venezuelan man who briefly dated April Ludgate. The two met during April 's vacation to Venezuela and she brought him back to Pawnee, primarily to make Andy jealous. Eduardo, who only spoke Spanish, first appeared in "Go Big or Go Home '', where Andy vowed to continue pursuing April despite her new relationship. When April claimed in Spanish that Andy just described his plans to become a woman, Eduardo encouraged Andy to follow his dreams, surprising Andy. In "Time Capsule '', Andy and Eduardo started bonding, particularly over their mutual appreciation for the Dave Matthews Band. When April learned they were becoming friends, she became frustrated and broke up with Eduardo, who returned to Venezuela.
Frank Beckerson (John Larroquette) is a man who, in his youth, had a passionate love affair with Leslie Knope 's mother, Marlene Griggs - Knope. The two met when Marlene was 18 years old and Frank, a lifeguard, saved her life. They had a two - week affair before going their separate ways. Decades later, Marlene shared the story of her long - lost love with Leslie, and Leslie 's boyfriend Justin Anderson insisted they find Frank and surprise Marlene by reuniting the pair. Leslie was initially pleased with the idea, and together they tracked Frank to his new home in Illinois. However, the older Frank is an eccentric man who has long been unemployed and is extremely socially awkward, repeatedly vomiting in nervousness at the prospect of seeing Marlene. He also embarrassed Leslie by showing her naked photos of Marlene from her youth. Leslie tried to call off the reunion, but Justin insisted on going through with it, and they brought Frank to a Valentine 's Day senior citizen dance to meet Marlene. She was initially pleased to see him, but upon learning his life amounted to nothing, she rejected Frank, who publicly berated Marlene on a dance hall stage before storming off.
Lindsay Carlisle Shay (Parker Posey) is the parks and recreation director of Eagleton, Pawnee 's more upscale neighboring town. Once best friends with Leslie Knope, the two are now bitter rivals. Five years before the events of the third season, Lindsay worked in the Pawnee parks department with Leslie, and the two made a vow they would never leave their hometown. Leslie was offered the parks director job in Eagleton but did not accept it due to this pact. However, the job was subsequently offered to Lindsay and she accepted, which Leslie considered an act of betrayal. Although she does not admit it, Lindsay appears to harbor resentment toward Leslie for having been offered the job first. Since leaving Pawnee, Lindsay lost 35 pounds, had a nose job, adopted a slight aristocratic accent and developed a snobbish, nouveau riche personality. She regularly insults Leslie and others in Pawnee with passive - aggressive, condescending comments, and has condemned Pawnee as "a dirty little nightmare from which you 'll never wake up ''. Lindsay first appears in the episode "Eagleton '', where she built a fence directly through a park Pawnee and Eagleton share to keep the Pawnee children out of her town. Leslie tried to fight this action, culminating in Leslie and Lindsay fighting amid piles of garbage and both getting arrested. Leslie ultimately solved the problem by turning Pawnee 's side of the park into a wiffle ball field and making the fence its home run wall. Lindsay was ultimately impressed with Leslie 's solution and her work ethic, and she seemed to respond positively when Leslie offered a reconciliation.
Posey previously starred with Amy Poehler in the 2009 comedy film Spring Breakdown. She had been in discussions with the Parks and Recreation staff to make a guest appearance since the show debuted, and grew frustrated when it took several months before she received an invitation.
Raul Alejandro Bastilla Pedro de Veloso de Morana (Fred Armisen) most commonly referred to simply as Raul, is a parks official from Baraqua, the Venezuelan sister city of Pawnee. He appeared in the episode "Sister City '', when he and a delegation of Venezuelan officials visited Pawnee, where they were met by Leslie and her fellow parks department employees. Since he comes from a military state, Raul is accustomed to being treated like royalty, so he was unimpressed with the conditions of Pawnee and its citizens, who he treated rudely from the moment he arrived. He was particularly unsettled by Pawnee 's public forums, in which the residents loudly and angrily criticized their government officials; Raul explained he usually holds his meetings in fortresses, citadels or palaces, and that anyone who complains or does anything out of line is immediately thrown in jail. Leslie got annoyed with Raul 's insults, but he eventually offered her a check for $35,000, enough to completely fund her plans to turn a construction pit into a park. However, Raul explained a condition of the check was that Leslie must praise Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez and insult the United States, revealing they are part of what is called the Committee to Humiliate and Shame America. Leslie angrily ripped up the check and sent Raul and his delegation away.
Intern Johnny Quezada (JC Gonzalez) most commonly referred to simply as Johnny, is an internal officer of the official Baraqua Delegation, the Venezuelan sister city of Pawnee. He appeared in the episode "Sister City '', when Raul, Carlos, Johnny and a delegation of Venezuelan officials visited Pawnee, where they were met by Leslie and her fellow parks department employees. Since he comes from a military state, The Venezuelan delegation is accustomed to being treated like royalty, so they were unimpressed with the conditions of Pawnee and its citizens. Johnny is very excited about April Ludgate represented by Aubrey Plaza, Johnny invites her to go with him to his country and attend her like a princess full of luxuries and acts. During his stay, one night Johnny sends a car to April to pick her up and take her to be with him but she uses the car to go to the movies with her friends.
Jennifer Barkley (Kathryn Hahn) is an extremely successful political operative who has taken over the City Council campaign of Bobby Newport after being promised $250,000 by the Newport family. She awed Leslie by appearing in a picture where she 's sharing an egg salad with Colin Powell. Jennifer tells Leslie that she 's bored and took this job for the money, not much caring who wins and finding Bobby to be stupid. While it appears she 's being honest about this, she later trashes Leslie in a TV interview, edits Leslie 's successful YouTube campaign ad to make her sound like an idiot, and swipes Leslie 's building - ramp plan in favor of an electric lifts plan that leads Pawnee senior citizen powerbroker Ned Jones to endorse Bobby. Leslie later confronts Jennifer at her favorite restaurant, where Jennifer says bluntly she likes Leslie but has been hired to defeat her. Jennifer then gives Leslie some genuinely good advice about upcoming decisions, and tells the camera that she is doing so because she has no one to play chess with and "sometimes I need to play against myself ''. Jennifer appears to keep her work and her personal feelings separate, given that she 's able to relate to people when she 's not working a campaign. When Leslie appears on Perd Hapley 's show to reveal that Bobby Newport has been avoiding his hometown in favor of making out with a woman on a Majorca beach, Jennifer says that Bobby is in Europe to get business opportunities for Pawnee and the woman is an anti-landmine advocate. Afterwards, she tells Leslie and Ben that she "mostly '' made all that up, then details how she 'll be able to spin any outrage from them in Bobby 's favor. Leslie and Ben are left completely stunned by Jennifer 's mercenary brilliance. However, Leslie and Ben are finally able to knock her off balance a little bit after Jennifer goes on Perd 's TV show and says Leslie ordered a pet shelter closed (after Leslie had asked a retiring Councilman to reverse a funding cut for the Parks Department); after she 's overjoyed with Leslie 's idea that the Newport family use their wealth to fund the shelter, Leslie explains that she 'll accept the initial funding cut if Jennifer breaks a promise to stop airing "puppy killer '' ads, and that she 's fine with losing a week 's news momentum because she 's debating Bobby Newport after that and she 's going to ruin him. Jennifer 's expression makes it clear Leslie has finally scored some points against her. But after Leslie does score a huge victory over Bobby in the debate and pulls within 2 points of him in the polls, Jennifer strikes back by using the death of Nick Newport (and Leslie 's comments, made before she learned he had died, that Nick was a jerk) to force Leslie into several embarrassing mistakes. However, Jennifer finds out that she might not get any of her promised quarter - million fee due to her handshake deal with Nick, and watches as Bobby manages to tell the press that Leslie is an awesome person. The campaign having ended, Jennifer seeks out Chris Traeger and invites him to have sex with her, and he accepts. On Election Night, she tries and fails to keep pro-Newport voting machines in place, and later is rebuffed when she does n't want an automatic recount to be triggered by Bobby 's initial 21 - vote victory margin. Recognizing Ben 's talent on Leslie 's campaign, she offers Ben a job working with her on a Congressional campaign (he eventually accepts it) and has sex with Chris again but leaves Pawnee without saying goodbye to him. When that campaign successfully ends in Washington D.C., she offers Ben another campaign job for a governor candidate in Florida. She appears again in Season 6 ("Second Chunce '') to convince Leslie (as a paid favor to Ben) not to run for Dexhart 's seat in the city council, but to reach for the stars and to look for a more high - powered job. Leslie said it was the best present she could have received (from Ben). She makes several more appearances in the seventh and final season, encouraging Ben to run for governor of Indiana.
Buddy Wood (Sean Hayes) is a journalist from Indianapolis that does an annual special where he profiles five political candidates from around Indiana. The candidates he profiles tend to get elected, causing him to be described as a "lucky charm '' for people running for office. Buddy interviews Leslie, but this does n't go well because she is drunk, and Wood tries to turn the story to Pawnee not being as great as it once was. Leslie and Ben consider him to be rude, but they still drive to Buddy Wood 's house to beg him for either a second chance for an interview or for him to erase the negative footage; Buddy then sourly reveals that he never aired the interview because his bag was lost in Pawnee, unaware that one of the airport workers, who liked Leslie and was angered by Buddy 's rude attitude, took the interview tape and threw it into a dumpster.
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how many episodes are in shamless season 9 | Shameless (season 9) - wikipedia
The ninth season of Shameless, an American comedy - drama television series based on the British series of the same name by Paul Abbott, was announced on November 8, 2017, following the season 8 premiere. The season premiered on September 9, 2018, and will consist of a total of 14 episodes. After the seventh episode, the season will be on hiatus until January 20, 2019. The 100th episode of the series will air this season.
On August 30, 2018, Emmy Rossum announced that she would leave the series following the ninth season. On October 7, 2018, Cameron Monaghan announced that the sixth episode of the season would be his last one.
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what book do sookie and eric get together | Eric Northman - wikipedia
Eric Northman is a fictional character in The Southern Vampire Mysteries, a series of thirteen books written by New York Times bestselling author Charlaine Harris. He is a vampire, slightly over one thousand years old, and is first introduced in the first novel, Dead Until Dark and appears in all subsequent novels. Since the book series is told from the first person perspective of Sookie Stackhouse, what readers perceive of his character is influenced by what Sookie comprehends. HBO 's television series True Blood is based on this book series and the character of Eric Northman is portrayed somewhat differently. A list of True Blood characters has a detailed description of Eric 's character from the TV show.
In the early books, little was revealed about his past. In the ninth book, Dead and Gone Eric revealed details about his human life as a Viking. He was deemed a man at the age of twelve. At sixteen he married Aude, his brother 's widow. The couple had six children, but only three were living at the time of his turning, two boys and a girl. Aude and their sixth child died of a fever shortly after the birth when Eric was in his early twenties. It is revealed in the television series that the vampire king of Mississippi murdered his entire family before stealing his father 's Viking crown. In the books, he was ambushed one night by a Roman vampire named Appius Livius Ocella and subsequently turned. In the television series, he was made a vampire by Godric. In the television show, it is also shown that Eric was a Viking prince, in the novels Eric says that his father was a chief. The name "Eric '' or "Erik '' comes from Old Norse and means "One ruler '' or "eternal ruler ''. The name "Norseman '' was the name given to people who could speak the Old Norse Language, especially in Sweden, Norway, Finland and Denmark. The name "Norseman '' means "man from the north '', hence Eric 's last name being "Northman ''.
In the first novel, Dead Until Dark, Sookie Stackhouse thinks Eric Northman is a "hunk. '' Sookie describes him as "handsome, in fact, radiant; blond and blue - eyed, tall and broad shouldered. He was wearing boots, jeans, and a vest. Period. Kind of like the guys on the cover of romance books ''. He 's approximately six - foot - four. When Sookie sees him naked for the first time in Dead to the World, she thinks, "if there were an international butt competition, Eric would win, hands down -- or cheeks up. '' In the TV series ' True Blood ' he is tall with long blonde hair. By the end of the first season, and a little bit into the second, Pam (his progeny) cuts his hair shorter than expected because he gets blood in it. Eric is always shown in dark blue jeans with a black singlet and a black leather jacket. When his hair is cut shorter, he parts it and combs it diagonally backwards. His personality in the series is mostly the same, Eric Northman is ruthless and does not care much for human life. His relationship with his progeny, Pam, is where you see this softer side of him come through. When they face difficult challenges and situations, Eric would put her needs above his own. By the middle of season 2 Eric begins to pursue Sookie Stackhouse because of his interest in her abilities, and by the end of season 2 Eric Northman has cunningly tricked her into drinking his blood. Near the beginning of the third season, it is implied that he is beginning to develop feelings for her, even helping her when it is disadvantageous for him to do so.
Eric is portrayed in the books as being somewhat arrogant, but having a true joie de vivre. He is confident almost to a fault, once reprimanding a thug in the third book, Club Dead, for threatening Sookie and referring to her as his "future lover '' although no potentially romantic relationship between Eric and Sookie yet existed. He can be manipulative to suit his needs. He is not above using deceit though it seems to be a last resort when it comes to Sookie. However, he is typically upfront regarding any action he takes and if he is manipulative he is very frank and open regarding his wishes. Due to his frank nature, Sookie comments to herself how she can always know where she stands with Eric. Indeed, Sookie frequently remarks how conversations with Eric are seldom single layered and how he never says something without reason. He is not sentimental in the least but shows a great deal of concern over Sookie and her happiness and well - being, perhaps making the relationship between Eric and Sookie all the more impressive. Sookie believes that, although Eric has created a modest, but thriving business empire and carved out a position of authority in the delicate vampire hierarchy, at heart he remains a born - Viking warrior, ready to leap into battle at any instant.
The vampires in Charlaine Harris ' world are organized according to a feudal system with each state divided into "Areas '', each of which are governed by a sheriff who then owes allegiance to the queen or king of that particular state. Some states, like California, are so large and so heavily populated with humans (and therefore vampires who prey on humans) they are divided into multiple kingdoms. For example, what humans see as California, vampires see as California Sacramento, California San Jose, and California Los Angeles. Louisiana is not such a state and is ruled by one monarch. However, it is possible for a monarch to control multiple states. At one point in the series Louisiana is controlled by the same vampire who also controlled Arkansas. Later in the series a different ruler controls Louisiana, Arkansas, and Nevada.
Eric is the most powerful vampire in Area Five of northern Louisiana: a territory that includes the small town of Bon Temps. Eric serves as Sheriff of area 5, or local boss, of that area and owns a vampire bar in Shreveport called "Fangtasia, '' that also serves as his headquarters. He runs the bar with the help of his vampire progeny Pam and a few of his underlings, or vampires who owe allegiance to Eric as their sheriff. Eric takes his responsibilities and role within the vampire hierarchy very seriously. In the sixth novel, Definitely Dead, Eric mentions that he has paid a significant fine to the arbitrator for killing a former Fangtasia bartender, Long Shadow. This demonstrates that he did not hide his crime, as killing another vampire is a "serious thing. ''. Precisely what a Vampire Sheriff does, aside from owe allegiance to their monarch, do their monarch 's bidding, and rule their Area, is still somewhat unclear. Sookie makes a conscious effort not to pry too hard into vampire affairs and Eric does nothing to encourage her learning much more than she already knows. Eric surprised Sookie in the tenth book, Dead in the Family, when he explained the vampire hierarchy in more detail, simply so she, as his wife according to vampire law, was better informed for her safety.
The state of Louisiana was in disarray after the results of Hurricane Katrina, and after queen of Louisiana, Eric 's hierarch, was crippled in an explosion and eventually killed by the vampires of Nevada under Felipe de Castro 's order. Eric was spared since he was the most practical of the Sheriffs and had one of the largest money makers, Bill Compton, living in his area and owing fealty to him. As the last surviving sheriff of Louisiana, Eric pledges his allegiance to the new regime in order to protect those under him, a tactical move that highlights his capabilities both as a leader and a political survivor. Had Eric resisted, he and all of the vampires serving under him (possibly with the exception of Bill) would have been killed, including Sookie. After accepting the new King, Felipe de Castro, he is then allowed to maintain control of his area and his followers when the other sheriffs of Louisiana and a number of their minions were all killed. Under the new regime, Eric has spent a significant amount of time acclimating himself to his new overlords. Despite his oath, however, Eric remains ever vigilant for opportunities to either further secure his position or free himself entirely from scrutiny of Felipe 's Louisiana representative, Victor.
The author introduces Sookie to Eric in her first novel, Dead Until Dark. Eric then appears in all the subsequent novels and has either saved or attempted to save Sookie 's life in every book. From the second book onward, Eric and Sookie share at least one intimate moment together per book. In the second one there are several: when he asks her to suck out a bullet in his chest that he took for her, and when Sookie invites him to an orgy they have to play the part; in the third, they almost have sex before being interrupted by Bubba and also when he gives her blood after she is staked; the fourth, they experience a sexual relationship when he is cursed with amnesia, which he forgets all about promptly after being un-cursed; the fifth, they kiss; the sixth, during battle Eric sneaks a kiss on Sookie after saving her; the seventh, they exchange blood tying them to each other in a blood bond and Eric kisses her; the eighth, they kiss again after Eric smells fairy blood all over Sookie; and in the ninth, they consummate their relationship after being wed by vampire laws and seem to be moving in the direction of an official relationship. In the later books, she has also saved his life several times before.
After appearing to develop an affection for Sookie in the third book in the series, Club Dead, Eric has a brief romance with her in Dead to the World, the fourth book, though, due to a curse, he lost his memories of that time until From Dead to Worse, the eighth book. In the eighth book, after sitting in Sookie 's room, he reveals that he remembers the days he spent with her when the curse was put on him. He asks her to discuss it, and she refuses. He seemingly likes Bill Compton but feels arrogantly competitive in an emotional battle for Sookie 's affections.
In the seventh book, All Together Dead, when Sookie is accosted into forming a blood bond with Andre, another powerful vampire, Eric steps in opportunistically as the lesser of two evils and bonds with her himself. A blood bond is formed when a human and vampire exchange blood by drinking it from them. Vampire blood can heal any human wounds within seconds as can human blood do the same for vampires.
In Dead and Gone, Eric sends Sookie a velvet parcel that he instructs her to give to him in front of King Felipe de Castro 's representative, Victor Madden. Without looking inside the parcel first, Sookie presents Eric the bag which contains a ceremonial knife that is used in marriage ceremonies. The king 's representative reveals that the act of giving and receiving the knife means that Eric and Sookie are pledged to one another. Eric claims that he deceived Sookie because the King of Nevada had the power and desire to take her away from her home. Because they are wed, Eric is the only vampire that can have access to Sookie on pain of final death. He also reveals that the curse that had been placed on him made him unconsciously seek out the presence of his heart 's desire (Sookie). In "Dead in the Family '' Eric and Sookie are in an actual relationship, and Eric admits that he sees Sookie as his wife in the only way that matters to him, which left her puzzled.
In the 12th Sookie Stackhouse novel, Deadlocked, Sookie and Eric 's relationship takes a turn. Eric was promised by his maker, Appius, to marry the Queen of Oklahoma, and he has spent much of his time figuring out how to get out of the promise. Sookie wants Eric to choose her outright and Eric explains that he just ca n't ignore a command from his maker even though he is dead. They do not see each other too much in the book; Eric does tell Sookie that she has the power to make him stay, which she finds out near the end of the book that he knows about her cluviel dor which will grant her one wish. She ends up using it at the end of the book to save Sam Merlotte 's life and Eric just walks away after he sees this. The book ends with them basically in the same spot, not knowing if Eric is going to marry the Queen of Oklahoma or stay with Sookie.
In the 13th Sookie Stackhouse novel, Dead Ever After, Eric and Sookie 's relationship has crashed and burned. Eric is set to officially marry Freyda, the Queen of Oklahoma, and he has been banned from ever seeing Sookie again. Also, Sookie has been banned from Fangtasia and Oklahoma. In one of the last conversations Eric and Sookie have, he tells her that he was considering making her a vampire even though she never wanted to become one. By the end of the novel, Eric is in Oklahoma with his new wife and without either of his progeny.
In True Blood, an HBO series based on the earliest books in the series, the character of Eric Northman is played by Swedish actor Alexander Skarsgård. Some details of the character are portrayed somewhat differently on True Blood than in the books. In the series, Eric is created by Godric, with whom he shares a deep bond of loyalty and devotion. In season 2 Godric commits suicide by exposing himself to sunlight, causing Eric to shed bloody vampire tears, however, in the novels he cries for the first time in book 9. In the series, Bill, rather than Eric, saves Sookie from Long Shadow (in the books Eric kills him). Eric has not demonstrated the outward concern for Sookie that he exhibited in the early novels, but he appears to be developing an uneasy, guarded affection for her and the series seems to portray a reluctance on his part to show people, particularly Sookie, his genuine emotions. Often Eric has presented himself to Sookie as violent, arrogant, mischievous and consciously manipulative. Thus far in the series he has usually acted in a manner with little apparent concern for Sookie 's feelings or immediate safety, although ultimately he seems to protect her.
However, his growing feelings for Sookie are showcased in episode 4 of Season 3 when he daydreams about Sookie. After the daydream he spurns Yvetta and Pam looks on at him concerned. In episode 10, Eric kissed Sookie, after proclaiming that if he were to die a true death without having at least kissed her, that would be his greatest regret. He chained her up in his basement a few minutes later as bait for Russell. He again reveals his guarded affection for her when prompted by Russell to drink her blood, he hesitates and strokes her affectionately on the cheek. Finally, in the season three finale, he tells her that he regrets seeing her in such pain, referring to her heartbreak over ending her relationship with Bill - although he was the one who deliberately gave her the information that caused her to banish Bill from her house.
Eric 's back story is more deeply explored in Season 3, as his youth and human life as a Viking prince was shown; his family was slaughtered in their castle by a pack of werewolves, under the command of the ancient vampire Russell Edgington. Eric gave his dying father a vow to avenge them all. During World War II, he and Godric were shown tracking Russell 's wolfpack across Germany disguised as SS officers, though they never found Russell himself.
In Season 3, when Eric defects to Russell Edginton (now the King of Mississippi) instead of Queen Sophie - Anne in an effort to save Pam from torture by the Magister, he notices a crown in Russell 's antique collection that he recognizes as his father 's, stolen the night of the attack. Realizing Russell is the target he has sought for over 1,000 years, he continues to play up his loyalty to Russell to keep him from becoming suspicious, even displaying callous indifference to Sookie when she is captured and asks for help. However, later on, when Russell is attacking Bill and Sookie with his wolves, Eric murders his progeny and husband Talbot; Russell, sensing Talbot 's death, is driven insane by grief and rage. He hunts down Eric and prepares to kill him until Eric reveals that he can show Russell how to daywalk, Russell 's oldest obsession. After consuming much of Sookie 's blood against her will (which visibly discomforts Eric) they are indeed able to daywalk, but it wears off very quickly; Eric cuffs Russell to himself with silver, intending for both of them to burn. Sookie brings Eric back inside and, at the request of Eric, retrieves the badly - injured Russell as well. Eric only spared Russell because he thought death would be too merciful for him; after knocking out one of his fangs, he buried the crippled vampire in silver chains and wet concrete, intending to let him starve in agony for 100 years but never die.
In Season 4, we see the relationship of Sookie and Eric develop after he loses his memory to the witch coven; first, Sookie shelters him in her house from Bill (though the house is technically Eric 's). Endeared by the new Eric 's innocence and his regret over his previous crimes as a vampire, Sookie eventually enters a sexual relationship with him, though in the Season 4 finale, Sookie is choosing between Eric and Bill, and chooses neither. Sources have said of Season 5 that Sookie 's "independent streak '' will continue (as Alan Ball, executive producer) claimed in an interview concerning the upcoming season. By the end of the season, Eric has regained his memories, though he retains his memory and part of the gentler personality he had when he was with Sookie.
In Season Five, after previously killing Nan Flanagan, Eric and Bill are arrested by the Vampire Authority. However, Nora, Eric 's ' sister ' (with whom he also has a sexual history) rescues them. Later, all three are caught by the Authority. While Eric steers clear of the Sanguinista movement stirring in the authority and attempts to escape, Bill accepts the Book of Lilith and betrays him. Eric manages to successfully escape with Nora and searches for Sookie to enlist her help; in the process, he manages to kill his archenemy Russell Edgington, fulfilling a vengeance that he began when he was still human. He attempts to save Bill but apparently fails. Later, he returns Sookie 's house to her for her protection; while she is grateful to him and considers him a friend, she still banishes him from the house, and Eric tells Nora they will stay away from her now.
In Season 6, Eric finds his latest threat to be the humans, especially Governor Truman Burrell, who declares war on vampires. In an effort to challenge the Governor 's stance on vampires, Eric turns Willa Burrell, Truman 's more open - minded daughter after noticing her selflessness of willingly dying for a cause similar to Nora. Regardless, the Governor has them both placed in "Vamp Camp '', where Eric is later forced to helplessly watch his sister, Nora, receive a lethal injection of "Hep V ''. Eric uses Willa to escape the camp (promising to get her and Pam out), but she also demands he frees Jessica & Tara as well and takes Nora to the Lilith - enhanced Bill, but they are unable to save her. Devastated by her death, Eric violently slaughters the humans running the concentration camp to seek revenge and free both his progenies, among others. Notably, Eric spares Jason Stackhouse, though he kills the vampire Steve Newlin, stating "Every time I lost someone I loved, you were there. '' (Blaming him for the deaths of Godric & Nora), After freeing the imprisoned vampires, Eric flies off to grieve his sister Nora 's death in solitude. In the finale, Warlow, the fairy - vampire hybrid whose blood made it possible for Eric and the other vampires to walk in the sun, is killed by Jason to save Sookie. When Warlow dies, the effects of his blood wears off in the vampires who drank it and they are no longer able to walk in the sun. Eric is shown in the sun on a mountain top in Åre, Sweden when Warlow 's blood wears off, causing Eric to burn.
In Season 7, Pam tracks down Eric, who somehow avoided meeting the true death. However, he has been infected with the Hepatitis V virus. After learning that Sarah Newlin is still alive, he and Pam decide to go after her. Eric and Pam soon learn that Newlin drank the antidote and it permeated her body, making Sarah a living antidote for Hep V. They are forced to work with Yakuza ninjas from the Yakanomo Corporation (the company which originally made True Blood) in order to find her, but neither party trusts the other. Upon capturing Sarah, Eric drinks her blood and rids himself of the Hep V virus, then the Yakuza suggest they make New Blood, but ensure it does n't work too well, so Vampires can buy more and increase the profit, and want Eric to be the face of New Blood. Learning that Bill is dying, Eric secretly reveals the cure (contrary to the Yakuza 's wishes) to Sookie and offers to heal Bill, despite their long rivalry; he is stunned when Bill refuses. However, after talking with Bill he understands his motives and tells Sookie to talk with him, making his final peace with both Bill and Sookie. Eric suggests to Pam, they let Sarah free, so the Yakuza members do n't get her, murder them all and collect all the profit, much to her delight, and they proceed to do all of it, and By the end of the series, they are running a multibillion - dollar corporation called New Blood, derived from Sarah Newlin 's blood, which is both a new vampire food source and a universal cure for Hep V. Eric and Pam tell the world that Sarah got away from them, but they found a drop of her blood to make New Blood with, and thereby save every infected vampire in the world. In actuality, they are keeping Sarah chained in the basement at Fangtasia, and charging vampires small fortunes to feed on her, as she slowly goes insane. All the while, Eric sits on his throne on the Fangtasia stage, relishing his accomplishments.
Eric is frequently referred to as a Viking. In episode 4 of season 3 of True Blood, Eric says he played by the North Sea as a child. In episode 10 of season 3, Pam alludes to Eric being Swedish when she says, "I have no interest in inheriting your farm on Öland. That place is a windy shit - hole ''. Eric also speaks Swedish with Pam and Godric in some episodes.
We have seen a flashback of the time before Pam 's turning, which was portrayed differently in True Blood than in the books. In the television series, Pam slits her own wrists after Eric denies her request to be turned, forcing him to do it to save her life. In the books, it is said that Eric offered her immortality.
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in the popular music field the most popular type of song is the love song | Popular music - wikipedia
Popular music is music with wide appeal that is typically distributed to large audiences through the music industry. These forms and styles can be enjoyed and performed by people with little or no musical training. It stands in contrast to both art music and traditional or "folk '' music. Art music was historically disseminated through the performances of written music, although since the beginning of the recording industry, it is also disseminated through recordings. Traditional music forms such as early blues songs or hymns were passed along orally, or to smaller, local audiences.
The original application of the term is to music of the 1880s Tin Pan Alley period in the United States. Although popular music sometimes is known as "pop music '', the two terms are not interchangeable. Popular music is a generic term for a wide variety of genres of music that appeal to the tastes of a large segment of the population, whereas pop music usually refers to a specific musical genre within popular music. Popular music songs and pieces typically have easily singable melodies. The song structure of popular music commonly involves repetition of sections, with the verse and chorus or refrain repeating throughout the song and the bridge providing a contrasting and transitional section within a piece.
In the 2000s, with songs and pieces available as digital sound files, it has become easier for music to spread from one country or region to another. Some popular music forms have become global, while others have a wide appeal within the culture of their origin. Through the mixture of musical genres, new popular music forms are created to reflect the ideals of a global culture. The examples of Africa, Indonesia, and the Middle East show how Western pop music styles can blend with local musical traditions to create new hybrid styles.
Scholars have classified music as "popular '' based on various factors, including whether a song or piece becomes known to listeners mainly from hearing the music (in contrast with classical music, in which many musicians learn pieces from sheet music); its appeal to diverse listeners, its treatment as a marketplace commodity in a capitalist context, and other factors. Sales of ' recordings ' or sheet music are one measure. Middleton and Manuel note that this definition has problems because multiple listens or plays of the same song or piece are not counted. Evaluating appeal based on size of audience (mass appeal) or whether audience is of a certain social class is another way to define popular music, but this, too, has problems in that social categories of people can not be applied accurately to musical styles. Manuel states that one criticism of popular music is that it is produced by large media conglomerates and passively consumed by the public, who merely buy or reject what music is being produced. He claims that the listeners in the scenario would not have been able to make the choice of their favorite music, which negates the previous conception of popular music. Moreover, "understandings of popular music have changed with time ''. Middleton argues that if research were to be done on the field of popular music, there would be a level of stability within societies to characterize historical periods, distribution of music, and the patterns of influence and continuity within the popular styles of music.
Anahid Kassabian separated popular music into four categories; "popular as populist, '' or having overtones of liberation and expression; "popular as folk, '' or stating that the music is written by the people, for themselves; "popular as counterculture, '' or empowering citizens to act against the oppression they face; and "popular as mass, '' or the music becomes the tool for oppression. A society 's popular music reflects the ideals that are prevalent at the time it is performed or published. David Riesman states that the youth audiences of popular music fit into either a majority group or a subculture. The majority group listens to the commercially produced styles while the subcultures find a minority style to transmit their own values. This allows youth to choose what music they identify with, which gives them power as consumers to control the market of popular music.
Form in popular music is most often sectional, the most common sections being verse, chorus or refrain, and bridge. Other common forms include thirty - two - bar form, chorus form * (Middleton pg 30), and twelve - bar blues. Popular music songs are rarely composed using different music for each stanza of the lyrics (songs composed in this fashion are said to be "through - composed '').
The verse and chorus are considered the primary elements. Each verse usually has the same melody (possibly with some slight modifications), but the lyrics change for most verses. The chorus (or "refrain '') usually has a melodic phrase and a key lyrical line which is repeated. Pop songs may have an introduction and coda ("tag ''), but these elements are not essential to the identity of most songs. Pop songs that use verses and choruses often have a bridge, which, as its name suggests, is a section which connects the verse and chorus at one or more points in the song.
The verse and chorus are usually repeated throughout a song, while the bridge, intro, and coda (also called an "outro '') tend to be used only once. Some pop songs may have a solo section, particularly in rock or blues - influenced pop. During the solo section, one or more instruments play a melodic line which may be the melody used by the singer, or, in blues - or jazz - influenced pop, the solo may be improvised based on the chord progression. A solo usually features a single instrumental performer (e.g., a guitarist or a harmonica player) or less commonly, more than one instrumentalist (e.g., a trumpeter and a sax player).
Thirty - two - bar form uses four sections, most often eight measures long each (4 × 8 = 32), two verses or A sections, a contrasting B section (the bridge or "middle - eight '') and a return of the verse in one last A section (AABA). Verse - chorus form or ABA form may be combined with AABA form, in compound AABA forms. Variations such as a1 and a2 can also be used. The repetition of one chord progression may mark off the only section in a simple verse form such as the twelve bar blues.
"The most significant feature of the emergent popular music industry of the late 18th and early 19th centuries was the extent of its focus on the commodity form of sheet music ''. The availability of inexpensive, widely available sheet music versions of popular songs and instrumental music pieces made it possible for music to be disseminated to a wide audience of amateur, middle - class music - makers, who could play and sing popular music at home. Amateur music - making in the 19th century often centred around the piano, as this instrument could play melodies, chords and basslines, thus enabling a pianist to reproduce popular songs and pieces. In addition to the influence of sheet music, another factor was the increasing availability during the late 18th and early 19th century of public popular music performances in "pleasure gardens and dance halls, popular theatres and concert rooms ''.
The early popular music performers worked hand - in - hand with the sheet music industry to promote popular sheet music. One of the early popular music performers to attain widespread popularity was a Swedish opera singer Jenny Lind, who toured the US in the mid-19th century. In addition to living room amateur music - making during the 19th century, more people began getting involved in music during this era by participating in amateur choirs, joining brass bands or playing in amateur orchestras.
The centre of the music publishing industry in the US during the late 19th century was in New York 's ' Tin Pan Alley ' district. The Tin Pan Alley music publishers developed a new method for promoting sheet music: incessant promotion of new songs. One of the technological innovations that helped to spread popular music around the turn of the century was player pianos. A player piano could be used to record a skilled pianist 's rendition of a piano piece. This recorded performance could be "played back '' on another player piano. This allowed a larger number of music lovers to hear the new popular piano tunes. By the early 1900s, the big trends in popular music were the increasing popularity of vaudeville theaters and dance halls and a new invention -- the gramophone player. The record industry grew very rapidly; "By 1920 there were almost 80 record companies in Britain, and almost 200 in the USA ''. The availability of records enabled a larger percentage of the population to hear the top singers and bands.
Radio broadcasting of music, which began in the early 1920s, helped to spread popular songs to a huge audience, enabling a much larger proportion of the population to hear songs performed by professional singers and music ensembles, including individuals from lower income groups who previously would not have been able to afford concert tickets. Radio broadcasting increased the ability of songwriters, singers and bandleaders to become nationally known. Another factor which helped to disseminate popular music was the introduction of "talking pictures '' -- sound films -- in the late 1920s, which also included music and songs. In the late 1920s and throughout the 1930s, there was a move towards consolidation in the recording industry, which led several major companies to dominate the record industry.
In the 1950s and 1960s, the new invention of television began to play an increasingly important role in disseminating new popular music. Variety shows regularly showcased popular singers and bands. In the 1960s, the development of new technologies in recording, such as multitrack recorders gave sound engineers and record producers an increasingly important role in popular music. By using multitrack recording techniques, sound engineers could create new sounds and sound effects that were not possible using traditional "live '' recording techniques, such as singers performing their own backup vocals or having lead guitarists play rhythm guitars behind their guitar solo. During the 1960s era of psychedelic music, the recording studio was used to create even more unusual sounds, in order to mimic the effect of taking hallucinogenic drugs, some songs used tapes of instruments played backwards or panned the music from one side to the other of the stereo image.
In the 1970s, the trend towards consolidation in the recording industry continued to the point that the "... dominance was in the hands of five huge transnational organizations, three American - owned (WEA, RCA, CBS) and two European - owned companies (EMI, Polygram) ''. In the 1990s, the consolidation trend took a new turn: inter-media consolidation. This trend saw music recording companies being consolidated with film, television, magazines, and other media companies, an approach which facilitated cross-marketing promotion between subsidiaries. For example, a record company 's singing star could be cross-promoted by the conglomerate 's television talk shows and magazine arms.
The "introduction of digital equipment (mixing desks, synthesizers, samplers, sequencers) '' in the 1990s resulted in what Grove Dictionary of Music dubbed the creation of "new sound worlds '', as well as facilitating DIY music production by amateur musicians and "tiny independent record labels ''. In the 1990s, the availability of sound recording software and effects units software meant that an amateur indie band could record an album -- which required a fully equipped recording studio in previous decades -- using little more than a laptop and a good quality microphone. That said, the audio quality of modern recording studios still outstrips what an amateur can produce.
In contrast to Western popular music, a genre of music that is popular outside of a Western nation, is categorized into World music. This label turns otherwise popular styles of music into an exotic and unknown category. The Western concept of ' World Music ' homogenizes many different genres of popular music under one accessible term for Western audiences. New media technology has led urban music styles to filter into distant rural areas across the globe. The rural areas, in turn, are able to give feedback to the urban centers about the new styles of music. Urbanization, modernization, exposure to foreign music and mass media have contributed to hybrid urban pop styles. The hybrid styles have also found a space within Western popular music through the expressions of their national culture. Recipient cultures borrow elements from host cultures and alter the meaning and context found in the host culture. Many Western styles, in turn, have become international styles through multinational recording studios.
Popular African music styles have stemmed from traditional entertainment genres, rather than evolving from music used with certain traditional ceremonies like weddings, births, or funerals. African popular music as a whole has been influenced by European countries, African - American and Afro - Latin music, and region - specific styles that became popular across a wider range of people. Although due to the significance and strong position of culture in traditional African music, African popular music tends to stay within the roots of traditional African Popular Music. The genre of music, Maskanda, is popular in its culture of origin, South Africa. Although maskanda is a traditional music genre by definition, the people who listen to it influence the ideals that are brought forth in the music. A popular maskandi artist, Phuzekhemisi, had to lessen the political influence within his music to be ready for the public sphere. His music producer, West Nikosi, was looking for the commercial success in Phuzekhemisi 's music rather than starting a political controversy.
Political songs have been an important category of African popular music in many societies. During the continent 's struggle against colonial rule, nationalistic songs boosted citizens ' morale. These songs were based on Western marches and hymns reflecting the European education system that the early nationalistic leaders grew up in. Not all African political songs were based on Western styles. For example, in South Africa, the political songs during the Anti-Apartheid Movement were based on traditional tribal styles along with hybrid forms of imported genres. Activists used protest and freedom songs to persuade individuals to take action, become educated with the struggle, and empower others to be politically conscious. These songs reflected the nuances between the different classes involved in the liberation struggle.
One of the genres people of Africa use for political expression is Hip hop. Although hip hop in Africa is based on the North American template, it has been remade to produce new meanings for African young people. This allows the genre to be both locally and globally influential. African youth are shaped by the fast - growing genre 's ability to communicate, educate, empower, and entertain. Artists who would have started in traditional music genres, like maskanda, became hip hop artists to provide a stronger career path for themselves. These rappers compare themselves to the traditional artists like the griot and oral storyteller, who both had a role in reflecting on the internal dynamics of the larger society. African hip hop creates youth culture, community intelligence, and global solidarity.
Popular music in Indonesia can be categorized as hybrid forms of Western rock to genres that are originated in Indonesia and indigenous in style. The genre of music, Dangdut, is a genre of popular music specifically found in Indonesia. Dangdut formed two other styles of popular music, Indo - pop and Underground, together to create a new hybrid or fusion genre. The genre takes the noisy instrumentation from Underground, but still makes it easy to listen to like Indo - pop. Dangdut attempts to form many popular music genres like rock, pop, and traditional music to create this new sound that lines up with the consumers ' tastes. This genre has formed into a larger social movement that includes clothing, youth culture, the resurgence of Islam, and the capitalist entertainment industry.
Another music scene that is popular in Indonesia is Punk rock. This genre was shaped in Indonesia by the local interpretations of the media from the larger global punk movement. Jeremy Wallach argues that while Green Day was seen as the "death of punk, '' in Indonesia they were the catalyst for a larger punk movement. Punk in Indonesia calls on the English - speaking world to embrace the global sects of the punk culture and become open - minded to the transnational genre.
In a 2015 study involving young students in Shanghai, youths stated they enjoyed listening to both Chinese, other Asian nationalities, and Anglo - American popular music. There are three ways that young people of China were able to access global music. The first reason was a policy change since the late 1970s where the country was opened up to the rest of the world instead of being self - contained. This created more opportunities for Chinese people to interact with people outside of their country of origin to create a more globalized culture. The second reason is that the Chinese television and music industry since the 1980s has broadcast television shows from their neighboring Asian societies and the West. The third reason is the impact of the internet and smartphones on the accessibility of streaming music.
In 2015, students in China accounted for 30.2 % of China 's internet population and the third and fifth most popular uses of the internet were respectively, internet music and internet video use. The youths described being able to connect to the emotions and language of the Chinese music, but also enjoyed the melodies found within Anglo - American music. The students also believed that listening to the English music would improve their English language skills.
Modernization of music in the Arab world involved borrowing inspiration from Turkish music and Western musical styles. The late Egyptian singer, Umm Kulthum, stated,
"We must respect ourselves and our art. The Indians have set a good example for us - they show great respect for themselves and their arts. Wherever they are, they wear their native dress and their music is known throughout the world. This is the right way. ''
She discussed this to explain why Egypt and the Arab world needed to take pride in the popular music styles originating in their culture so the styles were not lost in the modernization. Local musicians learned Western instrumental styles to create their own popular styles including their native languages and indigenous musical features. Communities in throughout the Arab world place high value on their indigenous musical identities while assimilating to new musical styles from neighboring countries or mass media. Through the 1980s and 1990s, popular music has been seen as a problem for the Iranian government because of the non-religious meanings within the music and the bodily movements of dancing or headbanging. During this time period, metal became a popular underground subculture through the Middle East. Just like their Western counterparts, Middle Eastern metal followers expressed their feelings of alienation. But their thoughts came from war and social restrictions on youth.
In interviews of Iranian teenagers between 1990 and 2004, the youth overall preferred Western popular music, even though it was banned by the government. Iranian underground rock bands are composed of members who are young, urban - minded, educated, relatively well - off, and global beings. Iranian rock is described by the traits that these band members possess. The youth who take part in underground music in the Middle East are aware of the social constraints of their countries, but they are not optimistic about social change. Iranian rock bands have taken up an internationalist position to express their rebellion from the discourses in their national governments.
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what were the causes of the indigo revolt | Indigo revolt - wikipedia
The Indigo revolt (or Nil vidroha) was a peasant movement and subsequent uprising of indigo farmers against the indigo planters that arose in Bengal in 1859.
Cause lead to revolt - Indigo planting in Bengal dated back to 1777. With expansion of British power in the Nawabate of Bengal, indigo planting became more and more commercially profitable because of the demand for blue dye in Europe. It was introduced in large parts of Burdwan, Bankura, Birbhum, North 24 Parganas, and Jessore (present Bangladesh). The indigo planters persuaded the peasants to plant indigo instead of food crops. They provided loans, called dadon, at a very high interest. Once a farmer took such loans he remained in debt for his whole life before passing it to his successors. The price paid by the planters was meagre, only 2.5 % of the market price. The farmers could make no profit growing indigo. The farmers were totally unprotected from the indigo planters, who resorted to mortgages or destruction of their property if they were unwilling to obey them. Government rules favoured the planters. By an act in 1833, the planters were granted a free hand in oppression. Even the zamindars sided with the planters. Under this severe oppression, the farmers resorted to revolt.
The Bengali middle class supported the peasants wholeheartedly. Bengali intellectual Harish Chandra Mukherjee described the plight of the poor peasants in his newspaper The Hindu Patriot. However the articles were overshadowed by Dinabandhu Mitra, who depicted the situation in his play Nil Darpan. The play created a huge controversy which was later banned by the East India Company to control the agitation among the Indians.
The revolt started from the villages of Gobindapur and Chaugacha in Krishnanagar, Nadia district, where Bishnucharan Biswas and Digambar Biswas first led the rebellion against the planters. It spread rapidly in Murshidabad, Birbhum, Burdwan, Pabna, Khulna, and Narail. Some indigo planters were given a public trial and executed. The indigo depots were burned down. Many planters fled to avoid being caught. The zamindars were also targets of the rebellious peasants.
The revolt was ruthlessly suppressed. Large forces of police and military, backed by the British Government and the zamindars, mercilessly slaughtered a number of peasants. British police mercilessly hanged great leader of indigo rebels Biswanath Sardar alias Bishe Dakat in Assannagar, Nadia after a show trial. Some historians opined that he was the first martyr of indigo revolt in undivided Bengal. In spite of this, the revolt was fairly popular, involving almost the whole of Bengal. The Biswas brothers of Nadia, Kader Molla of Pabna, and Rafique Mondal of Malda were popular leaders. Even some of the zamindars supported the revolt, the most important of whom was Ramratan Mullick of Narail.
The historian Jogesh Chandra Bagal describes the revolt as a non-violent revolution and gives this as a reason why the indigo revolt was a success compared to the Sepoy Revolt. R.C. Majumdar in "History of Bengal '' goes so far as to call it a forerunner of the non-violent passive resistance later successfully adopted by Gandhi. The revolt had a strong effect on the government, which immediately appointed the "Indigo Commission '' in 1860. In the commission report, E.W.L. Tower noted that "not a chest of Indigo reached England without being stained with human blood ''. Evidently it was a major triumph of the peasants to incite such emotion in the Europeans ' minds. Thus the revolt was a success.
Dinabandhu Mitra 's 1859 play Nil Darpan is based on the revolution. It was translated into English by Michael Madhusudan Dutta and published by Rev. James Long. It attracted much attention in England, where the people were stunned at the savagery of their countrymen. The British Government sent Rev. Long to a mock trial and punished him with imprisonment and fine. Kaliprasanna Sinha paid the fine of Rs 2000 for him.
The play was the first play to be staged commercially in the National Theatre in Kolkata.
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in 1804 the french colony of achieved independence | Haitian Revolution - wikipedia
Haitian victory
1793 -- 1798 French Republic
1798 -- 1801
1802 -- 1804 French Republic
The Haitian Revolution (French: Révolution haïtienne (ʁevɔlysjɔ̃ ajisjɛ̃n)) was a successful anti-slavery and anti-colonial insurrection by self - liberated slaves against French colonial rule in Saint - Domingue, now the sovereign nation of Haiti. It began on 22 August 1791 at 22: 00, and ended in 1804 with the former colony 's independence. It involved blacks, mulattoes, French, Spanish, and British participants -- with the ex-slave Toussaint L'Ouverture emerging as Haiti 's most charismatic hero. It was the only slave uprising that led to the founding of a state which was both free from slavery, and ruled by non-whites and former captives. It is now widely seen as a defining moment in the history of racism in the Atlantic World.
Its effects on the institution of slavery were felt throughout the Americas. The end of French rule and the abolition of slavery in the former colony was followed by a successful defense of the freedoms they won, and, with the collaboration of free persons of color, their independence from white Europeans. It represents the largest slave uprising since Spartacus 's unsuccessful revolt against the Roman Republic nearly 1,900 years earlier. It challenged long - held beliefs about black inferiority and about enslaved persons ' capacity to achieve and maintain their own freedom. The rebels ' organizational capacity and tenacity under pressure inspired stories that shocked and frightened slave owners.
While acknowledging the cross-influences, most contemporary historians distinguish the Haitian Revolution from the French Revolution. Some also separate it from the earlier armed conflicts by free men of color who were seeking expansion of political rights for themselves, but not the abolition of slavery. These scholars show that if the agency of the enslaved blacks becomes the focus of studies, the Revolution 's opening and closing dates are certain. From this premise, the narrative began with the enslaved blacks ' bid for freedom through armed struggle and concluded with their victory over slavery powers and the creation of an independent state. In April 1791, a massive black insurgency in the north of the island rose violently against the plantation system, setting a precedent of resistance to racial slavery. In cooperation with their former mulatto rivals, blacks ended the Revolution in November 1803 when they decidedly defeated the French army at the Battle of Vertières. The French had already lost a high proportion of their troops to yellow fever and other diseases. After acknowledging defeat in Saint - Domingue, Napoleon withdrew from North America, agreeing to the Louisiana Purchase by the United States.
Although the series of events during these years is known under the name of "Haitian Revolution, '' alternative views suggest that the entire affair was an assorted number of coincidental conflicts that ended with a fragile truce between free men of color and blacks. Historians debate whether the victorious Haitians were "intrinsically (a) revolutionary force ''. One thing is certain: Haiti became an independent country on January 1, 1804, when the council of generals chose Jean - Jacques Dessalines to assume the office of governor - general. One of the state 's first significant documents was Dessaliness ' "Liberty or Death '' speech, which circulated broadly in the foreign press. In it, the new head of state made the case for the new nation 's objective: the permanent abolition of slavery in Haiti.
An independent government was created in Haiti, but the country 's society remained deeply affected by patterns established under French colonial rule. As in other French colonial societies, a class of free people of color had developed after centuries of French rule here. Many planters or young unmarried men had relations with African or Afro - Caribbean women, sometimes providing for their freedom and that of their children, as well as providing for education of the mixed - race children, especially the boys. Some were sent to France for education and training, which sometimes provided entree into the French military. The mulattoes who returned to Saint - Domingue became the elite of the people of color. As an educated class used to the French political system, they became the elite of Haitian society after the war 's end. Many of them had used their social capital to acquire wealth, and some already owned land. Some had identified more with the French colonists than the slaves. Many of the free people of color, by contrast, were raised in French culture, had certain rights within colonial society, and generally spoke French and practiced Catholicism (with syncretic absorption of African religions.)
Mulatto domination of politics and economics, and urban life after the revolution, created a different kind of two - caste society, as most Haitians were rural subsistence farmers. The nascent state 's future was hobbled in 1825 when France forced it to pay 150 million gold francs in reparations to French ex-slaveholders -- as a condition of French political recognition and to end the nation 's political and economic isolation. Though the amount of the reparations was reduced in 1838, Haiti was unable to finish paying off its debt until 1947. The payments left the country 's government deeply impoverished, causing long - term instability.
Much of Caribbean economic development was contingent to Europeans ' demand for sugar. Plantation owners produced sugar as a commodity crop from cultivation of sugar cane, which required extensive labor. Saint Domingue also had extensive coffee, cocoa, and indigo plantations, but these were smaller and less profitable than the sugar plantations. The commodity crops were traded for European goods.
Starting in the 1730s, French engineers constructed complex irrigation systems to increase sugarcane production. By the 1740s Saint - Domingue, together with the British colony of Jamaica, had become the main supplier of the world 's sugar. Sugar production depended on extensive manual labor provided by enslaved Africans in the harsh Saint - Domingue colonial plantation economy. Saint - Domingue was the most profitable French colony in the world, indeed one of the most profitable of all the European colonies in the 18th century. An average of 600 ships engaged every year in shipping products from Saint - Domingue to Bordeaux, and the value of Saint - Domingue 's crops and goods was almost equal in value to all of the products shipped from the British Thirteen Colonies to Great Britain. The livelihood of 1 million of the 25 million or so people who lived in the Kingdom of France in 1789 depended directly upon the imports of coffee, indigo and sugar from St. Domingue, and several million indirectly depended upon trade from France 's richest colony to maintain their standard of living.
Slavery sustained sugar production under harsh conditions, including the unhealthy climate of the Caribbean, where diseases such as malaria (brought from Africa) and yellow fever caused high mortality. In 1787 alone, the French imported about 20,000 slaves from Africa into Saint - Domingue, while the British imported about 38,000 slaves total to all of their Caribbean colonies. The death rate from yellow fever was such that at least 50 % of the slaves from Africa died within a year of arriving, so the masters preferred to work their slaves as hard as possible while providing with them with the barest minimum of food and shelter. They calculated that it was better to get the most work out of their slaves with lowest possible expense possible, since they were probably going to die of yellow fever anyway. The death rate was so high that polyandry - one woman being married to several men at the same time - developed as a common form of marriage among the slaves. As slaves had no legal rights, rape by masters, their unmarried sons, or white overseers were a common occurrence on the plantations.
The white planters and their families, together with the petit bourgeoisie of merchants and shopkeepers, were outnumbered by slaves by a factor of more than ten on Saint Domingue. The largest sugar plantations and concentrations of slaves were in the North of the islands, and whites lived in fear of slave rebellion. Even by the standards of the Caribbean, the French slave masters were extremely cruel in their treatment of slaves. They used the threat and acts of physical violence to maintain control and suppress efforts at slave rebellion. When slaves left the plantations or disobeyed their masters, they were subject to whipping, or to more extreme torture such as castration or burning, the punishment being both a personal lesson and a warning for other slaves. Louis XIV, the French King, passed the Code Noir in 1685 in an attempt to regulate such violence and the treatment of the enslaved person in general in the colony, but masters openly and consistently broke the code. During the 18th century, local legislation reversed parts of it.
In 1758, the white landowners began passing legislation restricting the rights of other groups of people until a rigid caste system was defined. Most historians classify the people of the era into three groups:
The first group were white colonists, or les blancs. This group is generally subdivided into the plantation owners and a lower class of whites who often served as overseers or day laborers, artisans and shopkeepers.
The second group were free persons of color (gens de couleur libre), usually mixed - race, and sometimes referred to as mulattoes, of African and French descent. These gens de couleur tended to be educated and literate, and the men often served in the army or as administrators on plantations. Many were children of white planters and enslaved mothers, or free women of color. Others had purchased their freedom from their owners through the sale of their own produce or artistic works. They often received education or artisan training, and sometimes inherited freedom or property from their fathers. Some gens de couleur owned and operated their own plantations and became slave owners.
The third group, outnumbering the others by a ratio of ten to one, was made up of mostly African - born slaves. A high rate of mortality among them meant that planters continually had to import new slaves. This kept their culture more African and separate from other people on the island. Many plantations had large concentrations of slaves from a particular region of Africa, and it was therefore somewhat easier for these groups to maintain elements of their culture, religion, and language. This also separated new slaves from Africa from creoles (slaves born in the colony), who already had kin networks and often had more prestigious roles on plantations and more opportunities for emancipation. Most slaves spoke a patois of the French language known as Creole, which was also used by island - born mulattoes and whites for communication with the workers.
The majority of the slaves were Yoruba from what is now modern Nigeria, Fon from what is now Benin, and from the Kingdom of Kongo in what is now modern northern Angola and the western Congo. The Kongolese at 40 % were the largest of the African ethnic groups represented amongst the slaves. The slaves developed their own religion, a syncretic mixture of Roman Catholicism and West African religions known as Vodou, usually called voodoo in English. This belief system implicitly rejected the Africans ' status as slaves.
White colonists and black slaves frequently came into violent conflict. Saint - Domingue was a society seething with hatred. The French historian Paul Fregosi wrote: "Whites, mulattos and blacks loathed each other. The poor whites could n't stand the rich whites, the rich whites despised the poor whites, the middle - class whites were jealous of the aristocratic whites, the whites born in France looked down upon the locally born whites, mulattoes envied the whites, despised the blacks and were despised by the whites; free Negroes brutalized those who were still slaves, Haitian born blacks regarded those from Africa as savages. Everyone - quite rightly - lived in terror of everyone else... Haiti was hell, but Haiti was rich ''. Many of these conflicts involved slaves who had escaped the plantations. Many runaway slaves -- called Maroons -- hid on the margins of large plantations, living off the land and what they could steal from their former masters. Others fled to towns, to blend in with urban slaves and freed slaves who often migrated to those areas for work. If caught, these runaway slaves would be severely and violently punished. However, some masters tolerated petit marronages, or short - term absences from plantations, knowing these allowed release of tensions.
The larger groups of runaway slaves who lived in the hillside woods away from white control often conducted violent raids on the island 's sugar and coffee plantations. Although the numbers in these bands grew large (sometimes into the thousands), they generally lacked the leadership and strategy to accomplish large - scale objectives. The first effective maroon leader to emerge was the charismatic François Mackandal, who succeeded in unifying the black resistance. A Haitian Vodou priest, Mackandal inspired his people by drawing on African traditions and religions. He united the maroon bands and also established a network of secret organizations among plantation slaves, leading a rebellion from 1751 through 1757. Although Mackandal was captured by the French and burned at the stake in 1758, large armed maroon bands persisted in raids and harassment after his death.
In 1789 Saint - Domingue produced 60 % of the world 's coffee and 40 % of the world 's sugar imported by France and Britain. The colony was the most profitable possession of the French Empire. Saint - Domingue was the wealthiest and most prosperous colony of all the colonies in the Caribbean.
In 1789, whites numbered 40,000; mulattoes and free blacks, 28,000; and black slaves, an estimated 452,000. This was almost half the total slave population in the Caribbean, estimated at one million that year. The lowest class of society was enslaved blacks, who outnumbered whites and free people of color by a margin of more than six to one.
Two thirds of the slaves were African - born, and they tended to be less submissive than those born in the Americas and raised in slavesocieties. The death rate in the Caribbean exceeded the birth rate, so imports of enslaved Africans were necessary to maintain the numbers required to work the plantations. The slave population declined at an annual rate of two to five percent, due to overwork, inadequate food and shelter, insufficient clothing and medical care, and an imbalance between the sexes, with more men than women. Some slaves were of a creole elite class of urban slaves and domestics, who worked as cooks, personal servants and artisans around the plantation house. This relatively privileged class was chiefly born in the Americas, while the under - class born in Africa labored hard, and more often than not, under abusive and brutal conditions.
Among Saint - Domingue 's 40,000 white colonials in 1789, European - born Frenchmen monopolized administrative posts. The sugar planters, the grands blancs, were chiefly minor aristocrats. Most returned to France as soon as possible, hoping to avoid the dreaded yellow fever, which regularly swept the colony. The lower - class whites, petits blancs, included artisans, shopkeepers, slave dealers, overseers, and day laborers.
Saint - Domingue 's free people of color, the gens de couleur libre, numbered more than 28,000 by 1789. Around that time, colonial legislations, concerned with this growing and strengthening population, passed discriminatory laws that required these freedmen to wear distinctive clothing and limited where they could live. These laws also barred them from occupying many public offices. Many of these freedmen were also artisans and overseers, or domestic servants in the plantation houses. Le Cap Français, a northern port, had a large population of free people of color, including freed slaves. These men would become important leaders in the 1791 slave rebellion and later revolution.
In addition to class and racial tension among whites, free people of color, and enslaved blacks, the country was polarized by regional rivalries between Nord (North), Sud (South), and Ouest (West) regions.
The North was the center of shipping and trading, and had the largest French elite population, the grands blancs. The rich white colonists wanted greater autonomy for the colony, especially economically. The Plaine - du - Nord on the northern shore of Saint - Domingue was the most fertile area, having the largest sugar plantations and therefore the most slaves. It was the area of greatest economic importance, especially as most of the colony 's trade went through these ports. The largest and busiest port was Le Cap - Français (present - day Le Cap - Haïtien), the capital of French Saint - Domingue until 1751, when Port - au - Prince was made the capital. In this northern region, enslaved Africans lived in large groups of workers in relative isolation, separated from the rest of the colony by the high mountain range known as the Massif du Nord. These slaves would join with urban slaves from Le Cap to lead the 1791 rebellion, which began in this region.
The Western Province, however, grew significantly after the capital was moved to Port - au - Prince in 1751, and the region became increasingly wealthy in the second half of the 18th century. Irrigation projects supported expansion of sugar plantations in this region. The Southern Province lagged in population and wealth because it was geographically separated from the rest of the colony. However, this isolation allowed freed slaves to find profit in trade with British Jamaica, and they gained power and wealth here. In addition to these interregional tensions, there were conflicts between proponents of independence, those loyal to France, allies of Spain, and allies of Great Britain -- who coveted control of the valuable colony.
In France, the National Assembly made radical changes in French laws, and on 26 August 1789, published the Declaration of the Rights of Man, declaring all men free and equal. The French Revolution influenced the conflict in Saint - Domingue and was at first widely welcomed in the island. Wealthy whites saw it as an opportunity to gain independence from France, which would allow elite plantation - owners to take control of the island and create trade regulations that would further their own wealth and power. There were so many twists and turns in the leadership in France, and so many complex events in Saint - Domingue, that various classes and parties changed their alignments many times. However, the Haitian Revolution quickly became a test of the ideology of the French Revolution, as it radicalized the slavery question and forced French leaders to recognize the full meaning of their revolution.
The African population on the island began to hear of the agitation for independence by the rich European planters, the grands blancs, who had resented France 's limitations on the island 's foreign trade. The Africans mostly allied with the royalists and the British, as they understood that if Saint - Domingue 's independence were to be led by white slave masters, it would probably mean even harsher treatment and increased injustice for the African population. The plantation owners would be free to operate slavery as they pleased without the existing minimal accountability to their French peers.
Saint - Domingue 's free people of color, most notably Julien Raimond, had been actively appealing to France for full civil equality with whites since the 1780s. Raimond used the French Revolution to make this the major colonial issue before the National Assembly of France. In October 1790, Vincent Ogé, another wealthy free man of color from the colony, returned from Paris, where he had been working with Raimond. Convinced that the Declaration of Rights of Man meant that wealthy men of color had full civil rights, Ogé demanded the right to vote. When the colonial governor refused, Ogé led a brief insurgency in the area around Cap Français. He and an army of around 300 free blacks fought to end racial discrimination in the area. He was captured in early 1791, and brutally executed by being "broken on the wheel '' before being beheaded. Ogé was not fighting against slavery, but his treatment was cited by later slave rebels as one of the factors in their decision to rise up in August 1791 and resist treaties with the colonists. The conflict up to this point was between factions of whites, and between whites and free blacks. Enslaved blacks watched from the sidelines.
Leading 18th - century French writer Count Mirabeau had once said the Saint - Domingue whites "slept at the foot of Vesuvius '', suggesting the grave threat they faced should the majority of slaves launch a sustained major uprising.
The Haitian Revolution was a revolution ignited from below, by the underrepresented majority of the population. A huge majority of the supporters of the Haitian revolution were slaves and freed Africans who were severely discriminated against by colonial society and the law.
Despite the idealist, rational and utopian thinking surrounding both uprisings, extreme brutality was a fundamental aspect of both uprisings. Besides initial cruelty that created the precarious conditions that bred the revolution, there was violence from both sides throughout the revolution. The period of violence during the French Revolution is known as the Reign of Terror. Waves of suspicion meant that the government rounded up and killed thousands of suspects, ranging from known aristocrats to persons thought to oppose the leaders. They were killed by guillotine, "breaking at the wheel '', mobs and other death machines: death toll estimates range from 18,000 to 40,000. Total casualties for the French Revolution are estimated at 2 million. In the Caribbean, total casualties totaled approximately 162,000. Violence in Haiti was largely characterized by military confrontations, riots, killing of slave owners and their families, and guerrilla warfare.
The Revolution in Haiti did not wait on the Revolution in France. The call for modification of society was influenced by the revolution in France, but once the hope for change found a place in the hearts of the Haitian people, there was no stopping the radical reformation that was occurring. The Enlightenment ideals and the initiation of the French Revolution were enough to inspire the Haitian Revolution, which evolved into the most successful and comprehensive slave rebellion in history. Just as the French were successful in transforming their society, so were the Haitians. On April 4, 1792, The French National Assembly granted freedom to slaves in saint - Domingue. The revolution culminated in 1804; Haiti was an independent nation solely of freed peoples. The activities of the revolutions sparked change across the world. France 's transformation was most influential in Europe, and Haiti 's influence spanned every location that continued to practice slavery. John E. Baur honors Haiti as home of the most influential revolution in history.
French writer Guillaume Raynal attacked slavery in his history of European colonization. He warns, "the Africans only want a chief, sufficiently courageous, to lead them on to vengeance and slaughter. '' Raynal 's Enlightenment philosophy went deeper than a prediction and reflected many French Enlightenment philosophies, including those of Rousseau and Diderot. It was written thirteen years before the "Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. '' The declaration, in contrast, highlighted freedom and liberty but did not abolish slavery.
In addition to Raynal 's influence, Toussaint Louverture, a free black, was a key "enlightened actor '' in the Haitian Revolution. Enlightened thought divided the world into "enlightened leaders '' and "ignorant masses ''; Louverture attempted to bridge this divide between the popular masses and the enlightened few. Louverture was familiar with Enlightenment ideas within the context of European imperialism. He attempted to strike a balance between Western Enlightened thought as a necessary means of winning liberation, and not propagating the notion that it was morally superior to the experiences and knowledge of people of color on Saint Domingue. Louverture wrote a Constitution for a new society in Saint - Domingue that abolished slavery. The existence of slavery in Enlightened society was an incongruity that had been left unaddressed by European scholars. Louverture took on this inconsistency directly in his constitution. In addition, Louverture exhibited a connection to Enlightenment scholars through the style, language and accent of this text.
Like Louverture, Jean - Baptiste Belley was an active participant in the colony 's insurrection. The portrait of Belley by Anne - Louis Girodet de Roussy - Trioson depicts a man who encompasses the French view of its colonies. The portrait creates a stark dichotomy between the refinement of French Enlightenment thought and the reality of the situation in Saint Domingue, through the bust of Raynald and the figure of Belley, respectively. While distinguished, the portrait still portrays a man trapped by the confines of race. Girodet 's portrayal of the former National Convention deputy is telling of the French opinion of colonial citizens by emphasizing the subject 's sexuality and including an earring. Both of these racially charged symbols reveal the desire to undermine the colony 's attempts at independent legitimacy, as citizens of the colonies were not able to access the elite class of French Revolutionaries because of their race.
Enlightened writer Guillaume Raynal attacked slavery in the 1780 edition of his history of European colonization. He also predicted a general slave revolt in the colonies, saying that there were signs of "the impending storm ''. One such sign was the action of the French revolutionary government to grant citizenship to wealthy free people of color in May 1791. Since white plantation owners refused to comply with this decision, within two months isolated fighting broke out between the former slaves and the whites. This added to the tense climate between slaves and grands blancs.
Raynal 's prediction came true on the night of 21 August 1791, when the slaves of Saint Domingue rose in revolt; thousands of slaves attended a secret vodou (voodoo) ceremony as a tropical storm came in - the lighting and the thunder was taken as auspicious omens - and later that night, the slaves began to kill their masters and plunged the colony into civil war. The signal to begin the revolt was given by Dutty Boukman, a high priest of vodou and leader of the Maroon slaves, during a religious ceremony at Bois Caïman on the night of 14 August. Within the next ten days, slaves had taken control of the entire Northern Province in an unprecedented slave revolt. Whites kept control of only a few isolated, fortified camps. The slaves sought revenge on their masters through "pillage, rape, torture, mutilation, and death ''. The long years of oppression by the slave masters had left many blacks with a hatred of all whites, and the revolt was marked by extreme violence from the very start. The masters and mistresses were dragged from their beds to be killed, and the heads of French children were placed on spikes that were carried at the front of the rebel columns.
The plantation owners had long feared such a revolt, and were well armed with some defensive preparations. But within weeks, the number of slaves who joined the revolt reached some 100,000. Within the next two months, as the violence escalated, the slaves killed 4,000 whites and burned or destroyed 180 sugar plantations and hundreds of coffee and indigo plantations. At least 900 coffee plantations were destroyed, and the total damage inflicted over the next two weeks amounted to 2 million francs. In September 1791, the surviving whites organized into militias and struck back, killing about 15,000 black people.
Though demanding freedom from slavery, the rebels did not demand independence from France at this point. Most of the rebel leaders professed to be fighting for the king of France, who they believed had issued a decree freeing the slaves, which had been suppressed by the governor. As such, they were demanding their rights as Frenchmen which been granted by the king.
By 1792, slave rebels controlled a third of the island. The success of the slave rebellion caused the newly elected Legislative Assembly in France to realize it was facing an ominous situation. To protect France 's economic interests, the Assembly granted civil and political rights to free men of color in the colonies in March 1792. Countries throughout Europe as well as the United States were shocked by the decision, but the Assembly was determined to stop the revolt. Apart from granting rights to the free people of color, the Assembly dispatched 6,000 French soldiers to the island. The new governor sent by Paris, Léger - Félicité Sonthonax, was a supporter of the French Revolution. He abolished slavery in the Northern Province of Saint Domingue and had hostile relations with the planters, whom he saw as royalists.
Meanwhile, in 1793, France declared war on Great Britain. The grands blancs in Saint Domingue, unhappy with Sonthonax, arranged with Great Britain to declare British sovereignty over the colony, believing that the British would maintain slavery. The British Prime Minister, William Pitt the Younger believed that the success of the slave revolt in Saint Domigue would inspire slave revolts in the British Caribbean colonies. He thought that taking Saint Domingue, the richest of the French colonies, would be a useful bargaining chip to have when the peace negotiations began to end the war, and in the interim, occupying Saint Domingue would mean diverting its great wealth into the British treasury. The American journalist James Perry notes that the great irony of the British campaign in Haiti was that it ended as a complete debacle, costing the British treasury millions of pounds and the British military thousands upon thousands of dead, all for nothing.
Spain, who controlled the rest of the island of Hispaniola, also joined the conflict and fought against France. From the beginning, Spanish Santo Domingo had encouraged disruptions in Saint Domingue. The Spanish forces invaded Saint Domingue and were joined by the slave forces. For most of the conflict, the British and Spanish supplied the rebels with food, ammunition, arms, medicine, naval support, and military advisors. By August 1793, there were only 3,500 French soldiers on the island. On 20 September 1793, about 600 British soldiers from Jamaica landed at Jérémie to be greeted with shouts of "Vivent les Anglais! from the French population. On 22 September 1793, Mole St. Nicolas, the main French naval base in Saint Domingue, surrendered to the Royal Navy peacefully. Everywhere the British went, they restored slavery, which made them hated by the mass of common people. To prevent military disaster, and secure the colony for republican France as opposed to Britain, Spain, and French royalists, separately or in combination, the French commissioners Léger - Félicité Sonthonax and Étienne Polverel freed the slaves in St. Domingue.
The decision was confirmed and extended by the National Convention, the first elected Assembly of the First Republic (1792 -- 1804), on the 4th of February 1794, under the leadership of Maximilien Robespierre. It abolished slavery by law in France and all its colonies, and granted civil and political rights to all black men in the colonies. The French constitutions of 1793 and 1795 both included the abolition of slavery. The constitution of 1793 was never applied, but that of 1795 was implemented and lasted until replaced by the consular and imperial constitutions under Napoleon Bonaparte. Despite racial tensions in Saint Domingue, the French revolutionary government at the time welcomed abolition with a show of idealism and optimism. The emancipation of slaves was viewed as an example of liberty for other countries, much as the American Revolution was meant to serve as the first of many liberation movements. Danton, one of the Frenchmen present at the meeting of the National Convention, expressed this sentiment:
representatives of the French people, until now our decrees of liberty have been selfish, and only for ourselves. But today we proclaim it to the universe, and generations to come will glory in this decree; we are proclaiming universal liberty... We are working for future generations; let us launch liberty into the colonies; the English are dead, today.
In nationalistic terms, the abolition of slavery also served as a moral triumph of France over England, as seen in the latter half of the above quote. Yet Toussaint Louverture did not stop working with the Spanish army until sometime later, as he was suspicious of the French.
The British force that landed in St. Domingue in 1793 was too small to conquer the place, being capable only of holding only few coastal enclaves. The French planters were disapppointed as they had hoped to regain power; Sonthonax was relieved, as he had twice refused ultimatums from Commodore John Ford to surrender Port - au - Prince. In the meantime, a Spanish force under Captain - General Joaquin Garcia y Moreno had marched into the Northern Province. Toussaint Louverture, the ablest of the Haitian generals, had joined the Spanish, accepting an officer 's commission in the Spanish Army and being made a knight in the Order of St. Isabella.
The main British force for the conquest of St. Domingue under General Charles Grey aka "No - flint Grey '' and Admiral Sir John Jervis set sail from Portsmouth on 26 November 1793, which was in defiance of the well known rule that the only time that one could campaign in the West Indies was from September to November, when the mosquitoes that carried malaria and yellow fever were scarce. After arriving in the West Indies in February 1794, Grey chose to conquer Martinique, St. Lucia, and Guadeloupe. Troops under the command of John Whyte did not arrive in St. Domingue until 19 May 1794. Rather than attacking the main French bases at Le Cap and Port - de-Paix, Whyte chose to march towards Port - au - Prince, whose harbour was reported to have 45 ships loaded with sugar. Whyte took Port - au - Prince, but Sonthonax and the French forces were allowed to leave in exchange for not burning the 45 ships loaded with sugar. By May 1794, the French forces were severed in two by Toussaint, with Sonthonax commanding in the north and André Rigaud leading in the south.
At this point, Toussaint, for reasons that remain obscure, suddenly joined the French and turned against the Spanish, ambushing his allies as they emerged from attending mass in a church at San Raphael on 6 May 1794. The Spaniards were not defeated militarily, but their advance was restrained, and when in 1795 Spain ceded Santo Domingo to France, Spanish attacks on Saint Domingue ceased. Despite being a former slave, Toussaint proved to be forgiving of the whites, insisting that he was fighting to assert the rights of the slaves as black French people to be free. He said he did not seek independence from France, and urged the surviving whites, including the former slave masters, to stay and work with him in rebuilding St. Domingue.
Rigaud had checked the British in the south, taking the town of Léogâne by storm and driving the British back to Port - au - Prince. During the course of 1794, most of the British forces were killed by yellow fever, the dreaded "black vomit '' as the British called it. Within two months of arriving in St. Domingue, the British had lost 40 officers and 600 men to yellow fever. Ultimately, of Grey 's 7,000 men, about 5,000 were to die of yellow fever while the Royal Navy reported losing "... forty - six masters and eleven hundred men dead, chiefly of yellow fever ''. The British historian Sir John Fortescue wrote "It is probably beneath the mark to say that twelve thousand Englishmen were buried in the West Indies in 1794 ''. Rigaud failed in attempt to retake Port - au - Prince, but on Christmas Day 1794, he stormed and retook Tiburon in a surprise attack. The British lost about 300 dead, and the mulattoes took no prisoners, executing any British soldier and sailor who surrendered.
At this point, Pitt decided to reinforce failure by launching what he called "the great push '' to conquer St. Domingue and the rest of the French West Indies, sending out the largest expedition Britain had yet mounted in its history, a force of about 30,000 men to be carried in 200 ships. Fortescue wrote that the aim of London in the first expedition had been to destroy "the power of France in these pestilent islands... only to discover when it was too late, that they practically destroyed the British army ''. By this point, it was well known that service in the West Indies was virtually a death sentence. In Dublin and Cork, soldiers from the 104th, 111th, 105th, and 112th regiments rioted when they learned that they were being sent to St. Domingue. The fleet for the "great push '' left Portsmouth on 16 November 1795 and was wrecked by a storm, before sending out again on 9 December.
General Ralph Abercromby, the commander of the forces committed to the "great push '', hesitated over which island to attack when he arrived in Barbados on 17 March 1796. He dispatched a force under Major General Gordon Forbes to Port - au - Prince. Forbes 's attempt to take the French - held city of Léogâne ended in disaster. The French had built a deep defensive ditch with palisades, while Forbes had neglected to bring along heavy artillery. The French commander, the mulatto General Alexandre Pétion, proved to be an excellent artilleryman, who used the guns of his fort to sink two of the three ships - of - line under Admiral Hyde Parker in the harbour, before turning his guns to the British forces; a French sortie led to a British rout and Forbes retreating back to Port - au - Prince. As more ships arrived with British troops, more soldiers died of yellow fever. By 1 June 1796, of the 1,000 from the Sixty - sixth regiment, only 198 had not been infected with yellow fever; and of the 1,000 men of the Sixth - ninth regiment, only 515 were not infected with yellow fever. Abercromby predicted that at the current rate of yellow fever infection, all of the men from the two regiments would be dead by November. Ultimately, 10,000 British soldiers arrived in Saint Domingue by June, but besides for some skirmishing near Bombarde, the British remained put in Port - au - Prince and other coastal enclaves, while yellow fever continued to kill them all off. The government attracted much criticism in the House of Commons about the mounting costs of the expedition to St. Domingue. In February 1797, General John Graves Simcoe arrived to replace Forbes with orders to pull back the British forces to Port - au - Prince. As the human and financial costs of the expedition mounted, people in Britain demanded a withdrawal from St. Domingue, which was devouring money and soldiers, while failing to produce the expected profits.
On 11 April 1797, Colonel Thomas Maitland of the Sixty - second Foot regiment landed in Port - au - Prince, and wrote in a letter to his brother that British forces in St. Domingue had been "annihilated '' by the yellow fever. Service in St. Domingue was extremely unpopular in the British Army owing to terrible death toll caused by yellow fever. One British officer wrote of his horror of seeing his friends "drowned in their own blood '' while "some died raving Mad ''. Simcoe used the new British troops to push back the Haitians under Toussaint, but in a counter-offensive, Toussaint and Rigaud stopped the offensive. Toussaint retook the fortress at Mirebalais. On 7 June 1797, Toussaint attacked Fort Churchill in an assault that was noted for its professionalism as it for its ferocity. Under a storm of artillery, the Haitians placed ladders on the walls and were driven back after four times, with heavy losses. Even though Toussaint had been defeated, the British were astonished that he had turned a group of former slaves with no military experience into troops whose skills were the equal of a European army.
In July 1797, Simcoe and Maitland sailed to London to advise a total withdrawal from St. Domingue. In March 1798 Maitland returned with a mandate to withdraw, at least from Port - au - Prince. On 10 May 1798, Maitland met with Toussaint to agree to an armistice, and on 18 May the British had left Port - au - Prince. British morale had collapsed with the news that Toussaint had taken Port - au - Prince, and Maitland decided to abandon all of St. Domingue, writing that the expedition had become such a complete disaster that withdrawal was the only sensible thing to do, even through he did not have the authority to do so. On 31 August, Maitland and Toussaint signed an agreement whereby in exchange for the British pulling out of all of St. Domingue, Toussaint promised to not support any slave revolts in Jamaica. Between 1793 -- 98, the expedition to St. Domingue had cost the British treasury four million pounds and 100,000 men either dead or permanently disabled from the effects of yellow fever.
After the departure of the British, Toussaint turned his attention to Rigaud, who was conspiring against him in the south of Saint Domingue. In June 1799, Rigaud initiated the War of Knives against Toussaint 's rule, sending a brutal offensive at Petit - Goâve and Grand - Goâve. Taking no prisoners, Rigaud 's predominantly mulatto forces put blacks and whites to the sword. Though the United States was hostile towards Toussaint, the U.S. Navy agreed to support Toussaint 's forces with the frigate USS General Greene, commanded by Captain Christopher Perry, providing fire support to the blacks as Toussaint laid siege to the city of Jacmel, held by mulatto forces under the command of Rigaud. To the United States, Rigaud 's ties to France represented a threat to American commerce. On 11 March 1800, Toussaint took Jacmel and Rigaud fled on the French schooner La Diana. Though Toussaint maintained he was still loyal to France, to all intents and purposes, he ruled Saint Domingue as its dictator.
In the early 21st century, historian Robert L. Scheina estimated that the slave rebellion resulted in the death of 350,000 Haitians and 50,000 European troops. According to the Encyclopedia of African American Politics, "Between 1791 and independence in 1804 nearly 200,000 blacks died, as did thousands of mulattoes and as many as 100,000 French and British soldiers. '' Yellow fever caused the most deaths. Geggus points out that at least 3 of every 5 British troops sent there in 1791 -- 97 died of disease. There has been considerable debate over whether the number of deaths caused by disease was exaggerated.
One of the most successful black commanders was Toussaint Louverture, a self - educated former domestic slave. Like Jean François and Biassou, he initially fought for the Spanish crown in this period. After the British had invaded Saint - Domingue, Louverture decided to fight for the French if they would agree to free all the slaves. Sonthonax had proclaimed an end to slavery on 29 August 1792. Louverture worked with a French general, Étienne Laveaux, to ensure that all slaves would be freed. Louverture abandoned the Spanish army in the east and brought his forces over to the French side on 6 May 1794 after the Spanish refused to take steps to end slavery.
Under the military leadership of Toussaint, the forces made up mostly of former slaves succeeded in winning concessions from the British and expelling the Spanish forces. In the end, Toussaint essentially restored control of Saint - Domingue to France. Louverture was very intelligent, organized and articulate. Having made himself master of the island, however, Toussaint did not wish to surrender too much power to France. He began to rule the country as an effectively autonomous entity. Louverture overcame a succession of local rivals, including: the Commissioner Sonthonax, a French white man who gained support from many Haitians, angering Louverture; André Rigaud, a free man of color who fought to keep control of the South in the War of Knives; and Comte d'Hédouville, who forced a fatal wedge between Rigaud and Louverture before escaping to France. Toussaint defeated a British expeditionary force in 1798. In addition, he led an invasion of neighboring Santo Domingo (December 1800), and freed the slaves there on January 3, 1801.
In 1801, Louverture issued a constitution for Saint - Domingue that decreed he would be governor - for - life and called for black autonomy and a sovereign black state. In response, Napoleon Bonaparte dispatched a large expeditionary force of French soldiers and warships to the island, led by Bonaparte 's brother - in - law Charles Leclerc, to restore French rule. They were under secret instructions to restore slavery, at least in the formerly Spanish - held part of the island. Bonaparte ordered that Toussaint was to be treated with respect until the French forces were established; once that was done, Toussaint was to summoned to Le Cap and be arrested; if he failed to show, Leclerc was to wage "a war to the death '' with no mercy and all of Toussaint 's followers to be shot when captured. Once that was completed, slavery would be ultimately restored. The numerous French soldiers were accompanied by mulatto troops led by Alexandre Pétion and André Rigaud, mulatto leaders who had been defeated by Toussaint three years earlier.
The French arrived on 2 February 1802 at Le Cap with the Haitian commander Henri Christophe being ordered by Leclerc to turn over the city to the French. When Christophe refused, the French assaulted Le Cap and the Haitians set the city afire rather than surrender it. Leclerc sent Toussaint letters promising him: "Have no worries about your personal fortune. It will be safeguarded for you, since it has been only too well earned by your own efforts. Do not worry about the liberty of your fellow citizens ''. When Toussaint still failed to appear at Le Cap, Leclerc issued a proclamation on 17 February 1802: "General Toussaint and General Christophe are outlawed; all citizens are ordered to hunt them down, and treat them as rebels against the French Republic ''. Captain Marcus Rainsford, a British Army officer who visited St. Domingue observed the training of the Haitian Army, writing: "At a whistle, a whole brigade ran three or four hundred yards, and then, separating, threw themselves flat on the ground, changing to their backs and sides, and all the time keeping up a strong fire until recalled... This movement is executed with such facility and precision as totally to prevent cavalry from charging them in bushy and hilly country ''. In a letter to Jean - Jacques Dessalines, Toussaint outlined his plans for defeating the French: "Do not forget, while waiting for the rainy reason which will rid us of our foes, that we have no other resource than destruction and fire. Bear in mind that the soil bathed with our sweat must not furnish our enemies with the smallest sustenance. Tear up the roads with shot; throw corpses and horses into all the foundations, burn and annihilate everything in order that those who have come to reduce us to slavery may have before their eyes the image of the hell which they deserve ''. Dessalines never received the letter as he already taken to the field, evaded a French column sent to capture him and stormed Léogane. The Haitians burned down Leogane and killed all of the French with the Trinidadian historian C.L.R. James writing of Dessalines 's actions at Leogane: "Men, women and children, indeed all the whites who came into his hands, he massacred. And forbidding burial, he left stacks of corpses rotting in the sun to strike terror into the French detachments as they toiled behind his flying columns ''. The French had been expecting the Haitians to happily go back to being their slaves, as they believed it was natural for blacks to be the slaves of whites, and were stunned to learn how much the Haitians hated them for wanting to reduce them back to a life in chains. A visibly shocked General Pamphile de Lacroix after seeing the ruins of Leogane wrote: "They heaped up bodies '' which "still had their attitudes; they were bent over, their hands outstretched and beseeching; the ice of death had not effaced the look on their faces ''.
Leclerc ordered four French columns to march on Gonaives, which was the main Haitian base. One of the French columns was commanded by General Donatien de Rochambeau, a proud white supremacist and a supporter of slavery who detested the Haitians for wanting to be free. Toussaint tried to stop Rochambueau at Ravin - a-Couleuvre, a very narrow gully up in the mountains that the Haitians had filled with chopped down trees. In the ensuring Battle of Ravine - à - Couleuvres, after six hours of fierce hand - to - hand fighting with no quarter given on either side, the French finally broke through, albeit with heavy losses. During the battle, Toussaint personally took part in the fighting to lead his men in charges against the French. After losing 800 men, Toussaint ordered a retreat.
The Haitians next tried to stop the French at a British - built fort up in the mountains called Crête - à - Pierrot, a battle that is remembered as a national epic in Haiti. While Toussaint took to the field, he left Dessalines in command of Crête - à - Pierrot, who from his fastness could see three French columns converging on the fort. Dessalines appeared before his men standing atop of a barrel of gunpowder, holding a lit torch, saying: "We are going to be attacked, and if the French put their feet in here, I shall blow everything up '', leading his men to reply "We shall die for liberty! ''. The first of the French columns to appear before the fort was commanded by General Jean Boudet, whose men were harassed by skirmishers until they reached a deep ditch the Haitians had dug. As the French tried to cross the ditch, Dessalines ordered his men who were hiding to come out and open fire, hitting the French with a tremendous volley of artillery and musket fire, inflicting heavy losses on the attackers. General Boudet himself was wounded and as the French dead and wounded start to pile up in the ditch, the French retreated. The next French commander who tried to assault the ditch was General Charles Dugua, who joined shortly afterwards by the column commanded by Leclerc. All of the French assaults ended in total failure, and after the failure of their last attack, the Haitians charged the French, cutting down any Frenchmen. General Dugua was killed, Leclerc was wounded and the French lost about 800 dead. The final French column to arrive was the one commanded by Rochambeau, who brought along heavy artillery that knocked out the Haitian artillery, through his attempt to storm the ditch also ended in failure with about 300 of his men killed. Over the following days, the French kept on bombarding and assaulting the fort, only to be repulsed every time while the Haitians defiantly sang songs of the French Revolution, celebrating the right of all men to be equal and free. The Haitian psychological warfare was successful with many French soldiers asking why they were fighting to enslave the Haitians, who were only asserting the rights promised by the Revolution to make all men free. Despite Bonaparte 's attempt to keep his intention to restore slavery a secret, it was widely believed by both sides that was why the French had returned to Haiti, as a sugar plantation could only be profitable with slave labour. Finally after twenty days of siege with food and ammunition running out, Dessalines ordered his men to abandon the fort on the night of 24 March 1802 and the Haitians slipped out of the fort to fight another day. Even Rochambeau, who hated all blacks was forced to admit in a report: "Their retreat - this miraculous retreat from our trap - was an incredible feat of arms ''. The French had won, but they had lost 2,000 dead against an opponent whom they held in contempt on racial grounds, believing all blacks to be stupid and cowardly, and furthermore, that it was shortages of food and ammunition that forced the Haitians to retreat, not because of any feats of arms by the French army.
After the Battle of Crête - à - Pierrot, the Haitians abandoned conventional warfare and reverted to guerilla tactics, making the French hold over much of the countryside from Le Cap down to the Artibonite valley very tenuous. With March, the rainy season came to St. Domingue, and as stagnant water collected, the mosquitoes began to breed, leading to yet another outbreak of yellow fever. By the end of March, 5,000 French soldiers had died of yellow fever and another 5,000 were hospitalized with yellow fever, leading to a worried Leclerc to write in his diary: "The rainy season has arrived. My troops are exhausted with fatigue and sickness ''.
On 25 April 1802, the situation suddenly changed when Christophe defected with much of the Haitian Army over to the French. Louverture was promised his freedom if he agreed to integrate his remaining troops into the French army. Louverture agreed to this on 6 May 1802. Just why Toussaint was motivated to just give up has been the subject of much debate with most probable explanation being that he was just tired after 11 years of war. Under the terms of surrender, Leclerc gave his solemn word that slavery would not be restored in St. Domingue, that blacks could be officers in the French Army, and that the Haitian Army would be allowed to integrate into the French Army. Leclerc also gave Toussaint a plantation at Ennery. Toussaint was later deceived, seized by the French and shipped to France. He died months later in prison at Fort - de-Joux in the Jura region. Shortly afterwards, the ferocious Dessalines rode into Le Cap to submit to France and was rewarded by being made the governor of Saint - Marc, a place that Dessalines ruled with his customary cruelty. However, the surrender of Christophe, Toussaint and Dessalines did not mean the end of Haitian resistance. Throughout the countryside, guerrilla warfare continued and the French staged mass executions via firing squads, hanging and drowning Haitians in bags. Rochambeau invented a new means of mass execution, which he called "fumigational - sulphurous baths '' of killing hundreds of Haitians in the holds of ships by burning sulphur to make sulphur dioxide to gas them.
For a few months, the island was quiet under Napoleonic rule. But when it became apparent that the French intended to re-establish slavery (because they had nearly done so on Guadeloupe), black cultivators revolted in the summer of 1802. Yellow fever had decimated the French; by the middle of July 1802, the French lost about 10,000 dead to yellow fever. By September, Leclerc wrote in his diary that he had only 8,000 fit men left as yellow fever had killed the others. Many of the "French '' soldiers were actually Polish, as 5,000 Poles were serving in two demi - brigades in the French Army. Many Poles believed that if they fought for France, Bonaparte would reward them by restoring Polish independence, which had been ended with the Third Partition of Poland in 1795. Of the 5,000 Poles, about 4,000 died of yellow fever. A French planter wrote of the Polish soldiers: "Ten days after the landing of these two beautiful regiments, more than half their number were carried off by yellow fever; they fell down as they walked, the blood rushing out through their nostrils, mouths, eyes... what a horrible and heart - rending sight! ''. Sometimes, the Poles died in battle. At a battle at Port Sault, the Polish Third Battalion fought about 200 Haitians who ambushed them with musket fire and by pushing boulders down on them. One historian noted that "the Poles, rather than spreading out, each man for himself, slowly advanced in a tightly packed mass which afford an ideal target for the well - protected insurgent rifleman ''. Most of the Poles were cut down by the Haitians, which led Rochambeau to remark that one could always count on the Poles to die without flinching in battle. Some of the Poles came to believe that they were fighting on the wrong side, as they had joined the French Army to fight for freedom, not impose slavery. Some defected to join the Haitians.
Dessalines and Pétion remained allied with France until they switched sides again, in October 1802, and fought against the French. As Leclerc lay dying of yellow fever and heard that Christophe and Dessalines had joined the rebels, he reacted by ordering all of the blacks living in Le Cap to be killed by drowning in the harbour. In November, Leclerc died of yellow fever, like much of his army.
His successor, the Vicomte de Rochambeau, fought an even more brutal campaign. Rochambeau waged a near - genocidal campaign against the Haitians, killing everyone who was black. Rochambeau imported about 15,000 attack dogs from Jamaica, who had been trained to savage blacks and mulattoes. At the Bay of Le Cap, Rochambeau had blacks drowned. No one would eat fish from the bay for months afterward, as no one wished to eat the fish that had eaten human flesh. Bonaparte, hearing that most of his army in St. Domingue had died of yellow fever and the French held only Port - au - Prince, Le Cap and Les Cayes sent about 20,000 reinforcements to Rochambeau.
Dessalines matched Rochambeau in his vicious cruelty. At Le Cap, when Rochambeau hanged 500 blacks, Dessalines replied by killing 500 whites and sticking their heads on spikes all around Le Cap, so that the French could see what he was planning on doing to them. Rochambeau 's atrocities helped rally many former French loyalists to the rebel cause. Many on both sides had come to see the war as a race war where no mercy was to be given. The Haitians were just as brutal as the French: they burned French prisoners alive, cut them up with axes, or tied them to a board and sawed them into two. Having sold the Louisiana Territory to the United States in April 1803, Napoleon lost interest in his failing ventures in the Western Hemisphere. He was more concerned about France 's European enemies such as Great Britain and Prussia. With that, he withdrew a majority of the French forces in Haiti to counter the possibility of an invasion from Prussia, Britain, and Spain on a weakened France.
With Napoleon 's inability to send the requested massive reinforcements after the outbreak of war on 18 May 1803 with the British -- the Royal Navy immediately despatched a squadron under Sir John Duckworth from Jamaica to cruise in the region, seeking to eliminate communication between the French outposts and to capture or destroy the French warships based in the colony. The Blockade of Saint - Domingue not only cut the French forces out from reinforcements and supplies from France, but also meant that the British began to supply arms to the Haitians. Trapped, engaged in a vicious race war, and with much of his army dying of yellow fever, Rochambeau fell to pieces. He lost interest in commanding his army and as James wrote, he "amused himself with sexual pleasures, military balls, banquets and the amassing of a personal fortune ''.
The Royal Navy squadrons soon blockaded the French - held ports of Cap Français and Môle - Saint - Nicolas on the Northern coast of the French colony. In the summer of 1803, when war broke out between the United Kingdom and the French Consulate, Saint - Domingue had been almost completely overrun by Haitian forces under the command of Jean - Jacques Dessalines. In the north of the country, the French forces were isolated in the two large ports of Cap Français and Môle - Saint - Nicolas and a few smaller settlements, all supplied by a French naval force based primarily at Cap Français.
On 28 June, the squadron encountered a French convoy from Les Cayes off Môle - Saint - Nicolas, capturing one ship although the other escaped. Two days later an independently sailing French frigate was chased down and captured in the same waters. On 24 July another British squadron intercepted the main French squadron from Cap Français, which was attempting to break past the blockade and reach France. The British, led by Commodore John Loring gave chase, but one French ship of the line and a frigate escaped. Another ship of the line was trapped against the coast and captured after coming under fire from Haitian shore batteries. The remainder of the squadron was forced to fight two more actions on their return to Europe, but did eventually reach the Spanish port of Corunna.
On 8 October 1803, the French abandoned Port - au - Prince as Rochambeau decided to concentrate what was left of his army at Le Cap. Dessalines marched into Port - au - Prince, where was welcomed as a hero by the 100 whites who had chosen to stay behind. Dessalines thanked them all for their kindness and belief in racial equality, but then he said that the French had treated him as less than human when he was a slave, and so to avenge his mistreatment, he promptly had the 100 whites all hanged. On 3 November, the frigate HMS Blanche captured a supply schooner near Cap Français, the last hope in supplying the French forces. On 16 November 1803, Dessalines began attacking the French blockhouses outside of Le Cap. The last battle on land of the Haitian Revolution, the Battle of Vertières, occurred on 18 November 1803, near Cap - Haïtien fought between Dessalines ' army and the remaining French colonial army under the Vicomte de Rochambeau; the slave rebels and freed revolutionary soldiers won the battle. By this point, Perry observed that both sides were "a little mad '' as the pressures of the war and yellow fever had taken their toil, and both the French and the Haitians fought with a reckless courage, seeing death in battle as preferable to a slow death by yellow fever or being tortured to death by the enemy.
Rochambeau, seeing defeat inevitable, procrastinated until the last possible moment, but eventually was forced to surrender to the British commander -- by the end of the month the garrison was starving, having reached the conclusion at a council of war that surrender was the only way to escape from this "place of death ''. Commodore Loring, however, refused the French permission to sail and agreed terms with Dessalines that permitted them to safely evacuate provided they had left the port by 1 December. On the night of 30 November 1803, 8,000 French soldiers and hundreds of white civilians boarded the British ships to take them away. One of Rochambeau 's ships was almost wrecked while leaving the harbour, but was saved by a British lieutenant acting alone, who not only rescued the 900 people on board, but also refloated the ship. At Môle - Saint - Nicolas, General Louis de Noailles refused to surrender and instead sailed to Havana, Cuba in a fleet of small vessels on 3 December, but was intercepted and mortally wounded by a Royal Navy frigate. Soon after, the few remaining French - held towns in Saint - Domingue surrendered to the Royal Navy to prevent massacres by the Haitian army. Meanwhile, Dessalines led the rebellion until its completion, when the French forces were finally defeated by the end of 1803.
On 1 January 1804, from the city of Gonaïves, Dessalines officially declared the former colony 's independence, renaming it "Haiti '' after the indigenous Arawak name. Although he lasted from 1804 to 1806, several changes began taking place in Haiti. The independence of Haiti was a major blow to France and its colonial empire, but the French state would take several decades to recognize the loss of the colony. As the French retreated, Haiti, which had once been called the "Pearl of the Antilles '', the richest French colony in the world, was impoverished, as its economy was in ruins after the revolution, and the country descended into chaos as black and mulattoes now fought each other for control. Haiti never recovered economically from the war. The Haitians had paid a high price for their freedom, losing about 200,000 dead between 1791 -- 1803, and unlike the majority of the European dead, who were killed by yellow fever, the majority of the Haitian dead were the victims of violence.
On 1 January 1804, Dessalines, the new leader under the dictatorial 1805 constitution, declared Haiti a free republic in the name of the Haitian people, which was followed by the massacre of the remaining whites. Dessalines ' secretary Boisrond - Tonnerre stated, "For our declaration of independence, we should have the skin of a white man for parchment, his skull for an inkwell, his blood for ink, and a bayonet for a pen! '' Haiti was the first independent nation in Latin America, the first post-colonial independent black - led nation in the world, and the only nation whose independence was gained as part of a successful slave rebellion. The country was damaged from years of war, its agriculture devastated, its formal commerce nonexistent. The country, therefore, had to be rebuilt. To realise this goal Dessalines adopted the economic organisation of serfdom. He proclaimed that every citizen would belong to one of two categories, laborer or soldier. Furthermore, he proclaimed the mastery of the state over the individual and consequently ordered that all laborers would be bound to a plantation. To avoid the appearance of slavery, however, Dessalines abolished the ultimate symbol of slavery, the whip. Likewise, the working day was shortened by a third. Dessalines ' chief motivator nonetheless was production and to this aim he granted much freedom to the plantations ' overseers. Barred from using the whip, many instead turned to lianes, which were thick vines abundant throughout the island, to persuade the laborers to keep working. Dessalines effectively sent the Haitian people back into slavery. Nevertheless, he succeeded in rebuilding much of the countryside and in raising production levels.
Fearing a return of French forces, Dessalines first expanded and maintained a significant military force. During his reign, nearly 10 % of able - bodied men were in active service. Furthermore, Dessalines ordered the construction of massive fortifications throughout the island, like the Citadelle Laferrière. Many commentators believe that this overmilitarization contributed to many of Haiti 's future problems. In fact, because young fit men were the most likely to be drafted into the army, the plantations were thus deprived of the workforce needed to function properly. The mulattoes rebelled. Haiti was split in two. Dessalines was assassinated.
Another of Toussaint 's black generals, Henri Christophe, succeeded Dessalines in control of the north, while Alexandre Pétion presided over mulatto rule in the south. A major effort by Christophe to take Port - au - Prince in mid -- 1812 failed. The mulattoes were harassed by a pocket of black rebellion in their rear from February 1807 to May 1819. A black leader named Goman kept alive the angry spirit of Dessalines in the southern mountains of the Grand - Anse, resisting several mulatto punitive expeditions. Finally, in 1819, the new mulatto leader, Jean - Pierre Boyer, sent 6 regiments into the Grand - Anse to ferret out Goman. The black rebel was trapped and shot off a 1,000 - foot - high cliff. In 1820, the island nation was finally reunified when Christophe, ill and surrounded by new rebellions, killed himself. Boyer with 20,000 troops marched into Cap - Haïtien, the northern capital, shortly afterward to establish his power over all of Haiti.
Under the presidency of Jean - Pierre Boyer, Haiti made reparations to French slaveholders in 1825 in the amount of 150 million francs, reduced in 1838 to 60 million francs. This payment was due in exchange for French recognition of its independence. By an order of 17 April 1825, the King of France renounced his rights of sovereignty over Santo Domingo, and recognized the independence of Haiti. Boyer believed that the constant threat of a French invasion was stymieing the Haitian economy and thus felt the need to settle the matter once and for all. The negotiations for the indemnity were rather one sided however as French warships were anchored off the coast. The resulting indemnity bankrupted the Haitian treasury. Haiti was therefore forced to take out a loan from French banks, who provided the funds for the large first installment, severely affecting Haiti 's ability to prosper. Haitian forces, led by Boyer, invaded neighboring Dominican Republic in February 1822 -- beginning a 22 - year occupation.
The end of the Haitian Revolution in 1804 marked the end of colonialism on the island. However, the social conflict cultivated under slavery continued to affect the population for years to come. The revolution left in place the affranchi élite, who continued to rule Haiti while the formidable Haitian army kept them in power. France continued the slavery system in French Guiana, Martinique, and Guadeloupe.
The 1804 massacre was carried out against the remaining white population of French colonists and loyalists, both enemies and traitors of the revolution, by the black population of Haiti on the order of Jean - Jacques Dessalines, who declared the French as barbarians, demanding their expulsion and vengeance for their crimes. The massacre -- which took place in the entire territory of Haiti -- was carried out from early February 1804 until 22 April 1804. During February and March, Dessalines traveled among the cities of Haiti to assure himself that his orders were carried out. Despite his orders, the massacres were often not carried out until he personally visited the cities.
The course of the massacre showed an almost identical pattern in every city he visited. Before his arrival, there were only a few killings, despite his orders. When Dessalines arrived, he first spoke about the atrocities committed by former French authorities, such as Rochambeau and Leclerc, after which he demanded that his orders about mass killings of the area 's French population be carried out. Reportedly, he also ordered the unwilling to take part in the killings, especially men of mixed race, so that blame would not rest solely on the black population. Mass killings then took place on the streets and on places outside the cities. In parallel to the killings, plundering and rape also occurred.
Women and children were generally killed last. White women were "often raped or pushed into forced marriages under threat of death ''.
By the end of April 1804, some 3,000 to 5,000 persons had been killed practically eradicating the country 's white population. Dessalines had specifically stated that France is "the real enemy of the new nation. '' This allowed certain categories of whites to be excluded from massacre who had to pledge their rejection to France: the Polish soldiers who deserted from the French army; the group of German colonists of Nord - Ouest who were inhabitants before the revolution; French widows who were allowed to keep their property; select male Frenchmen; and a group of medical doctors and professionals. Reportedly, also people with connections to Haitian notables were spared, as well as the women who agreed to marry non-white men. In the 1805 constitution that declared all its citizens as black, it specifically mentions the naturalizations of German and Polish peoples enacted by the government, as being exempt from Article XII that prohibited whites ("non-Haitians; '' foreigners) from owning land.
Historians continue to debate the importance of the Haitian Revolution. David Geggus asks: "How much of a difference did it make? '' A limited amount, he concludes, for slavery flourished in the western hemisphere for many more decades.
Other historians say the Haitian Revolution influenced slave rebellions in the U.S. as well as in British colonies. The biggest slave revolt in U.S. history was the 1811 German Coast Uprising in Louisiana. This slave rebellion was put down and the punishment the slaves received was so severe that no contemporary news reports about it exist. The neighboring revolution brought the slavery question to the forefront of U.S. politics, and the resulting intensification of racial divides and sectional politics ended the idealism of the Revolutionary period. The American President Thomas Jefferson -- who was a slaveholder himself -- refused to establish diplomatic relations with Haiti (the United States did not recognize Haiti until 1862) and imposed an economic embargo on trade with Haiti that also lasted until 1862 in an attempt to ensure the economic failure of the new republic as Jefferson wanted Haiti to fail, regarding a successful slave revolt in the West Indies as a dangerous example for American slaves.
Beginning during the slave insurrections of 1791, white refugees from Saint - Domingue fled to the United States, particularly to Philadelphia, Baltimore, New York, and Charleston. The immigration intensified after the journée (crisis) of June 20, 1793, and soon American families began to raise money and open up their homes to help exiles in what became the United States ' first refugee crisis. While some white refugees blamed the French Revolutionary government for sparking the violence in Haiti, many supported the Republican regime and openly expressed their support of the Jacobins. There is also some historical evidence suggesting that displaying solidarity with the French Revolution was the easiest way for the refugees to earn the support and sympathy of the Americans, who had just recently lived through their own revolution. American slaveholders, in particular, commiserated with the French planters who had been forcibly removed from their plantations in Saint - Domingue. While the exiles found themselves in a peaceful situation in the United States -- safe from the violence raging in both France and Haiti -- their presence complicated the already precarious diplomatic relations among the UK, France, and the U.S.
Many of the whites and free people of color who left Saint - Domingue for the United States settled in southern Louisiana, adding many new members to its French - speaking, mixed - race, and black populations. The exiles causing the greatest amount of alarm were the African slaves who came with their refugee owners. Some southern planters grew concerned that the presence of these slaves who had witnessed the revolution in Haiti would ignite similar revolts in the United States. Other planters, however, were confident they had the situation under control.
In 1807 Haiti was divided into two parts, the Republic of Haiti in the south, and the Kingdom of Haiti in the north. Land could not be privately owned; it reverted to the State through Biens Nationaux (national bonds), and no French whites could own land. The remaining French settlers were forced to leave the island. Those who refused were slaughtered. The Haitian State owned up to 90 % of the land and the other 10 % was leased in 5 - year intervals.
Since the resistance and the murderous disease environment made it impossible for Napoleon to regain control over Haiti, he gave up hope of rebuilding a French New World empire. He decided to sell Louisiana to the U.S. The Haitian Revolution brought about two unintended consequences: the creation of a continental America and the virtual end of Napoleonic rule in the Americas.
There never again was such a large - scale slave rebellion. Napoleon reversed the French abolition of slavery in law, constitution, and practice, which had occurred between 1793 and 1801, and reinstated slavery in the French colonies in 1801 -- 1803 -- which lasted until 1848.
The revolution of African slaves brought many fears to colonies surrounding Haiti and the Caribbean. Prominent wealthy American slave owners, reading about the revolution, also read speculation about what might come in their own states. However, newspapers like the Colombian Centinel took the extra steps to support the revolution, in the sense that it was based on the foundations of the American Revolution. The French media also played an important role in the Haitian Revolution, with contributions that made many French upstarts quite interested in the young, passionate Toussaint 's writings of freedom.
However, all was not simple in the press. A top critic who significantly drove Toussaint into fear of backlash from France was Sonthonax, who was responsible for many outlooks of Haiti in the French newspapers. Yet Sonthonax was one of the few contenders who truly pushed for the independence of the African slaves and became a major factor in Toussaint 's decision of declaring independence from France.
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who played the main character in polar express | The Polar Express (film) - Wikipedia
The Polar Express is a 2004 American 3D computer - animated Christmas musical fantasy film based on the 1985 children 's book of the same name by Chris Van Allsburg, who also served as one of the executive producers on the film. Written, produced, and directed by Robert Zemeckis, the film features human characters animated using live action motion capture animation.
The film stars Daryl Sabara, Nona Gaye, Jimmy Bennett, and Eddie Deezen, with Tom Hanks in six distinct roles. The film also included a performance by Tinashe at age 9, who later gained exposure as a pop singer in the 2010s, as the CGI - model for the female protagonist.
Castle Rock Entertainment produced the film in association with Shangri - La Entertainment, ImageMovers, Playtone, and Golden Mean for Warner Bros. Pictures, as Castle Rock 's first animated production. The visual effects and performance capture were done at Sony Pictures Imageworks. The film was made with a budget of $165 million, a record - breaking sum for an animated feature at the time.
The film was released in both conventional and IMAX 3D theaters on November 10, 2004. It grossed $309 million worldwide, and was later listed in the 2006 Guinness World Book of Records as the first all - digital capture film. The film also marks Michael Jeter 's last acting role before his death, and the film was thus dedicated to his memory.
On the night of Christmas Eve, a Grand Rapids, Michigan boy is growing bitterly skeptical of the existence of Santa Claus. As he struggles to sleep, he is roused by the arrival of a steam locomotive on the street outside his home, and dons his robe to investigate, tearing the robe 's pocket as he retrieves it. Outside, the train 's conductor (Tom Hanks) introduces the train as the Polar Express, bound for the North Pole. The boy initially declines to board, but jumps aboard the train as it pulls away.
In a passenger car, he befriends a spirited and amicable girl, and a condescending know - it - all. The train stops to pick up an impoverished child, Billy, who also declines to board; Billy changes his mind, and the boy applies the emergency brake to allow him to catch up to the train, much to the conductor 's chagrin. As Billy sits alone in the train 's rear dining car, hot chocolate is served in the passenger car, and the girl saves her hot chocolate for Billy. As she and the conductor cross to the dining car, the boy notices she left her ticket behind unpunched, but loses hold of the ticket between the cars when he attempts to return it. The ticket reenters the passenger car, but not before the conductor notices its absence and escorts the girl back to the rear car.
The know - it - all claims that the conductor will jettison the girl from the back of the train; the boy recovers the ticket and dashes to the dining car in search of the conductor, climbing onto the roof from the rear platform. He meets a hobo camping on the roof, who offers him coffee and discusses the existence of Santa Claus and belief in ghosts. The hobo skis with the boy along the tops of the cars towards the train 's coal tender, where the hobo disappears. Here, the boy discovers that the girl has been made to supervise the locomotive while engineers Steamer and Smokey replace the train 's headlight. The train is forced to stop while the conductor disperses a herd of caribou, whereupon the engineers return to the cabin and the boy, girl and conductor remain on the catwalk on the front of the locomotive. The throttle 's split pin sheers off, causing the train to accelerate uncontrollably down a 179 - degree grade and onto a frozen lake, where the engineers repair the throttle with a hairpin and drift the train to realign it with the tracks. The boy returns the girl 's ticket, and as the three return to the passenger car, the boy is accosted by an Ebenezer Scrooge marionette (controlled by the hobo), taunting him and calling him a doubter.
The train finally arrives at the North Pole, where the conductor announces that one of the passengers will be chosen to receive the first gift of Christmas, from Santa himself. The girl discovers Billy still alone in the rear car, and she and the boy persuade him to come along; however, the boy accidentally unhitches the car, sending it back along the line to a railway turntable in Santa 's workshop. The children sneak through an elf command center and a gift sorting office before accidentally being dumped into Santa 's sack, where they discover that the know - it - all stowed away along with them, hoping to open his Christmas presents early. The elves rescue them as Santa arrives, and the boy grows frustrated, unable to see Santa through the crowd. A jingle bell flies loose from the galloping reindeers ' reins; the boy initially can not hear it ring, until he finds it within himself to believe. He returns the bell to Santa as he passes, and Santa selects the boy to receive the first gift of Christmas. The boy asks to keep the jingle bell, and places it in his robe pocket.
Four of the elves use a handcar to trundle the wayward passenger car back to the train as the children all board the Polar Express to return home, but the then boy discovers that the pocket was torn and that the bell had fallen out. He returns home and awakens Christmas morning to find a present containing the bell. He holds it to his ear and shakes it; his parents, not believing in Santa, lament how the bell is "broken ''.
The buildings at the North Pole refer to a number of buildings related to American railroading history. The buildings in the square at the city 's center are loosely based on the Pullman Factory in Chicago 's Pullman neighborhood.
The locomotive featured in the film is an American 2 - 8 - 4 Berkshire type steam locomotive, with a cowcatcher, modeled after the Pere Marquette 1225, which had spent many years on static display near Spartan Stadium in East Lansing, Michigan on the campus of Michigan State University, where Chris Van Allsburg recalled playing on the engine when attending football games as a child.
In July 2002, Warner Bros. approached the engine 's owner, the Steam Railroading Institute, to study the engine. The engine in the film is modeled from the PM # 1225 's drawings and the sounds from recordings made of the 1225 operating under steam. The whistle, however, was taken from Sierra Railway # 3.
In addition to standard theatrical 35mm format, a 3 - D version for IMAX was also released, generated from the same 3 - D digital models used for the standard version.
The film was released on DVD as separated widescreen and full - screen versions in single and two - disc special editions (with bonus features) and on VHS on November 22, 2005, one year after the film came out. It was released on Blu - ray with bonus features and presented in the original widescreen aspect ratio on October 30, 2007.
On Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating to reviews, the film has a weighted average score of 61 out of 100 based on 36 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 55 % based on 202 reviews, with an average rating of 6.4 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Though the movie is visually stunning overall, the animation for the human characters is n't lifelike enough, and the story is padded. '' Despite the polarized reception from critics, The Polar Express has been popular among audiences. The Independent reported in 2011 that the film "is now seen by many as a classic ''. CinemaScore reported that audiences gave the film a rare "A + '' grade.
Roger Ebert gave the film his highest rating of four stars, saying, "There 's a deeper, shivery tone, instead of the mindless jolliness of the usual Christmas movie. '' And "It has a haunting, magical quality... '' Acknowledging comments by other reviewers, Ebert said, "It 's a little creepy. Not creepy in an unpleasant way, but in that sneaky, teasing way that lets you know eerie things could happen. '' Richard Roeper gave a glowing review to the film as well, saying that it "remains true to the book, right down to the bittersweet final image. '' James Berardinelli gave it a 3.5 / 4, stating that it is "a delightful tale guaranteed to enthrall viewers of all ages '', and ranked it as the 10th best film of 2004.
The character design and animation were criticized for dipping into the uncanny valley. Peter Travers of Rolling Stone gave the film a 1 out of 4 stars, and called it "a failed and lifeless experiment in which everything goes wrong ''. Stephanie Zacharek of Salon gave the film 1.5 stars out of 5 and said, "I could probably have tolerated the incessant jitteriness of The Polar Express if the look of it did n't give me the creeps. '' Geoff Pevere of the Toronto Star stated, "If I were a child, I 'd have nightmares. Come to think of it, I did anyway. '' Paul Clinton from CNN called it "at best disconcerting, and at worst, a wee bit horrifying ''.
The film opened at # 2 and earned $23,323,463 from approximately 7,000 screens at 3,650 theaters, for a per - theater average of $6,390 and a per - screen average of $3,332 in its opening weekend. It also brought in a total of $30,629,146 since its Wednesday launch. The weekend total also included $2,100,000 from 59 IMAX theaters, for an IMAX theater average of $35,593, and had a $3,000,000 take since Wednesday. In its second weekend, it grossed another $15,668,101, averaging $4,293 from 3,650 venues and boosting the 12 - day cumulative to $51,463,282 and over Thanksgiving weekend made another $19,389,927, averaging $5,312 from 3,650 venues and raising the 19 - day cumulative to $81,479,861. The film has made $185,618,322 domestically (including IMAX re-releases), and $124,140,582 overseas for a total worldwide gross of $309,758,904.
The film had its network TV premiere on ABC, December 1, 2006. The airing brought in 13.2 million viewers, winning its timeslot and ranking 20th in the Nielsen ratings that week, according to TVTango.com.
The film was nominated for three Academy Awards:
The film was nominated at the 3rd Visual Effects Society Awards in the category of "Outstanding Performance by an Animated Character in an Animated Motion Picture. ''
In 2008, the American Film Institute nominated The Polar Express for its Top 10 Animated Films list.
In November 2007, SeaWorld Orlando debuted the Polar Express Experience, a Motion Simulator ride based on the film. The attraction is a temporary replacement for the Wild Arctic attraction. The building housing the attraction was also temporarily re-themed to a railroad station and ride vehicles painted to resemble Polar Express passenger cars. The plot for the ride revolves around a trip to the North Pole on Christmas Eve. Guests feel the motion of the locomotive as well as the swinging of the train on ice and feeling of ice crumbling beneath them. The attraction was available until January 1, 2008, and is now open annually during the Christmas season.
The 4D film, distributed by SimEx - Iwerks, has been shown at other amusement parks around the world including Cincinnati Zoo and Botanical Garden, Dollywood (during the annual Smoky Mountain Christmas event), Vancouver Aquarium (2009 -- 2010), and Warner Bros. Movie World (during the White Christmas events in 2010 and 2011).
A video game based on the film was released on November 26, 2004 for GameCube, Game Boy Advance, PlayStation 2 and Windows, developed by Blue Tongue Entertainment and published by THQ. The plot of the game is more different than the film version. Within this time, the Ebenezer Scrooge puppet who is set as the main antagonist of the game, attempts to prevent the children from believing in Santa Claus by stealing their tickets and trying to stop the children for reaching the North Pole.
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what is the meaning of indian national anthem | Jana Gana Mana - Wikipedia
Jana Gana Mana is the national anthem of India. It is composed in Bengali by poet Rabindranath Tagore.. The composition consisting of the words and music of the first stanza of the late poet Rabindra Nath Tagore 's song known as "Jana Gana Mana '' is the National Anthem of India.
The song 's Hindi version was adopted by the Constituent Assembly of India as the National Anthem on 24 January 1950. A formal rendition of the national anthem takes approximately fifty - two seconds. A shortened version consisting of the first and last lines (and taking about 20 seconds to play) is also staged occasionally. It was first publicly sung on 27 December 1911 at the Calcutta (now, Kolkata) Session of the Indian National Congress. This is the first of five stanzas of Tagore 's Bengali song Bharot Bhagyo Bidhata.
The poem is written in a literary register of the Bengali language called sadhu bhasa. The song has been written almost entirely using nouns that also can function as verbs. Most of the nouns of the song are in use in all major languages in India. Therefore, the original song is quite clearly understandable, and in fact, remains almost unchanged in several widely different Indian languages. The transcription below reflects the Bengali pronunciation, in both the Bengali script and romanisation.
জনগণমন - অধিনায়ক জয় হে ভারতভাগ্যবিধাতা! পঞ্জাব সিন্ধু গুজরাট মরাঠা দ্রাবিড় উৎকল বঙ্গ বিন্ধ্য হিমাচল যমুনা গঙ্গা উচ্ছলজলধিতরঙ্গ তব শুভ নামে জাগে, তব শুভ আশিষ মাগে, গাহে তব জয়গাথা । জনগণমঙ্গলদায়ক জয় হে ভারতভাগ্যবিধাতা! জয় হে, জয় হে, জয় হে, জয় জয় জয় জয় হে ॥
Janagaṇamana - adhināẏaka jaẏa hē Bhāratabhāgyabidhātā! Pañjāba Sindhu Gujarāta Marāṭhā Drābiṛa Utkala Baṅga Bindhya Himācala Yamunā Gaṅgā Ucchalajaladhitaraṅga Taba śubha nāmē jāgē, Taba śubha āśiṣa māgē, Gāhē taba jaẏagāthā. Janagaṇamaṅgaladāẏaka jaẏa hē Bhāratabhāgyabidhātā! Jaẏa hē, jaẏa hē, jaẏa hē, jaẏa jaẏa jaẏa jaẏa hē.
जनगणमन अधिनायक जय हे, भारतभाग्यविधाता । पंजाब सिन्धु गुजरात मराठा, द्राविड़ उत्कल बंग । विंध्य हिमाचल यमुना गंगा, उच्छल जलधि तरंग । तव शुभ नामे जागे, तव शुभ आशिष मागे । गाहे तव जयगाथा । जनगणमंगलदायक जय हे, भारतभाग्यविधाता । जय हे, जय हे, जय हे, जय जय जय जय हे ॥
Jana - gana - mana - adhinayaka jaya he Bharata - bhagya - vidhata Panjaba - Sindhu - Gujarata - Maratha Dravida - Utkala - Banga Vindhya - Himachala - Yamuna - Ganga uchchala - jaladhi - taranga Tava Subha name jage, tave subha asisa mage, gahe tava jaya - gatha. Jana - gana - mangala - dayaka jaya he Bharata - bhagya - vidhata. Jaya he, Jaya he, Jaya he, jaya jaya jaya jaya he.
Thou art the ruler of the minds of all people, Dispenser of India 's destiny. Thy name rouses the hearts of Punjab, Sindhu, Gujarat and Maratha, Of the Dravida and Orissa and Bengal; It echoes in the hills of the Vindhyas and Himalayas, mingles in the music of Jamuna and Ganges and is chanted by the waves of the Indian Sea. They pray for thy blessings and sing Thy praise. The saving of all people waits in thy hand, Thou dispenser of India 's destiny. Victory, Victory, Victory to Thee.
Jana Gana Mana was sung on 27 December 1911 at the Indian National Congress, Calcutta and again in January 1912 at the annual event of the Adi Brahmo Samaj. Though the Bengali song had been written in 1911, it was largely unknown except to the readers of the Adi Brahmo Samaj journal, Tattwabodhini Patrika, of which Tagore was the editor.
The National Anthem of India is played or sung on various occasions. Instructions have been issued from time to time about the correct versions of the Anthem, the occasions on which these are to be played or sung, and about the need for paying respect to the anthem by observance of proper decorum on such occasions. The substance of these instructions has been embodied in the information sheet issued by the government of India for general information and guidance. The approximate duration of the National Anthem of India is 52 seconds.
In Kerala, students belonging to the Jehovah 's Witnesses religious denomination were expelled by school authorities for their refusal to sing the national anthem on religious grounds, although they stood up respectfully when the anthem was sung. The Kerala High Court concluded that there was nothing in it which could offend anyone 's religious susceptibilities, and upheld their expulsion. On 11 August 1986, the Supreme Court reversed the High Court and ruled that the High Court had misdirected itself because the question is not whether a particular religious belief or practice appeals to our reason or sentiment but whether the belief is genuinely and conscientiously held as part of the profession or practice of a religion. "Our personal views and reactions are irrelevant '' The Supreme Court affirmed the principle that it is not for a secular judge to sit in judgment on the correctness of a religious belief.
Supreme Court observed in its ruling
"There is no provision of law which obliges anyone to sing the National Anthem nor is it disrespectful to the National Anthem if a person who stands up respectfully when the National Anthem is sung does not join the singing. Proper respect is shown to the National Anthem by standing up when the National Anthem is sung. It will not be right to say that disrespect is shown by not joining in the singing. Standing up respectfully when the National Anthem is sung but not singing oneself clearly does not either prevent the singing of the National Anthem or cause disturbance to an assembly engaged in such singing so as to constitute the offence mentioned in s. 3 of the Prevention of Insults to National Honour Act ''.
On 30 November 2016, Supreme Court of India ordered National Anthem must be played before movies in theaters, in order to instill "committed patriotism and nationalism ''. On February 10, 2017, 2 Kashmiris were booked for not standing during anthem in Jammu Cinema, under provisions of the Prevention of Insults to National Honour Act, 1971. This was the first arrest of its kind made by a state government in India.
The composition was first sung during a convention of the then loyalist Indian National Congress in Calcutta on 27 December 1911. It was sung on the second day of the convention, and the agenda of that day devoted itself to a loyal welcome of George V on his visit to India. The event was reported thus in the British Indian press:
"The Bengali poet Rabindranath Tagore sang a song composed by him specially to welcome the Emperor. '' (Statesman, Dec. 28, 1911)
Many historians aver that the newspaper reports cited above were misguided. The confusion arose in British Indian press since a different song, "Badshah Humara '' written in Hindi by Rambhuj Chaudhary, was sung on the same occasion in praise of the monarch. The nationalist Indian press stated this difference of events clearly:
"The proceedings of the Congress party session started with a prayer in Bengali to praise God (song of benediction). This was followed by a resolution expressing loyalty to King George V. Then another song was sung welcoming King George V. '' (Amrita Bazar Patrika, Dec. 28, 1911)
Even the report of the annual session of the Indian National Congress of December 1911 stated this difference:
"On the first day of 28th annual session of the Congress, proceedings started after singing Vande Mataram. On the second day the work began after singing a patriotic song by Babu Ravindranath Tagore. Messages from well wishers were then read and a resolution was passed expressing loyalty to King George V. Afterwards the song composed for welcoming King George V and Queen Mary was sung. ''
On 10 November 1937 Tagore wrote a letter to Mr Pulin Bihari Sen about the controversy. That letter in Bengali can be found in Tagore 's biography Ravindrajivani, volume II page 339 by Prabhatkumar Mukherjee.
"A certain high official in His Majesty 's service, who was also my friend, had requested that I write a song of felicitation towards the Emperor. The request simply amazed me. It caused a great stir in my heart. In response to that great mental turmoil, I pronounced the victory in Jana Gana Mana of that Bhagya Bidhata (ed. God of Destiny) of India who has from age after age held steadfast the reins of India 's chariot through rise and fall, through the straight path and the curved. That Lord of Destiny, that Reader of the Collective Mind of India, that Perennial Guide, could never be George V, George VI, or any other George. Even my official friend understood this about the song. After all, even if his admiration for the crown was excessive, he was not lacking in simple common sense. ''
Again in his letter of 19 March 1939 Tagore writes:
"I should only insult myself if I cared to answer those who consider me capable of such unbounded stupidity as to sing in praise of George the Fourth or George the Fifth as the Eternal Charioteer leading the pilgrims on their journey through countless ages of the timeless history of mankind. '' (Purvasa, Phalgun, 1354, p. 738.)
Moreover, Tagore was hailed as a patriot who wrote other songs too apart from "Jana Gana Mana '' lionising the Indian independence movement. He renounced his knighthood in protest against the 1919 Jallianwala Bagh Massacre. The Knighthood (i.e. the title of ' Sir ') was conferred on him by the same King George V after receiving the Nobel Prize in Literature for "Gitanjali '' from the government of Sweden. Two of Tagore 's more politically charged compositions, "Chitto Jetha Bhayshunyo '' ("Where the Mind is Without Fear '', Gitanjali Poem # 35) and "Ekla Chalo Re '' ("If They Answer Not to Thy Call, Walk Alone ''), gained mass appeal, with the latter favoured by Gandhi and Netaji.
Another controversy is that only those provinces that were under British rule, i.e. Punjab, Sindh, Gujarat, Maratha, Dravid (South India), Odisha and Bengal, were mentioned. None of the princely states -- Kashmir, Rajasthan, Hyderabad, Mysore or Kerala -- or the states in Northeast India, which are now integral parts of India were mentioned. But opponents of this proposition claim that Tagore mentioned only the border states of India to include complete India. Whether the princely states would form a part of a liberated Indian republic was a matter of debate even till Indian Independence. ' Dravida ' includes the people from the south (though Dravida specifically means Tamil and even then, the same consideration is not given for the south since there are many distinct people whereas in the north each of the distinct people are named) and ' Jolodhi ' (Stanza 1) is Sanskrit for "seas and oceans ''. Even North - East which was under British rule or holy rivers apart from Ganges and Yamuna are not mentioned to keep the song in its rhythm. India has 29 states, 7 union territories.
In 2005, there were calls to delete the word "Sindh '' and substitute it with the word Kashmir. The argument was that Sindh was no longer a part of India, having become part of Pakistan as a result of the Partition of 1947. Opponents of this proposal hold that the word "Sindh '' refers to the Indus and to Sindhi culture, and that Sindhi people are an integral part of India 's cultural fabric. The Supreme Court of India declined to change the national anthem and the wording remains unchanged.
On 17 December 2013, MLA of Assam, Phani bhushan Choudhury cited article of ' The Times of India ' published on 26 January 1950, stating that in the originally the word ' Kamarup ' was included in the song, but was later changed to ' Sindhu ' and claimed that Kamarup should be re-included. To this, the then minister Rockybul Hussain replied that the state government would initiate steps in this regard after response from the newspaper. The debate was further joined by the then minister Ardhendu Dey, mentioning ' Sanchayita ' (edited by Tagore himself) etc. where he said Kamrup was not mentioned.
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which of the following has been a result of greater reliance on coalition governments | Coalition government - wikipedia
A coalition government is a cabinet of a parliamentary government in which multiple political parties cooperate, reducing the dominance of any one party within that coalition. The usual reason for this arrangement is that no party on its own can achieve a majority in the parliament. A coalition government might also be created in a time of national difficulty or crisis (for example, during wartime or economic crisis) to give a government the high degree of perceived political legitimacy or collective identity it desires while also playing a role in diminishing internal political strife. In such times, parties have formed all - party coalitions (national unity governments, grand coalitions). If a coalition collapses, a confidence vote is held or a motion of no confidence is taken.
When a general election does not produce a clear majority for a single party, parties either form coalition cabinets, supported by a parliamentary majority, or minority cabinets which may consist of one or more parties. Cabinets based on a group of parties that command a majority in parliament tend to be more stable and long - lived than minority cabinets. While the former are prone to internal struggles, they have less reason to fear votes of no confidence. Majority governments based on a single party are typically even more stable, as long as their majority can be maintained.
Countries which often operate with coalition cabinets include: the Nordic countries, the Benelux countries, Australia, Austria, Cyprus, France, Germany, Greece, India, Indonesia, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Japan, Kenya, Kosovo, Latvia, Lebanon, Nepal, New Zealand, Pakistan, Thailand, Trinidad and Tobago, Turkey and Ukraine. Switzerland has been ruled by a coalition of the four strongest parties in parliament from 1959 to 2008, called the "Magic Formula ''. Between 2010 and 2015, the United Kingdom also operated a formal coalition between the Conservative and the Liberal Democrat parties, but this was unusual: the UK usually has a single - party majority government.
In the United Kingdom, coalition governments (sometimes known as "national governments '') usually have only been formed at times of national crisis. All six coalition governments in the last 120 years have involved the Liberal and Conservative parties. The most prominent was the National Government of 1931 to 1940. There were multi-party coalitions during both world wars. Apart from this, when no party has had a majority, minority governments normally have been formed with one or more opposition parties agreeing to vote in favour of the legislation which governments need to function: for instance the Labour government of James Callaghan came to an agreement with the Liberals in 1977 when it lost the narrow majority it had gained in the October 1974 election. However, in the run - up to the 1997 general election, Labour opposition leader Tony Blair was in talks with Liberal Democrat leader Paddy Ashdown about forming a coalition government if Labour failed to win a majority at the election; but there proved to be no need for a coalition as Labour won the election by a landslide. The 2010 general election resulted in a hung parliament (Britain 's first for 36 years), and the Conservatives, led by David Cameron, which had won the largest number of seats, formed a coalition with the Liberal Democrats in order to gain a parliamentary majority, ending 13 years of Labour government. This was the first time that the Conservatives and Lib Dems had made a power - sharing deal at Westminster. It was also the first full coalition in Britain since 1945, having been formed 70 years virtually to the day after the establishment of Winston Churchill 's wartime coalition, although there had been a "Lib - Lab pact '', an agreement stopping well short of a coalition, between the Labour and Liberal parties, from March 1977 until July 1978, after a series of by - election defeats had eroded Labour 's majority of three seats which had been gained at the October 1974 election.
In Germany, for instance, coalition government is the norm, as it is rare for either the Christian Democratic Union of Germany together with their partners the Christian Social Union in Bavaria (CDU / CSU), or the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD), to win an unqualified majority in a national election. Thus, at the federal level, governments are formed with at least two parties. For example, Helmut Kohl 's CDU governed for years in coalition with the Free Democratic Party (FDP); from 1998 to 2005 Gerhard Schröder 's SPD was in power with the Greens; and from 2009 Angela Merkel, CDU / CSU was in power with the FDP.
"Grand coalitions '' of the two large parties also occur, but these are relatively rare, as large parties usually prefer to associate with small ones. However, if none of the larger parties can receive enough votes to form their preferred coalition, a grand coalition might be their only choice for forming a government. This was the situation in Germany in 2005 when Angela Merkel became Chancellor: in early elections, the CDU / CSU did not garner enough votes to form a majority coalition with the FDP; similarly the SPD and Greens did not have enough votes to continue with their formerly ruling coalition. A grand coalition government was subsequently forged between the CDU / CSU and the SPD. Partnerships like these typically involve carefully structured cabinets. The CDU / CSU ended up holding the Chancellory while the SPD took the majority of cabinet posts.
In Germany, coalitions rarely consist of more than two parties (CDU and CSU, two allies which always form a single caucus, are in this regard considered a single party).
In federal Australian politics, the conservative Liberal, National, Country Liberal and Liberal National parties are united in a coalition, known simply as the Coalition. The Coalition has become so stable, at least at the federal level, that in practice the lower house of Parliament has become a two - party house, with the Coalition and the Labor Party being the major parties. This coalition is also found in the states of New South Wales and Victoria. In South Australia and Western Australia the Liberal and National parties compete separately, while in the Northern Territory and Queensland the two parties have merged, forming the Country Liberal Party, in 1978, and the Liberal National Party, in 2008, respectively.
The other federal coalition has been:
In Belgium, where there are separate Dutch - speaking and French - speaking parties for each political grouping, coalition cabinets of up to six parties are common.
In Canada, the Great Coalition was formed in 1864 by the Clear Grits, Parti bleu, and Liberal - Conservative Party. During the First World War, Prime Minister Robert Borden attempted to form a coalition with the opposition Liberals to broaden support for controversial conscription legislation. The Liberal Party refused the offer but some of their members did cross the floor and join the government. Although sometimes referred to as a coalition government, according to the definition above, it was not. It was disbanded after the end of the war.
In British Columbia, the governing Liberals formed a coalition with the opposition Conservatives in order to prevent the surging, left - wing Cooperative Commonwealth Federation from taking power in the British Columbia general election, 1941. Liberal premier Duff Pattullo refused to form a coalition with the third - place Conservatives, so his party removed him. The Liberal -- Conservative coalition introduced a winner - take - all preferential voting system (the "Alternative Vote '') in the hopes that their supporters would rank the other party as their second preference; however, this strategy did not take CCF second preferences into account. In the British Columbia general election, 1952, to the surprise of many, the right - wing populist BC Social Credit Party won a minority. They were able to win a majority in the subsequent election as Liberal and Conservative supporters shifted their anti-CCF vote to Social Credit.
Manitoba has had more formal coalition governments than any other province. Following gains by the United Farmer 's / Progressive movement elsewhere in the country, the United Farmers of Manitoba unexpectedly won the 1921 election. Like their counterparts in Ontario, they had not expected to win and did not have a leader. They asked John Bracken, a professor in animal husbandry, to become leader and premier. Bracken changed the party 's name to the Progressive Party of Manitoba. During the Great Depression, Bracken survived at a time when other premiers were being defeated by forming a coalition government with the Manitoba Liberals (eventually, the two parties would merge into the Liberal - Progressive Party of Manitoba, and decades later, the party would change its name to the Manitoba Liberal Party). In 1940, Bracken formed a wartime coalition government with almost every party in the Manitoba Legislature (the Conservatives, CCF, and Social Credit; however, the CCF broke with the coalition after a few years over policy differences). The only party not included was the small, communist Labor - Progressive Party, which had a handful of seats.
In Saskatchewan, NDP premier Roy Romanow formed a formal coalition with the Saskatchewan Liberals in 1999 after being reduced to a minority. After two years, the newly elected Liberal leader Jim Melanchuk chose to withdraw from the coalition; however, 2 out of 3 members of his caucus disagreed with him and left the Liberals to run as New Democrats in the upcoming election. The Saskatchewan NDP was re-elected with a majority under its new leader Lorne Calvert, while the Saskatchewan Liberals lost their remaining seats and have not been competitive in the province since.
According to historian Christopher Moore, coalition governments in Canada became much less possible in 1919, when the leaders of parties were no longer chosen by elected MPs but instead began to be chosen by party members. That kind of leadership selection process had never been tried in any parliament system before and remains uncommon in the parliaments of the world today. According to Moore, as long as that kind of leadership selection process remains in place and concentrates power in the hands of the leader, as opposed to backbenchers, then coalition governments will be very difficult to form. Moore shows that the diffusion of power within a party tends to also lead to a diffusion of power in the parliament in which that party operates, thereby making coalitions more likely.
During the 2008 Canadian parliamentary dispute, two of Canada 's opposition parties signed an agreement to form what would become the country 's second coalition government since Confederation if the minority Conservative government was defeated on a vote of non-confidence, unseating Stephen Harper as Prime Minister. The agreement outlined a formal coalition consisting of two opposition parties, the Liberal Party and the New Democratic Party. The Bloc Québécois agreed to support the proposed coalition on confidence matters for 18 months. In the end, parliament was prorogued by the Governor General, and the coalition dispersed following the election.
In Denmark, all governments from 1982 until the June 2015 elections have been coalitions. The first coalition in Danish political history was formed in 1929 by Thorvald Stauning and consisted of the Social Democrats (Staunings own party) and the Social Liberals. Since then, a number of parties have participated in coalitions.
Excluding the post-WW2 Liberation Cabinet 's member parties, the following parties have done so: The Centre Democrats, the Christian People 's Party, the Conservative People 's Party, the Retsforbund, the Social Democrats, the Socialist People 's Party, the Social Liberal Party, and Venstre.
In Finland, no party has had an absolute majority in the parliament since independence, and multi-party coalitions have been the norm. Finland experienced its most stable government (Lipponen I and II) since independence with a five - party governing coalition, a so - called "rainbow government ''. The Lipponen cabinets set the stability record and were unusual in the respect that both moderate (SDP) and radical left wing (Left Alliance) parties sat in the government with the major right - wing party (National Coalition). The Katainen cabinet was also a rainbow coalition of a total of five parties.
Since India 's Independence on 15 August 1947, Indian National Congress, the major political party instrumental in Indian Independence Movement, ruled the nation. The first Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru, second PM Lal Bahadur Shastri and the third PM Indira Gandhi, all were from the Congress party. However, Raj Narain, who had unsuccessfully contested election against Indira from the constituency of Rae Bareilly in 1971, lodged a case, alleging electoral malpractices. In June 1975, Indira was found guilty and barred by High Court from holding public office for six years. In response, an ungracious Emergency was declared under the pretext of national security. The next election 's result was that India 's first - ever coalition government was formed at the national level under the Prime Ministership of Morarji Desai, which was also the first non-Congress national government, which existed from 24 March 1977 to 15 July 1979, headed by the Janata Party, an amalgam of political parties opposed to Emergency imposed between 1975 and 1977. As the popularity of Janata Party dwindled, Morarji Desai had to resign and Charan Singh, a rival of Desai became the fifth PM. However, due to lack of support, this coalition government did not complete its five - year term.
Congress returned to the power in 1980 under Indira Gandhi, and later under Rajiv Gandhi as the 6th PM. However, the next general election of 1989 once again brought a coalition government under National Front, which lasted till 1991, with two Prime Ministers, the second one being supported by Congress. The 1991 election resulted in a Congress led stable minority government for five years. The next 11th parliament produced three Prime Ministers in two years and forced the country back to the polls in 1998. The first successful coalition government in India which completed the whole 5 - year term was the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) led National Democratic Alliance with Atal Bihari Vajpayee as PM from 1999 to 2004. Then another coalition, Congress led United Progressive Alliance, consisting of 13 separate parties ruled India for two terms from 2004 to 2014 with Manmohan Singh as PM. However, in the 16th general election in May 2014, BJP secured majority on its own (first party to do so since 1984 election) and National Democratic Alliance again came into power, with Narendra Modi as Prime Minister and more.
As a result of the toppling of Suharto, political freedom is significantly increased. Compared to only three parties allowed to exist in the New Order era, a total of 48 political parties participated in the 1999 election, a total of 24 parties in the 2004 election, 38 parties in the 2009 election, and 15 parties in the 2014 election. There are no majority winner of those elections and coalition governments are inevitable. The current government is a coalition of seven parties led by the PDIP and Golkar.
In Republic of Ireland, coalition governments are quite common; not since 1977 has a single party been able to form a majority government. Coalitions are the typically formed of two or more parties always consisting of one of the two biggest parties, Fianna Fáil and Fine Gael, and one or more smaller parties or independent members of parliament. The current government consists of a minority Fine Gael government, supported by a confidence and supply arrangement with Fianna Fáil.
Ireland 's first coalition government was formed in 1948. Ireland has had consecutive coalition governments since the 1989 general election, excluding two brief Fianna Fáil minority administrations in 1994 and 2011 that followed the withdrawal of their coalition partners from government. Before 1989, Fianna Fáil had opposed participation in coalition governments, preferring single - party minority government instead.
Irish coalition governments have traditionally been based on one of two large blocs in Dáil Éireann: either Fianna Fáil in coalition with smaller parties or independents, or Fine Gael and the Labour Party in coalition, sometimes with smaller parties. The only exception to these traditional alliances was the 23rd Government of Ireland, comprising Fianna Fáil and the Labour Party, which ruled between 1993 and 1994. The Government of the 31st Dáil, though a traditional Fine Gael -- Labour coalition, resembles a grand coalition, due to the collapse of the Fianna Fáil to third place among parties in Dáil Éireann.
A similar situation exists in Israel, which typically has at least 10 parties holding representation in the Knesset. The only faction to ever gain the majority of Knesset seats was Alignment, an alliance of the Labor Party and Mapam that held an absolute majority for a brief period from 1968 to 1969. Historically, control of the Israeli government has alternated between periods of rule by the right - wing Likud in coalition with several right - wing and religious parties and periods of rule by the center - left Labor in coalition with several left - wing parties. Ariel Sharon 's formation of the centrist Kadima party in 2006 drew support from former Labor and Likud members, and Kadima ruled in coalition with several other parties.
Israel also formed a national unity government from 1984 -- 1988. The premiership and foreign ministry portfolio were held by the head of each party for two years, and they switched roles in 1986.
Post-World War II Japan has historically been dominated by the Liberal Democratic Party, but there was a brief coalition government formed after the 1993 election following LDP 's first loss of its overall House of Representatives majority since 1955, winning only 223 out of 511 seats. The LDP government was replaced by an eight - party coalition government, which consisted of all of the previous opposition parties excluding the Japanese Communist Party, who together controlled 243 seats. Every Japanese government since then has been a coalition government in one way or another.
Advocates of proportional representation suggest that a coalition government leads to more consensus - based politics, as a government comprising differing parties (often based on different ideologies) need to compromise about governmental policy. Another stated advantage is that a coalition government better reflects the popular opinion of the electorate within a country.
Those who disapprove of coalition governments believe that such governments have a tendency to be fractious and prone to disharmony, as their component parties hold differing beliefs and thus may not always agree on policy. Sometimes the results of an election mean that the coalitions which are mathematically most probable are ideologically infeasible, for example in Flanders or Northern Ireland. A second difficulty might be the ability of minor parties to play "kingmaker '' and, particularly in close elections, gain far more power in exchange for their support than the size of their vote would otherwise justify.
Coalition governments have also been criticized for sustaining a consensus on issues when disagreement and the consequent discussion would be more fruitful. To forge a consensus, the leaders of ruling coalition parties can agree to silence their disagreements on an issue to unify the coalition against the opposition. The coalition partners, if they control the parliamentary majority, can collude to make the parliamentary discussion on the issue irrelevant by consistently disregarding the arguments of the opposition and voting against the opposition 's proposals -- even if there is disagreement within the ruling parties about the issue.
Powerful parties can also act in an oligocratic way to form an alliance to stifle the growth of emerging parties. Of course, such an event is rare in coalition governments when compared to two - party systems, which typically exist because of stifling of the growth of emerging parties, often through discriminatory nomination rules regulations and plurality voting systems, and so on.
A single, more powerful party can shape the policies of the coalition disproportionately. Smaller or less powerful parties can be intimidated to not openly disagree. In order to maintain the coalition, they would have to vote against their own party 's platform in the parliament. If they do not, the party has to leave the government and loses executive power.
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who act as the connecting bridge between president and ministry | Bosphorus bridge - wikipedia
The 15 July Martyrs Bridge (Turkish: 15 Temmuz Şehitler Köprüsü) or unofficially the Bosphorus Bridge (Turkish: Boğaziçi Köprüsü), also called the First Bridge (Turkish: Birinci Köprü), is one of the three suspension bridges spanning the Bosphorus strait (Turkish: Boğaziçi) in Istanbul, Turkey, thus connecting Europe and Asia (alongside Fatih Sultan Mehmet Bridge and Yavuz Sultan Selim Bridge). The bridge extends between Ortaköy (in Europe) and Beylerbeyi (in Asia).
It is a gravity - anchored suspension bridge with steel towers and inclined hangers. The aerodynamic deck hangs on zigzag steel cables. It is 1,560 m (5,118 ft) long with a deck width of 33.40 m (110 ft). The distance between the towers (main span) is 1,074 m (3,524 ft) and the total height of the towers is 165 m (541 ft). The clearance of the bridge from sea level is 64 m (210 ft).
Upon its completion in 1973, the Bosphorus Bridge had the fourth - longest suspension bridge span in the world, and the longest outside the United States (only the Verrazano - Narrows Bridge, Golden Gate Bridge and Mackinac Bridge had a longer span in 1973). The Bosphorus Bridge remained the longest suspension bridge in Europe until the completion of the Humber Bridge in 1981, and the longest suspension bridge in Asia until the completion of the Fatih Sultan Mehmet Bridge (Second Bosphorus Bridge) in 1988 (which was surpassed by the Minami Bisan - Seto Bridge in 1989). Currently, the Bosphorus Bridge has the 25th - longest suspension bridge span in the world.
After a group of soldiers took control and partially closed off the bridge during the military coup d'état attempt on 15 July 2016, Prime Minister Binali Yıldırım announced on 25 July 2016 the decision of the Cabinet of Turkey that the bridge will be formally renamed as the 15 Temmuz Şehitler Köprüsü (July 15th Martyrs Bridge) in memory of those killed while resisting the attempted coup.
The idea of a bridge crossing the Bosphorus dates back to antiquity. For Emperor Darius I The Great of Persia (522 BC -- 485 BC), as recorded by the Greek writer Herodotus in his Histories, Mandrocles of Samos once engineered a pontoon bridge across the Bosphorus, linking Asia to Europe, enabling Darius to pursue the fleeing Scythians as well as position his army in the Balkans to overwhelm Macedon. The first project for a permanent bridge across the Bosphorus was proposed to Ottoman Sultan Abdul Hamid II by the Bosphorus Railroad Company in 1900, which included a rail link between the continents.
The decision to build a bridge across the Bosphorus was taken in 1957 by Prime Minister Adnan Menderes. For the structural engineering work, a contract was signed with the British firm Freeman Fox & Partners in 1968. The bridge was designed by the British civil engineers Gilbert Roberts, William Brown and Michael Parsons, who also designed the Humber Bridge, Severn Bridge, and Forth Road Bridge. Construction started in February 1970 and ceremonies were attended by President Cevdet Sunay and Prime Minister Süleyman Demirel. The bridge was built by the Turkish firm Enka Construction & Industry Co. along with the co-contractors Cleveland Bridge & Engineering Company (England) and Hochtief AG (Germany). Thirty - five engineers and 400 men worked on the project.
The bridge was completed on 30 October 1973, one day after the 50th anniversary of the founding of the Republic of Turkey, and opened by President Fahri Korutürk and Prime Minister Naim Talu. The cost of the bridge was US $200 million ($1.08 billion in 2016 dollars).
Upon the bridge 's opening, much was made of its being the first bridge between Europe and Asia since the pontoon bridge of Xerxes in 480 BCE. That bridge, however, spanned the Hellespont (Dardanelles), some distance away from the Bosphorus, and was the second bridge after the above - mentioned bridge built by Emperor Darius I The Great across the Bosphorus in 513 BCE.
The bridge highway is eight lanes wide. Three standard lanes, one emergency lane and one pedestrian lane serve each direction. On weekday mornings, most commuter traffic flows westbound to Europe, so four of the six lanes run westbound and only two eastbound. Conversely, on weekday evenings, four lanes are dedicated to eastbound traffic and two lanes, to westbound traffic.
For the first four years, pedestrians could walk over the bridge, reaching it with elevators inside the towers on both sides. No pedestrians or commercial vehicles, such as trucks, are allowed to use the bridge today.
Today, around 180,000 vehicles pass daily in both directions, with almost 85 % being cars. On 29 December 1997, the one - billionth vehicle passed the bridge. Fully loaded, the bridge sags about 90 cm (35 in) in the middle of the span.
It is a toll bridge, and a toll plaza with 13 toll booths is situated near the bridge on the Asian side. A toll is charged for passing from Europe to Asia, but not for passing in the reverse direction.
Since 1999, some of the toll booths (# 9 - # 13), located to the far left as motorists approach them, are unmanned and equipped only with a remote payment system (Turkish: OGS) in order to not delay traffic. In addition to OGS, another toll pay system with special contactless smart cards (Turkish: KGS) was installed at specific toll booths in 2005.
Since 3 April 2006, toll booths accept no cash but only OGS or KGS. An OGS device or KGS card can be obtained at various stations before reaching the toll plazas of highways and bridges. In 2006 the toll was 3.00 TL or about $2.00.
Since April 2007, a computerised LED lighting system of changing colours and patterns, developed by Philips, illuminates the bridge at night.
In 2012, KGS was replaced with the new HGS system, which uses radio - frequency identification (RFID) technology.
Every October, the annual Intercontinental Istanbul Eurasia Marathon crosses the bridge on its way from Asia to Europe. During the marathon, the bridge is closed to vehicular traffic.
In October, visitors participate in the ' fun run ' and cross the bridge on foot. Many take picnics to enjoy the view.
The bridge was depicted on the reverse of the Turkish 1000 lira banknotes of 1978 - 1986.
On 15 May 2005 at 07: 00 local time, U.S. tennis star Venus Williams played a show game with Turkish player İpek Şenoğlu on the bridge, the first tennis match played on two continents. The event promoted the upcoming 2005 WTA Istanbul Cup and lasted five minutes. After the exhibition, they both threw a tennis ball into the Bosphorus.
On 17 July 2005 at 10: 30 local time, British Formula One driver David Coulthard drove his Red Bull racing car across the bridge from the European side to the Asian side, then, after turning with a powerslide at the toll plaza, back to the European side for show. He parked his car in the garden of Dolmabahçe Palace where his ride had started. While crossing the bridge with his Formula 1 car, Coulthard was picked up by the automatic surveillance system and charged with a fine of 20 Euros because he passed through the toll booths without payment. His team agreed to pay for him.
On 5 November 2013, World No. 1 golfer Tiger Woods, visiting for the 2013 Turkish Airlines Open golf tournament held between 7 and 10 November, was brought to the bridge by helicopter and made a couple of show shots on the bridge, hitting balls from the Asian side to the European side on one side of the bridge, which was closed to traffic for about one hour.
On 15 July 2016, the bridge was blocked by a faction of the Turkish Armed Forces during a coup attempt. They also arrested civilians and police officers. Some tanks ran over vehicles. The soldiers involved surrendered to police and to civilians the next day.
On 25 July 2016, prime minister Binali Yıldırım announced that the bridge would be renamed as the 15 Temmuz Şehitler Köprüsü (July 15 Martyrs Bridge).
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who pioneered a new type of broadcasting by creating the first television superstation | Superstation - wikipedia
Superstation is a term in North American broadcasting that has several meanings. In its most precise meaning, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) in the United States defines superstation as a "television broadcast station, other than a network station, licensed by the FCC, that is secondarily transmitted by a satellite carrier. ''
In the early days of television broadcasting, most large media markets had, by standards of the period, a large number of television stations. Generally, these markets had three VHF stations that were respectively affiliated with NBC, ABC and CBS (the then dominant television networks), one or more public television stations (which usually were member stations of PBS), and one or more UHF stations (and in the largest markets, such as New York City, Los Angeles and Chicago, at least one VHF station) without a network affiliation. These independent stations relied on syndicated reruns, older movies and local programming (such as newscasts, children 's programming or sporting events) to fill their broadcast schedules. Smaller media markets, however, often had only the basic three network - affiliated stations.
Cable television providers in smaller municipalities and rural areas sought a foothold by "importing '' signals from larger nearby or distant cities for their customers. Anxious for more viewers, the stations assisted by relaying their signals by wire or microwave transmission to these towns. These stations, especially independents that were owned by Gaylord Broadcasting -- such as WVTV (channel 18) in Milwaukee, KSTW (channel 11) in Seattle, KTVT (channel 11) in Fort Worth -- Dallas and KHTV (channel 39, now KIAH) in Houston, which all served their respective states with entertainment programming via these connections -- became the first "superstations, '' on a regional basis.
With the advent of C - Band satellites, Ted Turner came up with the idea of distributing his Atlanta, Georgia independent station WTCG (channel 17; later renamed WTBS, and now WPCH - TV) via C - Band to the entire country (and beyond). WTCG, which had already been distributed via microwave to cable systems in much of the Southeastern United States, became the first national superstation; Turner 's idea was soon copied by companies who applied for satellite uplinks to distribute other independent stations, including WGN - TV (channel 9) in Chicago, Illinois.
One key legal point is that Turner 's contracts with content providers charged him for programming content as if his station were reaching only a local market. No one had thought of adding contract language to deal with satellite broadcasts of a television station to a much larger market. This terrestrial loophole was eventually closed, so other local stations that could get a satellite transponder spot were charged appropriately. American copyright law requires pay television providers that carry superstations or other out - of - market television stations to make royalty payments to the United States Copyright Office under compulsory license retransmission provisions.
Much of the appeal to viewers these superstations had came from the national carriage of games involving sports teams that the stations held broadcast rights to in their home markets, such as WTCG / WTBS 's carriage of the Atlanta Hawks and Braves, and WGN - TV 's broadcasts of sporting events featuring the Chicago Cubs, White Sox and Bulls.
The distribution of these superstations eventually caused conflicts between these stations and providers of similar, or identical, programming in local markets. In 1989, the Federal Communications Commission drafted the Syndication Exclusivity Rules (or "SyndEx '') to resolve some of these conflicts; the law requires cable providers to black out any syndicated programs carried on out - of - market stations if a television station exclusively holds the local broadcast rights to a particular program, even if the out - of - market station has the same owner as the station with that particular exclusive program.
After the SyndEx rules became law, some nationally distributed superstations (such as WGN - TV and WWOR - TV) decided to launch separate feeds on January 1, 1990, to avoid potential blackouts. These also ran separate national advertising. WTBS effectively limited the number of necessary substitutions by licensing the majority of its programming for carriage on both its national and Atlanta area feeds (certain local programs carried by the station, such as public affairs and educational children 's programs, were not carried on the TBS national feed, but these omissions were generally not because of market exclusivity claims). The uplinkers of WGN and WWOR opted to instead devise alternate schedules with a mix of programs aired by the parent station that were not subject to market exclusivity claims, and substituted programs seen only on the national cable feed. Sports programming on the nationally distributed stations was sometimes replaced with other programming due to broadcast rights restrictions imposed by the major professional sports leagues on the number of game telecasts that the stations could air outside their local markets on an annual basis (this particularly affected WGN - TV, whose national feed was allowed to broadcast all Cubs and White Sox games shown locally but after 1996, prohibited from carrying select Bulls and, from 2008 onward, any Chicago Blackhawks games; in the cases of WGN, WWOR and WPIX, which each had news departments, regularly scheduled newscasts often were subjected to substitutions if a sports event -- particularly one shown during prime time -- was preempted).
The FCC placed tight restrictions on the remaining superstations (excluding the WGN national feed), allowing no new ones and limiting the distribution of the five grandfathered stations to rural areas without distributors of similar programming. Many of the intrastate superstations eventually let their carriage agreements with out - of - market cable providers expire due to contractual restrictions resulting from them becoming affiliates of either UPN, The WB or, after network shuffles in their markets, one of the Big Four networks during the mid-1990s. Incidentally, Paramount Television (which operated the network in a joint venture with WWOR 's owner at the time, Chris - Craft Industries) used a syndication exclusivity claim to prevent the WWOR EMI Service from carrying programming from UPN when it launched in January 1995, which had the side effect of preventing that network 's programming from reaching markets where no affiliate was initially present. The WB, in contrast, allowed WGN (whose corporate parent, the Tribune Company, held minority ownership in the network) to carry its programming from that network 's January 1995 launch until October 1999, when the network 's national affiliate coverage was considered sufficient enough for the superstation feed to stop carrying it. The regional superstations carried on direct broadcast satellite and C - Band providers were not subject to SyndEx claims, so for the most part, satellite viewers saw all programming seen on the local broadcast signals of these stations.
WWOR, although it never formally gave up its superstation status, stopped distributing a national feed when Advance Entertainment Corporation (which had acquired the satellite distribution rights to WWOR and WSBK - TV from Eastern Microwave Inc. in 1996) sold the satellite transponder slot that carried its WWOR EMI Service feed to Discovery Communications, which used the slot to expand coverage of Animal Planet on January 1, 1997. After outcry from satellite dish owners, the National Programming Service uplinked to the station 's New York City area feed less than one week later, exclusively for distribution by satellite providers; the NPS feed would be discontinued in 1999. WWOR is currently (as of 2014) only available nationwide on Dish Network, in areas where no local MyNetworkTV affiliate is available.
The five remaining superstations -- MyNetworkTV affiliates WSBK - TV (channel 38) in Boston, Massachusetts, and WWOR - TV (channel 9) in Secaucus, New Jersey (part of the New York City television market), and CW affiliates WPIX (channel 11) in New York City, KWGN - TV (channel 2) in Denver, Colorado, and KTLA (channel 5) in Los Angeles, California (the latter three are owned by the same company, Tribune Broadcasting, which is also the owner of WGN - TV) -- are carried on some rural cable providers, C - Band providers and on the Dish Network satellite service. However, syndication exclusivity blackout requests led Dish Network to stop offering one or more of the stations in some markets in recent years. Dish stopped selling a programming package with the five superstations outside their home markets on September 19, 2013, limiting their distribution to customers who were already subscribed to the a la carte tier at that point.
TBS, the successor to WTCG, eventually gave up its status as a superstation and became a conventional cable channel (outside Atlanta) in October 2007; its former parent station, WTBS, is now known as WPCH - TV and in the United States, is only available in and near the Atlanta market as well as in Canada. WGN 's national feed was formerly branded as Superstation WGN from November 2002 until May 2008, when it changed its name to WGN America. WGN also decided to give up its status as a superstation (in the United States) and formally began a conversion into a basic cable network on December 16, 2014, when its first deals with cable providers to move the channel from limited to expanded basic tiers went into effect. However, the WGN - TV local Chicago feed is now a stream on Channel Master 's LinearTV service, which launched in the spring of 2015.
While the FCC defines "superstation '' as a term, it does not prohibit its use by others -- such as KYUR (channel 13) in Anchorage, Alaska, an affiliate of ABC and The CW that has a network of repeater stations in other parts of that state, which are collectively branded as "The Alaska SuperStation ''. Some Spanish language networks like Telemundo and Univision may only have one station in an entire state that serves the largest city in their market and is distributed statewide by cable providers; this is the case for Milwaukee Telemundo affiliate WYTU - LD (channel 63), which has statewide cable distribution through Wisconsin via Spectrum, along with extended coverage on low - power stations in Rockford, Illinois, and South Bend, Indiana, giving it coverage resembling a regional superstation, but not marketed as such. The term is used by many other television and radio stations, but none of these operations is a superstation as defined by the FCC and it used solely for marketing purposes.
Canada does not have any television stations that operate as "superstations '' in the official sense of the term. Technically, virtually every broadcast television station in Canada is a superstation, as almost all local television stations in that country -- most commonly those that are owned - and - operated stations (along with a few affiliates) of CBC Television, CTV, CTV Two, City and Global and French language networks Ici Radio - Canada Télé, V and TVA -- are carried nationally by one or both satellite providers (Bell TV and Shaw Direct), and any of these stations can be carried by any Canadian cable provider, at least on digital cable. The closest Canadian equivalent to the "superstation '' model is an independent station (the number of which had grown to some extent with the 2009 demise of E!, although some have affiliated with other systems and networks), and to some extent the television system. Moreover, Canadian providers are able to distribute American television stations in their digital package, regardless of whether or not they are licensed superstations.
Beginning in the late 1980s, Canadian Satellite Communications (Cancom) began distributing CHAN - TV (channel 8) from Vancouver, British Columbia, CITV - TV (channel 13) from Edmonton, Alberta, and CHCH - TV (channel 11) from Hamilton, Ontario, primarily for distribution by smaller cable systems throughout Canada. Coincidentally, these stations were, like Cancom, owned (or later acquired) by Western International Communications. As a result of their early availability, which predated most Canadian specialty channels, these stations (the first two are now owned by Shaw Media, the latter by Channel Zero) continue to have a superstation - type status on analog cable in many smaller Canadian communities, and in the United States along border - area cable systems (such as Buffalo / Niagara Falls, New York, Burlington, Vermont, and Bellingham, Washington).
Presently, both the aforementioned CHCH and CJON - TV (channel 21) in St. John 's, Newfoundland and Labrador use slogans referring to each as a "superstation. '' The stations have no formal network affiliation, although CJON carries news and entertainment programming from Global and news programming from CTV, and both stations carry programming from the country 's only syndicator, yes TV. (CJON and CHCH are both notable for carrying superstation feeds that are available outside Canada through their Web sites; while yes TV and the CBC have free online feeds, those channels only offer the programs to viewers in Canada. In both cases, only a limited amount of non-local programming is carried on the online feed.) Neither CHCH nor CJON has any special regulatory status at present conferring that title.
Canadian subscribers to premium movie channels The Movie Network and / or The Movie Network Encore, Movie Central or Super Channel also receive several major U.S. superstations like WGN - TV, KTLA and WPIX, depending on their cable provider. The Canadian Radio - Television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC), which maintains a list of foreign television channels that it has approved for distribution, authorizes most U.S. superstations for domestic pay television providers -- although KWGN - TV is the only one of the CRTC - approved superstations that has no cable or satellite carriage in Canada. TBS was removed from the Canadian market when it became a cable - exclusive channel in the U.S., as this would have required approval by the CRTC to be carried on Canadian cable providers. However, it has been replaced with WPCH - TV, the former Atlanta feed of TBS; as such, WPCH is one of only two superstations eligible under the Commission 's foreign distribution list (along with WGN - TV since December 2014) that is no longer distributed in the United States as a regional or national superstation.
Much as is the case in Canada, almost all of the television stations in Mexico are available on satellite and carried on select cable providers within the country, and as of 2017 in a nationwide virtual channel shift where all national networks hold a certain channel number throughout the country, usually are carried on an equivalent channel number on those providers (for instance, Televisa 's Las Estrellas is carried nationwide on channel 2, and on most providers on a universal channel number). Like in Canada, Mexican providers can obtain carriage of American television stations (especially those located in U.S. television markets that border Mexico) on their digital tiers, even if they are not licensed superstations.
Radio stations in North America are permitted to uplink to satellite. WSM in Nashville, Tennessee, received a lot of attention in the 1980s as it was delivered via C - band alongside The Nashville Network. Very few stations actually distribute themselves through C - band, as there is not much reason to do so and the station 's audio can be dialed in through either ISDN lines, or listened to via an audio stream over the internet (if the station offers such). Ones that do, like WEEI in Boston, often do so to feed their station to others that simulcast the programming. This is the case with several stations in Mexico, as radio and TV broadcasting in that country is very nationalized and most local stations are merely 24 - hour - a-day affiliates of a national network.
Some local radio stations are, or have been distributed on satellite radio throughout the United States, and Canada in select cases. Stations once distributed on satellite radio include WLTW New York City, KHMX Houston, KIIS - FM Los Angeles, KNEW San Francisco, WTKS - FM Orlando, WLW Cincinnati and WSIX - FM Nashville on XM Satellite Radio, and WSM on Sirius Satellite Radio. XM, in particular, used superstations owned by Clear Channel Communications for much of its early programming, and still had two superstations from Clear Channel as recently as late 2008 (talk radio station WLW and country music station WSIX); both of those were dropped by March 2009. WSIX, KIIS and WLTW returned to the now - merged Sirius XM lineup in June 2011, along with new additions WHTZ New York City and WGCI - FM Chicago.
Three other stations, all of them specialty stations, are currently distributed on satellite radio; these are Bloomberg Radio affiliate WBBR in New York City, Brigham Young University station KBYR - HD2 from Provo, Utah, and C - SPAN Radio station WCSP - FM in Washington, D.C. Most of WBBR 's programming is also syndicated terrestrially to other stations through United Stations Radio Networks (KPIG - FM ended its terrestrial syndication deal with Dial Global in 2010, making WBBR the only terrestrial superstation on U.S. radio). KDIS in Los Angeles converted to superstation status in 2014; this was the result of the station, which serves as the flagship of Radio Disney, becoming the only analog terrestrial broadcaster of the network as Radio Disney 's remaining affiliates are either sold or shut down, to focus the network 's efforts primarily on mobile distribution (Radio Disney began to return to HD Radio subchannels in 2016 through brokered programming arrangements, though with a drastically reduced affiliate base).
CBS Radio has also started using HD Radio technology to introduce its major market stations to other markets. For instance, KFRG in San Bernardino is carried on KTWV - HD3 in Los Angeles, KSCF in San Diego is heard on KAMP - HD2 in Los Angeles; WBZ - FM in Boston is heard on WTIC - HD3 in Hartford; KROQ - FM in Los Angeles is heard on KSCF - HD2 in San Diego; and a yet - to be-determined affiliate in New York City (likely WXRK - HD2), and WFAN in New York City simulcasts on three affiliates in Florida (WOCL - HD3 in Orlando, WLLD - HD3 in Tampa, and WEAT - HD3 in West Palm Beach).
In many cases where radio stations distribute outside their home market, the local stations make some concessions, such as replacement of local advertisements with either national advertising or a bed of production music that plays over commercial breaks. Also in the example of WFAN, that station 's play - by - play coverage of the New York Mets and Giants, the New Jersey Devils and the Brooklyn Nets is not carried on the Florida HD Radio affiliates and replaced with alternate programming, as the station only has rights to broadcast the programming in the New York metropolitan area.
A separate feed of the station -- whose callsign had become WTBS by that point -- for cable providers outside the Atlanta market was launched in 1981, featuring national advertising (program substitutions were very limited, as WTBS licensed the vast majority of its programming for broadcast both within and outside the Atlanta market).
The national TBS feed became a conventional cable channel in October 2007, following WTBS 's callsign change to WPCH and rebranding as "Peachtree TV ''.
WPCH remains available in Canada as the Canadian Radio - television and Telecommunications Commission had only approved the Atlanta broadcast station signal, and not the TBS cable feed, to be carried on domestic cable and satellite providers.
The station is currently distributed through select cable providers in the New England region of the United States, through Dish Network in the U.S. and on most Canadian cable and satellite providers.
Following the split of WPCH and TBS, WGN America (which is available on most U.S. and select Canadian cable providers, Dish Network and DirecTV) became the only remaining nationally distributed superstation in the United States.
In 2013, Tribune Broadcasting announced plans to transition WGN America into a conventional cable channel, moving it from the limited to expanded basic tiers of cable providers and launch a slate of original programming. WGN America effectively lost its superstation status on December 16, 2014, through a carriage agreement with Comcast that added the channel to the Chicago Xfinity lineup, in addition to moving it to the provider 's expanded basic tiers in four markets.
However, the WGN - TV local Chicago feed is now a stream on Channel Master 's LinearTV service, which launched in the spring of 2015.
Because of higher carriage fees for distributing the national feed, Shaw Broadcast Services replaced it with WGN 's Chicago area signal in 2007. That feed is available on most Canadian cable and satellite providers either in lieu of or alongside WGN America; as a result of the WGN America 's decision to phase out local news and sports programming originating from the Chicago signal (concluding with the removal of its morning and midday newscasts on December 15, 2014), WGN - TV 's local programming (including select Bulls and all Chicago Blackhawks games that WGN America could not air due to restrictions by the NBA and NHL) can only be viewed outside the Chicago market on Canadian providers carrying the station.
The station is currently distributed through select cable providers in the Rocky Mountain region of the western United States, and on Dish Network in the U.S. Despite being among the U.S. superstations authorized for distribution by the Canadian Radio - television and Telecommunications Commission, KWGN is not currently available on cable and satellite providers within Canada.
The station is currently distributed through select cable providers in the Southwestern U.S., on Dish Network in the U.S. and on most Canadian cable and satellite providers.
The station is currently distributed through select cable providers in the Northeastern United States, on Dish Network in the U.S. and on most Canadian cable and satellite providers.
In January 1990, WWOR 's national feed (known as the WWOR EMI Service) began substituting programs not cleared to air nationally due to Syndex claims; many cable providers outside the New York City market that carried WWOR replaced it with the superstation feed of WGN - TV in the early 1990s.
The WWOR EMI Service was discontinued on January 1, 1997, with distributor Advance Entertainment Corporation turning over WWOR 's satellite transponder slot to Animal Planet. National Programming Service, LLC uplinked the station 's New York City area broadcast signal on another transponder less than a week later for satellite providers, before the feed was displaced by Pax TV (now Ion Television) in 1999.
WWOR 's Secaucus / New York City area feed is currently distributed through Dish Network in the U.S. and on select Canadian cable and satellite providers.
KMSP lost its superstation status upon the start of its first tenure as a Fox affiliate in October 1986, though it retained much of its coverage throughout most of Minnesota to provide UPN to the state before September 2002, when it became an O&O Fox station.
KTVU gave up its superstation status upon becoming a Fox affiliate in October 1986; the station later served as the West Coast Fox network feed on Primestar, effectively regaining national availability for five years during the mid-to - late 1990s, until the satellite provider sold its assets (and effectively, transferred its subscriber base) to DirecTV in 1999.
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which is the largest cricket stadium in asia | List of Asian Stadiums by capacity - wikipedia
The following is an incomplete list of sports stadiums in Asia. They are ordered by their capacity, that is the maximum number of spectators the stadium can normally accommodate, therefore excluding temporary extra accommodations.
Currently all Asian stadiums with a capacity of 30,000 or more are included.
Most large stadiums in Asia are used for football, Cricket, Athletics, or Baseball.
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who are the characters in boardwalk empire based on | List of Boardwalk Empire characters - wikipedia
The following is a list of characters from the HBO television show Boardwalk Empire. The show dramatizes the prohibition era in Atlantic City and the early history of the American Mafia. Many of the characters on the show are fictional. Some are (loosely) based on historical figures; of these, some use the name of the person upon which they are based, while others have had their names changed for the program.
"Broadway Limited '', "A Return to Normalcy '', "A Dangerous Maid '', "You 'd Be Surprised '', "Resolution ''
"Peg of Old ''
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where does the lymph from the lower limbs drains into | Lymph duct - Wikipedia
A lymph duct is a great lymphatic vessel that empties lymph into one of the subclavian veins. There are two lymph ducts in the body -- the right lymphatic duct and the thoracic duct. The right lymphatic duct drains lymph from the right upper limb, right side of thorax and right halves of head and neck. The thoracic duct drains lymph into the circulatory system at the left brachiocephalic vein between the left subclavian and left internal jugular veins.
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where did the name soft cell come from | Soft Cell - wikipedia
Soft Cell are an English synthpop duo who came to prominence in the early 1980s, consisting of vocalist Marc Almond and instrumentalist David Ball. The duo are principally known for their 1981 hit version of "Tainted Love '' (# 8 US) and 1981 debut album titled Non-Stop Erotic Cabaret.
In the United Kingdom, they had ten Top 40 hits including "Tainted Love '' (# 1 UK), "Torch '' (# 2 UK), "Say Hello, Wave Goodbye '' (# 3 UK), "What! '' (# 3 UK), and "Bedsitter '' (# 4 UK), and also had four Top 20 albums between 1981 and 1984. In 1984, the duo split but reformed in 2001 to tour and record new material, releasing their fifth studio album, Cruelty Without Beauty in 2002.
Soft Cell 's songs have been covered by various artists including Coil, Nine Inch Nails, David Gray, Nouvelle Vague, and A-ha. Their track, "Memorabilia '', earned recognition for the band as pioneers of the synth - oriented techno genre. The duo have sold 10 million records worldwide.
Soft Cell was initiated during 1977 after Almond and Ball met at Leeds Polytechnic. Their initial efforts at recording resulted that year in an EP titled Mutant Moments which was funded by a loan of £ 2000 from Dave Ball 's mother and made with a simple 2 - track recorder. 2,000 vinyl copies of the release were issued independently and the small number of copies have since become a highly valued collectors item. The group 's live shows and EP caught the interest of certain record labels such as Mute Records and Some Bizzare Records.
Soft Cell 's next recording, "The Girl with the Patent Leather Face '', appeared as a contribution to the Some Bizzare Album, which featured then - unknown bands such as Depeche Mode, The The, and Blancmange. The duo ultimately signed to the Some Bizzare label, backed by Phonogram Records. Their first singles, "A Man Could Get Lost '', "7 '' and "Memorabilia '' 12 ", were produced by Daniel Miller who founded Mute Records. While "Memorabilia '' was a success in nightclubs, Soft Cell would remain essentially unknown until their next release.
After the chart failure of "Memorabilia '', Phonogram Records allowed Soft Cell to record a second and final single in an attempt to score a chart success. The band opted to record a cover version of "Tainted Love '', an obscure 1965 northern soul track originally released by Gloria Jones, the girlfriend of Marc Bolan at the time of his death, and written by Ed Cobb of The Four Preps.
Released in 1981, Soft Cell 's "Tainted Love '' was a No. 1 hit in 17 countries, including the United Kingdom, as well as a No. 8 single in the United States during 1982, and went on to set a Guinness World Record at the time for the longest consecutive stay (43 weeks) on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart. The song 's popularity developed slowly, needing 19 weeks to enter the US Top 40. The A-side of the 12 - inch single of "Tainted Love '' actually featured a two - song medley, with "Tainted Love '' blending into the Motown classic "Where Did Our Love Go '' (originally recorded by The Supremes, in 1964).
According to Marc Almond 's book Tainted Life, Soft Cell had exited the "Tainted Love '' recording sessions with only modest expectations that the track might break into the UK Top 50. Furthermore, Almond wrote that his only significant contribution to the song 's instrumentation (besides the vocals) was the suggestion that the song begin with a characteristic "bink bink '' sound which would repeat periodically throughout. Almond also wrote that he dedicated this song to his sometime partner Christian Andrews.
Usually, an artist releasing a cover version as a single would opt to write the song that appears on the B - side as this would still entitle the artist to some songwriting royalties stemming from sales of that single. However, as Soft Cell wrote neither "Tainted Love '' nor "Where Did Our Love Go '' (the 7 '' B - side track), they lost the opportunity to make a greater sum of money from songwriting royalties stemming from one of the most popular songs of the 1980s. Almond expressed regret for this in his book, and attributed the error to naïveté.
The duo 's first album, Non-Stop Erotic Cabaret, hit UK No. 5 and further explored the now - trademark Soft Cell themes of squalour and sleaze. "Seedy Films '' talks of long nights in porno cinemas, while "Frustration '' and "Secret Life '' deal with the boredom and hypocrisy associated with suburban life. A companion video titled Non-Stop Exotic Video Show was released alongside the album and featured videos directed by Tim Pope. The video generated some controversy in Britain, mainly due to a scandal involved with the "Sex Dwarf '' clip. The original version of the music video was confiscated by police and censored before it was even released.
A re-filmed "Sex Dwarf '' appeared in Non-Stop Exotic Video Show featuring Almond dressed in a tuxedo, directing a symphony orchestra of transvestites.
Non-Stop Erotic Cabaret garnered two additional hits: "Bedsitter '' dealt with the loneliness and lifestyle of a young man having recently left home to live in a bedsit while partying hard. "Bedsitter '' reached No. 4 in the UK Singles Chart in November 1981. The song was highly acclaimed in a retrospective review by AllMusic journalist Ned Raggett who wrote that it "ranks as one of the best, most realistic portrayals of urban life recorded. '' The final single on the album, the ballad "Say Hello, Wave Goodbye '', peaked at No. 3 in February 1982 and was subsequently covered by David Gray nearly 20 years later when his version reached No. 26 in the UK.
During 1982, the duo spent most of their time recording and relaxing in New York City, where they met a woman named Cindy Ecstasy whom Almond would later confirm was his drug supplier (it was Cindy Ecstasy who introduced them to the new nightclub drug of the same name). Soon after "Say Hello Wave Goodbye '' dropped out of the chart, Soft Cell released a brand new song, another love song called "Torch '' which was to prove the closest the band ever got to having a No. 1 hit with one of their own songs as it entered straight into the Top 20 and peaked at No. 2. The 12 '' version of "Torch '' featured Cindy Ecstasy singing and exchanging banter in a spoken dialogue section with Marc Almond where they reminisce about their first meeting. Despite their next album being almost ready for release at this point, a decision was made not to include "Torch '' on the album.
The duo released their second album entitled Non-stop Ecstatic Dancing, a 6 - track mini album containing remixes of older material along with their new hit single, "What! ''. This was a cover of the 1965 song by Melinda Marx. It was later covered in 1968 by Judy Street, whose version became extremely popular on the Northern Soul scene. Almond later admitted that the album was recorded and mixed under the influence of ecstasy. "What! '' placed at No. 101 in US Charts. but was a major hit in the UK and reached No. 3 on the UK Singles Chart in August of that year
By 1983, fame and nearly constant drug use were having a bad effect on the duo. Marc Almond also formed the group Marc and the Mambas, featuring collaborations with The The 's Matt Johnson and future Almond collaborator Annie Hogan, as an offshoot to experiment out of the glare of the Soft Cell spotlight. Soft Cell 's third album release, appropriately titled The Art of Falling Apart, was a Top 5 hit in the UK but the singles were only modest successes. The first single "Where The Heart Is '' only reached 21, while the double A-side "Numbers '' / "Barriers '' peaked at 25. "Numbers '' also generated controversy due to references in the song to the drug speed. The album is highly esteemed by the leader of Nine Inch Nails, Trent Reznor.
In September 1983, the duo released a new single "Soul Inside '', which returned them to the UK Top 20, but by early 1984 the duo had amicably decided to end Soft Cell. They played farewell concerts at Hammersmith Palais in January, and released one final album called This Last Night in Sodom (UK No. 12) in March. Headed by the duo 's final single "Down in the Subway '' (UK No. 24), the album departed from its predecessors by featuring more live drums and guitars than previous albums. However, the controversial subject matter still remained true to the Soft Cell ethos, with songs such as "L'Esqualita '' that glamourised transvestite culture in Manhattan.
During Almond 's solo years, he and Ball continued to communicate with each other. Dave Ball 's ex-wife played violin in Marc Almond 's solo band, though Almond and Ball did not work again together until 1990 when Ball remixed one of Almond 's singles ("Waifs And Strays '') and co-wrote and arranged some music for Almond 's Tenement Symphony album in 1991. David Ball formed The Grid during 1990 with Richard Norris. The Grid ended in 1996, but reformed during 2005 and released an album during 2008 with the Some Bizzare company, named Doppelgänger.
Almond and Ball reunited as Soft Cell in 2001, with a series of live dates. They performed at the opening of the Ocean nightclub in London during March 2001, and a mini tour followed later in the year. The track "God Shaped Hole '' featured on the Some Bizzare compilation titled I 'd Rather Shout at a Returning Echo than Kid Someone 's Listening, released during 2001. A new Soft Cell album, Cruelty Without Beauty, was released during late 2002, followed by a European tour and a small US tour during early 2003. The new album featured their first new songs together in almost twenty years. The second single from the album, a cover of The Four Seasons ' "The Night '', reached No. 39 in the UK. Soft Cell had considered recording "The Night '' in place of "Tainted Love '' during 1981, though as keyboardist David Ball stated in a 2003 interview with BBC 's Top of the Pops, "I think history has kind of shown that we did make the right choice (in 1981). ''
During August 2007, the band announced plans to release a remix album entitled Heat. The remix album was released in November 2008 and included Soft Cell tracks remixed by such acts as Paul Dakeyne, The Grid, Manhattan Clique, Cicada, Richard X, Ladytron, MHC, Atomizer, Mark Moore, Kinky Roland, Spektrum, George Demure, Yer Man, The Dark Poets and many more.
In February 2018, Soft Cell announced that they would reunite for one last time. The show entitled "Say Hello, Wave Goodbye '' will be at the O2 in London on 30 September.
The group cited David Bowie and Marc Bolan as primary influences. Almond also named Siouxsie Sioux as a major influence: "You can even hear that I 'm trying to sing like her on some of those early Soft Cell songs: I did n't want to sing properly, I wanted to sing in a punk way ''.
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when was the tower of london first built | Tower of London - wikipedia
Coordinates: 51 ° 30 ′ 29 '' N 00 ° 04 ′ 34 '' W / 51.50806 ° N 0.07611 ° W / 51.50806; - 0.07611
The Tower of London, officially Her Majesty 's Royal Palace and Fortress of the Tower of London, is a historic castle located on the north bank of the River Thames in central London. It lies within the London Borough of Tower Hamlets, separated from the eastern edge of the square mile of the City of London by the open space known as Tower Hill. It was founded towards the end of 1066 as part of the Norman Conquest of England. The White Tower, which gives the entire castle its name, was built by William the Conqueror in 1078 and was a resented symbol of oppression, inflicted upon London by the new ruling elite. The castle was used as a prison from 1100 (Ranulf Flambard) until 1952 (Kray twins), although that was not its primary purpose. A grand palace early in its history, it served as a royal residence. As a whole, the Tower is a complex of several buildings set within two concentric rings of defensive walls and a moat. There were several phases of expansion, mainly under Kings Richard I, Henry III, and Edward I in the 12th and 13th centuries. The general layout established by the late 13th century remains despite later activity on the site.
The Tower of London has played a prominent role in English history. It was besieged several times, and controlling it has been important to controlling the country. The Tower has served variously as an armoury, a treasury, a menagerie, the home of the Royal Mint, a public record office, and the home of the Crown Jewels of England. From the early 14th century until the reign of Charles II, a procession would be led from the Tower to Westminster Abbey on the coronation of a monarch. In the absence of the monarch, the Constable of the Tower is in charge of the castle. This was a powerful and trusted position in the medieval period. In the late 15th century, the castle was the prison of the Princes in the Tower. Under the Tudors, the Tower became used less as a royal residence, and despite attempts to refortify and repair the castle, its defences lagged behind developments to deal with artillery.
The peak period of the castle 's use as a prison was the 16th and 17th centuries, when many figures who had fallen into disgrace, such as Elizabeth I before she became queen, Sir Walter Raleigh, and Elizabeth Throckmorton, were held within its walls. This use has led to the phrase "sent to the Tower ''. Despite its enduring reputation as a place of torture and death, popularised by 16th - century religious propagandists and 19th - century writers, only seven people were executed within the Tower before the World Wars of the 20th century. Executions were more commonly held on the notorious Tower Hill to the north of the castle, with 112 occurring there over a 400 - year period. In the latter half of the 19th century, institutions such as the Royal Mint moved out of the castle to other locations, leaving many buildings empty. Anthony Salvin and John Taylor took the opportunity to restore the Tower to what was felt to be its medieval appearance, clearing out many of the vacant post-medieval structures. In the First and Second World Wars, the Tower was again used as a prison and witnessed the executions of 12 men for espionage. After the Second World War, damage caused during the Blitz was repaired, and the castle reopened to the public. Today, the Tower of London is one of the country 's most popular tourist attractions. Under the ceremonial charge of the Constable of the Tower, it is cared for by the charity Historic Royal Palaces and is protected as a World Heritage Site.
The Tower was orientated with its strongest and most impressive defences overlooking Saxon London, which archaeologist Alan Vince suggests was deliberate. It would have visually dominated the surrounding area and stood out to traffic on the River Thames. The castle is made up of three "wards '', or enclosures. The innermost ward contains the White Tower and is the earliest phase of the castle. Encircling it to the north, east, and west is the inner ward, built during the reign of Richard I (1189 -- 1199). Finally, there is the outer ward which encompasses the castle and was built under Edward I. Although there were several phases of expansion after William the Conqueror founded the Tower of London, the general layout has remained the same since Edward I completed his rebuild in 1285. The castle encloses an area of almost 12 acres (4.9 hectares) with a further 6 acres (2.4 ha) around the Tower of London constituting the Tower Liberties -- land under the direct influence of the castle and cleared for military reasons. The precursor of the Liberties was laid out in the 13th century when Henry III ordered that a strip of land adjacent to the castle be kept clear. Despite popular fiction, the Tower of London never had a permanent torture chamber, although the basement of the White Tower housed a rack in later periods. Tower Wharf was built on the bank of the Thames under Edward I and was expanded to its current size during the reign of Richard II (1377 -- 1399).
The White Tower is a keep (also known as a donjon), which was often the strongest structure in a medieval castle, and contained lodgings suitable for the lord -- in this case, the king or his representative. According to military historian Allen Brown, "The great tower (White Tower) was also, by virtue of its strength, majesty and lordly accommodation, the donjon par excellence ''. As one of the largest keeps in the Christian world, the White Tower has been described as "the most complete eleventh - century palace in Europe ''.
The White Tower, not including its projecting corner towers, measures 36 by 32 metres (118 by 105 ft) at the base, and is 27 m (90 ft) high at the southern battlements. The structure was originally three storeys high, comprising a basement floor, an entrance level, and an upper floor. The entrance, as is usual in Norman keeps, was above ground, in this case on the south face, and accessed via a wooden staircase which could be removed in the event of an attack. It was probably during Henry II 's reign (1154 -- 1189) that a forebuilding was added to the south side of the tower to provide extra defences to the entrance, but it has not survived. Each floor was divided into three chambers, the largest in the west, a smaller room in the north - east, and the chapel taking up the entrance and upper floors of the south - east. At the western corners of the building are square towers, while to the north - east a round tower houses a spiral staircase. At the south - east corner there is a larger semi-circular projection which accommodates the apse of the chapel. As the building was intended to be a comfortable residence as well as a stronghold, latrines were built into the walls, and four fireplaces provided warmth.
The main building material is Kentish rag - stone, although some local mudstone was also used. Caen stone was imported from northern France to provide details in the Tower 's facing, although little of the original material survives as it was replaced with Portland stone in the 17th and 18th centuries. As most of the Tower 's windows were enlarged in the 18th century, only two original -- albeit restored -- examples remain, in the south wall at the gallery level.
The tower was terraced into the side of a mound, so the northern side of the basement is partially below ground level. As was typical of most keeps, the bottom floor was an undercroft used for storage. One of the rooms contained a well. Although the layout has remained the same since the tower 's construction, the interior of the basement dates mostly from the 18th century when the floor was lowered and the pre-existing timber vaults were replaced with brick counterparts. The basement is lit through small slits.
The entrance floor was probably intended for the use of the Constable of the Tower, Lieutenant of the Tower of London and other important officials. The south entrance was blocked during the 17th century, and not reopened until 1973. Those heading to the upper floor had to pass through a smaller chamber to the east, also connected to the entrance floor. The crypt of St John 's Chapel occupied the south - east corner and was accessible only from the eastern chamber. There is a recess in the north wall of the crypt; according to Geoffrey Parnell, Keeper of the Tower History at the Royal Armouries, "the windowless form and restricted access, suggest that it was designed as a strong - room for safekeeping of royal treasures and important documents ''.
The upper floor contained a grand hall in the west and residential chamber in the east -- both originally open to the roof and surrounded by a gallery built into the wall -- and St John 's Chapel in the south - east. The top floor was added in the 15th century, along with the present roof. St John 's Chapel was not part of the White Tower 's original design, as the apsidal projection was built after the basement walls. Due to changes in function and design since the tower 's construction, except for the chapel little is left of the original interior. The chapel 's current bare and unadorned appearance is reminiscent of how it would have been in the Norman period. In the 13th century, during Henry III 's reign, the chapel was decorated with such ornamentation as a gold - painted cross, and stained glass windows that depicted the Virgin Mary and the Holy Trinity.
The innermost ward encloses an area immediately south of the White Tower, stretching to what was once the edge of the River Thames. As was the case at other castles, such as the 11th - century Hen Domen, the innermost ward was probably filled with timber buildings from the Tower 's foundation. Exactly when the royal lodgings began to encroach from the White Tower into the innermost ward is uncertain, although it had happened by the 1170s. The lodgings were renovated and elaborated during the 1220s and 1230s, becoming comparable with other palatial residences such as Windsor Castle. Construction of Wakefield and Lanthorn Towers -- located at the corners of the innermost ward 's wall along the river -- began around 1220. They probably served as private residences for the queen and king respectively. The earliest evidence for how the royal chambers were decorated comes from Henry III 's reign: the queen 's chamber was whitewashed, and painted with flowers and imitation stonework. A great hall existed in the south of the ward, between the two towers. It was similar to, although slightly smaller than, that also built by Henry III at Winchester Castle. Near Wakefield Tower was a postern gate which allowed private access to the king 's apartments. The innermost ward was originally surrounded by a protective ditch, which had been filled in by the 1220s. Around this time, a kitchen was built in the ward. Between 1666 and 1676, the innermost ward was transformed and the palace buildings removed. The area around the White Tower was cleared so that anyone approaching would have to cross open ground. The Jewel House was demolished, and the Crown Jewels moved to Martin Tower.
The inner ward was created during Richard the Lionheart 's reign, when a moat was dug to the west of the innermost ward, effectively doubling the castle 's size. Henry III created the ward 's east and north walls, and the ward 's dimensions remain to this day. Most of Henry 's work survives, and only two of the nine towers he constructed have been completely rebuilt. Between the Wakefield and Lanthorn Towers, the innermost ward 's wall also serves as a curtain wall for the inner ward. The main entrance to the inner ward would have been through a gatehouse, most likely in the west wall on the site of what is now Beauchamp Tower. The inner ward 's western curtain wall was rebuilt by Edward I. The 13th - century Beauchamp Tower marks the first large - scale use of brick as a building material in Britain, since the 5th - century departure of the Romans. The Beauchamp Tower is one of 13 towers that stud the curtain wall. Clockwise from the south - west corner they are: Bell, Beauchamp, Devereux, Flint, Bowyer, Brick, Martin, Constable, Broad Arrow, Salt, Lanthorn, Wakefield, and the Bloody Tower. While these towers provided positions from which flanking fire could be deployed against a potential enemy, they also contained accommodation. As its name suggests, Bell Tower housed a belfry, its purpose to raise the alarm in the event of an attack. The royal bow - maker, responsible for making longbows, crossbows, catapults, and other siege and hand weapons, had a workshop in the Bowyer Tower. A turret at the top of Lanthorn Tower was used as a beacon by traffic approaching the Tower at night.
As a result of Henry 's expansion, St Peter ad Vincula, a Norman chapel which had previously stood outside the Tower, was incorporated into the castle. Henry decorated the chapel by adding glazed windows, and stalls for himself and his queen. It was rebuilt by Edward I at a cost of over £ 300 and again by Henry VIII in 1519; the current building dates from this period, although the chapel was refurbished in the 19th century. Immediately west of Wakefield Tower, the Bloody Tower was built at the same time as the inner ward 's curtain wall, and as a water-gate provided access to the castle from the River Thames. It was a simple structure, protected by a portcullis and gate. The Bloody Tower acquired its name in the 16th century, as it was believed to be the site of the murder of the Princes in the Tower. Between 1339 and 1341, a gatehouse was built into the curtain wall between Bell and Salt Towers. During the Tudor period, a range of buildings for the storage of munitions was built along the inside of the north inner ward. The castle buildings were remodelled during the Stuart period, mostly under the auspices of the Office of Ordnance. In 1663 just over £ 4,000 was spent building a new storehouse (now known as the New Armouries) in the inner ward. Construction of the Grand Storehouse north of the White Tower began in 1688, on the same site as the dilapidated Tudor range of storehouses; it was destroyed by fire in 1841. The Waterloo Block, a former barracks in the castellated Gothic Revival style with Domestic Tudor details, was built on the site and remains to this day, housing the Crown Jewels on the ground floor.
A third ward was created during Edward I 's extension to the Tower, as the narrow enclosure completely surrounded the castle. At the same time a bastion known as Legge 's Mount was built at the castle 's north - west corner. Brass Mount, the bastion in the north - east corner, was a later addition. The three rectangular towers along the east wall 15 metres (49 ft) apart were dismantled in 1843. Although the bastions have often been ascribed to the Tudor period, there is no evidence to support this; archaeological investigations suggest that Legge 's Mount dates from the reign of Edward I. Blocked battlements (also known as crenellations) in the south side of Legge 's Mount are the only surviving medieval battlements at the Tower of London (the rest are Victorian replacements). A new 50 - metre (160 ft) moat was dug beyond the castle 's new limits; it was originally 4.5 metres (15 ft) deeper in the middle than it is today. With the addition of a new curtain wall, the old main entrance to the Tower of London was obscured and made redundant; a new entrance was created in the south - west corner of the external wall circuit. The complex consisted of an inner and an outer gatehouse and a barbican, which became known as the Lion Tower as it was associated with the animals as part of the Royal Menagerie since at least the 1330s. The Lion Tower itself no longer survives. Edward extended the south side of the Tower of London onto land that had previously been submerged by the River Thames. In this wall, he built St Thomas 's Tower between 1275 and 1279; later known as Traitors ' Gate, it replaced the Bloody Tower as the castle 's water-gate. The building is unique in England, and the closest parallel is the now demolished water-gate at the Louvre in Paris. The dock was covered with arrowslits in case of an attack on the castle from the River; there was also a portcullis at the entrance to control who entered. There were luxurious lodgings on the first floor. Edward also moved the Royal Mint into the Tower; its exact location early on is unknown, although it was probably in either the outer ward or the Lion Tower. By 1560, the Mint was located in a building in the outer ward near Salt Tower. Between 1348 and 1355, a second water-gate, Cradle Tower, was added east of St Thomas 's Tower for the king 's private use.
Victorious at the Battle of Hastings on 14 October 1066, the invading Duke of Normandy, William the Conqueror, spent the rest of the year securing his holdings, by fortifying key positions. He founded several castles along the way, but took a circuitous route toward London; only when he reached Canterbury did he turn towards England 's largest city. As the fortified bridge into London was held by Saxon troops, he decided instead to ravage Southwark before continuing his journey around southern England. A series of Norman victories along the route cut the city 's supply lines and in December 1066, isolated and intimidated, its leaders yielded London without a fight. Between 1066 and 1087, William established 36 castles, although references in the Domesday Book indicate that many more were founded by his subordinates. The new ruling elite undertook what has been described as "the most extensive and concentrated programme of castle - building in the whole history of feudal Europe ''. They were multi-purpose buildings, serving as fortifications (used as a base of operations in enemy territory), centres of administration, and residences.
William sent an advance party to prepare the city for his entrance, to celebrate his victory and found a castle; in the words of William 's biographer, William of Poitiers, "certain fortifications were completed in the city against the restlessness of the huge and brutal populace. For he (William) realised that it was of the first importance to overawe the Londoners ''. At the time, London was the largest town in England; the foundation of Westminster Abbey and the old Palace of Westminster under Edward the Confessor had marked it as a centre of governance, and with a prosperous port it was important for the Normans to establish control over the settlement. The other two castles in London -- Baynard 's Castle and Montfichet 's Castle -- were established at the same time. The fortification that would later become known as the Tower of London was built onto the south - east corner of the Roman town walls, using them as prefabricated defences, with the River Thames providing additional protection from the south. This earliest phase of the castle would have been enclosed by a ditch and defended by a timber palisade, and probably had accommodation suitable for William.
Most of the early Norman castles were built from timber, but by the end of the 11th century a few, including the Tower of London, had been renovated or replaced with stone. Work on the White Tower -- which gives the whole castle its name -- is usually considered to have begun in 1078, however the exact date is uncertain. William made Gundulf, Bishop of Rochester, responsible for its construction, although it may not have been completed until after William 's death in 1087. The White Tower is the earliest stone keep in England, and was the strongest point of the early castle. It also contained grand accommodation for the king. At the latest, it was probably finished by 1100 when Bishop Ranulf Flambard was imprisoned there. Flambard was loathed by the English for exacting harsh taxes. Although he is the first recorded prisoner held in the Tower, he was also the first person to escape from it, using a smuggled rope secreted in a butt of wine. He was held in luxury and permitted servants, but on 2 February 1101 he hosted a banquet for his captors. After plying them with drink, when no one was looking he lowered himself from a secluded chamber, and out of the Tower. The escape came as such a surprise that one contemporary chronicler accused the bishop of witchcraft.
The Anglo - Saxon Chronicle records that in 1097 King William II ordered a wall to be built around the Tower of London; it was probably built from stone as a replacement for the timber palisade that arced around the north and west sides of the castle, between the Roman wall and the Thames. The Norman Conquest of London manifested itself not only with a new ruling class, but in the way the city was structured. Land was confiscated and redistributed amongst the Normans, who also brought over hundreds of Jews, for financial reasons. The Jews arrived under the direct protection of the Crown, as a result of which Jewish communities were often found close to castles. The Jews used the Tower as a retreat, when threatened by anti-Jewish violence.
The death in 1135 of Henry I left England with a disputed succession; although the king had persuaded his most powerful barons to swear support for the Empress Matilda, just a few days after Henry 's death Stephen of Blois arrived from France to lay claim to the throne. The importance of the city and its Tower is marked by the speed at which he secured London. The castle, which had not been used as a royal residence for some time, was usually left in the charge of a Constable, a post held at this time by Geoffrey de Mandeville. As the Tower was considered an impregnable fortress in a strategically important position, possession was highly valued. Mandeville exploited this, selling his allegiance to Matilda after Stephen was captured in 1141 at the Battle of Lincoln. Once her support waned, the following year he resold his loyalty to Stephen. Through his role as Constable of the Tower, Mandeville became "the richest and most powerful man in England ''. When he tried the same ploy again, this time holding secret talks with Matilda, Stephen had him arrested, forced him to cede control of his castles, and replaced him with one of his most loyal supporters. Until then the position had been hereditary, originally held by Geoffrey de Mandeville (a friend of William the Conqueror 's and ancestor of the Geoffrey that Stephen and Matilda dealt with), but the position 's authority was such that from then on it remained in the hands of an appointee of the monarch. The position was usually given to someone of great importance, who might not always be at the castle due to other duties. Although the Constable was still responsible for maintaining the castle and its garrison, from an early stage he had a subordinate to help with this duty: the Lieutenant of the Tower. Constables also had civic duties relating to the city. Usually they were given control of the city and were responsible for levying taxes, enforcing the law and maintaining order. The creation in 1191 of the position of Lord Mayor of London removed many of the Constable 's civic powers, and at times led to friction between the two.
The castle probably retained its form as established by 1100 until the reign of Richard I (1189 -- 1199). The castle was extended under William Longchamp, King Richard 's Lord Chancellor and the man in charge of England while he was on crusade. The Pipe Rolls record £ 2,881 1s 10d spent at the Tower of London between 3 December 1189 and 11 November 1190, from an estimated £ 7,000 spent by Richard on castle building in England. According to the contemporary chronicler Roger of Howden, Longchamp dug a moat around the castle and tried in vain to fill it from the Thames. Longchamp was also Constable of the Tower, and undertook its expansion while preparing for war with King Richard 's younger brother, Prince John, who in Richard 's absence arrived in England to try to seize power. As Longchamp 's main fortress, he made the Tower as strong as possible. The new fortifications were first tested in October 1191, when the Tower was besieged for the first time in its history. Longchamp capitulated to John after just three days, deciding he had more to gain from surrender than prolonging the siege.
John succeeded Richard as king in 1199, but his rule proved unpopular with many of his barons, who in response moved against him. In 1214, while the king was at Windsor Castle, Robert Fitzwalter led an army into London and laid siege to the Tower. Although under - garrisoned, the Tower resisted and the siege was lifted once John signed the Magna Carta. The king reneged on his promises of reform, leading to the outbreak of the First Barons ' War. Even after the Magna Carta was signed, Fitzwalter maintained his control of London. During the war, the Tower 's garrison joined forces with the barons. John was deposed in 1216 and the barons offered the English throne to Prince Louis, the eldest son of the French king. However, after John 's death in October 1216, many began to support the claim of his eldest son, Henry III. War continued between the factions supporting Louis and Henry, with Fitzwalter supporting Louis. Fitzwalter was still in control of London and the Tower, both of which held out until it was clear that Henry III 's supporters would prevail.
In the 13th century, Kings Henry III (1216 -- 1272) and Edward I (1272 -- 1307) extended the castle, essentially creating it as it stands today. Henry was disconnected from his barons, and a mutual lack of understanding led to unrest and resentment towards his rule. As a result, he was eager to ensure the Tower of London was a formidable fortification; at the same time Henry was an aesthete and wished to make the castle a comfortable place to live. From 1216 to 1227 nearly £ 10,000 was spent on the Tower of London; in this period, only the work at Windsor Castle cost more (£ 15,000). Most of the work was focused on the palatial buildings of the innermost ward. The tradition of whitewashing the White Tower (from which it derives its name) began in 1240.
Beginning around 1238, the castle was expanded to the east, north, and north - west. The work lasted through the reign of Henry III and into that of Edward I, interrupted occasionally by civil unrest. New creations included a new defensive perimeter, studded with towers, while on the west, north, and east sides, where the wall was not defended by the river, a defensive ditch was dug. The eastern extension took the castle beyond the bounds of the old Roman settlement, marked by the city wall which had been incorporated into the castle 's defences. The Tower had long been a symbol of oppression, despised by Londoners, and Henry 's building programme was unpopular. So when the gatehouse collapsed in 1240, the locals celebrated the setback. The expansion caused disruption locally and £ 166 was paid to St Katherine 's Hospital and the prior of Holy Trinity in compensation.
Henry III often held court at the Tower of London, and held parliament there on at least two occasions (1236 and 1261) when he felt that the barons were becoming dangerously unruly. In 1258, the discontented barons, led by Simon de Montfort, forced the King to agree to reforms including the holding of regular parliaments. Relinquishing the Tower of London was among the conditions. Henry III resented losing power and sought permission from the pope to break his oath. With the backing of mercenaries, Henry installed himself in the Tower in 1261. While negotiations continued with the barons, the King ensconced himself in the castle, although no army moved to take it. A truce was agreed with the condition that the King hand over control of the Tower once again. Henry won a significant victory at the Battle of Evesham in 1265, allowing him to regain control of the country and the Tower of London. Cardinal Ottobuon came to England to excommunicate those who were still rebellious; the act was deeply unpopular and the situation was exacerbated when the cardinal was granted custody of the Tower. Gilbert de Clare, 6th Earl of Hertford, marched on London in April 1267 and laid siege to the castle, declaring that custody of the Tower was "not a post to be trusted in the hands of a foreigner, much less of an ecclesiastic ''. Despite a large army and siege engines, Gilbert de Clare was unable to take the castle. The Earl retreated, allowing the King control of the capital, and the Tower experienced peace for the rest of Henry 's reign.
Although he was rarely in London, Edward I undertook an expensive remodelling of the Tower, costing £ 21,000 between 1275 and 1285, over double that spent on the castle during the whole of Henry III 's reign. Edward I was a seasoned castle builder, and used his experience of siege warfare during the crusades to bring innovations to castle building. His programme of castle building in Wales heralded the introduction of the widespread use of arrowslits in castle walls across Europe, drawing on Eastern influences. At the Tower of London, Edward filled in the moat dug by Henry III and built a new curtain wall along its line, creating a new enclosure. A new moat was created in front of the new curtain wall. The western part of Henry III 's curtain wall was rebuilt, with Beauchamp Tower replacing the castle 's old gatehouse. A new entrance was created, with elaborate defences including two gatehouses and a barbican. In an effort to make the castle self - sufficient, Edward I also added two watermills. Six hundred Jews were imprisoned in the Tower of London in 1278, charged with coin clipping. Persecution of the country 's Jewish population under Edward began in 1276 and culminated in 1290 when he issued the Edict of Expulsion, forcing the Jews out of the country.
During Edward II 's reign (1307 -- 1327) there was relatively little activity at the Tower of London. However, it was during this period that the Privy Wardrobe was founded. The institution was based at the Tower and responsible for organising the state 's arms. In 1321, Margaret de Clare, Baroness Badlesmere became the first woman imprisoned in the Tower of London after she refused Queen Isabella admittance to Leeds Castle and ordered her archers to fire upon Isabella, killing six of the royal escort. Generally reserved for high - ranking inmates, the Tower was the most important royal prison in the country. However it was not necessarily very secure, and throughout its history people bribed the guards to help them escape. In 1323 Roger Mortimer, Baron Mortimer, was aided in his escape from the Tower by the Sub-Lieutenant of the Tower who let Mortimer 's men inside. They hacked a hole in his cell wall and Mortimer escaped to a waiting boat. He fled to France where he encountered Edward 's Queen. They began an affair and plotted to overthrow the King. One of Mortimer 's first acts on entering England in 1326 was to capture the Tower and release the prisoners held there. For four years he ruled while Edward III was too young to do so himself; in 1330, Edward and his supporters captured Mortimer and threw him in the Tower. Under Edward III 's rule (1312 -- 1377) England experienced renewed success in warfare after his father 's reign had put the realm on the backfoot against the Scots and French. Amongst Edward 's successes were the battles of Crécy and Poitiers where King John II of France was taken prisoner, and the capture of the King David II of Scotland at Neville 's Cross. During this period, the Tower of London held many noble prisoners of war. Edward II had allowed the Tower of London to fall into a state of disrepair, and by the reign of Edward III the castle was an uncomfortable place. The nobility held captive within its walls were unable to engage in activities such as hunting which were permissible at other royal castles used as prisons, for instance Windsor. Edward III ordered that the castle should be renovated.
When Richard II was crowned in 1377, he led a procession from the Tower to Westminster Abbey. This tradition began in at least the early 14th century and lasted until 1660. During the Peasants ' Revolt of 1381 the Tower of London was besieged with the King inside. When Richard rode out to meet with Wat Tyler, the rebel leader, a crowd broke into the castle without meeting resistance and looted the Jewel House. The Archbishop of Canterbury, Simon Sudbury, took refuge in St John 's Chapel, hoping the mob would respect the sanctuary. However, he was taken away and beheaded on Tower Hill. Six years later there was again civil unrest, and Richard spent Christmas in the security of the Tower rather than Windsor as was more usual. When Henry Bolingbroke returned from exile in 1399, Richard was imprisoned in the White Tower. He abdicated and was replaced on the throne by Bolingbroke, who became King Henry IV. In the 15th century, there was little building work at the Tower of London, yet the castle still remained important as a place of refuge. When supporters of the late Richard II attempted a coup, Henry IV found safety in the Tower of London. During this period, the castle also held many distinguished prisoners. The heir to the Scottish throne, later King James I of Scotland, was kidnapped while journeying to France in 1406 and held in the Tower. The reign of Henry V (1413 -- 1422) renewed England 's fortune in the Hundred Years ' War against France. As a result of Henry 's victories, such as the Battle of Agincourt, many high - status prisoners were held in the Tower of London until they were ransomed.
Much of the latter half of the 15th century was occupied by the Wars of the Roses between the claimants to the throne, the houses of Lancaster and York. The castle was once again besieged in 1460, this time by a Yorkist force. The Tower was damaged by artillery fire but only surrendered when Henry VI was captured at the Battle of Northampton. With the help of Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick (nicknamed "the Kingmaker '') Henry recaptured the throne for a short time in 1470. However, Edward IV soon regained control and Henry VI was imprisoned in the Tower of London, where he was probably murdered. During the wars, the Tower was fortified to withstand gunfire, and provided with loopholes for cannons and handguns: an enclosure was created for this purpose to the south of Tower Hill, although it no longer survives.
Shortly after the death of Edward IV in 1483, the notorious murder of the Princes in the Tower is traditionally believed to have taken place. The incident is one of the most infamous events associated with the Tower of London. Edward V 's uncle Richard, Duke of Gloucester was declared Lord Protector while the prince was too young to rule. Traditional accounts have held that the 12 - year - old Edward was confined to the Tower of London along with his younger brother Richard. The Duke of Gloucester was proclaimed King Richard III in June. The princes were last seen in public in June 1483; it has traditionally been thought that the most likely reason for their disappearance is that they were murdered late in the summer of 1483. Bones thought to belong to them were discovered in 1674 when the 12th - century forebuilding at the entrance to the White Tower was demolished; however, the reputed level at which the bones were found (10 ft or 3 m) would put the bones at a depth similar to that of the recently discovered Roman graveyard found 12 ft (4 m) underneath the Minories a few hundred yards to the north. Opposition to Richard escalated until he was defeated at the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485 by the Lancastrian Henry Tudor, who ascended to the throne as Henry VII.
The beginning of the Tudor period marked the start of the decline of the Tower of London 's use as a royal residence. As 16th - century chronicler Raphael Holinshed said the Tower became used more as "an armouries and house of munition, and thereunto a place for the safekeeping of offenders than a palace roiall for a king or queen to sojourne in ''. The Yeoman Warders have been the Royal Bodyguard since at least 1509. During the reign of Henry VIII, the Tower was assessed as needing considerable work on its defences. In 1532, Thomas Cromwell spent £ 3,593 on repairs and imported nearly 3,000 tons of Caen stone for the work. Even so, this was not sufficient to bring the castle up to the standard of contemporary military fortifications which were designed to withstand powerful artillery. Although the defences were repaired, the palace buildings were left in a state of neglect after Henry 's death. Their condition was so poor that they were virtually uninhabitable. From 1547 onwards, the Tower of London was only used as a royal residence when its political and historic symbolism was considered useful, for instance each of Edward VI, Mary I, and Elizabeth I briefly stayed at the Tower before their coronations.
In the 16th century, the Tower acquired an enduring reputation as a grim, forbidding prison. This had not always been the case. As a royal castle, it was used by the monarch to imprison people for various reasons, however these were usually high - status individuals for short periods rather than common citizenry as there were plenty of prisons elsewhere for such people. Contrary to the popular image of the Tower, prisoners were able to make their life easier by purchasing amenities such as better food or tapestries through the Lieutenant of the Tower. As holding prisoners was originally an incidental role of the Tower -- as would have been the case for any castle -- there was no purpose - built accommodation for prisoners until 1687 when a brick shed, a "Prison for Soldiers '', was built to the north - west of the White Tower. The Tower 's reputation for torture and imprisonment derives largely from 16th - century religious propagandists and 19th - century romanticists. Although much of the Tower 's reputation is exaggerated, the 16th and 17th centuries marked the castle 's zenith as a prison, with many religious and political undesirables locked away. The Privy Council had to sanction the use of torture, so it was not often used; between 1540 and 1640, the peak of imprisonment at the Tower, there were 48 recorded cases of the use of torture. The three most common forms used were the infamous rack, the Scavenger 's daughter, and manacles. The rack was introduced to England in 1447 by the Duke of Exeter, the Constable of the Tower; consequentially it was also known as the Duke of Exeter 's daughter. One of those tortured at the Tower was Guy Fawkes, who was brought there on 6 November 1605; after torture he signed a full confession to the Gunpowder Plot.
Among those held and executed at the Tower was Anne Boleyn. Although the Yeoman Warders were once the Royal Bodyguard, by the 16th and 17th centuries their main duty had become to look after the prisoners. The Tower was often a safer place than other prisons in London such as the Fleet, where disease was rife. High - status prisoners could live in conditions comparable to those they might expect outside; one such example was that while Walter Raleigh was held in the Tower his rooms were altered to accommodate his family, including his son who was born there in 1605. Executions were usually carried out on Tower Hill rather than in the Tower of London itself, and 112 people were executed on the hill over 400 years. Before the 20th century, there had been seven executions within the castle on Tower Green; as was the case with Lady Jane Grey, this was reserved for prisoners for whom public execution was considered dangerous. After Lady Jane Grey 's execution on 12 February 1554, Queen Mary I imprisoned her sister Elizabeth, later Queen Elizabeth I, in the Tower under suspicion of causing rebellion as Sir Thomas Wyatt had led a revolt against Mary in Elizabeth 's name.
The Office of Ordnance and Armoury Office were founded in the 15th century, taking over the Privy Wardrobe 's duties of looking after the monarch 's arsenal and valuables. As there was no standing army before 1661, the importance of the royal armoury at the Tower of London was that it provided a professional basis for procuring supplies and equipment in times of war. The two bodies were resident at the Tower from at least 1454, and by the 16th century they had moved to a position in the inner ward. The Board of Ordnance (successor to these Offices) had its headquarters in the White Tower and used surrounding buildings for storage. In 1855 the Board was abolished; its successor (the Military Store Department of the War Office) was also based there until 1869, after which its headquarters staff were relocated to the Royal Arsenal in Woolwich (where the recently closed Woolwich Dockyard was converted into a vast ordnance store).
Political tensions between Charles I and Parliament in the second quarter of the 17th century led to an attempt by forces loyal to the King to secure the Tower and its valuable contents, including money and munitions. London 's Trained Bands, a militia force, were moved into the castle in 1640. Plans for defence were drawn up and gun platforms were built, readying the Tower for war. The preparations were never put to the test. In 1642, Charles I attempted to arrest five members of parliament. When this failed he fled the city, and Parliament retaliated by removing Sir John Byron, the Lieutenant of the Tower. The Trained Bands had switched sides, and now supported Parliament; together with the London citizenry, they blockaded the Tower. With permission from the King, Byron relinquished control of the Tower. Parliament replaced Byron with a man of their own choosing, Sir John Conyers. By the time the English Civil War broke out in November 1642, the Tower of London was already in Parliament 's control.
The last monarch to uphold the tradition of taking a procession from the Tower to Westminster to be crowned was Charles II in 1661. At the time, the castle 's accommodation was in such poor condition that he did not stay there the night before his coronation. Under the Stuart kings the Tower 's buildings were remodelled, mostly under the auspices of the Office of Ordnance. Just over £ 4,000 was spent in 1663 on building a new storehouse, now known as the New Armouries in the inner ward. In the 17th century there were plans to enhance the Tower 's defences in the style of the trace italienne, however they were never acted on. Although the facilities for the garrison were improved with the addition of the first purpose - built quarters for soldiers (the "Irish Barracks '') in 1670, the general accommodations were still in poor condition.
When the Hanoverian dynasty ascended the throne, their situation was uncertain and with a possible Scottish rebellion in mind, the Tower of London was repaired. Gun platforms added under the Stuarts had decayed. The number of guns at the Tower was reduced from 118 to 45, and one contemporary commentator noted that the castle "would not hold out four and twenty hours against an army prepared for a siege ''. For the most part, the 18th - century work on the defences was spasmodic and piecemeal, although a new gateway in the southern curtain wall permitting access from the wharf to the outer ward was added in 1774. The moat surrounding the castle had become silted over the centuries since it was created despite attempts at clearing it. It was still an integral part of the castle 's defences, so in 1830 the Constable of the Tower, the Duke of Wellington, ordered a large - scale clearance of several feet of silt. However this did not prevent an outbreak of disease in the garrison in 1841 caused by poor water supply, resulting in several deaths. To prevent the festering ditch posing further health problems, it was ordered that the moat should be drained and filled with earth. The work began in 1843 and was mostly complete two years later. The construction of the Waterloo Barracks in the inner ward began in 1845, when the Duke of Wellington laid the foundation stone. The building could accommodate 1,000 men; at the same time, separate quarters for the officers were built to the north - east of the White Tower. The building is now the headquarters of the Royal Regiment of Fusiliers. The popularity of the Chartist movement between 1828 and 1858 led to a desire to refortify the Tower of London in the event of civil unrest. It was the last major programme of fortification at the castle. Most of the surviving installations for the use of artillery and firearms date from this period.
During the First World War, eleven men were tried in private and shot by firing squad at the Tower for espionage. During the Second World War, the Tower was once again used to hold prisoners of war. One such person was Rudolf Hess, Adolf Hitler 's deputy, albeit just for four days in 1941. He was the last state prisoner to be held at the castle. The last person to be executed at the Tower was German spy Josef Jakobs who was shot on 15 August 1941. The executions for espionage during the wars took place in a prefabricated miniature rifle range which stood in the outer ward and was demolished in 1969. The Second World War also saw the last use of the Tower as a fortification. In the event of a German invasion, the Tower, together with the Royal Mint and nearby warehouses, was to have formed one of three "keeps '' or complexes of defended buildings which formed the last - ditch defences of the capital.
The Tower of London has become established as one of the most popular tourist attractions in the country. It has been a tourist attraction since at least the Elizabethan period, when it was one of the sights of London that foreign visitors wrote about. Its most popular attractions were the Royal Menagerie and displays of armour. The Crown Jewels also garner much interest, and have been on public display since 1669. The Tower steadily gained popularity with tourists through the 19th century, despite the opposition of the Duke of Wellington to visitors. Numbers became so high that by 1851 a purpose - built ticket office was erected. By the end of the century, over 500,000 were visiting the castle every year.
Over the 18th and 19th centuries, the palatial buildings were slowly adapted for other uses and demolished. Only the Wakefield and St Thomas 's Towers survived. The 18th century marked an increasing interest in England 's medieval past. One of the effects was the emergence of Gothic Revival architecture. In the Tower 's architecture, this was manifest when the New Horse Armoury was built in 1825 against the south face of the White Tower. It featured elements of Gothic Revival architecture such as battlements. Other buildings were remodelled to match the style and the Waterloo Barracks were described as "castellated Gothic of the 15th century ''. Between 1845 and 1885 institutions such as the Mint which had inhabited the castle for centuries moved to other sites; many of the post-medieval structures left vacant were demolished. In 1855, the War Office took over responsibility for manufacture and storage of weapons from the Ordnance Office, which was gradually phased out of the castle. At the same time, there was greater interest in the history of the Tower of London.
Public interest was partly fuelled by contemporary writers, of whom the work of William Harrison Ainsworth was particularly influential. In The Tower of London: A Historical Romance he created a vivid image of underground torture chambers and devices for extracting confessions that stuck in the public imagination. Harrison also played another role in the Tower 's history, as he suggested that Beauchamp Tower should be opened to the public so they could see the inscriptions of 16th - and 17th - century prisoners. Working on the suggestion, Anthony Salvin refurbished the tower and led a further programme for a comprehensive restoration at the behest of Prince Albert. Salvin was succeeded in the work by John Taylor. When a feature did not meet his expectations of medieval architecture Taylor would ruthlessly remove it; as a result, several important buildings within the castle were pulled down and in some cases post-medieval internal decoration removed.
Although only one bomb fell on the Tower of London in the First World War (it landed harmlessly in the moat), the Second World War left a greater mark. On 23 September 1940, during the Blitz, high - explosive bombs damaged the castle, destroying several buildings and narrowly missing the White Tower. After the war, the damage was repaired and the Tower of London was reopened to the public.
In 1974, there was a bomb explosion in the Mortar Room in the White Tower, leaving one person dead and 35 injured. No one claimed responsibility for the blast, but the police investigated suspicions that the IRA was behind it.
In the 21st century, tourism is the Tower 's primary role, the remaining routine military activities, under the Royal Logistic Corps, having wound down in the latter half of the 20th century and moved out of the castle. However, the Tower is still home to the ceremonial regimental headquarters of the Royal Regiment of Fusiliers, and the museum dedicated to it and its predecessor, the Royal Fusiliers. Also, a detachment of the unit providing the Queen 's Guard at Buckingham Palace still mounts a guard at the Tower, and with the Yeomen Warders, takes part in the Ceremony of the Keys each day. On several occasions through the year gun salutes are fired from the Tower by the Honourable Artillery Company, these consist of 62 rounds for royal occasions, and 41 on other occasions.
Since 1990, the Tower of London has been cared for by an independent charity, Historic Royal Palaces, which receives no funding from the Government or the Crown. In 1988, the Tower of London was added to the UNESCO list of World Heritage Sites, in recognition of its global importance and to help conserve and protect the site. However, recent developments, such as the construction of skyscrapers nearby, have pushed the Tower towards being added to the United Nations ' Heritage in Danger List. The remains of the medieval palace have been open to the public since 2006. Visitors can explore the chambers restored to their former glory, once used by past kings and queens. Although the position of Constable of the Tower remains the highest position held at the Tower, the responsibility of day - to - day administration is delegated to the Resident Governor. At least six ravens are kept at the Tower at all times, in accordance with the belief that if they are absent, the kingdom will fall. They are under the care of the Yeomen Warders. The earliest known reference to a Tower raven is a picture from 1883. As well as having ceremonial duties, the Yeoman Warders provide guided tours around the Tower. Over 2.8 million people visited the Tower of London in 2017.
The tradition of housing the Crown Jewels in the Tower of London probably dates from the reign of Henry III (1216 -- 1272). The Jewel House was built specifically to house the royal regalia, including jewels, plate, and symbols of royalty such as the crown, sceptre, and sword. When money needed to be raised, the treasure could be pawned by the monarch. The treasure allowed the monarch independence from the aristocracy, and consequently was closely guarded. A new position for "keeper of the jewels, armouries and other things '' was created, which was well rewarded; in the reign of Edward III (1327 -- 1377) the holder was paid 12d a day. The position grew to include other duties including purchasing royal jewels, gold, and silver, and appointing royal goldsmiths and jewellers.
In 1649, during the English Civil War, the contents of the Jewel House were disposed of along with other royal properties, as decreed by Cromwell. Metal items were sent to the Mint to be melted down and re-used, and the crowns were "totallie broken and defaced ''.
When the monarchy was restored in 1660, the only surviving items of the coronation regalia were a 12th - century spoon and three ceremonial swords. (Some pieces that had been sold were later returned to the Crown.) Detailed records of old regalia survived, and replacements were made for the coronation of Charles II in 1661 based on drawings from the time of Charles I. For the coronation of Charles II, gems were rented because the treasury could not afford to replace them.
In 1669, the Jewel House was demolished and the Crown Jewels moved into Martin Tower (until 1841). They were displayed here for viewing by the paying public. This was exploited two years later when Colonel Thomas Blood attempted to steal them. Blood and his accomplices bound and gagged the Jewel House keeper. Although they laid their hands on the Imperial State Crown, Sceptre and Orb, they were foiled when the keeper 's son turned up unexpectedly and raised the alarm.
Since 1994, the Crown Jewels have been on display in the Jewel House in the Waterloo Block. Some of the pieces are used regularly by the Queen. The display includes 23,578 gemstones, the 800 - year - old Coronation Spoon, St. Edward 's Crown (worn during all crownings at Westminster Abbey) and the Imperial State Crown.
There is evidence that King John (1166 -- 1216) first started keeping wild animals at the Tower. Records of 1210 -- 1212 show payments to lion keepers.
The Royal Menagerie is frequently referenced during the reign of Henry III. Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II presented Henry with three leopards, circa 1235, which were kept in the Tower. In 1251, the sheriffs were ordered to pay fourpence a day towards the upkeep of the King 's polar bear, a gift from Haakon IV of Norway in the same year; the bear attracted a great deal of attention from Londoners when it went fishing in the Thames while tied to the land by a chain. In 1254 or 1255, Henry III received an African elephant from Louis IX of France depicted by Matthew Paris in his Chronica Majora. A wooden structure was built to house the elephant, 12.2 m (40 ft) long by 6.1 m (20 ft) wide. The animal died in 1258, possibly because it was given red wine, but also perhaps because of the cold climate of England.
In 1288, Edward I added a lion and a lynx and appointed the first official Keeper of the animals. Edward III added other types of animals, two lions, a leopard and two wildcats. Under subsequent kings, the number of animals grew to include additional cats of various types, jackals, hyenas, and an old brown bear, Max, gifted to Henry VIII by Emperor Maximilian. In 1436, during the time of Henry V, all the lions died and the employment of Keeper William Kerby was terminated.
Historical records indicate that a semi-circular structure or barbican was built by Edward I in 1277; this area was later named the Lion Tower, to the immediate west of the Middle Tower. Records from 1335 indicate the purchase of a lock and key for the lions and leopards, also suggesting they were located near the western entrance of the Tower. By the 1500s that area was called the Menagerie. Between 1604 and 1606 the Menagerie was extensively refurbished and an exercise yard was created in the moat area beside the Lion Tower. An overhead platform was added for viewing of the lions by the royals, during lion baiting, for example in the time of James I. Reports from 1657 include mention of six lions, increasing to 11 by 1708, in addition to other types of cats, eagles, owls and a jackal.
By the 18th century, the menagerie was open to the public; admission cost three half - pence or the supply of a cat or dog to be fed to the lions. By the end of the century, that had increased to 9 pence. A particularly famous inhabitant was Old Martin, a large grizzly bear given to George III by the Hudson 's Bay Company in 1811. An 1800 inventory also listed a tiger, leopards, a hyena, a large baboon, various types of monkeys, wolves and "other animals ''. By 1822, however, the collection included only a grizzly bear, an elephant and some birds. Additional animals were then introduced. In 1828 there were over 280 representing at least 60 species as the new keeper Alfred Copps was actively acquiring animals.
After the death of George IV in 1830, a decision was made to close down the Menagerie. In 1831, most of the stock was moved to the London Zoo which had opened in 1828. The last of the animals left in 1835, relocated to Regent 's Park. This decision was made after an incident, although sources vary as to the specifics: either a lion was accused of biting a soldier, or a sailor, Ensign Seymour, had been bitten by a monkey. The Menagerie buildings were removed in 1852 but the Keeper of the Royal Menagerie was entitled to use the Lion Tower as a house for life. Consequently, even though the animals had long since left the building, the tower was not demolished until the death of Copps, the last keeper, in 1853.
In 1999, physical evidence of lion cages was found, one being 3x3 meters (6.5 x10 feet) in size, very small for a lion that can grow to be 2.5 meters (approximately 8 feet) long. In 2008, the skulls of two male Barbary lions (now extinct in the wild) from northwest Africa were found in the moat area of the Tower. Radiocarbon tests dated them from 1280 -- 1385 and 1420 -- 1480. During 2011 an exhibition was hosted at the Tower with fine wire sculptures by Kendra Haste.
Anne Boleyn was beheaded in 1536 for treason against Henry VIII; her ghost supposedly haunts the Church of St Peter ad Vincula in the Tower, where she is buried, and has been said to walk around the White Tower carrying her head under her arm. This haunting is commemorated in the 1934 comic song "With Her Head Tucked Underneath Her Arm ''. Other reported ghosts include Henry VI, Lady Jane Grey, Margaret Pole, and the Princes in the Tower. In January 1816, a sentry on guard outside the Jewel House claimed to have witnessed an apparition of a bear advancing towards him, and reportedly died of fright a few days later. In October 1817, a tubular, glowing apparition was claimed to have been seen in the Jewel House by the Keeper of the Crown Jewels, Edmund Lenthal Swifte. He said that the apparition hovered over the shoulder of his wife, leading her to exclaim: "Oh, Christ! It has seized me! '' Other nameless and formless terrors have been reported, more recently, by night staff at the Tower.
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what was described in the renaissance publication utopia | Utopia (book) - wikipedia
Utopia (Libellus vere aureus, nec minus salutaris quam festivus, de optimo rei publicae statu deque nova insula Utopia) is a work of fiction and socio - political satire by Thomas More (1478 -- 1535) published in 1516 in Latin. The book is a frame narrative primarily depicting a fictional island society and its religious, social and political customs. Many aspects of More 's description of Utopia are reminiscent of life in monasteries.
The title De optimo rei publicae statu deque nova insula Utopia literally translates, "Of a republic 's best state and of the new island Utopia ''.
It is variously rendered as any of the following:
The original name was even longer: Libellus vere aureus, nec minus salutaris quam festivus, de optimo rei publicae statu deque nova insula Utopia. This translates, "A truly golden little book, no less beneficial than entertaining, of a republic 's best state and of the new island Utopia ''.
"Utopia '' is derived from the Greek prefix "ou - '' (οὐ), meaning "not '', and topos (τόπος), "place '', with the suffix - iā (- ία) that is typical of toponyms; hence the name literally means "nowhere '', emphasizing its fictionality. In early modern English, Utopia was spelled "Utopie '', which is today rendered Utopy in some editions.
A common misunderstanding has that "Utopia '' is derived from eu - (eὐ), "good '', and "topos '', such that it would literally translate as "good place ''.
In English, Utopia is pronounced exactly as Eutopia (the latter word, in Greek Εὐτοπία (Eutopiā), meaning "good place, '' contains the prefix εὐ - (eu -), "good '', with which the οὐ of Utopia has come to be confused in the English pronunciation). This is something that More himself addresses in an addendum to his book Wherfore not Utopie, but rather rightely my name is Eutopie, a place of felicitie.
The first edition contained a woodcut map of the island of Utopia, the Utopian alphabet, verses by Pieter Gillis, Gerard Geldenhouwer, and Cornelius Grapheus, and Thomas More 's epistle dedicating the work to Gillis.
The work begins with written correspondence between Thomas More and several people he had met on the continent: Peter Gilles, town clerk of Antwerp, and Hieronymus van Busleyden, counselor to Charles V. More chose these letters, which are communications between actual people, to further the plausibility of his fictional land. In the same spirit, these letters also include a specimen of the Utopian alphabet and its poetry. The letters also explain the lack of widespread travel to Utopia; during the first mention of the land, someone had coughed during announcement of the exact longitude and latitude. The first book tells of the traveller Raphael Hythlodaeus, to whom More is introduced in Antwerp, and it also explores the subject of how best to counsel a prince, a popular topic at the time.
The first discussions with Raphael allow him to discuss some of the modern ills affecting Europe such as the tendency of kings to start wars and the subsequent loss of money on fruitless endeavours. He also criticises the use of execution to punish theft, saying thieves might as well murder whom they rob, to remove witnesses, if the punishment is going to be the same. He lays most of the problems of theft on the practice of enclosure -- the enclosing of common land -- and the subsequent poverty and starvation of people who are denied access to land because of sheep farming.
More tries to convince Raphael that he could find a good job in a royal court, advising monarchs, but Raphael says that his views are too radical and would n't be listened to. Raphael sees himself in the tradition of Plato: he knows that for good governance, kings must act philosophically. He, however, points out that:
More seems to contemplate the duty of philosophers to work around and in real situations and, for the sake of political expediency, work within flawed systems to make them better, rather than hoping to start again from first principles.
Utopia is placed in the New World and More links Raphael 's travels in with Amerigo Vespucci 's real life voyages of discovery. He suggests that Raphael is one of the 24 men Vespucci, in his Four Voyages of 1507, says he left for six months at Cabo Frio, Brazil. Raphael then travels further and finds the island of Utopia, where he spends five years observing the customs of the natives.
According to More, the island of Utopia is
The island was originally a peninsula but a 15 - mile wide channel was dug by the community 's founder King Utopos to separate it from the mainland. The island contains 54 cities. Each city is divided into four equal parts. The capital city, Amaurot, is located directly in the middle of the crescent island.
Each city has not more 6000 households, each family consisting of between 10 and 16 adults. Thirty households are grouped together and elect a Syphograntus (whom More says is now called a phylarchus). Every ten Syphogranti have an elected Traniborus (more recently called a protophylarchus) ruling over them. The 200 Syphogranti of a city elect a Prince in a secret ballot. The Prince stays for life unless he is deposed or removed for suspicion of tyranny.
People are re-distributed around the households and towns to keep numbers even. If the island suffers from overpopulation, colonies are set up on the mainland. Alternatively, the natives of the mainland are invited to be part of these Utopian colonies, but if they dislike them and no longer wish to stay they may return. In the case of under - population the colonists are re-called.
There is no private property on Utopia, with goods being stored in warehouses and people requesting what they need. There are also no locks on the doors of the houses, and the houses are rotated between the citizens every ten years. Agriculture provides the most important occupation on the island. Every person is taught it and must live in the countryside, farming for two years at a time, with women doing the same work as men. Parallel to this, every citizen must learn at least one of the other essential trades: weaving (mainly done by the women), carpentry, metalsmithing and masonry. There is deliberate simplicity about these trades; for instance, all people wear the same types of simple clothes and there are no dressmakers making fine apparel. All able - bodied citizens must work; thus unemployment is eradicated, and the length of the working day can be minimised: the people only have to work six hours a day (although many willingly work for longer). More does allow scholars in his society to become the ruling officials or priests, people picked during their primary education for their ability to learn. All other citizens, however, are encouraged to apply themselves to learning in their leisure time.
Slavery is a feature of Utopian life and it is reported that every household has two slaves. The slaves are either from other countries or are the Utopian criminals. These criminals are weighed down with chains made out of gold. The gold is part of the community wealth of the country, and fettering criminals with it or using it for shameful things like chamber pots gives the citizens a healthy dislike of it. It also makes it difficult to steal as it is in plain view. The wealth, though, is of little importance and is only good for buying commodities from foreign nations or bribing these nations to fight each other. Slaves are periodically released for good behaviour. Jewels are worn by children, who finally give them up as they mature.
Other significant innovations of Utopia include: a welfare state with free hospitals, euthanasia permissible by the state, priests being allowed to marry, divorce permitted, premarital sex punished by a lifetime of enforced celibacy and adultery being punished by enslavement. Meals are taken in community dining halls and the job of feeding the population is given to a different household in turn. Although all are fed the same, Raphael explains that the old and the administrators are given the best of the food. Travel on the island is only permitted with an internal passport and any people found without a passport are, on a first occasion, returned in disgrace, but after a second offence they are placed in slavery. In addition, there are no lawyers and the law is made deliberately simple, as all should understand it and not leave people in any doubt of what is right and wrong.
There are several religions on the island: moon - worshipers, sun - worshipers, planet - worshipers, ancestor - worshipers and monotheists, but each is tolerant of the others. Only atheists are despised (but allowed) in Utopia, as they are seen as representing a danger to the state: since they do not believe in any punishment or reward after this life, they have no reason to share the communistic life of Utopia, and will break the laws for their own gain. They are not banished, but are encouraged to talk out their erroneous beliefs with the priests until they are convinced of their error. Raphael says that through his teachings Christianity was beginning to take hold in Utopia. The toleration of all other religious ideas is enshrined in a universal prayer all the Utopians recite.
Wives are subject to their husbands and husbands are subject to their wives although women are restricted to conducting household tasks for the most part. Only few widowed women become priests. While all are trained in military arts, women confess their sins to their husbands once a month. Gambling, hunting, makeup and astrology are all discouraged in Utopia. The role allocated to women in Utopia might, however, have been seen as being more liberal from a contemporary point of view.
Utopians do not like to engage in war. If they feel countries friendly to them have been wronged, they will send military aid, but they try to capture, rather than kill, enemies. They are upset if they achieve victory through bloodshed. The main purpose of war is to achieve that which, if they had achieved already, they would not have gone to war over.
Privacy is not regarded as freedom in Utopia; taverns, ale - houses and places for private gatherings are non-existent for the effect of keeping all men in full view, so that they are obliged to behave well.
One of the most troublesome questions about Utopia is Thomas More 's reason for writing it.
Most scholars see it as a comment on or criticism of 16th century Catholicism, for the evils of More 's day are laid out in Book I and in many ways apparently solved in Book II. Indeed, Utopia has many of the characteristics of satire, and there are many jokes and satirical asides such as how honest people are in Europe, but these are usually contrasted with the simple, uncomplicated society of the Utopians.
Yet, the puzzle is that some of the practices and institutions of the Utopians, such as the ease of divorce, euthanasia and both married priests and female priests, seem to be polar opposites of More 's beliefs and the teachings of the Catholic Church of which he was a devout member. Another often cited apparent contradiction is that of the religious tolerance of Utopia contrasted with his persecution of Protestants as Lord Chancellor. Similarly, the criticism of lawyers comes from a writer who, as Lord Chancellor, was arguably the most influential lawyer in England. It can be answered, however, that as a pagan society Utopians had the best ethics that could be reached through reason alone, or that More changed from his early life to his later when he was Lord Chancellor.
One highly influential interpretation of Utopia is that of intellectual historian Quentin Skinner. He has argued that More was taking part in the Renaissance humanist debate over true nobility, and that he was writing to prove the perfect commonwealth could not occur with private property. Crucially, Skinner sees Raphael Hythlodaeus as embodying the Platonic view that philosophers should not get involved in politics, while the character of More embodies the more pragmatic Ciceronian view. Thus the society Raphael proposes is the ideal More would want. But without communism, which he saw no possibility of occurring, it was wiser to take a more pragmatic view.
Quentin Skinner 's interpretation of Utopia is consistent with the speculation that Stephen Greenblatt made in The Swerve: How the World Became Modern. There, Greenblatt argued that More was under the Epicurean influence of Lucretius 's On the Nature of Things and the people that live in Utopia were an example of how pleasure has become their guiding principle of life. Although Greenblatt acknowledged that More 's insistence on the existence of an afterlife and punishment for people holding contrary views were inconsistent with the essentially materialist view of Epicureanism, Greenblatt contended that it was the minimum conditions for what the pious More would have considered as necessary to live a happy life.
Another complication comes from the Greek meaning of the names of people and places in the work. Apart from Utopia, meaning "Noplace, '' several other lands are mentioned: Achora meaning "Nolandia '', Polyleritae meaning "Muchnonsense '', Macarenses meaning "Happiland, '' and the river Anydrus meaning "Nowater ''. Raphael 's last name, Hythlodaeus means "dispenser of nonsense '' surely implying that the whole of the Utopian text is ' nonsense '. Additionally the Latin rendering of More 's name, Morus, is similar to the word for a fool in Greek (μωρός). It is unclear whether More is simply being ironic, an in - joke for those who know Greek, seeing as the place he is talking about does not actually exist or whether there is actually a sense of distancing of Hythlodaeus ' and the More 's ("Morus '') views in the text from his own.
The name Raphael, though, may have been chosen by More to remind his readers of the archangel Raphael who is mentioned in the Book of Tobit (3: 17; 5: 4, 16; 6: 11, 14, 16, 18; also in chs. 7, 8, 9, 11, 12). In that book the angel guides Tobias and later cures his father of his blindness. While Hythlodaeus may suggest his words are not to be trusted, Raphael meaning (in Hebrew) "God has healed '' suggests that Raphael may be opening the eyes of the reader to what is true. The suggestion that More may have agreed with the views of Raphael is given weight by the way he dressed; with "his cloak... hanging carelessly about him ''; a style which Roger Ascham reports that More himself was wont to adopt. Furthermore, more recent criticism has questioned the reliability of both Gile 's annotations and the character of "More '' in the text itself. Claims that the book only subverts Utopia and Hythlodaeus are possibly oversimplistic.
Utopia was begun while More was an envoy in the Low Countries in May 1515. More started by writing the introduction and the description of the society which would become the second half of the work and on his return to England he wrote the "dialogue of counsel '', completing the work in 1516. In the same year, it was printed in Leuven under Erasmus 's editorship and after revisions by More it was printed in Basel in November 1518. It was not until 1551, sixteen years after More 's execution, that it was first published in England as an English translation by Ralph Robinson. Gilbert Burnet 's translation of 1684 is probably the most commonly cited version.
The work seems to have been popular, if misunderstood: the introduction of More 's Epigrams of 1518 mentions a man who did not regard More as a good writer.
The eponymous title Utopia has since eclipsed More 's original story and the term is now commonly used to describe an idyllic, imaginary society. Although he may not have directly founded the contemporary notion of what has since become known as Utopian and dystopian fiction, More certainly popularised the idea of imagined parallel realities, and some of the early works which owe a debt to Utopia must include The City of the Sun by Tommaso Campanella, Description of the Republic of Christianopolis by Johannes Valentinus Andreae, New Atlantis by Francis Bacon and Candide by Voltaire.
The politics of Utopia have been seen as influential to the ideas of Anabaptism and communism. While utopian socialism was used to describe the first concepts of socialism, later Marxist theorists tended to see the ideas as too simplistic and not grounded on realistic principles. The religious message in the work and its uncertain, possibly satiric, tone has also alienated some theorists from the work.
An applied example of More 's Utopia can be seen in Vasco de Quiroga 's implemented society in Michoacán, Mexico, which was directly inspired by More 's work.
During the opening scene in the film A Man for all Seasons, Utopia is referenced in a conversation. The alleged amorality of England 's priests is compared to that of the more highly principled behaviour of the fictional priests in More 's Utopia, when a character observes wryly that "every second person born in England is fathered by a priest. ''
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ukraine male model in india's next top model | India 's Next Top Model - wikipedia
Lisa Haydon (season 1 - 2)
Akshay rajput
India 's Next Top Model is an Indian reality television series, which premiered on 19 July 2015 and broadcast on MTV India. The series is an Indian version of Tyra Banks - created 2003 American reality television series America 's Next Top Model. The viewers will see several women compete for the title of India 's Next Top Model, providing them with an opportunity to begin their career in the modeling industry.
The series is hosted by Lisa Haydon, judged by Lisa Haydon and Dabboo Ratnani and mentored by Anusha Dandekar alongside image consultant and grooming expert Neeraj Gaba. Bulldog Media & Entertainment had licensed the format rights from CBS Television Distribution and the series was premiered on 19 July 2015.
The series premiered on MTV India on 19 July 2015 at 7: 00 pm IST (UTC + 5: 30). Thirteen finalists were chosen to compete for the show. The winner of the competition was 18 year - old Danielle Canute from Mumbai. As her prizes, she received a one - year contract to be the new face of TRESemmé, representation from Bling Talent Management, and the opportunity to appear in a spread in Grazia magazine. Show fashion designer Hiten & co coordinated by Soniya Punwani, who is also known for supporting bollywood with very elegante designs of costume
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procedural object oriented and event driven programming paradigms | Comparison of programming paradigms - Wikipedia
This article attempts to set out the various similarities and differences between the various programming paradigms as a summary in both graphical and tabular format with links to the separate discussions concerning these similarities and differences in extant Wikipedia articles.
The following are widely considered the main programming paradigms, as seen when measuring programming language popularity. There is some overlap between paradigms, inevitably, but the main features or identifiable differences are summarized in this table:
None of the main programming paradigms have a precise, globally unanimous definition, nor official international standard. Nor is there any agreement on which paradigm constitutes the best method to developing software. The subroutines that implement OOP methods may be ultimately coded in an imperative, functional, or procedural style that may, or may not, directly alter state on behalf of the invoking program.
Despite multiple (types of) programming paradigms existing in parallel (with sometimes apparently conflicting definitions), many of the underlying fundamental components remain more or less the same (constants, variables, datafields, subroutines, calls etc.) and must somehow thus inevitably be incorporated into each separate paradigm with equally similar attributes or functions. The table above is not intended as a guide to precise similarities, but more of an index of where to look for more information, based on the different naming of these entities, within each paradigm. Further complicating matters are non-standardized implementations of each paradigm, in many programming languages, especially languages supporting multiple paradigms, each with its own jargon.
Syntactic sugar is the sweetening of program functionality by introducing language features that facilitate a given usage, even if the end result could be achieved without them. One example of syntactic sugar may arguably be the classes used in object - oriented programming languages. The imperative language C can support object - oriented programming via its facilities of function pointers, type casting, and structures. However, languages such as C++ aim to make object - oriented programming more convenient by introducing syntax specific to this coding style. Moreover, the specialized syntax works to emphasize the object - oriented approach. Similarly, functions and looping syntax in C (and other procedural and structured programming languages) could be considered syntactic sugar. Assembly language can support procedural or structured programming via its facilities for modifying register values and branching execution depending on program state. However, languages such as C introduced syntax specific to these coding styles to make procedural and structured programming more convenient. Features of the language C# (C Sharp), such as properties and interfaces, similarly enable no new functions, but are designed to make good programming practices more prominent and natural.
Some programmers feel that these features are unimportant or even frivolous. For example, Alan Perlis once quipped, in a reference to bracket - delimited languages, that "syntactic sugar causes cancer of the semicolon '' (see Epigrams on Programming).
An extension of this is the syntactic saccharin, or gratuitous syntax that does not make programming easier.
In total instruction path length only, a program coded in an imperative style, using no subroutines, would have the lowest count. However, the binary size of such a program may be larger than the same program coded using subroutines (as in functional and procedural programming) and would reference more non-local physical instructions that may increase cache misses and instruction fetch overhead in modern processors.
The paradigms that use subroutines extensively (including functional, procedural, and object - oriented) and do not also use significant inline expansion (inlining, via compiler optimizations) will, consequently, use a larger fraction of total resources on the subroutine linkages. Object - oriented programs that do not deliberately alter program state directly, instead using mutator methods (or setters) to encapsulate these state changes, will, as a direct consequence, have more overhead. This is because message passing is essentially a subroutine call, but with three added overheads: dynamic memory allocation, parameter copying, and dynamic dispatch. Obtaining memory from the heap and copying parameters for message passing may involve significant resources that far exceed those needed for the state change. Accessors (or getters) that merely return the values of private member variables also depend on similar message passing subroutines, instead of using a more direct assignment (or comparison), adding to total path length.
For programs executing in a managed code environment, such as the. NET Framework, many issues affect performance that are significantly affected by the programming language paradigm and various language features used.
A pseudocode comparison of imperative, procedural, and object oriented approaches used to calculate the area of a circle (πr2), assuming no subroutine inlining, no macro preprocessors, register arithmetic, and weighting each instruction ' step ' as only 1 instruction -- as a crude measure of instruction path length -- is presented below. The instruction step that is conceptually performing the state change is highlighted in bold typeface in each case. The arithmetic operations used to compute the area of the circle are the same in all three paradigms, with the difference being that the procedural and object - oriented paradigms wrap those operations in a subroutine call that makes the computation general and reusable. The same effect could be achieved in a purely imperative program using a macro preprocessor at only the cost of increased program size (only at each macro invocation site) without a corresponding pro rata runtime cost (proportional to n invocations -- that may be situated within an inner loop for instance). Conversely, subroutine inlining by a compiler could reduce procedural programs to something similar in size to the purely imperative code. However, for object - oriented programs, even with inlining, messages still must be built (from copies of the arguments) for processing by the object - oriented methods. The overhead of calls, virtual or otherwise, is not dominated by the control flow alteration -- but by the surrounding calling convention costs, like prologue and epilogue code, stack setup and argument passing (see here for more realistic instruction path length, stack and other costs associated with calls on an x86 platform). See also here for a slide presentation by Eric S. Roberts ("The Allocation of Memory to Variables '', chapter 7) -- illustrating the use of stack and heap memory use when summing three rational numbers in the Java object - oriented language.
The advantages of procedural abstraction and object - oriented - style polymorphism are poorly illustrated by a small example like the one above. This example is designed mainly to illustrate some intrinsic performance differences, not abstraction or code re-use.
The presence of a (called) subroutine in a program contributes nothing extra to the functionality of the program regardless of paradigm, but may contribute greatly to the structuring and generality of the program, making it much easier to write, modify, and extend. The extent to which different paradigms use subroutines (and their consequent memory requirements) influences the overall performance of the complete algorithm, although as Guy Steele pointed out in a 1977 paper, a well - designed programming language implementation can have very low overheads for procedural abstraction (but laments, in most implementations, that they seldom achieve this in practice - being "rather thoughtless or careless in this regard ''). In the same paper, Steele also makes a considered case for automata - based programming (using procedure calls with tail recursion) and concludes that "we should have a healthy respect for procedure calls '' (because they are powerful) but suggested "use them sparingly ''
In the frequency of subroutine calls:
Uniquely, the object - oriented paradigm involves dynamic memory allocation from heap storage for both object creation and message passing. A 1994 benchmark - "Memory Allocation Costs in Large C and C++ Programs '' conducted by Digital Equipment Corporation on a variety of software, using an instruction - level profiling tool, measured how many instructions were required per dynamic storage allocation. The results showed that the lowest absolute number of instructions executed averaged around 50 but others reached as high as 611. See also "Heap: Pleasures and pains '' by Murali R. Krishnan that states "Heap implementations tend to stay general for all platforms, and hence have heavy overhead ''. The 1996 IBM paper "Scalability of Dynamic Storage Allocation Algorithms '' by Arun Iyengar of IBM demonstrates various dynamic storage algorithms and their respective instruction counts. Even the recommended MFLF I algorithm (H.S. Stone, RC 9674) shows instruction counts in a range between 200 and 400. The above pseudocode example does not include a realistic estimate of this memory allocation pathlength or the memory prefix overheads involved and the subsequent associated garbage collection overheads. Suggesting strongly that heap allocation is a nontrivial task, one open - source software microallocator, by game developer John W. Ratcliff, consists of nearly 1,000 lines of code.
In their Abstract "Optimization of Object - Oriented Programs Using Static Class Hierarchy Analysis '', Jeffrey Dean, David Grove, and Craig Chambers of the Department of Computer Science and Engineering, at the University of Washington, claim that "Heavy use of inheritance and dynamically - bound messages is likely to make code more extensible and reusable, but it also imposes a significant performance overhead, relative to an equivalent but non-extensible program written in a non-object - oriented manner. In some domains, such as structured graphics packages, the performance cost of the extra flexibility provided by using a heavily object - oriented style is acceptable. However, in other domains, such as basic data structure libraries, numerical computing packages, rendering libraries, and trace - driven simulation frameworks, the cost of message passing can be too great, forcing the programmer to avoid object - oriented programming in the "hot spots '' of their application. ''
Serialization imposes large overheads when passing objects from one system to another, especially when the transfer is in human - readable formats such as Extensible Markup Language (XML) and JavaScript Object Notation (JSON). This contrasts with compact binary formats for non-object - oriented data. Both encoding and decoding of the objects data value and its attributes are involved in the serializing process, which also includes awareness of complex issues such as inheriting, encapsulating, and data hiding.
Carnegie - Mellon University Professor Robert Harper in March 2011 wrote: "This semester Dan Licata and I are co-teaching a new course on functional programming for first - year prospective CS majors... Object - oriented programming is eliminated entirely from the introductory curriculum, because it is both anti-modular and anti-parallel by its very nature, and hence unsuitable for a modern CS curriculum. A proposed new course on object - oriented design methodology will be offered at the sophomore level for those students who wish to study this topic. ''
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is lloyds part of royal bank of scotland | Royal Bank of Scotland group - wikipedia
The Royal Bank of Scotland Group plc (also known as RBS Group) is a British banking and insurance holding company, based in Edinburgh, Scotland. The group operates a wide variety of banking brands offering personal and business banking, private banking, insurance and corporate finance through its offices located in Europe, North America and Asia. In the UK, its main subsidiary companies are The Royal Bank of Scotland, NatWest, Ulster Bank and Coutts. The group issues banknotes in Scotland and Northern Ireland and, as of 2014, The Royal Bank of Scotland is the only bank in the UK to still print £ 1 notes.
Outside the UK, from 1988 to 2015 it owned Citizens Financial Group, the 13th largest bank in the United States, and from 2004 to 2009 it was the second largest shareholder in the Bank of China, itself the world 's fifth largest bank by market capitalisation in February 2008.
Before the 2008 collapse and the general financial crisis, RBS was very briefly the largest bank in the world and for a period was the second largest bank in the UK and Europe (fifth in stock market value), and the fifth largest in the world by market capitalisation. Subsequently, with a slumping share price and major loss of confidence, the bank fell sharply in the rankings, although in 2009 it was briefly the world 's largest company by both assets (£ 1.9 trillion) and liabilities (£ 1.8 trillion). It received significant support from the UK government, which, as of August 2015, holds and manages a 73 % stake through UK Financial Investments (UKFI).
In addition to its primary share listing on the LSE, the company is also listed on the New York Stock Exchange.
By 1969, economic conditions were becoming more difficult for the banking sector. In response, the National Commercial Bank of Scotland merged with the Royal Bank of Scotland. The resulting company had 662 branches. The merger resulted in a new holding company, National and Commercial Banking Group Ltd. The English and Welsh branches were reorganised, until 1985, as Williams & Glyn 's Bank, while the Scottish branches all transferred to the Royal Bank name. The holding company was renamed The Royal Bank of Scotland Group in 1979.
During the late 1970s and early 1980s the Royal Bank was the subject of three separate takeover approaches. In 1979, Lloyds Bank, which had previously built up a 16.4 % stake in the Royal Bank, made a takeover approach for the remaining shares it did not own. The offer was rejected by the board of directors on the basis that it was detrimental to the bank 's operations. However, when the Standard Chartered Bank proposed a merger with the Royal Bank in 1980, the board responded favourably. Standard Chartered Bank was headquartered in London, although most of its operations were in the Far East, and the Royal Bank saw advantages in creating a truly international banking group. Approval was received from the Bank of England, and the two banks agreed a merger plan that would have seen the Standard Chartered acquire the Royal Bank and keep the UK operations based in Edinburgh. However, the bid was scuppered by the Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation (HSBC) which tabled a rival offer. The bid by HSBC was not backed by the Bank of England and was subsequently rejected by the Royal Bank 's board. However the British government referred both bids to the Monopolies and Mergers Commission; both were subsequently rejected as being against the public interest.
The Bank did obtain an international partnership with Banco Santander Central Hispano of Spain, each bank taking a 5 % stake in the other. However this arrangement ended in 2005, when Banco Santander Central Hispano acquired UK bank Abbey National -- and both banks sold their respective shareholdings.
The first international office of the bank was opened in New York in 1960. Subsequent international banks were opened in Chicago, Los Angeles, Houston and Hong Kong. In 1988 the bank acquired Citizens Financial Group, a bank based in Rhode Island, United States. Since then, Citizens has acquired several other American banks and in 2004 acquired Charter One Bank.
The bank has since announced it would scale back its international presence. "Let me spell it out very clearly: the days when RBS sought to be the biggest bank in the world, those days are well and truly over, '' Chief Executive Ross McEwan, who had been in charge of the bank for four months, said in unveiling plans to reduce costs by £ 5bn over four years. "Our ambition is to be a bank for U.K. customers, '' he added.
The late 1990s saw a new wave of consolidation in the financial services sector. In 1997, RBS formed a joint venture to set up Tesco Bank. In 1999, the Bank of Scotland launched a hostile takeover bid for English rival NatWest. The Bank of Scotland intended to fund the deal by selling off many of the NatWest 's subsidiary companies, including Ulster Bank and Coutts. However, the Royal Bank subsequently tabled a counter-offer, sparking off the largest hostile takeover battle in UK corporate history. A key differentiation from the Bank of Scotland 's bid was the Royal Bank 's plan to retain all of NatWest 's subsidiaries. Although NatWest, one of the "Big 4 '' English clearing banks, was significantly larger than either Scottish bank, it had a recent history of poor financial performance and plans to merge with insurance company Legal & General were not well received, prompting a 26 % fall in share price.
On 11 February 2000, The Royal Bank of Scotland was declared the winner in the takeover battle, becoming the second largest banking group in the UK after HSBC Holdings. NatWest and the Royal Bank of Scotland became subsidiaries of the holding company; The Royal Bank of Scotland Group. NatWest as a distinct banking brand was retained, although many back office functions of the bank were merged with the Royal Bank 's leading to over 18,000 job losses throughout the UK.
In August 2005, the bank expanded into China, acquiring a 10 % stake in the Bank of China for £ 1.7 billion.
A new international headquarters was built at Gogarburn on the outskirts of Edinburgh, and was opened by Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh in 2005.
The Group was part of a consortium with Belgian bank Fortis and Spanish bank Banco Santander that acquired Dutch bank ABN AMRO on 10 October 2007. Rivals speculated that RBS had overpaid for the Dutch bank although the bank pointed out that of the £ 49bn paid for ABN AMRO, RBS 's share was only £ 10bn (equivalent to £ 167 per citizen of the UK).
Coutts Bank 's international businesses were renamed RBS Coutts on 1 January 2008 and remained as such until 2011, when they were rebranded Coutts & Co. Limited.
After previous denials following press coverage, on 22 April 2008 RBS announced a rights issue which aimed to raise £ 12bn in new capital to offset a writedown of £ 5.9 bn resulting from credit market positions and to shore up its reserves following the purchase of ABN AMRO. This was, at the time, the largest rights issue in British corporate history.
The bank also announced that it would review the possibility of divesting some of its subsidiaries to raise further funds, notably its insurance divisions Direct Line and Churchill. Additionally, the bank 's stake in Tesco Bank was bought by Tesco for £ 950 million in 2008.
On 13 October 2008, in a move aimed at recapitalising the bank, it was announced that the British Government would take a stake of up to 58 % in the Group. The aim was to "make available new tier 1 capital to UK banks and building societies to strengthen their resources permitting them to restructure their finances, while maintaining their support for the real economy, through the recapitalisation scheme which has been made available to eligible institutions ''.
HM Treasury injected £ 37 billion ($64 billion, € 47 billion, equivalent to £ 617 per citizen of the UK) of new capital into Royal Bank of Scotland Group plc, Lloyds TSB and HBOS plc, to avert financial sector collapse. The government stressed, however, that it was not "standard public ownership '' and that the banks would return to private investors "at the right time ''.
Alistair Darling, the Chancellor of the Exchequer, stated that UK taxpayers would benefit from the government 's rescue plan, as it will have some control over RBS in exchange for £ 5 billion in preference shares and underwriting the issuance of a further £ 15 billion in ordinary shares. If shareholder take - up of the share issue was 0 %, then total government ownership in RBS would be 58 %; and, if shareholder take - up was 100 %, then total government ownership in RBS would be 0 %. Less than 56 million new shares were taken up by investors, or 0.24 pc of the total offered by RBS in October 2008.
As a consequence of this rescue, the Chief Executive of the group, Fred Goodwin, offered his resignation and it was duly accepted. Sir Tom McKillop confirmed that he would stand down from his role as chairman when his contract expired in March 2009. Goodwin was replaced by Stephen Hester, previously the Chief Executive of British Land, who commenced work at the Royal Bank of Scotland in November 2008.
On 19 January 2009, the British Government announced a further injection of funds into the UK banking system in an attempt to restart personal and business lending. This would involve the creation of a state - backed insurance scheme which would allow banks to insure against existing loans going into default, in an attempt to restore the banks ' confidence.
At the same time the government announced its intention to convert the preference shares in RBS that it had acquired in October 2008 to ordinary shares. This would remove the 12 % coupon payment (£ 600m p.a) on the shares but would increase the state 's holding in the bank from 58 % to 70 %.
On the same day RBS released a trading statement in which it expected to post full - year trading losses (before writedowns) of between £ 7bn and £ 8bn. The group also announced writedowns on goodwills (primarily related to the takeover of Dutch bank ABN - AMRO) of around £ 20bn. The combined total of £ 28bn would be the biggest ever annual loss in UK corporate history (the actual figure was £ 24.1 bn). As a result, during the Blue Monday Crash, the group 's share price fell over 66 % in one day to 10.9 p per share, from a 52 - week high of 354p per share, itself a drop of 97 %.
RBS ' contractual commitment to retain the 4.26 % Bank of China (BoC) stake ended on 31 December 2008, and the shares were sold on 14 January 2009. Exchange rate fluctuations meant that RBS made no profit on the deal. The Scottish press suggested two reasons for the move: the need for a bank mainly owned by HM Treasury to focus scarce capital on British markets, and the growth possibility of RBS 's own China operations.
Also in March 2009, RBS revealed that its traders had been involved in the purchase and sale of sub-prime securities under the supervision of Fred Goodwin.
In September 2009, RBS and NatWest announced dramatic cuts in their overdraft fees including the unpaid item fee (from £ 38 to £ 5), the card misuse fee (from £ 35 to £ 15) and the monthly maintenance charge for going overdrawn without consent (from £ 28 to £ 20). The cuts came at a time when the row over the legality of unauthorised borrowing reached the House of Lords. The fees were estimated to earn current account providers about £ 2.6 bn a year. The Consumers ' Association chief executive, Peter Vicary - Smith, said: "This is a step in the right direction and a victory for consumer pressure. ''
In November 2009, RBS announced plans to cut 3,700 jobs in addition to 16,000 already planned, while the government increased its stake in the company from 70 % to 84 %.
In December 2009, the RBS board revolted against the main shareholder, the British government. They threatened to resign unless they were permitted to pay bonuses of £ 1.5 bn to staff in its investment arm.
More than 100 senior bank executives at the Royal Bank of Scotland were paid more than £ 1 million in late 2010 and total bonus payouts reached nearly £ 1 billion -- even though the bailed - out bank reported losses of £ 1.1 billion for 2010. Unions were baffled that any bankers were getting bonuses, considering the bank is owned by the taxpayer. The 2010 figure was an improvement on the loss of £ 3.6 billion in 2009 and the record - breaking £ 24bn loss in 2008. The bonuses for staff in 2010 topped £ 950 million. The CEO Stephen Hester got £ 8 million in payments for the year.
In October 2011, Moody 's downgraded the credit rating of 12 UK financial firms including RBS blaming financial weakness.
In January 2012, there was press controversy about Hester 's bonus -- Hester was offered share options with a total value of £ 963,000 that would be held in long - term plans, and only paid out if he met strict and tough targets. If he failed to do this, it would be clawed - back. The Treasury permitted the payment because they feared the resignation of Hester and much of the board if the payment was vetoed by the government as the majority shareholder. After a large amount of criticism in the press, news emerged of Chairman Sir Philip Hampton turning down his own bonus of £ 1.4 million several weeks before the controversy. Hester, who had been on holiday in Switzerland at the time, turned down his own bonus shortly after.
In June 2012 a failure of an upgrade to payment processing software meant that a substantial proportion of customers could not transfer money to or from their accounts. This meant that RBS had to open a number of branches on a Sunday -- the first time that they had had to do this.
RBS released a statement on 12 June 2013 that announced a transition in which CEO Stephen Hester will stand down in December 2013 for the financial institution "to return to private ownership by the end of 2014 ''. For his part in the procession of the transition, Hester will receive 12 months ' pay and benefits worth £ 1.6 million, as well as the potential for £ 4 million in shares. The RBS stated that, as of the announcement, the search for Hester 's successor would commence. Ross McEwan, the head of retail banking at RBS, was selected to replace Hester in July 2013.
On 4 August 2015 the UK Government began the process of selling shares back to the private sector, reducing its ownership of ordinary shares from 61.3 % to 51.5 % and its total economic ownership (including B shares) from 78.3 % to 72.9 %.
In June 2008 RBS sold the subsidiary Angel Trains for £ 3.6 bn as part of an assets sale to raise cash.
In March 2009, RBS announced the closure of its tax avoidance department, which had helped it avoid £ 500m of tax by channelling billions of pounds through securitised assets in tax havens such as the Cayman Islands. The closure was partly due to a lack of funds to continue the measures, and partly due to the 84 % taxpayer stake in the bank.
On 29 March 2010, GE Capital acquired Royal Bank of Scotland 's factoring business in Germany. GE Capital signed an agreement with the Royal Bank of Scotland plc (RBS) to acquire 100 % of RBS Factoring GmbH, RBS 's factoring and invoice financing business in Germany, for an undisclosed amount. The transaction is subject to a number of conditions, including regulatory approval.
Due to pressure from the UK government to shut down risky operations and prepare for tougher international regulations, in January 2012 the bank announced it would cut another 4,450 jobs and close its loss - making cash equities, corporate broking, equity capital markets, and mergers and acquisitions businesses. The move brought the total number of jobs cut since the bank was bailed out in 2008 to 34,000.
During 2012, RBS separated its insurance business from the main group to form the Direct Line Group, made up of several well - known brands including Direct Line and Churchill. RBS sold a 30 % holding in the group through an initial public offering in October 2012. Further shares sales in 2013 reduced RBS ' holding to 28.5 % by September 2013, and RBS sold its remaining shares in February 2014.
RBS sold its remaining stake in Citizens Financial Group in October 2015, having progressively reduced its stake through an initial public offering (IPO) started in 2014.
As a condition of the British Government purchasing an 81 % shareholding in the group, the European Commission ruled that the group sell a portion of its business, as the purchase was categorised as state aid. In August 2010, the group reached an agreement to sell 318 branches to Santander UK, made up of the RBS branches in England and Wales and the NatWest branches in Scotland. Santander withdrew from the sale on 12 October 2012.
In September 2013, the group confirmed it had reached an agreement to sell 314 branches to the Corsair consortium, made up of private equity firms and a number of institutional investors, including the Church Commissioners, which controls the property and investment assets of the Church of England. The branches, incorporating 250,000 small business customers, 1,200 medium business customers and 1.8 million personal banking customers, were due to be separated from the group in 2016 as a standalone business. The planned company would have traded as an ethical bank, using the dormant Williams & Glyn 's brand.
In August 2016, RBS cancelled its plan to spin off Williams & Glyn as a separate business, stating that the new bank could not survive independently. It revealed it would instead seek to sell the operation to another bank.
In February 2017, HM Treasury suggested that the bank should abandon the plan to sell the operation, and instead focus on initiatives to boost competition within business banking in the United Kingdom. This plan was formally approved by the European Commission in September 2017.
RBS is split into three main customer - facing franchises, each with several subsidiary businesses, and it also has a number of support functions.
The franchise comprises retail and business banking. In the United Kingdom, the group trades under both the NatWest and Royal Bank of Scotland names. Key subsidiaries include:
This franchise serves UK corporate and commercial customers, from SMEs to UK based multi nationals, and is the largest provider of banking, finance and risk management services to UK corporate and commercial customers.
Key private banking subsidiaries and brands of RBS include:
This franchise, commonly referred to as the investment banking arm of RBS, provides investment banking services and integrated financial solutions to major corporations and financial institutions around the world. NWMs areas of strength are debt financing, risk management, and investment and advisory services. RBS Securities is a key subsidiary, operating under the NatWest Markets brand in the United States.
The group is supported by a number of functions and services departments -- procurement, technology, payments, anti-money laundering, property, etc. -- and support and control functions: the areas which provide core services across the bank -- human resources, corporate governance, internal audit, legal, risk, etc.
RBS uses branding developed for the Bank on its merger with the National Commercial Bank of Scotland in 1969. The banks logo takes the form of an abstract symbol of four inward - pointing arrows known as the "Daisy Wheel '' and is based on an arrangement of 36 piles of coins in a 6 by 6 square, representing "the accumulation and concentration of wealth by the Group ''.
During Goodwin 's tenure as CEO he attracted some criticism for lavish spending, including on the construction of a £ 350m headquarters in Edinburgh opened by the Queen in 2005 and $500 m headquarters in the US begun in 2006, and the use of a Dassault Falcon 900 jet owned by leasing subsidiary Lombard for occasional corporate travel. Revelations that RBS had spent £ 200m on celebrity endorsements also went down badly.
In February 2009 RBS reported that while Fred Goodwin was at the helm it had posted a loss of £ 24.1 bn, the biggest loss in UK corporate history. His responsibility for the expansion of RBS, which led to the losses, has drawn widespread criticism. His image was not enhanced by the news that emerged in questioning by the Treasury Select Committee of the House of Commons on 10 February 2009, that Goodwin has no technical bank training, and has no formal banking qualifications.
In January 2009 The Guardian 's City editor Julia Finch identified him as one of twenty - five people who were at the heart of the financial meltdown. Nick Cohen described Goodwin in The Guardian as "the characteristic villain of our day '', who made £ 20m from RBS and left the taxpayer "with an unlimited liability for the cost of cleaning up the mess ''. An online column by Daniel Gross labelled Goodwin "The World 's Worst Banker '', a phrase echoed elsewhere in the media. Gordon Prentice MP argued that his knighthood should be revoked as it is "wholly inappropriate and anomalous for someone to retain such a reward in these circumstances. ''
Other members have also frequently been criticised as "fat cats '' over their salary, expenses, bonuses and pensions.
RBS was challenged over its financing of oil and coal mining by charities such as Platform London and Friends of the Earth. In 2007, RBS was promoting itself as "The Oil & Gas Bank '', although the website www.oilandgasbank.com was later taken down. A Platform London report criticised the bank 's lending to oil and gas companies, estimating that the carbon emissions embedded within RBS ' project finance reached 36.9 million tonnes in 2005, comparable to Scotland 's carbon emissions.
RBS provides the financial means for companies to build coal - fired power stations and dig new coal mines at sites throughout the world. RBS helped to provide an estimated £ 8 billion from 2006 to 2008 to energy corporation E. ON and other coal - utilising companies. In 2012, 2.8 % of RBS ' total lending was provided to the power, oil and gas sectors combined. According to RBS ' own figures, half of its deals to the energy sector were to wind power projects; although, this only included project finance and not general commercial loans.
In 2000 and 2001, staff of the bank were threatened over its provision of banking facilities for the animal testing company Huntingdon Life Sciences. The intimidation resulted in RBS withdrawing the company 's overdraft facility, requiring the company to obtain alternative funding within a tight deadline.
Climate Camp activists criticise RBS for funding firms which extract oil from Canadian oil sands. The Cree aboriginal group describe RBS as being complicit in "the biggest environmental crime on the planet ''. In 2012, 7.2 % of RBS ' total oil and gas lending was to companies who derived more than 10 % of their income from oil sands operations.
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what was the latest episode of south park | List of South Park episodes - wikipedia
South Park is an American animated television sitcom created by Trey Parker and Matt Stone for Comedy Central that debuted on August 13, 1997. The series originated from a pair of animated shorts titled The Spirit of Christmas, and the first episode of South Park originally aired on August 13, 1997 on Comedy Central. Intended for mature audiences, the show has become infamous for its crude language and dark, surreal humor that lampoons a wide range of topics. The story revolves around four boys -- Stan Marsh, Kyle Broflovski, Eric Cartman, and Kenny McCormick -- and their bizarre adventures in and around the eponymous Colorado town.
Episodes of South Park have been nominated for a variety of different awards, including 3 Annie Awards (with one win), 2 Critics ' Choice Television Award (with zero wins), 17 Emmy Awards (with five wins), 3 TCA Awards (with zero wins), and received a Peabody Award. Several compilation DVDs have been released. In addition, the first twenty seasons have been released on DVD and Blu - ray.
The show remains Comedy Central 's highest rated program and second - longest - running, behind The Daily Show. A feature film, South Park: Bigger, Longer & Uncut, was released on June 30, 1999. Comedy Central has renewed South Park through 2019, which will bring the show to 23 seasons. The twenty - first season, consisting of 10 episodes, premiered on September 13, 2017, and concluded on December 6, 2017. As of December 6, 2017, 287 episodes of South Park have aired.
Seasons: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 Future seasons Home media Shorts, sketches, and other appearances References
In July 2015, it was announced that South Park would continue through season 23 in 2019. Parker and Stone have expressed interest in continuing the series until Comedy Central cancels it.
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how many credit union members are there worldwide | World Council of credit unions - wikipedia
The World Council of Credit Unions (World Council or WOCCU) is the leading international trade association and development agency for credit unions and cooperative financial institutions. World Council promotes the self - sustainable development of credit unions and other financial cooperatives around the world to empower people through access to high quality and affordable financial services. World Council advocates on behalf of the global credit union system before international organizations, and works with national governments to improve legislation and regulation. Its technical assistance programs introduce new tools and technologies to strengthen credit unions ' financial performance and increase their outreach.
World Council is funded by member dues, government agency and foundation grants and annual gifts to its foundation. World Council of Credit Unions and its subsidiaries are headquartered in Madison, Wisconsin. World Council also has a permanent office in Washington, D.C., and program offices worldwide.
In cooperation with its member organizations in nearly 60 countries, World Council champions the credit union model worldwide to continue growing the international movement of 68,000 credit unions in 109 countries that serve 231 million members.
World Council was founded on January 1, 1971, as the global trade association for credit unions. World Council has worked with the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) and the Microfinance Investment Support Facility for Afghanistan (MISFA) to build Islamic Investment and Finance Cooperatives in Afghanistan. In 2006, World Council received a $6.7 million grant from the Gates Foundation to develop credit unions in Africa and Latin America.
World Council supports the self - sustainable development of credit unions and other financial cooperatives around the world to empower people through access to high quality and affordable financial services. With funding from a wide range of multi-lateral, government and private partners, World Council promotes economic security, resilience and livelihoods strengthening through the sustainable development of local, well managed, savings - led financial institutions. World Council reaches marginalized and traditionally unbanked populations and has worked with credit unions in 71 countries to provide a range of affordable, pro-poor financial products and services. World Council raises the awareness of credit unions, facilitates the exchange of information and ideas about financial cooperatives, and works with policymakers to improve the legal and regulatory environments for credit unions.
World Council 's work focuses on:
World Council currently implements international credit union development programs in:
International Credit Union Day has been celebrated by the World Council of Credit Unions on the third Thursday of October since 1948. The day is set aside to reflect upon the history of the credit union movement and to promote the achievements.
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what are the cones in the retina sensitive to | Cone cell - Wikipedia
Cone cells, or cones, are one of three types of photoreceptor cells in the retina of mammalian eyes (e.g. the human eye). They are responsible for color vision and function best in relatively bright light, as opposed to rod cells, which work better in dim light. Cone cells are densely packed in the fovea centralis, a 0.3 mm diameter rod - free area with very thin, densely packed cones which quickly reduce in number towards the periphery of the retina. There are about six to seven million cones in a human eye and are most concentrated towards the macula. The commonly cited figure of six million cone cells in the human eye was found by Osterberg in 1935. Oyster 's textbook (1999) cites work by Curcio et al. (1990) indicating an average close to 4.5 million cone cells and 90 million rod cells in the human retina.
Cones are less sensitive to light than the rod cells in the retina (which support vision at low light levels), but allow the perception of color. They are also able to perceive finer detail and more rapid changes in images, because their response times to stimuli are faster than those of rods. Cones are normally one of the three types, each with different pigment, namely: S - cones, M - cones and L - cones. Each cone is therefore sensitive to visible wavelengths of light that correspond to short - wavelength, medium - wavelength and long - wavelength light. Because humans usually have three kinds of cones with different photopsins, which have different response curves and thus respond to variation in color in different ways, we have trichromatic vision. Being color blind can change this, and there have been some verified reports of people with four or more types of cones, giving them tetrachromatic vision. The three pigments responsible for detecting light have been shown to vary in their exact chemical composition due to genetic mutation; different individuals will have cones with different color sensitivity. Destruction of the cone cells from disease would result in color blindness.
Humans normally have three types of cones. The first responds the most to light of long wavelengths, peaking at about 560 nm; this type is sometimes designated L for long. The second type responds the most to light of medium - wavelength, peaking at 530 nm, and is abbreviated M for medium. The third type responds the most to short - wavelength light, peaking at 420 nm, and is designated S for short. The three types have peak wavelengths near 564 -- 580 nm, 534 -- 545 nm, and 420 -- 440 nm, respectively, depending on the individual.
While it has been discovered that there exists a mixed type of bipolar cells that bind to both rod and cone cells, bipolar cells still predominantly receive their input from cone cells.
Cone cells are somewhat shorter than rods, but wider and tapered, and are much less numerous than rods in most parts of the retina, but greatly outnumber rods in the fovea. Structurally, cone cells have a cone - like shape at one end where a pigment filters incoming light, giving them their different response curves. They are typically 40 -- 50 μm long, and their diameter varies from 0.5 to 4.0 μm, being smallest and most tightly packed at the center of the eye at the fovea. The S cone spacing is slightly larger than the others.
Photobleaching can be used to determine cone arrangement. This is done by exposing dark - adapted retina to a certain wavelength of light that paralyzes the particular type of cone sensitive to that wavelength for up to thirty minutes from being able to dark - adapt making it appear white in contrast to the grey dark - adapted cones when a picture of the retina is taken. The results illustrate that S cones are randomly placed and appear much less frequently than the M and L cones. The ratio of M and L cones varies greatly among different people with regular vision (e.g. values of 75.8 % L with 20.0 % M versus 50.6 % L with 44.2 % M in two male subjects).
Like rods, each cone cell has a synaptic terminal, an inner segment, and an outer segment as well as an interior nucleus and various mitochondria. The synaptic terminal forms a synapse with a neuron such as a bipolar cell. The inner and outer segments are connected by a cilium. The inner segment contains organelles and the cell 's nucleus, while the outer segment, which is pointed toward the back of the eye, contains the light - absorbing materials.
Like rods, the outer segments of cones have invaginations of their cell membranes that create stacks of membranous disks. Photopigments exist as transmembrane proteins within these disks, which provide more surface area for light to affect the pigments. In cones, these disks are attached to the outer membrane, whereas they are pinched off and exist separately in rods. Neither rods nor cones divide, but their membranous disks wear out and are worn off at the end of the outer segment, to be consumed and recycled by phagocytic cells.
The difference in the signals received from the three cone types allows the brain to perceive a continuous range of colors, through the opponent process of color vision. (Rod cells have a peak sensitivity at 498 nm, roughly halfway between the peak sensitivities of the S and M cones.)
All of the receptors contain the protein photopsin, with variations in its conformation causing differences in the optimum wavelengths absorbed.
The color yellow, for example, is perceived when the L cones are stimulated slightly more than the M cones, and the color red is perceived when the L cones are stimulated significantly more than the M cones. Similarly, blue and violet hues are perceived when the S receptor is stimulated more. Cones are most sensitive to light at wavelengths around 420 nm. However, the lens and cornea of the human eye are increasingly absorptive to shorter wavelengths, and this sets the short wavelength limit of human - visible light to approximately 380 nm, which is therefore called ' ultraviolet ' light. People with aphakia, a condition where the eye lacks a lens, sometimes report the ability to see into the ultraviolet range. At moderate to bright light levels where the cones function, the eye is more sensitive to yellowish - green light than other colors because this stimulates the two most common (M and L) of the three kinds of cones almost equally. At lower light levels, where only the rod cells function, the sensitivity is greatest at a blueish - green wavelength.
Cones also tend to possess a significantly elevated visual acuity because each cone cell has a lone connection to the optic nerve, therefore, the cones have an easier time telling that two stimuli are isolated. Separate connectivity is established in the inner plexiform layer so that each connection is parallel.
The response of cone cells to light is also directionally nonuniform, peaking at a direction that receives light from the center of the pupil; this effect is known as the Stiles -- Crawford effect.
Sensitivity to a prolonged stimulation tends to decline over time, leading to neural adaptation. An interesting effect occurs when staring at a particular color for a minute or so. Such action leads to an exhaustion of the cone cells that respond to that color -- resulting in the afterimage. This vivid color aftereffect can last for a minute or more.
One of the diseases related to cone cells present in retina is retinoblastoma. Retinoblastoma is a rare cancer of the retina, caused by the mutation of both copies of retinoblastoma genes (RB1). Most cases of retinoblastoma occur during early childhood. One or both eyes may be affected. The protein encoded by RB1 regulates a signal transduction pathway while controlling the cell cycle progression as normally. Retinoblastoma seems to originate in cone precursor cells present in the retina that consist of natural signalling networks which restrict cell death and promote cell survival after losing the RB1, or having both the RB1 copies mutated. It has been found that TRβ2 which is a transcription factor specifically affiliated with cones is essential for rapid reproduction and existence of the retinoblastoma cell. A drug that can be useful in the treatment of this disease is MDM2 (murine double minute 2) gene. Knockdown studies have shown that the MDM2 gene silences ARF - induced apoptosis in retinoblastoma cells and that MDM2 is necessary for the survival of cone cells. It is unclear at this point why the retinoblastoma in humans is sensitive to RB1 inactivation.
The pupil may appear white or have white spots. A white glow in the eye is often seen in photographs taken with a flash, instead of the typical "red eye '' from the flash, and the pupil may appear white or distorted. Other symptoms can include crossed eyes, double vision, eyes that do not align, eye pain and redness, poor vision or differing iris colors in each eye. If the cancer has spread, bone pain and other symptoms may occur.
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how long does it take to get a firearms purchaser identification card in nj | Gun laws in New Jersey - wikipedia
Gun laws in New Jersey regulate the sale, possession, and use of firearms and ammunition in the U.S. state of New Jersey. New Jersey 's firearms laws are among the most restrictive in the country; some of which are being challenged in state and federal courts.
The Constitution of New Jersey has no provision explicitly guaranteeing the right of citizens to keep and bear arms.
Hollow - point ammunition is available for unrestricted purchase from most retailers wherever firearms are sold, and may be transported by purchasers without special licensing. However, hollow - point bullets may not be carried outside of a place of target practice, dwelling, premises or land possessed by a person, even if one has a valid permit to carry a handgun, except when being transported directly to and from these places. LEOSA (HR 218) qualified and retired or separated LEOs carrying anywhere in the USA are exempt from state laws and may legally carry hollow points ammo or any ammo that is not prohibited under the Gun Control Act of 1968 or the National Firearm Act. Additionally the NJ Superior Court in State v Brian Aitken have ruled that there is no exception for moving between residences with hollow - point bullets.
In New Jersey, anyone seeking to purchase firearms (one does not need to obtain a Firearm Purchaser Identification card to own, possess in the home, transport firearms to and from authorized target range, to a gunsmith for purposes of repair, or to the woods or fields of the state for purposes of hunting) is required to obtain a lifetime Firearm Purchaser Identification card, commonly referred to as FID, for the purchase of rifles and shotguns. To purchase a handgun, a separate permit is needed from the Chief of Police of their municipality, or the Superintendent of State Police if the municipality does not have a local police department. A permit is required for each handgun to be purchased and expires after 90 days but may be extended for an additional 90 days at the discretion of the Chief of Police or Superintendent of State Police. These, like the initial Firearms Purchaser Identification Card (FID), are provided to applicants on a shall - issue basis. They require in - depth application questioning, multiple references and background checks via the State Bureau of Identification and New Jersey State Police; however, authorities do not have discretion and must issue permits to applicants who satisfy the criteria described in the statutes. Reasons for denial include being convicted of a crime (equivalent to a felony) or disorderly persons offense (equivalent to a misdemeanor) in the case of domestic violence. As of August 2013 anyone on the terror watchlist is also disqualified.
NJ law states that Firearms Identification approval and / or handgun purchase permit (s) must be issued within 30 days. However, this is not always adhered to with some applicants waiting months to receive their permits. Applicants are able to appeal the denial of permits. The Firearm Purchaser ID card is also required to purchase handgun ammunition at dealers in the state. "Handgun ammunition '' is interpreted as any caliber that can be used in a handgun, therefore some calibers that are typically used in rifles and shotguns require one to show a FPIC to purchase.
N.J.S.A 2C: 58 - 3 (f):
There shall be no conditions or requirements added to the form or content of the application, or required by the licensing authority for the issuance of a permit or identification card, other than those that are specifically set forth in this chapter.
Only two forms are required to obtain a FPIC or permit to purchase a handgun: the "Application for Firearms Purchaser Identification Card and / or Handgun Purchase Permit '', STS - 33, and "Consent For Mental Health Records Search '', SP - 66. Additionally, the Chief of Police for the Municipality or the Superintendent of State Police may require an applicant to be fingerprinted or complete a "Request for Criminal History Record Information '', form SBI 212A. Fingerprinting is usually done at private facilities such as Morpho (Safran) and the SBI 212A form can be submitted online or on paper. The method of submission is determined by the local police department. Many police departments and the NJSP are moving toward online submission and phasing out the paper SBI 212A.
Some municipalities have required additional forms, photographs and other requirements such as notarization. These forms are not required for approval per NJSA 2C: 58 - 3a. This has been affirmed by the Appellate Court in two cases, one against the City of Paterson by resident Jeremy Perez, and another against Jersey City by resident Michael McGovern where the court ruled against the cities in violation.
Each FPIC application fee is $5 and each permit to purchase a handgun is $2. Fingerprinting is charged a fee by the private facility contracted by the state, approximately $50 to $60. The SBI 212A "Request for Criminal History Record Information '' application fee is $18 if submitted on paper or $20 if submitted online. Each police department has its own policy with regard to which method they choose for background checks. Some may require fingerprinting for each application, but most only require it for the initial FPIC.
Capacities of semiautomatic handguns and rifles (total in magazine excluding chamber) are limited to 15 rounds. Furthermore, beginning January 1, 2010, New Jersey limits handgun purchases to one per 30 - day period. Upon completing a New Jersey State police form, an FID card holder may be granted permission to purchase more than one handgun a month by declaring good reason. Reasons may include: recreational shooting; the purposes of collectors; when it is required for certain employment; and when obtaining firearms as the beneficiary of a will. The State application required for this increase, Form SP - 015, specifically requires the make, model and serial number of each firearm to be transferred prior to the exemption, keeping the spirit of the purchasing limit safe from circumvention.
New Jersey "may issue '' a Permit to Carry a Handgun to both residents and non-residents. One must submit an application to the chief law enforcement officer of one 's municipality, or the Superintendent of State Police in areas where there is no local police department. Armored car employees are required to apply to the Superintendent of State Police. Non-residents may apply to the Superintendent of State Police. By statute, New Jersey is a "may - issue '' permit system, in which authorities are allowed discretion in the approval and denial of applications. Additionally, training and range qualification is required, non politically connected or retired LEO will not be issued a permit. After a background check and review by the law enforcement agency, permit applications are forwarded to the Superior Court where they are approved or denied.
Every applicant not applying as a law enforcement officer must demonstrate justifiable need in order to obtain a permit, by means of a letter detailing specific need attached to the application; this requirement applies to active and retired judges, prosecutors, public defenders, military personnel, and elected officials in addition to the general populace. Justifiable need has been defined as, "urgent necessity for self - protection, as evidenced by specific threats or previous attacks which demonstrate a special danger to the applicant 's life that can not be avoided by means other than by issuance of a permit to carry a handgun. '' This standard gives Superior Court judges wide discretion in approving or denying permits. Many applicants have reported difficulty in obtaining New Jersey Permits to Carry, especially non-residents. Most people do not even bother to apply since denial is almost a certainty and any denial must be disclosed on subsequent applications for permits to purchase a firearm. Registered and licensed private security officers and private investigators encounter less difficulty, however their permits are usually heavily scrutinized and restricted to carry while on duty only.
Retired law enforcement officers are eligible to obtain a permit to carry a handgun without specific justifiable need, pursuant to N.J.S.A 2C: 39 - 6 (l). These permits are administered by the Superintendent of State Police and not subject to judicial review unless the officer was denied and is appealing a denial. Additionally, qualified retired law enforcement officers may carry under LEOSA, which allows retired and current law enforcement officers who qualify and meet certain criteria to carry concealed firearms. There is no requirement for qualified retired or separated officers to apply for the state permit when carrying under LEOSA (H.R. 218) since the federal law trumps state law. As of the end of 2013, there were 1,212 active Handgun Carry Permits in New Jersey, out of a population of nearly 9 million residents.
There are a few exempted locations where one may carry and possess firearms. These locations are your home, place of business, premises or land possessed, or to a gunsmith for purposes of repair. Members of rifle or pistol clubs that submit their names to the state police annually are allowed to possess and transport their firearms to "a place of target practice. '' Those who are not members of a rifle or pistol club can carry their firearms to "an authorized target range. '' One may also carry firearms to the woods or fields or waters of the state for purposes of hunting or fishing. One must have a valid hunting or fishing license and the firearms must be appropriate for hunting or fishing to be covered under this exemption.
Interstate transportation is covered under the Safe Passage provision of the Firearm Owners Protection Act (FOPA), 18 USC § 926A, which states:
Notwithstanding any other provision of any law or any rule or regulation of a State or any political subdivision thereof, any person who is not otherwise prohibited by this chapter from transporting, shipping, or receiving a firearm shall be entitled to transport a firearm for any lawful purpose from any place where he may lawfully possess and carry such firearm to any other place where he may lawfully possess and carry such firearm if, during such transportation the firearm is unloaded, and neither the firearm nor any ammunition being transported is readily accessible or is directly accessible from the passenger compartment of such transporting vehicle: Provided, That in the case of a vehicle without a compartment separate from the driver 's compartment the firearm or ammunition shall be contained in a locked container other than the glove compartment or console.
However, the Third Circuit Court of Appeals in Association of New Jersey Rifle and Pistol Clubs v. Port Authority of New York and New Jersey has found that this provision only applies to transporting a firearm in a vehicle, and that carrying a firearm in a locked container in checked luggage in an airport terminal to declare it to the airline constitutes unlawful possession and is not protected under the law. This decision was a direct result of a 2005 incident where Gregg C. Revell, a Utah Resident with a valid Utah Concealed Firearm Permit was traveling through Newark Airport en route to Allentown, Pennsylvania. Because of a missed flight, he was given his luggage, which included a properly checked firearm, and was forced to spend the night in a hotel in New Jersey. When he returned to the airport the following day to check his handgun for the last portion of the trip, he was arrested for illegal possession of a firearm. Revell lost his lawsuit after The U.S. Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit held in Gregg C. Revell v. Port Authority of New York and New Jersey, (222) held that "Section 926A does not apply to Revell because his firearm and ammunition were readily accessible to him during his stay in New Jersey. '' This opinion will apply to NJ airports. If you miss a flight or for any other reason your flight is interrupted and the airline tries to return you luggage that includes a checked firearm, you can not take possession of the firearm if you are taking a later flight. The Association of New Jersey Rifle and Pistol Clubs (ANJRPC) later also sued the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey, which resulted in a similar decision.
Firearms classed as "assault firearms '' but acquired before May 1, 1990 and registered with the state are legal to possess. Police officers may possess assault weapons for duty purposes and may possess personal assault weapons with recommendation by their agency. FFLs are also allowed to possess "assault firearms. ''
Under New Jersey law, a firearm is classified as an "assault firearm '' if it meets the following criteria:
The following manufacturers, models, and types are namingly banned:
In New Jersey, it is illegal to possess any magazine that is capable of accepting more than 10 rounds for semi-automatic rifles / pistols and 6 rounds for semi-automatic shotguns. Police officers may possess these magazines for both personal and official purposes. FFLs may also possess these magazines (N.J.S.A 2C: 39 - 1 (y)).
In his final day in office in January 2018, Governor of New Jersey Chris Christie signed legislation making the gun accessory bump stock illegal.
The New Jersey Childproof Handgun Law is a 2002 state law that requires that all handguns sold in the state be smart guns once such guns are available.
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how long is a us size 10 shoe | Shoe size - Wikipedia
A shoe size is an indication of the fitting size of a shoe for a person.
There are a number of different shoe - size systems used worldwide. While all of them use a number to indicate the length of the shoe, they differ in exactly what they measure, what unit of measurement they use, and where the size 0 (or 1) is positioned. Some systems also indicate the shoe width, sometimes also as a number, but in many cases by one or more letters. Some regions use different shoe - size systems for different types of shoes (e.g. men 's, women 's, children 's, sport, and safety shoes). This article sets out several complexities in the definition of shoe sizes. In practice, shoes should be tried on for size and fit before they are purchased.
The length of a foot is commonly defined as (a) the distance between two parallel lines that are perpendicular to the foot and (b) in contact with the most prominent toe and the most prominent part of the heel. Foot length is measured with the subject standing barefoot and the weight of the body equally distributed between both feet.
The sizes of the left and right feet are often slightly different. In this case, both feet are measured, and purchasers of mass - produced shoes are advised to purchase a shoe size based on the larger foot, as most retailers do not sell pairs of shoes in non-matching sizes.
Each size of shoe is considered suitable for a small interval of foot lengths, typically limited by half - point of the shoe size system.
A shoe - size system can refer to three characteristic lengths:
All these measures differ substantially from one another for the same shoe. For example, the inner cavity of a shoe must typically be 15 mm longer than the foot, and the shoe last would be 2 size points larger than the foot, but this varies between different types of shoes and the shoe size system used. The typical range lies between ⁄ to ⁄ inch (12.7 to 16.9 mm) for the UK / US size system and ⁄ to ⁄ cm (13.3 to 16.7 mm) for the European size system, but may extend to ⁄ to ⁄ inch (6.4 to 19.1 mm) and ⁄ to ⁄ cm (6.7 to 20.0 mm).
Sizing systems also differ in what units of measurement they use. This also results in different increments between shoe sizes, because usually only "full '' or "half '' sizes are made.
The following length units are commonly used today to define shoe - size systems:
The sizing systems also place size 0 (or 1) at different locations:
Some systems also include the width of a foot (or the girth of a shoe last), but do so in a variety of ways:
The width for which these sizes are suitable can vary significantly between manufacturers. The A -- E width indicators used by most American, Canadian, and some British shoe manufacturers are typically based on the width of the foot, and common step sizes are ⁄ inch (4.8 mm).
Shoe size in the United Kingdom, Ireland, India, and South Africa is based on the length of the last used to make the shoes, measured in barleycorn ( ⁄ inch) starting from the smallest size deemed practical, which is called size zero. It is not formally standardised. Note that the last is typically longer than the foot heel to toe length by about ⁄ to ⁄ inch (13 to 17 mm).
A child 's size zero is equivalent to 4 inches (a hand = 12 barleycorns = 10.16 cm), and the sizes go up to size 13 ⁄ (measuring 25 ⁄ barleycorns, or 8 ⁄ inches (21.59 cm)). Thus, the calculation for a children 's shoe size in the UK is:
equivalent to
An adult size one is then the next size up (26 barleycorns, or 8 ⁄ in (22.01 cm)) and each size up continues the progression in barleycorns. The calculation for an adult shoe size in the UK is thus:
equivalent to
In Australia and New Zealand, the UK system is followed for men and children 's footwear. Women 's footwear has a slightly different sizing that is unique and in between the UK and US 's sizings.
In Mexico, shoes are sized either according to the foot length they are intended to fit, in cm, or alternatively to another variation of the barleycorn system, with sizes calculated approximately as:
In United States and Canada, there are different systems that are used concurrently. The size indications are usually similar but not exactly equivalent especially with athletic shoes at extreme sizes. The most common is the customary, described in more detail below, which for men 's shoes is one size shorter than the UK equivalent, making a men 's 13 in the US or Canada the same size as a men 's 12 in the UK.
The traditional system is similar to English sizes but start counting at one rather than zero, so equivalent sizes are one greater.
The calculation for a male shoe size in the USA or Canada is:
In the "standard '' or "FIA '' (Footwear Industries of America) scale, women 's sizes are men 's sizes plus 1 (so a men 's 10.5 is a women 's 11.5).
There is also the "common '' scale, where women 's sizes are equal to men 's sizes plus 1.5.
Children 's sizes are equal to men 's sizes plus 12 ⁄. Children 's sizes do not differ by gender even though adults ' do.
Children 's shoe stores in the United States and Canada use a sizing scheme which ends at 13, after which the adult range starts at 1. Alternatively, a scale running from K4 to K13 and then 1 to 7 is in use. K4 to K9 are toddler sizes, K10 to 3 are pre-school and 1 to 7 are grade school sizes.
A slightly different sizing method is based on the Brannock Device, a measuring instrument invented by Charles F. Brannock in 1925 and now found in many shoe stores. The formula used by the Brannock device assumes a foot length ⁄ in (1.7 cm) less than the length of the last; thus, men 's size 1 is equivalent to a foot 's length of 7 ⁄ in (19.47 cm). Women 's sizes are one size up.
The device also measures the length of the arch, or the distance between the heel and the ball (metatarsal head) of the foot. For this measurement, the device has a shorter scale at the instep of the foot with an indicator that slides into position. If this scale indicates a larger size, it is taken in place of the foot 's length to ensure proper fitting.
For children 's sizes, additional wiggle room is added to allow for growth.
The device also measures the width of the foot and assigns it designations of AAA, AA, A, B, C, D, E, EE, or EEE. The widths are 3 / 16 in apart and differ by shoe length.
Some shoe stores and medical professionals use optical 3D surface scanners to precisely measure the length and width of both feet and recommend the appropriate shoe model and size.
In the Continental European system, the shoe size is the length of the last, expressed in Paris points, for both sexes and for adults and children alike. Because a Paris point is ⁄ of a centimetre, the formula is as follows:
The last is typically 2 to 2.5 Paris points or ⁄ to ⁄ cm (13.3 to 16.7 mm) longer than the foot, so to determine the size based on actual foot length from heel to toe, one must add 2 points:
The European system is used in Austria, Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, and most other continental European countries. It is also used in Middle Eastern countries (such as Iran), Brazil -- which uses the same method but subtracts 2 from the final result, in effect measuring foot size instead of last size -- and, commonly, Hong Kong. The system is sometimes described as Stich size (from Pariser Stich, a German for Paris point), or Stichmass size (from Stichmaß, a micrometer tool for internal measurements).
The Mondopoint shoe length system was introduced in 1970s by International Standards ISO 2816: 1973 "Fundamental characteristics of a system of shoe sizing to be known as Mondopoint '' and ISO 3355: 1975 "Shoe sizes - System of length grading (for use in the Mondopoint system) ''. ISO 9407: 1991, "Shoe sizes -- Mondopoint system of sizing and marking '', is the current version of the standard.
The Mondopoint system is based on average foot length and foot width for which the shoe is suitable, measured in millimetres. The length of the foot is measured as horizontal distance between the perpendiculars in contact with the end of the most prominent toe and the most prominent part of the heel. The width of the foot is measured as horizontal distance between vertical lines in contact with the first and fifth metatarsophalangeal joints. The perimeter of the foot is the length of foot circumference, measured with a flexible tape at the same points as foot width. The origin of the grade is zero.
Standard foot lengths are defined with interval steps of 5 mm for casual footwear and steps of 7.5 mm for specialty (protective) footwear.
The labeling should typically include foot length, followed by an optional foot width - a shoe size of 280 / 110 indicates a foot length of 280 millimetres (11.0 in) and width of 110 millimetres (4.3 in). Other customary markings, such as EU, UK and US sizes, can also be used.
Because Mondopoint takes the foot width into account, it allows for better fitting than most other systems. A given shoe size shall fit every foot with indicated average measurements, and those differing by no more than a half - step of the corresponding interval grid.
Mondopoint system is widely used in sports industry to size athletic shoes, ski / skate boots, and Pointe ballet shoes; it was also adopted as the primary shoe sizing system in USSR / Russia, GDR, China, Japan / Taiwan / South Korea, and as an optional system in United Kingdom, India, Mexico, and European countries. Mondopoint system is also used by NATO and other military services.
The standard is maintained by ISO Techincal Committee 137 "Footwear sizing designations and marking systems ''; as of 2018, a new revision is under development.
In Japan, Taiwan and South Korea, the Mondopoint system is used as defined by national standard JIS S 5037: 1998 and its counterparts CNS 4800 - S1093: 2000 and KS M 6681: 2007.
Foot length and girth (foot circumference) are taken into account. The foot length is indicated in centimetres; an increment of 5 mm is used.
The length is followed by designators for girth (A, B, C, D, E, EE, EEE, EEEE, F, G), which are specified in an indexed table as foot circumference in millimeters for each given foot length; foot width is also included as supplemental information. There are different tables for men 's, women 's, and children 's (less than 12 years of age) shoes. Not all designators are used for all genders and in all countries. For example, the largest girth for women in Taiwan is EEEE, whereas in Japan, it is F.
The foot length and width can also be indicated in millimeters, searated by a slash or a hyphen.
Historically the USSR used the European (Paris point) system, but the Mondopoint metric system was introduced in 1980s by GOST 24382 - 80 "Sizes of Sport Shoes '' and GOST 11373 - 88 "Shoe Sizes ''. Foot lengths are aligned to 5 mm and 7.5 mm intervals.
Standard metric foot sizes can be converted to the nearest Paris point ( ⁄ cm) sizes using approximate conversion tables; shoes can be marked with both foot length in mm, as for Pointe ballet shoe sizes, and / or last length in European Paris point sizes (although such converted ' Stichmass ' sizes typically come 1⁄2 to 1 size smaller than comparable European - made adult footwear, and up to 11⁄2 size smaller for children 's footwear, according to ISO 19407 shoe size definitions). Optional foot width designations includes narrow, normal (medium or regular), and wide grades.
Infant sizes start at 16 (95 mm) and pre-school kids at 23 (140 mm); schoolchildren sizes span 32 (202.5 mm) to 40 (255 mm) for girls and 32 to 44 (285 mm) for boys. Adult sizes span 33 (210 mm) to 44 for women and 38 (245 mm) to 48 (310 mm) for men.
ISO / TS 19407: 2015 Footwear - Sizing - Conversion of sizing systems is a technical specification from International Standards Organisation. It contains three conversion tables (for adults and children) which feature major shoe sizing systems (e.g., Mondopoint, United States, European, United Kingdom, China, and Japan). Each table is based on actual foot length measurement (insole) in millimeters; typical last length ranges are also included.
The standard includes conversion tables for Mondopoint (USSR / Russian / Chinese / Japanese / Korean systems) using length steps of 5 mm and 7.5 mm, European Paris point system, and UK 1 / 3 inch system. The standard has also been adopted as Russian GOST R 57425 - 2017.
The standard is maintained by ISO / TC 137, which also developed ISO / TS 19408: 2015 Footwear - Sizing - Vocabulary and terminology; currently in development are companion standards ISO / TS 19409 "Footwear - Sizing - Measurement of last dimensions '' and ISO / TS 19410 "Footwear - Sizing - Inshoe measurement ''.
The adult shoe sizes are calculated from typical last length, which is converted from foot length in mm by adding an allowance of two shoe sizes:
where L (\ displaystyle (L)) is foot length in mm.
Direct conversion between adult UK, European and Mondopoint shoe size systems is derived as follows:
Exact foot lengths may contain repeating decimals because the formulas include division by 3; in practice, approximate interval steps of 6.67 mm and 8.47 mm are used, then resulting lengths are rounded up to 0.1 mm, and shoe sizes are rounded to either 0.5 size points or closest matching Mondopoint size.
Children sizes are approximations converted from foot length by adding a 8 % allowance at the toes and matching the result to the closest practically available last size.
The standard also includes quick conversion tables for adult shoe sizes; they provide matching sizes for shoes marked in Mondopoint, UK and US systems. Converted values are rounded to a larger shoe size to increase comfort.
Shoe size in the primary sizing system used in production should be placed first on the label, preferably in a bold font, and approximate shoe size conversion to other systems should be included as well.
Differences between various shoe size tables, makers ' tables or other tables found on the Web are usually due to the following factors:
Further, some tables available on the Web simply contain errors. For example, the wiggle room or different zero point is not taken into account, or tables based on different U.S. systems (traditional and athletic) are simply combined although they are incompatible.
Moreover, though the ISO had released a technical specification (ISO / TS 19407: 2015) for converting shoe sizes across various local sizing systems, the organization noted that the problem of converting shoe sizes accurately has yet to be fully resolved. At best, its own published standards for shoe sizes conversions only serve as "a good compromise solution '' for shoe - buyers.
Please note that the following tables indicate theoretical sizes calculated from the standards and information given above.
Unofficial adult shoe sizes comparison
Unofficial children 's shoe sizes comparison
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when did sicily become part of the roman empire | Sicilia (Roman province) - wikipedia
Sicilia (/ sɪˈsɪliə /) was the first province acquired by the Roman Republic. The western part of the island was brought under Roman control in 241 BC at the conclusion of the First Punic War with Carthage. A praetor was regularly assigned to the island from c. 227 BC. The Kingdom of Syracuse under Hieron II remained an independent ally of Rome until its defeat in 212 BC during the Second Punic War. Thereafter the province included the whole of the island of Sicily, the island of Malta, and the smaller island groups (the Egadi islands, the Lipari islands, Ustica, and Pantelleria).
During the Roman Republic, the island was the main source of grain for the city of Rome. Extraction was heavy, provoking armed uprisings known as the Servile Wars in the second century BC. In the first century, the Roman governor, Verres, was famously prosecuted for his corruption by Cicero. In the civil wars which brought the Roman Republic to an end, Sicily was controlled by Sextus Pompey in opposition to the Second Triumvirate. When the island finally came under the control of Augustus in 36 BC, it was substantially reorganised, with large Roman colonies being established in several major cities.
For most of the Imperial period, the province was a peaceful, agrarian territory. As a result, it is rarely mentioned in literary sources, but archaeology and epigraphy reveals several thriving cities, such as Lilybaeum and Panormus in the west, and Syracuse and Catania in the east. These communities were organised in a similar way to other cities of the Roman Empire and were largely self - governing. Greek and Latin were the main languages of the island, but Punic, Hebrew and probably other languages were also spoken. There were several Jewish communities on the island and from around AD 200 there is also evidence of substantial Christian communities.
The province briefly fell under the control of the Vandal kingdom of North Africa shortly before the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476, but was soon returned to the Kingdom of Italy and eventually passed to the Byzantines.
Agathocles, tyrant of Syracuse from 317 and King of Sicily from 307 or 304 BC, died in 289 BC. A group of his Campanian mercenaries, called the Mamertines, were offered compensation in exchange for leaving the city. They took control of Messina, killing and exiling the citizens, and taking their wives for themselves.
In response to this, the Syracusan general Hiero, who had reorganised the mercenaries and was able to bring banditry under control in 269 BC, before advancing on Messina. The Carthaginians, always eager to prevent the excessive empowerment of a single force and to keep Sicily divided, offered aid to the Mamertines. Hiero had to return to Syracuse, where he assumed the title of king. Shortly thereafter, the Mamertines decided to expel the Carthaginian garrison and seek aid from the Romans instead.
At Rome, there was a debate on the appropriateness of helping the Mamertines. Previously, Rome had intervened against Campanian mercenaries who had followed the Mamertines ' example and taken control of Rhegium (modern Reggio Calabria). Moreover, it seemed clear that intervention in Sicily would lead to conflict with Carthage. According to the lost historian Philinus of Agrigentum, who was favourable to the Carthaginians, there was a treaty between Rome and Carthage which defined their respective spheres of influence and assigned Sicily to the Carthaginians. This "Philinus Treaty '' is known to us from Polybius, who mentions it in order to deny its existence. Polybius also claims that the Romans were encouraged to intervene by economic motivations, on account of the wealth of Sicily in this period. The Senate gave the decision on whether or not to help the Mamertines to the popular assembly, which decided to send help. This was not a formal declaration of war against Carthage, but the intervention in Sicily sufficed as a casus belli and thus marked the beginning of the First Punic War (264 -- 241 BC).
This was the first time that Roman forces had campaigned outside the Italian peninsula. Hiero, allied with Carthage against the Mamertines, had to face the legions of Valerius Messalla. The Romans quickly expelled the Syracusans and Carthaginains from Messina. In 263 BC, Hiero changed sides, making a peace treaty with the Romans in exchange for an indemnity of 100 talents, thus ensuring the maintenance of his power. He proved a loyal ally of the Romans until his death in 215 BC, providing aid, specially grain and siege weapons, to the Romans. This assistance was essential for the conquest of the Carthaginian base at Agrigentum in 262 BC. Hiero 's loyalty is reflected in the peace treaty imposed on the Carthaginians at the end of the war, in which they were forbidden to attack Hiero or his allies. It seems, however, that pro-Roman sentiment was not universal at Syracuse and that there was a group opposed to Hiero which favoured the Carthaginians.
At the end of the First Punic War, Rome had conquered the majority of the island, except for Syracuse, which retained a broad autonomy (although required to accept Roman supremacy in the region). In addition to Syracuse, the kingdom of Hiero was granted a number of centres in the eastern part of the island, such as Akrai, Leontini, Megara, Eloro, Netum and Tauromenium, and probably also Morgantina and Camarina.
In addition to the aforementioned Philinus, there were other accounts of the First Punic War written by authors opposed to Rome, such as Sosilus of Sparta. The work of Philinus was analysed and criticised by Polybius, while that of Sosilus was entirely rejected by him as the "vulgar gossip of a barber 's shop. '' A pro-Roman account was written by the historian Fabius Pictor, which is criticised by Polybius as well. The resulting representation of the war in the ancient source material is very partial: the motivations of the Mamertines are left opaque and by the time of Polybius (about a hundred years after the war began) there were different opinions even at Rome. The ancient accounts ' impression that a war between Carthage and Rome was inevitable also seems questionable. Even the traditional explanation that Carthage was threatening Rome at the Straits of Messina seems anachronistic according to Moses Finley, since Carthage had never shown any inclination to expand into Italy. Probably no one at Rome foresaw that intervention at Messina would lead to a conflict on such a scale. According to the account of Polybius, this changed only after the conquest of Agrigentum. Finley says "this argument appears too simple and schematic, but it is correct in the sense that only then did Rome take the essential decision of creating a fleet, without which there was no hope of fighting the Carthaginians on equal terms. ''. The reaction of the Carthaginians to Roman intervention, however, is easily explained: Sicily had always been fundamental for Carthaginian control of the seas.
In any case, the fact that the Romans ultimately conquered the island makes it difficult to produce a balance reconstruction of conditions on Sicily in this period. What is certain is that the First Punic War had a disastrous effect on the territory. Both Rome and Carthage carried out atrocities: 250,000 inhabitants of Agrigentum (Philinus ' homeland) were sold as slaves in 262 BC and seven years later the Carthaginians demolished the walls of the same city and set it on fire. In 258 BC, the Roman conquest of Camarina saw the majority of the inhabitants sold into slavery and 27,000 inhabitant of Panormus suffered the same fate (although 14,000 were redeemed). In 250 BC, Selinus was razed to the ground by the Romans and it was not inhabited again until Late Antiquity. Lilybaeum resisted a Roman siege for ten years, until the conclusion of the war after the Battle of the Aegates.
The Roman victory in the First Punic War placed the entire island of Sicily in Roman hands. Previous Roman conquests in Italy had resulted in direct annexation or asymmetric treaties with Rome as hegemonic power. These treaties guaranteed substantial internal autonomy to the socii: they were required to contribute troops when requested but not to pay any form of tribute. Probably because of the island 's complex mixture of ethnicities and perhaps also in order to recoup the expenses sustained during the war through a system of fiscal control, which excluded the concession of broad autonomy, Sicily came to be defined by a different institutional system.
Eventually, the provincial structure would consist of a praetor, assisted in financial matters by two quaestores, one based at Lilybaeum and one based at Syracuse. But it is not clear how this system took form. It has been suggested that from 240 BC the government of western Sicily was entrusted to a quaestor sent annually to Lilybaeum. Scholars like Filippo Coarelli and Michael Crawford consider it possible that the government of Sicily was entrusted to a privatus cum imperio, that is an aristocrat with no official post and with a military command conferred on a personal basis, sent annually with administrative and judicial competence. Extraordinary governors of this kind were seen already during the First Punic War and occur again during the Second Punic War. Assuming that there was a quaestor at Lilybaeum, it is unclear whether this position was created immediately after the end of the war or sometime later, or if it was one of the quaestores which already existed, that is one of the quaestores classici (treasurers of the fleet), that had first been created in 267 BC, when the number of quaestores was increased from four to eight. Nor as it clear if there were two quaestores in the province from the beginning (one in Lilybaeum and one in Syracuse), since in all the provinces that were subsequently established, there was only one quaestor. According to Antonino Pinzone this difference is explained by the fact that Sicily "came under the control of Rome in two stages, '' so that "the position of the quaestor of Lilybaeum is to be considered a kind of fossil and his influence is to be imputed to the financial and military arrangements inherited from the quaestor (classicus?). ''.
Subsequently, in 227 BC, two new praetores were created (praetores provinciales): one, Gaius Flaminius, was sent to Sicily; the other, Marcus Valerius Laevinus, to the new province of Corsica and Sardinia. Originally, the term provincia indicated the jurisdiction of a magistrate (especially the possession of imperium); eventually it came to indicate the territory under their control. The change of 227 is reported by Gaius Julius Solinus:
The two islands under the control of Rome were made provinces in the same moment when in that year (227 BC) M. Valerius was assigned as praetor of Sardinia by lot and C. Flaminius of the other island.
It was in 227 BC that an annual grain tribute was imposed on the Sicilian communities by a lex frumentaria. This is best known for the province of Sicily from the 1st century BC context (as a result of Cicero 's Verrines). At that time, the tribute consisted of a tenth of the harvest and it is possible that this system derived from the Syracusan kingdom (the lex Hieronica, derived in turn from the Ptolemaic grain tax). The tithe decuma was contracted out to the highest bidder (whoever promised to collect the largest amount of modii). These contractors were called decumani. It seems that this lex frumentaria had results which were "not excessively grievous for the cities to pay... and the small Italians proprietors livin on the island. It developed in the context of Gaius Flaminius ' focus on the development of small proprietors and of their class. ''.
The Second Punic War, which ran from 212 to 202 BC, was initiated by Hannibal, who was aware of the importance of the Italian socii to Rome and accordingly decided to attack the Romans on their own turf, passing through Gaul, over the Alps and into Italy. In a particularly difficult moment for Rome after the defeat at the Battle of Cannae (216 BC), Hiero II died (215 BC). His successor was his fifteen - year - old grandson Hieronymus, who decided to switch to the Carthaginian side. This act arose from a period of intense conflict at Syracuse between the pro-Roman aristocratic faction and the pro-Carthaginian democratic faction. Hannibal himself had sent two brothers of Syracusan descent, Hippocrates and Epicydes, in order to rouse the people against the Romans.
The survivors from the Roman side of the Battle of Cannae were sent to Sicily and forbidden to leave until the end of hostilities. Hieronymus ' decision to change sides caused Roman troops to be dispatched to the gates of Syracuse. The Carthaginians also sent troops to the island and contended with the Romans for control of the island. The conquest of Syracuse in 212 BC by the forces of Marcellus was a decisive moment for the war, which resulted either from the betrayal of the city by members of the Syracusan aristocracy, or by a Spanish mercenary in the Carthaginian camp. The conquest of Syracuse was costly for the Romans on account of the topography of the city, the defensive machines built by Archimedes, and the extensive fortifications, especially the Euryalus fortress, originally built by the tyrant Dionysius I (404 -- 367 BC) to protect the western end of Epipolae. The city was sacked and many inhabitants were killed, including Archimedes.
Marcellus then dispatched a lot of booty to Rome, including works taken from temples and public buildings (and was criticised for this by Polybius): according to Livy, it was the arrival of this booty that first gave rise to Roman enthusiasm for Greek art. The Romans considered it opportune to replace Marcellus, hated by the Syracusans, with Marcus Valerius Laevinus. Following these events, Syracuse was incorporated into the province of Sicily, becoming its capital and the seat of its governor.
The whole of Sicily was now in Roman hands, except for Agrigentum, which held out until 210 BC, when it was betrayed by Numidian mercenaries. In the summer, the time came to hold the comitia centuriata at Rome, in order to elect the consuls. The task of organising the elections was expected to fall to Marcellus as senior consul, but he sent a letter to the Senate when it recalled him, declaring that it would be harmful to the Republic to leave Hannibal to his own devices. When the Senate received this, there was debate as to whether it was better to recall the consul from campaign even though he was unwilling or to cancel the elections of consuls for 209 BC. In the end it was decided to recall Valerius Laevinus from Sicily, even though he was outside Italy. The senate ordered the Urban praetor, Lucius Manlius Acidinus to take a letter to Valerius, along with that sent to the Senate by Marcellus, and to explain to him why they had decided to recall him.
Valerius Laevinus set out from Rome with ten ships and arrived in Sicily safely, entrusted control of the province and command of the army to the praetor Lucius Cincius Alimentus, then sent the commander of the fleet, Marcus Valerius Messalla to Africa with part of the fleet to investigate the preparations of the Carthaginians and to raid their territory. When he returned to Rome, he informed the Senate that no Carthaginian forces remained on the island, that all the exiles had returned home and work had resumed in the fields. This was an exaggeration, insofar as Laevinius spent almost all of 209 BC trying to revive Sicilian agriculture. Not only was all independence of Sicily brought to an end, but the majority of the islands commercial activities were redirected toward Italy. However, in 210 BC, the Senate decided to restore autonomy to Syracuse, which retained a large hinterland.
Thereafter, Sicily became one of the most prosperous and peaceful Roman provinces, although it was disturbed by two serious rebellions. The first of these is known as the First Servile War (c. 138 -- 132 BC), was led by King Antiochus Eunus who established a capital at Enna and conquered Tauromenium as well. Eunus defeated the Roman army several times, but in 133 he was vanquished by Consul Publius Rupilius near Messina; the war ended with the capture of Tauromenium and Enna in 132 BC, and about 20,000 of the unfortunate slaves were crucified. The Second Servile War (104 -- 101) was led by Athenio in the western part of the island and by Salvius Tryphon in the east. This war was terminated by Manius Aquillius. Both wars are described by Diodorus Siculus in terms which suggest that there were massive numbers of slaves from the eastern Mediterranean in Sicily (c. 200,000), with significant economic and social implications for the island.
At the end of Sulla 's second civil war, in 82 BC, Pompey, a very rich and talented young general, was sent to Sicily by the dictator, Sulla, to recover the island from the supporters of Marius and thereby secure the grain supply to Rome. Pompey crushed the opposition and, when the cities complained he responded with one of his most famous statements, reported by Plutarch as "why do you keep praising the laws before me when I am wearing a sword? '' He expelled his enemies in Sicily, putting to death the consul Gnaeus Papirius Carbo.
The government of the island in this period was controlled by a praetor, who was assisted by two quaestores (who focussed on financial matters), one based at Syracuse and one at Lilybaeum. Some communities continued to possess a popular assembly, but there was an increasing concentration of power in the hands of local elites.
From 73 -- 71 BC, the praetor of the province was Gaius Verres, who was denounced by the Sicilians for extortion, theft, and robbery and was prosecuted at Rome by Cicero, whose speeches against him, known as the Verrines, still survive. Since these prosecution speeches are the main evidence for Verres ' actions, it is hard to get an objective idea of the impact of his activities on Sicily. Cicero emphasises a very harsh implementation of the grain tax (for his personal profit rather than that of the Republic) and the theft of artworks, including sacred votive offerings. Verres had expected the power of his friends and the deft manipulation of legal procedure to ensure his acquittal, but after a blisteringly effective first speech from Sicily, he fled into exile.
In 70 BC, the praetor Caecilius Metellus fought successfully against the pirates which infested the seas around Sicily and Campania, who went on to plunder Gaeta and Ostia (69 -- 68 BC) and captured the son of Marcus Antonius Orator at Misenum. In the course of the subsequent war against the pirates in 67 BC, the sea around Sicily was assigned to Plotius Varus. In 61 BC, Clodius was sent to the island as quaestor.
After Verres, Sicily recovered rapidly, although not reimbursed for the robberies of the former praetor. Nor did Caesar 's Civil War (49 -- 45 BC) interrupt business as usual. Caesar 's opponents had grasped the strategic importance of the island of Sicily as a base for attacking North Africa or for defending against an attack from Africa. However, after Julius Caesar crossed the Rubicon and began the civil war he took control of the island; Asinius Pollio was sent as Caesar 's emissary, to remove the governor of the island at the time, Cato the Younger. The Caesarians were therefore able to embark from Lilybaeum to attack the supporters of Pompey in North Africa.
The situation changed with the assassination of Caesar (44 BC). In 42 BC, Sextus Pompey, son of Pompey Magnus, was appointed commander of the Roman fleet gathered at Massalia by the Senate. He came into conflict with the Second Triumvirate, consisting of Octavian, Mark Antony, and Lepidus and was proscribed under the lex Pedia for collecting other proscribed individuals and slaves from Epirus and carrying out various acts of piracy. He therefore took control Mylae, Tyndaris and then Messana. After this, all of Sicily had to submit to him. First he killed the praetor, Aulus Pompeius Bithynicus and then he defeated Octavian 's legatus, Quintus Salvidienus Rufus in a naval battle off Rhegium (40 BC). Sextus Pompey was able to prevent the supply of grain to Rome from Sicily. Initially, Octavian could do little about this, but then the people at Rome forced a compromise. Thus in 39 BC, Sextus Pompey and the Second Triumvirate signed the Pact of Misenum, which recognised Sextus Pompey 's control of Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica and granted freedom to the slaves in his custody. In exchange, Sextus Pompey promised to end the blockade of Rome, resume the Sicilian grain supply to Rome and not to gather any more slaves. The agreement did not hold and triumvirs turned their attention on Sicily. The conflict involved perhaps 200,000 men and 1,000 warships and wrecked great devastation on Sicily. The territory of Tyndaris and Messina was the most damaged.
Octavian was defeated at sea in the Battle of Messina (37 BC) and again in August 36 BC. But Octavian 's lieutenant, Agrippa, a commander of great talent was able to destroy Sextus ' fleet a month later at the Battle of Naulochus in September 36 BC. Octavian imposed a heavy indemnity on Sicily of 1,600 talents and the cities that had resisted him were harshly punished. Thirty thousand slaves in Sextus Pompey 's service were captured; the majority were returned to their masters, but about 6,000, who had no masters, were impaled.
After the Battle of Actium in 31 BC, Octavian had sole power over the Roman Republic. In 27 BC, the Senate formalised this situation and he assumed the title of Augustus.
At the end of the conflict between the triumvirs and Sextus Pompey, Sicily was devastated: cities and countryside had been damaged by warfare and a lot of land remained uncultivated because the proprietors were dead or had fled, or their land had been confiscated by Octavian as punishment. A portion of Sicily remained imperial property, while large areas, probably in the Plain of Catania, were given to Agrippa. When he died, the majority of his property passed to Augustus and it is possible that other Sicilian land came into Augustus ' possession in a similar way. Other farmland, especially on the eastern and northern coasts, was given to Italian veterans who had served in Augustus ' legions.
Augustus carried out an administrative reorganisation of the empire as a whole and of the province of Sicily in particular. A number of coloniae -- cities composed of veterans -- were established by Augustus on Sicily, but the exact chronology is unclear. We know for certain that the first measures were taken in 36 BC, when Tauromenium was made into a colonia. Subsequently, Augustus visited Sicily in 22 or 21 BC, the first stop on a journey through the empire, and other reforms were carried out. At the end of the process, six Sicilian cities had become coloniae: Syracuse, Tauromenium, Panormus, Catania, Tyndaris, and Thermae Himerenses. The influx of population represented by these foundations may have been intended to compensate for a demographic slump resulting from the war with Sextus Pompey, or from Augustus ' excorciation of the island after his victory. It is not clear what happened to the pre-existing Greek inhabitants of these cities: this fact is interesting because normally the citizens of coloniae had Roman citizenship and could therefore participate in the highest levels of the Roman state. It may be that these privileges were restricted to the aristocracy. In any case, the influx of Italian veterans played a decisive role in the diffusion of Latin language in Sicily.
Messina, Lipara, and perhaps Lilybaeum, Agregentum, and Halaesa were made into municipia -- a status significantly lower than that of colonia. No veterans were settled in these settlements; they were simply compensated for their loyalty by Augustus.
Centuripa, Notum, and Segesta were converted into "Latin '' cities, while the remaining cities retained the same status that they had had since the creation of the province in the third century BC -- foreign communities under the control of Rome.
None of the privileges conceded to the various centres automatically implied exemption from paying tribute to Rome. It is reasonable to presume that, like other coloniae outside Italy, the Sicilian coloniae paid tribute. The grain tithe was replaced by the stipendium, a property tax, and there may also have been a poll tax. It is possible that Augustus made this reform as a result of the new role played by Egypt as the source of the grain supply, although the produce of the Emperor 's Sicilian farms continued to be sent to Rome.
There is little documentation on the history of Sicily between Augustus and Diocletian. In AD 68, there was disorder on the island, probably linked to the revolt of Lucius Clodius Macer in North Africa. Emperor Vespasian (69 -- 79) settled veterans and freedmen at Panormos and Segesta.
The latifundia, or great private estates, specialising in agriculture destined for export (grain, olive oil, wine) played a large role in society and in the economy in this period. During the first two centuries AD Sicily underwent economic depression and urban life declined, the countryside was deserted and the wealthy owners were not resident, as indicated by the lack of dwellings at various levels. In addition, the Roman government neglected the territory and it became a place of exile and refuge for slaves and brigands.
According to the Historia Augusta (a notoriously unreliable fourth century text), there was a slave revolt in Sicily under the Emperor Gallienus (253 -- 268).
Rural Sicily entered a new period of prosperity at the beginning of the 4th century, with commercial settlements and farm villages that seem to reach the pinnacle of their expansion and activity.
The reasons seem to be twofold: first of all, renewed commercial links with North Africa expanded for the supplies of grain to Italy, while the Egyptian production, which had so far satisfied the needs of Rome, was sent to the new capital of Constantinople in 330 AD; Sicily consequently assumed a central role in the new commercial routes between the two continents. Secondly, the most prosperous equestrian and senatorial ranks began to abandon urban life by retreating to their country estates, due to the growing tax burden and the expenses they were obliged to sustain the poor masses. Their lands were cultivated no longer by slaves, but by colonists. Considerable sums of money were spent to enlarge, embellish, and make their villas more comfortable.
Traces of renewed construction are found in Filosofiana, Sciacca, Punta Secca, Naxos and elsewhere. An obvious sign of transformation is the new title assigned to the governor of the island, from a corrector to consularis.
In the 4th century therefore, Sicily was not merely the "granary of Rome '', but also became a favourite residence for families of the high Roman aristocracy, like the Nicomachi and the Caeionii, who brought with them the luxury and taste of the capital of the empire.
The most famous archaeological remains of this period are the Villa Romana del Casale. Others include the Villa Romana del Tellaro and Villa Romana di Patti.
The origin of the latifundia in Sicily, as elsewhere, was the ager publicus from the spoils of war, confiscated from conquered peoples from the early 2nd century BC. Latifundia could be used for livestock (sheep and cattle) or cultivation of olive oil, grain, and wine. They distressed Pliny the Elder (died AD 79) as he travelled, seeing only slaves working the land, not the sturdy Roman farmers who had been the backbone of the Republic 's army. He argued that the latifundia had ruined Italy and would ruin the Roman provinces as well.
The latifundia quickly started economic consolidation as larger estates achieved greater economies of scale and senators did not pay land taxes. Owners re-invested their profits by purchasing smaller neighbouring farms, since smaller farms had a lower productivity and could not compete, in an ancient precursor of agribusiness. By the 2nd century AD, latifundia had displaced small farms as the agricultural foundation of the Roman Empire. This effect contributed to the destabilising of Roman society; as the small farms of the Roman peasantry were bought up by the wealthy and with their vast supply of slaves, the landless peasantry were forced into idleness, relying greatly on handouts.
The first reference to a Christian presence on the island appears in Acts (28.12 -- 13): "We landed in Syracuse, where we remained for three days and then we travelled along the coast and arrived at Rhegion. '' In this way, Paul of Tarsus, on his voyage from the Levant to Rome, which is described at the end of Acts, travelled through Sicily. He stopped in Syracuse after having been shipwrecked and forced to disembark on Malta. From Malta, according to the account in Acts, Paul travelled to Syracuse, bt it is not clear why he stopped there. It is clear that Syracuse was still used in this period as a stop on the way to Rome on commercial trade routes. Perhaps Paul was hosted by a Jewish community, such as existed in many ports of the Mediterranean -- the Jewish community at Catania is well - attested epigraphically. After Paul, there are no sources before the 3rd century AD which expressly mention a Christian presence on the island.
There are various legends which link the arrival of Christianity in Sicily with Paul 's brief sojourn on the island, while other traditions report that Paulmet Christians who had already arrived before him and that this was the reason why he stopped on the island. But Acts does n't mention any of this and these traditions may respond to the desire to make the arrival of Christianity in Sicily as early as possible (60 or even 40 AD), in order to reinforce the authority of the Sicilian church.
The first certain reference to a Sicilian church is found in an official letter (Epist. 30.5. 2), sent from Rome to Cyprian, Bishop of Carthage. This document dates between 250 and 251 during the Decian persecution and discusses the lapsi -- Christians who had performed acts of worship to pagan deities in the face of Roman persecutions. The letter mentions a similar letter sent to Sicily, which suggests that apostasy was considered a problem on the island as well and that the Christian presence on Sicily was already significant enough to have a hierarchical relationship with Rome. It is possible that this community developed at the end of the 2nd century AD or at the beginning of the 3rd century -- the period in which the first archaeological evidence appears.
The Decian (AD 250) and Diocletianic Persecutions (304) are the setting for the stories of two important Sicilian martyrs, Saint Agatha and Saint Lucy. These saints are known only from hagiographies written about two hundred years after the events, which represent them as young and beautiful virgins, victims of two persecutors called Quintianus and Pascasius. It is likely that these sources respond to a desire to link the two most important cities of eastern Sicily: Catania, home of Saint Agatha, and Syracuse, home of Saint Lucy. Significantly, all the principal saints of the island are women -- in addition to Agatha and Lucy, there are the Palermitan saints, Nympha (it) (4th century martyr), Olivia (5th century martyr), and Christina (martyred in 304), who was introduced into the cult of Saint Rosalia by the Palermitans. Perhaps this emphasis on female figures in Sicilian Christianity reflects the emphasis on female deities in pre-Christian Sicilian religion (e.g. Venus of Eryx, Isis, Demeter and Kore).
Two important Christian inscriptions have been discovered from the period. One is the Epitaph of Julia Florentina (it), discovered at Catania in 1730 (in the necropolis on the site of the modern via Dottor Consoli) and now in the Louvre in Paris. It is a funerary inscription, dating to the end of the 3rd century AD at the earliest, which records in Latin the death of a child of little more than a year in age, buried next to the "Christian martyrs '' (but it is not clear whether this refers to Agatha and Euplius). The inscription is the first direct evidence for Christianity on the island. The other inscription, also sepulchral, is the so - called Inscription of Euskia in Greek, which was discovered at the end of the 19th century in the Catacombs of San Giovanni in Syracuse and dates to the beginning of the 5th century. The document indicates a local cult of Lucy. At the time of the inscription 's creation, the cult of Agatha is already attested at Rome and Carthage.
With the end of the period of the persecutions, the church entered a phase of expansion, even as fierce debates arose within the church on doctrinal point, leading to the convocation of synods. Eusebius includes a letter of Constantine to Crestus, Bishop of Syracuse, in his Church History (10.5. 21), which invites him to participate in the Council of Arles of AD 314. Cresto was assigned an important organisational role at Arles, which indicates the relevance of the Sicilian church at the time.
The beginning of monasticism in Sicily came in the 4th century. The hagiographic tradition reports that the ascetic Hilarion travelled from Egypt to Pachino and then spent three years in Sicily (perhaps near modern Ispica), where he sought a retreat in which to practice the life of an anchorite. He subsequently departed as a result of his growing fame in the region. More significant for Sicily was the arrival of cenobitic monasticism: there are many reports of different kinds of ascetics gathering together to share a religious life, especially under the Basilian rule (there were no monasteries in Sicily organised under the Benedictine rule until the Norman period). Some monks followed the Byzantine Rite, others the Latin rite. The growth of monasticism in Sicily was probably due to its insularity, as well as the fact that the region, excepting a few slave revolts, was one of the most peaceful in the west -- at least until the Vandal conquest of 439, and then again until the 9th century Arab conquest.
The 5th century Migration Period was a period of serious crisis for the Roman Empire. In 410, the Visigoths under Alaric sacked Rome. In 476, the general Odoacer deposed Romulus Augustulus traditionally considered the last Western Roman Emperor. The relative tranquility of Sicily in this period attracted many people. Just as in earlier periods, many senatorial families had been spurred to acquire vast estates of fertile land. High functionaries and religious officials (both Christian and pagan) travelled to Sicily to dedicate themselves to study, hunting and entertainment. We know that Nicomachus Flavianus the Younger, praefectus urbi between 361 and 362, had an estate near Enna, where he produced a revised edition of the first ten books of Livy in 408. Others came as refugees, such as Melania the Younger, who fled Alaric 's sack of Rome and took refuge at Messina with her husband and friends in 410.
Alaric attempted to attack Sicily itself and got as far as Rhegium, but the Gothic fleet was destroyed in the Straits of Messina by a storm and Alaric therefore abandoned the plan.
Genseric, King of the Vandals, occupied the province of Africa in the 430s and began to practice piracy, first raiding the Sicilian coast in 437. Then, after seizing part of the Western Roman fleet berthed at Carthage after taking the city in October 439, the Vandals organised attacks throughout the Mediterranean, especially in Sicily and Sardinia (the main sources of grain for the western empire), Corsica, and the Balaeric islands. In 441, since the western Roman fleet had proven incapable of defeating the Vandals, Theodosius II sent an expedition in 442 but it accomplished nothing and was recalled because of attacks by Persians and Huns along the northern and eastern borders. The Western Roman empire continued to defend Sicily, with the general Ricimer active there in 456 and then Marcellinus and his Dalmatian legions in 461. The Vandal presence in Sicily was limited to piratical raids, similar to those undertaken in southern Italy. A panegyric of 468 by Sidonius Apollinaris indicates that in this period, Sicily was still part of the Western Roman Empire. In 468 the island fell to the Vandal King Geiseric but was reunited with Italy in 476 under Odoacer with a toe - hold allowed in the port of Lilybaeum.
In the Republican period, the main language was still Greek, since the Romans had no policy of enforcing their language on communities. Even in the period of Cicero, Greek was the main language used by the elite and almost all the Sicilians mentioned by Cicero in the Verrine Orations have Greek names. Cicero also refers to the Greek calendar (in use throughout Sicily in this period), Greek festivals, relations between the Sicilian cities and panhellenic sanctuaries like Delphi, Sicilian victors of the Olympic Games, and Greek civic architecture. Literature remained almost exclusively Greek, with authors like Diodorus Siculus and Caecilius of Calacte.
The non-Greek languages of Sicily (Sican, Sicel, Elymian, and Punic) probably continued to be spoken in the countryside and employed in traditional religious cults, but were absent from elite and written contexts. There is direct testimony only for Punic (a brief inscription of the 2nd or 1st century BC from Aegusa). Some Mamertines probably retained their Italic dialect.
With the establishment of six Roman coloniae at the beginning of the Imperial period, Sicily received a large influx of Latin speakers for the first time and a Latin - Greek bilingualism developed which continued until the Byzantine period. Generally, in the Imperial period, Latin replaced Greek in an ever - increasing number of areas, while Greek was confined to lower registers, although it retained its historic prestige and was widely used by the population. Latin became firmly established as the elite language, with Calpurnius Siculus, Flavius Vopiscus (it), and Julius Firmicus Maternus producing literary works in Latin, although there are also examples of Sicilian authors who wrote in Greek during the Imperial period, such as Pantaenus, Aristocles of Messene, Probus of Lilybaeum, and Citharius. In this period the non-Greek languages must have definitively disappeared, although Punic may still have been spoken at the end of the Imperial period based on the testimony of Apuleius. Numerous Jewish and Samaritan communities are attested on the island in the Imperial period, although they usually appear in the record using Greek or Latin. From the 5th century the Greek language appears to have experienced a recovery that lasted into the period of Muslim domination.
Catana or Catina (Catania) was conquered at the beginning of the First Punic War, in 263 BC, by the Consul Manius Valerius Maximus Corvinus Messalla. Part of the booty from the conquest was a sundial which was set up in the Comitium in Rome. Additionally the city was required to pay tribute to Rome (civitas decumana). The conqueror of Syracuse, Marcus Claudius Marcellus built a gymnasium in the city. Around 135, in the course of the First Servile War, the city was conquered by the rebel slaves. Another revolt in the area, led by the gladiator Seleurus in 35 BC, was probably suppressed after the death of its leader. In 122 BC, following volcanic activity on Etna, there was heavy damage from the volcanic ash raining down on the rooves of the city which collapsed under the weight. The territory of Catina was further impacted by eruptions in 50, 44, 36 BC and finally by the disastrous lava flow of 32 BC, which ruined the countryside and the city of Aitna, as well as the disastrous war between Augustus and Sextus Pompey, but with the beginning of the Augustan period, a long and difficult socio - economic recovery began. At the end of the war, all Sicily is described as heavily damaged, impoverished, and depopulated in a wide range of areas. In book 6 of Strabo in particular there is reference to the deleterious state of Syracuse, Catania, and Centuripe. After the war against Sextus Pompey, Augustus established a colonia in Catania. Pliny the Elder lists the city, which the Romans called Catina among the cities which Augustus promoted to the rank of Colonia Romana in 21 BC, along with Syracuse and Thermae (Sciacca). Groups of veterans of the Roman army were settled in the cities which had received this new status. The new demographic situation certainly contributed to change the style of municipal life in favour of the new "Middle Class. '' Catania retained a notable importance and wealth in the course of the late Republic and the Empire: Cicero calls it the "richest '' of the cities and it must have remained thus in the later Imperial period and Byzantine times, as the literary sources and numerous contemporary monuments suggest, which makes the city almost unique among those of Roman Sicily. In order to pay the stipendium, the large coastal cities like Catania, extended their control in the course of the High Empire, over a vast swath of the interior of the island which had become depopulated as a result of the large estates which dominated agriculture in the period. Christianity spread rapidly; among the martyrs during the persecutions of Decius and Diocletian, were Saint Agatha, patron saint of the city, and Euplius. The Diocese of Catania was established at the end of the 6th century.
Roman Odeon (it)
Roman Theatre (it)
Plan of the Thermae Achillianae (it)
Plan of the Thermae of the Rotunda (it)
Thermae of Indirizzo (it)
View of the Aqueduct at Valcorrente (it)
Centuripe, surrendered spontaneously to the Roman consuls Lucius Valerius Flaccus and Titus Otacilius Crassus in 262 BC. As a result, the city was declared free and exempted from taxation, as Cicero mentions in his Verrine Orations. After this a spectacular pace of development is detectable which led it to become one of the most important cities in Roman Sicily. This is attested both by the statements of Cicero and archaeologically by the great quantity of pottery and the imposing funerary monuments. A Greek inscription from the 2nd century BC recounts a Centuripan diplomatic mission to Rome and Lanuvium and part of a treaty with Lanuvium by which the two communities were declared twins. In 39 BC, Sextus Pompey took the city by siege and destroyed it for its loyalty to Octavian, but the latter rebuilt it and gave the inhabitants Roman citizenship as well. In the Imperial period, Centuripe produced imposing monuments whose remains still survive today. These include the Temple of the Augustales of the first or second century AD, of which columns and two monumental tower tombs can be seen on one side; the Dogana, of which only a raised flat area can now be seen; and Castle of Conradin. In the northwest of the town, in contrada Bagni, a paved street leads to the remains of a nymphaeum, suspended over a torrent of water, of which a brick wall with five niches survives, as well as remains of a pool for collecting the water and part of the aqueduct. Notable also is the continued production of coinage by the city in the Roman Republican period.
The Roman mausoleum near the Villa Comunale di Corradino (Centuripe)
Coin of Centuripe, depicting Zeus, dating to 240 BC
Tauromenium (Taormina) remained under the control of Syracuse until 212 BC when all of Sicily became a Roman province. Its inhabitants were considered foederati of the Romans and Cicero says in the Verrine Orations that it was one of three civitates foederatae (allied cities) and calls it a civis notabilis. As a result of this, the community did not have to pay the grain tax or provide ships and sailors in emergencies. In the course of the First Servile War (c. 135 -- 132 BC), Tauromenium was occupied by the rebel slaves who used it as a stronghold. Besieged by the consul Pompilius, the starving garrison surrendered only when one of the leaders, Serapion, betrayed his companions and admitted the Romans to the city. In 36 BC, during the war between Sextus Pompey and Octavian, the latter 's troops disembarked at Naxos and reoccupied the city. Later, in 21 BC, Augustus founded a Roman colonia in the city for his supporters, expelling those inhabitants who had opposed him. Strabo speaks of Tauromenium as a smaller city than Messana and Catana. Pliny and Claudius Ptolemy mention it as a Roman colonia.
Roman Gate leading to Messina
Greco - Roman theatre
Roman odeon
Naumachie
Messana (Messina) surrendered by the Mamertines to the Romans in 264 BC, received the status of civitas libera et foederata (free and allied community) after the First Punic War, along with Tauromenium. During the Republican period, it suffered attacks during the Servile Wars (102 BC). Cicero mentions the city in the Verrine Orations as civitas maxima et locupletissima (a very large and wealthy community). In 49 BC, Pompey attacked the fleet of Julius Caesar and drove it into Messana 's port. Subsequently, the city became one of the many bases of Sextus Pompey and it was sacked by the troops of Lepidus. Afterwards, it probably became a municipium.
Of the fate of the city during the Roman Empire, we know almost nothing. There is a tradition that St Paul visited the city on his way to Rome and preached the Gospel there. After the division of the Roman mpire it became part of the Eastern empire. In 407, under the Emperor Arcadius, Messana was made the protometropolis of Sicily and Magna Graecia.
Tyndaris (Tindari) was the control of Hieron II during the First Punic War and became a Carthaginian naval base early in the war. The Battle of Tyndaris was fought nearby in 257 BC, in which the Roman fleet commanded by Gaius Atilius Regulus defeated the Carthaginians. Later, it was a naval base for Sextus Pompey, captured by Octavian in 36 BC. He founded a Roman colonia, Colonia Augusta Tyndaritanorum, on the site, one of five coloniae founded in Sicily. Cicero calls the city a nobilissima civitas. In the first century AD it suffered a major landslide, while in the fourth century AD it was damaged by two destructive earthquakes. It became the seat of a bishopric, was conquered by the Byzantines in 535 and fell to the Arabs in 836, who destroyed the city.
City wall
Greek theatre (it)
Roman basilica
Male statue in a cuirass, reign of Trajan (Museo Archeologico Regionale Antonio Salinas)
Statue of Claudius - Jupiter, from Tindari
Thermae Himerae (Termini Imerese) was the site of a serious Roman defeat by Hamilcar Barca in 260 BC, during the First Punic War, but was subsequently conquered by them in 253 BC. Thereafter it remained loyal to Rome and was among the cities subject to tribute. After the destruction of Carthage in 146 BC Scipio Aemilianus returned works of art which had been taken by the Carthaginians to Thermae, including a statue of Stesichorus, who had spent time in the city. The base of one of these statues is preserved, with part of the inscription. After defeating Sextus Pompey, Octavian established a colonia on the site; this was probably a punishment of the city for having links with the Pompeian party. The impact of this action is clear from the numerous Latin inscriptions which survive at the site and from the extraordinary number of Roman and Italian names attested on the site. The former Greek inhabitants of the city practically disappear from record at the beginning of the Imperial period.
Panormus (Palermo) remained under Carthaginian control until the First Punic War and was site of one of the main conflicts between the Carthaginians and the Romans, until the Roman fleet attacked the city in 254 and made the city a tributary. Hasdrubal attempted to recapture the city but was defeated by the Roman consul, Metellus. Another attempt at reconquest was made by Hamilcar Barca in 247 BC, but the city remained loyal to the Romans, for which it received the title of praetura, the eagle of gold, and the right to mint coinage, remaining one of the five free cities of the island.
Drepanum (Trapani), conquered along with Eryx at the end of the First Punic War, became a flourishing commercial city, owing primarily to the port, its geographic location on Mediterranean sea routes, its active sea salt industry, which had been developed already in Phoenician times, and the extraction of coral.
Lilybaeum (Marsala), already prosperous under the Carthaginians, was the seat of one of the quaestores which Rome sent to Sicily annually. It was enriched by splendid mansions and public buildings. Among others, one of the quaestores at Lilybaeum was Cicero in the year 75 BC, who referred to Lilybaeum as splendidissima civitas (the most splendid community). Under Emperor Pertinax, the city became a large Roman colonia, called Helvia Augusta Lilybaitanorum.
Syracusae became the capital of the new Roman province after 212 BC. Despite the misgovernment and systematic despoliation of its artistic heritage by Gaius Verres, Syracuse remained the capital of the province and seat of its praetor. It continued to be a key port for commercial interaction between east and west. St Paul and Marcian of Syracuse (the first Bishop of Syracuse) spent time in the city proselytising. As a result of the Roman persecution of the Christians before the Edict of Constantine in AD 313, a deep network of catacombs were built under the city, second only to those of Rome. Successive attacks, starting with those of the Vandals in 440, impoverished the city until it was conquered by the Byzantine general Belisarius in 535. From 663 to 668, the city was the residence of Emperor Constans II and the metropolis of all churches in Sicily.
Roman amphitheatre of Syracuse
Catacombs of Syracuse (it)
Catacombs of Syracuse
Map of the catacombs of Syracuse
Roman baths
Map of ancient Syracuse
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what movies is the song california soul in | California Soul - wikipedia
"California Soul '' is a funk - soul tune written by Ashford & Simpson, issued originally as the B - side of The Messengers ' single, "Window Shopping '' in 1967 under the Motown group of labels. Nick Ashford then released his own version in June 1968 on Verve 10599. It was then issued as a single by American pop quintet The 5th Dimension in late 1968, and also covered by Motown vocal duo Marvin Gaye and Tammi Terrell, and Marlena Shaw the next year. It was Marvin 's and Tammi 's last single together when released in early 1970.
Both the 5th Dimension 's version and the Gaye / Terrell version were modest charted hits. The 5th Dimension 's performed better, reaching number twenty - five on the pop singles chart. Marvin and Tammi 's cover was the B - side of The Onion Song. The duo 's version of "California Soul '' reached number fifty - six pop but never charted on the US R&B chart. The duet was released after Terrell 's death from a brain tumor in March 1970.
In 1969, Marlena Shaw covered the song on the album The Spice of Life. This version has appeared in commercials for Dockers, KFC and Dodge Ram trucks. A Diplo remix appears on Volume 4 of the Verve Remixed compilation series; this version was used in a late summer 2011 commercial for Target and was featured in the 2011 video game Driver: San Francisco. The original version of Shaw 's cover also appears in the 2013 video game Grand Theft Auto V, played by the in - game radio station The Lowdown 91.1.
The song also appears on the 1970 LP War and Peace by Edwin Starr. The following year, the experimental vocal band The Undisputed Truth released this song on their debut album The Undisputed Truth, produced and arranged by Norman Whitfield.
The song is also featured in The Italian Job (2003). An exclusive remixed version featuring Ya Boy was used in The Lincoln Lawyer (2011).
The song is sampled by Gang Starr in their song "Check the Technique ''. Also sampled by Stereo MC 's in their song "Sofisticated ''. Also sampled by United Game Artists in their cover of "Fear is the Mindkiller '' by Adam Freeland featured in the game Rez.
The Gerald Wilson Orchestra version of the song is sampled by Pete Rock in the A.D.O.R. song "Let it All Hang Out ''.
The band Jamiroquai covered the song live during their 2011 European tour.
The Miracles covered this song on their 1969 album Four in Blue.
Also in 1969, Swedish pop group Gimmicks released their version of the tune on the album Brazilian Samba.
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how many home runs did joe dimaggio hit in his rookie season | Joe DiMaggio - wikipedia
Joseph Paul DiMaggio (November 25, 1914 -- March 8, 1999), nicknamed "Joltin ' Joe '' and "The Yankee Clipper '', was an American Major League Baseball center fielder who played his entire 13 - year career for the New York Yankees. He is perhaps best known for his 56 - game hitting streak (May 15 -- July 16, 1941), a record that still stands.
DiMaggio was a three - time MVP winner and an All - Star in each of his 13 seasons. During his tenure with the Yankees, the club won ten American League pennants and nine World Series championships.
At the time of his retirement, he ranked fifth in career home runs (361) and sixth in career slugging percentage (. 579). He was inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1955, and was voted the sport 's greatest living player in a poll taken during the baseball centennial year of 1969.
His brothers Vince (1912 -- 1986) and Dom (1917 -- 2009) also were major league center fielders.
DiMaggio is also widely known for his marriage and lifelong devotion to Marilyn Monroe.
DiMaggio was born on November 25, 1914 in Martinez, California, the eighth of nine children born to Italian immigrants Giuseppe (1872 -- 1949) and Rosalia (Mercurio) (1878 -- 1951) DiMaggio, from Sicily. He was named Paolo after his father Giuseppe 's favorite saint, Saint Paul. The family moved to nearby San Francisco when Joe was a year old.
Giuseppe was a fisherman, as were generations of DiMaggios before him. According to statements from Joe 's brother Tom to biographer Maury Allen, Rosalia 's father wrote to her with the advice that Giuseppe could earn a better living in California than in their native Isola delle Femmine, a northwestern Sicilian village in the province of Palermo.
After being processed on Ellis Island, Giuseppe worked his way across America, eventually settling near Rosalia 's father in Pittsburg, California, on the east side of the San Francisco Bay Area. After four years, he earned enough money to send to Italy for Rosalia and their daughter, who was born after he had left for the United States.
Giuseppe hoped that his five sons would become fishermen. DiMaggio recalled that he would do anything to get out of cleaning his father 's boat, as the smell of dead fish nauseated him. Giuseppe called him "lazy '' and "good - for - nothing. '' DiMaggio did not finish his education at Galileo High School and instead worked odd jobs including hawking newspapers, stacking boxes at a warehouse and working at an orange juice plant.
DiMaggio was playing semi-pro ball when older brother Vince DiMaggio, playing for the San Francisco Seals of the Pacific Coast League (PCL), talked his manager into letting DiMaggio fill in at shortstop. Joe DiMaggio made his professional debut on October 1, 1932. From May 27 to July 25, 1933, he hit safely in 61 consecutive games, a PCL - record, and second - longest in all of Minor League Baseball history. "Baseball did n't really get into my blood until I knocked off that hitting streak, '' he said. "Getting a daily hit became more important to me than eating, drinking or sleeping. ''
In 1934, DiMaggio suffered a career - threatening knee injury when he tore ligaments while stepping out of a jitney. Scout Bill Essick of the New York Yankees, convinced that the injury would heal, pestered his club to give him another look. After DiMaggio passed a physical examination in November, the Yankees purchased his contract for $50,000 and five players. He remained with the Seals for the 1935 season and batted. 398 with 154 runs batted in (RBIs) and 34 home runs. His team won the 1935 PCL title, and DiMaggio was named the league 's Most Valuable Player.
DiMaggio made his major league debut on May 3, 1936, batting ahead of Lou Gehrig. The Yankees had not been to the World Series since 1932, but they won the next four Fall Classics. Over the course of his 13 - year Major League career, DiMaggio led the Yankees to 9 World Series championships.
DiMaggio set a franchise record in 1936 by hitting 29 home runs in his rookie season. DiMaggio accomplished the feat in 138 games. His record stood for over 80 years until it was broken by Aaron Judge, who hit the 30th home run in his rookie season in his 84th game in 2017.
In 1939, DiMaggio was nicknamed the "Yankee Clipper '' by Yankee 's stadium announcer Arch McDonald, when he likened DiMaggio 's speed and range in the outfield to the then - new Pan American airliner.
DiMaggio was pictured with his son on the cover of the inaugural issue of SPORT magazine in September 1946.
In 1947, Boston Red Sox owner Tom Yawkey and Yankees GM Larry MacPhail verbally agreed to trade DiMaggio for Ted Williams, but MacPhail refused to include Yogi Berra.
In the September 1949 issue of SPORT, Hank Greenberg said that DiMaggio covered so much ground in center field that the only way to get a hit against the Yankees was "to hit ' em where Joe was n't. '' DiMaggio also stole home five times in his career.
On February 7, 1949, DiMaggio signed a contract worth $100,000 ($1,007,000 in current dollar terms) ($70,000 plus bonuses), and became the first baseball player to break $100,000 in earnings. By 1950, he was ranked the second - best center fielder by the Sporting News, after Larry Doby. After a poor 1951 season, a scouting report by the Brooklyn Dodgers that was turned over to the New York Giants and leaked to the press, and various injuries, DiMaggio announced his retirement at age 37 on December 11, 1951. When remarking on his retirement to the Sporting News on December 19, 1951, he said:
I feel like I have reached the stage where I can no longer produce for my club, my manager, and my teammates. I had a poor year, but even if I had hit. 350, this would have been my last year. I was full of aches and pains and it had become a chore for me to play. When baseball is no longer fun, it 's no longer a game, and so, I 've played my last game.
Through May 2009, DiMaggio was tied with Mark McGwire for third place all - time in home runs over the first two calendar years in the major leagues (77), behind Phillies Hall of Famer Chuck Klein (83), and Milwaukee Brewers ' Ryan Braun (79). Through 2011, he was one of seven major leaguers to have had at least four 30 - homer, 100 - RBI seasons in their first five years, along with Chuck Klein, Ted Williams, Ralph Kiner, Mark Teixeira, Albert Pujols, and Ryan Braun. DiMaggio holds the record for most seasons with more home runs than strikeouts (minimum 20 home runs), a feat he accomplished seven times, and five times consecutively from 1937 to 1941. DiMaggio would likely have exceeded 500 home runs and 2,000 RBIs had he not served in the military.
DiMaggio might have had better power - hitting statistics had his home park not been Yankee Stadium. As "The House That Ruth Built '', its nearby right field favored the Babe 's left - handed power. For right - handed hitters, its deep left and center fields made home runs almost impossible. Mickey Mantle recalled that he and Whitey Ford witnessed many DiMaggio blasts that would have been home runs anywhere other than Yankee Stadium (Ruth himself fell victim to that problem, as he also hit many long flyouts to center). Bill James calculated that DiMaggio lost more home runs due to his home park than any other player in history. Left - center field went as far back as 457 ft (139 m), where left - center rarely reaches 380 ft (116 m) in today 's ballparks. Al Gionfriddo 's famous catch in the 1947 World Series, which was close to the 415 - foot mark (126 m) in left - center, would have been a home run in the Yankees ' current ballpark. DiMaggio hit 148 home runs in 3,360 at - bats at home versus 213 home runs in 3,461 at - bats on the road. His slugging percentage at home was. 546, and on the road, it was. 610. Expert statistician Bill Jenkinson made a statement on these statistics:
For example, Joe DiMaggio was acutely handicapped by playing at Yankee Stadium. Every time he batted in his home field during his entire career, he did so knowing that it was physically impossible for him to hit a home run to the half of the field directly in front of him. If you look at a baseball field from foul line to foul line, it has a 90 - degree radius. From the power alley in left center field (430 in Joe 's time) to the fence in deep right center field (407 ft), it is 45 - degrees. And Joe DiMaggio never hit a single home run over the fences at Yankee Stadium in that 45 - degree graveyard. It was just too far. Joe was plenty strong; he routinely hit balls in the 425 - foot range. But that just was n't good enough in cavernous Yankee Stadium. Like Ruth, he benefited from a few easy homers each season due to the short foul line distances. But he lost many more than he gained by constantly hitting long fly outs toward center field. Whereas most sluggers perform better on their home fields, DiMaggio hit only 41 percent of his career home runs in the Bronx. He hit 148 homers at Yankee Stadium. If he had hit the same exact pattern of batted balls with a typical modern stadium as his home, he would have belted about 225 homers during his home field career.
Joe became eligible for the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1953 but he was not elected until 1955. The Hall of Fame rules on the post-retirement induction waiting period had been revised in the interim, extending the waiting period from one to five years, but DiMaggio and Ted Lyons were exempted from the rule. DiMaggio told Baseball Digest in 1963 that the Brooklyn Dodgers had offered him their managerial job in 1953, but he turned it down. After being out of baseball since his retirement as a player, Joe became the first hitting instructor of the newly relocated Oakland Athletics from 1968 to 1970.
DiMaggio 's most famous achievement is his MLB record - breaking 56 - game hitting streak in 1941. The streak began on May 15, 1941, a couple of weeks before the death of Lou Gehrig, when DiMaggio went one - for - four against Chicago White Sox pitcher Eddie Smith. Major newspapers began to write about DiMaggio 's streak early on, but as he approached George Sisler 's modern era record of 41 games, it became a national phenomenon. Initially, DiMaggio showed little interest in breaking Sisler 's record, saying "I 'm not thinking a whole lot about it... I 'll either break it or I wo n't. '' As he approached Sisler 's record, DiMaggio showed more interest, saying, "At the start I did n't think much about it... but naturally I 'd like to get the record since I am this close. '' On June 29, 1941, DiMaggio doubled in the first game of a doubleheader against the Washington Senators at Griffith Stadium to tie Sisler 's record and then singled in the nightcap to extend his streak to 42.
A Yankee Stadium crowd of 52,832 fans watched DiMaggio tie the all - time hitting streak record (44 games, Wee Willie Keeler in 1897) on July 1. The next day against the Boston Red Sox, he homered into Yankee Stadium 's left field stands to extend his streak to 45, setting a new record. DiMaggio recorded 67 hits in 179 at - bats during the first 45 games of his streak, while Keeler recorded 88 hits in 201 at - bats. DiMaggio continued hitting after breaking Keeler 's record, reaching 50 straight games on July 11 against the St. Louis Browns. On July 17 at Cleveland Stadium, DiMaggio 's streak was finally snapped at 56 games, thanks in part to two backhand stops by Indians third baseman Ken Keltner. DiMaggio batted. 408 during the streak with 15 home runs and 55 RBI. The day after the streak ended, DiMaggio started another streak that lasted 16 games. The distinction of hitting safely in 72 of 73 games is also a record. The closest anyone has come to equaling DiMaggio since 1941 is Pete Rose, who hit safely in 44 straight games in 1978. During the streak, DiMaggio played in seven doubleheaders. The Yankees ' record during the streak was 41 -- 13 -- 2.
Some consider DiMaggio 's streak a uniquely outstanding and unbreakable record and a statistical near - impossibility. Nobel Prize - winning physicist and sabermetrician Edward Mills Purcell calculated that, to have the likelihood of a hitting streak of 50 games occurring in the history of baseball up to the late 1980s be greater than 50 %, fifty - two. 350 lifetime hitters would have to have existed instead of the actual three (Ty Cobb, Rogers Hornsby, and Shoeless Joe Jackson). His Harvard colleague Stephen Jay Gould, citing Purcell 's work, called DiMaggio 's 56 - game achievement "the most extraordinary thing that ever happened in American sports ''. Samuel Arbesman and Steven Strogatz of Cornell University disagree; they conducted 10,000 computer simulations of Major League Baseball from 1871 to 2005, 42 % of which produced streaks as long or longer, with record streaks ranging from 39 to 109 games and typical record streaks between 50 and 64 games.
DiMaggio enlisted in the United States Army Air Forces on February 17, 1943, rising to the rank of sergeant. He was stationed at Santa Ana, California, Hawaii, and Atlantic City, New Jersey, as a physical education instructor. He was released on medical discharge in September 1945, due to chronic stomach ulcers. Other than now being paid $21 a month, DiMaggio 's service was as comfortable as a soldier 's life could be. He spent most of his career playing for baseball teams and in exhibition games against fellow Major Leaguers and minor league players, and superiors gave him special privileges due to his prewar fame. DiMaggio ate so well from an athlete - only diet that he gained 10 pounds, and while in Hawaii he and other players mostly tanned on the beach and drank. Embarrassed by his lifestyle, DiMaggio requested that he be given a combat assignment but was turned down.
Giuseppe and Rosalia DiMaggio, both from Isola delle Femmine, were among the thousands of German, Japanese, and Italian immigrants classified as "enemy aliens '' by the government after the Attack on Pearl Harbor. Each was required to carry photo ID booklets at all times and were not allowed to travel outside a five - mile radius from their home without a permit. Giuseppe was barred from the San Francisco Bay, where he had fished for decades, and his boat was seized. Rosalia became an American citizen in 1944, followed by Giuseppe in 1945.
In January 1937, DiMaggio met actress Dorothy Arnold on the set of Manhattan Merry - Go - Round, in which he had a minor role, and she was an extra. They married at San Francisco 's St. Peter and Paul Church on November 19, 1939, as 20,000 well - wishers jammed the streets. Their son, Joseph Paul DiMaggio III, was born at Doctors Hospital on October 23, 1941. The couple divorced in 1944.
According to her autobiography My Story, ghostwritten by Ben Hecht, Marilyn Monroe did not want to meet DiMaggio, fearing that he was a stereotypical arrogant athlete. They eloped at San Francisco City Hall on January 14, 1954.
The marriage ran into trouble within a few weeks as DiMaggio, the product of a strict Roman Catholic upbringing, became upset by Monroe 's personal habits, including her disdain for bathing and her tendency to relax around the house nude. Although she suffered from endometriosis, Monroe and DiMaggio each expressed to reporters their desire to start a family.
An incident between the couple is supposed to have occurred immediately after the skirt - blowing scene in The Seven Year Itch that was filmed on September 14, 1954, in front of Manhattan 's Trans - Lux 52nd Street Theater. Then 20th Century Fox 's East Coast correspondent Bill Kobrin told the Palm Springs Desert Sun that it was director Billy Wilder 's idea to turn the shoot into a media circus. The couple then had a "yelling battle '' in the theater lobby. A month later, she contracted the services of celebrity attorney Jerry Giesler and filed for divorce on grounds of mental cruelty nine months after the wedding. After the failure of their marriage, DiMaggio underwent therapy, stopped drinking alcohol, and expanded his interests beyond baseball; he and Monroe read poetry together in their later years.
On August 1, 1956, an International News wire photo of DiMaggio with Lee Meriwether gave rise to speculation that the couple was engaged, but Cramer wrote that it was a rumor started by Walter Winchell. Monroe biographer Donald Spoto claimed that DiMaggio was "very close to marrying '' 1957 Miss America Marian McKnight, who won the crown with a Marilyn Monroe act, but McKnight denied it. He was also linked to Liz Renay, Cleo Moore, Rita Gam, Marlene Dietrich, and Gloria DeHaven during this period and to Elizabeth Ray and Morgan Fairchild years later, but he never publicly confirmed any involvement with any woman.
DiMaggio reentered Monroe 's life as her marriage to Arthur Miller was ending. On February 10, 1961, he secured her release from Payne Whitney Psychiatric Clinic. She joined him in Florida where he was a batting coach for the Yankees. Their "just friends '' claim did not stop remarriage rumors from flying. Reporters staked out her Manhattan apartment building. Bob Hope "dedicated '' Best Song nominee "The Second Time Around '' to them at the 33rd Academy Awards.
According to Maury Allen 's biography, DiMaggio was alarmed at how Monroe had fallen in with people he felt were detrimental to her well - being. Val Monette, owner of a military post-exchange supply company, told Allen that DiMaggio left his employ on August 1, 1962, because he had decided to ask Monroe to remarry him.
She was found dead in her Brentwood, Los Angeles, home on August 5 after housekeeper Eunice Murray telephoned Monroe 's psychiatrist, Dr. Ralph Greenson. DiMaggio 's son had spoken to Monroe on the phone the night of her death and claimed that she seemed fine. Her death was deemed a probable suicide by "Coroner to the Stars '' Thomas Noguchi. It has also been the subject of conspiracy theories.
Devastated, DiMaggio claimed her body and arranged for her funeral at Westwood Village Memorial Park Cemetery, barring Hollywood 's elite as well as members of the Kennedy family from attending. He had a half - dozen red roses delivered three times a week to her crypt for 20 years. He refused to talk about her publicly or otherwise exploit their relationship. He never married again. According to DiMaggio 's attorney Morris Engleberg, DiMaggio 's last words were: "I 'll finally get to see Marilyn. '' However, Joe 's brother Dominic challenged both Engelberg 's version of Joe 's final moments as well as his motives.
In the 1970s, DiMaggio became a spokesman for Mr. Coffee and would be the face of the electric drip coffee makers for over 20 years. Vincent Marotta, the CEO of North American Systems, which manufactured Mr. Coffee at the time, recruited DiMaggio for the advertising campaign. DiMaggio 's spots proved successful with consumers. In a 2007 interview with the Columbus Dispatch ", Marotta joked that "millions of kids grew up thinking Joe DiMaggio was a famous appliance salesman. '' Despite his commercials for Mr. Coffee, Joe DiMaggio rarely drank coffee due to ulcers. However, when he did drink coffee, DiMaggio preferred Sanka instant coffee rather than the coffee brewed by Mr. Coffee machines.
In 1972, DiMaggio became a spokesman for The Bowery Savings Bank. With the exception of a five - year hiatus in the 1980s, DiMaggio regularly made commercials for the financial institution until 1992.
DiMaggio, a heavy smoker for much of his adult life, was admitted to Memorial Regional Hospital in Hollywood, Florida, on October 12, 1998, for lung cancer surgery and remained there for 99 days. He returned to his Hollywood, Florida, home on January 19, 1999, where he died on March 8.
DiMaggio 's funeral was held on March 11, 1999, at Sts. Peter and Paul Roman Catholic Church in San Francisco; he was interred at Holy Cross Cemetery in Colma, California. DiMaggio 's son died the following August at age 57. A highway running alongside the Hudson River in Manhattan, New York, from the end of Lower Manhattan is named the Joe DiMaggio Highway. It runs for the entire way.
At his death, The New York Times called DiMaggio 's 1941 56 - game hitting streak "perhaps the most enduring record in sports ''.
In an article in 1976 in Esquire magazine, sportswriter Harry Stein published an "All Time All - Star Argument Starter, '' consisting of five ethnic baseball teams. Joe DiMaggio was the center fielder on Stein 's Italian team.
On September 17, 1992, the doors were opened at Joe DiMaggio Children 's Hospital at Memorial Regional Hospital in Hollywood, Florida, for which he raised over $4,000,000.
On April 13, 1998, DiMaggio was given the Sports Legend Award at the 13th annual American Sportscasters Association Hall of Fame Awards Dinner in New York City. Dr. Henry Kissinger, former Secretary of State and a longtime fan of DiMaggio 's, made the presentation to the Yankee great. The event was one of DiMaggio 's last public appearances before taking ill.
Yankee Stadium 's fifth monument was dedicated to DiMaggio on April 25, 1999, and the West Side Highway was officially renamed in his honor. The Yankees wore DiMaggio 's number 5 on the left sleeves of their uniforms for the 1999 season. He is ranked No. 11 on The Sporting News ' list of the 100 Greatest Baseball Players, and he was elected by fans to the Major League Baseball All - Century Team. In addition to his number 5 being retired by the New York Yankees, DiMaggio 's number was also retired by the Florida Marlins, who retired it in honor of their first team president, Carl Barger, who died five months before the team took the field for the first time in 1993. DiMaggio had been his favorite player.
An auction of DiMaggio 's personal items was held by the adopted daughters of DiMaggio 's son in May 2006. Highlights included the ball hit to break Wee Willie Keeler 's hitting - streak record ($63,250); his 2,000 th career hit ball ($29,900); his 1947 Most Valuable Player Award ($281,750); the uniform worn in the 1951 World Series ($195,500); his Hall of Fame ring ($69,000); a photograph Marilyn autographed "I love you Joe '' ($80,500); her passport ($115,000); and their marriage certificate ($23,000). Lot 758, DiMaggio 's white 1991 Mercedes 420 SEL sedan, which was a gift from the New York Yankees commemorating the 50th anniversary of DiMaggio 's 1941 season, sold for $18,000. The event netted a total of $4.1 million.
On August 8, 2011, the United States Postal Service announced that DiMaggio would appear on a stamp for the first time. It was issued as part of the "Major League Baseball All - Star Stamp Series, '' which came out in July 2012.
According to American geneticist Mary - Claire King in the spring of 1981, DiMaggio babysat her daughter at the San Francisco airport so Dr. King could drop her mother off to her flight to Chicago. According to Dr. King, if it were not for DiMaggio 's kindness, she would have almost certainly missed her own flight that was taking her and her daughter to Washington, D.C., a trip that eventually resulted in Dr. King 's getting her first major grant from the National Institutes of Health and the discovery of the breast and ovarian cancer - causing gene, BRCA1.
DiMaggio insisted on being introduced as the "Greatest Living Ballplayer '' at events, including Yankee Old - Timers Day. Billy Crystal was once punched in the stomach for not introducing him as such.
DiMaggio 's popularity during his career was such that he was referenced in film, television, literature, art, and music both during his career and decades after he retired.
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what do the colors of the american flag signify | Flag of the United States - wikipedia
The flag of the United States of America, often referred to as the American flag, is the national flag of the United States. It consists of thirteen equal horizontal stripes of red (top and bottom) alternating with white, with a blue rectangle in the canton (referred to specifically as the "union '') bearing fifty small, white, five - pointed stars arranged in nine offset horizontal rows, where rows of six stars (top and bottom) alternate with rows of five stars. The 50 stars on the flag represent the 50 states of the United States of America, and the 13 stripes represent the thirteen British colonies that declared independence from the Kingdom of Great Britain, and became the first states in the U.S. Nicknames for the flag include The Stars and Stripes, Old Glory, and The Star - Spangled Banner.
The current design of the U.S. flag is its 27th; the design of the flag has been modified officially 26 times since 1777. The 48 - star flag was in effect for 47 years until the 49 - star version became official on July 4, 1959. The 50 - star flag was ordered by the then president Eisenhower on August 21, 1959, and was adopted in July 1960. It is the longest - used version of the U.S. flag and has been in use for over 57 years.
The Continental Colors (aka the "Grand Union Flag '')
Flag of the British East India Company, 1707 -- 1801
At the time of the Declaration of Independence in July 1776, the Continental Congress would not legally adopt flags with "stars, white in a blue field '' for another year. The flag contemporaneously known as "the Continental Colors '' has historically been referred to as the first national flag.
The Continental Navy raised the Colors as the ensign of the fledgling nation in the American War for Independence -- likely with the expedient of transforming their previous British red ensigns by adding white stripes -- and would use this flag until 1777, when it would form the basis for the subsequent de jure designs.
The name "Grand Union '' was first applied to the Continental Colors by George Preble in his 1872 history of the U.S. flag.
The flag closely resembles the British East India Company flag of the era, and Sir Charles Fawcett argued in 1937 that the company flag inspired the design. Both flags could have been easily constructed by adding white stripes to a British Red Ensign, one of the three maritime flags used throughout the British Empire at the time. However, an East India Company flag could have from nine to 13 stripes, and was not allowed to be flown outside the Indian Ocean.
In any case, both the stripes (barry) and the stars (mullets) have precedents in classical heraldry. Mullets were comparatively rare in early modern heraldry, but an example of mullets representing territorial divisions predating the U.S. flag are those in the coat of arms of Valais of 1618, where seven mullets stood for seven districts.
On June 14, 1777, the Second Continental Congress passed the Flag Resolution which stated: "Resolved, That the flag of the thirteen United States be thirteen stripes, alternate red and white; that the union be thirteen stars, white in a blue field, representing a new constellation. '' Flag Day is now observed on June 14 of each year. While scholars still argue about this, tradition holds that the new flag was first hoisted in June 1777 by the Continental Army at the Middlebrook encampment.
The first official U.S. flag flown during battle was on August 3, 1777, at Fort Schuyler (Fort Stanwix) during the Siege of Fort Stanwix. Massachusetts reinforcements brought news of the adoption by Congress of the official flag to Fort Schuyler. Soldiers cut up their shirts to make the white stripes; scarlet material to form the red was secured from red flannel petticoats of officers ' wives, while material for the blue union was secured from Capt. Abraham Swartwout 's blue cloth coat. A voucher is extant that Capt. Swartwout of Dutchess County was paid by Congress for his coat for the flag.
The 1777 resolution was most probably meant to define a naval ensign. In the late 18th century, the notion of a national flag did not yet exist, or was only nascent. The flag resolution appears between other resolutions from the Marine Committee. On May 10, 1779, Secretary of the Board of War Richard Peters expressed concern "it is not yet settled what is the Standard of the United States. '' However, the term, "Standard, '' referred to a national standard for the Army of the United States. Each regiment was to carry the national standard in addition to its regimental standard. The national standard was not a reference to the national or naval flag.
The Flag Resolution did not specify any particular arrangement, number of points, nor orientation for the stars and the arrangement or whether the flag had to have seven red stripes and six white ones or vice versa. The appearance was up to the maker of the flag. Some flag makers arranged the stars into one big star, in a circle or in rows and some replaced a state 's star with its initial. One arrangement features 13 five - pointed stars arranged in a circle, with the stars arranged pointing outwards from the circle (as opposed to up), the so - called Betsy Ross flag. This flag, however, is more likely a flag used for celebrations of anniversaries of the nation 's birthday. Experts have dated the earliest known example of this flag to be 1792 in a painting by John Trumbull.
Despite the 1777 resolution, the early years of American independence featured many different flags. Most were individually crafted rather than mass - produced. While there are many examples of 13 - star arrangements, some of those flags included blue stripes as well as red and white. Benjamin Franklin and John Adams, in a letter dated October 3, 1778, to Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies, described the American flag as consisting of "13 stripes, alternately red, white, and blue, a small square in the upper angle, next the flag staff, is a blue field, with 13 white stars, denoting a new Constellation. '' John Paul Jones used a variety of 13 - star flags on his U.S. Navy ships including the well - documented 1779 flags of the Serapis and the Alliance. The Serapis flag had three rows of eight - pointed stars with stripes that were red, white, and blue. The flag for the Alliance, however, had five rows of eight - pointed stars with 13 red and white stripes, and the white stripes were on the outer edges. Both flags were documented by the Dutch government in October 1779, making them two of the earliest known flags of 13 stars.
Francis Hopkinson of New Jersey, a naval flag designer, and a signer of the Declaration of Independence, designed the 1777 flag while he was the Chairman of the Continental Navy Board 's Middle Department, sometime between his appointment to that position in November 1776 and the time that the flag resolution was adopted in June 1777. The Navy Board was under the Continental Marine Committee. Not only did Hopkinson claim that he designed the U.S. flag, but he also claimed that he designed a flag for the U.S. Navy. Hopkinson was the only person to have made such a claim during his own lifetime, when he sent a letter and several bills to Congress for his work. These claims are documented in the Journals of the Continental Congress and George Hasting 's biography of Hopkinson. Hopkinson initially wrote a letter to Congress, via the Continental Board of Admiralty, on May 25, 1780. In this letter, he asked for a "Quarter Cask of the Public Wine '' as payment for designing the U.S. flag, the seal for the Admiralty Board, the seal for the Treasury Board, Continental currency, the Great Seal of the United States, and other devices. However, in three subsequent bills to Congress, Hopkinson asked to be paid in cash, but he did not list his U.S. flag design. Instead, he asked to be paid for designing the "great Naval Flag of the United States '' in the first bill; the "Naval Flag of the United States '' in the second bill; and "the Naval Flag of the States '' in the third, along with the other items. The flag references were generic terms for the naval ensign that Hopkinson had designed, that is, a flag of seven red stripes and six white ones. The predominance of red stripes made the naval flag more visible against the sky on a ship at sea. By contrast, Hopkinson 's flag for the United States had seven white stripes, and six red ones -- in reality, six red stripes laid on a white background. Hopkinson 's sketches have not been found, but we can make these conclusions because Hopkinson incorporated different stripe arrangements in the Admiralty (naval) Seal that he designed in the Spring of 1780 and the Great Seal of the United States that he proposed at the same time. His Admiralty Seal had seven red stripes; whereas, his second U.S. Seal proposal had seven white ones. Hopkinson 's flag for the Navy is the one that the Nation preferred as the national flag. Remnants of Hopkinson 's U.S. flag of seven white stripes can be found in the Great Seal of the United States and the President 's seal. When Hopkinson was chairman of the Navy Board, his position was like that of today 's Secretary of the Navy. The payment was not made, however, because it was determined he had already received a salary as a member of Congress. This contradicts the legend of the Betsy Ross flag, which suggests that she sewed the first Stars and Stripes flag by request of the government in the Spring of 1776. Furthermore, a letter from the War Board to George Washington on May 10, 1779, documents that there was still no design established for a national flag for the Army 's use in battle.
The origin of the stars and stripes design has been muddled by a story disseminated by the descendants of Betsy Ross. The apocryphal story credits Betsy Ross for sewing the first flag from a pencil sketch handed to her by George Washington. No evidence for this exists either in the diaries of George Washington nor in the records of the Continental Congress. Indeed, nearly a century passed before Ross ' grandson, William Canby, first publicly suggested the story in 1870. By her family 's own admission, Ross ran an upholstery business, and she had never made a flag as of the supposed visit in June 1776. Furthermore, her grandson admitted that his own search through the Journals of Congress and other official records failed to find corroboration of his grandmother 's story.
The family of Rebecca Young claimed that she sewed the first flag. Young 's daughter was Mary Pickersgill, who made the Star Spangled Banner Flag. According to rumor, the Washington family coat of arms, shown in a 15th - century window of Selby Abbey, was the origin of the stars and stripes.
In 1795, the number of stars and stripes was increased from 13 to 15 (to reflect the entry of Vermont and Kentucky as states of the Union). For a time the flag was not changed when subsequent states were admitted, probably because it was thought that this would cause too much clutter. It was the 15 - star, 15 - stripe flag that inspired Francis Scott Key to write "Defence of Fort M'Henry '', later known as "The Star Spangled Banner '', which is now the American national anthem. The flag is currently on display in the exhibition, "The Star - Spangled Banner: The Flag That Inspired the National Anthem '' at the Smithsonian Institution National Museum of American History in a two - story display chamber that protects the flag while it is on view.
On April 4, 1818, a plan was passed by Congress at the suggestion of U.S. Naval Captain Samuel C. Reid in which the flag was changed to have 20 stars, with a new star to be added when each new state was admitted, but the number of stripes would be reduced to 13 so as to honor the original colonies. The act specified that new flag designs should become official on the first July 4 (Independence Day) following admission of one or more new states. The most recent change, from 49 stars to 50, occurred in 1960 when the present design was chosen, after Hawaii gained statehood in August 1959. Before that, the admission of Alaska in January 1959 prompted the debut of a short - lived 49 - star flag.
Prior to the adoption of the 48 - star flag in 1912, there was no official arrangement of the stars in the canton, although the U.S. Army and U.S. Navy used standardized designs. Throughout the 19th century there was an abundance of different star patterns, rectangular and circular.
On July 4, 2007, the 50 - star flag became the version of the flag in longest use, surpassing the 48 - star flag that was used from 1912 to 1959.
The U.S. flag was brought to the city of Canton (Guǎngzhōu) in China in 1784 by the merchant ship Empress of China, which carried a cargo of ginseng. There it gained the designation "Flower Flag '' (Chinese: 花旗; pinyin: huāqí; Cantonese Yale: fākeì). According to a pseudonymous account first published in the Boston Courier and later retold by author and U.S. naval officer George H. Preble:
When the thirteen stripes and stars first appeared at Canton, much curiosity was excited among the people. News was circulated that a strange ship had arrived from the further end of the world, bearing a flag "as beautiful as a flower. '' Every body went to see the kwa kee chuen (花旗 船; Fākeìsyùhn), or "flower flagship. '' This name at once established itself in the language, and America is now called the kwa kee kwoh (花旗 國; Fākeìgwok), the "flower flag country '' -- and an American, kwa kee kwoh yin (花旗 國人; Fākeìgwokyàhn) -- "flower flag countryman '' -- a more complimentary designation than that of "red headed barbarian '' -- the name first bestowed upon the Dutch.
In the above quote, the Chinese words are written phonetically based on spoken Cantonese. The names given were common usage in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Other Asian nations have equivalent terms for America, for example Vietnamese: Hoa Kỳ ("Flower Flag ''). Chinese now refer to the United States as simplified Chinese: 美国; traditional Chinese: 美國; pinyin: Měiguó. Měi is short for Měilìjiān (simplified Chinese: 美利坚; traditional Chinese: 美利堅, phono - semantic matching of "American '') and "guó '' means "country '', so this name is unrelated to the flag. However, the "flower flag '' terminology persists in some places today: for example, American Ginseng is called simplified Chinese: 花旗 参; traditional Chinese: 花旗 參; literally: "flower flag ginseng '' in Chinese, and Citibank, which opened a branch in China in 1902, is known as 花旗 银行; "Flower Flag Bank ''.
The U.S. flag took its first trip around the world in 1787 -- 90 on board the Columbia. William Driver, who coined the phrase "Old Glory '', took the U.S. flag around the world in 1831 -- 32. The flag attracted the notice of Japanese when an oversized version was carried to Yokohama by the steamer Great Republic as part of a round - the - world journey in 1871.
In the following table depicting the 28 various designs of the United States flag, the star patterns for the flags are merely the usual patterns, often associated with the United States Navy. Canton designs, prior to the proclamation of the 48 - star flag, had no official arrangement of the stars. Furthermore, the exact colors of the flag were not standardized until 1934.
In the November 2012 U.S. election, Puerto Rico voted to become a U.S. state. However, the legitimacy of the result of this election was disputed. On June 11, 2017, another referendum was held, this time with the result that 97 % of voters in Puerto Rico voted for statehood, but it had a turnout of only 23 %. Similarly in November 2016, a statehood referendum was held in the District of Columbia where 86 % of voters approved the proposal. If a new U.S. state were to be admitted, it would require a new design on the flag to accommodate the additional star.
The modern meaning of the flag was forged in December 1860, when Major Robert Anderson moved the U.S. garrison from Fort Moultrie to Fort Sumter in Charleston Harbor. Author Adam Goodheart argues this was the opening move of the American Civil War, and the flag was used throughout northern states to symbolize U.S. nationalism and rejection of secessionism.
Before that day, the flag had served mostly as a military ensign or a convenient marking of American territory, flown from forts, embassies, and ships, and displayed on special occasions like American Independence day. But in the weeks after Major Anderson 's surprising stand, it became something different. Suddenly the Stars and Stripes flew -- as it does today, and especially as it did after the September 11 attacks in 2001 -- from houses, from storefronts, from churches; above the village greens and college quads. For the first time American flags were mass - produced rather than individually stitched and even so, manufacturers could not keep up with demand. As the long winter of 1861 turned into spring, that old flag meant something new. The abstraction of the Union cause was transfigured into a physical thing: strips of cloth that millions of people would fight for, and many thousands die for. -- Adam Goodheart.
The flag of the United States is one of the nation 's most widely recognized symbols. Within the United States, flags are frequently displayed not only on public buildings but on private residences. The flag is a common motif on decals for car windows, and clothing ornaments such as badges and lapel pins. Throughout the world the flag has been used in public discourse to refer to the United States.
The flag has become a powerful symbol of Americanism, and is flown on many occasions, with giant outdoor flags used by retail outlets to draw customers. Desecration of the flag is considered a public outrage, but remains protected as freedom of speech. Scholars have noted the irony that "(t) he flag is so revered because it represents the land of the free, and that freedom includes the ability to use or abuse that flag in protest ''. In worldwide comparison, Testi noted in 2010 that the United States was not unique in adoring its banner, for the flags of Scandinavian countries are also "beloved, domesticated, commercialized and sacralized objects ''.
The man credited with designing the current 50 star American flag was Robert G. Heft. He was 17 years old at the time and created the flag design in 1958 as a high school class project while living with his grandparents in Ohio. He received a B − on the project. According to Heft, his history teacher honored their agreement to change his grade to an A after his design was selected.
The basic design of the current flag is specified by 4 U.S.C. § 1; 4 U.S.C. § 2 outlines the addition of new stars to represent new states. The specification gives the following values:
These specifications are contained in an executive order which, strictly speaking, governs only flags made for or by the U.S. federal government. In practice, most U.S. national flags available for sale to the public have a different width - to - height ratio; common sizes are 2 × 3 ft. or 4 × 6 ft. (flag ratio 1.5), 2.5 × 4 ft. or 5 × 8 ft. (1.6), or 3 × 5 ft. or 6 × 10 ft. (1.667). Even flags flown over the U.S. Capitol for sale to the public through Representatives or Senators are provided in these sizes. Flags that are made to the prescribed 1.9 ratio are often referred to as "G - spec '' (for "government specification '') flags.
The exact red, white, and blue colors to be used in the flag are specified with reference to the CAUS Standard Color Reference of America, 10th edition. Specifically, the colors are "White '', "Old Glory Red '', and "Old Glory Blue ''. The CIE coordinates for the colors of the 9th edition of the Standard Color Card were formally specified in JOSA in 1946. These colors form the standard for cloth, and there is no perfect way to convert them to RGB for display on screen or CMYK for printing. The "relative '' coordinates in the following table were found by scaling the luminous reflectance relative to the flag 's "white ''.
As with the design, the official colors are only officially required for flags produced for the U.S. federal government, and other colors are often used for mass - market flags, printed reproductions, and other products intended to evoke flag colors. The practice of using more saturated colors than the official cloth is not new. As Taylor, Knoche, and Granville wrote in 1950: "The color of the official wool bunting (of the blue field) is a very dark blue, but printed reproductions of the flag, as well as merchandise supposed to match the flag, present the color as a deep blue much brighter than the official wool. ''
Sometimes, Pantone Matching System (PMS) approximations to the flag colors are used. One set was given on the website of the U.S. embassy in London as early as 1998; the website of the U.S. embassy in Stockholm claimed in 2001 that those had been suggested by Pantone, and that the U.S. Government Printing Office preferred a different set. A third red was suggested by a California Military Department document in 2002. In 2001, the Texas legislature specified that the colors of the Texas flag should be "(1) the same colors used in the United States flag; and (2) defined as numbers 193 (red) and 281 (dark blue) of the Pantone Matching System. ''
When Alaska and Hawaii were being considered for statehood in the 1950s, more than 1,500 designs were submitted to President Dwight D. Eisenhower. Although some of them were 49 - star versions, the vast majority were 50 - star proposals. At least three of these designs were identical to the present design of the 50 - star flag. At the time, credit was given by the executive department to the United States Army Institute of Heraldry for the design.
Of these proposals, one created by 17 - year - old Robert G. Heft in 1958 as a school project received the most publicity. His mother was a seamstress, but refused to do any of the work for him. He originally received a B -- for the project. After discussing the grade with his teacher, it was agreed (somewhat jokingly) that if the flag was accepted by Congress, the grade would be reconsidered. Heft 's flag design was chosen and adopted by presidential proclamation after Alaska and before Hawaii was admitted into the Union in 1959. According to Heft, his teacher did keep to their agreement and changed his grade to an A for the project. The 49 - and 50 - star flags were each flown for the first time at Fort McHenry on Independence Day, in 1959 and 1960 respectively.
Traditionally, the flag may be decorated with golden fringe surrounding the perimeter of the flag as long as it does not deface the flag proper. Ceremonial displays of the flag, such as those in parades or on indoor posts, often use fringe to enhance the appearance of the flag.
The first recorded use of fringe on a flag dates from 1835, and the Army used it officially in 1895. No specific law governs the legality of fringe, but a 1925 opinion of the attorney general addresses the use of fringe (and the number of stars) "... is at the discretion of the Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy... '' as quoted from footnote in previous volumes of Title 4 of the United States Code law books and is a source for claims that such a flag is a military ensign not civilian. However, according to the Army Institute of Heraldry, which has official custody of the flag designs and makes any change ordered, there are no implications of symbolism in the use of fringe. Several federal courts have upheld this conclusion, most recently and forcefully in Colorado v. Drew, a Colorado Court of Appeals judgment that was released in May 2010. Traditionally, the Army and Air Force use a fringed National Color for parade, color guard and indoor display, while the Sea Services (Navy, Marine Corps and Coast Guard) use a fringeless National Color for all occasions.
The flag is customarily flown year - round at most public buildings, and it is not unusual to find private houses flying full - size (3 by 5 feet (0.91 by 1.52 m)) flags. Some private use is year - round, but becomes widespread on civic holidays like Memorial Day, Veterans Day, Presidents ' Day, Flag Day, and on Independence Day. On Memorial Day it is common to place small flags by war memorials and next to the graves of U.S. war veterans. Also on Memorial Day it is common to fly the flag at half staff, until noon, in remembrance of those who lost their lives fighting in U.S. wars.
The United States Flag Code outlines certain guidelines for the use, display, and disposal of the flag. For example, the flag should never be dipped to any person or thing, unless it is the ensign responding to a salute from a ship of a foreign nation. This tradition may come from the 1908 Summer Olympics in London, where countries were asked to dip their flag to King Edward VII: the American flag bearer did not. Team captain Martin Sheridan is famously quoted as saying "this flag dips to no earthly king '', though the true provenance of this quotation is unclear.
The flag should never be allowed to touch the ground and, if flown at night, must be illuminated. If the edges become tattered through wear, the flag should be repaired or replaced. When a flag is so tattered that it can no longer serve as a symbol of the United States, it should be destroyed in a dignified manner, preferably by burning. The American Legion and other organizations regularly conduct flag retirement ceremonies, often on Flag Day, June 14. (The Boy Scouts of America recommends that modern nylon or polyester flags be recycled instead of burned, due to hazardous gases being produced when such materials are burned.)
The Flag Code prohibits using the flag "for any advertising purpose '' and also states that the flag "should not be embroidered, printed, or otherwise impressed on such articles as cushions, handkerchiefs, napkins, boxes, or anything intended to be discarded after temporary use ''. Both of these codes are generally ignored, almost always without comment.
Section 8, entitled Respect For Flag states in part: "The flag should never be used as wearing apparel, bedding, or drapery '', and "No part of the flag should ever be used as a costume or athletic uniform ''. Section 3 of the Flag Code defines "the flag '' as anything "by which the average person seeing the same without deliberation may believe the same to represent the flag of the United States of America ''.
An additional part of Section 8 Respect For Flag, that is frequently violated at sporting events is part (c) "The flag should never be carried flat or horizontally, but always aloft and free. ''
Although the Flag Code is U.S. federal law, there is no penalty for a private citizen or group failing to comply with the Flag Code and it is not widely enforced -- indeed, punitive enforcement would conflict with the First Amendment right to freedom of speech. Passage of the proposed Flag Desecration Amendment would overrule legal precedent that has been established.
When the flag is affixed to the right side of a vehicle of any kind (e.g.: cars, boats, planes, any physical object that moves), it should be oriented so that the canton is towards the front of the vehicle, as if the flag were streaming backwards from its hoist as the vehicle moves forward. Therefore, U.S. flag decals on the right sides of vehicles may appear to be reversed, with the union to the observer 's right instead of left as more commonly seen.
The flag has been displayed on every U.S. spacecraft designed for manned flight, including Mercury, Gemini, Apollo Command / Service Module, Apollo Lunar Module, and the Space Shuttle. The flag also appeared on the S - IC first stage of the Saturn V launch vehicle used for Apollo. But since Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo were launched and landed vertically and were not capable of horizontal atmospheric flight as the Space Shuttle did on its landing approach, the "streaming '' convention was not followed and these flags were oriented with the stripes running horizontally, perpendicular to the direction of flight.
On some U.S. military uniforms, flag patches are worn on the right shoulder, following the vehicle convention with the union toward the front. This rule dates back to the Army 's early history, when both mounted cavalry and infantry units would designate a standard bearer, who carried the Colors into battle. As he charged, his forward motion caused the flag to stream back. Since the Stars and Stripes are mounted with the canton closest to the pole, that section stayed to the right, while the stripes flew to the left. Several US military uniforms, such as flight suits worn by members of the United States Air Force and Navy, have the flag patch on the left shoulder.
Other organizations that wear flag patches on their uniforms can have the flag facing in either direction. The congressional charter of the Boy Scouts of America stipulates that the uniforms should not imitate U.S. military uniforms; consequently, the flags are displayed on the right shoulder with the stripes facing front, the reverse of the military style. Law enforcement officers often wear a small flag patch, either on a shoulder, or above a shirt pocket.
Every U.S. astronaut since the crew of Gemini 4 has worn the flag on the left shoulder of his or her space suit, with the exception of the crew of Apollo 1, whose flags were worn on the right shoulder. In this case, the canton was on the left.
The flag did not appear on U.S. postal stamp issues until the Battle of White Plains Issue was released in 1926, depicting the flag with a circle of 13 stars. The 48 - star flag first appeared on the General Casimir Pulaski issue of 1931, though in a small monochrome depiction. The first U.S. postage stamp to feature the flag as the sole subject was issued July 4, 1957, Scott catalog number 1094. Since that time the flag has frequently appeared on U.S. stamps.
In 1907 Eben Appleton, New York stockbroker and grandson of Lieutenant Colonel George Armistead (the commander of Fort McHenry during the 1814 bombardment) loaned the Star Spangled Banner Flag to the Smithsonian Institution, and in 1912 he converted the loan to a gift. Appleton donated the flag with the wish that it would always be on view to the public. In 1994, the National Museum of American History determined that the Star Spangled Banner Flag required further conservation treatment to remain on public display. In 1998 teams of museum conservators, curators, and other specialists helped move the flag from its home in the Museum 's Flag Hall into a new conservation laboratory. Following the reopening of the National Museum of American History on November 21, 2008, the flag is now on display in a special exhibition, "The Star - Spangled Banner: The Flag That Inspired the National Anthem, '' where it rests at a 10 degree angle in dim light for conservation purposes.
By presidential proclamation, acts of Congress, and custom, U.S. flags are displayed continuously at certain locations.
The flag should especially be displayed at full staff on the following days:
The flag is displayed at half - staff (half - mast in naval usage) as a sign of respect or mourning. Nationwide, this action is proclaimed by the president; statewide or territory - wide, the proclamation is made by the governor. In addition, there is no prohibition against municipal governments, private businesses or citizens flying the flag at half - staff as a local sign of respect and mourning. However, many flag enthusiasts feel this type of practice has somewhat diminished the meaning of the original intent of lowering the flag to honor those who held high positions in federal or state offices. President Dwight D. Eisenhower issued the first proclamation on March 1, 1954, standardizing the dates and time periods for flying the flag at half - staff from all federal buildings, grounds, and naval vessels; other congressional resolutions and presidential proclamations ensued. However, they are only guidelines to all other entities: typically followed at state and local government facilities, and encouraged of private businesses and citizens.
To properly fly the flag at half - staff, one should first briefly hoist it top of the staff, then lower it to the half - staff position, halfway between the top and bottom of the staff. Similarly, when the flag is to be lowered from half - staff, it should be first briefly hoisted to the top of the staff.
Federal statutes provide that the flag should be flown at half - staff on the following dates:
National Korean War Veterans Armistice Day, on July 27, was formerly a day of half - staff observance until the law expired in 2003. In 2009, it became a day of full - staff observance.
Though not part of the official Flag Code, according to military custom, flags should be folded into a triangular shape when not in use. To properly fold the flag:
There is also no specific meaning for each fold of the flag. However, there are scripts read by non-government organizations and also by the Air Force that are used during the flag folding ceremony. These scripts range from historical timelines of the flag to religious themes.
Traditionally, the flag of the United States plays a role in military funerals, and occasionally in funerals of other civil servants (such as law enforcement officers, fire fighters, and U.S. presidents). A burial flag is draped over the deceased 's casket as a pall during services. Just prior to the casket being lowered into the ground, the flag is ceremonially folded and presented to the deceased 's next of kin as a token of respect.
Flag of Bikini Atoll
Flag of Liberia
Flag of Malaysia
Flag of El Salvador 1875 -- 1912
Flag of Brittany
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how many proposed amendments to the constitution quizlet | Article Five of the United states Constitution - wikipedia
Article Five of the United States Constitution describes the process whereby the Constitution, the nation 's frame of government, may be altered. Altering the Constitution consists of proposing an amendment or amendments and subsequent ratification. Amendments may be proposed either by the Congress with a two - thirds vote in both the House of Representatives and the Senate or by a convention of states called for by two - thirds of the state legislatures. To become part of the Constitution, an amendment must be ratified by either -- as determined by Congress -- the legislatures of three - quarters of the states or state ratifying conventions in three - quarters of the states. The vote of each state (to either ratify or reject a proposed amendment) carries equal weight, regardless of a state 's population or length of time in the Union.
Additionally, Article V temporarily shielded certain clauses in Article I from being amended. The first clause in Section 9, which prevented Congress from passing any law that would restrict the importation of slaves prior to 1808, and the fourth clause in that same section, a declaration that direct taxes must be apportioned according to state populations, were explicitly shielded from Constitutional amendment prior to 1808. It also shields the first clause of Article I, Section 3, which provides for equal representation of the states in the Senate, from being amended, though not absolutely.
The Congress, whenever two thirds of both houses shall deem it necessary, shall propose amendments to this Constitution, or, on the application of the legislatures of two thirds of the several states, shall call a convention for proposing amendments, which, in either case, shall be valid to all intents and purposes, as part of this Constitution, when ratified by the legislatures of three fourths of the several states, or by conventions in three fourths thereof, as the one or the other mode of ratification may be proposed by the Congress; provided that no amendment which may be made prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight shall in any manner affect the first and fourth clauses in the ninth section of the first article; and that no state, without its consent, shall be deprived of its equal suffrage in the Senate.
Thirty - three amendments to the United States Constitution have been approved by the Congress and sent to the states for ratification. Twenty - seven of these amendments have been ratified and are now part of the Constitution. The first ten amendments were adopted and ratified simultaneously and are known collectively as the Bill of Rights. Six amendments adopted by Congress and sent to the states have not been ratified by the required number of states and are not part of the Constitution. Four of these amendments are still technically open and pending, one is closed and has failed by its own terms, and one is closed and has failed by the terms of the resolution proposing it. All totaled, approximately 11,539 measures to amend the Constitution have been proposed in Congress since 1789 (through December 16, 2014).
Article V provides two methods for amending the nation 's frame of government. The first method authorizes Congress, "whenever two - thirds of both houses shall deem it necessary '' (a two - thirds of those members present -- assuming that a quorum exists at the time that the vote is cast -- and not necessarily a two - thirds vote of the entire membership elected and serving in the two houses of Congress), to propose Constitutional amendments. The second method requires Congress, "on the application of the legislatures of two - thirds of the several states '' (presently 34), to "call a convention for proposing amendments ''.
When the 1st Congress considered a series of constitutional amendments, it was suggested that the two houses first adopt a resolution indicating that they deemed amendments necessary. This procedure was not used. Instead, both the House and the Senate proceeded directly to consideration of a joint resolution, thereby implying that both bodies deemed amendments to be necessary. Also, when initially proposed by James Madison, the amendments were designed to be interwoven into the relevant sections of the original document. Instead, they were approved by Congress and sent to the states for ratification as supplemental additions (codicils) appended to it. Both these precedents have been followed ever since.
Regarding the amendment process crafted during the 1787 Constitutional Convention, Madison, in The Federalist No. 43, wrote:
It guards equally against that extreme facility which would render the Constitution too mutable; and that extreme difficulty which might perpetuate its discovered faults. It moreover equally enables the General and the State Governments to originate the amendment of errors, as they may be pointed out by the experience on one side, or on the other.
Each time the amendment process has been initiated since 1789, the first method has been used. All 33 amendments submitted to the states for ratification originated in the Congress. The second method, the convention option, which Alexander Hamilton (writing in The Federalist No. 85) believed would serve as a barrier "against the encroachments of the national authority '', has yet to be successfully invoked, although not for lack of activity in the states.
Three times in the 20th century, concerted efforts were undertaken by proponents of particular amendments to secure the number of applications necessary to summon an Article V Convention. These included conventions to consider amendments to (1) provide for popular election of U.S. Senators; (2) permit the states to include factors other than equality of population in drawing state legislative district boundaries; and (3) to propose an amendment requiring the U.S. budget to be balanced under most circumstances. The campaign for a popularly elected Senate is frequently credited with "prodding '' the Senate to join the House of Representatives in proposing what became the Seventeenth Amendment to the states in 1912, while the latter two campaigns came very close to meeting the two - thirds threshold in the 1960s and 1980s, respectively.
Once approved by Congress, the joint resolution proposing a constitutional amendment does not require Presidential approval before it goes out to the states. While Article I Section 7 provides that all federal legislation must, before becoming Law, be presented to the President for his or her signature or veto, Article V provides no such requirement for constitutional amendments approved by Congress, or by a federal convention. Thus the president has no official function in the process. In Hollingsworth v. Virginia (1798), the Supreme Court affirmed that it is not necessary to place constitutional amendments before the President for approval or veto.
After being officially proposed, either by Congress or a national convention of the states, a constitutional amendment must then be ratified by three - fourths of the states. Congress is authorized to choose whether a proposed amendment is sent to the state legislatures or to state ratifying conventions for ratification. Amendments ratified by the states under either procedure are indistinguishable and have equal force as part of the Constitution. Of the 33 amendments submitted to the states for ratification, the state convention method has been used for only one, the Twenty - first Amendment, which became part of the Constitution in 1933. This was also one of only four times that Congress has placed the mode of ratification in the body of an amendment rather than in accompanying legislation; the others being the Eighteenth, Twentieth, and Twenty - second Amendments. In United States v. Sprague (1931), the Supreme Court affirmed the authority of Congress to decide how each individual constitutional amendment is ratified, in accordance with the options provided in Article V and the equal validity of amendments properly ratified in either fashion. The Court had earlier, in Hawke v. Smith (1920), ruled the ratification of the proposed Nineteenth Amendment (which Congress had sent to the state legislatures for ratification) by the Legislature of Ohio could not be referred to the electors (voters) of the state, and that the Ohio Constitution, in requiring such a referendum, was inconsistent with the U.S. Constitution.
An amendment becomes an operative part of the Constitution when it is ratified by the necessary number of states, rather than on the later date when its ratification is certified. No further action by Congress or anyone is required. On three occasions, Congress has, after being informed that an amendment has reached the ratification threshold, adopted a resolution declaring the process successfully completed. Such actions, while perhaps important for political reasons, are, constitutionally speaking, unnecessary.
Presently, the Archivist of the United States is charged with responsibility for administering the ratification process under the provisions of 1 U.S. Code § 106b. The Archivist officially notifies the states, by a registered letter to each state 's Governor, that an amendment has been proposed. Each Governor then formally submits the amendment to their state 's legislature (or ratifying convention). When a state ratifies a proposed amendment, it sends the Archivist an original or certified copy of the state 's action. Upon receiving the necessary number of state ratifications, it is the duty of the Archivist to issue a certificate proclaiming a particular amendment duly ratified and part of the Constitution. The amendment and its certificate of ratification are then published in the Federal Register and United States Statutes at Large. This serves as official notice to Congress and to the nation that the ratification process has been successfully completed.
The Constitution is silent on the issue of whether or not Congress may limit the length of time that the states have to ratify constitutional amendments sent for their consideration. It is also silent on the issue of whether or not Congress, once it has sent an amendment that includes a ratification deadline to the states for their consideration, can extend that deadline.
The practice of limiting the time available to the states to ratify proposed amendments began in 1917 with the Eighteenth Amendment. All amendments proposed since then, with the exception of the Nineteenth Amendment and the (still pending) Child Labor Amendment, have included a deadline, either in the body of the proposed amendment, or in the joint resolution transmitting it to the states. The ratification deadline "clock '' begins running on the day final action is completed in Congress. An amendment may be ratified at any time after final congressional action, even if the states have not yet been officially notified.
In Dillon v. Gloss (1921), the Supreme Court upheld Congress 's power to prescribe time limitations for state ratifications and intimated that clearly out of date proposals were no longer open for ratification. Granting that it found nothing express in Article V relating to time constraints, the Court yet allowed that it found intimated in the amending process a "strongly suggest (ive) '' argument that proposed amendments are not open to ratification for all time or by States acting at widely separate times. The court subsequently, in Coleman v. Miller (1939), modified its opinion considerably. In that case, related to the proposed Child Labor Amendment, it held that the question of timeliness of ratification is a political and non-justiciable one, leaving the issue to Congress 's discretion. It would appear that the length of time elapsing between proposal and ratification is irrelevant to the validity of the amendment. Based upon this precedent, the Archivist of the United States proclaimed the Twenty - seventh Amendment as having been ratified when it surpassed the "three fourths of the several states '' plateau for becoming a part of the Constitution. Declared ratified on May 7, 1992, it had been submitted to the states for ratification on September 25, 1789, an unprecedented time period of 202 years, 7 months and 12 days.
Whether once it has prescribed a ratification period Congress may extend the period without necessitating action by already - ratified States embroiled Congress, the states, and the courts in argument with respect to the proposed Equal Rights Amendment (Sent to the states on March 22, 1972 with a seven - year ratification time limit attached). In 1978 Congress, by simple majority vote in both houses, extended the original deadline by 3 years, 3 months and 8 days (through June 30, 1982).
The amendment 's proponents argued that the fixing of a time limit and the extending of it were powers committed exclusively to Congress under the political question doctrine and that in any event Congress had power to extend. It was argued that inasmuch as the fixing of a reasonable time was within Congress ' power and that Congress could fix the time either in advance or at some later point, based upon its evaluation of the social and other bases of the necessities of the amendment, Congress did not do violence to the Constitution when, once having fixed the time, it subsequently extended the time. Proponents recognized that if the time limit was fixed in the text of the amendment Congress could not alter it because the time limit as well as the substantive provisions of the proposal had been subject to ratification by a number of States, making it unalterable by Congress except through the amending process again. Opponents argued that Congress, having by a two - thirds vote sent the amendment and its authorizing resolution to the states, had put the matter beyond changing by passage of a simple resolution, that states had either acted upon the entire package or at least that they had or could have acted affirmatively upon the promise of Congress that if the amendment had not been ratified within the prescribed period it would expire and their assent would not be compelled for longer than they had intended.
In 1981, the United States District Court for the District of Idaho, however, found that Congress did not have the authority to extend the deadline, even when only contained within the proposing joint resolution 's resolving clause. The Supreme Court had decided to take up the case, bypassing the Court of Appeals, but before they could hear the case, the extended period granted by Congress had been exhausted without the necessary number of states, thus rendering the case moot.
According to constitutional theorist and scholar Lawrence G. Sager, some commentators have seriously questioned whether Article V is the exclusive means of amending the Constitution, or whether there are routes to amendment, including some routes in which the Constitution could be unconsciously or unwittingly amended in a period of sustained political activity on the part of a mobilized national constituency. For example, Akhil Amar argues that the Constitution may be constitutionally amended outside of Article V. He rejects the notion that Article V excludes other modes of constitutional change, arguing instead that the procedure provided for in Article V is simply the exclusive method the government may use to amend the Constitution. He asserts that Article V nowhere prevents the People themselves, acting apart from ordinary Government, from exercising their legal right to alter or abolish Government via the proper legal procedures. Bruce Ackerman argues that the Constitution can be amended by something he calls a "structural amendment '' whereby the people alter their Constitutional order via succeeding elections. Similarly, Sanford Levinson believes that Constitutional amendments have been made outside of Article V and as such it is not exclusive.
Other scholars disagree with Amar, Ackerman, and Levinson. Some argue that the Constitution itself provides no mechanism for the American people to adopt constitutional amendments independently of Article V. Darren Patrick Guerra has argued that Article V is a vital part of the American Constitutional tradition and he defends Article V against modern critiques that Article V is either too difficult, too undemocratic, or too formal. Instead he argues that Article V provides a clear and stable way of amending the document that is explicit, authentic, and the exclusive means of amendment; it promotes wisdom and justice through enhancing deliberation and prudence; and its process complements federalism and separation of powers that are key features of the Constitution. He argues that Article V remains the most clear and powerful way to register the sovereign desires of the American public with regard to alterations of their fundamental law. In the end, Article V is an essential bulwark to maintaining a written Constitution that secures the rights of the people against both elites and themselves.
In his farewell address, President George Washington said:
If in the opinion of the People the distribution or modification of the Constitutional powers be in any particular wrong, let it be corrected by an amendment in the way which the Constitution designates. But let there be no change by usurpation; for though this, in one instance, may be the instrument of good, it is the customary weapon by which free governments are destroyed. The precedent must always greatly overbalance in permanent evil any partial or transient benefit which the use can at any time yield.
This statement by Washington has become controversial, and scholars disagree about whether it still describes the proper constitutional order in the United States. Scholars who dismiss Washington 's position often argue that the Constitution itself was adopted without following the procedures in the Articles of Confederation, while Constitutional attorney Michael Farris disagrees, saying the Convention was a product of the States ' residual power, and the amendment in adoption process was legal, having received the unanimous assent of the States ' legislatures.
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what type of greek was the new testament written | Koine Greek - wikipedia
Koine Greek (UK English / ˈkɔɪniː /, US English / kɔɪˈneɪ /, / ˈkɔɪneɪ / or / kiːˈniː /; from Koine Greek ἡ κοινὴ διάλεκτος, "the common dialect ''), also known as Alexandrian dialect, common Attic, Hellenistic or Biblical Greek (Modern Greek: Ελληνιστική Κοινή, "Hellenistic Koiné '', in the sense of "Hellenistic supraregional language ''), was the common supra - regional form of Greek spoken and written during Hellenistic and Roman antiquity and the early Byzantine era, or Late Antiquity. It evolved from the spread of Greek following the conquests of Alexander the Great in the 4th century BC, and served as the lingua franca of much of the Mediterranean region and the Middle East during the following centuries. It was based mainly on Attic and related Ionic speech forms, with various admixtures brought about through dialect levelling with other varieties.
Koine Greek included styles ranging from more conservative literary forms to the spoken vernaculars of the time. As the dominant language of the Byzantine Empire, it developed further into Medieval Greek, which then turned into Modern Greek. Koine remained the court language of the Byzantine Empire until its ending in 1453, while Medieval and eventually Modern Greek were everyday languages.
Literary Koine was the medium of much of post-classical Greek literary and scholarly writing, such as the works of Plutarch and Polybius. Koine is also the language of the Christian New Testament, of the Septuagint (the 3rd - century BC Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible), and of most early Christian theological writing by the Church Fathers. In this context, Koine Greek is also known as "Biblical '', "New Testament '', "ecclesiastical '' or "patristic '' Greek. It continues to be used as the liturgical language of services in the Greek Orthodox Church.
The word koinē (κοινή) is the Greek word for "common '', and is here understood as referring to "the common dialect '' (ἡ κοινὴ διάλεκτος). The word is pronounced / kɔɪˈneɪ /, / ˈkɔɪneɪ / or / kiːˈniː / in US English and / ˈkɔɪniː / in UK English. The pronunciation of the word in Koine gradually changed from Greek pronunciation: (koinéː) (close to the Classical Attic pronunciation Greek pronunciation: (koinɛ́ː)) to Greek pronunciation: (kyˈni). Its pronunciation in Modern Greek is (ciˈni).
The term was applied in several different senses by ancient scholars. A school of scholars such as Apollonius Dyscolus and Aelius Herodianus maintained the term Koine to refer to the Proto - Greek language, while others used it to refer to any vernacular form of Greek speech which differed somewhat from the literary language.
When Koine Greek became a language of literature by the 1st century BC, some people distinguished it into two forms: written (Greek) as the literary post-classical form (which should never be confused with Atticism), and vernacular as the day to day spoken form. Others chose to refer to Koine as the Alexandrian dialect (ἡ Ἀλεξανδρέων διάλεκτος) or the dialect of Alexandria, or even the universal dialect of its time. The former was often used by modern classicists.
Koine Greek arose as a common dialect within the armies of Alexander the Great. Under the leadership of Macedon, their newly formed common variety was spoken from the Ptolemaic Kingdom of Egypt to the Seleucid Empire of Mesopotamia. It replaced existing ancient Greek dialects with an everyday form that people anywhere could understand. Though elements of Koine Greek took shape in Classical Greece, the post-Classical period of Greek is defined as beginning with the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC, when cultures under Greek sway in turn began to influence the language. The passage into the next period, known as Medieval Greek, dates from the foundation of Constantinople by Constantine the Great in 330. The post-Classical period of Greek thus refers to the creation and evolution of Koine Greek throughout the entire Hellenistic and Roman eras of history until the start of the Middle Ages.
The linguistic roots of the Common Greek dialect had been unclear since ancient times. During the Hellenistic period, most scholars thought of Koine as the result of the mixture of the four main Ancient Greek dialects, "ἡ ἐκ τῶν τεττάρων συνεστῶσα '' (the composition of the Four). This view was supported in the early twentieth century by Paul Kretschmer in his book Die Entstehung der Koine (1901), while Ulrich von Wilamowitz - Moellendorff and Antoine Meillet, based on the intense Ionic elements of the Koine -- such as σσ instead of ττ and ρσ instead of ρρ (θάλασσα -- θάλαττα, ἀρσενικός -- ἀρρενικός) -- considered Koine to be a simplified form of Ionic.
The view accepted by most scholars today was given by the Greek linguist Georgios Hatzidakis, who showed that, despite the "composition of the Four '', the "stable nucleus '' of Koine Greek is Attic. In other words, Koine Greek can be regarded as Attic with the admixture of elements especially from Ionic, but also from other dialects. The degree of importance of the non-Attic linguistic elements on Koine can vary depending on the region of the Hellenistic World.
In that respect, the varieties of Koine spoken in the Ionian colonies of Anatolia (e.g. Pontus) would have more intense Ionic Greek characteristics than others and those of Laconia and Cyprus would preserve some Doric and Arcadocypriot characteristics, respectively. The literary Koine of the Hellenistic age resembles Attic in such a degree that it is often mentioned as Common Attic.
The first scholars who studied Koine, both in Alexandrian and contemporary times, were classicists whose prototype had been the literary Attic Greek of the Classical period and frowned upon any other variety of Ancient Greek. Koine Greek was therefore considered a decayed form of Greek which was not worthy of attention.
The reconsideration on the historical and linguistic importance of Koine Greek began only in the early 19th century, where renowned scholars conducted a series of studies on the evolution of Koine throughout the entire Hellenistic period and Roman Empire. The sources used on the studies of Koine have been numerous and of unequal reliability. The most significant ones are the inscriptions of the post-Classical periods and the papyri, for being two kinds of texts which have authentic content and can be studied directly.
Other significant sources are the Septuagint, the somewhat literal Greek translation of the Old Testament, and the Greek New Testament. The teaching of the Testaments was aimed at the most common people, and for that reason they use the most popular language of the era.
Information can also be derived from some Atticist scholars of the Hellenistic and Roman periods, who, in order to fight the evolution of the language, published works which compared the "correct '' Attic against the "wrong '' Koine by citing examples. For example, Phrynichus Arabius during the second century AD wrote:
Βασίλισσα οὐδείς τῶν Ἀρχαίων εἶπεν, ἀλλὰ βασίλεια ἢ βασιλίς. Basilissa (queen) none of the Ancients said, but basileia (queen) or basilis (queen).
Διωρία ἐσχάτως ἀδόκιμον, ἀντ ' αυτοῦ δὲ προθεσμίαν ἐρεῖς. Dioria (deadline) is extremely disreputable, instead you will say prothesmia (appointed time).
Πάντοτε μὴ λέγε, ἀλλὰ ἑκάστοτε καὶ διὰ παντός. Do not say pantote (always), but hekastote (every time) and dia pantos (continually).
Other sources can be based on random findings such as inscriptions on vases written by popular painters, mistakes made by Atticists due to their imperfect knowledge of Attic Greek or even some surviving Greco - Latin glossaries of the Roman period, e.g.:
Καλήμερον, ἦλθες; Bono die, venisti? Good day, you came?
Ἐὰν θέλεις, ἐλθὲ μεθ ' ἡμῶν. Si vis, veni mecum. If you want, come with us.
Ποῦ; Ubi? Where?
Πρὸς φίλον ἡμέτερον Λεύκιον. Ad amicum nostrum Lucium. To our friend Lucius.
Τί γὰρ ἔχει; Quid enim habet? Indeed, what does he have? What is it with him?
Ἀρρωστεῖ. Aegrotat. He 's sick.
Finally, a very important source of information on the ancient Koine is the modern Greek language with all its dialects and its own Koine form, which have preserved some of the ancient language 's oral linguistic details which the written tradition has lost. For example, Pontic and Cappadocian Greek preserved the ancient pronunciation of η as ε (νύφε, συνέλικος, τίμεσον, πεγάδι for standard Modern Greek νύφη, συνήλικος, τίμησον, πηγάδι etc.), while the Tsakonian language preserved the long α instead of η (ἁμέρα, ἀστραπά, λίμνα, χοά etc.) and the other local characteristics of Doric Greek.
Dialects from the Southern part of the Greek - speaking regions (Dodecanese, Cyprus etc.), preserve the pronunciation of the double similar consonants (ἄλ - λος, Ἑλ - λάδα, θάλασ - σα), while others pronounce in many words υ as ου or preserve ancient double forms (κρόμμυον -- κρεμ - μυον, ράξ -- ρώξ etc.). Linguistic phenomena like the above imply that those characteristics survived within Koine, which in turn had countless variations in the Greek - speaking world.
"Biblical Koine '' refers to the varieties of Koine Greek used in Bible translations into Greek and related texts. Its main sources are:
There has been some debate to what degree biblical Greek represents the mainstream of contemporary spoken Koine and to what extent it contains specifically Semitic substratum features. These could have been induced either through the practice of translating closely from Biblical Hebrew or Aramaic originals, or through the influence of the regional non-standard Greek spoken by originally Aramaic - speaking Jews.
Some of the features discussed in this context are the Septuagint 's normative absence of the particles μέν and δέ, and the use of ἐγένετο to denote "it came to pass. '' Some features of biblical Greek which are thought to have originally been non-standard elements eventually found their way into the main of the Greek language.
The Greek of the New Testament is less distinctively Semitic than that of the Septuagint because it is largely a de novo composition in Greek, not primarily a translation from Hebrew and Aramaic.
The term patristic Greek is sometimes used for the Greek written by the Greek Church Fathers, the Early Christian theologians in late antiquity. Christian writers in the earliest time tended to use a simple register of Koiné, relatively close to the spoken language of their time, following the model of the Bible. After the 4th century, when Christianity became the state church of the Roman Empire, more learned registers of Koiné also came to be used.
The study of all sources from the six centuries which are symbolically covered by Koine reveals linguistic changes from ancient Greek on elements of the spoken language including, grammar, word formation, vocabulary and phonology (sound system).
Most new forms start off as rare and gradually become more frequent until they are established. As most of the changes between modern and ancient Greek were introduced via Koine, Koine is largely familiar and at least partly intelligible to most writers and speakers of Modern Greek.
During the period generally designated as Koine Greek a great deal of phonological change occurred. At the start of the period pronunciation was virtually identical to Ancient Greek phonology, whereas in the end it had much more in common with Modern Greek phonology.
The three most significant changes were the loss of vowel length distinction, the replacement of the pitch accent system by a stress accent system, and the monophthongization of several diphthongs:
The Koine Greek in the table represents a reconstruction of New Testament Koine Greek, deriving to some degree from the dialect spoken in Judea and Galilee during the first century and similar to the dialect spoken in Alexandria, Egypt. The realizations of certain phonemes differ from the more standard Attic dialect of Koine.
Note that γ has spirantized, with palatal allophone before front - vowels and a plosive allophone after nasals, while β is beginning to develop a fricative articulation intervocalically. φ, θ and χ still preserve their ancient aspirated plosive values, while the unasipirated stops π, τ, κ have perhaps begun to develop voiced allophones after nasals. Initial aspiration has also likely become an optional sound for many speakers of the popular variety. Monophthongization (including the initial stage in the fortition of the second element in the αυ / ευ diphthongs) and the loss of vowel - timing distinctions are carried through, but there is still a distinction between the four front vowels / e /, / e̝ /, / i /, and / y / (which is still rounded).
The following texts show differences from Attic Greek in all aspects -- grammar, morphology, vocabulary and can be inferred to show differences in phonology.
The following comments illustrate the phonological development within the period of Koine. The phonetic transcriptions are tentative, and are intended to illustrate two different stages in the reconstructed development, an early conservative variety still relatively close to Classical Attic, and a somewhat later, more progressive variety approaching Modern Greek in some respects.
The following excerpt, from a decree of the Roman Senate to the town of Thisbae in Boeotia in 170 BC, is rendered in a reconstructed pronunciation representing a hypothetical conservative variety of mainland Greek Koiné in the early Roman period. The transcription shows raising of η to / eː /, partial (pre-consonantal / word - final) raising of ῃ and ει to / iː /, retention of pitch accent, and retention of word - initial / h / (the rough breathing).
περὶ ὧν Θισ (β) εῖς λόγους ἐποιήσαντο περὶ τῶν καθ _̓ αὑ (τ) οὺς πραγμάτων, οἵτινες ἐν τῇ φιλίᾳ τῇ ἡμετέρᾳ ἐνέμειναν, ὅπως αὐτοῖς δοθῶσιν (ο) ἷς τὰ καθ _̓ αὑτοὺς πράγματα ἐξηγήσωνται, περὶ τούτου τοῦ πράγματος οὕτως ἔδοξεν ὅπως Κόιντος Μαίνιος στρατηγὸς τῶν ἐκ τῆς συνκλήτου (π) έντε ἀποτάξῃ οἳ ἂν αὐτῷ ἐκ τῶν δημοσίων πρα (γμ) άτων καὶ τῆς ἰδίας πίστεως φαίνωνται. (peri hoːn thizbîːs lóɡuːs epojéːsanto; peri toːn kath hautûːs praːɡmátoːn, hoítines en tiː philíaːi tiː heːmetéraːi enémiːnan, hópoːs autois dothôːsin hois ta kath hautùːs práːɡmata ekseːɡéːsoːntai, peri túːtuː tuː práːɡmatos húːtoːs édoksen; hópoːs ˈkwintos ˈmainios strateːɡòs toːn ek teːs syŋkléːtuː pénte apotáksiː, hoi an autoːi ek toːn deːmosíoːn praːɡmátoːn kai teːs idíaːs písteoːs phaínoːntai) Concerning those matters about which the citizens of Thisbae made representations. Concerning their own affairs: the following decision was taken concerning the proposal that those who remained true to our friendship should be given the facilities to conduct their own affairs; that our praetor / governor Quintus Maenius should delegate five members of the senate who seemed to him appropriate in the light of their public actions and individual good faith.
The following excerpt, the beginning of the Gospel of John, is rendered in a reconstructed pronunciation representing a progressive popular variety of Koiné in the early Christian era. Modernizing features include the loss of vowel length distinction, monophthongization, transition to stress accent, and raising of η to / i /. Also seen here are the bilabial fricative pronunciation of diphthongs αυ and ευ, loss of initial / h /, fricative values for β and γ, and partial post-nasal voicing of voiceless stops.
Ἐν ἀρχῇ ἦν ὁ λόγος, καὶ ὁ λόγος ἦν πρὸς τὸν θεόν, καὶ θεὸς ἦν ὁ λόγος. οὗτος ἦν ἐν ἀρχῇ πρὸς τὸν θεόν. πάντα δι _̓ αὐτοῦ ἐγένετο, καὶ χωρὶς αὐτοῦ ἐγένετο οὐδὲ ἕν ὃ γέγονεν. ἐν αὐτῷ ζωὴ ἦν, καὶ ἡ ζωὴ ἦν τὸ φῶς τῶν ἀνθρώπων. καὶ τὸ φῶς ἐν τῇ σκοτίᾳ φαίνει, καὶ ἡ σκοτία αὐτὸ οὐ κατέλαβεν. (ˈen arˈkhi in o ˈloɣos, ke o ˈloɣos im bros to (n) theˈo (n), ke theˈos in o ˈloɣos. ˈutos in en arˈkhi pros to (n) theˈo (n). ˈpanda di aɸˈtu eˈjeneto, ke khoˈris aɸˈtu eˈjeneto ude ˈen o ˈjeɣonen. en aɸˈto zoˈi in, ke i zoˈi in to phos ton anˈthropon; ke to phos en di skoˈtia ˈpheni, ke i skoˈti (a) a (ɸ) ˈto u kaˈtelaβen) In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God. He was in the beginning with God. All things were made by him; and without him was not anything made that was made. In him was life, and the life was the light of men. And the light shines in darkness; and the darkness comprehended it not.
Proto - Greek
Mycenaean
Ancient
Koine
Medieval
Modern
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tora tora tora the attack on pearl harbor | Tora! Tora! Tora! - Wikipedia
Tora! Tora! Tora! (Japanese: トラ ・ トラ ・ トラ) is a 1970 Japanese - American biographical war drama film that dramatizes the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941. The film was directed by Richard Fleischer, Toshio Masuda and Kinji Fukasaku and stars an ensemble cast, including Martin Balsam, Joseph Cotten, Sō Yamamura, E.G. Marshall, James Whitmore, and Jason Robards.
The tora of the title is the two - syllable Japanese codeword used to indicate that complete surprise had been achieved. Japanese being a language with many homophones, it is a coincidence that tora also means "tiger '' (虎).
In August 1939, a trade embargo imposed by the United States is depriving a belligerent Japan of raw materials. Influential army figures and politicians push through an alliance with Germany and Italy in September 1940 and make preparations for war. The newly appointed Commander - in - Chief of the Combined Fleet Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto reluctantly orders the planning of a pre-emptive strike on the U.S. Pacific Fleet anchored at Pearl Harbor, believing that Japan 's best hope of achieving control of the Pacific Ocean is to annihilate the fleet at the outset of hostilities. Air Staff Officer Minoru Genda is chosen to mastermind the operation while his old Naval Academy classmate Mitsuo Fuchida is selected to lead the attack.
Meanwhile, in Washington, American military intelligence has managed to break the Japanese Purple Code, allowing the Americans to intercept secret Japanese radio transmissions indicating increased Japanese naval activity. Monitoring the transmissions are U.S. Army Col. Bratton and U.S. Navy Lt. Commander Kramer. At Pearl Harbor itself, Admiral Kimmel and General Short do their best to enhance defenses which include increasing naval patrols around Hawaii and calling for Boeing B - 17 Flying Fortress bombers to patrol offshore to provide early warning of any enemy presence. Short recommends parking all aircraft at the base on the runways and not dispersed around the edges of the airfield to avoid sabotage by enemy agents.
Several months pass with diplomatic tensions continuing to escalate between the U.S. and Japan. As the Japanese ambassador continues negotiations to stall for time, the Japanese fleet sorties into the Pacific and soon is in position to begin the assault. On the day of the attack, Bratton and Kramer learn from intercepts that the Japanese plan to commence a series of 14 radio messages from Tokyo to the Japanese embassy in Washington with an instruction to destroy their code machines after receiving the final message. Deducing that this indicates that the Japanese plan to launch a surprise attack on American forces after the messages are delivered, Bratton attempts to warn his superiors of his suspicions but encounters several obstacles -- Chief of Naval Operations Harold R. Stark is indecisive over notifying Hawaii without first alerting the President while Army Chief of Staff General George Marshall 's order that Pearl Harbor be alerted of an impending attack is stymied by poor atmospherics that prevent radio transmission and bungling when a warning sent by telegram is not marked urgent.
At dawn on December 7, the Japanese fleet launches its aircraft. Their approach to Hawaii is detected by two radar operators but their concerns are dismissed as the duty officer receiving their alert assumes it is a group of American B - 17 Flying Fortresses inbound from the mainland scheduled to land later that day. As a result, the Japanese achieve complete surprise and a joyous commander Fuchida, riding in a Nakajima B5N "Kate '', sends the code to begin the attack: "Tora! Tora! Tora! '' Meeting no opposition, the Japanese planes savage Pearl Harbor with a series of attacks. General Short 's anti-sabotage precautions prove a disastrous mistake that allows the Japanese aerial forces to destroy the U.S. aircraft on the ground with ease, thereby preventing an effective aerial counter-attack. The damage to the naval base is catastrophic with the Americans suffering severe casualties. Seven battleships are either sunk or heavily damaged. Hours after the attack is over, General Short and Admiral Kimmel finally receive Marshall 's telegram warning of impending danger.
In Washington, the Secretary of State Cordell Hull is stunned on learning of the attack and urgently requests confirmation before receiving the Japanese ambassador. The message that was transmitted to the Japanese embassy in 14 parts -- a declaration of war -- was meant to be delivered to the Americans at 1: 00 pm, 30 minutes before the attack. However, it was not decoded and transcribed in time, with the result that the attack took place while the two nations were technically still at peace. The distraught Japanese ambassador, helpless to explain the late ultimatum and unaware of the ongoing attack, is bluntly rebuffed by a despondent Hull.
Back in the Pacific, the Japanese fleet commander, Vice-Admiral Chūichi Nagumo, refuses to launch the scheduled third wave of aircraft for fear of exposing his force to American submarines which he believes are in the area. Aboard his flagship, Admiral Yamamoto solemnly informs his staff that their primary targets -- the American fleet 's aircraft carriers, which had been dispatched into the Pacific days previously to search for Japanese vessels -- were not at Pearl Harbor and thus escaped unscathed before lamenting the fact that the declaration of war was not received until after the attack began. Noting that nothing would infuriate the Americans more he concludes, "I fear all we have done is to awaken a sleeping giant and fill him with a terrible resolve. ''
The film was deliberately cast with actors who were not true box - office stars, in order to place the emphasis on the story rather than the actors who were in it. The original cast list had included many Japanese amateurs. Cast in credits order:
Veteran 20th Century Fox executive Darryl F. Zanuck, who had earlier produced The Longest Day (1962), wanted to create an epic that depicted what "really happened on December 7, 1941 '', with a "revisionist 's approach ''. He believed that the commanders in Hawaii, General Short and Admiral Kimmel, though scapegoated for decades, provided adequate defensive measures for the apparent threats, including relocation of the fighter aircraft at Pearl Harbor to the middle of the base, in response to fears of sabotage from local Japanese. Despite a breakthrough in intelligence, they had received limited warning of the increasing risk of aerial attack. Recognizing that a balanced and objective recounting was necessary, Zanuck developed an American - Japanese co-production, allowing for "a point of view from both nations ''. He was helped out by his son, Richard D. Zanuck, who was chief executive at Fox during this time.
Production on Tora! Tora! Tora! took three years to plan and prepare for the eight months of principal photography. The film was created in two separate productions, one based in the United States, directed by Richard Fleischer, and one based in Japan. The Japanese side was initially to be directed by Akira Kurosawa, who worked on script development and pre-production for two years. But after two weeks of shooting, he was replaced by Toshio Masuda and Kinji Fukasaku, who directed the Japanese sections.
Richard Fleischer said of Akira Kurosawa 's role in the project:
Well, I always thought that even though Kurosawa was a genius at film making and indeed he was, I sincerely believe that he was miscast for this film, this was not his type of film to make, he never made anything like it and it just was n't his style. I felt he was not only uncomfortable directing this kind of movie but also he was n't used to having somebody tell him how he should make his film. He always had complete autonomy, and nobody would dare make a suggestion to Kurosawa about the budget, or shooting schedule, or anything like that. And then here he was, with Darryl Zanuck on his back and Richard Zanuck on him and Elmo Williams and the production managers, and it was all stuff that he never had run into before, because he was always untouchable. I think he was getting more and more nervous and more insecure about how he was going to work on this film. And of course, the press got a hold of a lot of this unrest on the set and they made a lot out of that in Japan, and it was more pressure on him, and he was n't used to that kind of pressure.
Larry Forrester and frequent Kurosawa collaborators Hideo Oguni and Ryūzō Kikushima wrote the screenplay, based on books written by Ladislas Farago and Gordon Prange of the University of Maryland, who served as a technical consultant. Numerous technical advisors on both sides, some of whom had participated in the battle and / or planning, were crucial in maintaining the accuracy of the film. Minoru Genda, the man who largely planned and led the attack on Pearl Harbor was an uncredited technical advisor for the film.
Four cinematographers were involved in the main photography: Charles F. Wheeler, Sinsaku Himeda, Masamichi Satoh, and Osami Furuya. They were jointly nominated for the Academy Award for Best Cinematography. A number of well - known cameramen also worked on the second units without credit, including Thomas Del Ruth and Rexford Metz. The second unit doing miniature photography was directed by Ray Kellogg, while the second unit doing aerial sequences was directed by Robert Enrietto.
Noted composer Jerry Goldsmith composed the film score and Robert McCall painted several scenes for various posters of the film.
The carrier entering Pearl Harbor towards the end of the film was in fact the Iwo Jima - class amphibious assault ship USS Tripoli, returning to port. The "Japanese '' aircraft carrier was the anti-submarine carrier USS Yorktown. The Japanese A6M Zero fighters, and somewhat longer "Kate '' torpedo bombers or "Val '' dive bombers were heavily modified Royal Canadian Air Force Harvard (T - 6 Texan) and BT - 13 Valiant pilot training aircraft. The large fleet of Japanese aircraft was created by Lynn Garrison, a well - known aerial action coordinator, who produced a number of conversions. Garrison and Jack Canary coordinated the actual engineering work at facilities in the Los Angeles area. These aircraft still make appearances at air shows.
In preparation for filming, Yorktown was berthed at North Island in San Diego to load all the aircraft, maintenance, and film crew prior to sailing to Hawaii. The night before filming the "Japanese '' take - off scenes she sailed to a spot a few miles west of San Diego and at dawn the film crew filmed the launches of all the aircraft. Since these "Japanese '' aircraft were not actual carrier based aircraft they did not have arresting gear with which to land back on the carrier, and continued on to land at North Island Naval Air Station. Yorktown sailed back to North Island and re-loaded the aircraft. She then sailed to Hawaii and the aircraft were off - loaded and used to film the attack scenes in and around Pearl Harbor. Aircraft Specialties of Mesa, Arizona performed maintenance on the aircraft while in Hawaii.
A Boeing B - 17 Flying Fortress 's actual crash landing during filming, a result of a jammed landing gear, was filmed and used in the final cut. The film crew received word that one of the B - 17s could not lower their starboard landing gear so they quickly set up to film the "single gear '' landing. The aircraft stayed aloft to use up as much fuel as possible, which gave the film crew some time to prepare, prior to landing. After viewing the "single gear '' landing footage they decided to include it in the movie. In the sequence depicting the crash, only the final crash was actual footage. For the scenes leading up to the crash they manually retracted the starboard landing gear on a functioning B - 17 and filmed the scenes of its final approach. After touching down on one wheel the pilot simply applied power and took off again. In the movie, all the approach footage was of this aircraft, and then, right at the moment of touchdown, they switch to the actual crash footage. The quality of the crash footage, brief as it is, is noticeably below the final approach footage for which the necessary production time was available. The B - 17 that actually landed with one gear up sustained only minor damage to the starboard wing and propellers and was repaired and returned to service. A total of five Boeing B - 17s were obtained for filming. Other U.S. aircraft used are the Consolidated PBY Catalina and, especially, the Curtiss P - 40 Warhawk (two flyable examples were used). Predominantly, P - 40 fighter aircraft are used to depict the U.S. defenders with a full - scale P - 40 used as a template for fiberglass replicas (some with working engines and props) that were strafed and blown up during filming. Fleischer also said a scene involving a P - 40 model crashing into the middle of a line of P - 40s was unintended, as it was supposed to crash at the end of the line. The stuntmen involved in the scene were actually running for their lives.
With over 30 aircraft in the air, the flying scenes were complex to shoot, and can be compared to the 1969 film Battle of Britain where large formations of period specific aircraft were filmed in staged aerial battles. The 2001 film Pearl Harbor would use some of the same modified aircraft.
Parts of the film showing the takeoff of the Japanese aircraft utilize an Essex - class aircraft carrier, Yorktown, which was commissioned in 1943 and modernized after the war to have a very slightly angled flight deck. The ship was leased by the film producers, who needed an aircraft carrier for the film; and as Yorktown was scheduled to be decommissioned in 1970 the Navy made her available. She was used largely in the takeoff sequence of the Japanese attack aircraft. The sequence shows interchanging shots of models of the Japanese aircraft carriers and Yorktown. It does not look like any of the Japanese carriers involved in the attack, due to its large bridge island and its angled landing deck. The Japanese carriers had small bridge islands, and angled flight decks were not developed until after the war. In addition, during the scene in which Admiral Halsey is watching bombing practice an aircraft carrier with the hull number 14 is shown. Admiral Halsey was on USS Enterprise, not the Essex - class carrier USS Ticonderoga, which would not be commissioned until 1944. This is understandable, however, as both Enterprise and all six of the Japanese carriers from the attack had been scrapped and sunk, respectively. Enterprise was scrapped in 1959, and four of the six, including Akagi, were sunk within six months of the attack at the Battle of Midway.
In Tora! Tora! Tora!, an error involves the model of Japanese aircraft carrier Akagi. In the film, Akagi 's bridge island is positioned on the starboard side of the ship, which is typical on most aircraft carriers. However, the aircraft carrier Akagi was an exception; its bridge island was on the port side of the ship. Despite this, the bridge section appeared accurately as a mirrored version of Akagi 's real port - side bridge. Secondly, all the Japanese aircraft in the footage bear the markings of Akagi 's aircraft (a single vertical red stripe following the red sun symbol of Japan), even though five other aircraft carriers participated, each having its own markings. In addition, the markings do not display the aircraft 's identification numbers as was the case in the actual battle. The white surround on the roundel on the Japanese aircraft was only used from 1942 onwards. Prior to this the roundel was red only.
USS Ward (DD - 139) was an old "4 - piper '' destroyer commissioned in 1918; the ship used in the movie, USS Finch (DE-326), which portrays Ward looked far different from the original destroyer. In addition, in the movie she fired two shots from her # 1 gun turret. In reality, Ward fired the first shot from the # 1 4 - inch (102 mm) un-turreted gunmount and the second shot from the # 3 wing mount.
A stern section of USS Nevada was built that was also used to portray USS Arizona and other U.S. battleships. The lattice mast (or cage mast) section of the Tennessee - class / Maryland - class battleship was built beside the set of the USS Nevada stern section, but not built upon a set of a deck, but on the ground as the footage in the movie only showed the cage mast tower. The large scale model of the stern shows the two aft gun turrets with three gun barrels in each; in reality, Nevada had two heightened fore and aft turrets with two barrels each while the lower two turrets fore and aft had three barrels each. Another model of Nevada, used in the film to portray the whole ship, displays the turrets accurately. It should be noted that the reason for this anomaly is because the aft section model was used in the film to portray both USS Nevada and USS Arizona. The ships looked remarkably similar except that Arizona had four triple turrets and a slightly different stern section. Footage and photographs not used in the film show the cage mast as being built on the ground. The USS Nevada / USS Arizona stern section was shown exploding to represent the explosion that destroyed Arizona, although in reality the explosion took place in # 2 magazine, forward, and Arizona 's stern section remains essentially intact to this day.
The film has a Japanese Zero fighter being damaged over a naval base and then deliberately crashing into a naval base hangar. This is actually a composite of three incidents at Pearl Harbor attack: in the first wave, a Japanese Zero crashed into Fort Kamehameha 's ordnance building; in the second wave, a Japanese Zero did deliberately crash into a hillside after U.S. Navy CPO John William Finn at Naval Air Station at Kāneʻohe Bay had shot and damaged the aircraft; also during the second wave, a Japanese aircraft that was damaged crashed into the seaplane tender USS Curtiss.
During a number of shots of the attack squadrons traversing across Oahu, a white cross can be seen standing on one of the mountainsides. The cross was actually erected after the attack as a memorial to the victims of the attack.
At the time of its initial movie release, Tora! Tora! Tora! was thought to be a box office flop in North America, although its domestic box office of $29,548,291 made it the ninth highest - grossing film of 1970. It was a major hit in Japan and over the years, home media releases provided a larger overall profit.
Roger Ebert felt that Tora! Tora! Tora! was "one of the deadest, dullest blockbusters ever made '' and suffered from not having "some characters to identify with. '' In addition, he criticized the film for poor acting and special effects in his 1970 review. Vincent Canby, reviewer for The New York Times, was similarly unimpressed, noting the film was "nothing less than a $25 - million irrelevancy. '' Variety also found the film to be boring; however, the magazine praised the film 's action sequences and production values. James Berardinelli, however, said it was "rare for a feature film to attain the trifecta of entertaining, informing, and educating. '' Charles Champlin in his review for the Los Angeles Times on September 23, 1970, considered the movie 's chief virtues as a "spectacular '', and the careful recreation of a historical event.
Despite the initial negative reviews, the film was critically acclaimed for its vivid action scenes, and found favor with aviation and history aficionados. However, even the team of Jack Hardwick and Ed Schnepf who have been involved in research on aviation films, had relegated Tora! Tora! Tora! to the "also - ran '' status, due to its slow - moving plotline. The film holds a 57 % "Rotten '' rating on the review aggregate website Rotten Tomatoes, based on 28 critical reviews. In 1994, a survey at the USS Arizona Memorial in Honolulu determined that for Americans the film was the most common source of popular knowledge about the Pearl Harbor attack.
Several later films and TV series relating to World War II in the Pacific have used footage from Tora! Tora! Tora!. These productions include the films Midway (1976; in the Tora! Tora! Tora! DVD commentary, Fleischer is angry that Universal used the footage), All This and World War II (film 1976), Pearl (TV mini-series 1978), From Here to Eternity (TV mini-series 1979), The Final Countdown (1980), and Australia (2008) as well as the Magnum, P.I. television series episode titled "Lest We Forget '' (first airdate February 12, 1981).
Tora! Tora! Tora! was nominated for five Academy Awards, winning one for Visual Effects.
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types of seaweed in the gulf of mexico | Sargassum - wikipedia
Sargassum is a genus of brown (class Phaeophyceae) macroalgae (seaweed) in the order Fucales. Numerous species are distributed throughout the temperate and tropical oceans of the world, where they generally inhabit shallow water and coral reefs, and the genus is widely known for its planktonic (free - floating) species. Most species within the class Phaeophyceae are predominantly cold - water organisms that benefit from nutrients upwelling, but the genus Sargassum appears to be an exception. Any number of the normally benthic species may take on a planktonic, often pelagic existence after being removed from reefs during rough weather; however, two species (S. natans and S. fluitans) have become holopelagic -- reproducing vegetatively and never attaching to the seafloor during their lifecycles. The Atlantic Ocean 's Sargasso Sea was named after the algae, as it hosts a large amount of Sargassum.
Sargassum was named by the Portuguese sailors who found it in the Sargasso Sea after the wooly rock rose (Halimium lasianthum) that grew in their water wells at home, and that was called sargaço in Portuguese (Portuguese pronunciation: (sɐɾˈɣasu)).
The Florida Keys and its smaller islands are well known for their high levels of Sargassum covering their shores. Gulfweed was observed by Columbus. Although it was formerly thought to cover the entirety of the Sargasso Sea, making navigation impossible, it has since been found to occur only in drifts.
Sargassum species ares also cultivated and cleaned for use as an herbal remedy. Many Chinese herbalists prescribe powdered Sargassum -- either the species S. pallidum, or more rarely, hijiki, S. fusiforme -- in doses of 0.5 gram dissolved in warm water and drunk as a tea. It is called 海藻; hǎizǎo in traditional Chinese medicine, where it is used to resolve "heat phlegm ''.
Species of this genus of algae may grow to a length of several metres. They are generally brown or dark green in color and consist of a holdfast, a stipe, and a frond. Oogonia and antheridia occur in conceptacles embedded in receptacles on special branches. Some species have berrylike gas - filled bladders that help the fronds float to promote photosynthesis. Many have a rough, sticky texture that, along with a robust but flexible body, helps it withstand strong water currents.
Large, pelagic mats of Sargassum in the Sargasso Sea act as one of the only habitats available for ecosystem development; this is because the Sargasso Sea lacks any land boundaries. The Sargassum patches act as a refuge for many species in different parts of their development, but also as a permanent residence for endemic species that can only be found living on and within the Sargassum. These endemic organisms have specialized patterns and colorations that mimic the Sargassum and allow them to be impressively camouflaged in their environment. In total, these Sargassum mats are home to more than 11 phyla and over 100 different species. There is also a total of 81 fish species (36 families represented) that reside in the Sargassum or utilize it for parts of their life cycles. Other marine organisms, such as young sea turtles, will use the Sargassum as shelter and a resource for food until they reach a size at which they can survive elsewhere. This community is being affected by humans due to overfishing, trash and other types of pollution, and boat traffic, which could eventually lead to the demise of this diverse and unique habitat. Below is a list of organisms that are associated with the Sargassum in the Sargasso Sea.
Organisms found in the pelagic Sargassum patches,,
Sargassum is commonly found in the beach drift near Sargassum beds, where they are also known as gulfweed, a term that also can mean all seaweed species washed up on shore.
Sargassum species are found throughout tropical areas of the world and are often the most obvious macrophyte in near - shore areas where Sargassum beds often occur near coral reefs. The plants grow subtidally and attach to coral, rocks, or shells in moderately exposed or sheltered rocky or pebble areas. These tropical populations often undergo seasonal cycles of growth and decay in concert with seasonal changes in sea temperature. In tropical Sargassum species that are often preferentially consumed by herbivorous fishes and echinoids, a relatively low level of phenolics and tannins occurs.
Sargassum muticum is a large brown seaweed of the class Phaeophyceae. It grows attached to rocks by a perennial holdfast up to 5 cm in diameter. From this holdfast the main axis grows to a maximum of 5 cm high. The leaf - like laminae and primary lateral branches grow from this stipe. In warm waters, it can grow to 12 m long, however in British waters it gives rise to a single main axis with secondary and tertiary branches that the plant sheds annually. Numerous small 2 -- 6 mm stalked air vesicles provide buoyancy. The reproductive receptacles are also stalked, and develop in the axils of leafy laminae. It is self - fertile.
The Gulf has the second largest concentration of sargassum of any body of water in the world. A fair amount of it washes out through the Straits of Florida in the Gulf Stream and ends up in the Sargasso Sea in the Atlantic Ocean off the East Coast of the United States.
We rounded Hatteras in fair weather, and saw the line between the brilliant blue Gulf Stream full of gulf weed and the muddy grayish shore water as clearly defined as that between the sidewalk and the roadway in a street.
In summer 2015, large quantities of different species of Sargassum accumulated along the shores of many of the countries on the Caribbean Sea. Some of the affected islands and regions include the Caribbean coast of Mexico, the Dominican Republic, Barbados, and Tobago. Another large outbreak occurred in 2018.
The algae wash ashore, pile up on beaches, and decay, often causing a foul odor, releasing fumes of sulphur compounds that rust metals, can turn taps black in shore houses, damage modern conveniences, and cause respiratory problems, particularly for asthmatics. A doctor in Guadeloupe recorded 52 patients as having Sargassum - related symptoms. Insurance problems arise for tourist operators and homeowners, where the household and business losses do not fall into previous insurance categories. Wildlife also suffer; for example, sea turtle hatchlings die on their way to open water. The affected countries and territories are discussing causes of the outbreak, potential solutions, and the negative effects on tourism.
One method of cleaning is by spade and barrow onshore, and it can be collected by raking boats offshore. Barrages of shallow nets floated by long buoys can be used to ward off algae drifts, depending on wave height and current. On the Caribbean island of Saint Martin, backhoes are also used in the process of clean up once the Sargassum weed reaches the shorelines.
Researchers say that the Sargassum outbreak started in 2011, but it has become worse over the years. As it is cleaned up on the shorelines, in a matter of a week, the shorelines are once again filled in masses. It is still a recurring problem to this date. Several factors could explain the proliferation of Sargassum in the area in recent years. These include the rise of sea temperature and the change of sea currents due to climate change. Also, nutriments from agricultural fertilizers and wastewater from the cities that end up in the sea could also make the algae bloom.
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what is the level area of a desert basin | Great Basin - wikipedia
The Great Basin is the largest area of contiguous endorheic watersheds in North America. It spans sections of Wyoming, Idaho, Utah, Nevada, Oregon, California and the Mexican state of Baja California. It is noted for both its arid climate and the basin and range topography that varies from the North American low point at Badwater Basin to the highest point of the contiguous United States, less than 100 miles (160 km) away at the summit of Mount Whitney. The region spans several physiographic divisions, biomes / ecoregions, and deserts.
The term "Great Basin '' is applied to hydrographic, biological, floristic, physiographic, topographic, and ethnographic geographic areas. The name was originally coined by John C. Fremont, who, based on information gleaned from Joseph R. Walker as well as his own travels, recognized the hydrographic nature of the landform as "having no connection to the ocean ''. The hydrographic definition is the most commonly used, and is the only one with a definitive border. The other definitions yield not only different geographical boundaries of "Great Basin '' regions, but regional borders that vary from source to source.
The Great Basin Desert is defined by plant and animal communities, and, according to the National Park Service, its boundaries approximate the hydrographic Great Basin, but exclude the southern "panhandle ''.
The Great Basin Floristic Province was defined by botanist Armen Takhtajan to extend well beyond the boundaries of the hydrographically defined Great Basin: it includes the Snake River Plain, the Colorado Plateau, the Uinta Basin, and parts of Arizona north of the Mogollon Rim.
The Great Basin physiographic section is a geographic division of the Basin and Range Province defined by Nevin Fenneman in 1931. The United States Geological Survey adapted Fenneman 's scheme in their Physiographic division of the United States. The "section '' is somewhat larger than the hydrographic definition.
The Great Basin Culture Area or indigenous peoples of the Great Basin is a cultural classification of indigenous peoples of the Americas and a cultural region located between the Rocky Mountains and the Sierra Nevada. The culture area covers approximately 400,000 sq mi (1,000,000 km), or just less than twice the area of the hydrographic Great Basin.
The hydrographic Great Basin is a 209,162 - square - mile (541,730 km) area that drains internally. All precipitation in the region evaporates, sinks underground or flows into lakes (mostly saline). As observed by Fremont, creeks, streams, or rivers find no outlet to either the Gulf of Mexico or the Pacific Ocean. The region is bounded by the Wasatch Mountains to the east, the Sierra Nevada and Cascade Ranges to the west, and the Snake River Basin to the north. The south rim is less distinct. The Great Basin includes most of Nevada, half of Utah, substantial portions of Oregon and California and small areas of Idaho, Wyoming, and Mexico. The term "Great Basin '' is slightly misleading; the region is actually made up of many small basins. The Great Salt Lake, Pyramid Lake, and the Humboldt Sink are a few of the "drains '' in the Great Basin. The Salton Sink is another closed basin within the Great Basin.
The Great Basin Divide separates the Great Basin from the watersheds draining to the Pacific Ocean. The southernmost portion of the Great Basin is the watershed area of the Laguna Salada. The Great Basin 's longest and largest river is the Bear River of 350 mi (560 km), and the largest single watershed is the Humboldt River drainage of roughly 17,000 sq mi (44,000 km). Most Great Basin precipitation is snow, and the precipitation that neither evaporates nor is extracted for human use will sink into groundwater aquifers, while evaporation of collected water occurs from geographic sinks. Lake Tahoe, North America 's largest alpine lake, is part of the Great Basin 's central Lahontan subregion.
The hydrographic Great Basin contains multiple deserts and ecoregions, each with its own distinctive set of flora and fauna. The ecological boundaries and divisions in the Great Basin are unclear.
The Great Basin overlaps four different deserts: portions of the hot Mojave and Colorado (a region within the Sonoran desert) Deserts to the south, and the cold Great Basin and Oregon High Deserts in the north. The deserts can be distinguished by their plants: the Joshua tree and creosote bush occur in the hot deserts, while the cold deserts have neither. The cold deserts are generally higher than the hot, and have their precipitation spread throughout the year.
The climate and flora of the Great Basin is strongly dependent on elevation: as the elevation increases, the precipitation increases and temperature decreases. Because of this, forests occur at higher elevations. Utah juniper / single - leaf pinyon (southern regions) and mountain mahogany (northern regions) form open pinyon - juniper woodland on the slopes of most ranges. Stands of limber pine and Great Basin bristlecone pine (Pinus longaeva) can be found in some of the higher ranges. In riparian areas with dependable water cottonwoods (Populus fremontii) and quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides) groves exist.
Because the forest ecosystem is distinct from a typical desert, some authorities, such as the World Wildlife Fund, separate the mountains of the Great Basin desert into their own ecoregion: the Great Basin montane forests. Many rare and endemic species occur in this ecoregion, because the individual mountain ranges are isolated from each other. During the last ice age, the Great Basin was wetter. As it dried during the Holocene, some species retreated to the higher isolated mountains and have high genetic diversity
Other authorities divide the Great Basin into different ecoregions, depending on their own criteria. Armen Takhtajan defined the "Great Basin floristic province ''. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency divides the Great Basin into three ecoregions roughly according to latitude: the Northern Basin and Range ecoregion, the Central Basin and Range ecoregion, and the Mojave Basin and Range ecoregion.
Great Basin wildlife includes pronghorn, mule deer, mountain lion, and lagomorphs such as black - tailed jackrabbit and desert cottontail and the coyotes that prey on them. Packrats, kangaroo rats and other small rodents are also common, and are predominantly nocturnal. Elk and bighorn sheep are present but uncommon. Small lizards such as the Great Basin fence lizard, longnose leopard lizard and horned lizard are common, especially in lower elevations. Rattlesnakes and gopher snakes are also present. The Inyo Mountains salamander is endangered. Shorebirds such as phalaropes and curlews can be found in wet areas. American white pelicans are common at Pyramid Lake. Golden eagles are also very common in the Great Basin. Mourning dove, western meadowlark, black - billed magpie, and common raven are other common bird species.
Two endangered species of fish are found in Pyramid Lake: the Cui - ui sucker fish (endangered 1967) and the Lahontan cutthroat trout (threatened 1970).
Large invertebrates include tarantulas (Aphonopelma genus) and Mormon crickets. Exotic species, including chukar, grey partridge, and Himalayan snowcock, have been successfully introduced to the Great Basin, although the latter has only thrived in the Ruby Mountains. Cheatgrass, an invasive species which was unintentionally introduced, forms a critical portion of their diets. Feral horses (mustangs) and wild burros are highly reproductive, and ecosystem - controversial, alien species. Most of the Great Basin is open range and domestic cattle and sheep are widespread.
The Great Basin includes valleys, basins, lakes and mountain ranges of the Basin and Range Province. Geographic features near the Great Basin include the Continental Divide of the Americas, the Great Divide Basin, and the Gulf of California.
The Great Basin physiographic section of the Basin and Range Province contains the Great Basin, but extends into eastern Oregon, southern Idaho, and the Colorado River watershed (including the Las Vegas metropolitan area and the northwest corner of Arizona). The Basin and Range region is the product of geological forces stretching the earth 's crust, creating many north - south trending mountain ranges. These ranges are separated by flat valleys or basins. These hundreds of ranges make Nevada the most mountainous state in the country.
The Great Basin 's two most populous metropolitan areas are the Reno - Sparks metropolitan area to the west and Wasatch Front to the east. The region between these two areas is sparsely populated, but includes the smaller cities of Elko, Ely, Wendover, West Wendover, and Winnemucca. To the north are; in California Susanville, in Oregon Burns and Hines, in Idaho Malad and in Wyoming Evanston. To the south are Cedar City, Tonopah, and Bishop and the very southern area of the basin has the communities of Pahrump, Palmdale, Victorville, and Palm Springs. Interstate Highways traversing the Great Basin are Interstate 80 (I - 80) and I - 15, and I - 70 and I - 84 have their respective endpoints within its boundaries. Other major roadways are U.S. Route 6 (US 6), US 50, US 93, US 95 and US 395. The section of US 50 between Delta, Utah, and Fallon, Nevada, is nicknamed "The Loneliest Road in America '', and Nevada State Route 375 is designated the "Extraterrestrial Highway ''. The Great Basin is traversed by several rail lines including the Union Pacific Railroad 's Overland Route (Union Pacific Railroad) through Reno and Ogden, Feather River Route, Central Corridor and Los Angeles and Salt Lake Railroad.
Sediment build - up over thousands of years filled the down - faulted basins between ranges and created relatively flat lacustrine plains from Pleistocene lake beds of the Great Basin. For example, after forming about 32,000 years ago, Lake Bonneville overflowed about 14,500 years ago in the Bonneville Flood through Red Rock Pass and lowered to the "Provo Lake '' level (the Great Salt Lake, Utah Lake, Sevier Lake, Rush Lake, and Little Salt Lake remain). Lake Lahontan, Lake Manly, and Lake Mojave were similar Pleistocene lakes.
Paleo - Indian habitation by the Great Basin tribes began as early as 10,000 B.C. (the Numic - speaking Shoshonean peoples arrived as late as 1000 A.D.). Archaeological evidence of habitation sites along the shore of Lake Lahontan date from the end of the ice age when its shoreline was approximately 500 feet (150 m) higher along the sides of the surrounding mountains. The Great Basin was inhabited for at least several thousand years by Uto - Aztecan language group - speaking Native American Great Basin tribes, including the Shoshone, Ute, Mono, and Northern Paiute.
European exploration of the Great Basin occurred during the 18th century Spanish colonization of the Americas. The first immigrant American to cross the Great Basin from the Sierra Nevada was Jedediah Strong Smith in 1827. Peter Skene Ogden of the British Hudson 's Bay Company explored the Great Salt Lake and Humboldt River regions in the late 1820s, following the eastern side of the Sierra Nevada to the Gulf of California. Benjamin Bonneville explored the northeast portion during an 1832 expedition. The United States had acquired control of the area north of the 42nd parallel via the 1819 Adams -- Onís Treaty with Spain and 1846 Oregon Treaty with Britain. The US gained control of most of the rest of the Great Basin via the 1848 Mexican Cession. The first non-indigenous settlement was in 1847 in the Great Salt Lake Valley, leading to first American religious settlement effort of the Mormon provisional State of Deseret in 1849 in present - day Utah and northern Nevada. Later settlements were connected with the eastern regions of the 1848 California Gold Rush, with its immigrants crossing the Great Basin on the California Trail along Nevada 's Humboldt River to Carson Pass in the Sierras. The Oregon Territory was established in 1848 and the Utah Territory in 1850.
In 1869 the First Transcontinental Railroad was completed at Promontory Summit in the Great Basin. Around 1902, the San Pedro, Los Angeles and Salt Lake Railroad was constructed in the lower basin and Mojave Desert for California - Nevada rail service to Las Vegas, Nevada.
To close a 1951 Indian Claims Commission case, the Western Shoshone Claims Distribution Act of 2004 established the United States payment of $117 million to the Great Basin tribe for the acquisition of 39,000 square miles (100,000 km).
The Dixie Valley, Nevada, earthquake (6.6 -- 7.1) in the Great Basin was in 1954.
Climate varies throughout the Great Basin by elevation, latitude, and other factors. Higher elevations tend to be cooler and receive more precipitation. The western areas of the basin tend to be drier than the eastern areas because of the rain shadow of the Sierra Nevada. Most of the basin experiences a semi-arid or arid climate with warm summers and cold winters. However, some of the mountainous areas in the basin are high enough in elevation to experience an Alpine climate. Due to the region 's altitude and aridity, most areas in the Great Basin experience a substantial Diurnal temperature variation.
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who did the flowers for the royal wedding | Wedding of Prince William and Catherine Middleton - wikipedia
The wedding of Prince William and Catherine Middleton took place on 29 April 2011 at Westminster Abbey in London, United Kingdom. The groom, Prince William, is second in the line of succession to the British throne. The bride, Catherine "Kate '' Middleton, had been his girlfriend since 2003.
The Dean of Westminster, John Hall, presided at the service; the Archbishop of Canterbury, Rowan Williams, conducted the marriage; Richard Chartres, the Bishop of London, preached the sermon; and a reading was given by the bride 's brother, James. William 's best man was his brother, Prince Harry, while the bride 's sister, Pippa, was maid of honour. The ceremony was attended by the bride 's and groom 's families, as well as members of foreign royal dynasties, diplomats, and the couple 's chosen personal guests. After the ceremony, the couple made the traditional appearance on the balcony of Buckingham Palace. As Prince William was not the heir apparent to the throne, the wedding was not a full state occasion and many details were left to the couple to decide, such as much of the guest list of about 1,900.
Prince William and Kate Middleton met in 2001. Their engagement on 20 October 2010 was announced on 16 November 2010. The build - up to the wedding and the occasion itself attracted much media attention, being compared in many ways with the 1981 marriage of William 's parents. The occasion was a public holiday in the United Kingdom and featured many ceremonial aspects, including use of the state carriages and roles for the Foot Guards and Household Cavalry. Events were held around the Commonwealth to mark the wedding; organisations and hotels held events across Canada, over 5,000 street parties were held throughout the United Kingdom, and one million people lined the route between Westminster Abbey and Buckingham Palace. The ceremony was viewed live by tens of millions more around the world, including 72 million live streams on YouTube. In the United Kingdom, television audiences peaked at 26.3 million viewers, with a total of 36.7 million watching part of the coverage.
In 2001, Middleton and Prince William met while studying at the University of St Andrews. They began dating in 2003.
On 16 November 2010, Clarence House stated that Prince William was to marry Catherine Middleton "in the Spring or Summer of 2011, in London ''. They were engaged in October 2010, while on a private holiday in Kenya; Prince William gave Middleton the same engagement ring that his father had given to William 's mother, Diana, Princess of Wales -- an 18 - karat white gold ring with a 12 - carat oval Ceylon (Sri Lankan) sapphire and 14 round diamonds. It was announced at approximately the same time that, after their marriage, the couple would live on the Isle of Anglesey in Wales, where Prince William was based with the Royal Air Force.
The Prince of Wales said he was "thrilled... they have been practising long enough '', and the Queen said she was "absolutely delighted '' for the couple, giving her formal consent to the marriage, as required by the Royal Marriages Act 1772, in her British privy council on the morning of the engagement. Congratulations also came in from the Queen 's prime ministers, including Prime Minister of Australia Julia Gillard, who has at other times demonstrated moderate republican leanings. The suffragan Bishop of Willesden, Pete Broadbent, who also has republican views, published a critical reaction to the wedding announcement on Facebook. He later acknowledged that his words were "offensive '' and subsequently apologised, but his superior, Richard Chartres, Bishop of London, instructed him to withdraw from public ministry "until further notice ''.
Following the announcement, the couple gave an exclusive interview to ITV News political editor Tom Bradby and hosted a photocall at St James 's Palace. On 12 December 2010, Buckingham Palace issued the official engagement photographs; these were taken on 25 November, in the state apartments at St. James 's Palace, by photographer Mario Testino.
On 23 November 2010, the date of the ceremony was confirmed as Friday 29 April 2011. The Queen in her British Council ordered on 15 December 2010 that the wedding day would be a public holiday throughout the United Kingdom. It was also declared an official public holiday in the British Overseas Territories of Bermuda, the Cayman Islands, Gibraltar, the Falkland Islands, Montserrat, and the Turks and Caicos, and the British Crown Dependencies of Guernsey, Jersey, and the Isle of Man. As 29 April fell six days before elections for the Scottish Parliament and the Alternative Vote referendum, this attracted political comment. John Curtice, a professor of politics at the University of Strathclyde, stated for the Scottish elections that the date was "unfortunate '' and was "likely to see the Royal Family getting caught up in political debate ''.
On 5 January, St James 's Palace publicised that the ceremony would start at 11: 00 local time and that the bride would arrive at the abbey by car rather than by carriage (the latter is the traditional transport for royal brides). The route planned was along The Mall, through Horse Guards Parade, and down Whitehall to the abbey. Beforehand, motorists were warned about using the roads in central London on the wedding day, including by Transport for London, which issued travel advice on road closures.
The costs of the wedding itself were borne by the Royal Family and the Middletons themselves, while the costs of security and transport were covered by Her Majesty 's British treasury. The couple also asked that donations be made to charities in place of traditional wedding gifts; to that end, they established The Prince William and Miss Catherine Middleton Charitable Gift Fund, which focuses on assisting charities such as the New Zealand Christchurch earthquake Appeal, the Canadian Coast Guard Auxiliary, the Royal Flying Doctor Service, and the Zoological Society of London.
The overall price of the event was reportedly £ 20 million. The Australian newspaper Herald Sun estimated A $ 32 million for security and A $800,000 for flowers. Estimates of the cost to the economy of extra public holidays, such as that allowed for the wedding, vary between £ 1.2 billion and £ 6 billion. The British government tourist authority VisitBritain predicted the wedding would trigger a tourism boom that would last several years, eventually pulling in an additional 4 million visitors and generating £ 2 billion. However, VisitBritain 's head of research and forecasting, David Edwards, suggested to colleagues two days after the engagement was announced that the evidence points to royal weddings having a negative impact on inbound tourism. He noted that the number of visitors to Britain was down significantly in July 1981, when Prince Charles and Diana were married, from the same period in other years, and also July 1986, when Prince Andrew and Sarah Ferguson were married, was down from July 1985.
On 16 and 17 February, three sets of guest lists were sent out in the name of the Queen. As the wedding was not a state occasion, many guests (or their successors in office) who were invited to the wedding of Charles, Prince of Wales, and Lady Diana Spencer were not invited to William 's wedding. The first list, consisting of about 1,900 people, attended the ceremony in the abbey; the second list of approximately 600 people were invited to the luncheon reception at Buckingham Palace, hosted by the Queen; and the final list, of about 300 names, was for the evening dinner hosted by the Prince of Wales.
More than half of the guests to attend the wedding itself were family and friends of the couple, though there was a significant number of Commonwealth leaders (including the governors - general who represent the Queen in Commonwealth realms other than the UK, prime ministers of the Commonwealth realms, and heads of government of other Commonwealth countries), members of religious organisations, the diplomatic corps, several military officials, members of the British Royal Household, members of foreign royal families, and representatives of William 's charities and others with whom William has worked on official business. Although St James 's Palace declined to publish the names of those invited, a breakdown of guests was published by category; the list made no mention of foreign heads of state. The invitation of Seán Cardinal Brady, Primate of All Ireland, to the event, and its acceptance, were described as "unprecedented '' by a spokesman for Ireland 's Catholic bishops. The spokesman attributed the invitation to Cardinal Brady 's contribution to the Northern Ireland peace process.
The route of the groom and his party to the ceremony went between Buckingham Palace and Westminster Abbey, by The Mall, passing Clarence House, by Horse Guards Road, Horse Guards Parade, through Horse Guards Arch, Whitehall, the south side of Parliament Square, and Broad Sanctuary. After the ceremony, the bridal couple returned along the same route by carriage.
At 6.00 am, roads in and around the processional route were closed to traffic. From 8.15 am, the main congregation, governors - general, prime ministers of Commonwealth realms, and diplomats all arrived at the abbey. Princes William and Harry then left Clarence House at 10.10 am in a Bentley State Limousine and arrived at 10.18 am, followed by representatives of foreign royal families, the Middleton family, and, lastly, the Royal Family (the Prince of Wales and the Duchess of Cornwall; the Princess Royal and Vice Admiral Timothy Laurence; the Duke of York, Princess Beatrice, and Princess Eugenie; and the Earl and Countess of Wessex). The Queen and the Duke of Edinburgh were the last members of the Royal Family to leave Buckingham Palace, as is tradition, arriving at the abbey for 10.48 am. The bridal party left the Goring Hotel in the former number one state Rolls - Royce Phantom VI at 10.52 am, in time for the service to begin at 11.00 am.
The service finished at 12.15 pm, after which the newly married couple travelled to Buckingham Palace in a procession consisting of other Royal Family members, the parents of the groom and bride, and the best man and the bridesmaids. At 1.25 pm, the couple appeared on the balcony of Buckingham Palace to watch a flypast of an Avro Lancaster bomber, a Supermarine Spitfire fighter, and a Hawker Hurricane fighter aircraft from the Battle of Britain Memorial Flight, followed by two Typhoons from RAF Coningsby and two Tornado GR4s from RAF Leuchars in a flat diamond formation.
Westminster Abbey, founded in AD 960, has a particular status and is known as a Royal Peculiar. Although the abbey has been the traditional location for coronations since 1066, not until the 20th century did it become the church of choice for royal weddings; prior to 1918, most royal weddings took place in the royal chapels, such as the Chapel Royal at St James 's Palace and St George 's Chapel, Windsor Castle. The abbey, which has a usual seating capacity of 2000, has been the venue for most royal weddings in the last century, including those of William 's grandparents (the present Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip) in 1947, William 's grandaunt Princess Margaret in 1960, William 's aunt Princess Anne in 1973, and William 's uncle Prince Andrew in 1986. A prominent decorative addition inside the abbey for the ceremony was an avenue of 20 - foot tall trees, six field maple and two hornbeams, arranged on either side of the main aisle.
In a break with royal tradition, the groom had a best man -- his brother, Prince Harry -- rather than a supporter, while the bride chose her sister, Pippa, as maid of honour. There were four bridesmaids and two page boys: Lady Louise Windsor, the seven - year - old daughter of the Earl and Countess of Wessex; Margarita Armstrong - Jones, the eight - year - old daughter of the Viscount and Viscountess Linley; Grace van Cutsem, the three - year - old daughter of the couple 's friend, Hugh van Cutsem; Eliza Lopes, the three - year - old granddaughter of the Duchess of Cornwall; William Lowther - Pinkerton, the ten - year - old son of William 's private secretary, Major Jamie Lowther - Pinkerton; and Tom Pettifer, the eight - year - old son of Princes William and Harry 's former nanny, "Tiggy '' Pettifer.
The bridal dress, designed by the London - based designer Sarah Burton at Alexander McQueen, was made of satin and featured an overlaid lace bodice and appliqued skirt. The lace bodice incorporated machine - made lace, sourced from manufacturers in France and Britain. Floral motifs were cut from lengths of these and then appliquéd by hand onto silk net (tulle) by workers from the Royal School of Needlework. The veil was held in place by a Cartier Scroll Tiara, made in 1936 and lent to her by the Queen. It was purchased by the Queen 's father, the future King George VI, for his wife Elizabeth three weeks before his accession. Princess Elizabeth (now Queen Elizabeth II) received the tiara from her mother on her 18th birthday. In order to avoid her tiara falling off, as had happened for Lady Diana Spencer while wearing a Spencer family tiara during her 1981 wedding to the Prince of Wales, Catherine 's stylists "backcombed the top (of her hair) to create a foundation for the tiara to sit around, then did a tiny plait in the middle and sewed it on. ''
For the customary bridal themes of "Something old, something new, something borrowed, something blue '', Middleton 's gown had lace appointments (the "old ''), diamond earrings given by her parents (the "new ''), the Queen 's tiara (the "borrowed ''), and a blue ribbon sewn into the bodice (the "blue ''). The shoes were also from Alexander McQueen and had a lace pattern matching the dress with appliques made by the Royal School of Needlework.
The bride 's shield - shaped wired bouquet, designed by Derek Connolly, contained myrtle, Lily of the Valley, Sweet William and hyacinth.
Middleton 's hair was styled in loose curls for the occasion by hair dresser James Pryce of the Richard Ward Salon. She received private make - up lessons from Arabella Preston and the entire bridal party received "makeup artistry assistance '' from Bobbi Brown make - up artist Hannah Martin prior to the event, but ultimately Middleton did her own makeup for the occasion. The look was described as a "soft smokey eye '' with pink lips and cheeks. Her nails were painted by manicurist Marina Sandoval in a mixture of two polishes: a "barely there pink '' and a "sheer beige '' to complement her skin tone and gown.
Maid - of - honour Pippa Middleton also wore a gown by Sarah Burton of Alexander McQueen. It has been described as being made of "heavy, ivory satin - based crepe, with a cowl front and with the same button detail and lace trims as the Bride 's dress. '' Like her sister, she received "makeup artistry assistance '' from Bobbi Brown make - up artist Hannah Martin, but it is unclear who actually put on her makeup for the wedding day. Her hair was loosely curled in a half - up, half - down style by the Richard Ward Salon with a deep side part and a hairpiece made of ivy and lily of the valley to match Catherine 's bouquet.
The young bridesmaids wore dresses designed by Nicki Macfarlane, handmade with the help of Macfarlane 's daughter Charlotte, in their homes at Wiltshire and Kent. The gowns echoed the bride 's dress and were made with the same fabrics and button detail along the back. They were described as having a "ballerina - length, full, box pleated skirt '' and were hand finished with English Cluny lace. Their ivy and lily - of - the - valley hair wreaths were influenced by Catherine 's mother Carole 's headdress at her 1981 wedding to Michael Middleton.
All of the bridesmaids wore satin Mary Jane style shoes with a Swarovski crystal buckle designed by Devon - based Rainbow Club. Their flowers were designed and made by Shane Connolly and replicated the flowers in Catherine 's bouquet: lily - of - the - valley, sweet William, and hyacinth.
The pageboys ' outfits were designed by Kashket and Partners in the style worn by a "Foot Guard officer at the time of the Regency (the 1820s) '' with an insignia from the Irish Guards, whose Colonel is Prince William. The tunics are red with gold piping and have Irish shamrocks on the collars. The Pages wore a gold and crimson sash (with tassel) around their waists, as is tradition for officers in the Irish Guards when in the presence of a member of the Royal Family.
Prince William wore an Irish Guards mounted officer 's uniform in Guard of Honour Order with a forage cap, rather than the bearskin hat. As a serving Royal Air Force flight lieutenant who also held the equivalent Royal Navy rank of lieutenant and army rank of captain in the Blues and Royals, William could have chosen to wear the uniform of any of these junior officer ranks. However, as he had been appointed colonel of the Irish Guards on 10 February 2011, he opted instead to wear the full dress uniform of that regiment. As a Knight of the Order of the Garter, he wore the order 's star and blue riband, to which were affixed his RAF wings and Golden Jubilee Medal. The uniform was made and fitted by Kashket and Partners. William did not wear a sword in the church.
Prince Harry wore the uniform of a captain of the Blues and Royals, with a forage cap. He wore aiguillettes, a cross-belt and gold waist belt with sword slings, but no sword. He wore the wings of the Army Air Corps and Golden Jubilee and Afghanistan Campaign medals.
Designer Russell Kashket worked with the Princes to address concerns they had with the outfits. One such concern was the heat of the Abbey, so the designers used special material to absorb the heat while still achieving the desired look. Further, military dress uniforms do not traditionally have pockets, but the palace requested that some sort of compartment be added to Harry 's outfit so that Catherine 's wedding ring would not be lost.
The order of service chosen by the bridal couple was the Series One form which is virtually identical with that of the 1928 Prayer Book. The Dean of Westminster, John Hall, officiated for most of the service, with Rowan Williams, the Archbishop of Canterbury, as celebrant of the marriage and Richard Chartres, the Bishop of London, preaching the sermon. It has long been traditional for the Archbishop of Canterbury, the Church of England 's most senior bishop, to officiate at the weddings of England 's monarchs and future monarchs. Chartres is a close friend of the Prince of Wales and confirmed both Prince William and Kate Middleton.
The service commenced with the procession of the Queen, Prince Philip and the clergy. Shortly after, Kate Middleton arrived with the party of maid of honour and junior attendants. As the choir sang an anthem by Sir Hubert Parry, the bride made her three - and - a-half - minute procession through the nave and choir on her father 's arm, to meet Prince William. The service proceeded with the formal service and congregational singing of three well known hymns, fanfares, anthems, organ and orchestral music.
In the marriage vows, the couple promised to "love, comfort, honour and keep '' each other. This was sealed by the exchange of a single ring.
The lesson, read by the bride 's brother, James Middleton, was from the Epistle to the Romans (Chapter 12, verses 1 -- 2 and 9 -- 18) and is an exhortation to live a righteous and peaceful life.
The sermon, preached by the Bishop of London, commenced with a quotation from Catherine of Siena whose feast day it was. The bishop urged the couple to live selflessly, each remembering the needs of each other and seeking to transform each other by love rather than seeking to reform. He ended the sermon with a prayer composed by the couple themselves:
God our Father, we thank you for our families; for the love that we share and for the joy of our marriage.
In the busyness of each day keep our eyes fixed on what is real and important in life and help us to be generous with our time and love and energy. Strengthened by our union help us to serve and comfort those who suffer.
The service continued with prayers and exhortations by the dean and archbishop. A newly composed choral anthem was sung by the choir. After the signing of the registers, William and Kate walked down the aisle, pausing briefly to bow and curtsey to the Queen. They were followed in procession by other members of the bridal party, and their families, being joined at the door by the two youngest flower girls.
On leaving Westminster Abbey, to the pealing of bells, they passed through a guard of honour of individually selected men and women from the various services, and were greeted by cheers from the crowds. The bridal couple entered the 1902 State Landau drawn by four white horses with postilions and attendant footmen, and guarded by a mounted escort of the Life Guard. A similar open carriage carried the rest of the bridal party, escorted by the Blues and Royals. The Queen and other members of the Royal Family followed in coaches drawn by the Queen 's Cleveland Bay horses, and in state cars.
Two choirs, one orchestra and a fanfare ensemble played the music for the service. These were the Westminster Abbey Choir, the Chapel Royal Choir, the London Chamber Orchestra and a fanfare ensemble from the Central Band of the Royal Air Force. The choirs were directed by James O'Donnell, organist and Master of the Choristers at Westminster Abbey. The abbey 's sub-organist, Robert Quinney, played the organ. The organist, choir master and composer at the Chapel Royal is Andrew Gant. The London Chamber Orchestra was conducted by Christopher Warren - Green, who is its music director and principal conductor. The fanfares were performed under the direction of Wing Commander Duncan Stubbs.
The bride processed down the aisle to the anthem "I Was Glad '', written by Sir Charles Hubert Hastings Parry, from Psalm 122. It was composed for the crowning of Prince William 's great - great - great grandfather, Edward VII, at Westminster Abbey in 1902.
Three congregational hymns were sung during the service. The first was "Guide me, O Thou Great Redeemer '' sung to the tune "Cwm Rhondda ''. The hymn, originally written in Welsh by 18th - century Methodist preacher William Williams, had been sung at the funeral of Diana, Princess of Wales. The words to their second hymn, "Love Divine, All Loves Excelling '', were by Charles Wesley and its tune -- Blaenwern -- was composed by William Penfro Rowlands, during the 1904 -- 1905 Welsh Revival. This hymn was sung at the Prince of Wales 's 2005 marriage to the Duchess of Cornwall. The third hymn was "Jerusalem '', based on the poem by William Blake and set to music by Sir Charles Hubert Hastings Parry.
Choral compositions featured in the service were Parry 's Blest Pair of Sirens during the signing of the register, Paul Mealor 's Ubi Caritas et Amor as the motet and a specially commissioned anthem, "This is the day which the Lord hath made '' consisting of words chosen from the Psalms, by John Rutter.
Fanfare ensemble leader Wing Commander Duncan Stubbs 's own composition, Valiant and Brave, was performed as the royal couple signed the wedding registers. Preux et audacieux (which translates from French as "Valiant and Brave '') is the motto of 22 Squadron, in which Prince William was serving as a search and rescue pilot at RAF Valley in North Wales. The fanfare led into the recessional music, the orchestral march "Crown Imperial '' by William Walton, composed for the coronation of George VI and which was also performed at Charles and Diana 's wedding.
The music performed before the service included two instrumental pieces by Sir Peter Maxwell Davies ("Veni Creator Spiritus '' and "Farewell to Stromness '') as well as with works by J.S. Bach, Benjamin Britten, Frederick Delius, Edward Elgar, Gerald Finzi, Charles Villiers Stanford, Ralph Vaughan Williams and Percy Whitlock.
The bells of Westminster Abbey rang a full peal as the newly married couple and guests left the church. The ten bells rang a peal called "Spliced Surprise Royal '', consisting of 5,040 changes, that took more than three hours to complete. They were rung by the volunteers of the Westminster Abbey Company of Ringers, under the direction of David Hilling.
The wedding ring of Catherine is made from Welsh gold. The ring was created by the royal warrant holder Wartski, a company with roots in Bangor, Gwynedd, north Wales. Since 1923, it has been a tradition in the Royal Family to use Welsh gold for the wedding ring of the bride. This ring was made from a small amount of gold that had been kept in the royal vaults since it was presented to Queen Elizabeth II. It was mined from the Clogau Gold Mine in the mountains of North Wales. The Clogau Gold Mine had its heyday in the late nineteenth century, was abandoned in the early twentieth century, was reopened in 1992 and finally closed in 1998. The Queen had "given a piece of the gold that has been in the family for many years to Prince William as a gift, '' a palace source stated. Prince William chose not to receive a wedding ring at the ceremony.
On the morning of the wedding, it was announced that William was to be created Duke of Cambridge, Earl of Strathearn, and Baron Carrickfergus, with Catherine becoming Her Royal Highness The Duchess of Cambridge after the wedding. This is in line with the practice of granting titles upon marriage to royal princes who did not already have one (for example, Prince Andrew was created Duke of York when he married in 1986). Strathearn is close to St Andrews, Fife, in Scotland, where the couple met as students, and Carrickfergus is in Northern Ireland. Combined with his existing titular link with Wales, William 's collective titles link him to each of the four countries in the United Kingdom.
The Queen hosted a lunchtime reception at Buckingham Palace, starting after the arrival of the married couple 's carriage. It was a private gathering for guests drawn from the congregation who represent the couple 's official and private lives. During the reception, at which the Official Harpist to the Prince of Wales, Claire Jones, performed, the couple made an appearance on the balcony on the east (main) front of Buckingham Palace. Jones played a gold leaf harp known as "Prince of Wales '' presented to Prince Charles in 2006 by Italian - American harp maker Salvi Harps.
At 3.35 pm, William drove his new wife back up the Mall for the short distance to Clarence House, his then official London residence. The car, a blue, two seat Aston Martin DB6 Volante (MkII convertible) that had been given to Prince Charles by the Queen as a 21st birthday present, was decorated in the customary newlywed style by the best man and friends; the rear number plate read "JU5T WED ''. The Prince had changed into a Blues and Royals captain 's frock coat also made by Kashket; his wife was still wearing her wedding dress. In a surprise organised by RAF Wattisham, the car was shadowed by a yellow Sea King helicopter flying the RAF Ensign from its winch cable, marking William 's service as a pilot with the RAF Search and Rescue Force.
In the evening, the Prince of Wales gave a private dinner, followed by dancing, at Buckingham Palace for the couple and their close friends and family. The singer - songwriter, Ellie Goulding performed at the event, singing her rendition of "Your Song '' for the couple 's first dance. The singer also performed her hit single "Starry Eyed '' for the assembled guests. The event ended at 3 am, with a small fireworks display in the palace grounds.
The wedding cake had a strong British floral theme, using elements of the Joseph Lambeth technique. It was an eight - tiered traditional fruit cake decorated with cream and white icing and 900 sugar paste flowers. The cake designer Fiona Cairns based in Fleckney, Leicestershire was chosen in February 2011 to create the wedding cake. Additionally, McVitie 's created a groom 's cake from chocolate biscuit for the reception at Buckingham Palace. The chocolate biscuit cake was made from a Royal Family recipe and was specially requested by Prince William.
The wedding bouquet was returned to Westminster Abbey and placed on the Tomb of The Unknown Warrior by a royal official, after the photographs had been taken. This followed the tradition started by Prince William 's great grandmother, Lady Elizabeth Bowes - Lyon, after her marriage to the Duke of York in 1923.
Prince William and Kate Middleton personally approved an official range of china (including handmade plates, cups, and pill boxes) to be made for the Royal Collection and sold as souvenirs from December 2010 on. The items are decorated with the intertwined initials of the couple under the prince 's coronet and include the wording "To celebrate the marriage of Prince William of Wales and Catherine Middleton 29 April 2011. '' The Lord Chamberlain 's office approved a longer list of memorabilia, including official mugs, plates, biscuit tins, and porcelain pill pots. The document also clarified the use of William 's coat of arms and pictures of the couple on such items. Initially, the Palace refused to sanction official tea towels, which, along with aprons, T - shirts and cushions, were deemed, "in poor taste ''. However, the restriction on tea towels, though not the other items, was later reversed. Sales of merchandising were expected to reach £ 44 million.
To mark the engagement of William and Catherine, the Royal Mint produced an official Alderney £ 5 engagement coin, showing the couple in profile, as well as an official UK £ 5 coin for the wedding. The Royal Australian Mint issued a series of circulation and collectable coins designed by Stuart Devlin. The Royal Canadian Mint released a series of coins and Canada Post issued a stamp, approved by Clarence House, in commemoration of the wedding. On 21 April, a set of commemorative postage stamps, featuring the couple 's official engagement photographs, was issued by Royal Mail.
The wedding was widely broadcast on television, internet, and radio, in more than 180 countries. ITV, BBC, and CNN covered the ceremony and associated events live through the combined pool of footage from the BBC, Sky, and ITN to help cover the overall cost. In North America, which is five to nine hours behind British Summer Time, the wedding occurred during the time usually taken up by network breakfast television programmes, which expanded their normal length to allow for full coverage. NBC 's Today began coverage at 4 am Eastern Time, and along with MSNBC, partnered with ITV. ABC partnered with BBC, CBS has its own live London affiliates, and Fox and Fox News Channel partnered with their sister network Sky News. The CBC and CTV had live coverage. Cable networks and radio also had live coverage. In Mexico, the wedding aired on Televisa and TV Azteca; all television stations in Mexico carrying the ceremony stayed on the air during the late night hours instead of normally signing off. The ABC also took the BBC feed in Australia, in addition with pay TV channel UKTV. Coverage was also provided on the Seven Network, Nine Network and Network Ten. The ABC had planned to produce alternative commentary with The Chaser, but in response to these plans, the BBC barred the use of its footage for such a purpose, on orders from Clarence House. The royal wedding was also streamed live online on YouTube via the British Monarchy 's official The Royal Channel. In Croatia the wedding was broadcast on Doma TV, while in Serbia the wedding was broadcast on Radio Television of Serbia and B92 Info. Live broadcast in China was done by CCTV News and Phoenix Info News. In Portugal, the wedding was covered by RTP and TVI. The wedding was also widely followed through various cable and local channels in India and Pakistan. In the Philippines, the wedding was broadcast on ABS - CBN, GMA and TV5, with all three networks sending their own reporters at London. In Ireland the wedding was broadcast on RTÉ One and TV3. Marty Whelan and Mary Kennedy provided commentary for RTÉ Television, while TV3 took a live feed of ITV 's coverage.
In the UK, the National Grid reported a huge surge in demand for power after the service, equivalent to one million kettles being boiled, when the royal couple returned to Buckingham Palace. Viewership of the wedding was recorded by electricity use in Ontario, where, at the approximate moment Middleton arrived at Westminster Abbey, the Independent Electricity System Operator recorded a 300 mega watt drop in electricity use, which was attributed to "people going about their normal morning routines (stopping) whatever they were doing, rather than make breakfast or shower, and watch the TV ''.
An April 2011 poll of 2,000 British adults found that 35 % of the public intended to watch the wedding on television while an equal proportion planned to ignore the event altogether. According to their reported plans, women were more than twice as likely (47 %) to watch the event as men (23 %). Early estimates following the ceremony indicated an estimated 24.5 million people in the United Kingdom watched the wedding on either BBC One or ITV, giving those channels a 99.4 % share of the terrestrial television audience as the service began, with the BBC 's Live royal wedding website having 9 million hits, estimating over half the British population watched the wedding.
The viewing figures for the event have been the subject of much speculation, with Culture Secretary Jeremy Hunt estimating that 2 billion people would watch the wedding. Following the event, this figure was duly reported by the media, but was criticised by some news outlets for being inaccurate and unfounded. Estimated figures include a peak audience of 26.3 million viewers and a total of 36.7 million watching at least some part of the wedding coverage in the UK, while in the United States, the wedding drew an average audience of 22.8 million, with over 60 million tuning in at some point to watch some of the coverage. In India, a reported 42.1 million viewers tuned in, 9.9 million viewers in Germany, 9.6 million viewers in France, 5.22 million viewers watched the event in Canada with twelve million tuning in at some point, five million in Australia, and one million was expected in China, for an audience of 122 million to 176 million viewers, drawing from a total population pool of 3.126 billion (approximately 45 % of the world 's population). Other reported figures put the global audience at 162 million viewers. In addition to the television audiences, the ceremony attracted 72 million live streams and a reach of 101 million streams on YouTube across 188 countries. With its 72 million streams, the wedding has been listed in the 2012 Guinness Book of World Records for the record of "Most Live Streams for a Single Event '', beating out the Michael Jackson memorial service in 2009. It has been suggested that the "two billion '' figure is exaggerated, and that there are too many gaps in the worldwide TV measuring system to accurately audit global audience figures.
There were about 5,500 applications to hold royal wedding street parties across England and Wales, including 850 in London, one of which was hosted by Prime Minister David Cameron in Downing Street for charity workers and local children. The anti-monarchy campaign group Republic held an alternative street party in Holborn. The event had initially been blocked by Camden Council after businesses raised concerns about loss of trade.
A number of ceremonies and parties were held at places which had an intimate connection with the couple. In Scotland, about 2,000 people attended a party at the University of St Andrews, where the royal couple first met. Hundreds of people watched the ceremony on a big screen in Edinburgh 's Festival Square. Welsh celebrations were led by Anglesey, where Prince William is a search and rescue pilot and where the couple will reside after the wedding. 2,600 people gathered to watch the event on big screens there, and around 200 street parties were organised throughout the rest of the country, including over 50 in Cardiff.
The international Peace Bridge across the Niagara River between the United States and Canada at Buffalo, New York, and Fort Erie, Ontario, and operated in part by an Ontario Crown corporation, was lit in red, blue and gold, the colours of the royal crest.
Criticism and scepticism stemmed from the belief that, at a time of recession and rising unemployment in the UK, millions of pounds in tax funds were used for the wedding 's security. The costs of the wedding itself were paid for by the Royal Family and the Middletons. Emma Boon, campaign director for the taxpayers union TaxPayers ' Alliance, expressed distaste for the lavish cost of the wedding and noted, "Of course it should be an event for the whole nation to celebrate, but ordinary taxpayers should not be left with a bill fit for a king. '' Graham Smith, current Campaign Manager of Republic, also spoke out on the taxpayer 's responsibility to the wedding.
In the United States, the Empire State Building in New York City was lit in red, white, and blue, the colours of the Union Flag at sunset on 29 April to mark the wedding.
The wedding had been subject to threats of violence and disruption. In February, security agencies, including MI5, identified "dissident Irish republican groups '' as possible threats. The group Muslims Against Crusades announced plans for a "forceful demonstration '' at the wedding, but later announced the abandonment of their planned protest. The English Defence League vowed to hold a counter-demonstration and promised 50 to 100 EDL members at each railway station in central London to block Muslim extremists in a "ring of steel ''.
Sixty people arrested at the TUC rally on the March for the Alternative had bail conditions that prevented them entering central London over the wedding period.
On 28 April 2011, political activist Chris Knight and two others were arrested by Scotland Yard "on suspicion of conspiracy to cause public nuisance and breach of the peace ''. The three were planning a mock execution of Prince Andrew with a home - made guillotine in central London to coincide with the wedding. The guillotine was workable, but lacked a blade.
On the day of the wedding, the Metropolitan Police Service made "pre-emptive '' moves, applying blanket stop - and - search powers and arresting 52 people, including 13 arrested at Charing Cross station in possession of anti-monarchy placards and "climbing equipment ''. Five people, three of whom wearing zombie make - up, were arrested "on suspicion of planning a breach of the peace '' when they entered a branch of Starbucks. At a peaceful protest in Soho Square, a man was arrested by plain clothes police. Chief Inspector John Dale claimed "He had articles on him to cause criminal damage ''. Police described the overall security operation as an "amazing success ''.
In Scotland, twenty - one people were arrested at an unofficial "street party '' in Kelvingrove Park, Glasgow which saw "completely unacceptable levels '' of drunkenness, according to Strathclyde Police. A taxi driver died on 10 May from injuries sustained when his cab was struck by a police van attending the Kelvingrove incident.
Despite reports that the couple would leave for their honeymoon the day after their wedding, Prince William immediately returned to his work as a search - and - rescue pilot, and the couple did not depart until 9 May, ten days after their wedding. The location of the honeymoon was initially kept secret. Although the press speculated that they might be headed to locations such as South America, Jordan, and Kenya, the couple ultimately decided to honeymoon for 10 days on a secluded villa on a private island in the Seychelles. On the morning of 21 May, a spokesman for St. James 's Palace announced that the couple had returned to the United Kingdom. The length of the honeymoon was limited by William 's RAF duties and the couple 's official scheduled tour to Canada and the United States.
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when did the union jack become the union flag | Union Jack - Wikipedia
The Union Jack, or Union Flag, is the national flag of the United Kingdom. The flag also has an official or semi-official status in some other Commonwealth realms; for example, it is, by parliamentary resolution, a ceremonial flag in Canada and known there as the Royal Union Flag. Further, it is used as an official flag in some of the smaller British overseas territories. The Union Flag also appears in the canton (upper left - hand quarter) of the flags of several nations and territories that are former British possessions or dominions.
The claim that the term Union Jack properly refers only to naval usage has been disputed, following historical investigations by the Flag Institute in 2013.
The origins of the earlier flag of Great Britain date back to 1606. James VI of Scotland had inherited the English and Irish thrones in 1603 as James I, thereby uniting the crowns of England, Scotland, and Ireland in a personal union, although the three kingdoms remained separate states. On 12 April 1606, a new flag to represent this regal union between England and Scotland was specified in a royal decree, according to which the flag of England (a red cross on a white background, known as St George 's Cross), and the flag of Scotland (a white saltire on a blue background, known as the Saltire or St Andrew 's Cross), would be joined together, forming the flag of England and Scotland for maritime purposes. King James also began to refer to a "Kingdom of Great Britaine '', although the union remained a personal one.
The present design of the Union Flag dates from a Royal proclamation following the union of Great Britain and Ireland in 1801. The flag combines aspects of three older national flags: the red cross of St George of the Kingdom of England, the white saltire of St Andrew for Scotland (which two were united in the first Union Flag), and the red saltire of St Patrick to represent Ireland.
Notably, the home country of Wales is not represented separately in the Union Flag, being only indirectly represented through the cross of St George, which represents the former Kingdom of England (which included Wales).
The terms Union Jack and Union Flag are both historically correct for describing the de facto national flag of the United Kingdom. Whether the term Union Jack applies only when used as a jack flag on a ship is a modern matter of debate.
According to the Parliament of the United Kingdom: "Until the early 17th century England and Scotland were two entirely independent kingdoms. This changed dramatically in 1603 on the death of Elizabeth I of England. Because the Queen died unmarried and childless, the English crown passed to the next available heir, her cousin James VI, King of Scotland. England and Scotland now shared the same monarch under what was known as a union of the crowns.
In 1606, James VI gave orders for a British flag to be created which bore the combined crosses of St. George and of St. Andrew. The result was the Union Jack, Jack being a shortening of Jacobus, the Latin version of James ".
According to the Flag Institute, a membership - run vexillological charity, "the national flag of the United Kingdom, the Crown Dependencies and Overseas Territories is the Union Flag, which may also be called the Union Jack. '' The institute also notes:
it is often stated that the Union Flag should only be described as the Union Jack when flown in the bows of a warship, but this is a relatively recent idea. From early in its life the Admiralty itself frequently referred to the flag as the Union Jack, whatever its use, and in 1902 an Admiralty circular announced that Their Lordships had decided that either name could be used officially. In 1908, a government minister stated, in response to a parliamentary question, that "the Union Jack should be regarded as the National flag ''.
Notwithstanding Their Lordships ' circular of 1902, by 1913 the Admiralty described the "Union Flag '' and added in a foot note that ' A Jack is a Flag to be flown only on the "Jack '' Staff '.
However, the authoritative A Complete Guide to Heraldry published in 1909 by Arthur Charles Fox - Davies uses the term "Union Jack ''.
The term "Union Flag '' is used in King Charles I 's 1634 proclamation:
... none of Our Subjects, of any of Our Nations and Kingdoms shall from henceforth presume to carry the Union Flag in the Main top, or other part of any of their Ships (that is) St Georges cross and St Andrew 's Cross joined together upon pain of Our high displeasure, but that the same Union Flag be still reserved as an ornament proper for Our own Ships and Ships in our immediate Service and Pay, and none other. ''
and in King George III 's proclamation of 1 January 1801 concerning the arms and flag of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland:
And that the Union Flag shall be Azure, the Crosses Saltires of St. Andrew and St. Patrick Quarterly per Saltire, counterchanged Argent and Gules; the latter fimbriated of the Second, surmounted by the Cross of St. George of the Third, fimbriated as the Saltire:...
When the first flag representing Britain was introduced on the proclamation of King James I in 1606, it became known simply as the "British flag '' or the "flag of Britain ''. The royal proclamation gave no distinctive name to the new flag. The word "jack '' was in use before 1600 to describe the maritime bow flag. By 1627 a small Union Jack was commonly flown in this position. One theory goes that for some years it would have been called just the "Jack '', or "Jack flag '', or the "King 's Jack '', but by 1674, while formally referred to as "His Majesty 's Jack '', it was commonly called the "Union Jack '', and this was officially acknowledged.
Amongst the proclamations issued by King George III at the time of the Union of 1801 was a proclamation concerning flags at sea, which repeatedly referred to "Ensigns, Flags, Jacks, and Pendants '' and forbade merchant vessels from wearing "Our Jack, commonly called the Union Jack '' nor any pendants or colours used by the King 's ships. Reinforcing the distinction the King 's proclamation of the same day concerning the arms and flag of the United Kingdom (not colours at sea) called the new flag "the Union Flag ''.
The size and power of the Royal Navy internationally at the time could also explain why the flag was named the "Union Jack ''; considering the navy was so widely utilised and renowned by the United Kingdom and colonies, it is possible that the term jack occurred because of its regular use on all British ships using the jack staff (a flag pole attached to the bow of a ship). The term Union Jack possibly dates from Queen Anne 's time (r. 1702 -- 14), but its origin is uncertain. It may come from the ' jack - et ' of the English or Scottish soldiers, or from the name of James I who originated the first union in 1603. Even if the term "Union Jack '' does derive from the jack flag, after three centuries, it is now sanctioned by use and has appeared in official use, confirmed as the national flag by Parliament and remains the popular term.
Winston Churchill was Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1940 to 1945 and he referred to the flag of the United Kingdom as the Union Jack. In March 1899 Churchill wrote to his mother from India about her plans to produce a new trans - Atlantic magazine, to be called The Anglo - Saxon Review. The drawing at the end of this letter was deliberately mischievous, teasing her for going down - market, and in the accompanying letter he wrote, "Your title ' The Anglo Saxon ' with its motto ' Blood is thicker than water ' only needs the Union Jack & the Star Spangled Banner crossed on the cover to be suited to one of Harmsworth 's (a leading British newspaper owner) cheap Imperialist productions. ''
More recently, Reed 's Nautical Almanac (1990 edition) unambiguously states: "The Union Flag, frequently but incorrectly referred to as the Union Jack,... '' and later: "8. The Jack -- A small flag worn on a jackstaff on the stem of Naval Vessels. The Royal Navy wears the Union Flag... This is the only occasion when it correct to describe the flag as the Union Jack ''. However, this assertion does not appear in any Reed 's Nautical Almanac since 1993. In the 2016 Reeds Nautical Almanac the only entry where this might appear, section 5.21, covering Flag Etiquette, does not include this statement. Within the Almanac, neither the Union Flag or the Union Jack are included pictorially or mentioned by name.
For comparison with another anglophone country with a large navy: the Jack of the United States specifically refers to the flag flown from the jackstaff of a warship, auxiliary or other U.S. governmental entity.
The current flag 's design has been in use since 1801. Its original blazon, as decreed by George III of the United Kingdom on 1 January 1801, reads:
The Union Jack is normally twice as long as it is tall, a ratio of 1: 2. In the United Kingdom, land flags are normally a ratio of 3: 5; the Union Jack can also be made in this shape, but is 1: 2 for most purposes. In 2008, MP Andrew Rosindell proposed a Ten Minute Rule bill to standardise the design of the flag at 3: 5, but the bill did not proceed past the first reading.
Flags that have the Union Jack in the canton should always be 1: 2 to preserve the square fly area.
The three component crosses that make up the Union Flag are sized as follows:
The crosses and fimbriations retain their thickness relative to the flag 's height whether they are shown with a ratio of 3: 5 or 1: 2
The Admiralty in 1864 settled all official flags at proportions 1: 2, but the relative widths of the crosses remained unspecified, with the above conventions becoming standardised in the 20th century. In the 19th century, the Union flag was defined by the same blazon but could vary in its geometrical proportions,
The colour specifications for the colours Union Jack (royal) blue, Union Flag red and white are:
All HEX, CMYK and RGB specifications for the Pantone colours are taken from the official Pantone website on the webpages of the corresponding colours. Keep in mind that although the colour schemes are official, not all of the colours are completely congruent. This is due to different specifications for different types of media (for example, screen and print).
The flag does not have reflection symmetry due to the slight pinwheeling of the St Patrick 's and St Andrew 's crosses, technically the counterchange of saltires. Thus, there is a right side up. The original specification of the Union Flag in the Royal Proclamation of 1 January 1801 did not contain a drawn pattern or express which way the saltires should lie; they were simply "counterchanged '' and the red saltire fimbriated. Nevertheless, a convention was soon established which accords most closely with the description.
When statically displayed, the hoist is on the observer 's left. To fly the flag correctly, the white of St Andrew is above the red of St Patrick in the upper hoist canton (the quarter at the top nearest to the flag - pole). This is expressed by the phrases wide white top and broad side up.
The first drawn pattern for the flag was in a parallel proclamation on 1 January 1801, concerning civil naval ensigns, which drawing shows the red ensign (also to be used as a red jack by privateers). As it appears in the London Gazette, the broad stripe is where expected for three of the four quarters, but the upper left quarter shows the broad stripe below.
It is often stated that a flag upside down is a form of distress signal or even a deliberate insult. In the case of the Union Flag, the difference is subtle and is easily missed by the uninformed. It is often displayed upside down inadvertently -- even on commercially - made hand waving flags.
On 3 February 2009, the BBC reported that the flag had been inadvertently flown upside - down by the UK government at the signing of a trade agreement with Chinese premier Wen Jiabao. The error had been spotted by readers of the BBC news website who had contacted the BBC after seeing a photograph of the event.
In 1603, James VI of Scotland inherited the English and Irish thrones (as James I), thereby uniting the crowns of England, Scotland and Ireland (which remained separate states) in a personal union. On 12 April 1606, a new flag to represent this regal union between England and Scotland was specified in a royal decree, according to which the flag of England (a red cross on a white background, known as St George 's Cross), and the flag of Scotland (a white saltire on a blue background, known as the saltire or St Andrew 's Cross), would be joined together, forming the flag of Great Britain and first union flag:
By the King: Whereas, some differences hath arisen between Our subjects of South and North Britaine travelling by Seas, about the bearing of their Flagges: For the avoiding of all contentions hereafter. We have, with the advice of our Council, ordered: That from henceforth all our Subjects of this Isle and Kingdome of Great Britaine, and all our members thereof, shall beare in their main - toppe the Red Crosse, commonly called St George 's Crosse, and the White Crosse, commonly called St Andrew 's Crosse, joyned together according to the forme made by our heralds, and sent by Us to our Admerall to be published to our Subjects: and in their fore - toppe our Subjects of South Britaine shall weare the Red Crosse onely as they were wont, and our Subjects of North Britaine in their fore - toppe the White Crosse onely as they were accustomed.
This royal flag was, at first, to be used only at sea on civil and military ships of both England and Scotland, whereas land forces continued to use their respective national banners. In 1634, King Charles I restricted its use to the royal ships. After the Acts of Union 1707, the flag gained a regularised status as "the ensign armorial of the Kingdom of Great Britain '', the newly created state. It was then adopted by land forces as well, although the blue field used on land - based versions more closely resembled that of the blue of the flag of Scotland.
Various shades of blue have been used in the saltire over the years. The ground of the current Union Flag is a deep "navy '' blue (Pantone 280), which can be traced to the colour used for the Blue Ensign of the Royal Navy 's historic "Blue Squadron ''. (Dark shades of colour were used on maritime flags on the basis of durability.) In 2003 a committee of the Scottish Parliament recommended that the flag of Scotland use a lighter "royal '' blue, (Pantone 300). (The Office of the Lord Lyon does not detail specific shades of colour for use in heraldry.)
A thin white stripe, or fimbriation, separates the red cross from the blue field, in accordance with heraldry 's rule of tincture where colours (like red and blue) must be separated from each other by metals (like white, i.e. argent or silver). The blazon for the old union flag, to be compared with the current flag, is azure, the cross saltire of St Andrew argent surmounted by the Cross of St George gules, fimbriated of the second.
Wales had no explicit recognition in the Union Jack as it had been a part of the Kingdom of England since being annexed by Edward I of England in 1282 and its full integration by the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 -- 1542, and was therefore represented by the flag of England.
The Kingdom of Ireland, which had existed as a personal union with England since 1541, was likewise unrepresented in the original versions of the Union Jack. However, the flag of the Protectorate from 1658 to 1660 was inescutcheoned with the arms of Ireland. These were removed at the Restoration, because Charles II disliked them.
The original flag appears in the canton of the Commissioners ' Ensign of the Northern Lighthouse Board. This is the only contemporary official representation of the pre-1801 Union Jack in the United Kingdom and can be seen flying from their George Street headquarters in Edinburgh.
This version of the Union Jack is also shown in the canton of the Grand Union Flag (also known as the Congress Flag, the First Navy Ensign, the Cambridge Flag and the Continental Colours), the first widely used flag of the United States, slowly phased out after 1777.
Lord Howe 's action, or the Glorious First of June, painted in 1795, shows a Union flying from HMS Queen Charlotte on the "Glorious First of June '' 1794. The actual flag, preserved in the National Maritime Museum, is a cruder approximation of the proper specifications; this was common in 18th and early 19th century flags.
The flag is also flown beside Customs House in Loftus Street, Sydney, to mark the approximate location at which Captain Phillip first raised the Union Jack, and claimed New South Wales in 1788. On the plaque it is referred to as the "Jack of Queen Anne ''.
The British Army 's flag is the Union Jack, but in 1938, a "British Army Non-Ceremonial Flag '' was devised, featuring a lion on crossed blades with the St Edward 's Crown on a red background. This is not the equivalent of the ensigns of the other armed services, but is used at recruiting and military or sporting events, when the army needs to be identified but the reverence and ceremony due to the regimental flags and the Union Jack would be inappropriate.
Various other designs for a common flag were drawn up following the union of the two Crowns in 1603, but were rarely, if ever, used. One version showed St George 's cross with St Andrew 's cross in the canton, and another version placed the two crosses side by side. A painted wooden ceiling boss from Linlithgow Palace, dated to about 1617, depicts the Scottish royal unicorn holding a flag where a blue Saltire surmounts the red cross of St. George.
In objecting to the design of Union Flag adopted in 1606, whereby the cross of Saint George surmounted that of Saint Andrew, a group of Scots took up the matter with John Erskine, 18th Earl of Mar, and were encouraged by him to send a letter of complaint to James VI, via the Privy Council of Scotland, which stated that the flag 's design "will breid some heit and miscontentment betwix your Majesties subjectis, and it is to be feirit that some inconvenientis sail fall oute betwix thame, for our seyfaring men can not be inducit to resave that flage as it is set down ''. Although documents accompanying this complaint which contained drafts for alternative designs have been lost, evidence exists, at least on paper, of an unofficial Scottish variant, whereby the Scottish cross was uppermost. There is reason to think that cloth flags of this design were employed during the 17th century for unofficial use on Scottish vessels at sea. This flag 's design is also described in the 1704 edition of The Present State of the Universe by John Beaumont, which contains as an appendix The Ensigns, Colours or Flags of the Ships at Sea: Belonging to The several Princes and States in the World.
On land, evidence confirming the use of this flag appears in the depiction of Edinburgh Castle by John Slezer, in his series of engravings entitled Theatrum Scotiae, c. 1693. Appearing in later editions of Theatrum Scotiae, the North East View of Edinburgh Castle engraving depicts the Scotch (to use the appropriate adjective of that period) version of the Union Flag flying from the Palace block of the Castle. On the North Prospect of the City of Edenburgh engraving, the flag is indistinct.
On 17 April 1707, just two weeks prior to the Acts of Union coming into effect, and with Sir Henry St George, Garter King of Arms, having presented several designs of flag to Queen Anne and her Privy Council for consideration, the flag for the soon to be unified Kingdom of Great Britain was chosen. At the suggestion of the Scots representatives, the designs for consideration included that version of Union Jack showing the Cross of Saint Andrew uppermost; identified as being the "Scotts union flagg as said to be used by the Scotts ''. However, the Queen and her Council approved Sir Henry 's original effort, numbered "one ''.
A manuscript compiled in 1785 by William Fox and in possession of the Flag Research Center includes a full plate showing "the scoth (sic) union '' flag. This could imply that there was still some use of a Scottish variant before the addition of the cross of St Patrick to the Union Flag in 1801.
The current and second Union Jack dates from 1 January 1801 with the Act of Union 1800, which merged the Kingdom of Ireland and the Kingdom of Great Britain to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. The new design added a red saltire, the cross of Saint Patrick, for Ireland. This is counterchanged with the saltire of St Andrew, such that the white always follows the red clockwise. The arrangement has introduced a requirement to display the flag "the right way up ''; see specifications for flag use, below. As with the red cross, so too the red saltire is separated by a white fimbriation from the blue field. This fimbriation is repeated for symmetry on the white portion of the saltire, which thereby appears wider than the red portion. The fimbriation of the cross of St George separates its red from the red of the saltire.
Apart from the Union Jack, Saint Patrick 's cross has seldom been used to represent Ireland, and with little popular recognition or enthusiasm; it is usually considered to derive from the arms of the powerful FitzGerald family rather than any association with the saint.
When the Anglo - Irish Treaty was concluded on 6 December 1921 and the creation of the new Irish Free State was an imminent prospect, the question arose as to whether the cross of Saint Patrick should remain in the Union Jack. The New York Times reported that on 22 January 1922:
At the College of Arms it was stated that certain modifications were under consideration and that if any action were taken it would be done by the King in Council. No parliamentary action would be necessary. Heraldry experts say that alterations in arms are very expensive. Some years ago there was a demand from Irish quarters that the blue ground of the golden harp on the royal standard should be changed to green. It was then estimated that the alteration would cost at least £ 2,000,000. To remove all reference to Ireland from the present Union Jack and Royal Arms would be vastly more expensive.
There was some speculation on the matter in British dominions also, with one New Zealand paper reporting that:
... the removal of the cross of St. Patrick Cross after 120 years will transform the appearance of the flag. It will certainly become a flag under which great victories were won in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, but to most minds the sentimental loss will be great. Probably it will be found that the deletion is not absolutely necessary. Other possible changes include the abolition of the title of the United Kingdom, and the removal of the harp from the Royal Standard and the Coat of Arms, and the substitution of the Ulster emblem.
However, the fact that it was likely that Northern Ireland would choose not to remain part of the Irish Free State after its foundation and remain in the United Kingdom, gave better grounds for keeping the cross of St. Patrick in the Union Jack. In this regard, Sir James Craig, the Prime Minister of Northern Ireland remarked in December 1921 that he and his government were "glad to think that our decision (to opt back into the United Kingdom) will obviate the necessity of mutilating the Union Jack. '' Though remaining within the United Kingdom, the new government of Northern Ireland dispensed with the St Patrick 's Saltire in favour of a new flag derived from the coat - of - arm of the Burkes, Earls of Ulster, and quite similar to England 's St George 's Cross.
Ultimately, when the British home secretary was asked on 7 December 1922 (the day after the Irish Free State was established) whether the Garter King of Arms was to issue any regulations with reference to the Union Jack, the response was no and the flag has never been changed.
A Dáil question in 1961 mooted raising the removal of the cross of St Patrick with the British government; Frank Aiken, the Irish minister for external affairs, declined to "waste time on heraldic disputations ''.
In 2003, a private individual started a campaign -- dubbed "reflag '' or "Union Black '' -- to interpret the Union Flag in a racial context, and introduce black stripes in it. The proposal was universally met with opposition and was denounced by MSP Phil Gallie as "ridiculous tokenism (that) would do nothing to stamp out racism ''. The campaign is now defunct.
Since there is no uniquely Welsh element in the Union Jack, Wrexham 's Labour MP Ian Lucas proposed on 27 November 2007 in a House of Commons debate that the Union Flag be combined with the Welsh flag to reflect Wales ' status within the UK, and that the red dragon be added to the Union Flag 's red, white, and blue pattern. He said the Union Jack currently only represented the other three UK nations, and Minister for Culture, Creative Industries and Tourism Margaret Hodge conceded that Lucas had raised a valid point for debate. She said, "the Government is keen to make the Union Flag a positive symbol of Britishness reflecting the diversity of our country today and encouraging people to take pride in our flag. '' This development sparked design contests with entries from all over the world; some of the entries incorporated red dragons and even anime characters and leeks. The lack of any Welsh symbol or colours in the flag is due to Wales already being part of the Kingdom of England when the flag of Great Britain was created in 1606.
In the run - up to the 2014 Scottish independence referendum, various non-official suggestions were made for how the flag could be redesigned without the St Andrew 's Cross in the event that Scotland left the Union. However, as Scotland voted against independence the issue did not arise.
Since the UK referendum on membership of the European Union which resulted in a vote to leave, the Union Flag became a symbol of euroscepticism in Italy in August 2016 as hundreds of local businesses along the Italian riviera hoisted the flags as a protest against the implementation of the Services in the Internal Market Directive 2006.
In September 2016, anti-Brexit campaigners planned to fly 5,000 European Union flags on the last night of the BBC Proms, in response, Leave.EU co-founder Arron Banks announced he planned to fund and give away 10,000 Union Flags to concert - goers.
The Union Jack is used as a jack by commissioned warships and submarines of the Royal Navy, and by commissioned army and Royal Air Force vessels. When at anchor or alongside, it is flown from the jackstaff at the bow of the ship. When a ship is underway, the Union Jack is only flown from the jackstaff when the ship is dressed for a special occasion, such as the Queen 's official birthday.
The Union Jack is worn at the masthead of a ship to indicate the presence of the Sovereign or an Admiral of the Fleet. The Union Flag may also be flown from the yardarm to indicate that a court - martial is in progress, though these are now normally held at shore establishments.
No law has been passed making the Union Jack the national flag of the United Kingdom: it has become one through precedent. Its first recorded recognition as a national flag came in 1908, when it was stated in Parliament that "the Union Jack should be regarded as the National flag ''. A more categorical statement was made by Home Secretary Sir John Gilmour, in 1933 when he stated that "the Union Flag is the national flag and may properly be flown by any British subject on land. ''
Civilian use is permitted on land, but use of the unmodified flag at sea is restricted to military vessels. Unauthorised use of the flag in the 17th century to avoid paying harbour duties -- a privilege restricted to naval ships -- caused James 's successor, Charles I, to order that use of the flag on naval vessels be restricted to His Majesty 's ships "upon pain of Our high displeasure. '' It remains a criminal offence under the Merchant Shipping Act 1995 to display the Union Flag (other than the "pilot jack '' -- see below) from a British ship. Naval ships will fly the white ensign, merchant and private boats can fly the red ensign, others with special permission such as naval yacht clubs can fly the blue ensign. All of the coloured ensigns contain the union flag as part of the design.
The Court of the Lord Lyon, which has legal jurisdiction in heraldic matters in Scotland, confirms that the Union Jack "is the correct flag for all citizens and corporate bodies of the United Kingdom to fly to demonstrate their loyalty and their nationality. ''
In Australia, the current national flag gradually replaced the Union Flag. When it formally created the national flag in the Flags Act 1953, section 8 of that Act specified that "this Act does not affect the right or privilege of a person to fly the Union Jack. '' The Union Jack continued to be used for a period thereafter as a national flag. The current national flag of New Zealand was given official standing under the New Zealand Ensign Act in 1902, but similarly to Australia the Union Jack continued to be used in some contexts as a national flag.
On 5 February 2008, Conservative MP Andrew Rosindell introduced the ' Union Flag Bill ' as a private member 's bill under the 10 Minute Rule in the House of Commons. The Bill sought to formalise the position of the Union Flag as the national flag of the UK in law, to remove legal obstacles to its regular display and to officially recognise the name ' Union Jack ' as having equal status with ' Union Flag '. However the Bill did not receive its second reading by the end of that parliamentary session.
The predecessor of the Union Jack, the flag of Great Britain, came into use in what is now Canada at the time of the Scottish settlement of Nova Scotia in 1621. The Union Flag was also the official flag of the Dominion of Newfoundland and continued in use there after Newfoundland became a Canadian province. The province adopted its own flag in 1980, employing a design based on that of the Union Flag.
At the close of the Great Canadian Flag Debate in 1964, which resulted in the adoption of the Maple Leaf Flag as Canada 's national flag the following year, a resolution was passed by both houses of the Canadian parliament naming the Union Flag as the Royal Union Flag and designating it as the symbol of Canada 's membership of the Commonwealth and its allegiance to the Crown. The move was a concession given to conservatives, who preferred to keep the old flag, with its Union Flag in the canton. A federal directive says the Royal Union Flag is to be flown alongside the Maple Leaf Flag at federal government buildings, federally - operated airports and military bases, and at the masthead of Her Majesty 's Canadian ships within Canadian waters on three days of the year: Commonwealth Day, the Canadian monarch 's official birthday, and the anniversary of the enactment of the Statute of Westminster 1931. The flag is to be raised only where there is more than one flag pole, to ensure the flag of Canada is not removed. The directive is sometimes followed, sometimes not.
Although the most common ratio is 1: 2, other ratios exist. The Royal Navy 's flag code book, BR20 Flags of All Nations, states that both 1: 2 and 3: 5 versions are official. The 3: 5 version is most commonly used by the British Army and is sometimes known as the War flag. In this version the innermost points of the lower left and upper right diagonals of the St Patrick 's cross are cut off or truncated.
The Queen 's Harbour Master 's flag, like the Pilot Jack, is a 1: 2 flag that contains a white - bordered Union Flag that is longer than 1: 2. The jacks of ships flying variants of the Blue Ensign are square and have a square Union Flag in the canton. The Queen 's Colours of Army regiments are 36 by 43 inches (910 mm × 1,090 mm); on them, the bars of the cross and saltire are of equal width; so are their respective fimbriations, which are very narrow.
The Union Flag was found in the canton (upper left - hand quarter) of the flags of many colonies of Britain, while the field (background) of their flags was the colour of the naval ensign flown by the particular Royal Navy squadron that patrolled that region of the world. Nations and colonies that have used the Union Flag at some stage have included Aden, Barbados, Borneo, Burma, Canada, Ceylon (now Sri Lanka), Cyprus, British East Africa (Kenya Colony), Gambia, Gold Coast (Ghana), Hong Kong, Jamaica, Lagos, Malta, Mauritius, Nigeria, Palestine, Penang (Malaysia), Rhodesia, Sierra Leone, Singapore, Somaliland, British India, Tanganyika, Trinidad, Uganda, and the United States. As former British Empire nations were granted independence, these and other versions of the Union Flag were decommissioned. The most recent decommissioning of the Union Flag came on 1 July 1997, when the former Dependent Territory of Hong Kong was handed over to the People 's Republic of China.
All administrative regions and territories of the United Kingdom fly the Union Jack in some form, with the exception of Gibraltar (other than the government ensign) and the Crown Dependencies. Outside the UK, the Union Jack is usually part of a special ensign in which it is placed in the upper left hand corner of a blue field, with a signifying crest in the bottom right.
Four former British colonies in Oceania which are now independent countries incorporate the Union Jack as part of their national flags: Australia, New Zealand and Tuvalu, which have retained the monarchy; and Fiji, which abolished the monarchy in 1987.
In former British colonies, the Union Jack was used semi-interchangeably with territorial flags for significant parts of their early history. This was the case in Canada until the introduction of the Maple Leaf Flag in 1965, but it is still used in the flags of a number of Canadian provinces such as British Columbia, Manitoba, and Ontario. Newfoundland and Labrador uses a modified version of the Union Flag, once the flag of the province.
Along with the national flag, many other Australian flags retain the use of the Union Jack, including the Royal Australian Navy Ensign (also known as the Australian White Ensign), the Royal Australian Air Force Ensign, the Australian Red Ensign (for use by merchant and private vessels), and the Australian Civil Aviation Ensign. The flags of all six Australian States retain the Union Jack in the canton, as do some regional flags such as the Upper and Lower Murray River Flags. The Vice-Regal flags of the State Governors also use the Union Jack.
The Basque Country 's flag, the Ikurriña, is also loosely based on the Union Jack, reflecting the significant commercial ties between Bilbao and Britain at the time the Ikurriña was designed in 1894. The Miskito people sometimes use a similar flag that also incorporates the Union Jack in its canton, due to long periods of contact in the Mosquito Coast.
The Union Jack was used by the United States in its first flag, the Grand Union Flag. This flag was of a similar design to the one used by the British East India Company. Hawaii, a state of the United States but located in the central Pacific, incorporates the Union Jack in its state flag. According to one story, the King of Hawaii asked the British mariner, George Vancouver, during a stop in Lahaina, what the piece of cloth flying from his ship was. Vancouver replied that it represented his king 's authority. The Hawaiian king then adopted and flew the flag as a symbol of his own royal authority not recognising its national derivation. Hawaii 's flag represents the only current use of the Union Jack in any American state flag.
Also in the United States, the Union Flag of 1606 is incorporated into the flag of Baton Rouge, the capital city of Louisiana. Baton Rouge was a British colony from the time of the Seven Years ' War until the end of the American Revolutionary War, when it was captured by Spanish and American forces. Symbols from the colonial powers France and Spain are also incorporated into the Baton Rouge flag. Taunton, Massachusetts, USA, has in recent years used a flag with the old style Union Flag. Likewise, Westmoreland County, Pennsylvania, has been known to fly a flag containing the King 's Colours since 1973.
The Union Jack also appeared on both the 1910 -- 1928 and 1928 -- 1994 flags of South Africa. The 1910 -- 1928 flag was a red ensign with the Union coat of arms in the fly. The 1928 -- 1994 flag, based on the Prinsenvlag and commonly known as the oranje - blanje - blou (orange - white - blue), contained the Union Jack as part of a central motif at par with the flags of the two Boer republics of the Orange Free State and Transvaal. To keep any one of the three flags from having precedence, the Union Jack is spread horizontally from the Orange Free State flag towards the hoist; closest to the hoist, it is in the superior position but since it is reversed it does not precede the other flags.
The coat of arms of the Chilean city of Coquimbo features the Union Jack, owing to its historical commercial links to Britain.
The Union Flag can be found in the canton of several of the ensigns flown by vessels and aircraft of the United Kingdom and its overseas territories. These are used in cases where it is illegal to fly the Union Flag, such as at sea from a ship other than a British warship. Normal practice for British ships is to fly the White ensign (Royal Navy), the Red ensign (Merchant and private boats) or the Blue ensign (government departments and public corporations). Similar ensigns are used by other countries (such as New Zealand and Australia) with the Union Flag in the canton. Other Commonwealth countries (such as India and Jamaica) may follow similar ensign etiquette as the UK, replacing the Union Flag with their own national flag.
The flag in a white border occasionally seen on merchant ships was sometimes referred to as the Pilot Jack. It can be traced back to 1823 when it was created as a signal flag, never intended as a civil jack. A book issued to British consuls in 1855 states that the white bordered Union Flag is to be hoisted for a pilot. Although there was some ambiguity regarding the legality of it being flown for any other purpose on civilian vessels, its use as an ensign or jack was established well in advance of the 1864 Act that designated the Red Ensign for merchant shipping. In 1970, the white - bordered Union Flag ceased to be the signal for a pilot, but references to it as national colours were not removed from the current Merchant Shipping Act and it was legally interpreted as a flag that could be flown on a merchant ship, as a jack if desired. This status was confirmed to an extent by the Merchant Shipping (Registration, etc.) Act 1993 and the consolidating Merchant Shipping Act 1995 which, in Section 4, Subsection 1, prohibits the use of any distinctive national colours or those used or resembling flags or pendants on Her Majesty 's Ships, "except the Red Ensign, the Union flag (commonly known as the Union Jack) with a white border '', and some other exceptions permitted elsewhere in the Acts. However, Section 2 regards the "British flag '', and states that "The flag which every British ship is entitled to fly is the Red Ensign (without any defacement or modification) and, subject to (a warrant from Her Majesty or from the Secretary of State, or an Order of Council from her Majesty regarding a defaced Red Ensign), no other colours. '' Many civil vessels continue to fly the white bordered Union Flag without official opposition, making it the de facto Civil Jack.
The Hudson 's Bay Company (HBC) was one of a few non-government institutions using the Union Jack in part of the flag. HBC rival North West Company had a similar flag as well. The HBC jack is no longer in use and replaced with a corporate flag featuring the company 's coat of arms.
The Union Jack is the third quarter of the 1939 coat of arms of Alabama, representing British sovereignty over the state prior to 1783. The version used is the modern flag, whereas the 1707 flag would have been used in colonial Alabama.
In July 2007, the British prime minister at the time, Gordon Brown, unveiled plans to have the Union Flag flown more often from government buildings. While consultation on new guidelines is under way, the decision to fly the flag may be made by each government department.
Previously the flag was generally only flown on public buildings on days marking the birthdays of members of the Royal Family, the wedding anniversary of the monarch, Commonwealth Day, Accession Day, Coronation Day, the Queen 's Official Birthday, Remembrance Sunday, and on the days of the State Opening and prorogation of Parliament. The Union Flag is flown at half mast from the announcement of the death of the Sovereign (save for Proclamation Day), or upon command of the Sovereign.
The current flag days where the Union Flag should be flown from government buildings throughout the UK are:
In addition, the Union Flag should be flown in the following areas on specified days:
On 30 November, (St Andrew 's Day), the Union Flag can be flown in Scotland only where a building has more than one flagpole -- on this day the Saltire will not be lowered to make way for the Union Flag if there is only one flagpole. This difference arose after Members of the Scottish Parliament complained that Scotland was the only country in the world that could not fly its national flag on its national day. However, on 23 April, St George 's Day, it is the Union Flag of the United Kingdom that is flown over United Kingdom 's government offices in England.
Non-government organisations may fly the Union Flag whenever they choose.
The Union Flag has no official status in the United Kingdom, and there are no national regulations concerning its use or prohibitions against flag desecration. In Northern Ireland, the Flags Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2000 provide for the flying of the flag on government buildings on certain occasions, when it is flown half mast, and how it is displayed with other flags.
The Flags and Heraldry Committee, an all - party parliamentary group lobbying for official standards, cooperated with the Flag Institute in 2010 to publish a set of recommended guidelines for the flag 's display and use as a symbol.
There is no specific way in which the Union Flag should be folded as there is with the United States Flag. It is usually folded rectilinearly, with the hoist on the outside, to be easily reattached to the pole.
Royal Navy Stores Duties Instructions, article 447, dated 26 February 1914, specified that flags condemned from further service use were to be torn up into small pieces and disposed of as rags (ADM 1 / 8369 / 56), not to be used for decoration or sold. The exception was flags that had flown in action: these could be framed and kept on board, or transferred to a "suitable place '', such as a museum (ADM 1 / 8567 / 245). Later disposal regulations were based on the U.S. model of destroying the flags.
In 2013 the Australian Flag Society announced a worldwide quest and a A $ 10,000 reward for information leading to the discovery of the Union Jack which was reportedly hoisted beneath the Eureka flag at the Battle of the Eureka Stockade.
As the de facto national flag of the United Kingdom, the Union Jack serves as a patriotic or nationalist symbol, and can also carry associations of militarism and imperialism.
Winston Churchill wrote about the use of the Union Jack as a symbol connected to British nationalism and imperialism. In March 1899 the young Churchill wrote to his mother from India about her plans to produce a new trans - Atlantic magazine, to be called The Anglo - Saxon Review. The drawing at the end of this letter was deliberately mischievous, teasing her for going down - market, and in the accompanying letter he wrote, ' Your title "The Anglo Saxon '' with its motto "Blood is thicker than water '' only needs the Union Jack & the Star Spangled Banner crossed on the cover to be suited to one of Harmsworth 's (a leading British newspaper owner) cheap Imperialist productions. '
The Union Flag has been a prominent symbol in the sphere of fashion since the British Invasion movement of the 1960s, in a similar manner to the American Stars and Stripes flag. A notable increase in popularity was seen in Cuba following the 2012 summer Olympics, with clothing, nail decoration, tattoos, and hairstyles in youths being observed featuring the pattern.
Commonly the Union Flag is used on computer software and Internet pages as an icon representing a choice of the English language where a choice among multiple languages may be presented to the user. The flag has been embroidered on various Reebok equipment as a mark of the brand 's British origin, and the Reebok Union Jack has been referred to as a brand icon. Many music artists have used the Union flag ranging from rock artists The Who, Sex Pistols, Freddie Mercury, Morrissey, Oasis, Iron Maiden, and Def Leppard, to the pop girl group the Spice Girls.
Battle scene from Ray Wenban 's The Revolt at Eureka.
A folk cartoon inspired by the 1854 Eureka Rebellion entitled Fall back with the Eureka Jack.
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did jennifer lopez sing the songs in the movie selena | Jennifer Lopez - Wikipedia
Jennifer Lynn Lopez (born July 24, 1969) is an American singer, actress, dancer and producer. In 1991, Lopez appeared as a Fly Girl dancer on In Living Color, where she remained a regular until she decided to pursue an acting career in 1993. For her first leading role in the 1997 Selena biopic of the same name, Lopez received a Golden Globe nomination and became the first Latin actress to earn over US $1 million for a film. She went on to star in the adventure horror Anaconda (1997) and crime comedy Out of Sight (1998), later establishing herself as the highest - paid Latin actress in Hollywood.
Lopez ventured into the music industry in 1999 with her debut studio album On the 6, which spawned the Billboard Hot 100 top - ten singles "If You Had My Love '' and "Waiting for Tonight ''. With the simultaneous release of her second studio album J. Lo and her romantic comedy The Wedding Planner in 2001, Lopez became the first woman to have a number one album and film in the same week. J. Lo produced the top - ten singles "Love Do n't Cost a Thing '' and "I 'm Real ''. Her 2002 remix album, J to tha L -- O! The Remixes, became the first in history to debut at number one on the U.S. Billboard 200, and includes the number one single "Ai n't It Funny (Murder Remix) ''. Later that year, she released her third studio album, This Is Me... Then, which contains the singles "Jenny from the Block '' and "All I Have '', and appeared in Maid in Manhattan.
After starring in Gigli (2003), a critical and commercial failure, Lopez subsequently starred in the successful romantic comedies Shall We Dance? (2004) and Monster - in - Law (2005). Her fifth studio album, Como Ama una Mujer (2007), received the highest first - week sales for a debut Spanish album in the United States. Following a relatively unsuccessful period, she returned to prominence in 2011 with her appearance as a judge on American Idol and most commercially successful single to date, "On the Floor '', which is one of the best - selling singles of all time. The following year, she embarked on the Dance Again World Tour, her first international tour. In 2016, she began starring in the crime drama series Shades of Blue and commenced a residency show, Jennifer Lopez: All I Have, at Planet Hollywood Las Vegas.
With a cumulative film gross of over US $2.9 billion and global record sales exceeding 80 million, she is regarded as the most influential Hispanic performer in the United States, as well as its highest - paid Latin entertainer. Time listed her as one of the 25 most influential Hispanic Americans, and in 2012, Forbes ranked her as the most powerful celebrity in the world, as well as the 38th most powerful woman in the world. For her contributions to the music industry, Lopez has received a landmark star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame and the Billboard Icon Award among other honors. Her other ventures include clothing lines, fragrances, a production company, and a charitable foundation. She has been divorced three times and gave birth to twins in 2008 with then - husband Marc Anthony.
Jennifer Lynn Lopez was born on July 24, 1969, in the Castle Hill neighborhood of The Bronx, New York, to Puerto Rican parents Guadalupe Rodríguez and David López. She has an older sister, Leslie, and a younger sister, Lynda, a journalist. David worked the night shift at the Guardian Insurance Company before becoming a computer technician at the firm, while Guadalupe was a homemaker. When Lopez was born, the family was living in a small apartment. A few years later, her parents had saved up enough money to be able to purchase a two - story house, which was considered a big deal for the relatively poor family. At the age of five, Lopez began taking singing and dancing lessons. She toured New York with her school when she was seven years old. Her parents stressed the importance of work ethic and being able to speak English. They encouraged their three daughters to put on performances at home -- singing and dancing in front of each other and their friends so that they would stay "out of trouble ''. Lopez spent her entire academic career in Catholic schools, finishing at Preston High School. In school, Lopez did gymnastics, ran track on a national level, and was a member of the school 's softball team. She excelled athletically rather than academically, competing in national track championships.
While attending her final year of high school, Lopez learned about a film casting that was seeking several teenage girls for small roles. She auditioned and was cast in My Little Girl (1986), a low - budget film co-written and directed by Connie Kaiserman. Lopez acted as Myra, a young woman at a center for troubled girls. After she finished filming her role in the film, Lopez realized that she wanted to become a "famous movie star ''. To please her parents, though, she enrolled in Baruch College, only to drop out after one semester. She told her parents about her dream of becoming a movie star, but they insisted that it was a "really stupid '' idea and that "no Latinos did that ''. The differences in opinions led Lopez to move out of their family home and into an apartment in Manhattan. During this period, Lopez performed in regional productions of the musicals Jesus Christ Superstar and Oklahoma!. From there, she was hired for the chorus in a Golden Musicals of Broadway, which toured Europe for five months. She was unhappy with the role, as she was the only member of the chorus not to have a solo. She later got a job on the show Synchronicity in Japan, where she acted as a dancer, singer, and choreographer.
Lopez was selected as a backup dancer for the New Kids on the Block in 1991 and performed with them during their performance of "Games '' at the 18th Annual American Music Awards. Shortly after, Lopez gained her first regular high - profile job as a Fly Girl dancer on the television program In Living Color. She applied for the job after one of the cast members was unable to continue with the show. Out of 2,000 applicants, Lopez made it to the finals. She was the runner - up but eventually received the role when the winner was unable to accept the job. She moved to Los Angeles to film the series and remained a regular cast member until 1993, when she decided to pursue a full - time acting career. Prior to leaving the show, Lopez briefly worked as a backup dancer for American recording artist Janet Jackson. Lopez was set to tour with Jackson on her Janet World Tour in late 1993 but backed out as she wanted to do her "own thing ''.
Lopez received her first professional acting gig in the direct - to - video drama film Lost in the Wild (1993), co-starring with Lindsay Wagner and Robert Loggia. Later in 1993, Lopez signed a deal with CBS to co-star in the television series Second Chances. Lopez received her first major big - screen role in Gregory Nava 's 1995 drama My Family portraying Young Maria. Although her role was uncredited, Lopez received an Independent Spirit Award for Best Supporting Female nomination for her performance. In November 1995, Lopez starred in Money Train alongside Wesley Snipes and Woody Harrelson as New York City transit cops. In August 1996, Lopez had a supporting role in the comedy Jack.
In February 1997, Lopez starred alongside Jack Nicholson and Stephen Dorff in the neo-noir thriller Blood and Wine. Lopez starred as the title role of the Selena biopic of the same name in March. Despite having previously worked with the film 's director on My Family, Lopez was subjected to an intense auditioning process before she was cast in the film. Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times stated that even in the "forgettable films '' Money Train, and Jack, Lopez 's "presence and ability made her seem just one role away from stardom '' and with Selena she 's "seized the opportunity and turned in an incandescent presentation that is especially strong during the film 's numerous musical numbers ''. He concluded by calling the film not just a celebration of Selena 's life, but also of the actress who portrayed her. The announcement was described as the "role of a lifetime. '' from news outlets and Lopez 's salary for the film was reported at $1 million, which made Lopez the highest - paid Hispanic actress in history. After filming Selena, Lopez was "really feeling (her) Latin roots '' and cut a demo in Spanish. Lopez 's manager then sent the song, titled "Vivir Sin Ti '' (Living without You), to Sony Music Entertainment 's Work Group, who showed an interest in signing Lopez. Tommy Mottola, the head of the label suggested to her that she sing in English instead.
In April, Lopez starred in the horror film Anaconda alongside Ice Cube and Jon Voight. Lopez starred alongside Sean Penn and Billy Bob Thornton in the crime film U Turn in October. The film, which is based on the novel Stray Dogs by John Ridley, received somewhat positive reviews from critics. In June, Lopez starred opposite George Clooney in Out of Sight, Steven Soderbergh 's adaptation of Elmore Leonard 's novel of the same name (1996). Cast as a deputy federal marshal who falls for a charming criminal, Lopez won rave reviews for her performance. Lopez provided the voice of Azteca in the computer - animated film Antz in October.
Lopez 's debut single, "If You Had My Love '', was released in May 1999, as she began to ready her first album. Lopez became the first artist to top the Billboard Hot 100 with a debut single since Britney Spears did so with her single "... Baby One More Time '' four months prior. During production of her debut album, On the 6, Lopez was aware that she received her recording contract on the basis of her looks and an already established name in the entertainment industry, and she wanted to prove she had musical talent. Prior to the debut of her music, critics wondered why she would take the risk of launching a music career. It was noted that: "If the album was a flop, not only would it embarrass Lopez, but it might even damage her career. '' "Waiting for Tonight '', the third single from On the 6, is widely considered to be Lopez 's best song. Lopez 's musical success came as a surprise to critics; its launch made the "popular actor even more popular ''. Both the music industry and the public became intrigued by "this woman who seemed to have so many different talents ''. By the end of 1999, Lopez successfully converted herself from a film star to a pop star. She joined a select few in achieving this feat, becoming the first since Vanessa Williams (1992) and Martika (1989).
On February 23, 2000, Lopez, accompanied by then boyfriend Sean Combs, wore a plunging exotic green Versace silk chiffon dress on the red carpet of the 42nd Annual Grammy Awards. The dress "had a low - cut neck that extended several inches below her navel, where it was loosely fastened with a sparkly brooch and then opened out again, '' exposing her midriff and then as cut along the front of the legs like a bath robe. The dress generated controversy and media attention, with images of Lopez in the dress being downloaded from the Grammy website over half a million times 24 hours after the event. Lopez was surprised by the enormous media coverage, declaring that she had no idea "it was going to become such a big deal ''. This dress was the main reason that the chairman of Google, Eric Schmidt said they invented a way to search for images, creating Google Images. Lopez returned to the big - screen in August, starring in the psychological thriller The Cell opposite Vincent D'Onofrio.
During the process of recording her second album, Lopez decided to tweak her image as she began to develop into a sex symbol. She started going by J. Lo, something fans often called her. She subsequently named the album J. Lo. Released on January 23, 2001, it was a commercial success, debuting at number one on the US Billboard 200. During the same week, her romantic comedy film The Wedding Planner in which she starred opposite Matthew McConaughey opened atop the box office. This made her the first woman to have a number one film and album simultaneously in the United States. The album was preceded by the release of its lead single, "Love Do n't Cost a Thing '', which reached number one on the Billboard Mainstream Top 40 chart. It was followed by the single "Play ''. In April 2001, Lopez launched J. Lo by Jennifer Lopez, her own clothing and accessory company. Lopez felt that "the voluptuous woman (was) almost ignored '' in the fashion industry, and therefore her company specialized in clothing women of all shapes. The following month, she starred in the romantic drama film Angel Eyes, which performed disappointingly at the box office and generated mixed reviews. After several months, J. Lo was declining on the charts; this prompted Mottola to recruit rapper Ja Rule to create an urban - oriented remix of the song "I 'm Real ''. This led to the release of "I 'm Real (Murder Remix) '', which quickly reached number one on the Billboard Hot 100. Its success resulted in J. Lo being reissued to include the single, which was number one in the United States during the week of the September 11 attacks. J. Lo became the best - selling album of Lopez 's career, having sold 3.8 million copies in the US and moved over 12 million units worldwide.
Having redefined Lopez 's sound with "I 'm Real (Murder Remix) '', Epic decided to release further remixes in order to "keep the momentum going ''. A remix album entitled J to tha L -- O! The Remixes was subsequently released on February 5, 2002. It debuted at the summit of the Billboard 200, making it the first remix album to do so. Its lead single, "Ai n't It Funny (Murder Remix) '', featuring Ja Rule and Caddillac Tah, reached number one in the US. J to tha L -- O! The Remixes became one of the best - selling remix albums of all time, selling 1.5 million copies in the US. It produced two more singles: "I 'm Gonna Be Alright '' and "Alive '', a ballad co-written by her husband at the time, Cris Judd. In April 2002, Lopez opened her restaurant, Madrè 's. The following month, she starred in the thriller film Enough, which was described by the Boston Herald as a "kick - but, female empowerment '' film. While filming Enough, which required an overworked Lopez to practice Krav Maga, she suffered a nervous breakdown. She recalled feeling "sick and weird '', refusing therapeutic help or medication. She confessed, "I was like -- I do n't want to move, I do n't want to talk, I do n't want to do anything. '' In September, she released her first fragrance, Glow by JLo. It performed strongly despite predictions that it would fail, and became the top - selling fragrance in the US.
Lopez 's third studio album, This Is Me... Then, was released on November 25, 2002. It was dedicated to actor Ben Affleck, her fiancé at the time. The album 's lead single "Jenny from the Block '', was later described by Sam Lansky of MTV News as her most iconic single. In the song, Lopez "intones her modest childhood roots ''. The album itself performed strongly, selling 2.6 million copies in the US. Its second single, "All I Have '', peaked at number one in the US. That December, Lopez starred opposite Ralph Fiennes in the romantic comedy Maid in Manhattan, which became the highest - grossing film of her career.
In August 2003, Lopez starred opposite Affleck in the romantic comedy Gigli. The film was a box office bomb, and is considered one of the worst films of all time. The film 's poor reception was attributed to negative press preceding its release, as well as the media attention surrounding Lopez and Affleck 's engagement which largely overshadowed the film. Lopez would later describe this as the lowest point of her career, saying "(It) was very tough '', "the tabloid press had just come into existence at the time, so I was like a poster child for that moment. '' In October of that year, she released her next fragrance, Still Jennifer Lopez. Lopez also launched her next fashion label, Sweetface. It was described by Andy Hilfiger as a "more intellectual, more inspirational collection than J - Lo by Jennifer Lopez. Less sporty, more suede. '' Lopez 's clothing lines and two fragrances generated over $300 million in revenue throughout 2004, which made her the 19th richest person under 40.
In March 2004, Lopez had a minor role in the film Jersey Girl, alongside Affleck. Her character, Gertrude Steiney, dies during childbirth within the first 15 minutes of the film. From the intense media scrutiny following the couple 's break - up, it was noted that "they may need to put Lopez in a coffin on the poster if they want anyone to come ''. In October, Lopez co-starred alongside Richard Gere in the drama Shall We Dance?, a re-make of the 1996 Japanese film of the same title. The film was successful at the box office, and was considered a rebound for Lopez following Gigli.
After placing her career on hiatus, Lopez released her fourth studio album, Rebirth, in February 2005. According to Lopez, Rebirth "came about because I was on such a roller - coaster ride, that was my career from my first album to my last album, and I did a bunch of movie projects in between. I finally took some time just for myself, and (when) I came back, this was the first project I did. I felt like it was a new beginning for me, like I was, in a way, reborn. '' Tracy Hopkins of NBC 's Today Music noted that after "fawning '' over Affleck on This Is Me... Then ", Lopez "wisely keeps her love life out of the spotlight '' on Rebirth and only references her relationship with Anthony on a few tracks. The album produced the single "Get Right '', which peaked at number one in the United Kingdom. In May, she starred alongside Jane Fonda in the romantic comedy Monster - in - Law, for which she received a salary of $15 million. The film 's marketing played up Lopez 's "Gigli - and - tabloid tarnished image '', and it became a box office success. In August, Lopez starred alongside Robert Redford and Morgan Freeman in An Unfinished Life, a drama film based on the novel of the same name.
In April 2006, Lopez reappeared on the Billboard Hot 100 as a featured artist on "Control Myself '', the lead single from LL Cool J 's twelfth studio album Todd Smith. The song peaked at number four on the chart following its release as a music download, making it the pair 's second collaboration to reach the top five. Bordertown, a film based on the Female homicides in Ciudad Juárez, made its premiere at the Cannes Film Festival on May 18, 2006. Lopez, who also acts as the film 's producer, stars as Lauren Adrian, an American news reporter for the Chicago Sentinel who wants to be assigned to the Iraq front - lines to cover the war. Bordertown received a direct - to - video release. DanceLife, a reality series following the lives of seven dancers trying to break into the world of professional dance, aired on MTV from January 15 to March 5, 2007. Lopez produced, created and was featured in the show. According to the album 's co-producer Estéfano, Lopez 's fifth studio album Como Ama una Mujer would "prove critics wrong '' with its "big songs that require a voice ''; referring to the criticism of Lopez having a "limited '' vocal tone. The album 's lead single "Qué Hiciste '' reached number one on Billboard 's Hot Latin Songs chart. Lopez performed the song on the sixth season of American Idol on April 11, 2007, becoming the first person to perform a Spanish song on the series. The album received the highest first - week sales in the United States for a Spanish album and the highest digital sales.
In September 2007, Lopez starred in the biographical film El Cantante, which is based on the life of the late salsa singer Héctor Lavoe. In the film, Lavoe is portrayed by then - husband Marc Anthony while Lopez plays Lavoe 's wife Puchi. Lopez revealed that she felt her performance in the film El Cantante should have earned her an Oscar. "I feel like I had that (Oscar worthy role) in ' El Cantante, ' but I do n't think the academy members saw it ''. El Cantante did not perform well at the box office, earning just $7.6 million. Lopez and Anthony also launched their co-headlining North American concert tour on September 28. Lopez 's sixth studio album Brave, released in October, was her lowest - charting album worldwide. The album produced two singles, "Do It Well '' and "Hold It Do n't Drop It ''. The first peaked at number 31 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart, while the latter failed to make any significant impact on the charts. A five - part miniseries, Jennifer Lopez Presents: Como Ama una Mujer, based on the lyrics of Como Ama una Mujer aired on Univision from October 30 to November 27, 2007. She placed her career on hiatus after giving birth to twins in February 2008. In late 2009, Lopez released two songs for her seventh studio album, Love? ("Louboutins '' and "Fresh Out of the Oven ''); however, the songs failed to make an appearance on the Billboard charts which led to her departure from Epic Records.
Lopez parted ways with Epic Records in February 2010, citing that she had fulfilled her contractual obligations and now wished to release her seventh studio album Love? under a new label. Her departure from the label temporarily halted production on the album, which commenced in 2009. Upon signing a new contract with Island Records, recording resumed on the album. The New York Daily News revealed that Lopez would be taking some of the records recorded under Sony Music Entertainment to her new label so that they could be included on the album. In April, Lopez starred in the romantic comedy The Back - up Plan, her first theatrical role in three years. In June, following the departure of Ellen DeGeneres from American Idol, it was reported that Lopez was in talks to join season ten 's judging panel. During this same time, Lopez and Anthony were being considered for a role on The X Factor for their appeal to Latin and International markets. It was officially announced in September that Lopez would be joining the tenth season of American Idol. MTV stated that the deal was "mutually beneficial to all those involved '', while CNN reported that Lopez was viewing it as a decision to revive her career, while American Idol producers believed that Lopez and Steven Tyler 's appointments would strengthen viewing figures. In October, Lopez released her fourteenth fragrance, Love and Glamour. The perfume was inspired by Lopez 's forthcoming "return to the spotlight ''.
L'Oreal Paris named Lopez their new Global Ambassador and the face of their brands, including EverPure hair care, Preference hair color and Youth Code skin care. Her EverSleek hair care ads made their debut in early 2011, to coincide with the release of Love? and her debut as a judge on American Idol. To further promote her comeback, in February, Venus chose Lopez as their new Global Ambassador. Lopez 's comeback single "On the Floor '' was released later that same month. The song topped the charts across the globe, becoming one of the most successful singles of the year. The song also became her highest charting single commercially as a lead artist, as well as her most successful airplay hit on contemporary hit radio, since "Jenny from the Block ''. Love?, which was released in May, was a moderate commercial success, and was viewed as a humble comeback from Lopez, as many had considered her recording career over. Lopez launched her next fragrance Love and Light in July, exclusively on HSN. 51,000 bottles of the fragrance were sold at its premiere, becoming Lopez 's most successful fragrance launch to date, making over $2.9 million. In September, Lopez launched the Jennifer Lopez Collection, a clothing and accessories line for Kohl 's with Tommy Hilfiger. In addition to the clothing line, she also launched the Jennifer Lopez Home Collection, featuring bedding, towels and luggage. Later that same month Fiat, an Italian automobile manufacturer, enlisted Lopez to promote their products, including the 2012 Fiat 500 Cabrio. Olivier Francois, the Chrysler chief marketing officer, stated that she "fits perfectly with the brand ''.
In January 2012, Lopez returned as a judge on the eleventh season of American Idol, earning a reported $20 million. Later that same month, a new talent show, ¡ Q'Viva! The Chosen, created by Simon Fuller premiered on Univision and was a hit for the channel. It followed Lopez, Anthony and director - choeographer Jamie King as they travelled across 21 countries in Latin America to find new talent for a Las Vegas show. On May 18, Lopez returned to the big screen starring alongside an ensemble cast consisting of Cameron Diaz, Elizabeth Banks, Matthew Morrison and Dennis Quaid in the film What to Expect When You 're Expecting, which is based on the novel of the same name. In late May, Lopez released her fragrance Glowing by JLo, which she described as an "evolution '' of Glow by JLo.
Lopez launched the Dance Again World Tour, her first headlining concert tour, on June 14. It was a lucrative, grossing over $1 million per show. On July 12, she launched Teeology, a luxury T - shirt e-commerce. Lopez voiced Shira, a saber tooth tiger, in the animated film, Ice Age: Continental Drift, the fourth film in the Ice Age franchise. The film became her highest opening weekend figure.
Lopez 's first greatest hits album, Dance Again... the Hits, was released on July 24, 2012 in the United States. It was released by Epic Records, as Lopez owed them one final album to end her contract, despite previously announcing that she had fulfilled her contract with the label. Lopez, who was going through a divorce with Anthony and the "breakup of a family '', felt as if the album 's sole single, "Dance Again '', had come to her at the "perfect moment ''. "Dance Again '' and "Goin ' In '', a single from the soundtrack of the dance film Step Up Revolution, both reached the top of the Billboard Hot Dance Club Songs, giving Lopez her twelfth and thirteenth number one on that chart, respectively. nuvoTV announced in September its premier partnership with Lopez, that will see her work on the creative side of the network, managing marketing and program production with her production company, Nuyorican Productions, as well as periodically appearing in network programming.
In January 2013, Lopez starred alongside Jason Statham in the crime thriller Parker, in which she played Leslie. Her performance earned positive reviews, with Chicago Tribune commending the role for giving Lopez "an opportunity to be dramatic, romantic, funny, depressed, euphoric and violent. The audience stays with her all the way ''. The following month, she gained widespread notoriety for wearing a daring black dress at the Grammy Awards, which revealed her entire right leg; despite a conservative dress code which had been issued to celebrities in attendance. In May, Lopez was announced as the chief creative officer of nuvoTV. In addition, she founded the mobile phone retail brand Viva Móvil, which is catered specifically for Latinos. She lobbied for more Hispanic diversity on television, hoping to empower the Latin community in these media ventures, stating: "There 's a big revolution going on, it 's like a media and cultural revolution of Latinos here in the United States. We 're realizing our power. We 're realizing that we matter here. '' Inspired by her gay aunt who had recently died, Lopez signed on as executive producer of the television series The Fosters, which is about a same - sex couple raising a family. The show premiered on ABC Family on June 3, 2013, and has since been a ratings success for the network. Later that June, Lopez performed at the birthday of Turkmenistan President Gurbanguly Berdymukhamedov. Doing so, she garnered widespread backlash for performing for the leader of a "repressive, authoritarian regime ''. Her publicist released an apology. Lopez returned as judge on American Idol for its thirteenth season for a reported salary of $17.5 million. She was ranked as the fifth highest - paid woman in music for 2013, having earned $45 million.
After the conclusion of her Dance Again World Tour, Lopez began recording her eighth studio album, A.K.A., inspired by her travels. It was released in June 2014 through Capitol Records, experiencing lackluster sales. The album produced three singles: "I Luh Ya Papi '', which features French Montana, "First Love '', and "Booty '', featuring Pitbull or rapper Iggy Azalea. "Booty '' debuted inside the top twenty in the United States, making it her second - highest debut on the Billboard Hot 100 after "On the Floor ''. In April, the official song for the 2014 FIFA World Cup performed by Pitbull, Lopez and Brazilian recording artist Claudia Leitte, "We Are One (Ole Ola) '', was released. She was ranked as the sixth highest - paid woman in music for the year, earning $37 million. In November 2014, Lopez partnered with Endless Jewelry, designing a range of new jewelry products. That month, she also released first her book, True Love, which became a New York Times best - seller.
January 2015 saw the release of The Boy Next Door, an erotic thriller that Lopez both co-produced and starred in as a high school teacher who becomes involved with a student, which eventually leads to his dangerous obsession with her. The film received negative reviews from critics. Despite this, it became her most successful opening at the box office for a live action film since Monster - in - Law, and ultimately grossed over $55 million at the global box office, against a production budget of $4 million. The following month, she unveiled her next fragrance, JLuxe. Lopez had a voice role in the animated feature Home, alongside Steve Martin, Jim Parsons, and Rihanna, and released in March 2015. She contributed the single "Feel the Light '' to the film 's official soundtrack. Lopez also starred in the independent drama film Lila & Eve, alongside Viola Davis. With annual earnings of $28.5 million, she was ranked as the seventh highest - paid woman in music for 2015.
Lopez stars as Detective Harlee Santos in NBC 's crime drama series Shades of Blue (also serving as an executive producer), a single mother and police detective who goes undercover for the FBI to investigate her own squad. It premiered on January 7, 2016, giving the network its most - watched Thursday debut in seven years with 8.6 million viewers. Lopez 's performance received positive reviews. Shades of Blue was renewed for a second season, which premiered in March 2017. That same month, the series was renewed for a third season. In May 2015, she announced her Las Vegas residency concert show, which commenced on January 20, 2016, the first of twenty initial dates. Titled All I Have, it takes place at Planet Hollywood 's The AXIS theater. The residency has been lucrative, and Lopez signed a three - year contract which will see her perform 120 shows. In March 2016, six years after announcing her departure, she announced her return to Epic Records, signing a multi-album deal with the label. Her first single since returning to Epic, "Ai n't Your Mama '', was released the following month. With earnings of $39.5 million, she was among the highest - paid female artists from June 2015 to June 2016. Lopez reprised her voice role as Shira in the animated film Ice Age: Collision Course, which was released in July 2016.
In collaboration with Giuseppe Zanotti, Lopez designed a capsule collection of shoes and jewelry. Giuseppe for Jennifer Lopez launched in January 2017. In July 2016, Lopez announced a new dance competition series entitled World of Dance, for which she serves as an executive producer and judge. Created in partnership with World of Dance, the series was greenlit by NBC with a straight - to - series order for ten episodes. World of Dance premiered on May 30, 2017; with 9.7 million viewers, it became the most - watched premiere for a summer alternative series in nine years. According to Forbes, Lopez was the eleventh highest - paid female celebrity between June 2016 and June 2017, with earnings of $38 million.
Lopez is working on her second full length Spanish album, which is set to be released through Sony Music Latin; Marc Anthony serves as an executive producer for the project. It is titled Por Primera Vez, which translates to For the First Time in English. The album 's lead single, "Ni Tú Ni Yo '' (featuring Cuban reggaeton group Gente de Zona), was released on in July 2017. The second single "Amor, Amor, Amor '' featuring Wisin followed in November 2017.
Lopez is set to star in the comedy film Mothers I 'd Like To..., for which she will also serve as a producer through her production company. She will star as drug lord Griselda Blanco in a television film for HBO, which will focus on the "rise and fall '' of Blanco. She will once more serve as an executive producer for the film, which is currently in development. She will also produce and star in a romantic comedy film Second Act, which will be directed by Peter Segal. As an executive producer, Lopez is also developing an untitled legal drama for CBS and futuristic drama series entitled C.R.I.S.P.R. for NBC. Sometime in 2019, Lopez is set to executive produce and star in NBC 's Bye Bye Birdie Live!, a live television production of the stage musical of the same name.
Lopez 's personal life has attracted widespread media attention. From February 22, 1997, to January 1998, she was married to Cuban waiter Ojani Noa. Since their brief marriage, Lopez has endured many legal troubles regarding her relationship with Noa. In April 2006, she sued to prevent him from publishing a book about their marriage, contending that it violated their confidentiality agreement. The following year, a court - appointed arbitrator issued a permanent injunction forbidding Noa from "criticizing, denigrating, casting in a negative light or otherwise disparaging '' Lopez. She was awarded $545,000 in compensatory damages and Noa was ordered to hand over all copies of materials related to the book to Lopez or her attorney. A lawsuit regarding a compromising private honeymoon video in Noa 's possession is presently running.
While working on her first album, On the 6, Lopez began dating record producer and rapper Sean Combs. On December 27, 1999, the couple was arrested along with two others in connection with a shooting outside the Times Square Club in New York. They were charged with criminal possession of a weapon as well as stolen property. Lopez was soon exonerated, having had nothing to do with the crime. However, Combs was charged and indicted by a Manhattan grand jury. After leaving Combs, Lopez developed a relationship with former back - up dancer Cris Judd, to whom she was married from September 29, 2001, to June 2002. Following her second divorce due to irreconcilable differences, she commenced a high - profile relationship with actor and director Ben Affleck, to whom she became engaged in November 2002. The media began to refer to them as "Bennifer '', and they became a prominent supercouple in the media and popular culture. Bennifer became a popular term, which was eventually entered into urban dictionaries and neologism dictionaries as notable, as the name blend started the trend of other celebrity couples being referred to by the combination of their first names. The couple postponed their nuptials indefinitely a day prior to the planned ceremony in September 2003, citing the media 's interference with the event as the reason.
Following her break - up with Affleck in January 2004, Lopez began dating her longtime friend, Marc Anthony (real name: Marco Antonio Muñiz). The couple wed that June, and lived in Brookville, New York. Two men attempted to ransom a private wedding video that was stolen from the couple for one million dollars; however, they were arraigned in Manhattan Criminal Court on charges of conspiracy, attempted grand larceny and possession of stolen property. On November 7, 2007, during the final night of their co-headlining tour, Lopez and Anthony officially confirmed that they were expecting their first child. The announcement ended months of speculation over the pregnancy. Her father confirmed that the couple were expecting twins, revealing that it runs in the family: "My sister also had twins, so it 's a hereditary thing. '' Lopez, who is a Roman Catholic, has stated that her faith discouraged her from pursuing in vitro fertilization treatment while trying to get pregnant.
Lopez gave birth to a son, Maximilian David, and a daughter, Emme Maribel, in Long Island, New York, on February 22, 2008. The twins were introduced in the March 11, 2008, issue of People, for which the magazine paid a reported $6 million; the photographs of the twins became the most expensive celebrity picture ever taken at the time. Three years later in July 2011, the couple announced their split, with Anthony filing for divorce in April 2012. Their divorce was finalized on June 16, 2014, with Lopez retaining primary physical custody of the two children. On December 31, 2014, she legally changed her name back to Jennifer Lopez, dropping Anthony 's last name (Muñiz).
Lopez had an on - off relationship with her former backup dancer Casper Smart from October 2011 to August 2016. In February 2017, she began dating former New York Yankees baseball player Alex Rodriguez.
In March 2018, Lopez opened up about her own Me Too movement story of being sexually harassed by a director early on in her career, when she was asked to take her top off during one of her first films. Lopez has also been an active advocate for the Time 's Up movement.
Following the September 11 attacks, Lopez was heavily involved in charitable activities. Joining various other artists, she was featured on charitable singles such as "What 's Going On '' and "El Ultimo Adios (The Last Goodbye) '', which benefited people affected by the tragedy. One dollar from each ticket sold at Lopez and Anthony 's co-headlining North American concert tour, which grossed an estimated $10 million, was donated to Run for Something Better -- a charitable organization supporting physical fitness programs for children. In February 2007, Lopez was honored with the Artists for Amnesty prize by the human rights organisation Amnesty International, for her work in the film Bordertown, which shed light on the hundreds of female homicides in Ciudad Juárez. Lopez described it as "one of the world 's most shocking and disturbing, underreported crimes against humanity. ''
In 2009, Lopez launched the Lopez Family Foundation (originally known as the Maribel Foundation) alongside her sister, Lynda. The nonprofit organization seeks to increase the availability of healthcare for underprivileged women and children, offering a telemedicine program supported by a partnership with the Children 's Hospital Los Angeles. The foundation has led to the expansion of medical facilities in Panama and Puerto Rico, and created the Center for a Healthy Childhood at the Montefiore Medical Center in the Bronx.
In December 2012, Lopez held a charity drive that would affect her three favorite charities: the Gloria Wise Boys and Girls Club, the Children 's Hospital of Los Angeles as well as the American Red Cross, mainly benefiting victims of Hurricane Sandy, which devastated parts of her home town, New York City. In May 2015, she became the first national celebrity spokesperson for the Children 's Miracle Network Hospitals and the BC Children 's Hospital Foundation (BCCHF), appearing in a campaign entitled "Put Your Money Where the Miracles Are ''. That September, Lopez was announced as the first Global Advocate for Girls and Women at the United Nations Foundation. This role sees her mobilizing action to address challenges faced by girls and women around the world, including maternal health care programs, education and violence against women. In September 2017, following Hurricane Irma and Hurricane Maria, Lopez announced that she would be donating $1 million from the proceeds of her Las Vegas residency to humanitarian aid for Puerto Rico. Along with ex-husband Marc Anthony, she launched a humanitarian relief campaign entitled Somos Una Voz (English: We Are One Voice), an effort supported by various celebrities to rush supplies to areas affected by Hurricane Maria. Lopez and Anthony presented a subsequent concert and telethon for disaster relief, "One Voice: Somos Live! '', which raised over $35 million. She was also among various artists featured on Lin - Manuel Miranda 's charity single "Almost Like Praying '' which benefits Puerto Rico.
Lopez is an avid supporter of LGBT rights, and has raised millions of dollars for HIV / AIDS research. In June 2013, amfAR presented Lopez with its humanitarian award for her philanthropic work. That September, she was awarded the Ally for Equality award presented by the Human Rights Campaign, for her support of the LGBT community. The following year, she received the GLAAD Vanguard Award. In July 2016, Lopez released a single entitled "Love Make the World Go Round '', a collaboration with Lin - Manuel Miranda, which benefits victims of the 2016 Orlando nightclub shooting. She was also featured on the song "Hands '' along with numerous other artists, also benefiting those affected by the Orlando shooting. Among numerous other artists, Lopez signed an open letter from Billboard magazine to the United States Congress in 2016, which demanded action on gun control.
Lopez endorsed President Barack Obama in his 2012 presidential campaign, speaking in television advertisements and attending a fundraising event for Obama in Paris. She endorsed Democratic presidential nominee Hillary Clinton in 2016, headlining a free concert in Florida in support of her that October.
According to author Ed Morales in The Latin Beat: The Rhythms And Roots Of Latin Music From Bossa Nova To Salsa And Beyond (2003), Lopez 's music explores the "romantic innocence '' of Latin music, while strongly identifying with hip hop. Growing up, she was influenced by Latin styles ranging from salsa to bachata, but it was the 1979 hip hop song "Rapper 's Delight '' by The Sugarhill Gang that she said changed her life. Her debut album On the 6 fuses the influence of Latin music with R&B and hip hop, which Lopez described as Latin soul. To the contrary, Morales described it as "state - of - the - art dance pop ''. Dee Lockett, writing for the Chicago Tribune, stated that songs such as "Waiting for Tonight '' made Lopez "arguably the leading artist in the dance - pop movement at the time ''. While primarily sung in English, she speaks in Spanish and asserts her Latin heritage throughout the album, which is apparent in the song "Let 's Get Loud ''. She has also recorded bilingual songs, including the Latin pop song "Cariño '', for her second album J. Lo. A departure from her previous albums, This Is Me... Then blends 1970s soul with "streetwise '' hip hop. "Get Right '', from Rebirth, is built around a sample of "Soul Power 74 '' by Maceo and the Macks, and is characterized by a repetitive saxophone riff. The New York Times called it "one of the year 's most unusual R&B songs '' which sounded "like nothing else on the radio ''.
Described as autobiographical, much of Lopez 's music has centered around the "ups and downs '' of love. The lyrical content of This Is Me... Then is largely focused on her relationship with Ben Affleck, with the song "Dear Ben '' being described as the album 's "glowing centerpiece ''. Her first full length Spanish - language album, Como Ama una Mujer features introspective lyrics about romance, heartache and self - loathing. When explaining her seventh studio album Love?, Lopez stated: "There 's still so much to learn and that 's why the question mark. '' Other recurrent themes in Lopez 's music have included her upbringing in the Bronx and women 's empowerment.
Lopez has been influenced by artists such as Tina Turner, James Brown, Michael Jackson, Madonna and Barbra Streisand. She credited Rita Moreno 's performance in the 1961 musical film West Side Story as a major inspiration. Critics have considered Lopez 's voice to be limited, and obscured by the production of her music, while remaining "radio - friendly ''. Rob Sheffield of Rolling Stone observed: "Instead of strained vocal pyrotechnics, Lopez sticks to the understated R&B murmur of a round - the - way superstar who does n't need to belt because she knows you 're already paying attention (...) She makes a little va - va and a whole lot of voom go a long way. '' Meanwhile, AllMusic 's Stephen Thomas Erlewine called her voice "slight '' and wrote: "Lopez was never, ever about singing; she was about style ''. Entertainment Weekly criticized her vocal performance for lacking the trademark "husky - voiced voluptuousness '' she has in her films. J.D. Considine of The Baltimore Sun regards Lopez as having a "breathy '' stylistic range, but lacking personality.
Considered one of dance 's "greatest success stories '', Lopez felt an emotional connection to dance since her youth, when she specialized in ballet, jazz and flamenco. Her career commenced on the variety television sketch comedy series In Living Color, where she was a part of an ethnically diverse dance group known as The Fly Girls. Janet Jackson, whom she briefly served as a backup dancer for, has been credited by Lopez as an inspiration for her own dance and videos. Since beginning her own recording career, Lopez has become known for her body - emphasizing music videos, which often include dance routines. Some of them have been the subject of controversy, including "Jenny from the Block '', "Dance Again '' and "Booty ''. Her provocatively choreographed music video for "If You Had My Love '' allowed Lopez to become a dominant figure on MTV networks worldwide, while the accompanying video for "Waiting for Tonight '' established her as a "dance princess '' according to MTV.
On stage, Lopez is recognized for her showmanship and sex appeal, and often includes costumes such as bodysuits as part of her performance. Author Priscilla Peña Ovalle stated in Dance and the Hollywood Latina: Race, Sex and Stardom (2011) that Lopez was one of the Latin stars who "used dance to gain agency as working performers with mainstream careers, yet many of their roles paradoxically racialized and sexualized their bodies ''. Troy Patterson of Entertainment Weekly also observed that she used her body for emphasis on stage, "She turned herself out as the fly girl hyperversion of postfeminist power, flaunting her control by toying with the threat of excess. In consequence, her star went supernova. '' Her signature movements include "clock-wise pivoting with salsa hip circles and sequential torso undulations ''. While being noted to lip sync in the early stages of career, Lopez 's Dance Again World Tour was praised for showcasing live vocals and choreography synchronously. In a review of her Las Vegas residency All I Have, Los Angeles Times writer Nolan Feeney called her "Queen of the Strip '' and remarked that her dancing is "undoubtedly the centerpiece of the show ''.
Lopez 's provocative stage performances have also drawn scrutiny at times. In May 2013, her performance on the finale of the television series Britain 's Got Talent was deemed inappropriate for family - friendly television, and drew viewer complaints to Ofcom. Following her controversial performance at the musical festival Mawazine in 2015, Moroccan Prime Minister Abdelilah Benkirane called it "indecent '' and "disgraceful '', while an education group claimed that she "disturbed public order and tarnished women 's honor and respect ''.
Speaking of Lopez 's image, Andrew Barker of Variety observed: "Despite a carefully cultivated image as an imperious pop empress in ludicrously expensive outfits, her signature hits bear the titles "I 'm Real '' and "Jenny From the Block ''. She managed the perilous transition from actress to music star without ever seeming to pick either as a primary gig. She established herself as an oft - provocative sex symbol while her demeanor made it abundantly clear that she 's not asking you to come hither. '' In 2002, Lynette Holloway of The New York Times described Lopez as overexposed. She wrote: "Forgive yourself if you are seeing Jennifer Lopez in your sleep. She is everywhere. '' Holloway noted her image to be "a dash of ghetto fabulousness '' and "middle - class respectability '' for mass appeal. Entertainment Weekly observed a change in her public profile upon joining American Idol in 2011, writing: "Gone was her old cut - a-bitch swagger; J. Lo 2.0 is an all - embracing, Oprahfied earth madre. '' Lopez is considered an icon of popular culture. Television presenter Ray Martin describes her as a "showbiz phenomenon ''.
Lopez has developed an image as a sex symbol and "one of the most desirable women on the planet ''. She is widely celebrated for her callipygian figure, which was the inspiration for Sir Mix - a-Lot 's 1992 hit "Baby Got Back ''. She has been credited with influencing a change in mainstream female body image. In Latin Sensations (2001), Herón Marquez wrote: "Because she was n't rail thin, Lopez had broken the mold and allowed millions of women to feel good about their bodies. Suddenly, it was okay for women to have hips, curves, and a big backside. '' Vanity Fair described her buttocks as "in and of themselves, a cultural icon ''. Details magazine named Lopez the "Sexiest Woman of the Year '' in 1998, and she led FHM 's "100 Sexiest Women '' list twice. In 2011, she was named "The Most Beautiful Woman '' by People. The following year, VH1 ranked her the fourth on their list of "100 Sexiest Artists '', while Vibe magazine named her the most "lustable '' celebrity of the past twenty years. In 2014, Lopez stated, "There 's this funny notion in America that you ca n't be a mom and be sexy (...) It 's the craziest thing I 've ever heard... The truth is that women can be sexy until the day they die. ''
Lopez is a tabloid fixture and has admitted to having a "less - than - perfect '' public image. The media often draw comparisons between Lopez and actress Elizabeth Taylor, due to her numerous failed relationships. In fact, Lopez has been dubbed a "modern - day Liz Taylor '' by the media. Lynn Hirschberg of W compared her glamorous public persona to that of Taylor. Her style is described by Billboard 's Lauren Savage as scantily clad. Lopez has been criticized by the animal rights organization PETA for inclusion of fur in her fashion lines and outfits. She has received a bad reputation as being a demanding "diva '', but she constantly refutes this. In 2003, The Observer remarked that Lopez was "the woman immortalised in a million headlines as ' Hollywood 's most demanding diva '... Lopez must wonder what heinous crime she has committed to become the most vilified woman in modern popular culture. ''
Lopez is regarded as the most influential Hispanic performer in the United States, credited with breaking racial barriers in the entertainment industry. In 1999, The Record newspaper observed that she was responsible for the introduction of a Latina presence in the film industry, which was a "whites - only preserve '' for much of its history. Described as a "multidimensional artist who had turned into a financial powerhouse '', Lopez became the highest - paid actress of Hispanic descent in history. Miriam Jiménez Román stated in The Afro - Latin Reader: History and Culture in the United States (2009) that "(she) was able to traverse the difficult racial boundaries ''. In 2012, business magazine Forbes suggested that Lopez "may be the most powerful entertainer on the planet '', and named her "the world 's most powerful Latino celebrity ''.
Upon launching her music career in the late 1990s, Lopez contributed to the "Latin explosion '' occurring in entertainment at the time, with the Daily Herald describing her as "crossover royalty ''. She was featured on the cover of the first issue of Latina magazine in 1996, with editor Galina Espinoza stating that there is "no recounting of modern Latina history without Jennifer '' in a 2011 editorial praising her legacy. Around the time her career began to burgeon, the emphasis on Lopez 's curvaceous figure grew; scholar Sean Redmond wrote that this was a sign of her role and social power in the cultural changes occurring in the United States. In August 2005, Time listed Lopez as one of the most influential Hispanics in America, remarking: "Why? Because over a decade ago, she was an anonymous background dancer on the second - rated sketch - comedy show. Today she 's known by two syllables. '' In February 2007, People en Español named her the most influential Hispanic entertainer. In 2014, scientists named a species of aquatic mite found in Puerto Rico, Litarachna lopezae, after Lopez.
Lopez is considered a global icon, and is often described as a triple threat performer. VH1 ranked her at number 15 on a list of "200 Greatest Pop Culture Icons '', number 16 on "100 Greatest Women In Music '', and number 21 on "50 Greatest Women of the Video Era ''. Lopez has been cited as an influence or inspiration by a range of entertainers, including Jessica Alba, Adrienne Bailon, Kat DeLuna, Mike Doughty, Fifth Harmony, Becky G, Selena Gomez, Ryan Guzman, Kelly Key, Q'orianka Kilcher, Demi Lovato, Normani, Pitbull, Francia Raisa, Naya Rivera, Stooshe, and Kerry Washington.
Famed for her distinct style and fashion sense, Us Weekly named Lopez "Style Icon '' of the 2000s decade. The Green Versace "Jungle Dress '' that she wore at the 42nd Annual Grammy Awards in 2000 was voted the fifth most iconic red carpet dress of all time in a poll run by The Daily Telegraph. The images of Lopez wearing the dress became the most popular search query of all time at that point, and subsequently led to the creation of Google 's image search. Her style has influenced a range of celebrities, including Kelly Rowland, Kim Kardashian and Jennifer Love Hewitt. Her record - breaking fragrance line has become the most successful celebrity line in the world, with sales exceeding $2 billion. Following the success of Lopez 's appointment as a judge on American Idol in 2010, a trend of networks hiring "big names '' for judging panels on reality shows ensued. The Hollywood Reporter branded this "The J. Lo Effect ''.
Lopez remains the only female entertainer to have a number one album and film simultaneously in the United States. With her second studio album J. Lo (2001), Lopez became the first female solo recording artist under Epic Records to achieve a number one album in the United States since its inception in 1953. Her album J to tha L-O! The Remixes was acknowledged by the Guinness World Records as the first number one remix album in the United States. In 2010, Lopez was honored by the World Music Awards with the Legend Award for her contribution to the arts. Lopez 's return to prominence the following year with her single "On the Floor '' -- among the best - selling singles of all time, and its music video recognized as the "Highest Viewed Female Music Video of All Time '' by Guinness World Records in 2012 -- is regarded as one of the greatest musical comebacks in history. In 2013, she was presented with the prestigious landmark 2,500 th star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame for her musical contributions, and Univision presented her with the World Icon Award in its Premios Juventud. In 2014, she became the first female recipient of the Billboard Icon Award. Billboard magazine ranked her as the ninth greatest dance club artist of all time in 2016. In 2017, she was awarded the Telemundo Star Award.
Studio albums
Compilation albums
Films
Television
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who is the immortal beloved in the movie | Immortal Beloved (film) - wikipedia
Immortal Beloved is a 1994 film about the life of composer Ludwig van Beethoven (played by Gary Oldman). The story follows Beethoven 's secretary and first biographer Anton Schindler (Jeroen Krabbé) as he attempts to ascertain the true identity of the Unsterbliche Geliebte (Immortal Beloved) addressed in three letters found in the late composer 's private papers. Schindler journeys throughout the Austrian Empire interviewing women who might be potential candidates as well as through Beethoven 's own tumultuous life.
When Ludwig van Beethoven dies, his assistant and close friend Schindler deals with his last will and testament. It reads that his estate, music and affairs will be left to his "immortal beloved '', but there remains a question as to who Beethoven 's "immortal beloved '', an unnamed woman mentioned in one of his letters, may be. Schindler embarks on a quest to find out who this woman is. He meets the women who played a part in Ludwig 's life; through their stories, retrospective footage of Beethoven from his younger years until his death is featured as the film progresses. The conclusion ultimately is that the individual is Johanna Reiss, the daughter of Anton Van Reiss, a prosperous Viennese upholsterer. In the film, she becomes pregnant by Beethoven; when by an accidental turn of events he does not marry her in time, she marries his brother, Kaspar. The love turns to hate, worsened by the long legal battle over custody over their son, Karl van Beethoven (whom everyone believes is Beethoven 's nephew). Finally, Ludwig gets custody over his ' nephew ', but the strict upbringing and promotion of the boy as another child prodigy -- which Karl himself knows all too well he is not -- leads to him attempting suicide. Beethoven is blamed and his reputation is ruined.
Schindler finally speaks to Johanna, who says she has made her peace with him. She met him at his deathbed, where he gave her a signed letter, giving her custody over Karl. She tells Schindler about their intentions to elope, but Beethoven never showed up, and she felt betrayed. Schindler realizes what happened and gives her the letter to the "Immortal Beloved '' in which she finally reads what happened that night they were supposed to meet. Shocked to find out how an unfortunate event and misunderstanding has kept them apart, she visits the grave of Beethoven in the closing scene.
After Beethoven 's death in 1827, a three - part letter was found among his private papers addressed to a woman whom he called "immortal beloved ''. Written in the summer of 1812 from the spa town of Teplice, the letter has generated a great deal of speculation and debate amongst scholars and writers as to her identity. Among the candidates are (or were) Giulietta Guicciardi, Thérèse von Brunswick, Josephine Brunsvik, Antonie Brentano, and Anna - Marie Erdödy (some of whom appear in the film).
The film 's writer and director, Bernard Rose, claimed that he had successfully identified the addressed woman as Johanna, a claim no scholar on Beethoven has endorsed (the film also implies that Karl, Beethoven 's nephew, was in reality the couple 's son.) Biographer Gail S. Altman disputed Rose 's claim in a book devoted specifically to the question of the woman 's identity and Beethoven 's relationships in general.
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Reviews for Immortal Beloved were mixed. From the 31 reviews collected from notable publications by review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, reviews tended towards the positive, with an overall approval rating of 58 %. Emanuel Levy gave the film a "C '' rating, calling it a "speculative chronicle '' that lacks the "vibrant energy and charm '' of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart biopic Amadeus (1984). He did, however, praise the "wonderfully recorded and inventively used '' Beethoven compositions as well as the casting of Oldman, who he felt was "the perfect actor to portray the arrogant, irascible musician ''. Of Rotten Tomatoes ' "top critics '', Roger Ebert was highly complimentary of the film. He gave it 31⁄2 stars out of four, stating in his review: "Immortal Beloved has clearly been made by people who feel Beethoven directly in their hearts ''. He asserted that Oldman "at first seems an unlikely choice... then we see that he is right ''. Janet Maslin also offered a positive review, stating: "thanks to its hugely effective use of Beethoven 's most thrilling, tumultuous music, this film exerts much the same hypnotic power ''. She praised the performance of Oldman, writing that "he captures Beethoven as a believably brilliant figure struggling with his deafness and other demons ''.
MSN Movies, in a 2011 publication, wrote: "Oldman 's performance is unimpeachable. He dives deep into the role with powerful passion and makes the audience feel the pain of the genius as he loses his hearing and fails to shape his nephew into a similarly talented musician. In the year of ' (Forrest) Gump ', Oldman was overlooked for a well - deserved Oscar nomination. '' Also that year Josh Winning of Total Film named Oldman 's portrayal of Beethoven as one of the five best performances of his career, saying: "If ever there was a better filmic chameleon than Oldman, we 've yet to find one. Immersing himself fully into the role of the German composer, Oldman is here damn near unrecognisable. ''
The movie debuted strongly and was a modest success, generating $9,914,409 in a domestic - only release.
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who says a good man is hard to find | A Good Man is Hard to Find (short story) - wikipedia
"A Good Man Is Hard to Find '' is a short story written by Flannery O'Connor in 1953. The story appears in the collection of short stories of the same name. The interpretive work of scholars often focuses on the controversial final scene.
The story was first published in 1953 in the anthology The Avon Book of Modern Writing. In 1960, it was collected in the anthology The House of Fiction, published by Charles Scribner 's Sons. "A Good Man Is Hard to Find, '' because of its publication in many anthologies, became the most well known of O'Connor's works.
A man named Bailey intends to take his family from Georgia to Florida for a summer vacation, but his mother, (referred to as "the grandmother '' in the story) wants him to drive to East Tennessee, where the grandmother has friends ("connections ''). She argues that his children, John Wesley and June Star, have never been to East Tennessee, and she shows him a news article in the Atlanta Journal Constitution about an escaped murderer who calls himself The Misfit last seen in Florida. The next day, the grandmother wakes up early to hide her cat, Pitty Sing, in a basket on the floor in the back of the car. She is worried that the cat would die while they were gone. Bailey finds her sitting in the car, dressed in her best clothes and an ostentatious hat; she says that if she should die in an accident along the road, she wants people to see her corpse and know she was refined and "a lady. '' The Grandmother talks continuously during the trip, trying to engage her two grandchildren in games and telling them jokes and a story, about which June Star makes disdainful comments. She recalls her youth in the Old South, reminiscing about her courtships and how much better everything was in her time, when children were respectful and people "did right then. '' When the family stops at an old diner outside of Timothy for lunch, she talks to the owner, Red Sammy, about The Misfit. He and the grandmother agree that things were much better in the past and that the world at present is degenerate; she concurs with Sammy 's remark that "a good man is hard to find. ''
After the family returns to the road, the grandmother begins telling the children a story about a mysterious house nearby with a secret panel, a house she remembers from her childhood. This catches the children 's attention and they want to visit the house, so they harass their father until he reluctantly agrees to allow them just one side trip. As he drives them down a remote dirt road, the grandmother suddenly realizes that the house she was thinking of was actually in Tennessee, not Georgia. That shocking realization makes her involuntarily kick her feet which frightens the cat, causing it to spring from its hidden basket onto Bailey 's neck. Bailey then loses control of the car and it flips over, ending up in a ditch below the road, near Toomsboro. Only the children 's mother is injured; the children are frantic with excitement, and the grandmother 's main concern is dealing with Bailey 's anger.
Shaking in the ditch, the family waits for help. When she notices a black hearse coming down the road, the grandmother flags it down until it stops. Three men come out and begin to talk to her. All three have guns. The grandmother says that she recognizes the leader, the quiet man in glasses, as The Misfit, who immediately confirms this, saying it would have been better for them all if she had not recognized him, and Bailey curses his mother. The Misfit 's men take Bailey and John Wesley into the woods on a pretense and two pistol shots ring out. The Misfit claims that he has no memory of the crime for which he was imprisoned; when he was informed by doctors that he had killed his father, he claimed that his father died in a flu epidemic.
The men then return to take the children 's mother, the baby, and June Star to the woods for the same purpose as Bailey and the boy. The grandmother begins pleading for her own life. When The Misfit talks to her about Jesus, he expresses his doubts about His raising Lazarus from the dead. As he speaks, The Misfit becomes agitated and angry. He snarls into the grandmother 's face and claims that life has "no pleasure but meanness ''. In her growing confusion, she thinks that The Misfit is going to cry, so she reaches out and touches his shoulder tenderly, saying "Why you 're one of my babies. You 're one of my own children! '' His reaction is to jump away "as if a snake had bitten him '' and he kills her with three shots through the heart.
When the family has all been murdered, The Misfit takes a moment to clean his glasses and pick up the grandmother 's cat; he states that the grandmother would have been a good woman if "it had been somebody there to shoot her every minute of her life. '' The story ends with The Misfit chastising one of his sidekicks, Bobby Lee, for making a comment "some fun! '' "Shut up, Bobby Lee, '' he retorts. "It 's no real pleasure in life. ''
There are varying opinions of "A Good Man Is Hard to Find. '' Most of this discrepancy centers on the grandmother 's act of touching The Misfit.
The dominant opinion is that the grandmother 's final act was one of grace and charity, which implies that "A Good Man Is Hard to Find '' was written to show a transformation in the grandmother as the story progresses. In the beginning, she was more concerned about looking like a respectable person than being one. This is shown by her selfish desire to go to Tennessee instead of Florida and, more importantly, by her attempts to save her own life, even as her family continued to die around her (made things worse if she had kept her mouth shut, none of them would have been killed). In the end, she realizes she has not led a good life and reaches out to touch her killer, The Misfit, in a final act of grace and charity. This "epiphany '' resembles the grandmother 's newly found redemption. Even though she fails, her attempt is not lost on The Misfit, who remarks that through enduring a constant infliction of violence, she would have been a good woman.
A second opinion on the issue is that the grandmother 's final act was not an act of charity and that she is yet again trying to save herself from being murdered. Some say that Flannery O'Connor uses the excuse as the grandmother 's final "moment of grace '' to save the story from the bloodshed and violence. Frederick Asals argues that "one can easily pass over her (O'Connor's) hope that the grandmother 's final gesture to The Misfit might have begun a process which would ' turn him into the prophet he was meant to become '; that, as she firmly says, is another story, and it would be a reckless piety indeed which would see it even suggested by the one we have ''. It is also pointed out that by the time the grandmother touches the Misfit, proclaiming he is her son, he is wearing Bailey 's shirt. Other opinions include that it is contradictory of her character or that she was simply again trying to save herself and that her selfishness was never overcome throughout the story.
Not every interpretation hinges on a moral judgment of the grandmother, though. For example, Alex Link considers how, until the family encounters the Misfit, the South is mainly something to ignore, forget, package in a movie or a monument, or remember with distorted nostalgia, such that the Misfit comes to stand for the persistence of what can not be bought, sold, or wholly understood, such as death, grace, and "the South. ''
It was O'Connor's method to use the dark and morose to reveal beauty and grace; in "A Good Man Is Hard to Find '', violence reveals divine grace. Divine grace, or God 's unmerited favor, is a concept fundamental to man 's salvation in Christian theology. Christians believe the imperfect can be made perfect, i.e. people can be saved by the grace through believing in Jesus Christ. The grandmother in the story accepts grace by acknowledging that she helped to create The Misfit and that they are bound by kinship. She reaches out to him as if he were her own. Christian themes are common in O'Connor's work. Related concepts include: Sola gratia, actual grace, and prevenient grace.
O'Connor explained that in her stories "violence is strangely capable of returning my characters to reality and preparing them to accept their moment of grace. '' In the case of "A Good Man Is Hard to Find, '' O'Connor explained in a reflection piece "A Reasonable Use of the Unreasonable, '' published in 1969, that violence is her way to make her hard - headed characters, such as the grandmother, accept their time of grace.
At the end of the story, after The Misfit shoots the grandmother, he says to Bobby Lee, "She would of been a good woman, if it had been somebody there to shoot her every minute of her life. '' This quote is showing The Misfit 's enlightenment to what the grandmother had experienced right before he killed her. He is saying that he noticed that she was trying to preach the gospel to him, but that it only happened because she was threatened by death. According to The Misfit, if the grandmother had lived her life held up at gunpoint, she might have lived a more righteous life.
A film adaptation of the short story "A Good Man Is Hard to Find, '' entitled Black Hearts Bleed Red, was made in 1992 by New York filmmaker Jeri Cain Rossi. The film stars noted New York artist Joe Coleman but according to most reviewers the film does not depict the story or its characters well.
An original modern chamber opera based on "A Good Man Is Hard to Find '' was completed in 2003 by David Volk, a University of Georgia music doctoral student, as part of his dissertation requirements in composition. The chamber opera was performed at the Seney - Stovall Chapel in Athens, Georgia with grant funding from the University 's Ideas for Creative Exploration (ICE). Later that same year, the work was performed at Piedmont College in Demorest, Georgia, and in Milledgeville, Georgia, at "Flannery O'Connor: the Visionary and the Vernacular, '' an interdisciplinary conference sponsored by Georgia College and State University (and home of the Flannery O'Connor Library). In 2007, the work was performed at the University of Virginia 's College at Wise where Dr. Volk teaches as Assistant Professor of Music.
The American folk musician Sufjan Stevens adapted the story into a song going by the same title. It appears on his 2004 album Seven Swans. The song is written in the first person from the point of view of The Misfit.
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where do we go now song guns n roses | Sweet Child O ' Mine - wikipedia
"Sweet Child o ' Mine '' is a song by American rock band Guns N ' Roses, appearing on their debut album Appetite for Destruction. Released in August 1988 as the album 's third single, the song topped the Billboard Hot 100 chart, becoming the band 's first and only number - one single in the U.S. Billboard ranked it as the No. 5 song for 1988. Re-released in 1989, it reached number six on the UK Singles Chart. Guitarist Slash said in 1990, "(The song) turned into a huge hit and now it makes me sick. I mean, I like it, but I hate what it represents. ''
Duff McKagan, 1988
Slash has been quoted as having an initial disdain for the song due to its roots as simply a "string skipping '' exercise and a joke at the time. During a jam session at the band 's house in the Sunset Strip, drummer Steven Adler and Slash were warming up and Slash began to play a "circus '' melody while making faces at Adler. Rhythm guitarist Izzy Stradlin asked Slash to play it again. Stradlin came up with some chords, Duff McKagan created a bassline and Adler planned a beat. In his autobiography, Slash said "within an hour my guitar exercise had become something else ''. Meanwhile, lead singer Axl Rose was listening to the musicians upstairs in his room and was inspired to write lyrics, which became complete by the following afternoon. He based it on his girlfriend Erin Everly, and declared that Lynyrd Skynyrd served as an inspiration "to make sure that we 'd got that heartfelt feeling ''. On the next composing session in Burbank, the band added both a bridge and a guitar solo.
When the band recorded demos with producer Spencer Proffer, he suggested adding a breakdown at the song 's end. The musicians agreed, but were not sure what to do. Listening to the demo in a loop, Rose started saying to himself, "Where do we go? Where do we go now? '' and Proffer suggested that he sing that.
The "Sweet Child o ' Mine '' video depicts the band rehearsing in the Huntington Ballroom at Huntington Beach, surrounded by crew members. All of the band members ' girlfriends at the time were shown in the clip: Rose 's girlfriend Erin Everly, whose father is Don Everly of The Everly Brothers; McKagan 's girlfriend Mandy Brix, from the all - female rock band The Lame Flames; Stradlin 's girlfriend Angela Nicoletti; Adler 's girlfriend Cheryl Swiderski; and Slash 's girlfriend Sally McLaughlin. Stradlin 's dog was also featured. The video was extremely successful on MTV, and helped launch the song to success on mainstream radio.
To make "Sweet Child o ' Mine '' more marketable to MTV and radio stations, the song was cut from 5: 56 to 4: 59, for the video / radio edit, with much of Slash 's solo removed. This drew the ire of the band, including Rose, who commented on it in a 1989 interview with Rolling Stone: "I hate the radio edit of ' Sweet Child O ' Mine. ' Radio stations said, "Well, your vocals are n't cut. '' "My favorite part of the song is Slash 's slow solo; it 's the heaviest part for me. There 's no reason for it to be missing except to create more space for commercials, so the radio - station owners can get more advertising dollars. When you get the chopped version of ' Paradise City ' or half of ' Sweet Child ' and ' Patience ' cut, you 're getting screwed. '' The video uses the same edits as the radio version.
A 7 - inch vinyl format and cassette single were released. The album version of the song was included on the US single release, while the UK single was the "edit / remix '' version. The 12 '' vinyl format also contained the longer LP version. The b - side to the single is a non-album, live version of "It 's So Easy ''.
On an interview on Eddie Trunk 's New York radio show in May 2006, Rose stated that his original concept for the video focused on the theme of drug trafficking. According to Rose, the video was to depict an Asian woman carrying a baby into a foreign land, only to discover at the end that the child was dead and filled with heroin. This concept was rejected by Geffen Records.
There is also an alternative video for "Sweet Child o ' Mine '' in the same place, but with different shots and filmed in black & white.
"Sweet Child o ' Mine '' placed No. 37 on Guitar World 's list of the "100 Greatest Guitar Solos. '' It also came in at number three on Blender 's 500 Greatest Songs Since You Were Born, and at No. 198 on Rolling Stone 's The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time. In March 2005, Q magazine placed it at No. 6 in its list of the 100 Greatest Guitar Tracks. On a 2004 Total Guitar magazine poll, the introduction 's famous riff was voted number - one riff of all - time by the readers of the magazine. It was also in Rolling Stone 's 40 Greatest Songs that Changed the World. It places No. 7 in VH1 's "100 Greatest Songs of the ' 80s '', and placed No. 210 on the RIAA Songs of the Century list.
The song is currently ranked as the 104th greatest song of all time, as well as the best song of 1987, by Acclaimed Music. The song has sold 2,609,000 digital copies in the US as of March 2012.
In 2015, the web page of the Australian music TV channel MAX published an article by music writer Nathan Jolly that noted similarities between "Sweet Child o ' Mine '' and the song "Unpublished Critics '' by the Australian band Australian Crawl, from 1981. The article included both songs, inviting readers to compare the two. It also cited a reader 's comment on an earlier article that had originally drawn attention to the similarities between the songs. As of May 2015, this comment no longer appeared on the earlier article. The story went viral quickly, encouraging several comments on both the MAX article and the suggestion that "Unpublished Critics '' had influenced "Sweet Child o ' Mine '', including one from Duff McKagan, bass player with Guns N ' Roses when "Sweet Child o ' Mine '' was written and recorded. McKagan found the similarities between the songs "stunning, '' but admitted that he had not previously heard "Unpublished Critics. ''
All tracks written by Guns N ' Roses except where noted.
"Sweet Child O ' Mine '' has been used in several films, such as:
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
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a leading characteristic of u.s. foreign policy in the early twentieth century was | American poetry - wikipedia
American poetry, the poetry of the United States, arose first as efforts by colonists to add their voices to English poetry in the 17th century, well before the constitutional unification of the thirteen colonies (although before this unification, a strong oral tradition often likened to poetry existed among Native American societies). Unsurprisingly, most of the early colonists ' work relied on contemporary British models of poetic form, diction, and theme. However, in the 19th century, a distinctive American idiom began to emerge. By the later part of that century, when Walt Whitman was winning an enthusiastic audience abroad, poets from the United States had begun to take their place at the forefront of the English - language avant - garde.
The history of American poetry is not easy to know. Much of the American poetry published between 1910 and 1945 remains lost in the pages of small circulation political periodicals, particularly the ones on the far left, destroyed by librarians during the 1950s McCarthy era. The received narrative of Modernism proposes that Ezra Pound and T.S. Eliot were perhaps the most influential modernist English - language poets in the period during World War I. But this narrative leaves out African American and women poets who were published and read widely in the first half of the twentieth century. By the 1960s, the young poets of the British Poetry Revival looked to their American contemporaries and predecessors as models for the kind of poetry they wanted to write. Toward the end of the millennium, consideration of American poetry had diversified, as scholars placed an increased emphasis on poetry by women, African Americans, Hispanics, Chicanos and other cultural groupings.
As England 's contact with the Americas increased after the 1490s, explorers sometimes included verse with their descriptions of the "New World '' up through 1650, the year of Anne Bradstreet 's "The Tenth Muse '', which was written in America, most likely in Ipswich, Massachusetts or North Andover, Massachusetts) and printed / distributed in London, England by her brother - in - law, Rev. John Woodbridge. There are 14 such writers whom we might on that basis call American poets (they had actually been to America and to different degrees, written poems or verses about the place). Early examples include a 1616 "testimonial poem '' on the sterling warlike character of Captain John Smith (in Barbour, ed. "Works '') and Rev. William Morrell 's 1625 "Nova Anglia '' or "New England, '' which is a rhymed catalog of everything from American weather to glimpses of Native women, framed with a thin poetic "conceit '' or "fiction '' characterizing the country as a "sad and forlorn '' female pining for English domination. Then in May 1627 Thomas Morton of Merrymount -- an English West Country outdoorsman, attorney at law, man of letters and colonial adventurer -- raised a Maypole to celebrate and foster more success at this fur - trading plantation and nailed up a "Poem '' and "Song '' (one a densely literary manifesto on how English and Native people came together there and must keep doing so for a successful America; the other a light "drinking song '' also full of deeper American implications). These were published in book form along with other examples of Morton 's American poetry in "New English Canaan '' (1637); and based on the criteria of "First, '' "American '' and Poetry, '' they make Morton (and not Anne Bradstreet) America 's first poet in English. (See Jack Dempsey, ed., "New English Canaan by Thomas Morton of ' Merrymount ' '' and his biography "Thomas Morton: The Life & Renaissance of an Early American Poet '' Scituate MA: Digital Scanning 2000).
One of the first recorded poets of the British colonies was Anne Bradstreet (1612 -- 1672), who remains one of the earliest known women poets who wrote in English. The poems she published during her lifetime address religious and political themes. She also wrote tender evocations of home, family life and of her love for her husband, many of which remained unpublished until the 20th century.
Edward Taylor (1645 -- 1729) wrote poems expounding Puritan virtues in a highly wrought metaphysical style that can be seen as typical of the early colonial period.
This narrow focus on the Puritan ethic was, understandably, the dominant note of most of the poetry written in the colonies during the 17th and early 18th centuries. The earliest "secular '' poetry published in New England was by Samuel Danforth in his "almanacks '' for 1647 -- 1649, published at Cambridge; these included "puzzle poems '' as well as poems on caterpillars, pigeons, earthquakes, and hurricanes. Of course, being a Puritan minister as well as a poet, Danforth never ventured far from a spiritual message.
A distinctly American lyric voice of the colonial period was Phillis Wheatley, a slave whose book "Poems on Various Subjects, Religious and Moral, '' was published in 1773. She was one of the best - known poets of her day, at least in the colonies, and her poems were typical of New England culture at the time, meditating on religious and classical ideas.
The 18th century saw an increasing emphasis on America itself as fit subject matter for its poets. This trend is most evident in the works of Philip Freneau (1752 -- 1832), who is also notable for the unusually sympathetic attitude to Native Americans shown in his writings, sometimes reflective of a skepticism toward Anglo - American culture and civilization. However, as might be expected from what was essentially provincial writing, this late colonial poetry is generally somewhat old - fashioned in form and syntax, deploying the means and methods of Pope and Gray in the era of Blake and Burns. The work of Rebecca Hammond Lard (1772 -- 1855), although quite old, still apply to life in today 's world. She writes about nature, not only the nature of environment, but also the nature of humans.
On the whole, the development of poetry in the American colonies mirrors the development of the colonies themselves. The early poetry is dominated by the need to preserve the integrity of the Puritan ideals that created the settlement in the first place. As the colonists grew in confidence, the poetry they wrote increasingly reflected their drive towards independence. This shift in subject matter was not reflected in the mode of writing which tended to be conservative, to say the least. This can be seen as a product of the physical remove at which American poets operated from the center of English - language poetic developments in London.
The first significant poet of the independent United States was William Cullen Bryant (1794 -- 1878), whose great contribution was to write rhapsodic poems on the grandeur of prairies and forests. However, the first internationally acclaimed poet was Henry Wadsworth Longfellow (1807 -- 1882) who nearly surpassed Alfred, Lord Tennyson in international popularity, and, alongside William Cullen Bryant, John Greenleaf Whittier, James Russell Lowell, and Oliver Wendell Holmes, Sr., formed the Fireside Poets (also known as the Schoolroom or Household Poets). The Fireside Poets were a group of 19th - century American poets from New England. The name "Fireside Poets '' is derived from that popularity: their general adherence to poetic convention (standard forms, regular meter, and rhymed stanzas) made their body of work particularly suitable for memorization and recitation in school and also at home, where it was a source of entertainment for families gathered around the fire. The poets ' primary subjects were the domestic life, mythology, and politics of the United States, in which several of the poets were directly involved.
Other notable poets to emerge in the early and middle 19th century include Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803 -- 1882), Edgar Allan Poe (1809 -- 1849), Henry David Thoreau (1817 -- 1862), Sidney Lanier (1842 -- 1881), and James Whitcomb Riley (1849 -- 1916). As might be expected, the works of all these writers are united by a common search for a distinctive American voice to distinguish them from their British counterparts. To this end, they explored the landscape and traditions of their native country as materials for their poetry.
The most significant example of this tendency may be The Song of Hiawatha by Longfellow. This poem uses Native American tales collected by Henry Rowe Schoolcraft, who was superintendent of Indian affairs for Michigan from 1836 to 1841. Longfellow also imitated the meter of the Finnish epic poem Kalevala, possibly to avoid British models. The resulting poem, while a popular success, did not provide a model for future U.S. poets.
As time went on the influence of the transcendentalism of the poet / philosophers Emerson and Thoreau increasingly influenced American poetry. Transcendentalism was the distinctly American strain of English Romanticism that began with William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge. Emerson, arguably one of the founders of transcendentalism, had visited England as a young man to meet these two English poets, as well as Thomas Carlyle. While Romanticism transitioned into Victorianism in post-reform England, it grew more energetic in America from the 1830s through to the Civil War.
Edgar Allan Poe was a unique poet during this time, brooding over themes of the macabre and dark, connecting his poetry and aesthetic vision to his philosophical, psychological, moral, and cosmological theories. Diverse authors in France, Sweden and Russia were heavily influenced by his works, and his poem "The Raven '' swept across Europe, translated into many languages. However, as a poet he declined in popularity, and alienated himself from his contemporaries by publicly accusing Henry Wadsworth Longfellow of plagiarism, though Longfellow never responded. In the twentieth century the American poet William Carlos Williams said of Poe that he is the only solid ground on which American poetry is anchored.
The final emergence of a truly indigenous English - language poetry in the United States was the work of two poets, Walt Whitman (1819 -- 1892) and Emily Dickinson (1830 -- 1886). On the surface, these two poets could not have been less alike. Whitman 's long lines, derived from the metric of the King James Version of the Bible, and his democratic inclusiveness stand in stark contrast with Dickinson 's concentrated phrases and short lines and stanzas, derived from Protestant hymnals.
What links them is their common connection to Emerson (a passage from whom Whitman printed on the second edition of Leaves of Grass), and the daring originality of their visions. These two poets can be said to represent the birth of two major American poetic idioms -- the free metric and direct emotional expression of Whitman, and the gnomic obscurity and irony of Dickinson -- both of which would profoundly stamp the American poetry of the 20th century.
The development of these idioms, as well as more conservative reactions against them, can be traced through the works of poets such as Edwin Arlington Robinson (1869 -- 1935), Stephen Crane (1871 -- 1900), Robert Frost (1874 -- 1963) and Carl Sandburg (1878 -- 1967). Frost, in particular, is a commanding figure, who aligned strict poetic meter, particularly blank verse and terser lyrical forms, with a "vurry Amur'k'n '' (as Pound put it) idiom. He successfully revitalized a rural tradition with many English antecedents from his beloved Golden Treasury and produced an oeuvre of major importance, rivaling or even excelling in achievement that of the key modernists and making him, within the full sweep of more traditional modern English - language verse, a peer of Hardy and Yeats. But from Whitman and Dickinson the outlines of a distinctively new organic poetic tradition, less indebted to English formalism than Frost 's work, were clear to see, and they would come to full fruition in the 1910s and ' 20s.
This new idiom, combined with a study of 19th - century French poetry, formed the basis of American input into 20th - century English - language poetic modernism. Ezra Pound (1885 -- 1972) and T.S. Eliot (1888 -- 1965) were the leading figures at the time, with their rejection of traditional poetic form and meter and of Victorian diction. Both steered American poetry toward greater density, difficulty, and opacity, with an emphasis on techniques such as fragmentation, ellipsis, allusion, juxtaposition, ironic and shifting personae, and mythic parallelism. Pound, in particular, opened up American poetry to diverse influences, including the traditional poetries of China and Japan.
Numerous other poets made important contributions at this revolutionary juncture, including Gertrude Stein (1874 -- 1946), Wallace Stevens (1879 -- 1955), William Carlos Williams (1883 -- 1963), Hilda Doolittle (H.D.) (1886 -- 1961), Marianne Moore (1887 -- 1972), E.E. Cummings (1894 -- 1962), and Hart Crane (1899 -- 1932). The cerebral and skeptical Romantic Stevens helped revive the philosophical lyric, and Williams was to become exemplary for many later poets because he, more than any of his peers, contrived to marry spoken American English with free verse rhythms. Cummings remains notable for his experiments with typography and evocation of a spontaneous, childlike vision of reality.
Whereas these poets were unambiguously aligned with high modernism, other poets active in the United States in the first third of the 20th century were not. Among the most important of the latter were those who were associated with what came to be known as the New Criticism. These included John Crowe Ransom (1888 -- 1974), Allen Tate (1899 -- 1979), and Robert Penn Warren (1905 -- 1989). Other poets of the era, such as Archibald MacLeish (1892 -- 1982), experimented with modernist techniques but were also drawn towards more traditional modes of writing. Still others, such as Robinson Jeffers (1887 -- 1962), adopted Modernist freedom while remaining aloof from Modernist factions and programs.
In addition, there were still other, early 20th Century poets who maintained or were forced to maintain a peripheral relationship to high modernism, likely due to the racially charged themes of their work. They include Countee Cullen (1903 -- 1946), Alice Dunbar Nelson (1875 -- 1935), Gwendolyn Bennett (1902 -- 1981), Langston Hughes (1902 -- 1967), Claude McKay (1889 -- 1948), Jean Toomer (1894 -- 1967) and other African American poets of the Harlem Renaissance.
The modernist torch was carried in the 1930s mainly by the group of poets known as the Objectivists. These included Louis Zukofsky (1904 -- 1978), Charles Reznikoff (1894 -- 1976), George Oppen (1908 -- 1984), Carl Rakosi (1903 -- 2004) and, later, Lorine Niedecker (1903 -- 1970). Kenneth Rexroth, who was published in the Objectivist Anthology, was, along with Madeline Gleason (1909 -- 1973), a forerunner of the San Francisco Renaissance. Many of the Objectivists came from urban communities of new immigrants, and this new vein of experience and language enriched the growing American idiom.
Archibald Macleish called John Gillespie Magee, Jr. "the first poet of the war ''.
World War II saw the emergence of a new generation of poets, many of whom were influenced by Wallace Stevens and Richard Eberhart (1904 -- 2005). Karl Shapiro (1913 -- 2000), Randall Jarrell (1914 -- 1965) and James Dickey (1923 -- 1997) all wrote poetry that sprang from experience of active service. Together with Elizabeth Bishop (1911 -- 1979), Theodor Seuss Geisel (' Dr. Seuss ') (1904 - 1991), Theodore Roethke (1908 -- 1963) and Delmore Schwartz (1913 -- 1966), they formed a generation of poets that in contrast to the preceding generation often wrote in traditional verse forms.
After the war, a number of new poets and poetic movements emerged. John Berryman (1914 -- 1972) and Robert Lowell (1917 -- 1977) were the leading lights in what was to become known as the Confessional movement, which was to have a strong influence on later poets like Sylvia Plath (1932 -- 1963) and Anne Sexton (1928 -- 1974). Though both Berryman and Lowell were closely acquainted with Modernism, they were mainly interested in exploring their own experiences as subject matter and a style that Lowell referred to as "cooked '' -- that is, consciously and carefully crafted.
In contrast, the Beat poets, who included such figures as Jack Kerouac (1922 -- 1969), Allen Ginsberg (1926 -- 1997), Gregory Corso (1930 -- 2001), Joanne Kyger (born 1934), Gary Snyder (born 1930), Diane Di Prima (born 1934), Amiri Baraka (born 1934) and Lawrence Ferlinghetti (born 1919), were distinctly raw. Reflecting, sometimes in an extreme form, the more open, relaxed and searching society of the 1950s and 1960s, the Beats pushed the boundaries of the American idiom in the direction of demotic speech perhaps further than any other group.
Around the same time, the Black Mountain poets, under the leadership of Charles Olson (1910 -- 1970), were working at Black Mountain College. These poets were exploring the possibilities of open form but in a much more programmatic way than the Beats. The main poets involved were Robert Creeley (1926 -- 2005), Robert Duncan (1919 -- 1988), Denise Levertov (1923 -- 1997), Ed Dorn (1929 -- 1999), Paul Blackburn (1926 -- 1971), Hilda Morley (1916 -- 1998), John Wieners (1934 -- 2002), and Larry Eigner (1927 -- 1996). They based their approach to poetry on Olson 's 1950 essay Projective Verse, in which he called for a form based on the line, a line based on human breath and a mode of writing based on perceptions juxtaposed so that one perception leads directly to another.
Other poets often associated with the Black Mountain are Cid Corman (1924 -- 2004) and Theodore Enslin (born 1925), though they are perhaps more correctly viewed as direct descendants of the Objectivists. And one - time Black Mountain College resident, composer John Cage (1912 -- 1992), along with Jackson Mac Low (1922 -- 2004), wrote poetry based on chance or aleatory techniques. Inspired by Zen, Dada and scientific theories of indeterminacy, they were to prove to be important influences on the 1970s U.S avant - garde.
The Beats and some of the Black Mountain poets are often considered to have been responsible for the San Francisco Renaissance. However, as previously noted, San Francisco had become a hub of experimental activity from the 1930s thanks to Kenneth Rexroth and Gleason. Other poets involved in this scene included Charles Bukowski (1920 -- 1994) and Jack Spicer (1925 -- 1965). These poets sought to combine a contemporary spoken idiom with inventive formal experiment.
Jerome Rothenberg (born 1931) is well known for his work in ethnopoetics, but he was also the coiner of the term "deep image '', which he used to describe the work of poets like Robert Kelly (born 1935), Diane Wakoski (born 1937) and Clayton Eshleman (born 1935). Deep Image poetry was inspired by the symbolist theory of correspondences, in particular the work of Spanish poet Federico García Lorca. The term was later taken up and popularized by Robert Bly. The Deep Image movement was also the most international, accompanied by a flood of new translations from Latin American and European poets such as Pablo Neruda, César Vallejo and Tomas Tranströmer. Some of the poets who became associated with Deep Image are Galway Kinnell, James Wright, Mark Strand and W.S. Merwin. Both Merwin and California poet Gary Snyder would also become known for their interest in environmental and ecological concerns.
The Small Press poets (sometimes called the mimeograph movement) are another influential and eclectic group of poets who also surfaced in the San Francisco Bay Area in the late 1950s and are still active today. Fiercely independent editors, who were also poets, edited and published low - budget periodicals and chapbooks of emerging poets who might otherwise have gone unnoticed. This work ranged from formal to experimental. Gene Fowler, A.D. Winans, Hugh Fox, street poet and activist Jack Hirschman, Paul Foreman, Jim Cohn, John Bennett, and F.A. Nettelbeck are among the many poets who are still actively continuing the Small Press Poets tradition. Many have turned to the new medium of the Web for its distribution capabilities.
Los Angeles poets: Leland Hickman (1934 -- 1991), Holly Prado (born 1938), Harry Northup (born 1940), Wanda Coleman (born 1946), Michael C. Ford (born 1939), Kate Braverman (born 1950), Eloise Klein Healy, Bill Mohr, Laurel Ann Bogen, met at Beyond Baroque Literary Arts Center, in Venice, California. They are lyric poets, heavily autobiographical; some are practitioners of the experimental long poem. Mavericks all, their L.A. predecessors are Ann Stanford (1916 -- 1987), Thomas McGrath (1916 -- 1990), Jack Hirschman (born 1933). Beyond Baroque Literary Arts Center, created by George Drury Smith in 1968, is the central literary arts center in the Los Angeles area.
Just as the West Coast had the San Francisco Renaissance and the Small Press Movement, the East Coast produced the New York School. This group aimed to write poetry that spoke directly of everyday experience in everyday language and produced a poetry of urbane wit and elegance that contrasts with the work of their Beat contemporaries (though in other ways, including their mutual respect for American slang and disdain for academic or "cooked '' poetry, they were similar). Leading members of the group include John Ashbery (born in 1927), Frank O'Hara (1926 -- 1966), Kenneth Koch (1925 -- 2002), James Schuyler (1923 -- 1991), Barbara Guest (1920 -- 2006), Ted Berrigan (1934 -- 1983), Anne Waldman (born in 1945) and Bernadette Mayer (born in 1945). Of this group, John Ashbery, in particular, has emerged as a defining force in recent poetics, and he is regarded by many as the most important American poet since World War II.
The last forty years of poetry in the United States have seen the emergence of a number of groups, schools, and trends, whose lasting importance has, necessarily, yet to be demonstrated.
The 1970s saw a revival of interest in surrealism, with the most prominent poets working in this field being Andrei Codrescu (born in 1946), Russell Edson (born in 1935) and Maxine Chernoff (born in 1952). Performance poetry also emerged from the Beat and hippie happenings, the talk - poems of David Antin (born in 1932), and ritual events performed by Rothenberg, to become a serious poetic stance which embraces multiculturalism and a range of poets from a multiplicity of cultures, including Puerto Rican born poets Giannina Braschi (born in 1953) and Julia de Burgos (born in 1914) who lived and wrote in New York City about the plight of the Hispanic - American immigrants. This mirrored a general growth of interest in poetry by African Americans including Gwendolyn Brooks (born in 1917), Maya Angelou (born in 1928), Ishmael Reed (born in 1938), Nikki Giovanni (born in 1943), and Detrick Hughes (born in 1966).
Another group of poets, the Language school (or L = A = N = G = U = A = G = E, after the magazine that bears that name), have continued and extended the Modernist and Objectivist traditions of the 1930s. Some poets associated with the group are Lyn Hejinian, Ron Silliman, Bob Perelman and Leslie Scalapino. Their poems -- fragmentary, purposefully ungrammatical, sometimes mixing texts from different sources and idioms -- can be by turns abstract, lyrical, and highly comic.
The Language school includes a high proportion of women, which mirrors another general trend -- the rediscovery and promotion of poetry written both by earlier and contemporary women poets. A number of the most prominent African American poets to emerge are women, and other prominent women writers include Adrienne Rich (1929 -- 2012), Jean Valentine (born in 1934) and Amy Gerstler (born in 1956).
Although poetry in traditional classical forms had mostly fallen out of fashion by the 1960s, the practice was kept alive by poets of great formal virtuosity like James Merrill (1926 -- 1995), author of the epic poem The Changing Light at Sandover, Richard Wilbur, and British - born San Francisco poet Thom Gunn. The 1980s and 1990s saw a re-emergent interest in traditional form, sometimes dubbed New Formalism or Neoformalism. These include poets such as Molly Peacock, Brad Leithauser, Dana Gioia, Donna J. Stone, Timothy Steele, and Marilyn Hacker. Some of the more outspoken New Formalists have declared that the return to rhyme and more fixed meters to be the new avant - garde. Their critics sometimes associate this traditionalism with the conservative politics of the Reagan era, noting the recent appointment of Gioia as Chair of the National Endowment for the Arts. More recent examples of New Formalism, however, have sometimes crossed over into the more experimental territory of Language poetry, suggesting that both schools are being gradually absorbed into the poetic mainstream.
Haiku has also attracted a community of American poets dedicated to its development as a serious poetic genre in English. The extremely terse Japanese haiku first influenced the work of Pound and the Imagists, and post-war poets such as Kerouac and Richard Wright wrote substantial bodies of original haiku in English. Other poets such as Ginsberg, Snyder, Wilbur, Merwin, and many others have at least dabbled with haiku, often simply as a syllabic form. Starting in 1963, with the founding of the journal American Haiku, poets such as Cor van den Heuvel, Nick Virgilio, Raymond Roseliep, John Wills, Anita Virgil, Gary Hotham, Marlene Mountain, Wally Swist, Peggy Willis Lyles, George Swede, Jim Kacian, and others have created significant oeuvres of haiku poetry, evincing continuities with both Transcendentalism and Imagism and often maintaining an anti-anthropocentric environmental focus on nature during an unparalleled age of habitat destruction and human alienation.
The last two decades have also seen a revival of the Beat poetry spoken word tradition, in the form of the poetry slam, which was born of the Nuyorican movement led by New York -- based Puerto Rican poets Pedro Pietri, Giannina Braschi, and Miguel Piñero. Chicago construction worker Marc Smith turned urban poetry performance into audience - judged competitions in 1984. Poetry slams emphasize a style of writing that is topical, provocative and easily understood. Poetry slam opened the door for a new generation of writers and spoken word performers, including Alix Olson, Apollo Poetry, Taylor Mali, and Saul Williams, and inspired hundreds of open mics across the country.
Poetry has also become a significant presence on the Web, with a number of new online journals, ' zines, blogs and other websites. An example of the fluid nature of web - based poetry communities is, "thisisbyus, now defunct, yet this community of writers continues and expands on Facebook and has allowed both novice and professional poets to explore writing styles.
During the contemporary time frame there were also major independent voices who defied links to well - known American poetic movements and forms such as poet and literary critic Robert Peters, greatly influenced by the Victorian English poet Robert Browning 's poetic monologues, became reputable for executing his monologic personae like his Mad King Ludwig II of Bavaria into popular one - man performances.
Events, like the 9 / 11 attacks, influenced both content of poems and the public 's attention to poetry.
Robert Pinsky has a special place in American poetry as he was the Poet Laureate of the United States for three terms. No other poet has been so honored. His "Favorite Poem Project '' is unique, inviting all citizens to share their all - time favorite poetic composition and why they love it. He is a professor at Boston University and the poetry editor at Slate. "Poems to Read '' is only one demonstration of his masterful poetic vision, joining the word and the common man.
Contemporary poetry on environmental sustainability is found among the works of J.S. Shipman, for example, in, "Calling on You. ''
In general, poetry in the contemporary era has been moving out of the mainstream and onto the college and university campus. The growth in the popularity of graduate creative writing programs has given poets the opportunity to make a living as teachers. This increased professionalization of poetry, combined with the reluctance of most major book and magazine presses to publish poetry, has meant that, for the foreseeable future at least, poetry may have found its new home in the academy and in small independent journals.
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where does the us rank in land size | List of countries and dependencies by area - wikipedia
This is a list of the world 's countries and their dependent territories by area, ranked by total area.
Entries in this list, include, but are not limited to, those in the ISO standard 3166 - 1, which includes sovereign states and dependent territories. Largely unrecognised states not in ISO 3166 - 1 are included in the list in ranked order, but are not given a rank number. The areas of such largely unrecognised states are in most cases also included in the areas of the more widely recognised states that claim the same territory; see the notes in the "Notes '' column for each country for clarification.
Not included in the list are individual country claims to parts of the continent of Antarctica, entities such as the European Union that have some degree of sovereignty but do not consider themselves to be sovereign countries or dependent territories, and unrecognized micronations such as the Principality of Sealand.
This list includes three measurements of area:
Data is taken from the United Nations Statistics Division unless otherwise noted.
The charts below are based on the CIA World Factbook as of February 15, 2005.
Sovereign states with areas greater than 100,000 km are shown in green. In addition, non-sovereign territories are included for purposes of comparison, and are shown in gray. Areas include inland water bodies (lakes, reservoirs, rivers). Claims to parts of Antarctica by various countries are not included.
Notably, Encyclopædia Britannica specifies the United States ' area (excluding coastal and territorial waters) as 9,525,067 sq km, which is less than either source 's figure given for China 's area. Therefore, while it can be determined that China has a larger area excluding coastal and territorial waters, it is unclear which country has a larger area including coastal and territorial waters.
United Nations Statistics Division 's figure for the United States is 9,833,517 sq km and China is 9,596,961 sq km. These closely match the CIA World Factbook figures and similarly include coastal and territorial waters for the United States, but exclude coastal and territorial waters for China.
Further explanation of disputed ranking: The dispute for world 's third - largest country arose from the inclusion of coastal and territorial waters for the United States. This discrepancy was deduced from comparing the CIA World Factbook and its previous iterations against the information for United States on Encyclopædia Britannica, particularly its footnote section. In sum, according to older versions of the CIA World Factbook (from 1982 to 1996), the US was listed as the world 's fourth - largest country (after Russia, Canada, and China) with a total area of 9,372,610 sq km. However, in the 1997 edition, the US added coastal waters to its total area (increasing it to 9,629,091 sq km). And then again in 2007, US added territorial water to its total area (increasing it to 9,833,517 sq km). During this time, China 's total area remained unchanged. In other words, no coastal or territorial water area was added to China 's total area figure. The United States has a coastal water area of 109,362 sq km, and a territorial water area of 195,213 sq km, for a total of 304,575 sq km of additional water space. This is larger than entire countries like Italy, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom. Adding this figure to the US will boost it over China in ranking since China 's coastal and territorial water figures are currently unknown (no official publication) and thus can not be added into China 's total area figure.
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when is love and hip hop atlanta reunion 2017 air date | Love & Hip Hop: Atlanta - wikipedia
Love & Hip Hop: Atlanta is the second installment of the Love & Hip Hop reality television franchise. It premiered June 18, 2012 on VH1, and chronicles the lives of several people in Atlanta involved with hip hop music. Love & Hip Hop: Atlanta is the highest - rated installment of the Love & Hip Hop franchise. On January 30, 2017, VH1 announced the show 's return for the sixth season, which premiered on March 6, 2017.
Note:
The series has a large ensemble cast. The lead cast members appear in the opening credits, while other cast members are credited as "additional cast '' or "featured '' in the show 's credits. These cast members appear in green screen confessional interview segments and (for the most part) have the same amount of screen time and storyline focus as the show 's main cast members. Some major supporting cast members have been eventually upgraded to main cast members.
Note:
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who plays dumbledore in the crimes of grindlewald | Fantastic Beasts: the Crimes of Grindelwald - wikipedia
Fantastic Beasts: The Crimes of Grindelwald is an upcoming fantasy drama film produced by Heyday Films and distributed by Warner Bros. Pictures. A co-production of the United Kingdom and the United States, it is the sequel to Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them (2016). It will serve as the second film installment in the Fantastic Beasts film series, and the tenth overall in the Wizarding World franchise, which began with the Harry Potter film series. The film is directed by David Yates, with a screenplay by J.K. Rowling, and features an ensemble cast that includes Eddie Redmayne, Katherine Waterston, Dan Fogler, Alison Sudol, Ezra Miller, Johnny Depp, Jude Law, Zoë Kravitz, Callum Turner, Claudia Kim and Carmen Ejogo. The plot follows Newt Scamander and Albus Dumbledore as they attempt to take down the dark wizard Gellert Grindelwald, while facing new threats in a more divided wizarding world.
Principal photography for the film began at Warner Bros. Studios, Leavesden in July 2017. Filming also took place in England, including London, Switzerland, and Paris. Fantastic Beasts: The Crimes of Grindelwald is scheduled to be released in theaters, Real D 3D and IMAX 3D on 16 November 2018.
At the end of the first film, the powerful dark wizard Gellert Grindelwald was captured by MACUSA (Magical Congress of the United States of America), with the help of Newt Scamander. But, making good on his threat, Grindelwald escaped custody and has set about gathering followers, most unsuspecting of his true agenda: to raise pure - blood wizards up to rule over all non-magical beings.
In an effort to thwart Grindelwald 's plans, Albus Dumbledore enlists his former student Newt Scamander, who agrees to help, unaware of the dangers that lie ahead. Lines are drawn as love and loyalty are tested, even among the truest friends and family, in an increasingly divided wizarding world.
Ólafur Darri Ólafsson portrays Skender, the head of a wizarding circus and freakshow. Brontis Jodorowsky portrays Nicolas Flamel, a 14th - century Parisian scribe believed to have discovered the Philosopher 's Stone. He was mentioned previously in Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone as a friend and colleague of Albus Dumbledore. Ingvar Eggert Sigurðsson portrays Grimmson, a powerful bounty hunter, while David Sakurai appears as Krall, an ambitious and sulky henchman of Grindelwald. Isaura Barbé - Brown portrays Laurena Kama, the first wife of Corvus Lestrange and mother of Leta Lestrange. Derek Riddell, Wolf Roth, Victoria Yeates, and Cornell John portray Torquil Travers, Spielman, Bunty, and Arnold Guzman, respectively, while Jessica Williams has been cast as Professor Eulalie "Lally '' Hicks and Fiona Glascott as an unspecified character.
In October 2014, Warner Bros. Pictures announced the film as "at least '' a trilogy with the first installment set to be released on 18 November 2016 followed by the second installment on 16 November 2018 and the third installment on 20 November 2020. David Yates was confirmed to direct at least the first installment of the series.
In July 2016, Yates confirmed that J.K. Rowling had written the screenplay for the second film and had ideas for the third. Yates talked to Entertainment Weekly about the second film, saying "we 've seen the script for Part 2, for the second movie, which takes the story in a whole new direction -- as you should, you do n't want to repeat yourself. The second movie introduces new characters as she builds this part of the Harry Potter universe further. It 's a very interesting development from where we start out. The work is pouring out of her. '' In October 2016, it was reported that the Fantastic Beasts film series would comprise five films, with the second film setting in another global capital city, and Eddie Redmayne would be returning to all films to play the lead role of Newt Scamander. Yates would also return to direct the sequel with producers Rowling, David Heyman, Steve Kloves, and Lionel Wigram.
Zoë Kravitz was expected to return in the sequel for a "meatier '' role after her cameo in the first film. On 1 November 2016, Deadline.com reported that Johnny Depp had joined the film for an unspecified role in the film, which was later revealed to be Gellert Grindelwald, for which he also filmed a small role in the first film but would play a larger role in the sequel. Depp 's casting received criticism by some fans based on his previous involvement in domestic violence allegations. J.K. Rowling posted on her website that she resisted recasting because Depp and his ex-wife, actress Amber Heard, had previously expressed hope that the mutual agreement would enable both to move on from the controversy and that "the filmmakers and I are not only comfortable sticking with our original casting, but genuinely happy to have Johnny playing a major character in the movies. '' Director David Yates revealed that character Albus Dumbledore would be back in the film but it would be played by a younger actor, not Michael Gambon, and he also revealed that the second film would be set in the United Kingdom and Paris. A number of big name actors, including Christian Bale, Benedict Cumberbatch, and Mark Strong were considered for the role, while Jared Harris, son of Richard Harris who played Dumbledore in the first two Harry Potter films, was also considered. Later, Yates revealed that he would be directing all five films, stating "I love making films, and I 've got a great team, all of whom are like family. '' James Newton Howard revealed in an interview with Forbes that he would be returning to compose the score for the sequel.
In January 2017, it was reported that Ezra Miller was getting ready to shoot the sequel, which confirmed that he would be returning as Credence Barebone. In April, it was confirmed that Jude Law had been cast for the role of Albus Dumbledore at around the time he was the Transfiguration professor at Hogwarts. On 21 April 2017, Callum Turner joined the cast as Newt Scamander 's older brother, Theseus. On 3 July 2017, the start of principal photography, the rest of the cast which included Claudia Kim, William Nadylam, Ingvar Sigurdsson, Ólafur Darri Ólafsson, and Kevin Guthrie, as well as a plot synopsis, were revealed.
Principal photography began on 3 July 2017, at Warner Bros. Studios, Leavesden. On 22 September 2017, David Sakurai was cast to play Krall, one of the ambitious and sulky henchman of Grindelwald. Law reportedly finished filming his scenes as Dumbledore in September 2017. On 5 October 2017, several other castings were announced, including Brontis Jodorowsky as Nicolas Flamel and Jessica Williams joining in an undisclosed role. Principal photography wrapped on 20 December 2017.
James Newton Howard confirmed in November 2016 that he would return to compose the music for the film.
Fantastic Beasts: The Crimes of Grindelwald is scheduled to be released by Warner Bros. Pictures on 16 November 2018. The film will get an IMAX, IMAX 3D, and 2D release.
It was announced that the film 's script would be released in the form of a book on 16 November.
Initially, in October 2014, the studio announced there would be a Fantastic Beasts trilogy. In July 2016, David Yates confirmed that Rowling had written the screenplay for the second film and had ideas for the third. The third film is set to be released on 20 November 2020. In October 2016, Rowling stated that five films would comprise the series.
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colorado is not a right to work state | Right - to - work law - wikipedia
Right - to - work laws are statutes in 28 U.S. states that prohibit union security agreements between companies and workers ' unions. Under these laws, employees in unionized workplaces may not be compelled to join a union, nor compelled to pay for any part of the cost of union representation, while generally receiving the same benefits as union members who do contribute.
According to the Legal Defense Foundation, right - to - work laws prohibit union security agreements, or agreements between employers and labor unions, that govern the extent to which an established union can require employees ' membership, payment of union dues, or fees as a condition of employment, either before or after hiring. Right - to - work laws do not aim to provide general guarantee of employment to people seeking work, but rather are a government regulation of the contractual agreements between employers and labor unions that prevents them from excluding non-union workers, or requiring employees to pay a fee to unions that have negotiated the labor contract all the employees work under.
Unions are already governed by regulations and laws, including public policy on labor - management relations (e.g., a university central office professional position on labor relations). Typically, unions are organized by industry (e.g., healthcare, restaurant, steel workers, teachers, state government - professional, non-professional), and they are required to be first voted in by employees and management, with provisions on dues payments required as of 2011. For example, while municipal employees have their unions, as do police and firefighters, other non-profit agencies in localities may not be offered these same protections.
Right - to - work provisions (either by law or by constitutional provision) exist in 28 U.S. states, mostly in the southern and western United States, but also including the Midwestern states of Michigan, Indiana, Iowa, Missouri, Nebraska and Wisconsin. Business interests represented by the United States Chamber of Commerce have lobbied extensively to pass right - to - work legislation. Such laws are allowed under the 1947 federal Taft -- Hartley Act. A further distinction is often made within the law between people employed by state and municipal governments and those employed by the private sector, with states that are otherwise union shop (i.e., workers must pay for union representation in order to obtain or retain a job) having right to work laws in effect for government employees; provided, however, that the law also permits an "agency shop '' where employees pay their share for representation (less than union dues), while not joining the union as members.
The National Labor Relations Act, generally known as the Wagner Act, was passed in 1935 as part of President Franklin D. Roosevelt 's "Second New Deal. '' Among other things, the Act provided that a company could lawfully agree to be any of the following:
The Act tasked the National Labor Relations Board, which had existed since 1933, with overseeing these rules.
In 1947 Congress passed the Labor Management Relations Act of 1947, generally known as the Taft -- Hartley Act, over President Harry S. Truman 's veto. This law repealed some parts of the Wagner Act, including outlawing the closed shop. Section 14 (b) of the Taft - Hartley Act also authorizes individual states (but not local governments, such as cities or counties) to outlaw the union shop and agency shop for employees working in their jurisdictions. Any state law that outlaws such arrangements is known as a "right - to - work law. ''
In the early development of the Right to Work policy segregationist sentiment was used as an argument, as many people in the south felt that it was wrong for Blacks and Whites to belong to the same unions. Vance Muse, one of the early developers of the Right to Work philosophy in Texas used this type of argument in the development of anti-union laws in Texas in the 1940s.
The Federal Government operates under open shop rules nationwide, though many of its employees are represented by unions. Unions that represent professional athletes have written contracts that include particular representation provisions (for example in the National Football League), but their application is limited to "wherever and whenever legal, '' as the Supreme Court has clearly held that the application of a Right to Work law is determined by the employee 's "predominant job situs. '' Hence, players on professional sports teams in states with Right to Work laws are subject to those laws, and can not be required to pay any portion of union dues as a condition of continued employment.
Twenty - two states, plus the District of Columbia, do not have right - to - work laws.
On November 18, 2016, the Sixth Circuit Court of Appeals upheld the right of local governments to enact local right - to - work laws in Kentucky, Ohio, and the other states of its jurisdiction.
The first arguments concerning the right to work centered around the rights of a dissenting minority with respect to an opposing majoritarian collective bargain. President Franklin Roosevelt 's "New Deal '' had prompted many U.S. Supreme Court challenges, among which were challenges regarding the constitutionality of the National Industry Recovery Act of 1933 (NIRA). In 1936, as a part of its ruling in Carter v. Carter Coal Co. the Court ruled against mandatory collective bargaining, stating: "The effect, in respect to wages and hours, is to subject the dissentient minority... to the will of the stated majority... To ' accept ' in these circumstances, is not to exercise a choice, but to surrender to force. The power conferred upon the majority is, in effect, the power to regulate the affairs of an unwilling minority. This is legislative delegation in its most obnoxious form; for it is not even delegation to an official or an official body... but to private persons... (A) statute which attempts to confer such power undertakes an intolerable and unconstitutional interference with personal liberty and private property. The delegation is so clearly arbitrary, and so clearly a denial of rights safeguarded by the due process clause of the Fifth Amendment, that it is unnecessary to do more than refer to decisions of this Court which foreclose the question. ''
Besides the U.S. Supreme Court, other proponents of right - to - work laws also point to the Constitution and the right to freedom of association. They argue that workers should both be free to join unions or to refrain, and thus, sometimes refer to non-right - to - work states as "forced unionism '' states. These proponents argue that by being forced into a collective bargain, what the majoritarian unions call a fair share of collective bargaining costs is actually "financial coercion and a violation of freedom of choice. '' An opponent to the union bargain is forced to "financially support an organization they did not vote for, in order to receive monopoly representation they have no choice over. ''
Some religions, such as the Seventh - Day Adventist Church, prohibit or discourage the joining of unions, citing Ellen White and the Loss of Free Will if you join a union.
Proponents such as the Mackinac Center for Public Policy contend that it is unfair that unions can require new and existing employees to either join the union or pay fees for collective bargaining expenses as a condition of employment under union security agreement contracts. Other proponents contend that unions may still be needed in new and growing sectors of the economy, for example, the voluntary and third party sectors, to assure adequate benefits for new immigrant, "part - time '' aides in America (e.g., US Direct Support Workforce).
Right - to - work proponents, including the Center for Union Facts, contend that political contributions made by unions are not representative of the union workers. The agency shop portion of this had previously been contested with support of National Right to Work Legal Defense Foundation in Communications Workers of America v. Beck, resulting in "Beck rights '' preventing agency fees from being used for expenses outside of collective bargaining if the non-union worker notifies the union of their objection.
Some opponents (such as Richard Kahlenberg) have argued that while it is an effective political slogan, the phrase "right - to - work '' is a misnomer because the lack of such a law does not deprive anyone of the right to work (see Taft -- Hartley Act (1947), which outlawed "closed shops '' which did deprive people of the right to work for not joining a union before it was enacted); a right - to - work law simply "gives employees the right to be free riders -- to benefit from collective bargaining without paying for it ''. Under labor laws in the United States, the union as the exclusive collective bargaining agent has a duty of fair representation for all persons in the bargaining unit, including those who choose not to be members and pay dues. Thus, in Abood v. Detroit Board of Education, the Supreme Court of the United States permitted agency fees so that employees in the public sector could be required to pay for the costs of representation, even as they opted not to be a member. The right to challenge the fees must include the right to have it heard by an impartial fact finder.
Opponents argue that right - to - work laws restrict freedom of association, and limit the sorts of agreements individuals acting collectively can make with their employer, by prohibiting workers and employers from agreeing to contracts that include "fair share fees ''. Moreover, American law imposes a duty of fair representation on unions; consequently non-members in right to work states can and do force unions to provide without compensation grievance services that are paid for by union members. Hence right - to - work laws are not neutral, but rather impose an active and artificial burden on labor unions.
In December 2012, libertarian writer J.D. Tuccille, in Reason magazine, wrote: "I consider the restrictions right - to - work laws impose on bargaining between unions and businesses to violate freedom of contract and association... I 'm disappointed that the state has, once again, inserted itself into the marketplace to place its thumb on the scale in the never - ending game of playing business and labor off against one another... This is not to say that unions are always good. It means that, when the state is n't involved, they 're private organizations that can offer value to their members. ''
Critics from organized labor have pointed out since the late 1970s that while the National Right to Work Committee purports to engage in grass - roots lobbying on behalf of the "little guy '', the National Right to Work Committee was formed by a group of southern businessmen with the express purpose of fighting unions, and that they "added a few workers for the purpose of public relations ''.
The unions also contend that the National Right to Work Legal Defense Foundation and National Right to Work Committee have received millions of dollars in grants from foundations controlled by major U.S. industrialists like the New York - based Olin Foundation, Inc., which grew out of a family manufacturing business, but now funds primarily conservative think tanks, media outlets, and university law programs.
Kahlenberg and Marvit also argue that, at least in efforts to pass a right - to - work law in Michigan, excluding police and firefighter unions -- traditionally less hostile to Republicans -- from the law caused some to question claims that the law was simply an effort to improve Michigan 's businesses climate, not to seek partisan advantage.
Corporate interests have now involved the growing non-profit and voluntary sectors of the economy which "achieved parity in wages and benefits '' to the state, unionized workforces, while not assuring provisions such as adverse hearings which benefit employees.
According to Tim Bartik of the W.E. Upjohn Institute for Employment Research, studies of the effect of right - to - work laws "abound, '' but are not "consistent. '' Studies have found both "some positive effect on job growth, '' and no effect. Thomas Holmes argues that it is difficult to analyze right - to - work laws by comparing states due to other similarities between states that have passed these laws. For instance, right - to - work states often have some strong pro-business policies, making it difficult to isolate the effect of right - to - work laws. Looking at the growth of states in the Southeast following World War II, Bartik notes that while they have right - to - work laws they have also benefited from "factors like the widespread use of air conditioning and different modes of transportation that helped decentralize manufacturing ''.
Economist Thomas Holmes compared counties close to the border between states with and without right - to - work laws (thereby holding constant an array of factors related to geography and climate). He found that the cumulative growth of employment in manufacturing in the right - to - work states was 26 percentage points greater than that in the non-right - to - work states. However, given the study design, Holmes points out "my results do not say that it is right - to - work laws that matter, but rather that the ' probusiness package ' offered by right - to - work states seems to matter. '' Moreover, as noted by Kevin Drum and others, this result may reflect business relocation rather than an overall enhancement of economic growth, since "businesses prefer locating in states where costs are low and rules are lax. ''
A February 2011 study by the Economic Policy Institute found:
A 2008 editorial in The Wall Street Journal comparing job growth in Ohio and Texas stated that from 1998 to 2008, Ohio lost 10,400 jobs, while Texas gained 1,615,000. The opinion piece suggested right - to - work laws might be among the reasons for the economic expansion in Texas, along with the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), and the absence of a state income tax in Texas. Another Wall Street Journal editorial in 2012, by the president and the labor policy director of the Mackinac Center for Public Policy, reported 71 % employment growth in right - to - work states from 1980 to 2011, while employment in non-right - to - work states grew just 32 % during the same period. The 2012 editorial also stated that since 2001, compensation in right - to - work states had increased 4 times faster than in other states.
In January 2012, in the immediate aftermath of passage of Indiana 's right - to - work law, Rasmussen Reports found that 74 % of likely U.S. voters supported right - to - work laws, but "most also do n't think a non-union worker should enjoy benefits negotiated by the union. ''
In Michigan in January through March 2013, a poll found that 43 percent of those polled thought the law would help Michigan 's economy, while 41 percent thought it would hurt.
The following states (28) are right - to - work states:
In addition, the territory of Guam also has right - to - work laws, and employees of the US Federal Government have the right to choose whether or not to join their respective unions.
New Hampshire adopted a right - to - work bill in 1947, but it was repealed in 1949 by the state legislature and governor.
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who governed the kingdom of naples and sicily 1815 | Kingdom of Naples - wikipedia
The Kingdom of Naples (Latin: Regnum Neapolitanum; Italian: Regno di Napoli) comprised that part of the Italian Peninsula south of the Papal States between 1282 and 1816. It was created as a result of the War of the Sicilian Vespers (1282 -- 1302), when the island of Sicily revolted and was conquered by the Crown of Aragon, becoming a separate Kingdom of Sicily. Naples continued to be officially known as the Kingdom of Sicily, the name of the formerly unified kingdom. For much of its existence, the realm was contested between French and Spanish dynasties. In 1816, it was reunified with the island kingdom of Sicily once again to form the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies.
The name "Kingdom of Naples '' was not used officially. Officially, under the Angevins it was still the Kingdom of Sicily (regnum Siciliae). The Peace of Caltabellotta (1302) that ended the War of the Vespers provided that the name of the island kingdom would be Trinacria (regnum Trinacriae). This usage did not become established. In the late Middle Ages, it was common to distinguish the two kingdoms named Sicily as being on this or that side of the Punta del Faro, i.e., the Strait of Messina. Naples was citra Farum or al di qua del Faro (on this side of Faro) and Sicily was ultra Farum or di la del Faro (on the other side). When both kingdoms came under the rule of Alfonso the Magnanimous in 1442, this usage became official, although Ferdinand I (1458 -- 94) preferred the simple title King of Sicily (rex Sicilie).
In regular speech and in unofficial documents, especially narrative histories, the Kingdom of Sicily citra Farum was commonly called the Kingdom of Naples (regnum Neapolitanum or regno di Napoli) by the late Middle Ages. It was sometimes even called the regno di Puglia, kingdom of Apulia. In the 18th century, the Neapolitan intellectual Giuseppe Maria Galanti argued that the latter was the true "national '' name of the kingdom. By the time of Alfonso the Magnanimous, the two kingdoms were sufficiently distinct that they were no longer seen as divisions of a single kingdom. They remained administratively separate, despite being repeatedly in personal union, until 1816.
The term "Kingdom of Naples '' is in near universal use among historians.
Following the rebellion in 1282, King Charles I of Sicily (Charles of Anjou) was forced to leave the island of Sicily by Peter III of Aragon 's troops. Charles, however, maintained his possessions on the mainland, customarily known as the "Kingdom of Naples '', after its capital city.
Charles and his Angevin successors maintained a claim to Sicily, warring against the Aragonese until 1373, when Queen Joan I of Naples formally renounced the claim by the Treaty of Villeneuve. Joan 's reign was contested by Louis the Great, the Angevin King of Hungary, who captured the kingdom several times (1348 -- 1352).
Queen Joan I also played a part in the ultimate demise of the first Kingdom of Naples. As she was childless, she adopted Louis I, Duke of Anjou, as her heir, in spite of the claims of her cousin, the Prince of Durazzo, effectively setting up a junior Angevin line in competition with the senior line. This led to Joan I 's murder at the hands of the Prince of Durazzo in 1382, and his seizing the throne as Charles III of Naples.
The two competing Angevin lines contested each other for the possession of the Kingdom of Naples over the following decades. Charles III 's daughter Joan II (r. 1414 -- 1435) adopted Alfonso V of Aragon (whom she later repudiated) and Louis III of Anjou as heirs alternately, finally settling succession on Louis ' brother René of Anjou of the junior Angevin line, and he succeeded her in 1435.
René of Anjou temporarily united the claims of junior and senior Angevin lines. In 1442, however, Alfonso V conquered the Kingdom of Naples and unified Sicily and Naples once again as dependencies of Aragon. At his death in 1458, the kingdom was again separated and Naples was inherited by Ferrante, Alfonso 's illegitimate son.
When Ferrante died in 1494, Charles VIII of France invaded Italy, using as a pretext the Angevin claim to the throne of Naples, which his father had inherited on the death of King René 's nephew in 1481. This began the Italian Wars.
Charles VIII expelled Alfonso II of Naples from Naples in 1495, but was soon forced to withdraw due to the support of Ferdinand II of Aragon for his cousin, Alfonso II 's son Ferrantino. Ferrantino was restored to the throne, but died in 1496, and was succeeded by his uncle, Frederick IV.
Charles VIII 's successor, Louis XII reiterated the French claim. In 1501, he occupied Naples and partitioned the kingdom with Ferdinand of Aragon, who abandoned his cousin King Frederick. The deal soon fell through, however, and Aragon and France resumed their war over the kingdom, ultimately resulting in an Aragonese victory leaving Ferdinand in control of the kingdom by 1504.
The Spanish troops occupying Calabria and Apulia, led by Gonzalo Fernandez de Cordova did not respect the new agreement, and expelled all Frenchmen from the area. The peace treaties that continued were never definitive, but they established at least that the title of King of Naples was reserved for Ferdinand 's grandson, the future Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor. Ferdinand nevertheless continued in possession of the kingdom, being considered as the legitimate heir of his uncle Alfonso I of Naples and also to the former Kingdom of Sicily (Regnum Utriusque Siciliae).
The kingdom continued as a focus of dispute between France and Spain for the next several decades, but French efforts to gain control of it became feebler as the decades went on, and never genuinely endangered Spanish control.
The French finally abandoned their claims to Naples by the Treaty of Cateau - Cambrésis in 1559.
In the Treaty of London (1557), five cities on coast of Tuscany were designated the Stato dei Presidi (State of the Presidi), and part of the Kingdom of Naples.
After the War of the Spanish Succession in the early 18th century, possession of the kingdom again changed hands. Under the terms of the Treaty of Rastatt in 1714, Naples was given to Charles VI, the Holy Roman Emperor. He also gained control of Sicily in 1720, but Austrian rule did not last long. Both Naples and Sicily were conquered by a Spanish army during the War of the Polish Succession in 1734, and Charles, Duke of Parma, a younger son of King Philip V of Spain was installed as King of Naples and Sicily from 1735. When Charles inherited the Spanish throne from his older half - brother in 1759, he left Naples and Sicily to his younger son, Ferdinand IV. Despite the two Kingdoms being in a personal union under the Habsburg and Bourbon dynasts, they remained constitutionally separate.
Being a member of the House of Bourbon, Ferdinand IV was a natural opponent of the French Revolution and Napoleon. In 1798, he briefly occupied Rome, but was expelled from it by French Revolutionary forces within the year. Soon afterwards Ferdinand fled to Sicily. In January 1799 the French armies installed a Parthenopaean Republic, but this proved short - lived, and a peasant counter-revolution inspired by the clergy allowed Ferdinand to return to his capital. However, in 1801 Ferdinand was compelled to make important concessions to the French by the Treaty of Florence, which reinforced France 's position as the dominant power in mainland Italy.
Ferdinand 's decision to ally with the Third Coalition against Napoleon in 1805 proved more damaging. In 1806, following decisive victories over the allied armies at Austerlitz and over the Neapolitans at Campo Tenese, Napoleon installed his brother, Joseph as King of Naples. When Joseph was sent off to Spain two years later, he was replaced by Napoleon 's sister Caroline and his brother - in - law Marshal Joachim Murat, as King of the Two Sicilies.
Meanwhile, Ferdinand had fled to Sicily, where he retained his throne, despite successive attempts by Murat to invade the island. The British would defend Sicily for the remainder of the war but despite the Kingdom of Sicily nominally being part of the Fourth, Fifth and Sixth Coalitions against Napoleon, Ferdinand and the British were unable to ever challenge French control of the Italian mainland.
After Napoleon 's defeat in 1814, Murat reached an agreement with Austria and was allowed to retain the throne of Naples, despite the lobbying efforts of Ferdinand and his supporters. However, with most of the other powers, particularly Britain, hostile towards him and dependent on the uncertain support of Austria, Murat 's position became less and less secure. Therefore, when Napoleon returned to France for the Hundred Days in 1815, Murat once again sided with him. Realising the Austrians would soon attempt to remove him, Murat gave the Rimini Proclamation in a hope to save his kingdom by allying himself with Italian nationalists.
The ensuing Neapolitan War between Murat and the Austrians was short, ending with a decisive victory for the Austrian forces at the Battle of Tolentino. Murat was forced to flee, and Ferdinand IV of Sicily was restored to the throne of Naples. Murat would attempt to regain his throne but was quickly captured and executed by firing squad in Pizzo, Calabria. The next year, 1816, finally saw the formal union of the Kingdom of Naples with the Kingdom of Sicily into the new Kingdom of the Two Sicilies.
1282 -- 1442 Angevin flag of Naples
1442 -- 1516 Flag changed after Alfonso I of the House of Trastámara became King.
The kingdom adopted the flag of the Spanish Empire when the Habsburg Charles V became King of Naples in 1516.
1714 -- 1738 Flag changed after Charles VI became King.
1738 -- 1806; 1815 -- 1816 Flag changed after Charles VII became King of Naples. Flag was reinstated as the flag of Naples after the Napoleonic Wars.
1806 -- 1808 Flag of Naples changed after Joseph Bonaparte became king.
1808 -- 1811 Flag of Naples changed after Joachim Murat became king.
1811 -- 1815 Flag of Naples changed
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how does the trachea aid in expelling mucus that may be contaminated with foreign particles | Mucus - wikipedia
Mucus (/ mjuːkəs / MYOO - kəss) is a slippery aqueous secretion produced by, and covering, mucous membranes. It is typically produced from cells found in mucous glands, although it may also originate from mixed glands, which contain both serous and mucous cells. It is a viscous colloid containing inorganic salts, antiseptic enzymes (such as lysozymes), immunoglobulins, and glycoproteins such as lactoferrin and mucins, which are produced by goblet cells in the mucous membranes and submucosal glands. Mucus serves to protect epithelial cells (that line the tubes) in the respiratory, gastrointestinal, urogenital, visual, and auditory systems; the epidermis in amphibians; and the gills in fish, against infectious agents such as fungi, bacteria and viruses. The average human nose produces about a liter of mucus per day. Most of the mucus produced is in the gastrointestinal tract.
Bony fish, hagfish, snails, slugs, and some other invertebrates also produce external mucus. In addition to serving a protective function against infectious agents, such mucus provides protection against toxins produced by predators, can facilitate movement and may play a role in communication.
In the human respiratory system, mucus, also known as airway surface liquid (ASL), aids in the protection of the lungs by trapping foreign particles that enter them, in particular, through the nose, during normal breathing. Further distinction exists between the superficial and cell - lining layers of ASL, which are known as mucus layer (ML) and pericilliary liquid layer (PCL), respectively. "Phlegm '' is a specialized term for mucus that is restricted to the respiratory tract, whereas the term "nasal mucus '' describes secretions of the nasal passages.
Nasal mucus is produced by the nasal mucosa; and mucus lining the airways (trachea, bronchus, bronchioles) is produced by specialized airway epithelial cells (goblet cells) and submucosal glands. Small particles such as dust, particulate pollutants, and allergens, as well as infectious agents and bacteria are caught in the viscous nasal or airway mucus and prevented from entering the system. This event along with the continual movement of the respiratory mucus layer toward the oropharynx, helps prevent foreign objects from entering the lungs during breathing. This explains why coughing often occurs in those who smoke cigarettes. The body 's natural reaction is to increase mucus production. In addition, mucus aids in moisturizing the inhaled air and prevents tissues such as the nasal and airway epithelia from drying out. Nasal and airway mucus is produced continuously, with most of it swallowed subconsciously, even when it is dried.
Increased mucus production in the respiratory tract is a symptom of many common illnesses, such as the common cold and influenza. Hypersecretion of mucus can occur in inflammatory respiratory diseases such as respiratory allergies, asthma, and chronic bronchitis. The presence of mucus in the nose and throat is normal, but increased quantities can impede comfortable breathing and must be cleared by blowing the nose or expectorating phlegm from the throat.
In general, nasal mucus is clear and thin, serving to filter air during inhalation. During times of infection, mucus can change color to yellow or green either as a result of trapped bacteria or due to the body 's reaction to viral infection. The green color of mucus comes from the heme group in the iron - containing enzyme myeloperoxidase secreted by white blood cells as a cytotoxic defense during a respiratory burst.
In the case of bacterial infection, the bacterium becomes trapped in already - clogged sinuses, breeding in the moist, nutrient - rich environment. Sinusitis is an uncomfortable condition which may include congestion of mucus. A bacterial infection in sinusitis will cause discolored mucus and would respond to antibiotic treatment; viral infections typically resolve without treatment. Almost all sinusitis infections are viral and antibiotics are ineffective and not recommended for treating typical cases.
In the case of a viral infection such as cold or flu, the first stage and also the last stage of the infection cause the production of a clear, thin mucus in the nose or back of the throat. As the body begins to react to the virus (generally one to three days), mucus thickens and may turn yellow or green. Viral infections can not be treated with antibiotics, and are a major avenue for their misuse. Treatment is generally symptom - based; often it is sufficient to allow the immune system to fight off the virus over time.
Increased mucus production in the upper respiratory tract is a symptom of many common ailments, such as the common cold. Nasal mucus may be removed by blowing the nose or by using nasal irrigation. Excess nasal mucus, as with a cold or allergies, due to vascular engorgement associated with vasodilation and increased capillary permeability caused by histamines, may be treated cautiously with decongestant medications. Thickening of mucus as a "rebound '' effect following overuse of decongestants may produce nasal or sinus drainage problems and circumstances that promote infection.
During cold, dry seasons, the mucus lining nasal passages tends to dry out, meaning that mucous membranes must work harder, producing more mucus to keep the cavity lined. As a result, the nasal cavity can fill up with mucus. At the same time, when air is exhaled, water vapor in breath condenses as the warm air meets the colder outside temperature near the nostrils. This causes an excess amount of water to build up inside nasal cavities. In these cases, the excess fluid usually spills out externally through the nostrils.
Excess mucus production in the bronchi and bronchioles, as may occur in asthma, bronchitis or influenza, results from chronic airway inflammation, and hence may be treated with anti-inflammatory medications. Impaired mucociliary clearance due to conditions such as primary ciliary dyskinesia may also result in its accumulation in the bronchi. The dysregulation of mucus homesotasis is the fundamental characteristic of cystic fibrosis, an inherited disease caused by mutations in the CFTR gene, which encodes a chloride channel. This defect leads to the altered electrolyte composition of mucus, which triggers its hyperabsorption and dehydration. Such low - volume, viscous, acidic mucus causes has a reduced antimicrobial function, which facilitates bacterial colonisation. The thinning of the mucus layer ultimately affects the PCL, which becomes dehydrated, compromising ciliary function and impairing mucociliary clearance.
In the human digestive system, mucus is used as a lubricant for materials that must pass over membranes, e.g., food passing down the esophagus. Mucus is extremely important in the intestinal tract. It forms an essential layer in the colon and in the small intestine that helps reduce intestinal inflammation by decreasing bacterial interaction with intestinal epithelial cells. A layer of mucus along the inner walls of the stomach is vital to protect the cell linings of that organ from the highly acidic environment within it. Mucus is not digested in the intestinal tract. Mucus is also secreted from glands within the rectum due to stimulation of the mucous membrane within.
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for a normal distribution two standard deviation on each side of the mean would include what | 68 -- 95 -- 99.7 rule - wikipedia
In statistics, the 68 -- 95 -- 99.7 rule is a shorthand used to remember the percentage of values that lie within a band around the mean in a normal distribution with a width of two, four and six standard deviations, respectively; more accurately, 68.27 %, 95.45 % and 99.73 % of the values lie within one, two and three standard deviations of the mean, respectively. In mathematical notation, these facts can be expressed as follows, where X is an observation from a normally distributed random variable, μ is the mean of the distribution, and σ is its standard deviation:
In the empirical sciences the so - called three - sigma rule of thumb expresses a conventional heuristic that "nearly all '' values are taken to lie within three standard deviations of the mean, i.e. that it is empirically useful to treat 99.7 % probability as "near certainty ''. The usefulness of this heuristic of course depends significantly on the question under consideration, and there are other conventions, e.g. in the social sciences a result may be considered "significant '' if its confidence level is of the order of a two - sigma effect (95 %), while in particle physics, there is a convention of a five - sigma effect (99.99994 % confidence) being required to qualify as a "discovery ''.
The "three sigma rule of thumb '' is related to a result also known as the three - sigma rule, which states that even for non-normally distributed variables, at least 88.8 % of cases should fall within properly - calculated three - sigma intervals. It follows from Chebyshev 's Inequality. For unimodal distributions the probability of being within the interval is at least 95 %. There may be certain assumptions for a distribution that force this probability to be at least 98 %.
These numerical values "68 %, 95 %, 99.7 % '' come from the cumulative distribution function of the normal distribution.
The prediction interval for any standard score z corresponds numerically to (1 − (1 − Φ (z)) 2).
For example, Φ (2) ≈ 0.9772, or Pr (X ≤ μ + 2σ) ≈ 0.9772, corresponding to a prediction interval of (1 − (1 − 0.97725) 2) = 0.9545 = 95.45 %. Note that this is not a symmetrical interval -- this is merely the probability that an observation is less than μ + 2σ. To compute the probability that an observation is within two standard deviations of the mean (small differences due to rounding):
This is related to confidence interval as used in statistics: X _̄ ± 2 σ n (\ displaystyle (\ bar (X)) \ pm 2 (\ frac (\ sigma) (\ sqrt (n)))) is approximately a 95 % confidence interval when X _̄ (\ displaystyle (\ bar (X))) is the average of a sample of size n (\ displaystyle n).
The "68 -- 95 -- 99.7 rule '' is often used to quickly get a rough probability estimate of something, given its standard deviation, if the population is assumed to be normal. It is also as a simple test for outliers if the population is assumed normal, and as a normality test if the population is potentially not normal.
To pass from a sample to a number of standard deviations, one first computes the deviation, either the error or residual depending on whether one knows the population mean or only estimates it. The next step is standardizing (dividing by the population standard deviation), if the population parameters are known, or studentizing (dividing by an estimate of the standard deviation), if the parameters are unknown and only estimated.
To use as a test for outliers or a normality test, one computes the size of deviations in terms of standard deviations, and compares this to expected frequency. Given a sample set, one can compute the studentized residuals and compare these to the expected frequency: points that fall more than 3 standard deviations from the norm are likely outliers (unless the sample size is significantly large, by which point one expects a sample this extreme), and if there are many points more than 3 standard deviations from the norm, one likely has reason to question the assumed normality of the distribution. This holds ever more strongly for moves of 4 or more standard deviations.
One can compute more precisely, approximating the number of extreme moves of a given magnitude or greater by a Poisson distribution, but simply, if one has multiple 4 standard deviation moves in a sample of size 1,000, one has strong reason to consider these outliers or question the assumed normality of the distribution.
For example, a 6σ event corresponds to a chance of about two parts per billion. For illustration, if events are taken to occur daily, this would correspond to an event expected every 1.4 million years. This gives a simple normality test: if one witnesses a 6σ in daily data and significantly fewer than 1 million years have passed, then a normal distribution most likely does not provide a good model for the magnitude or frequency of large deviations in this respect.
In The Black Swan, Nassim Nicholas Taleb gives the example of risk models according to which the Black Monday crash would correspond to a 36 - σ event: the occurrence of such an event should instantly suggest that the model is flawed, i.e. that the process under consideration is not satisfactorily modelled by a normal distribution. Refined models should then be considered, e.g. by the introduction of stochastic volatility. In such discussions it is important to be aware of problem of the gambler 's fallacy, which states that a single observation of a rare event does not contradict that the event is in fact rare. It is the observation of a plurality of purportedly rare events that increasingly undermines the hypothesis that they are rare, i.e. the validity of the assumed model. A proper modelling of this process of gradual loss of confidence in a hypothesis would involve the designation of prior probability not just to the hypothesis itself but to all possible alternative hypotheses. For this reason, statistical hypothesis testing works not so much by confirming a hypothesis considered to be likely, but by refuting hypotheses considered unlikely.
Because of the exponential tails of the normal distribution, odds of higher deviations decrease very quickly. From the rules for normally distributed data for a daily event:
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siemens technology and services private limited bengaluru karnataka | Siemens Technology and Services - Wikipedia
Siemens Technology and Services Private Limited (STSPL) is the Indian subsidiary of German multinational engineering and electronics conglomerate Siemens that focuses on IT and management services. The subsidiary is split into four units: Corporate Technology India, Siemens Corporate Finance and Controlling, Global Shared Services, and Siemens Management Consulting. Located in Electronic City in Bangalore, it has over 5000 employees. It has been certified with an SEI - CMMi Level 3, PCMM Level 3, ISO 27001: 2013 (ISMS) and ISO 9001 certifications.
It was founded in 1992 as a joint venture between Siemens Ltd (India) and Siemens Nixdorf Information Systems AG, Germany under the name Siemens Information Systems Ltd.
Its name was subsequently changed to Siemens Technology and Services Private Limited.
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the wachau valley is noted for its production of what product | Wachau - wikipedia
The Wachau (German pronunciation: (vaˈxaʊ)) is an Austrian valley with a picturesque landscape formed by the Danube river. It is one of the most prominent tourist destinations of Lower Austria, located midway between the towns of Melk and Krems that also attracts "connoisseurs and epicureans '' for its high - quality wines. It is 40 kilometres (25 mi) in length and was already settled in prehistoric times. A well - known place and tourist attraction is Dürnstein, where King Richard the Lion - Heart of England was held captive by Duke Leopold V. The architectural elegance of its ancient monasteries (Melk Abbey and Göttweig Abbey), castles and ruins combined with the urban architecture of its towns and villages, and the cultivation of vines as an important agricultural produce are the dominant features of the valley.
The Wachau was inscribed as "Wachau Cultural Landscape '' in the UNESCO List of World Heritage Sites in recognition of its architectural and agricultural history, in December 2000.
Even before the Neolithic period brought in changes in the natural environment of the valley, Palaeolithic 's records of the valley have been identified in the form of "figurines '' in Galgenberg and Willendorf stated to be 32,000 years and 26,000 years old respectively that testify to human occupation in the valley. It has been inferred that Krems and Melk were well settled establishments in the early Neolithic period between 4500 BC and 1800 BC. Wachau Valley 's ancient history in the Neolithic period started with deforestation by the people of the land for cultivation and settlement.
In 15 BC, the Celtic kingdom of Noricum became part of the Roman Empire. Since then the Empire 's boundaries were made up along the Danube also in Wachau and the fortifications of the Limes were built along its southern banks, especially Castrum Favianis (what is now Mautern an der Donau) at the downstream end of the valley and some burgi (i.e. small watchtower - like fortresses) in the area of Rossatz - Arnsdorf municipality, the remains of which can still be seen today, most notably in Bacharnsdorf. Roman rule on the southern banks of the Danube came to an end when King Odoaker ordered the evacuation of the Latin speaking population in 488 AD.
The name "wachu '' as such was recorded as "locus Wahowa '' in 853 AD and the name of "Krems '' was recorded as Urbs Chremisa in 995 AD, marking it as the oldest Austrian town.
The Babenberg Margraves, with Leopold I as their first king, ruled in Wachau from 976 AD. The 11th century marked an Austrian dukedom of Babenberg under Henry I, in 1156; it came under the great knightly family of the Wachau, the Kuenrings and later passed on to the Babenberg. With the dissipation of this line of rule, Duke Albrecht V (King Albrecht II) came to power in 1430. Between 1150 and 1839 AD, the four towns of St Michael, Wösendorf, Joching, and Weissenkirchen functioned independently. However, they formed a single entity as Wachau or Tal Wachau only in 1972. An interesting part of the 12th century history is the imprisonment of Richard the Lion heart, the King of England at the Kuenringerburg castle (now in ruins) above the Dürnstein town for the reason that he insulted the Babenberg Duke, Leopold V by showing disrespect to the Austrian flag (he had thrown it into a drain). Even though he was travelling in Austria (returning from the Holy Lands) in disguise (he had grown a beard to escape detection), he was identified in an inn in Erdberg, now a suburb of Vienna. He was finally released after paying a kingly ransom of 35,000 kg of silver. According to myth, the king 's freedom was facilitated due to the efforts of his French aide Blondel. It is said that this silver booty was used to build Wiener Neustadt.
Between 1150 and 1839, the four towns of St. Michael, Wösendorf, Joching and Weissenkirchen functioned independently. However, they formed a single entity as Wachau or Tal Wachau only in 1972. Wachau also had its fair share of invasions. The Hungarians invaded in the 15th century and Matthias Corvinus occupied Krems and Stein in 1477. Church Reformists ' activities also made an impact between 1530 and 1620, with the Protestants finally getting subdued by the Göttweig Abbot Georg II Falb in 1612 -- 31; eleven Austrian Benedictine abbeys had lent full support in this victory. This had a profound impact on the religious culture of the valley with many churches, chapels and other monuments being built in the valley.
Set in the Wachau and depicting the politics of the times, the epic German poem "Nibelungenlied '' was written around 1200 AD. Fragments of this epic was discovered in the monastic library of Melk, which are also displayed there.
However, substantial changes in the landscape were witnessed during medieval period from the 9th century with establishment of the Bavarian and Salzburg monasteries. During this process of development, economic needs necessitated creation of vine terraces to manufacture and market wine. In the 17th century, the area brought under vineyards varied widely depending on the climate and also the marketability of its wine. Viticulture on the hill slopes was practiced from the 18th century but adjustments in acreage brought under viticulture and pasture, and viticulture and horticulture (fruits) became necessary to meet the economic conditions in the region. Concurrent with this, the country side also started developing and this closely affected the agricultural practices in the region.
History of development of towns in the valley is traced to the 11th and 12th centuries. This development, which was of a homogeneous character with wooden buildings built for housing in irregularly shaped streets are seen even to this day. However, stone as building material was introduced in the 15th and 16th centuries to replace the old wooden structures by the peasants and the burghers. Since 1950, the residential complexes have appeared in the upper periphery of the valley.
A notable feature of the valley is the layout of the winegrowers ' farmsteads. These are also of 11th and 12th century vintage and also credited to the 16th -- 17th centuries. They are basically laid in "oblong or U shape or L - shape '' with two parallel set of buildings. The farmsteads also have the usual gated walls, facades, service buildings and vaulted passages, which over the centuries have been modified. Baroque architecture is a dominant feature with the street fronts depicting "late - medieval / post-medieval oriels on sturdy brackets, statues in niches, wall paintings and sgraffito work, or remnants of paintwork or rich Baroque facades. '' The architectural features of the roof of the Wachau house comprise a sharp slope with soaring hipped roof.
From 1700 onwards (considered under the modern period) many renovation works were undertaken. These included the Melk Abbey rebuilt in 1702, the refurbishing of the Canons ' Abbey in Dürnstein between 1715 and 1733 and major reconstruction works of Göttweig Abbey that began in 1719. However, in the late 18th and 19th centuries, there was a decline in its importance as a result of closure of monasteries under the secular rule of the Bavarians. However, many events changed the situation with all local communities between Krems and Melk coming together to ensure economic development of the Wachau, since 1904, duly integrating historical legacy with modernity. Tourism and vineyards development protected by Government Laws are now the byword for the "Golden Wachau, '' as it is now nicknamed.
In the modern period though, the 18th - century buildings are now integrated with the town layout, and they are used for promotion of trade and crafts. The 15th and 16th centuries ' ambiance is witnessed in the "towns ' taverns or inns, stations for changing draught horses, boat operators ' and toll houses, mills, smithies, or salt storehouses ''. The valley and the towns, still preserve a number of castles of vintage value.
The Wachau was inscribed as "Wachau Cultural Landscape '' in the UNESCO List of World Heritage Sites in December 2000 under category (ii) for its riverine landscape and under category (iv) for the medieval landscape that depicts architectural monuments, human settlements, and the agricultural use of its land. Even prior to the UNESCO recognition, on September 5, 1994, the Wachau area was officially brought under the ambit of the "Natura 2000 '', a network of European sites of the European Union, to ensure that development in the designated areas follow all rules and regulations. The designated area has 5000 historic monuments, though most of them are privately owned. However, the Federal Office of Historic Monuments (they also maintain a complete list of all historic monuments in Austria) and the Landeskonservatorat für Niederösterreich are responsible for the conservation of the historic cultural landscape of the Wachau.
The Danube valley in Austria between the cities of Melk and Krems in Lower Austria is called the Wachau. This stretch of the valley includes the hills and the adjacent Dunkelsteiner Wald (Dunkelsteiner Forest) and the southern Waldviertel. The Danube river flows north - northeast from Melk to Dürnstein through a meander from which it flows southeast, then east past the city of Krems. In the Wachau, the town of Spitz lies on the Danube 's western bank and the city of Melk on its eastern bank. Other important towns in the valley are Dürnstein, Weißenkirchen in der Wachau and Emmersdorf an der Donau, which have a galaxy of old homestead buildings dating from the mid-6th century. The railway line built in 1909 between Krems and Emmersdorf is a topographical marvel. Other settlements of note in the Wachau valley include Aggsbach, Bachamsdorf, Bergern im Dunkelsteinerwald, Furth bei Göttweig, Joching, Maria Laach am Jauerling, Mautern an der Donau, Mühldorf, Oberamsdorf, Oberloiben, Rossatz - Arnsdorf, Ruhrsdorf, Schwallenbach, Schönbühel - Aggsbach, Unterloiben and Willendorf.
The Danube River has a good network consisting of an inland navigation system. The Wachau valley historic sights can be visited by steamer boats; the best season to visit is between May and September. Autobahn services are also available from Vienna to visit all the important places in the Wachau. The well - developed road network between Melk and Krems follows the contour of the valley. However, there are no bridges across the Danube River in this region, and ferries are the only way to cross the river.
Melk is a small town on the bank of the Danube at the start of the Wachau region at an elevation of 228 metres (748 ft). An ancient town with its historicity linked to the Romans (as a border post) and also to Babenbergs ' times (as their strong fortress), known then as the Namare Fort, which the residents call as the Medelke of the Nibenlunggenlied or the Babenberg fortress. Its present population is reported to be 5300. Its large enticing popularity is on account of the Benedictine abbey (founded in 1089 AD), perfect example of a "Baroque synthesis of the arts '' which forms the western gateway to the Wachau, which is located on a 200 feet (61 m) high cliff. There is baroque gateway at the entrance.
The basic layout of the town below the Abbey is dated to the 11th and 12th centuries. However, many of the present day historic buildings in the main streets of the town are from 16th to 18th century. The most prominent streets laid out from the town hall square (Rathausplatz) are the Hauptstrasse (the main street) and Sterngasse, which is oldest street of the town. Some notable buildings seen in these streets and the square are: The former Lebzelterhaus dated to 1657, now a pharmacy and the Rathaus, dated to 1575, which has a large entrance door made of wood and copper, both in the Rathausplatz square; and an over-four - hundred - year - old bakery with shingle roof. A well - conserved ancient grapevine groove is located next to the Haus am Stein behind the Sterngasse. The Danube River bank shows marks of past flood levels at the shipping master 's house. Also of interest is the old post office building of 1792, established by the then - postmaster Freiher von Furnberg; this functions now as a convention centre. Another dominant feature in the town is the Birago Barracks, built during 1910 -- 13. In the peripheral area of the town, buildings built in the latter half of the 19th century and early 20th century are seen in their original condition. However, a district of villas replicating the Wiener Cottage Verein can also be seen here now. A1 Autobahn between Vienna and Salzburg has a station close to the town centre. Melk also has many cycle trails, which are popular.
Further information: Krems
Krems, which includes the town of Stein, an old town located between Kremser Tor (15th century) and Gottweigerghof (13th and 14th century) has many historical buildings, and also "pedestrian only '' streets of Obere and Untere Landstrasse. From historical times, Krems has been popular for wine trade due to its terraced vineyards. The Minorite Church was the parish church in the old town, and is now used to hold art exhibitions. Apart from this Gothic church, the town also has the Pfarrkirche St. Nikolaus Church that depicts paintings on the altar and the ceiling, which are credited to the famous painter Kremser Schmidt, who lived in Linzer Tor from 1756 until his death. He was the leading painter, draughtsman and etcher of the Austrian late Baroque. Ancient records of 1263 AD make mention of a payment of 10 % tax by the farmers to the Bishop of Passau 's Zehenthof. Other monuments in Mauthaus town are a Renaissance building and the Baroque palace, built in 1721, which is known as the birthplace of Ludwig von Köchel, who did research on Mozart. A medieval gate erected in 1480, known as the Steiner Tor, is another notable feature.
Spitz is a small town with cobbled streets amidst vineyards and views of the Danube valley. It is 17 kilometres (11 mi) from Krems. Occupied since Celtic times, it was first mentioned in 830. To the south of Spitz is the fortress of Hinterhaus.
The town of Dürnstein was established in 1019 AD on a rocky promontory along a gentle curve of the Danube river, in the midst of the Wachau valley. Known then as Tirnstein, and described later as the "most romantic place for the picturesque ancient terraced vineyards and monuments, in the Wachau '', it was built at an elevation of 630 feet (190 m) with fortifications for the settlement and protection against floods. It is 73 km upstream of Vienna. It now has a population of 936. The small walled town, located 9 kilometres (5.6 mi) upstream of Krems, is known for its scenic environment. The town is also well known for some of the residential buildings on the main street; one such building is the refurbished building of Chorherrenstift, which was originally a monastery built in 1410. It was restored in the 18th century.
Chronologically, the historical legacies associated with the town are as follows: imprisonment of the English King Richard the Lionheart in the Kuenringer Castle (now seen in ruins) from December 1192 to March 1193; the conquest by the Babenberg Duke Frederic II over the rebels of the Kuenring in 1231; building of the St. Kunigunde church in 1231; construction of the town hall (which was later modified in Renaissance style in 1547) with towers and gates between 13th and 14th centuries; recognition as a town in 1347; end of the dynastic rule of Dürnstein by the Kuenrings in 1355; the Habsburgs acquisition of Dürnstein as sovereigns under the rule of Duke Albrecht III of Austria in 1356; establishing the monastery of the Order of St. Augustine -- "Augustiner - Chorherren '' -- and the gothic monastery between 1410 and 1440; Emperor Frederic III awarding the municipal coat of arms to the town in 1476; dissolution of the order of St. Clara 's nunnery (built in 1330) and its control delegated to the Augustinian monks in 1571; the 16th century construction of residential buildings in a unique style, which continue to be recognized for their distinct artistic value to this day; building of a new castle in 1630; construction of the baroque monastery between 1710 and 1740; construction of the Wine Cellar Castle or the Keller - Schlößl in 1714; dissolution of the Augustinian monastery by Emperor Joseph II in 1788; battling the French invasion November 11, 1805 (Napoleonic Wars known as the Battle of Dürenstein fought in the flood plains between the river and the mountains in the river section which is curved in the shape of a crescent between Dürnstein and nearby Krems an der Donau; the first city mayor 's election in 1850; inauguration of the railway line along the Danube in 1909; refurbishing of the baroque tower of the monastery and painting it in its original blue colour. The villages of Oberloiben, Unterloiben and Rothenhof, located to the east of Dürnstein on the road to Krems, are now under the jurisdiction of the town. Dürnstein is also famous for the bread known as Wachauer - Laberl, which is served in wine bars. It is round baked bread called Gebäck, which is made from the flour of rye and wheat. The recipe for the bread is credited to the Schmidl family of Dürnstein, and is a closely guarded secret.
The wine - producing village is the Weissenkirchen, 6 kilometres (3.7 mi) from Dürnstein. It is a charming village with narrow cobbled streets, where the 16th - century Teisenhoferhof with arcaded courtyards are an attraction. It has a wine press from the 18th century and also a museum known as the Wachamuseum. 19th - century paintings of the Wachau 's picturesque landscape, etchings known as Baechanalism and self - portraits and family pictures, all done by Kremser Schmidt, are displayed in the museum.
Other important places in the valley are:
Willendorf, 21 kilometres (13 mi) from Krems, is the place where the primitive naked statue called the "Venus of Willendorf '' - made in chalkstone, 11 cm long - was discovered in 1908. One of the preeminent examples of prehistoric art, it is widely considered to be a fertility goddess. The statue is estimated to be 25,000 years old and is now on display at the Natural History Museum in Vienna; a replica is seen in the museum in Willendorf.
A postage stamp of Euro value 3.75 of the Venus von Willendorf was released on August 7, 2008 to mark the 100 - year celebrations since the discovery of the Venus.
Artstetten - Pöbring is a small town in the Melk district most known for Artstetten Castle, which is noted for its many onion - shaped domes. The castle has been refurbished many times over the past 700 years. It is famous for the fact that the Archduke Franz Ferdinand was the former owner of the castle. A museum in the castle has pictures of the life history of "the one and only Duke '' and his wife during their stay in the castle. The duke and his wife were assassinated during their visit to Sarajevo, which triggered World War I. The castle also houses their tomb.
The river valley 's geological formation is mainly of crystalline rocks, interspersed with Tertiary and Quaternary deposits in the wider reaches of the valley, and also in the Spitzer Graben. The land formation in the valley is dictated by the clay and silt deposits around Weissenkirchen and at the beginning of the Wachau stretch. A major tributary, which joins the Danube in Wachau on its left bank, is the Spitzer Graben, which is stated to be "part of the primeval Danube. '' During the Tertiary period, the flow of this river was to the west of the Wachau, on its northern border. The course of the river seen now is from Spitz onwards. The river is flowing along a weak fault zone on the southern border of the Bohemian Massif.
The origin of the wine growing tradition in Austria, and in particular in the Wachau valley, and its popularity beyond its borders, is attributed to medieval period of the Roman settlements. The Vinea Wachau Nobilis Districts date to Leuthold I von Kuenring (1243 -- 1313). Wine production peaked under the Carolingians. Krems has a long history as the hub of the Wachau wine trade, while the town of Dürnstein is also known for being one of the Wachau wine centres. Founded in 1983, the Vinea Wachau is an association of vintners who created categories for Wachau wine classification. The vintners of the Vinea Wachau claim to produce quality wine under a manifesto of six Vinea Wachau wine making laws, also known as six Wachau commandments. Their products, known for their purity, are labelled under the categories of Steinfeder, Federspiel or Smaragd.
The Wachau valley is well known for its production of apricots and grapes, both of which are used to produce specialty liquors and wines. The wine district 's rolling vineyards produce complex white wines. Wachau is a source of Austria 's most prized dry Rieslings and Grüner Veltliners, some of the best from the steep stony slopes next to the Danube on which the vines are planted. The temperature variation in the valley between day and cold nights has a significant role to play in the process of ripening of the grapes. The heat retained in the water and the stoney slopes with thin soil cover facilitates this process of growing fine variety of grapes, which results in the sophisticated wines produced in the valley. Since rainfall is not adequate for the growth of wines on thin soils, irrigation is an essential requirement to give water supply to the wine yards.
The historical monuments in the Wachau valley are more than 5000. Some of them are: The Benedictine abbeys of Melk (Stift Melk a massive baroque Benedictine monastery) and Göttweig (a monastery of canons regular), at the beginning and end of the scenic Wachau section of the Danube Valley from where one gets a visual feast of the city of Melk; the Schallaburg Castle, a Renaissance style castle 4 kilometres (2.5 mi) from Melk; the Steiner Tor in Krems or Krems an der Donau, the late - Gothic Piarist church; Dürnstein for its wine growing area and the Durnstein castle; and the Burgruine Aggstein.
Melk Abbey or Stift Melk is a Benedictine abbey, and one of the world 's most famous monastic sites. It is located above the town of Melk on a granite rocky outcrop at an elevation of 228 metres (748 ft) overlooking the river Danube in Lower Austria, adjoining the Wachau valley, about 40 km upstream of Krems. It is built over an area of 17,500 square metres (188,000 sq ft).
The abbey was founded in 1089 AD when Leopold II, Margrave of Austria gave one of his castles to Benedictine monks from Lambach Abbey. Monks have lived here since then. A school was founded in the 12th century, and the monastic library soon became renowned for its extensive manuscript collection. The library has a collection of 100,000 books including manuscripts and 750 volumes printed prior to 1500 AD, described as "incunabula. '' The monastery 's scriptorium was also a major site for the production of manuscripts. In the 15th century, the abbey became the centre of the "Melk Reform movement '' which reinvigorated the monastic life of Austria and Southern Germany.
Today 's impressive Baroque abbey, seen painted in mustard yellow colour, was built between 1702 and 1736 to designs by Jakob Prandtauer commissioned by abbot Berthed Dietmayer against all odds faced by him from his fellow monks. As one of the "most significant and magnificent Baroque monasteries in all of Austria '', this monument including Machau and others such as Krems and Gottweig are inscribed in UNESCO Heritage List.
The abbey complex has been built around seven courtyards and the main church, described as with its interior "baroque gone barmy with endless prancing angels and gold twirls '', is oriented conforming to religious practices. The abbey has 362 metres (1,188 ft) long front facade and a 64 metres (210 ft) high dome. The narrow west - facing wall of the Abbey is painted in rich original colour combination of bright yellow and white. The abbey has a horde of windows, at 1888 numbers to be exact. Particularly noteworthy is the abbey church with frescos (particularly providing a display of Apotheosis of St. Benedict) by Johann Michael Rottmayr dated 1722 and the impressive library with countless medieval manuscripts, including a famed collection of musical manuscripts and symbolic frescos of faith in the ceiling by Paul Troger (1731 -- 32). The gallery known as the Kaisergang which is 190 m long provided access to the 88 imperial rooms (Napoleon had stayed in one of these rooms); many of these rooms are now part of the museum.
The high altar and the cupola in the church are lighted by natural light, which appears very impressive. The transept in the church has the sarcophagus of St. Koloman. Other impressive features in the church are the statues of apostles Peter and Paul, painting on the ceiling of Holy Trinity flanked by several saints. A recent addition is an altar designed by H. Hunter and F. Frost which was built in 1976 incorporating Baroque interior. The marble hall (in red and grey colour), called the Marmorsaal, which comes after the library, also has baroque interior with marble used only for the door frames. However, this hall which was earlier the Royal dining hall now functions as a centre for formal ceremonies and receptions, and is also part of the museum. This hall has a fresco of Enlightenment made by Paul Troger. The balcony that connects the library and the marble hall provides exceptional views of the Wachu valley amidst the Danube River. The abbey also houses a very impressive museum where monastic treasures are displayed and information on the entire history of Austria is also narrated; an illustrative depiction of the "Melk Cross '' of the late medieval period (14th century) is conserved (in the treasury) in the museum. This cross which is studded with precious gem stones such as aquamarine and pearls, along with two other treasures of the abbey namely, the portable altar of Swanhild of the 11th century that depicts life of Christ carved in walrus horn, and a reliquary made of the lower jaw and tooth of St. Koloman, not on regular display in the museum are kept safely in the treasury of the Abbey. These three treasures of the abbey are brought out for display to the public once a year on October 13 which is observed as St. Koloman 's Day. The Abbey attracts half million visitors annually.
Due to its fame and academic stature, Melk managed to escape dissolution under Emperor Joseph II when many other Austrian abbeys were seized and dissolved between 1780 and 1790. The abbey managed to survive other threats to its existence during the Napoleonic Wars, and also in the period following the Nazi Anschluss that took control of Austria in 1938, when the school and a large part of the abbey were confiscated by the state.
The school was returned to the abbey after the Second World War and now caters for nearly 700 pupils of both sexes and is one of the reputed institutions in Austria.
In the 15th century, the abbey was at the centre of monastic reforms termed as "Melk Reforms ''. Since 1625, the abbey has been a member of the Austrian Congregation, now within the Benedictine Confederation.
Schallaburg Castle, located in the municipality of Schollach, is one of the best - known Renaissance style castles in Lower Austria north of the Alps. Schallaburg Renaissance Castle is located 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) from Melk, in the region known as Mostviertel. The central part of the castle was built in the Middle Ages, in 1572, by the Lose Steiner dynasty. It depicts a unique combination of a Romanesque residential castle and the Gothic chapel, patterned on the Italian palazzo style, which was in vogue then. Aesthetically built, it has a well - decorated two - storied arcaded court with elegant cantilevered staircases and a courtyard. The decorations are in terracotta mosaic vividly depicting mythological figures, gods, masks and remarkable human beings and animals; a legendary mythical figurine here is known as "Hundefräulein '' (a female human figure with a dog 's head). At the gate entrance to the castle, there are two large "smoke - spewing dragons '', each 30 metres (98 ft) long and 6 metres (20 ft) high, which is favourite entertainment spot for the children to slide down its mouth from the top. Its culturally rich Mannerist gardens have wide range of roses, ornamental trees and bushes and herbs planted in the gardens in the town, as also two Renaissance apple orchards.
Steiner Tor is a-preserved gate in the city of Krems, originally built in the late 15th century but refashioned in the Baroque style. It is considered the symbol of the city. Until the last third of the 19th century, the city of Krems was surrounded by a wall. This was systematically razed, and three gates were also removed. From 2005, celebrating the 700 - year anniversary of the city rights, the Steiner Tor was restored as much to its original as possible.
Outside the portal are towers flanking both sides, which, like the lower floor of the gate, date from the late Middle Ages. On the right of the archway is a small stone coat of arms mentioning Emperor Friedrich III, and the year 1480 in Roman numerals. This is believed to date the restoration of the fortifications that had become necessary because of the destruction wrought by Hungarian troops in 1477. The tower building dates from much more recently, and dates to the Baroque period during the reign of Maria Theresa, 1756. Outside the gate, the Steiner Tor was originally threatened by flooding from the Danube. On the inner side of the stone door is a mounted memorial which commemorates such a disaster in 1573. In the immediate vicinity of the Steiner Tor is a shopping centre.
Gothic Piarist church in Krems was built in 1014. It was refurbished in mid 15ht century. Its choir was consecrated in 1457 and later sanctified again in 1508 following the adaptations. Its frescoes and altar are credited to the famous artist M.J. Schmidt in Baroque architectural style. The church was also the theological college of the Piarists between 1636 and 1641.
Göttweig Abbey, a Benedictine monastery near Krems, was founded as a monastery of canons regular by Blessed Altmann, Bishop of Passau. It is also known as the "Austrian Montecassino '' named after the original Benedictine monastery in Italy. The high altar of the church was dedicated in 1072, but the monastery itself was n't founded until 1083: the foundation charter, dated 9 September 1083, is still preserved in the abbey archives.
By 1094 the discipline of the community had become so lax that Bishop Ulrich of Passau, with the permission of Pope Urban II, introduced the Rule of St. Benedict. Prior Hartmann of St. Blaise 's Abbey in the Black Forest was elected abbot. He brought with him from St. Blaise 's a number of chosen monks, among whom were Blessed Wirnto and Blessed Berthold, later abbots of Formbach and Garsten respectively. Under Hartmann (1094 -- 1114) Göttweig became a famous seat of learning and strict monastic observance. He founded a monastic school, organized a library, and at the foot of the hill built a nunnery where it is believed that Ava, the earliest German - language woman poet known by name (d. 1127), lived as an anchorite. The nunnery, which was afterward transferred to the top of the hill, continued to exist until 1557.
During the 15th and 16th centuries, however, the abbey declined so rapidly that between 1556 and 1564 it had no abbot at all, and in 1564 not a single monk was left here. At this crisis an imperial deputation arrived at Göttweig, and elected Michael Herrlich, a monk of Melk Abbey, as abbot. The new abbot, who held his office until 1604, restored the monastery spiritually and financially, and rebuilt it after it had been almost entirely destroyed by fire in 1580.
Abbots distinguished during the Reformation were George Falb (1612 -- 1631) and David Corner (1631 -- 1648), who successfully opposed the spread of Protestantism in the district.
In 1718, the monastery burnt down and was partially rebuilt on a grander scale during the abbacy of Gottfried Bessel (1714 -- 1749) to designs by Johann Lucas von Hildebrandt inspired by the Escorial, a scheme so lavish that Abbot Gottfried was nearly deposed because of it. The fresco decorating the imperial staircase is considered as a masterpiece of Baroque architecture in Austria. Executed by Paul Troger in 1739, it represents the Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI as Apollo.
The Abbey complex also part of UNESCO Heritage, located on a forested hill, is few miles away from Krems. The church in the complex has two unconventional towers with flat pyramidal shape. There are also four Tuscan columns built between the towers. It is painted in pink on the exterior, while the interiors are painted in gold, brown and blue colours. The altar built in 1639 is impressive and high and has backdrop of glass windows. The casket of abbey 's founder, an ornamental organ front dated to 1703, the Altmann Crypt and the choir stalls are also seen behind the altar.
Other notable architectural features seen in the west wing of the abbey are: The three storied Kalserstiege built in 1738, baroque staircases (known as the Imperial Staircase) with the ceiling painted with a fresco by Paul Troger with the theme of Emperor Karl VI 's apotheosis (dated 1739). The museum here, which is accommodated in the former chambers of the Emperor and the Prince, holds every year, a vivid display of the abbeys art collections.
The abbey has a library of 130,000 books and manuscripts, and a particularly important collection of religious engravings, besides valuable collections of coins, antiquities, musical manuscripts and natural history, all of which survived the dangers of World War II and its immediate aftermath almost without loss.
Since 1625, the abbey has been a member of the Austrian Congregation, now within the Benedictine Confederation.
Burgruine Aggstein is the remnant of a castle on the right bank of the Danube, north of Melk. It is 15 kilometres (9.3 mi) from Melk. According to archaeological excavations of the foundations of the castle it has been inferred that the castle was built in the early part of the 12th century. The old name of the castle was Dunkelsteinerwald. The castle was built by the Kuenringer family (famed for their notoriety) by Manegold III Aggsbach Getbeen of the Kuenringer family descent and his son Aggstein Manegold IV inherited it as a fiefdom of Bavaria. They started living in the castle from 1180 AD onwards. Its notoriety was due to the "robber barons '' of Schloss Schonbuhel and Burg Agstein '' who imprisoned their rivals for ransom and tied them to a rock ledge all the time threatening to kill them by throwing them into the gorge. The castle was built about 300 feet (91 m) above the river bank on a 150 feet (46 m) rock ledge, by Manegold III of Acchispach. In 1181, it came into the possession of the Kuenringer Aggsbach - Gansbach. The castle was besieged during the revolt of the Austrian nobility against Duke Albrecht I in 1295 / 96. Kuenringer Leutold occupied the castle from 1348 to 1355 and then it fell into disrepair.
In 1429, Duke Albrecht V pledged to rebuild the ruined castle because of its strategical point on the Danube. The purpose was to collect taxes from passing boats. In 1438, he built a riverbank toll house to regulate shipping on the Danube and used it as a front to accumulate wealth by robbery from ships. Later, another dishonest baron, Georg von Stain, occupied the castle but in 1476 he was caught and expelled and was forced to surrender the castle. Duke Leopold III took over the castle in 1477. It was occupied with tenants and carers in order to stop the looting which had taken place on the river in previous decades.
In 1529, the castle was burned down by a group of Turks during the first Turkish siege of Vienna. It was rebuilt and provided with loopholes for defence with the help of artillery. In 1606, Anna Baroness acquired the castle, but after her death, the castle was neglected. In 1685, the castle became the property of Count Ernst Rüdiger von Starhemberg. Then in 1819, one of his descendants, Ludwig Josef Gregor von Starhemberg, sold the castle to Count Franz von Beroldingen who renovated the castle in the 19th century. The Beroldingen family owned the castle until 1930 when the estate and the ruins of Schönbühel Aggstein were sold to Count Oswald von Seilern Aspang.
Schloss Schoenbuehel is also a 12th - century castle located on a hill about 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) from Melk.
Related to the Austrian Wachau is the Wachovia area in North Carolina, comprising most of Forsyth County. Founded in 1753 by members of the Moravian Church, the colony of 400 square kilometres (150 sq mi) was named "die Wachau '' after the valley in Austria because Western North Carolina reminded their leader, Bishop August Gottlieb Spangenberg, of the ancestral home of the Moravians ' patron Nicolaus Ludwig, Imperial Count von Zinzendorf.
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when does voting start for people's choice awards 2018 | People 's Choice Awards - wikipedia
The People 's Choice Awards is an American awards show, recognizing the people and the work of popular culture, voted on by the general public. The show has been held annually since 1975 and is currently owned by E!.
The People 's Choice Awards were created by Bob Stivers, who produced the first show in 1975. The first awards recognized The Sting as Favorite Picture of 1974, Barbra Streisand as the year 's Favorite Film Actress, and John Wayne as its Favorite Film Actor. Ratings for the annual event peaked in 1977, when the third People 's Choice Awards attracted 35.3 million viewers who witnessed Farrah Fawcett win the award for Favorite Female TV Star, Star Wars win as the Favorite Picture, and Streisand and Wayne win again in the Film Actress and Actor categories. So far, Ellen DeGeneres is the most awarded person with a total of 20 awards.
In 1982, Stiver sold the People 's Choice Awards to Procter & Gamble Co. P&G broadcasting partner was CBS,. In April 2017, it was announced that NBCUniversal property E! had acquired the People 's Choice Awards. During P&G 's ownership of the award show, it was the sole advertiser. In December 2017, it was announced that the presentation would also move to November (with the 44th edition scheduled for November 11, 2018), so that it will no longer be part of the crowded January month of the traditional awards season. The ceremony will be televised by E! and its international affiliates.
The award categories have varied over the years. For example, the 16th People 's Choice Awards had categories including Favorite All - Around Movie (Batman), and both a Favorite Movie Actor (Tom Cruise) and a World Favorite Movie Actor (Dustin Hoffman). At the 23rd People 's Choice Awards, Rob Reiner was named the People 's Choice Awards Honoree. More recently, the 32nd People 's Choice Awards (broadcast in January 2006) included categories such as Favorite On - Screen Match - Up (Vince Vaughn and Owen Wilson in Wedding Crashers), Favorite Leading Lady (Reese Witherspoon), Favorite Tour (U2), and an award named after a Procter & Gamble brand: Nice ' n Easy Fans Favorite Hair (Faith Hill). In 2008, the People 's Choice Awards introduced a new category: Favorite Sci - Fi Show. The nominees were Stargate Atlantis, Battlestar Galactica and Doctor Who. Stargate Atlantis was the first recipient of the award.
In the 20th century, the awards were based on results from Gallup polls. Each year, Gallup took a survey of different categories for favorite actor, actress, movie, artist, television program or group. The scope was unlimited -- the public could choose whomever or whatever it liked. The results of the annual survey were announced in the form of the People 's Choice Awards. Since polls have margins of error, many years ' awards have had ties in at least one category, when Gallup declared that the voting was so close that a single winner could not be chosen. For instance, in 2003, both Spider - Man and The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring were recognized as Favorite Motion Picture.
The winners of the 31st People 's Choice Awards (on January 9, 2005) were decided by online voting rather than Gallup polls. The nominees submitted for Internet voting were selected using an unpublished process involving editors at Entertainment Weekly, the show 's production team and a panel of pop culture fans.
The nominees for the 32nd People 's Choice Awards were determined by the web research company Knowledge Networks, which took a nationally representative sample of men and women ages 18 to 54, with and without Internet access, to come up with the nominees. After being presented with a list of candidates determined by national ratings averages, box office grosses and album sales, they had the option to write in their favorites. Knowledge Networks recruits its panel by using a RDD phone recruitment method and provides a web TV and Internet access to households without Internet access enabling them to infer back to the entire population.
The nominees for the 2010 People 's Choice Awards were determined by the media research company Visible Measures, which specializes in measuring Internet video audience behavior. The announcement of this partnership stated,
"For the first time ever, the People 's Choice Awards has incorporated Internet video viewing data into the initial nominee selection process, depending on Visible Measures True Reach metrics to objectively measure online video popularity. (...) Visible Measures worked with the People 's Choice Awards to determine each potential nominees ' popularity on a True Reach basis, a unique measure of the total audience that has been exposed to an online video campaign -- regardless of how widely the campaign spreads or where it appears. To measure True Reach, Visible Measures deploys a robust and patented set of technologies with the goal of capturing the universe of Internet video viewership data in near real - time. ''
The first ceremony in 1975 had 14 categories. In 2016, 65 categories were established.
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the books of the bible and their writers | Authorship of the Bible - wikipedia
Outline of Bible - related topics
There is much disagreement within biblical scholarship today over the origin of the Bible. The majority of scholars believe that most of the books of the Bible are the work of multiple authors and that all have been edited to produce the works known today. The following article outlines the conclusions of the majority of contemporary scholars, along with the traditional views, both Jewish and Christian.
The rabbis of the Babylonian Talmud held that God wrote the Torah in heaven in letters of black fire on parchment of white fire before the world was created, and that Moses received it by divine dictation. The early Church Fathers agreed that the scriptures were inspired or dictated by God, but not on which writings were scriptural: as a result, the Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholic churches treat some books (the Apocrypha) as inspired, but the Protestant tradition does not. In the 20th century the vast majority of theologians, both Catholic and Protestant, moved away from the divine dictation model and emphasised the role of the human authors. As a result, even many conservative scholars now accept, for example, that the Book of Isaiah has multiple authors and that 2 Corinthians is two letters joined together.
The Hebrew Bible, or Tanakh, is the collection of scriptures making up the Bible used by Judaism; the same books, in a slightly different order, also make up the Protestant version of the Old Testament. The order used here follows the divisions used in Jewish Bibles.
The first division of the Jewish Bible is the Torah, meaning "Instruction '' or "Law ''; in scholarly literature it is frequently called by its Greek name, the Pentateuch ("five scrolls ''). It is the group of five books made up of Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers and Deuteronomy and stands first in all versions of the Christian Old Testament.
According to Rabbinic tradition the five books of the Torah were written by Moses, with the exception of the last eight verses of Deuteronomy which describe his death. Most Jews and Christians believed Mosaic authorship until the 17th century. Today, the majority of scholars agree that the Pentateuch does not have a single author, and that its composition took place over centuries.
From the late 19th century there was a consensus among scholars around the documentary hypothesis, which suggests that the first four books (Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers) were created by combining four originally independent documents, known as the Jahwist, the Elohist, the Deuteronomist, and the Priestly sources. This approach has since seen various revisions, yet while the identification of distinctive Deuteronomistic and Priestly theologies and vocabularies remains widespread, they are used to form new approaches suggesting that the books were combined gradually over time by the slow accumulation of "fragments '' of text, or that a basic text was "supplemented '' by later authors / editors. At the same time there has been a tendency to bring the origins of the Pentateuch further forward in time, and the most recent proposals place it in 5th century BCE Judah under the Persian empire.
Deuteronomy is treated separately from Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus and Numbers. Its place in the documentary hypothesis is anomalous, as it, unlike the other four, consists of a single "source ''. The process of its formation probably took several hundred years, from the 8th century to the 6th, and its authors have been variously identified as prophetic circles (because the concerns of Deuteronomy mirror those of the prophets, especially Hosea), Levitical priestly circles (because it stresses the role of the Levites), and wisdom and scribal circles (because it esteems wisdom, and because the treaty - form in which it is written would be best known to scribes). Deuteronomy was later used as the introduction to the comprehensive history of Israel written in the early part of the 6th century, and later still it was detached from the history and used to round off the Pentateuch.
The Former Prophets (נביאים ראשונים, Nevi'im Rishonim), make up the first part of the second division of the Hebrew Bible, the Nevi'im, which translates as "Prophets ''. In Christian Bibles the Book of Ruth, which belongs in the final section of the Hebrew Bible, is inserted between Judges and Samuel.
According to Jewish tradition dating from at least the 2nd century CE, the Book of Joshua was by Joshua, the Book of Judges and the Books of Samuel were by the prophet Samuel (with some passages by the prophets Gad and Nathan), while the two Books of Kings were by Jeremiah. Since 1943 most scholars have accepted Martin Noth 's argument that Deuteronomy, Joshua, Judges, Samuel and Kings make up a single work, the so - called "Deuteronomistic history. '' Noth believed that the history was the work of a single author writing in the time of the Babylonian exile (586 -- 539 BCE). This author / editor took as his starting point an early version of the book of Deuteronomy, which had already been composed during the reign of Josiah (last quarter of the 7th century), selecting, editing and composing it to produce a coherent work. Frank Moore Cross later proposed that an earlier version of the history was composed in Jerusalem in Josiah 's time; this first version, Dtr1, was then revised and expanded to create Noth 's second edition, or Dtr2. Still later scholars have discovered further layers and further author - editors. In the 1990s some scholars began to question the existence of a Deuteronomistic history and the question of the origin of these books continues to be debated.
Modern scholars divide the Book of Isaiah into three parts, each with a different origin: "First Isaiah '', chapters 1 -- 39, containing the words of the historical 8th century BCE prophet Isaiah and later expansions by his disciples; "Deutero - Isaiah '' (chapters 40 -- 55), by an anonymous Jewish author in Babylon near the end of the Babylonian captivity; and "Trito - Isaiah '' (chapters 56 -- 66), by anonymous disciples of Deutero - Isaiah in Jerusalem immediately after the return from Babylon (although some scholars suggest that chapters 55 -- 66 were written by Deutero - Isaiah after the fall of Babylon.) This orderly sequence of pre-exilic, exilic and post-exilic material is somewhat misleading, as significant editing has clearly taken place in all three parts.
Jeremiah lived in the late 7th and early 6th centuries BCE. The Book of Jeremiah presents Baruch ben Neriah as the prophet 's companion who writes his words on several occasions, and there has accordingly been much speculation that Baruch could have composed an early edition of the book. In the early 20th century Sigmund Mowinckel identified three types of material in the book, Jeremiah 1 -- 25 (Type A) being the words of Jeremiah himself, the biographic prose material (Type B) by an admirer writing c. 580 -- 480 BCE, and the remainder (Type C) from later periods. There has been considerable debate over Mowinckel 's ideas, notably the extent of the Jeremiah material and the role of Baruch, who may have been the author of the Type B material. It is generally agreed that the book has strong connections with the Deuteronomistic layers from the Former Prophets, recapitulating in modern terms the traditional idea that Jeremiah wrote both his own book and the Books of Kings.
The Book of Ezekiel describes itself as the words of Ezekiel ben - Buzi, a priest living in exile in the city of Babylon between 593 and 571 BCE. The various manuscripts, however, differ markedly from each other, and it is clear that the book has been subjected to extensive editing. While Ezekiel himself may have been responsible for some of this revision, there is general agreement that the book as we have it today is the product of a highly educated priestly circle that owed allegiance to the historical Ezekiel and was closely associated with the Temple.
The Minor Prophets are one book in the Hebrew Bible, and many (though not all) modern scholars agree that the Book of the Twelve underwent a process of editing which resulted in a coherent collection. This process is believed to have reached its final form in the Persian period (538 -- 332 BCE), although there is disagreement over whether this was early or late. For the individual books, scholars usually assume that there exists an original core of prophetic tradition which can be attributed to the figure after whom the book is named. The noteworthy exception is the Book of Jonah, an anonymous work containing no prophetic oracles, probably composed in the Hellenistic period (332 -- 167 BCE).
While a number of the Psalms bear headings which seem to identify their authors, these are probably the result of the need to find a significant identification in tradition. The individual psalms come from widely different periods: "some... presuppose a reigning king and an established cult in the Temple; others clearly presuppose and mention the events of the Exile. ''
The unknown author of the Book of Job is unlikely to have written earlier than the 6th century BCE, and the cumulative evidence suggests a post-Exilic date. It contains some 1,000 lines, of which about 750 form the original core.
The Book of Proverbs consists of several collections taken from various sources. Verses 10: 1 -- 22: 16 are probably the oldest section, with chapters 1 -- 9 being composed as a prologue -- there is some question whether this happened before or after the Exile (587 BCE). The remaining collections are probably later, with the book reaching its final form around the 3rd century BCE.
The Talmud refers to Samuel as the author of Ruth, but this conflicts with several details inside the book. It has been proposed that the anonymous author was a woman, or if a man then one who took women 's issues seriously. The book is largely a unity, although the genealogy of David appears to be a later addition.
The Song of Songs was traditionally attributed to Solomon, but modern scholars date it around the 3rd century BCE. Scholars still debate whether it is a single unified work (and therefore from a single author), or more in the nature of an anthology.
The Book of Ecclesiastes is usually dated to the mid-3rd century BCE. A provenance in Jerusalem is considered likely. The book 's claim of Solomon as author is a literary fiction; the author also identifies himself as "Qoheleth '', a word of obscure meaning which critics have understood variously as a personal name, a nom de plume, an acronym, and a function; a final self - identification is as "shepherd '', a title usually implying royalty.
Lamentations is assigned by tradition to the Prophet Jeremiah; linguistic and theological evidence point to its origin as a distinct book in the 3rd or 2nd century BCE, with the contents having their origin in special mourning observances in Exilic and post-Exilic Jewish communities.
The Book of Esther was composed in the late 4th or early 3rd century BCE among the Jews of the eastern diaspora. The genre of the book is the novella or short story, and it draws on the themes of wisdom literature; its sources are still unresolved.
The Book of Daniel presents itself as the work of a prophet named Daniel who lived during the 6th century BCE; the overwhelming majority of modern scholars date it to the 2nd century BCE. The author, writing in the time of the Maccabees to assure his fellow - Jews that their persecution by the Syrians would come to an end and see them victorious, seems to have constructed his book around the legendary Daniel mentioned in Ezekiel, a figure ranked with Noah and Job for his wisdom and righteousness.
The Book of Ezra and the Book of Nehemiah were originally one work, Ezra - Nehemiah. H.G.M Williamson (1987) proposed three basic stages leading to the final work: (1) composition of the various lists and Persian documents, which he accepts as authentic and therefore the earliest parts of the book; (2) composition of the "Ezra memoir '' and "Nehemiah memoir '', about 400 BCE; and (3) composition of Ezra 1 -- 6 as the final editor 's introduction to the combined earlier texts, about 300 BCE. Lester Grabbe (2003) puts the combination of the two texts Ezra and Nehemiah, with some final editing, somewhat later, in the Ptolemaic period, c. 300 -- 200 BCE.
Chronicles is an anonymous work from Levitical circles in Jerusalem, probably composed in the late 4th century BCE. Although the book is divided into two parts (1st and 2nd Chronicles), the majority of studies propose a single underlying text with lengthy later additions and amendments to underline certain interests such as the cult or the priesthood.
The Catholic and Orthodox Christian churches include some or all of the following books in their Bibles.
The Greek text of the Book of Daniel contains additions not found in the Hebrew / Aramaic version. All are anonymous. The Prayer of Azariah (one of Daniel 's companions) was probably composed around 169 / 8 -- 165 / 4, when Antiochus IV was oppressing the Jews. The Song of the Three Holy Children (i.e., the three thrown into the furnace) may have been composed by priestly circles in Jerusalem. Susanna may have been composed around 170 -- 130 BCE in the context of the Hellenisation struggle. Bel and the Dragon is difficult to date, but the late 6th century is possible.
Jerome 's translation of the Bible into Latin (the Vulgate) contained four books of Esdras (i.e. Ezra); Jerome 's 1 and 2 Esdras were eventually renamed Ezra and Nehemiah; the remaining books each moved up two places in most versions, but the numbering system remains highly confused. The present 1 Esdras takes material from the Book of Chronicles and the Book of Ezra, but ignores Nehemiah entirely; it was probably composed in the period 200 -- 100 BCE. 2 Esdras has no connection with the other Esdras books beyond taking Ezra as its central character. It was probably written soon after the destruction of the Temple by the Romans in 70 CE.
The author of the Book of Baruch is traditionally held to be Baruch the companion of Jeremiah, but this is considered unlikely. Some scholars propose that it was written during or shortly after the period of the Maccabees.
The anonymous author of 1 Maccabees was an educated Jew and a serious historian; a date around 100 BCE is most likely. 2 Maccabees is a revised and condensed version of a work by an otherwise unknown author called Jason of Cyrene, plus passages by the anonymous editor who made the condensation (called "the Epitomist ''). Jason most probably wrote in the mid to late 2nd century BCE, and the Epitomist before 63 BCE. 3 Maccabees concerns itself with the Jewish community in Egypt a half - century before the revolt, suggesting that the author was an Egyptian Jew, and probably a native of Alexandria. A date of c. 100 -- 75 BCE is "very probable ''. 4 Maccabees was probably composed in the middle half of the 1st century CE, by a Jew living in Syria or Asia Minor.
The Letter of Jeremiah is not by Jeremiah; the author apparently appropriated the name of the prophet to lend authority to his composition. Nor is it by Jeremiah 's secretary Baruch, although it appears as the last chapter of Baruch in the Catholic Bible and the KJV. Internal evidence points to a date around 317 BCE, with the author possibly a Jew in Palestine addressing Jews of the diaspora.
The Prayer of Manasseh presents itself as a prayer from the wicked, but now penitent, king Manasseh (or Manassas) from his exile in Babylon. The actual author is unknown, and the date of composition is probably the 2nd or 1st centuries BCE.
Sirach names its author as Jesus ben Sirach. He was probably a scribe, offering instruction to the youth of Jerusalem. His grandson 's preface to the Greek translation helps date the work to the first quarter of the 2nd century BCE, probably between 196 BCE and the beginning of the oppression of the Jews by Antiochus IV, who reigned 175 -- 164 BCE. The Wisdom of Solomon is unlikely to be earlier than the 2nd century BCE, and probably dates from 100 -- 50 BCE. Its self - attribution to Solomon was questioned even in the medieval period, and it shows affinities with the Egyptian Jewish community and with Pharisee teachings.
The Book of Esther itself was composed probably around 400 BCE by Jews living in the eastern provinces of the Persian empire and reached its final form by the 2nd century BCE; concerns over the legitimacy of certain passages in the Hebrew text led to the identification of the additions to Esther in the Greek translation of Esther of the late 2nd or early 1st century BCE.
Tobit is set in the 8th century BCE and is named after its central character, a pious Jew in exile. The generally recognised date of composition is the early 2nd century BCE.
The Book of Judith is set in Israel in the time of Nebuchadrezzar, king of Assyria. It has strong Persian elements, which suggests a 4th - century BCE date; it also has strong parallels with the Hasmonean period, which suggests a 2nd - century date. It is typically labeled Pharisaic, but an origin in Sadducee circles has also been suggested.
The canonical Psalms contains 150 entries. Psalm 151 is found in most Greek translations, and the Hebrew version was found among the Dead Sea Scrolls. Psalms 152 -- 155 are part of the Syriac Peshitta Bible, some of which were found at Qumran.
The gospels (and Acts) are anonymous, in that none of them provide the name of the author within their text. While the Gospel of John might be considered somewhat of an exception, because the author refers to himself as "the disciple Jesus loved '' and claims to be a member of Jesus ' inner circle, most scholars today consider this passage to be an interpolation (see below).
There is general agreement among scholars that the Synoptic Gospels (Matthew, Mark and Luke) show a high level of cross-reference. The usual explanation, the Two - source hypothesis, is that Mark was written first and that the authors of Matthew and Luke relied on Mark and the hypothetical Q document. Scholars agree that the Gospel of John was written last, using a different tradition and body of testimony. In addition, most scholars agree that the author of Luke also wrote the Acts of the Apostles, making Luke - Acts two halves of a single work.
According to tradition and early church fathers, first attested by Papias of Hierapolis, the author is Mark the Evangelist, the companion of the apostle Peter. The gospel, however, appears to rely on several underlying sources, varying in form and in theology, which tells against the tradition that the gospel was based on Peter 's preaching. Various elements within the gospel, including the importance of the authority of Peter and the broadness of the basic theology, suggest that the author wrote in Syria or Palestine for a non-Jewish Christian community which had earlier absorbed the influence of pre-Pauline beliefs and then developed them further independent of Paul.
Early Christian tradition, first attested by Papias of Hierapolis, held that the Gospel of Matthew was written in "Hebrew '' (Aramaic, the language of Judea) by the apostle Matthew, the tax - collector and disciple of Jesus, but according to the majority of modern scholars it is unlikely that this Gospel was written by an eyewitness. Modern scholars interpret the tradition to mean that Papias, writing about 125 -- 150 CE, believed that Matthew had made a collection of the sayings of Jesus. Papias 's description does not correspond well with what is known of the gospel: it was most probably written in Greek, not Aramaic or Hebrew, it depends on the Greek Gospel of Mark and on the hypothetical Q document, and it is not a collection of sayings. Although the identity of the author is unknown, the internal evidence of the Gospel suggests that he was an ethnic Jewish male scribe from a Hellenised city, possibly Antioch in Syria, and that he wrote between 70 and 100 CE using a variety of oral traditions and written sources about Jesus.
There is general acceptance that the Gospel of Luke and the Acts of the Apostles originated as a two - volume work by a single author addressed to an otherwise unknown individual named Theophilus. This author was an "amateur Hellenistic historian '' versed in Greek rhetoric, that being the standard training for historians in the ancient world.
According to tradition, first attested by Irenaeus, the author was Luke the Evangelist, the companion of the Apostle Paul, but many modern scholars have expressed doubt and opinion on the subject is evenly divided. Instead, they believe Luke - Acts was written by an anonymous Christian author who may not have been an eyewitness to any of the events recorded within the text. Some of the evidence cited comes from the text of Luke - Acts itself. In the preface to Luke, the author refers to having eyewitness testimony "handed down to us '' and to having undertaken a "careful investigation '', but the author does not mention his own name or explicitly claim to be an eyewitness to any of the events, except for the we passages. And in the we passages, the narrative is written in the first person plural -- the author never refers to himself as "I '' or "me ''. To those who are skeptical of an eyewitness author, the we passages are usually regarded as fragments of a second document, part of some earlier account, which was later incorporated into Acts by the later author of Luke - Acts, or simply a Greek rhetorical device used for sea voyages.
John 21: 24 identifies the author of the Gospel of John as "the beloved disciple, '' and from the late 2nd century tradition, first attested by Irenaeus, this figure, unnamed in the Gospel itself, was identified with John the son of Zebedee. Today, however, most scholars agree that John 21 is an appendix to the Gospel, which originally ended at John 20: 30 -- 31. The majority of scholars date the Gospel of John to c. 80 -- 95, and propose that the author made use of two major sources, a "Signs '' source (a collection of seven miracle stories) and a "Discourse '' source.
The Epistle to the Romans, First Corinthians and Second Corinthians, Galatians, Philippians, 1 Thessalonians and the Epistle to Philemon are almost universally accepted as the work of Paul -- the superscripts to all except Romans and Galatians identify these as coming from Paul and at least one other person, a practice which was not usual in letters of the period, and it is not clear what role these other persons had in their composition. There is some support for Paul 's authorship of the three "Deutero - Pauline Epistles, '' Ephesians, Colossians, and 2 Thessalonians. The three Pastoral epistles -- First and Second Timothy and Titus, are probably from the same author, but most historical - critical scholars regard them as the work of someone other than Paul.
The Church included the Letter to the Hebrews as the fourteenth letter of Paul until the Reformation. Pauline authorship is now generally rejected, and the real author is unknown.
The traditional authors are: Peter the apostle (First and Second Peter); the author of the Gospel of John (First, Second and Third John), writing in advanced age; "Jude, a servant of Jesus Christ and a brother of James '' (Epistle of Jude); and James the Just, "a servant of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ '' (James). In fact 1 John is anonymous, and 2 and 3 John identify their author only as "the Elder. '' Though 2 Peter states its author as "Simon Peter, a servant and apostle of Jesus Christ '', most scholars today regard this as pseudonymous, and many hold the same opinion of James, 1 Peter and Jude.
The author of the Book of Revelation was traditionally believed to be the same person as both John, the apostle of Jesus and John the Evangelist, the traditional author of the Fourth Gospel -- the tradition can be traced to Justin Martyr, writing in the early 2nd century. Most biblical scholars now believe that these were separate individuals. The name "John '' suggests that the author was a Christian of Jewish descent, and although he never explicitly identifies himself as a prophet it is likely that he belonged to a group of Christian prophets and was known as such to members of the churches in Asia Minor. Since the 2nd century the author has been identified with one of the Twelve Apostles of Jesus. This is commonly linked with an assumption that the same author wrote the Gospel of John. Others, however, have argued that the author could have been John the Elder of Ephesus, a view which depends on whether a tradition cited by Eusebius was referring to someone other than the apostle. The precise identity of "John '' therefore remains unknown.
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who played mr grainger in are you being served | Arthur Brough - wikipedia
Arthur Brough (born Frederick Arthur Baker; 26 February 1905 -- 28 May 1978) was a British actor, best known for portraying the character of senior menswear salesman Mr. Ernest Grainger on the BBC sitcom Are You Being Served?
The diminutive actor (5 feet 2 inches (1.57 m)) originally wanted to become a teacher, but failed to gain such employment, and worked in a solicitor 's office. He found this job too mundane and he began to take an interest in the theatre. After indulging in amateur theatricals, Brough attended the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art in the mid-1920s. After graduating, he joined a Shakespearean theatrical troupe, where he met his wife - to - be, actress Elizabeth Addyman. After they married, they used their wedding dowry as collateral to rent the Leas Pavilion, a repertory theatre in Folkestone, Kent. They had one daughter, Joanna, who was educated at Ashford School for Girls.
In 1948, Brough formed the theatre company "The Arthur Brough Players '' with his young wife, Elizabeth, using their wedding cheques. It helped launch the careers of many prominent actors, including Peter Barkworth, Eric Lander, Polly James, Anne Stallybrass, and Trevor Bannister, who later portrayed Mr. Lucas in "Are You Being Served. '' Once the new Folkestone rep was established, Brough formed new repertory companies in Bradford, Bristol, Blackpool, Keighley, Leeds, Lincoln, Oxford and Southampton, to name a few. With the outbreak of World War II, Brough enlisted in the Royal Navy, where he served for the duration of the war. His service included helping with the evacuation of Dunkirk in 1940, his ship returning to the rescue scene several times to bring soldiers home before the Nazis reached them at the seaport.
Following demobilisation, Brough resumed his acting career and reopened the Folkestone rep. Many prominent actors began their careers with the Arthur Brough Players, including Peter Barkworth, who appeared in The Guinea Pig in 1948: Eric Lander, later a star of the TV series No Hiding Place, in 1949: Polly James in the 1960s: and Anne Stallybrass, who started out as ASM in 1960 and went on to play Ida the maid in Pool 's Paradise by Philip King; as well as appearing in The Aspern Papers, Candida, and A Taste of Honey at the little Folkestone theatre. Others included Andrew Jack; Sydney Sturgess, who went on to marry Barry Morse; and Trevor Bannister, who would later act alongside Brough in Are You Being Served?
In those days a local repertory company would present a fresh play each week, to rival the cinemas, with a small stable cast rehearsing one play by day, whilst performing what they had rehearsed the previous week each evening, with a mid-week ' tea ' matinee. Since there was a limited number of actors in the company for economic reasons, they often had to play characters far from their own age or appearance. Brough took his company on tour, and helped establish rep companies in Aldershot, Southend and Eastbourne.
With the rise of television, Brough predicted the eclipse of repertory theatre as a viable entertainment form. In the 1960s he began seeking roles in the mass media, appearing in small roles in movies and television. His daughter, Joanna Hutton, said this about his forecast of the decline of repertory theatre: "He was very astute and unsentimental about it. He realized the era was over and that he must diversify ''. According to Hutton, her father first found it hard adjusting from stage to screen. "He realized how hammy he was. He used to take the mickey out of himself; he 'd always acted in a Shakespearean manner and suddenly realized he had to tone down his performance for film ''.
One of the first jobs Brough did away from the stage was the film The Green Man with Alastair Sim, in which he played the landlord of the eponymous hotel. He had a minor role opposite Jayne Mansfield in The Challenge (1960), and made guest appearances in TV shows such as Upstairs, Downstairs (Episode 3.2), Dad 's Army, Z - Cars, The Persuaders, Adam Adamant Lives!, Randall and Hopkirk (Deceased) and Jason King. He also continued to appear in theatrical productions, including Half a Sixpence (1967), playing a shopkeeper. The Folkestone Rep continued until 1969 before closing at the time that Brough 's wife Elizabeth began to suffer ill - health.
In 1972, Brough was cast as Ernest Grainger in the BBC sitcom Are You Being Served? by Jeremy Lloyd and David Croft. Initially a pilot episode in the Comedy Playhouse slot, it was well received and commissioned for a series in early 1973. Set in a fading department store, Brough played the senior menswear salesman, with assistants Mr. Humphries (John Inman) and Mr. Lucas (Trevor Bannister). The show became enormously popular, with an audience of 22 million in 1979, and ran until 1985.
After the show completed its fifth season in 1977, all was going well when, on Easter Sunday 26 March 1978, Arthur Brough 's wife of 50 years, Elizabeth, died, and the emotionally devastated Brough announced he was quitting acting. Brough stayed with his daughter for a few weeks following his wife 's death and, according to his daughter, Jeremy Lloyd and David Croft made contact to say they were writing him into the next series. However, he died just two months after his wife, on 28 May 1978, in Folkestone. Croft decided not to have another actor take over the part of Mr. Grainger, so his character in Are You Being Served? was replaced by Mr. Tebbs, played by James Hayter.
Brough 's daughter, Joanna Hutton, (died 2002) became the first female curator of the Brontë Parsonage Museum in Haworth, for a period in the 1960s.
His twin brother owned and operated ' Bakers the Butchers ' in Petersfield High Street for many years.
Arthur Brough dedicated his life to the theatre, and Are You Being Served? co-star Mollie Sugden credited him with helping train a generation of actors. His colleagues have fond memories of working with Brough, who, as his daughter noted, "was a highly respected actor who 'd spent forty years in the profession. '' At the time of his death, David Croft said: "Arthur created a living character who was the inspiration for much of the humour. His personality made him a pivot round which a whole lot of laughter and affection revolved. ''
With a mischievous sense of humour, he would often pull pranks on the rest of the cast during recordings. Despite this, however, Trevor Bannister held him in very high regard, saying of him that he was a "wicked old man but a wonderful man. '' David Croft recalls the time Arthur would disappear from the set. ' Whenever we were rehearsing he 'd vanish at about three minutes to eleven. For a while we wondered where he went, but eventually discovered that he 'd nip next door to the pub for a quick Pink Gin. We 'd watch from the window as this little figure hurled towards the pub -- we never spoke to him about it. One day when he returned, John Inman asked where he 'd been. He made some excuse, but what he 'd forgotten was that it was pouring with rain and his bald head was soaking wet! '
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how do they celebrate st patrick day in ireland | Saint Patrick 's Day - wikipedia
Saint Patrick 's Day, or the Feast of Saint Patrick (Irish: Lá Fhéile Pádraig, "the Day of the Festival of Patrick ''), is a cultural and religious celebration held on 17 March, the traditional death date of Saint Patrick (c. AD 385 -- 461), the foremost patron saint of Ireland.
Saint Patrick 's Day was made an official Christian feast day in the early 17th century and is observed by the Catholic Church, the Anglican Communion (especially the Church of Ireland), the Eastern Orthodox Church, and the Lutheran Church. The day commemorates Saint Patrick and the arrival of Christianity in Ireland, and celebrates the heritage and culture of the Irish in general. Celebrations generally involve public parades and festivals, cèilidhs, and the wearing of green attire or shamrocks. Christians who belong to liturgical denominations also attend church services and historically the Lenten restrictions on eating and drinking alcohol were lifted for the day, which has encouraged and propagated the holiday 's tradition of alcohol consumption.
Saint Patrick 's Day is a public holiday in the Republic of Ireland, Northern Ireland, the Canadian province of Newfoundland and Labrador (for provincial government employees), and the British Overseas Territory of Montserrat. It is also widely celebrated by the Irish diaspora around the world, especially in Great Britain, Canada, the United States, Brazil, Argentina, Australia, and New Zealand. Saint Patrick 's Day is celebrated in more countries than any other national festival. Modern celebrations have been greatly influenced by those of the Irish diaspora, particularly those that developed in North America. In recent years, there has been criticism of Saint Patrick 's Day celebrations for having become too commercialised and for fostering negative stereotypes of the Irish.
Patrick was a 5th - century Romano - British Christian missionary and bishop in Ireland. Much of what is known about Saint Patrick comes from the Declaration, which was allegedly written by Patrick himself. It is believed that he was born in Roman Britain in the fourth century, into a wealthy Romano - British family. His father was a deacon and his grandfather was a priest in the Christian church. According to the Declaration, at the age of sixteen, he was kidnapped by Irish raiders and taken as a slave to Gaelic Ireland. It says that he spent six years there working as a shepherd and that during this time he "found God ''. The Declaration says that God told Patrick to flee to the coast, where a ship would be waiting to take him home. After making his way home, Patrick went on to become a priest.
According to tradition, Patrick returned to Ireland to convert the pagan Irish to Christianity. The Declaration says that he spent many years evangelising in the northern half of Ireland and converted "thousands ''. Patrick 's efforts against the druids were eventually turned into an allegory in which he drove "snakes '' out of Ireland (Ireland never had any snakes).
Tradition holds that he died on 17 March and was buried at Downpatrick. Over the following centuries, many legends grew up around Patrick and he became Ireland 's foremost saint.
Today 's St Patrick 's Day celebrations have been greatly influenced by those that developed among the Irish diaspora, especially in North America. Until the late 20th century, St Patrick 's Day was often a bigger celebration among the diaspora than it was in Ireland.
Celebrations generally involve public parades and festivals, Irish traditional music sessions (céilithe), and the wearing of green attire or shamrocks. There are also formal gatherings such as banquets and dances, although these were more common in the past. St Patrick 's Day parades began in North America in the 18th century but did not spread to Ireland until the 20th century. The participants generally include marching bands, the military, fire brigades, cultural organisations, charitable organisations, voluntary associations, youth groups, fraternities, and so on. However, over time, many of the parades have become more akin to a carnival. More effort is made to use the Irish language, especially in Ireland, where the week of St Patrick 's Day is "Irish language week ''. Recently, famous landmarks have been lit up in green on St Patrick 's Day.
Christians may also attend church services, and the Lenten restrictions on eating and drinking alcohol are lifted for the day. Perhaps because of this, drinking alcohol -- particularly Irish whiskey, beer, or cider -- has become an integral part of the celebrations. The St Patrick 's Day custom of "drowning the shamrock '' or "wetting the shamrock '' was historically popular, especially in Ireland. At the end of the celebrations, a shamrock is put into the bottom of a cup, which is then filled with whiskey, beer, or cider. It is then drunk as a toast to St Patrick, Ireland, or those present. The shamrock would either be swallowed with the drink or taken out and tossed over the shoulder for good luck.
On St Patrick 's Day, it is customary to wear shamrocks, green clothing or green accessories (the "wearing of the green ''), the colour associated with Catholics in Ireland (orange is the colour associated with Protestant Christians). St Patrick is said to have used the shamrock, a three - leaved plant, to explain the Holy Trinity to the pagan Irish. This story first appears in writing in 1726, though it may be older. In pagan Ireland, three was a significant number and the Irish had many triple deities, a fact that may have aided St Patrick in his evangelisation efforts. Patricia Monaghan says there is no evidence that the shamrock was sacred to the pagan Irish. However, Jack Santino speculates that it may have represented the regenerative powers of nature, and was recast in a Christian context -- icons of St Patrick often depict the saint "with a cross in one hand and a sprig of shamrocks in the other ''. Roger Homan writes, "We can perhaps see St Patrick drawing upon the visual concept of the triskele when he uses the shamrock to explain the Trinity ''.
The colour green has been associated with Ireland since at least the 1640s, when the green harp flag was used by the Irish Catholic Confederation. Green ribbons and shamrocks have been worn on St Patrick 's Day since at least the 1680s. The Friendly Brothers of St Patrick, an Irish fraternity founded in about 1750, adopted green as its colour. However, when the Order of St. Patrick -- an Anglo - Irish chivalric order -- was founded in 1783 it adopted blue as its colour, which led to blue being associated with St Patrick. During the 1790s, green would become associated with Irish nationalism, due to its use by the United Irishmen. This was a republican organisation -- led mostly by Protestants but with many Catholic members -- who launched a rebellion in 1798 against British rule. The phrase "wearing of the green '' comes from a song of the same name, which laments United Irishmen supporters being persecuted for wearing green. Throughout the 19th and 20th centuries, the colour green and its association with St Patrick 's Day grew.
The wearing of the ' St Patrick 's Day Cross ' was also a popular custom in Ireland until the early 20th century. These were a Celtic Christian cross made of paper that was "covered with silk or ribbon of different colours, and a bunch or rosette of green silk in the centre ''.
Saint Patrick 's feast day, as a kind of national day, was already being celebrated by the Irish in Europe in the ninth and tenth centuries. In later times, he became more and more widely seen as the patron of Ireland. Saint Patrick 's feast day was finally placed on the universal liturgical calendar in the Catholic Church due to the influence of Waterford - born Franciscan scholar Luke Wadding in the early 1600s. Saint Patrick 's Day thus became a holy day of obligation for Roman Catholics in Ireland. It is also a feast day in the Church of Ireland, which is part of the worldwide Anglican Communion. The church calendar avoids the observance of saints ' feasts during certain solemnities, moving the saint 's day to a time outside those periods. St Patrick 's Day is occasionally affected by this requirement, when 17 March falls during Holy Week. This happened in 1940, when Saint Patrick 's Day was observed on 3 April to avoid it coinciding with Palm Sunday, and again in 2008, where it was officially observed on 15 March. St Patrick 's Day will not fall within Holy Week again until 2160. However, the popular festivities may still be held on 17 March or on a weekend near to the feast day.
In 1903, St Patrick 's Day became an official public holiday in Ireland. This was thanks to the Bank Holiday (Ireland) Act 1903, an act of the United Kingdom Parliament introduced by Irish Member of Parliament James O'Mara. O'Mara later introduced the law which required that public houses be shut on 17 March after drinking got out of hand, a provision that was repealed in the 1970s.
The first St Patrick 's Day parade in Ireland was held in Waterford in 1903. The week of St Patrick 's Day 1903 had been declared Irish Language Week by the Gaelic League and in Waterford they opted to have a procession on Sunday 15 March. The procession comprised the Mayor and members of Waterford Corporation, the Trades Hall, the various trade unions and bands who included the ' Barrack St Band ' and the ' Thomas Francis Meagher Band '. The parade began at the premises of the Gaelic League in George 's St and finished in the Peoples Park, where the public were addressed by the Mayor and other dignitaries. On Tuesday 17 March, most Waterford businesses -- including public houses -- were closed and marching bands paraded like they had two days previously. The Waterford Trades Hall had been emphatic that the National Holiday be observed.
On St Patrick 's Day 1916, the Irish Volunteers -- an Irish nationalist paramilitary organisation -- held parades throughout Ireland. The authorities recorded 38 St Patrick 's Day parades, involving 6,000 marchers, almost half of whom were said to be armed. The following month, the Irish Volunteers launched the Easter Rising against British rule. This marked the beginning of the Irish revolutionary period and led to the Irish War of Independence and Civil War. During this time, St Patrick 's Day celebrations in Ireland were muted, although the day was sometimes chosen to hold large political rallies. The celebrations remained low - key after the creation of the Irish Free State; the only state - organized observance was a military procession and trooping of the colours, and an Irish - language mass attended by government ministers. In 1927, the Irish Free State government banned the selling of alcohol on St Patrick 's Day, although it remained legal in Northern Ireland. The ban was not repealed until 1961.
The first official, state - sponsored St Patrick 's Day parade in Dublin took place in 1931.
In Northern Ireland, the celebration of St Patrick 's Day was affected by sectarian divisions. A majority of the population were Protestant Ulster unionists who saw themselves as British, while a substantial minority were Catholic Irish nationalists who saw themselves as Irish. Although it was a public holiday, Northern Ireland 's unionist government did not officially observe St Patrick 's Day. During the conflict known as the Troubles (late 1960s -- late 1990s), public St Patrick 's Day celebrations were rare and tended to be associated with the Catholic community. In 1976, loyalists detonated a car bomb outside a pub crowded with Catholics celebrating St Patrick 's Day in Dungannon; four civilians were killed and many injured. However, some Protestant unionists attempted to ' re-claim ' the festival, and in 1985 the Orange Order held its own St Patrick 's Day parade. Since the end of the conflict in 1998 there have been cross-community St Patrick 's Day parades in towns throughout Northern Ireland, which have attracted thousands of spectators.
In the mid-1990s the government of the Republic of Ireland began a campaign to use St Patrick 's Day to showcase Ireland and its culture. The government set up a group called St Patrick 's Festival, with the aims:
The first St Patrick 's Festival was held on 17 March 1996. In 1997, it became a three - day event, and by 2000 it was a four - day event. By 2006, the festival was five days long; more than 675,000 people attended the 2009 parade. Overall 2009 's five - day festival saw almost 1 million visitors, who took part in festivities that included concerts, outdoor theatre performances, and fireworks. Skyfest forms the centrepiece of the festival.
The topic of the 2004 St Patrick 's Symposium was "Talking Irish '', during which the nature of Irish identity, economic success, and the future were discussed. Since 1996, there has been a greater emphasis on celebrating and projecting a fluid and inclusive notion of "Irishness '' rather than an identity based around traditional religious or ethnic allegiance. The week around St Patrick 's Day usually involves Irish language speakers using more Irish during Seachtain na Gaeilge ("Irish Language Week '').
Christian leaders in Ireland have expressed concern about the secularisation of St Patrick 's Day. In The Word magazine 's March 2007 issue, Fr Vincent Twomey wrote, "It is time to reclaim St Patrick 's Day as a church festival ''. He questioned the need for "mindless alcohol - fuelled revelry '' and concluded that "it is time to bring the piety and the fun together ''.
As well as Dublin, many other cities, towns, and villages in Ireland hold their own parades and festivals, including Cork, Belfast, Derry, Galway, Kilkenny, Limerick, and Waterford.
The biggest celebrations outside the cities are in Downpatrick, County Down, where Saint Patrick is said to be buried. The shortest St. Patrick 's Day parade in the world formerly took place in Dripsey, County Cork. The parade lasted just 23.4 metres and traveled between the village 's two pubs. The annual event began in 1999, but ceased after five years when one of the two pubs closed.
In Great Britain, Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother used to present bowls of shamrock flown over from Ireland to members of the Irish Guards, a regiment in the British Army consisting mostly of soldiers from Ireland. The Irish Guards still wear shamrock on this day, flown in from Ireland.
Christian denominations in Great Britain observing his feast day include The Church of England and the Roman Catholic Church.
Horse racing at the Cheltenham Festival attracts large numbers of Irish people, both residents of Britain and many who travel from Ireland, and usually coincides with St Patrick 's Day.
Birmingham holds the largest St Patrick 's Day parade in Britain with a city centre parade over a two - mile (3 km) route through the city centre. The organisers describe it as the third biggest parade in the world after Dublin and New York.
London, since 2002, has had an annual St Patrick 's Day parade which takes place on weekends around the 17th, usually in Trafalgar Square. In 2008 the water in the Trafalgar Square fountains was dyed green.
Liverpool has the highest proportion of residents with Irish ancestry of any English city. This has led to a long - standing celebration on St Patrick 's Day in terms of music, cultural events and the parade.
Manchester hosts a two - week Irish festival in the weeks prior to St Patrick 's Day. The festival includes an Irish Market based at the city 's town hall which flies the Irish tricolour opposite the Union Flag, a large parade as well as a large number of cultural and learning events throughout the two - week period.
The first St Patrick 's Day parade took place in Russia in 1992. Since 1999, there has been a yearly "Saint Patrick 's Day '' festival in Moscow and other Russian cities. The official part of the Moscow parade is a military - style parade and is held in collaboration with the Moscow government and the Irish embassy in Moscow. The unofficial parade is held by volunteers and resembles a carnival. In 2014, Moscow Irish Week was celebrated from 12 to 23 March, which includes St Patrick 's Day on 17 March. Over 70 events celebrating Irish culture in Moscow, St Petersburg, Yekaterinburg, Voronezh, and Volgograd were sponsored by the Irish Embassy, the Moscow City Government, and other organisations.
In 2017, the Russian Orthodox Church added the feast day of Saint Patrick to its liturgical calendar, to be celebrated on 30 March (O.S. 17 March).
The Scottish town of Coatbridge, where the majority of the town 's population are of Irish descent, also has a Saint Patrick 's Day Festival which includes celebrations and parades in the town centre.
Glasgow has a considerably large Irish population; due, for the most part, to the Irish immigration during the 19th century. This immigration was the main cause in raising the population of Glasgow by over 100,000 people. Due to this large Irish population, there are many Irish - themed pubs and Irish interest groups who hold yearly celebrations on St Patrick 's day in Glasgow. Glasgow has held a yearly St Patrick 's Day parade and festival since 2007.
While Saint Patrick 's Day in Switzerland is commonly celebrated on 17 March with festivities similar to those in neighbouring central European countries, it is not unusual for Swiss students to organise celebrations in their own living spaces on St Patrick 's Eve. Most popular are usually those in Zurich 's Kreis 4. Traditionally, guests also contribute with beverages and dress in green.
St Patrick 's Parades are now held in many locations across Japan. The first parade, in Tokyo, was organised by The Irish Network Japan (INJ) in 1992.
The Irish Association of Korea has celebrated Saint Patrick 's Day since 1976 in Seoul, the capital city of South Korea. The place of the parade and festival has been moved from Itaewon and Daehangno to Cheonggyecheon.
In Malaysia, the St Patrick 's Society of Selangor, founded in 1925, organises a yearly St Patrick 's Ball, described as the biggest St Patrick 's Day celebration in Asia. Guinness Anchor Berhad also organises 36 parties across the country in places like the Klang Valley, Penang, Johor Bahru, Malacca, Ipoh, Kuantan, Kota Kinabalu, Miri and Kuching.
The tiny island of Montserrat is known as the "Emerald Island of the Caribbean '' because of its founding by Irish refugees from Saint Kitts and Nevis. Montserrat is one of three places where St Patrick 's Day is a public holiday, along with Ireland and the Canadian province of Newfoundland & Labrador. The holiday in Montserrat also commemorates a failed slave uprising that occurred on 17 March 1768.
Astronauts on board the International Space Station have celebrated the festival in different ways. Irish - American Catherine Coleman played a hundred - year - old flute belonging to Matt Molloy and a tin whistle belonging to Paddy Moloney, both members of the Irish music group The Chieftains, while floating weightless in the space station on Saint Patrick 's Day in 2011. Her performance was later included in a track called "The Chieftains in Orbit '' on the group 's album, Voice of Ages.
Chris Hadfield took photographs of Ireland from earth orbit, and a picture of himself wearing green clothing in the space station, and posted them online on Saint Patrick 's Day in 2013. He also posted online a recording of himself singing "Danny Boy '' in space.
One of the longest - running and largest St Patrick 's Day parades in North America occurs each year in Montreal, whose city flag includes a shamrock in its lower - right quadrant. The yearly celebration has been organised by the United Irish Societies of Montreal since 1929. The parade has been held yearly without interruption since 1824. St Patrick 's Day itself, however, has been celebrated in Montreal since as far back as 1759 by Irish soldiers in the Montreal Garrison following the British conquest of New France.
In Manitoba, the Irish Association of Manitoba runs a yearly three - day festival of music and culture based around St Patrick 's Day.
In 2004, the CelticFest Vancouver Society organised its first yearly festival in downtown Vancouver to celebrate the Celtic Nations and their cultures. This event, which includes a parade, occurs each year during the weekend nearest St Patrick 's Day.
In Quebec City, there was a parade from 1837 to 1926. The Quebec City St - Patrick Parade returned in 2010 after more than 84 years. For the occasion, a portion of the New York Police Department Pipes and Drums were present as special guests.
There has been a parade held in Toronto since at least 1863. The Toronto Maple Leafs hockey team was known as the Toronto St. Patricks from 1919 to 1927, and wore green jerseys. In 1999, when the Maple Leafs played on St Patrick 's Day, they wore green St Patrick 's retro uniforms. There is a large parade in the city 's downtown on the Sunday before 17 March which attracts over 100,000 spectators.
Some groups, notably Guinness, have lobbied to make Saint Patrick 's Day a national holiday.
In March 2009, the Calgary Tower changed its top exterior lights to new green CFL bulbs just in time for St Patrick 's Day. Part of an environmental non-profit organisation 's campaign (Project Porchlight), the green represented environmental concerns. Approximately 210 lights were changed in time for Saint Patrick 's Day, and resembled a Leprechaun 's hat. After a week, white CFLs took their place. The change was estimated to save the Calgary Tower some $12,000 and reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 104 tonnes.
St Patrick 's Day, while not a legal holiday in the United States, is nonetheless widely recognised and observed throughout the country as a celebration of Irish and Irish - American culture. Celebrations include prominent displays of the colour green, religious observances, numerous parades, and copious consumption of alcohol. The holiday has been celebrated in North America since the late 18th century.
In Buenos Aires, a party is held in the downtown street of Reconquista, where there are several Irish pubs; in 2006, there were 50,000 people in this street and the pubs nearby. Neither the Catholic Church nor the Irish community, the fifth largest in the world outside Ireland, take part in the organisation of the parties.
In recent decades, St Patrick 's Day celebrations have been criticised, particularly for their association with public drunkenness and disorder. Some argue that the festivities have become too commercialised and tacky, and have strayed from their original purpose of honouring St Patrick and Irish heritage. Journalist Niall O'Dowd has criticised recent attempts to recast St Patrick 's Day as a celebration of multiculturalism rather than a celebration of Irishness.
St Patrick 's Day celebrations have also been criticised for fostering demeaning stereotypes of Ireland and Irish people. An example is the wearing of ' leprechaun outfits ', which are based on derogatory 19th century caricatures of the Irish. In the run up to St Patrick 's Day 2014, the Ancient Order of Hibernians successfully campaigned to stop major American retailers from selling novelty merchandise that promoted negative Irish stereotypes.
Some have described St Patrick 's Day celebrations outside Ireland as displays of "Plastic Paddyness ''; where foreigners appropriate and misrepresent Irish culture, claim Irish identity, and enact Irish stereotypes.
LGBT groups in the US were banned from marching in St. Patrick 's Day parades in New York City and Boston, resulting in the landmark Supreme Court decision of Hurley v. Irish - American Gay, Lesbian, & Bisexual Group of Boston. In New York City, the ban was lifted in 2014, but LGBT groups still find that barriers to participation exist. In Boston, the ban on LGBT group participation was lifted in 2015.
(federal) = federal holidays, (state) = state holidays, (religious) = religious holidays, (week) = weeklong holidays, (month) = monthlong holidays, (36) = Title 36 Observances and Ceremonies Bold indicates major holidays commonly celebrated in the United States, which often represent the major celebrations of the month.
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where is the original in n out located | In - N - Out Burger - Wikipedia
In - N - Out Burger is an American regional chain of fast food restaurants with locations primarily in the American Southwest and Pacific coast. It was founded in Baldwin Park, California in 1948 by Harry Snyder and Esther Snyder. The chain is currently headquartered in Irvine, California and has slowly expanded outside Southern California into the rest of California, as well as into Arizona, Nevada, Utah, Texas, and Oregon. The current owner is Lynsi Snyder, the Snyders ' only grandchild.
As the chain has expanded, it has opened several distribution centers in addition to its original Baldwin Park location. The new facilities, located in Lathrop, California; Phoenix, Arizona; Draper, Utah; and Dallas, Texas will provide for potential future expansion into other parts of the country.
In - N - Out Burger has resisted franchising its operations or going public; one reason is the prospect of quality or customer consistency being compromised by excessively rapid business growth. The company 's business practices have been noted for employee - centered personnel policies. For example, In - N - Out is one of the few fast food chains in the United States to pay its employees more than state and federally mandated minimum wage guidelines -- starting at US $11.00 per hour in California, as of May 2017. The In - N - Out restaurant chain has developed a highly loyal customer base, and has been rated as one of the top fast food restaurants in several customer satisfaction surveys.
In - N - Out 's first location was opened in the Los Angeles suburb of Baldwin Park, California, in 1948 by the Snyders at the southwest corner of what is now the intersection of Interstate 10 and Francisquito Avenue. The restaurant was the first drive - thru hamburger stand in California, allowing drivers to place orders via a two - way speaker system. This was a new and unique idea, since in post-World War II California, carhops were used to take orders and serve food.
A second In - N - Out was opened west of the intersection of Grand Avenue and Arrow Highway in Covina, California, three years later. The company remained a relatively small southern California chain until the 1970s. The Snyders managed their first restaurants closely to ensure quality was maintained. The chain had 18 restaurants when Harry Snyder died in 1976, at the age of 63.
In 1976, 24 - year - old Rich Snyder became the company president after his father 's death. Along with his brother Guy, Rich had begun working in his father 's In - N - Outs "from the ground floor '' at an early age. Over the next 20 years, the chain experienced a period of rapid growth under Rich 's leadership, expanding to 93 restaurants.
The first location outside of the Los Angeles metropolitan area was opened in San Diego County in 1990, the 61st location in the chain. In 1992, In - N - Out opened its first non-Southern California restaurant in Las Vegas, Nevada. Its first Northern California location was opened the following year in Modesto. Expansion then spread to Northern California, including the San Francisco Bay Area, while additional Las Vegas - area restaurants were added. However, after opening the 83rd In - N - Out restaurant in Fresno, California, on December 15, 1993, Rich Snyder and four other passengers died in a plane crash on approach to John Wayne Airport in Orange County, California. The charter aircraft they were on had been following a Boeing 757 in for landing, became caught in its wake turbulence, and crashed. The ensuing crash investigation led to the Federal Aviation Administration requirement for an adequate distance between heavy aircraft and following light aircraft to allow wake turbulence to diminish.
Upon Rich Snyder 's death in 1993, Guy Snyder assumed the presidency and continued the company 's aggressive expansion until he died from an overdose of painkillers in 1999. He was president for six years, expanding In - N - Out from 83 to 140 locations. His mother Esther subsequently took over the presidency.
The company opened locations in Arizona in 2000 and added new restaurants in Reno, Sparks, and Carson City, Nevada in late 2004. In - N - Out became a huge success in these new locations. In 2007, it opened its first restaurant in Tucson, Arizona. The store opening broke company records for the most burgers sold in one day and the most sold in one week.
In 2008, In - N - Out expanded into a fourth state by opening a location in Washington, Utah, a suburb of St. George. By late 2009, the chain expanded into northern Utah with three new locations situated in Draper, American Fork, and Orem. More locations opened in the spring of 2010 in West Valley City, West Jordan, Centerville, and Riverton.
In May 2010, In - N - Out announced plans to expand into Texas, specifically within the Dallas -- Fort Worth area with the first two locations opening in Frisco and Allen on May 11, 2011. The chain opened its first location in Austin in December 2013. There are 21 restaurant locations in the Dallas -- Fort Worth area, and four in the Austin area. These new locations in Texas required the company to build a new patty production facility and distribution center in the state, according to company vice president Carl Van Fleet. In March 2014, the company confirmed its first location in San Antonio. The fall of 2014 saw the restaurant open its 22nd Texas location in Killeen. On November 20, 2014, In - N - Out opened its first location in San Antonio followed by its first location in Waco in November 2015. In January 2017, In - N - Out announced plans to expand into Houston with multiple sites planned in the area.
In January 2015, In - N - Out opened its 300th restaurant, which was located in Anaheim, California. At the time of the opening, the company had generated $558 million in annual sales and employed nearly 18,000 in California, Nevada, Utah, Texas and Arizona.
The company opened its first location in Oregon on September 9, 2015 (the same day as Harry Snyder 's birthday) in Medford. It is supplied from the Lathrop, California distribution center that was completed in 2006. President Lynsi Snyder stated during the opening that they will continue to expand. A second Oregon location was under construction in Grants Pass during September 2017.
On November 30, 2017, the company announced plans to build a production facility and distribution center in Colorado Springs, ahead of an expansion into Colorado, which is scheduled to be completed in 2021.
While the company grew, it struggled to maintain its family roots. Esther Snyder died in 2006 at the age of 86 and passed the presidency to Mark Taylor, former vice president of operations. Taylor became the company 's fifth president and first non-family member to hold the position, although he does have ties to the family. The company 's current heiress is Lynsi Snyder, daughter of Guy and only grandchild of Esther and Harry Snyder. Snyder, who was 23 years old and known as Lynsi Martinez at her grandmother 's death, owns the company through a trust. She gained control of 50 % of the company in 2012 when she turned 30, and nearly full control at 35 in May 2017.
After participating in various roles in the company, Snyder assumed the presidency in 2010, becoming the company 's sixth president. However, most major decisions are made by a seven - member executive team. Snyder does not intend to franchise nor sell, and plans to pass on ownership of the company to her children.
In 2006, a lawsuit exposed a possible family feud over the chain 's corporate leadership. Richard Boyd, one of In - N - Out 's vice presidents and co-trustee of two - thirds of the company stock, accused Lynsi Martinez and allied corporate executives of trying to force out Esther Snyder and attempting to fire Boyd unreasonably. Pre-empting the suit, Martinez, Snyder and Taylor appeared in a December video message to employees, telling them not to believe everything they hear. The company then responded with a lawsuit of its own, alleging Boyd had construction work done on his personal property and charged it to the company, as well as favoring contractors with uncompetitive bids. Boyd was then suspended from his role as co-trustee and Northern Trust Bank of California took his place (as co-trustee) until a hearing set for May 10, 2006. However, in April, the judge dismissed two of In - N - Out 's claims against Boyd. A trial date of October 17, 2006, was set but never occurred, and a settlement was reached out of court. Ultimately, Boyd was permanently removed from his role as an employee and co-trustee.
In June 2007, the company filed a lawsuit against an American Fork, Utah, restaurant named Chadder 's for trademark infringement, claiming that the "look and feel '' of the restaurant too closely resembled that of In - N - Out, and that the restaurant violated trademarked menu items, such as "Animal Style '', "Protein Style '', "Double - Double '', and so forth.
The company was tipped off by Utah customers contacting the customer service department asking if In - N - Out opened a location in Utah under a different name or if they had any affiliation with the restaurant in any way. Several customers stated they ordered trademarked items such as Animal and Protein styles.
On June 7, 2007, In - N - Out 's general counsel visited the Chadders restaurant in American Fork and "viewed the premises and operations and ordered a meal that was not listed on its menu. He requested an ' Animal style Double - Double with Animal fries, ' and his order was filled. '' Utah District court Judge Ted Stewart issued a temporary restraining order against the look - alike. Chadder 's opened another location near the Salt Lake City area and one in Provo.
In 2009, In - N - Out opened a restaurant in American Fork less than a mile from the Chadder 's restaurant. Per their website, Chadder 's started selling a "Stubby Double '' instead of "Double Double ''. The Chadder 's restaurants in Utah have gone out of business since In - N - Out restaurants have opened in Utah.
On November 6, 2015, In - N - Out filed a lawsuit against food delivery startup, DoorDash, claiming trademark infringement and unfair competition. The complaint states:
Defendant 's use of Plaintiff 's famous trademarks implies that Defendant not only delivers In - N - Out products to its customers, but that the quality and services offered by Defendant is the same as if consumers had made purchases directly from Plaintiff. Upon information and belief, the quality of services offered by Defendant does not at all comport with the standards that consumers expect from Plaintiff 's goods and services. Further, Plaintiff has no control over the time it takes Defendant to deliver Plaintiff 's goods to consumers, or over the temperature at which the goods are kept during delivery, nor over the food handling and safety practices of Defendant 's delivery drivers. While Plaintiff adheres to the Food Code, on information and belief, Defendant does not adhere to such regulations, including with regard to compliance with required food safety and handling practices.
On May 9, 2017, the In - N - Out Burger in Livermore, California, temporarily closed its doors after nine members of a college softball team reported getting sick after eating at that particular restaurant. The Alameda County Department of Environmental Health is investigating the incident and suspects norovirus was the cause of the illnesses, but will not be able to confirm the cause until laboratory tests are completed.
The location had been cited for a "high risk '' health code violation in December 2016, with minor citations for the same problem in April 2017. In - N - Out representatives said they had no indications of any issues at the location but have cleaned and disinfected it along with reviewing procedures with employees.
On May 12, 2017, the Alameda County Department of Environmental Health reported that they now believe that the members of the college softball team may have already been infected with the virus prior to entering the Livermore restaurant. As a precaution, the DEH are continuing their laboratory tests on In - N - Out employees to conclusively rule them out as a possible source of the infection.
The In - N - Out menu consists of three burger varieties: hamburger, cheeseburger, and "Double - Double '' (two hamburger patties and two slices of cheese). French fries and fountain drinks are available, as well as three flavors of milkshakes. The hamburgers come with lettuce, tomato, with or without onions (the customer is asked upon ordering, and may have them fresh or grilled), and a sauce, which is called "spread '' (a Thousand Island dressing variant).
There are, however, additional named items not on the menu, but available at every In - N - Out. These variations reside on the chain 's "secret menu '', though the menu is accessible on the company 's web site. These variations include 3x3 (which has three patties and three slices of cheese), 4x4 (four patties and four slices of cheese), Neapolitan shakes, grilled cheese sandwich (consists of the same ingredients as the burgers except the meat, plus two slices of melted cheese), Protein style (wrap with lettuce; consists of the same ingredients as the burgers except buns), and Animal Style (cooked in a thin layer of mustard, adding condiments including pickles, grilled onions, and extra spread). Animal Style fries come with two slices of melted cheese, spread, and grilled onions on top. Whole or sliced chili peppers are also available by request. Both Protein and Animal Style are house specialties that the company has trademarked because of their association with the chain.
Until 2005 In - N - Out accommodated burger orders of any size by adding patties and slices of cheese at an additional cost. A particularly famous incident involving a 100x100 (100 patties, 100 slices of cheese) occurred in 2004. Once word got out of the massive sandwich, In - N - Out management disallowed anything larger than a 4x4. One can also order what is called a "Flying Dutchman '' which consists of two meat patties and two slices of cheese by itself (no bun, condiments, or vegetables).
In January 2018, In - N - Out added hot chocolate with marshmallows to its menu. This is the first addition to the menu in fifteen years. However, it is not the first time it has appeared on the menu; it was previously served at the restaurants in its early years during the 1950s. The cocoa powder is provided by the Ghirardelli Chocolate Company.
The signature colors for In - N - Out are white, red, and yellow. The white is used for the buildings ' exterior walls and the employees ' basic uniform. Red is used for the buildings ' roofs and the employees ' aprons and hats. Yellow is used for the decorative band on the roof and iconic zig - zag in the logo. However, variations in the color scheme do occur.
The first In - N - Outs had a common design, placing the kitchen "stand '' between two lanes of cars. The "front '' lane is nearest the street, and the "back '' lane away from the street. A metal awning provides shade for several tables for customers desiring to park and eat, but there is no indoor dining. A walk - up window faces the parking area. These restaurants store food and supplies in a separate building, and it is not uncommon for a driver to be asked to wait a moment while employees carry supplies to the kitchen across the rear lane.
This simpler design is a popular image on In - N - Out ads and artwork, which often shows classic cars such as 1965 Mustangs and 1968 Firebirds visiting the original restaurants. The original Covina restaurant, located on Arrow Highway west of Grand Avenue, was forced to close in the early 1990s due to re-engineering and development of the area. A modern design, drive - up / dining room restaurant was built a few hundred feet away. The new building is much larger (approximately half the size of the entire lot upon which the earlier restaurant sat), and is often filled to capacity.
Like many chain restaurants, newer In - N - Out restaurants are based on a set of templates or "cookie - cutter '' blueprints, which are chosen based on available space and expected traffic levels. While external appearance of its buildings may vary to meet local zoning and architectural requirements, the interior floor plan and decor in most recently constructed In - N - Out restaurants are identical. However, some restaurants are designed to stand out, such as the restaurants at Fisherman 's Wharf, San Francisco and Westwood, Los Angeles.
Today 's typical location has an interior layout that includes a customer service counter with registers in front of a kitchen and food preparation area. There are separate storage areas for paper goods (napkins, bags, etc.) and "dry '' food goods (potatoes, buns, etc.), as well as a walk - in refrigerator for perishable goods (lettuce, cheese, spread etc.), and a dedicated meat refrigerator for burger patties. The customer area includes an indoor dining room with a combination of booths, tables, and bar - style seating. Outside seating is usually available as well, with tables and benches. Most newer restaurants contain a one - lane drive - through.
There are other design elements common among today 's In - N - Out locations. Matching In - N - Out 's California - inspired palm tree theme, palm trees are sometimes planted to form an "X '' in front of the restaurants. This is an allusion to founder Harry Snyder 's favorite movie, Stanley Kramer 's It 's a Mad, Mad, Mad, Mad World, in which the characters look for a hidden treasure and find it under "the big W '' made by four palm trees, with the middle two forming an "X ''.
Like other fast food chains, In - N - Out uses roadside billboards that attract customers to the nearest location. Billboard ads typically display an image of the trademarked Double - Double burger. The chain uses short radio commercials, often limited to the jingle, "In - N - Out, In - N - Out. That 's what a hamburger 's all about. '' Television commercials, which are less common, feature the hamburger 's visual appeal. In - N - Out seldom uses celebrities in ads, although John Cleese and John Goodman have voiced radio spots. In the past, the Snyders also sponsored Christmas music programming with voice - overs expressing the meaning of the holiday.
In addition to conventional, paid advertising, In - N - Out benefits from positive word of mouth spread by enthusiastic fans. For many years, it has given customers free bumper stickers which simply say "In - N - Out Burger ''. The company helps devoted customers advertise its brand by selling souvenir clothing with the In - N - Out logo. Celebrity fans and free endorsements in mass media also promote the business. When Heisman Trophy winner and Ohio State quarterback Troy Smith raved about In - N - Out cheeseburgers during a press conference before the 2007 BCS National Championship Game, a senior executive said, "It does not get much better than that for us. We 're kind of a small company, and we do not have any celebrity endorsers. But I think we just got the best one we could have. '' Huell Howser was allowed, in what is believed to be a first, to film with his television cameras inside a store for a California 's Gold Special. The show also included a behind - the - scenes tour of the In - N - Out Headquarters.
The burger chain has achieved widespread popularity which has led to celebration by some when brought to new locations, and the opening of a new restaurant often becomes an event. When one opened in Scottsdale, Arizona, there was a four - hour wait for food, and news helicopters whirled above the parking lot.
The chain 's image has also made it popular in more non-traditional ways. For example, In - N - Out is still considered acceptable in some areas with a strong opposition to corporate food restaurants, such as McDonald 's. Local business leaders in San Francisco 's Fisherman 's Wharf district said they opposed every other fast food chain except In - N - Out, because they wanted to maintain the flavor of family - owned, decades - old businesses in the area, with one saying locals would ordinarily "be up in arms about a fast - food operation coming to Fisherman 's Wharf, '' but "this is different. '' California native and Colorado Rockies player Jason Giambi would often visit In - N - Out Burger when on the West Coast with his former team, the New York Yankees. He said he tried to open an In - N - Out Burger restaurant in New York, but was unsuccessful.
The chain also has fans in a number of renowned chefs including Gordon Ramsay, Thomas Keller, Julia Child, Anthony Bourdain, Ina Garten, and Mario Batali. Famous London chef / restaurateur Ramsay ate In - N - Out for the first time when taping Hell 's Kitchen in Los Angeles, and it soon became one of his favorite spots for take - out. Ramsay was quoted, saying about the experience: "In - N - Out burgers were extraordinary. I was so bad, I sat in the restaurant, had my double cheeseburger then minutes later I drove back round and got the same thing again to take away. '' Thomas Keller, a fan of In - N - out, celebrated with In - N - Out burgers at the anniversary party of his restaurant, The French Laundry. Keller also plans on opening his own burger restaurant inspired by his Los Angeles experience of In - N - Out. Julia Child, one of the first celebrities to champion the chain, admitted to knowing every location of the restaurant between Santa Barbara and San Francisco. Child also had the burgers delivered to her during a hospital stay. Anthony Bourdain reportedly said that In - N - Out was his favorite fast food meal; later naming the restaurant as "the best restaurant in Los Angeles. '' Ina Garten at an interview at Today show divulges "I have to say, I do n't eat fast food at all, with one exception. When we 're in California doing book tours, we always have to go to In - N - Out burger. It 's so good and I know it was Julia Child 's favorite too, so it 's okay. ''
In - N - Out was one of the very few restaurant chains given a positive mention in the book Fast Food Nation. The book commended the chain for using natural and fresh ingredients and for looking after the interests of employees regarding pay and benefits. An In - N - Out food truck catered Vanity Fair 's 2012 Academy Awards after party.
Jack Schmidt was the first person commissioned to paint the original In - N - Out located in Baldwin Park, CA for In - N - Out Burger Inc. His paintings were later reproduced on advertisements, shirts, and other consumer products. His paintings capture the car culture, beautiful weather, and the easy - speed of In - N - Out Burger.
In - N - Out prints Bible citations in small print on areas of packaging. This practice began in the 1980s during Rich Snyder 's presidency, a reflection of the Christian beliefs held by the Snyder family.
On the Season 5 premiere episode of Secret Lives of the Super Rich, Lynsi Snyder, the then - 33 year old heir to the In - N - Out chain, revealed that she had two Biblical - related tattoos. One of Matthew 6: 10 in Aramaic: "Thy kingdom come, thy will be done. '' The other of Hebrew characters to represent the word "hated, '' which reportedly refer to John 15: 18: "If the world hates you, know that it hated me before. ''
The In - N - Out Burgers Foundation, was established as a 501 (c) (3) nonprofit organization in March 1995, and classified as a "Human Services: Fund Raising & Fund Distribution '' organization under the NTEE system. Based in Irvine, California, the foundation "supports organizations that provide residential treatment, emergency shelter, foster care, and early intervention for children in need. '' Its grant - making activities are restricted to eligible nonprofit groups that are located or provide services in areas where In - N - Out has a presence. Consequently, grant proposals are only accepted from applicants in a limited number of counties in Arizona, California, Nevada, Utah, Texas. In 2010, the most recent year for which financial reporting is publicly available (and before the opening of the company 's Texas locations), the foundation contributed $1,545,250 to 231 grantees in Arizona, California, Nevada, Utah. Grant - making is funded through donor contributions and In - N - Out - sponsored fundraisers; typical grants are between $2,000 and $20,000.
The first In - N - Out restaurant that opened in 1948 was demolished when the Interstate 10 (then U.S. 60 / 70 / 99, the Ramona Freeway) San Bernardino Freeway was built from downtown Los Angeles to the San Gabriel Valley. The freeway runs over the original location. A new restaurant was completed in 1954 near the original Baldwin Park, California, location, but was closed in November 2004 and demolished on April 16, 2011 despite discussions about using it as an In - N - Out museum chronicling the origins and history of the company. In - N - Out built a replacement restaurant on the other side of the freeway next to the original In - N - Out University (opened in 1984). A new In - N - Out University was built on the property. The University building houses the training department, which was moved from Irvine, California. In addition, the company restaurant was moved from In - N - Out 's Baldwin Park headquarters to the new lot, which holds the restaurant and university, less than a thousand feet away. In 2014, a replica of the 1948 In - N - Out was built in Baldwin Park.
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what are the olympic gold medals made of | Gold medal - wikipedia
A gold medal is a medal awarded for highest achievement in a non-military field. Its name derives from the use of at least a fraction of gold in form of plating or alloying in its manufacture.
Since the eighteenth century, gold medals have been awarded in the arts, for example, by the Royal Danish Academy, usually as a symbol of an award to give an outstanding student some financial freedom. Others offer only the prestige of the award. Many organizations now award gold medals either annually or extraordinarily, including UNESCO and various academic societies.
While some gold medals are solid gold, others are gold - plated or silver - gilt, like those of the Olympic Games, the Lorentz Medal, the United States Congressional Gold Medal and the Nobel Prize medal. Nobel Prize medals consist of 18 karat green gold plated with 24 karat gold. Before 1980 they were struck in 23 karat gold.
Before the establishment of standard military awards, e.g., the Medal of Honor, it was common practice to have a medal specially created to provide national recognition for a significant military or naval victory or accomplishment. In the United States, Congress would enact a resolution asking the President to reward those responsible. The commanding officer would receive a gold medal and his officers silver medals. Other countries similarly honored their military and naval victors in a similar fashion.
Medals have historically been given as prizes in various types of competitive activities, especially athletics.
Traditionally, medals are made of the following metals:
Occasionally, Platinum medals can be awarded.
These metals designate the first three Ages of Man in Greek mythology: the Golden Age, when men lived among the gods, the Silver Age, where youth lasted a hundred years, and the Bronze Age, the era of heroes.
The custom of awarding the sequence of gold, silver, and bronze medals for the first three highest achievers dates from at least the 18th century, with the National Association of Amateur Athletes in the United States awarding such medals as early as 1884.
This standard was adopted for Olympic competition at the 1904 Summer Olympics. At the 1896 event, silver was awarded to winners and bronze to runners - up, while at 1900 other prizes were given, not medals.
At the modern Olympic Games, winners of a sporting discipline receive a gold medal in recognition of their achievement.
At the Ancient Olympic Games only one winner per event was crowned with kotinos, an olive wreath made of wild olive leaves from a sacred tree near the temple of Zeus at Olympia. Aristophanes in Plutus makes a remark why victorious athletes are crowned with wreath made of wild olive instead of gold. Herodotus describes a story that explains why there were only a few Greek men at the Battle of Thermopylae since "all other men were participating in the Olympic Games '' and that the prize for the winner was "an olive - wreath ''. When Tigranes, an Armenian general learned this, he uttered to his leader: "Good heavens! what kind of men are these against whom you have brought us to fight? Men who do not compete for possessions, but for honour ''. Hence medals were not awarded at the ancient Olympic Games.
At the 1896 Summer Olympics, winners received a silver medal and the second - place finisher received a bronze medal. In 1900, most winners received cups or trophies instead of medals. The next three Olympics (1904, 1908, 1912) awarded the winners solid gold medals, but the medals themselves were smaller. The use of gold rapidly declined with the onset of the First World War and also with the onset of the Second World War. The last series of Olympic medals to be made of solid gold were awarded at the 1912 Olympic Games in Stockholm, Sweden.
Olympic Gold medals are required to be made from at least 92.5 % silver, and must contain a minimum of 6 grams of gold. All Olympic medals must be at least 60mm in diameter and 3mm thick. Minting the medals is the responsibility of the Olympic host. From 1928 through 1968 the design was always the same: the obverse showed a generic design by Florentine artist Giuseppe Cassioli of Greek goddess Nike with Rome 's Colloseum in the background and text naming the host city; the reverse showed another generic design of Nike saluting an Olympic champion.
From the 1972 Summer Olympics through 2000, Cassioli 's design (or a slight modification) remained on the obverse with a custom design by the host city on the reverse. Noting that Cassioli 's design showed a Roman amphitheater for what originally were Greek games, a new obverse design was commissioned for the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens. For the 2008 Beijing Olympics medals had a diameter of 70mm and were 6mm thick, with the front displaying a winged figure of victory and the back showed a Beijing Olympics symbol surrounded by an inset jade circle.
Winter Olympics medals have been of more varied design. The silver and bronze medals have always borne the same designs.
The award of a gold medal, often coupled with the award of silver and bronze medals to the next place finishers, has been adopted in other sports competitions and in other competitive fields, such as music and writing, as well as some competitive games. Typically bronze medals are awarded only to third place, but in some contests there is some variety, such as International barbershop music contests where bronze medals are awarded for third, fourth, and fifth place.
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where did the machetes come from in rwanda | Rwandan genocide - wikipedia
European colonization of the Americas
Ethnic cleansing in the Soviet Union
The Rwandan genocide, also known as the genocide against the Tutsi, was a genocidal mass slaughter of Tutsi in Rwanda by members of the Hutu majority government. An estimated 500,000 to 1,000,000 Rwandans were killed during the 100 - day period from 7 April to mid-July 1994, constituting as many as 70 % of the Tutsi population. Additionally, 30 % of the Pygmy Batwa were killed. The genocide and widespread slaughter of Rwandans ended when the Tutsi - backed and heavily armed Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF) led by Paul Kagame took control of the country. An estimated 2,000,000 Rwandans, mostly Hutus, were displaced and became refugees.
The genocide was planned by members of the core political elite, many of whom occupied positions at top levels of the national government. Perpetrators came from the ranks of the Rwandan army, the Gendarmerie, government - backed militias including the Interahamwe and Impuzamugambi.
The genocide took place in the context of the Rwandan Civil War, a conflict beginning in 1990 between the Hutu - led government and the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF), which largely consisted of Tutsi refugees whose families had fled to Uganda after the 1959 Hutu revolt against colonial rule. Waves of Hutu violence against the RPF and Tutsi followed Rwandan independence in 1962. International pressure on the Hutu government of Juvénal Habyarimana resulted in a ceasefire in 1993, with a road - map to implement the Arusha Accords, which would create a power - sharing government with the RPF. This agreement was not acceptable to a number of conservative Hutu, including members of the Akazu, who viewed it as conceding to enemy demands. The RPF military campaign intensified support for the so - called "Hutu Power '' ideology, which portrayed the RPF as an alien force who were non-Christian, intent on reinstating the Tutsi monarchy and enslaving Hutus. Many Hutus reacted to this prospect with extreme opposition. In the lead - up to the genocide the number of machetes imported into Rwanda increased.
On 6 April 1994, an aeroplane carrying Habyarimana and Burundian President Cyprien Ntaryamira was shot down on its descent into Kigali. At the time, the plane was in the airspace above Habyarimana 's house. One person survived but died soon after en route to the hospital. The assassination of Habyarimana ended the peace accords.
Genocidal killings began the following day. Soldiers, police, and militia quickly executed key Tutsi and moderate Hutu military and political leaders who could have assumed control in the ensuing power vacuum. Checkpoints and barricades were erected to screen all holders of the national ID card of Rwanda (which contained ethnic classification information introduced by the Belgian colonial government in 1933) in order to systematically identify and kill Tutsi. These forces recruited and pressured Hutu civilians to arm themselves with machetes, clubs, blunt objects, and other weapons to rape, maim, and kill their Tutsi neighbors and to destroy or steal their property. The breakdown of the peace accords led the RPF to restart its offensive and rapidly seize control of the northern part of the country before capturing Kigali in mid-July, bringing an end to the genocide. During these events and in the aftermath, the United Nations (UN) and countries including the United States, the United Kingdom, and Belgium were criticized for their inaction and failure to strengthen the force and mandate of the UN Assistance Mission for Rwanda (UNAMIR) peacekeepers. Other observers criticized the government of France for alleged support of the Hutu government after the genocide had begun.
The genocide had a lasting and profound impact on Rwanda and its neighboring countries. The pervasive use of rape as a weapon of war caused a spike in HIV infection, including babies born of rape to newly infected mothers; many households were headed by orphaned children or widows. The destruction of infrastructure and the severe depopulation of the country crippled the economy, challenging the nascent government to achieve rapid economic growth and stabilization. The RPF military victory and installation of an RPF - dominated government prompted many Hutus to flee to neighboring countries, particularly in the eastern portion of Zaire (now the Democratic Republic of the Congo), where the Hutu genocidaires began to regroup in refugee camps along the border with Rwanda. Declaring a need to avert further genocide, the RPF - led government led military incursions into Zaire, including the First (1996 -- 97) and Second (1998 -- 2003) Congo Wars. Armed struggles between the Rwandan government and their opponents in DRC have continued to play out through proxy militias in the Goma region, including the M23 rebellion (2012 -- 2013). Large Rwandan Hutu and Tutsi populations continue to live as refugees throughout the region.
Today, Rwanda has two public holidays mourning the genocide. The national mourning period begins with Kwibuka (Remembrance), the national commemoration, on 7 April and concludes with Liberation Day on 4 July. The week following 7 April is an official week of mourning, known as Icyunamo. The genocide served as an impetus for creating the International Criminal Court to eliminate the need for ad hoc tribunals to prosecute genocide, crimes against humanity, and war crimes.
The earliest inhabitants of what is now Rwanda were the Twa, a group of aboriginal pygmy hunter - gatherers who settled in the area between 8000 BC and 3000 BC and remain in Rwanda today. Between 700 BC and 1500 AD, a number of Bantu groups migrated into Rwanda, and began to clear forest land as a way to gain space for agriculture. Historians have several theories regarding the nature of the Bantu migrations: one theory is that the first settlers were Hutu, while the Tutsi migrated later and formed a distinct racial group, possibly of Cushitic origin. An alternative theory is that the migration was slow and steady from neighbouring regions, with incoming groups bearing high genetic similarity to the established ones, and integrating into rather than conquering the existing society. Under this theory, the Hutu and Tutsi distinction arose later and was not a racial one, but principally a class or caste distinction in which the Tutsi herded cattle while the Hutu farmed the land. The Hutu, Tutsi and Twa of Rwanda share a common language and are collectively known as the Banyarwanda.
The population coalesced, first into clans (ubwoko), and then, by 1700, into around eight kingdoms. The Kingdom of Rwanda, ruled by the Tutsi Nyiginya clan, became the dominant kingdom from the mid-eighteenth century, expanding through a process of conquest and assimilation, and achieving its greatest extent under the reign of King Kigeli Rwabugiri in 1853 -- 1895. Rwabugiri expanded the kingdom west and north, and initiated administrative reforms which caused a rift to grow between the Hutu and Tutsi populations.
Rwanda and neighbouring Burundi were assigned to Germany by the Berlin Conference of 1884, and Germany established a presence in the country in 1897 with the formation of an alliance with the king. German policy was to rule the country through the Rwandan monarchy; this system had the added benefit of enabling colonization with small European troop numbers. The colonists favoured the Tutsi over the Hutu when assigning administrative roles, believing them to be migrants from Ethiopia and racially superior. The Rwandan king welcomed the Germans, using their military strength to widen his rule. Belgian forces took control of Rwanda and Burundi during World War I, and from 1926 began a policy of more direct colonial rule. The Belgians modernised the Rwandan economy, but Tutsi supremacy remained, leaving the Hutu disenfranchised. In 1935, Belgium introduced identity cards labelling each individual as either Tutsi, Hutu, Twa or Naturalised. While it had previously been possible for particularly wealthy Hutu to become honorary Tutsi, the identity cards prevented any further movement between the groups.
After World War II, a Hutu emancipation movement began to grow in Rwanda, fuelled by increasing resentment of the inter-war social reforms, and also an increasing sympathy for the Hutu within the Catholic Church. Catholic missionaries increasingly viewed themselves as responsible for empowering the underprivileged Hutu rather than the Tutsi elite, leading rapidly to the formation of a sizeable Hutu clergy and educated elite that provided a new counterbalance to the established political order. The monarchy and prominent Tutsi sensed the growing influence of the Hutu and began to agitate for immediate independence on their own terms. In 1957, a group of Hutu scholars wrote the "Bahutu Manifesto ''. This was the first document to label the Tutsi and Hutu as separate races, and called for the transfer of power from Tutsi to Hutu based on what it termed "statistical law ''.
On 1 November 1959, a Hutu sub-chief, Dominique Mbonyumutwa, was attacked in Kigali by supporters of the pro-Tutsi party. Mbonyumutwa survived, but rumours began spreading that he had been killed. Hutu activists responded by killing Tutsi, both the elite and ordinary civilians, marking the beginning of the Rwandan Revolution. The Tutsi responded with attacks of their own, but by this stage the Hutu had full backing from the Belgian administration who wanted to overturn the Tutsi domination. In early 1960, the Belgians replaced most Tutsi chiefs with Hutu and organised mid-year commune elections which returned an overwhelming Hutu majority. The king was deposed, a Hutu dominated republic created, and the country became independent in 1962.
As the revolution progressed, Tutsi began leaving the country to escape the Hutu purges, settling in the four neighbouring countries: Burundi, Uganda, Tanzania and Zaire. These exiles, unlike the Banyarwanda who migrated during the pre-colonial and colonial era, were regarded as refugees in their host countries, and began almost immediately to agitate for a return to Rwanda. They formed armed groups, known as inyenzi (cockroaches), who launched attacks into Rwanda; these were largely unsuccessful, and led to further reprisal killings of Tutsi and further Tutsi exiles. By 1964, more than 300,000 Tutsi had fled, and were forced to remain in exile for the next three decades. Pro-Hutu discrimination continued in Rwanda itself, although the indiscriminate violence against the Tutsi did decrease somewhat following a coup in 1973, which brought President Juvenal Habyarimana to power.
At 408 inhabitants per square kilometre (1,060 / sq mi), Rwanda 's population density is among the highest in Africa. Rwanda 's population had increased from 1.6 million people in 1934 to 7.1 million in 1989, leading to competition for land. Historians such as Gérard Prunier believe that the 1994 genocide can be partly attributed to population density.
In the 1980s, a group of 500 Rwandan refugees in Uganda, led by Fred Rwigyema, fought with the rebel National Resistance Army (NRA) in the Ugandan Bush War, which saw Yoweri Museveni overthrow Milton Obote. These soldiers remained in the Ugandan army following Museveni 's inauguration as Ugandan president, but simultaneously began planning an invasion of Rwanda through a covert network within the army 's ranks. In October 1990, Rwigyema led a force of over 4,000 rebels from Uganda, advancing 60 km (37 mi) into Rwanda under the banner of the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF). Rwigyema was killed on the third day of the attack, and France and Zaire deployed forces in support of the Rwandan army, allowing them to repel the invasion. Rwigyema 's deputy, Paul Kagame, took command of the RPF forces, organising a tactical retreat through Uganda to the Virunga Mountains, a rugged area of northern Rwanda. From there, he rearmed and reorganised the army, and carried out fundraising and recruitment from the Tutsi diaspora.
Kagame restarted the war in January 1991, with a surprise attack on the northern town of Ruhengeri. The RPF captured the town, benefiting from the element of surprise, and held it for one day before retreating to the forests. For the next year, the RPF waged a hit - and - run style guerrilla war, capturing some border areas but not making significant gains against the Rwandan army. In June 1992, following the formation of a multiparty coalition government in Kigali, the RPF announced a ceasefire and began negotiations with the Rwandan government in Arusha, Tanzania. In early 1993, several extremist Hutu groups formed and began campaigns of large scale violence against the Tutsi. The RPF responded by suspending peace talks and launching a major attack, gaining a large swathe of land across the north of the country. Peace negotiations eventually resumed in Arusha; the resulting set of agreements, known as the Arusha Accords, were signed in August 1993 and gave the RPF positions in a Broad - Based Transitional Government (BBTG) and in the national army. The United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda (UNAMIR), a peacekeeping force, arrived in the country and the RPF were given a base in the national parliament building in Kigali, for use during the setting up of the BBTG.
In the early years of Habyarimana 's regime, there was greater economic prosperity and reduced violence against Tutsi. Many hardline anti-Tutsi figures remained, however, including the family of the first lady Agathe Habyarimana, who were known as the akazu or clan de Madame, and the president relied on them to maintain his regime. When the RPF invaded in 1990, Habyarimana and the hardliners exploited the fear of the population to advance an anti-Tutsi agenda which became known as Hutu Power. A group of military officers and government members founded a magazine called Kangura, which became popular throughout the country. This published anti-Tutsi propaganda, including the Hutu Ten Commandments, an explicit set of racist guidelines, including labelling Hutu who married Tutsi as "traitors ''. In 1992, the hardliners created the Coalition for the Defence of the Republic (CDR) party, which was linked to the ruling party but more right wing, and promoted an agenda critical of the president 's alleged "softness '' with the RPF.
Following the 1992 ceasefire agreement, a number of the extremists in the Rwandan government and army began actively plotting against the president, worried about the possibility of Tutsi being included in government. Habyarimana attempted to remove the hardliners from senior army positions, but was only partially successful; akazu affiliates Augustin Ndindiliyimana and Theoneste Bagosora remained in powerful posts, providing the hardline family with a link to power. Throughout 1992, the hardliners carried out campaigns of localised killings of Tutsi, culminating in January 1993, in which extremists and local Hutu murdered around 300 people. When the RPF resumed hostilities in February 1993, it cited these killings as the primary motive, but its effect was to increase support for the extremists amongst the Hutu population.
From mid-1993, the Hutu Power movement represented a third major force in Rwandan politics, in addition to Habyarimana 's government and the traditional moderate opposition. Apart from the CDR, there was no party that was exclusively part of the Power movement. Instead, almost every party was split into "moderate '' and "Power '' wings, with members of both camps claiming to represent the legitimate leadership of that party. Even the ruling party contained a Power wing, consisting of those who opposed Habyarimana 's intention to sign a peace deal. Several radical youth militia groups emerged, attached to the Power wings of the parties; these included the Interahamwe, which was attached to the ruling party, and the CDR 's Impuzamugambi. The youth militia began actively carrying out massacres across the country. The army trained the militias, sometimes in conjunction with the French, who were unaware of their true purpose.
Historians do not agree on the precise date on which the idea of a "final solution '' to kill every Tutsi in Rwanda was first mooted. Gerard Prunier dates it to 1992, when Habyarimana began negotiating with the RPF, while journalist Linda Melvern dates it to 1990, following the initial RPF invasion. Also in 1990, The army began arming civilians with weapons such as machetes, and it began training the Hutu youth in combat, officially as a programme of "civil defence '' against the RPF threat, but these weapons were later used to carry out the genocide. Rwanda also purchased large numbers of grenades and munitions from late 1990; in one deal, future UN Secretary - General Boutros Boutros - Ghali, in his role as Egyptian foreign minister, facilitated a large sale of arms from Egypt. The Rwandan Armed Forces (FAR) expanded rapidly at this time, growing from less than 10,000 troops to almost 30,000 in one year. The new recruits were often poorly disciplined; a divide grew between the elite Presidential Guard and Gendarmerie units, who were well trained and battle ready, and the ordinary rank and file.
In March 1993, the Hutu Power began compiling lists of "traitors '' whom they planned to kill, and it is possible that Habyarimana 's name was on these lists; the CDR were publicly accusing the president of treason. The Power groups also believed that the national radio station, Radio Rwanda, had become too liberal and supportive of the opposition; they founded a new radio station, Radio Télévision Libre des Mille Collines (RTLMC), which broadcast racist propaganda, obscene jokes and music, becoming very popular throughout the country. One study finds that approximately 10 % of the overall violence during the Rwandan genocide can be attributed to this new radio station. During 1993, the hardliners imported machetes on a scale far larger than what was required for agriculture, as well as other tools which could be used as weapons, such as razor blades, saws and scissors. These tools were distributed around the country, ostensibly as part of the civil defence network.
In October 1993, the President of Burundi, Melchior Ndadaye, who had been elected in June as the country 's first ever Hutu president, was assassinated by extremist Tutsi army officers. The assassination caused shockwaves, reinforcing the notion among Hutus that the Tutsi were their enemy and could not be trusted. The CDR and the Power wings of the other parties realised they could use this situation to their advantage. The idea of a "final solution, '' which had first been suggested in 1992 but had remained a fringe viewpoint, was now top of their agenda, and they began actively planning it. They were confident of persuading the Hutu population to carry out killings, given the public anger at Ndadaye 's murder, as well as RTLM propaganda and the traditional obedience of Rwandans to authority. The Power leaders began arming the interahamwe and other militia groups with AK - 47s and other weapons; previously, they had possessed only machetes and traditional hand weapons.
On 11 January 1994, General Romeo Dallaire, commander of UNAMIR, sent his "Genocide Fax '' to UN Headquarters. The fax stated that Dallaire was in contact with a high level informant who told him of plans to distribute weapons to Hutu militias to kill Belgian members of UNAMIR in order to guarantee Belgian withdrawal. The informant, a local politician, had been ordered to register all Tutsis in Kigali with an example that they could kill up to 1,000 Tutsis in 20 minutes, leading to the extermination of the Tutsis. Dallaire requested permission for the protection of the informant and his family. Kofi Annan repeatedly forbade the operation until guidance was received from headquarters. He did so even as the genocide had started, despite having the authority for approval. His reason for not doing so was Article 2 (4) of the Charter, although the intervention would have been by the UN itself, not a member state. The UNAMIR force was established by Resolution 872 on 5 October 1993 with the consent of both parties to the civil war. Thomas Pogge argues that UNAMIR could not have been charged with intervening because both sides requested and consented to it and it was authorized by the UN Security Council.
On 20 March 2017, Pope Francis acknowledged that while some Catholic nuns and priests in the country were killed during the genocide, others were complicit with it and took part in preparing and executing the genocide.
On April 6, 1994, the airplane carrying Rwandan President Juvénal Habyarimana and Cyprien Ntaryamira, the Hutu president of Burundi, was shot down as it prepared to land in Kigali, killing everyone on board. Responsibility for the attack was disputed, with both the RPF and Hutu extremists being blamed. A later investigation by the Rwandan government blamed Hutu extremists in the Rwandan army. In January 2012, a French investigation was widely published as exonerating the RPF, but according to Filip Reyntjens, the report did not in fact exonerate the RPF. Despite disagreements about the perpetrators, many observers believe the attack and deaths of the two Hutu presidents served as the catalyst for the genocide.
Following Habyarimana 's death, on the evening of 6 April, a crisis committee was formed; it consisted of Major General Augustin Ndindiliyimana, Colonel Theoneste Bagosora, and a number of other senior army staff officers. The committee was headed by Bagosora, despite the presence of the more senior Ndindiliyimana. Prime Minister Agathe Uwilingiyimana was legally next in the line of political succession, but the committee refused to recognise her authority. Dallaire met with the committee that night and insisted that Uwilingiyimana be placed in charge, but Bagosora refused, saying Uwilingiyimana did not "enjoy the confidence of the Rwandan people '' and was "incapable of governing the nation. '' The committee also justified its existence as being essential to avoid uncertainty following the president 's death. Bagosora sought to convince UNAMIR and the RPF that the committee was acting to contain the Presidential Guard, which he described as "out of control '', and that it would abide by the Arusha agreement.
UNAMIR sent an escort of ten Belgian soldiers to Prime Minister Uwilingiyimana, with the intention of transporting her to the Radio Rwanda offices to address the nation. This plan was cancelled because the Presidential Guard took over the radio station shortly afterwards and would not permit Uwilingiyimana to speak on air. Later in the morning, a number of soldiers and a crowd of civilians overwhelmed the Belgians guarding Uwilingiyimana, forcing them to surrender their weapons. Uwilingiyimana and her husband were killed, although their children survived by hiding behind furniture and were rescued by Senegalese UNAMIR officer Mbaye Diagne. The ten Belgians were taken to the Camp Kigali military base, where they were tortured and killed. Major Bernard Ntuyahaga, the commanding officer of the Presidential Guard unit which carried out the murders, was sentenced to 20 years ' imprisonment by a court in Belgium in 2007.
In addition to assassinating Uwilingiyimana, the extremists spent the night of 6 -- 7 April moving around the houses of Kigali with lists of prominent moderate politicians and journalists, on a mission to kill them. Fatalities that evening included President of the Constitutional Court Joseph Kavaruganda, Minister of Agriculture Frederic Nzamurambaho, Parti Liberal leader Landwald Ndasingwa and his Canadian wife, and chief Arusha negotiator Boniface Ngulinzira. A few moderates survived, including prime minister - designate Faustin Twagiramungu, but the plot was largely successful. According to Dallaire, "by noon on 7 April the moderate political leadership of Rwanda was dead or in hiding, the potential for a future moderate government utterly lost. '' The only exception to this was the new army chief of staff, Marcel Gatsinzi; Bagosora 's preferred candidate Augustin Bizimungu was rejected by the crisis committee, forcing Bagosora to agree to Gatsinzi 's appointment. Gatsinzi attempted to keep the army out of the genocide, and to negotiate a ceasefire with the RPF, but he had only limited control over his troops and was replaced by the hardline Bizimungu after just ten days.
The large scale killing of Tutsi on the grounds of ethnicity, began within a few hours of Habyarimana 's death. The crisis committee, headed by Théoneste Bagosora, took power in the country following Habyarimana 's death, and was the principal authority coordinating the genocide. Following the assassination of Habyarimana, Bagosora immediately began issuing orders to kill Tutsi, addressing groups of interahamwe in person in Kigali, and making telephone calls to leaders in the provinces. Other leading organisers on a national level were defence minister Augustin Bizimana; commander of the paratroopers Aloys Ntabakuze; and the head of the Presidential Guard, Protais Mpiranya. Businessman Felicien Kabuga funded the RTLM and the Interahamwe, while Pascal Musabe and Joseph Nzirorera were responsible for coordinating the Interahamwe and Impuzamugambi militia activities nationally.
Military leaders in Gisenyi province, the heartland of the akazu, were initially the most organized, convening a gathering of the Interahamwe and civilian Hutus; the commanders announced the president 's death, blaming the RPF, and then ordered the crowd to "begin your work '' and to "spare no one '', including babies. The killing spread to Ruhengeri, Kibuye, Kigali, Kibungo, Gikongoro and Cyangugu provinces on 7 April; in each case, local officials, responding to orders from Kigali, spread rumours that the RPF had killed the president, followed by a command to kill Tutsi. The Hutu population, which had been prepared and armed during the preceding months, and maintained the Rwandan tradition of obedience to authority, carried out the orders without question.
In Kigali, the genocide was led by the Presidential Guard, the elite unit of the army. They were assisted by the Interahamwe and Impuzamugambi, who set up road blocks throughout the capital; each person passing the road block was required to show the national identity card, which included ethnicity, and any with Tutsi cards were slaughtered immediately. The militias also initiated searches of houses in the city, slaughtering Tutsi and looting their property. Kigali governor Tharcisse Renzaho played a leading role, touring the road blocks to ensure their effectiveness and using his position at the top of the Kigali provincial government to disseminate orders and dismiss officials who were not sufficiently active in the killings.
In rural areas, the local government hierarchy was also in most cases the chain of command for the execution of the genocide. The governor of each province, acting on orders from Kigali, disseminated instructions to the district leaders (bourgmestres), who in turn issued directions to the leaders of the sectors, cells and villages within their districts. The majority of the actual killings in the countryside were carried out by ordinary civilians, under orders from the leaders. Tutsi and Hutu lived side by side in their villages, and families all knew each other, making it easy for Hutu to identify and target their Tutsi neighbours. Gerard Prunier ascribes this mass complicity of the population to a combination of the "democratic majority '' ideology, in which Hutu had been taught to regard Tutsi as dangerous enemies, the culture of unbending obedience to authority, and the duress factor -- villagers who refused to carry out orders to kill were often branded as Tutsi sympathisers and they themselves killed.
There were few killings in the provinces of Gitarama and Butare during the early phase, as the governors of those areas were moderates opposed to the violence. The genocide began in Gitarama on 9 April, when the interim national government relocated to the province. Butare province was ruled by the only Tutsi governor in the country, Jean - Baptiste Habyalimana. Habyalimana refused to authorise any killings in his territory, and for a while Butare became a sanctuary for Tutsi refugees from elsewhere in the country. This lasted until 18 April, when the interim government dismissed him from his post and replaced him with government loyalist Sylvian Nsabimana.
The crisis committee appointed an interim government on 8 April; using the terms of the 1991 constitution instead of the Arusha Accords, the committee designated Theodore Sindikubwabo as interim president of Rwanda, while Jean Kambanda was the new prime minister. All political parties were represented in the government, but most members were from the "Hutu Power '' wings of their respective parties. The interim government was sworn in on 9 April, but immediately relocated from Kigali to Gitarama to avoid fighting between the RPF and the Rwandan army in the capital. The crisis committee was officially dissolved, but Bagosora and the senior officers remained the de facto rulers of the country. The government played its part in mobilising the population, giving the regime an air of legitimacy, but was effectively a puppet regime with no ability to halt the army or the Interahamwe 's activities. When Romeo Dallaire visited the government 's headquarters a week after its formation, he found most officials at leisure, describing their activities as "sorting out the seating plan for a meeting that was not about to convene any time soon. ''
During the remainder of April and early May, the Presidential Guard, gendarmerie and the youth militia, aided by local populations, continued killing at a very high rate. Gerard Prunier estimates that during the first six weeks, up to 800,000 Rwandans may have been murdered, representing a rate five times higher than during the Holocaust of Nazi Germany. The goal was to kill every Tutsi living in Rwanda and, with the exception of the advancing RPF army, there was no opposition force to prevent or slow the killings. The domestic opposition had already been eliminated, and UNAMIR were expressly forbidden to use force except in self - defence. In rural areas, where Tutsi and Hutu lived side by side and families knew each other, it was easy for Hutu to identify and target their Tutsi neighbours. In urban areas, where residents were more anonymous, identification was facilitated using road blocks manned by military and interahamwe; each person passing the road block was required to show the national identity card, which included ethnicity, and any with Tutsi cards were slaughtered immediately. Many Hutu were also killed for a variety of reasons, including alleged sympathy for the moderate opposition parties, being a journalist or simply having a "Tutsi appearance. ''
The RPF was making slow but steady gains in the north and east of the country, ending the killings in each area occupied. The genocide was effectively ended during April in areas of Ruhengeri, Byumba, Kibungo and Kigali provinces. The killings ceased during April in the akazu heartlands of western Ruhengeri and Gisenyi, as almost every Tutsi had been eliminated. Large numbers of Hutu in the RPF conquered areas fled, fearing retribution for the genocide; 500,000 Kibungo residents walked over the bridge at Rusumo Falls, into Tanzania, in a few days at the end of April, and were accommodated in United Nations camps effectively controlled by ousted leaders of the Hutu regime, with the former governor of Kibungo province in overall control.
In the remaining provinces, killings continued throughout May and June, although they became increasingly low - key and sporadic; most Tutsi were already dead, and the interim government wished to rein in the growing anarchy and engage the population in fighting the RPF. On 23 June, around 2,500 soldiers entered southwestern Rwanda as part of the French - led United Nations Operation Turquoise. This was intended as a humanitarian mission, but the soldiers were not able to save significant numbers of lives. The genocidal authorities were overtly welcoming of the French, displaying the French flag on their own vehicles, but slaughtering Tutsi who came out of hiding seeking protection. In July, the RPF completed their conquest of the country, with the exception of the zone occupied by Operation Turquoise. The RPF took Kigali on 4 July, and Gisenyi and the rest of the northwest on 18 July. The genocide was over, but as had occurred in Kibungo, the Hutu population fled en masse across the border, this time into Zaire, with Bagosora and the other leaders accompanying them.
Given the chaotic situation, there is no consensus on the overall number of people killed during the genocide. Unlike the genocides carried out by Nazi Germany and the Khmer Rouge in Cambodia, authorities made no attempts to record deaths. The succeeding RPF government has stated that 1,071,000 were killed, 10 % of whom were Hutu. The journalist Philip Gourevitch agrees with an estimate of one million, while the UN estimates the death toll to be 800,000. Alison Des Forges of Human Rights Watch estimated that it was "at least 500,000. '' James Smith of Aegis Trust notes, "What 's important to remember is that there was a genocide. There was an attempt to eliminate Tutsis -- men, women, and children -- and to erase any memory of their existence. ''
Out of a population of 7.3 million people, 84 % of whom were Hutu, 15 % Tutsi and 1 % Twa, the official figures published by the Rwandan government estimated the number of victims of the genocide to be 1,070,014 in 100 days. It is estimated that about 300,000 Tutsi survived the genocide. Thousands of widows, many of whom were subjected to rape, are now HIV - positive. There were about 400,000 orphans and nearly 85,000 of them were forced to become heads of families.
On 9 April, UN observers witnessed the massacre of children at a Polish church in Gikondo. The same day, 1,000 heavily armed and well trained European troops arrived to escort European civilian personnel out of the country. The troops did not stay to assist UNAMIR. Media coverage picked up on the 9th, as the Washington Post reported the execution of Rwandan employees of relief agencies in front of their expatriate colleagues.
Butare Province was an exception to the local violence. Jean - Baptiste Habyalimana was the only Tutsi prefect, and the province was the only one dominated by an opposition party. Opposing the genocide, Habyalimana was able to keep relative calm in the province, until he was deposed by the extremist Sylvain Ndikumana. Finding the population of Butare resistant to murdering their fellow citizens, the government flew in militia from Kigali by helicopter, and they readily killed the Tutsi.
Most of the victims were killed in their own villages or in towns, often by their neighbors and fellow villagers. The militia typically murdered victims with machetes, although some army units used rifles. The Hutu gangs searched out victims hiding in churches and school buildings, and massacred them. Local officials and government - sponsored radio incited ordinary citizens to kill their neighbors, and those who refused to kill were often murdered on the spot. "Either you took part in the massacres or you were massacred yourself. ''
One such massacre occurred at Nyarubuye. On 12 April, more than 1,500 Tutsis sought refuge in a Catholic church in Nyange, then in Kivumu commune. Local Interahamwe, acting in concert with the authorities, used bulldozers to knock down the church building. The militia used machetes and rifles to kill every person who tried to escape. Local priest Athanase Seromba was later found guilty and sentenced to life in prison by the ICTR for his role in the demolition of his church; he was convicted of the crime of genocide and crimes against humanity. In another case, thousands sought refuge in the Official Technical School (École Technique Officielle) in Kigali where Belgian UNAMIR soldiers were stationed. On 11 April, the Belgian soldiers withdrew, and Rwandan armed forces and militia killed all the Tutsi.
Several individuals attempted to halt the Rwandan genocide, or to shelter vulnerable Tutsi. Among them were Romeo Dallaire (Canadian Lieutenant - General of UNAMIR), Henry Kwami Anyidoho (Ghanaian Deputy Commander of UNAMIR), Pierantonio Costa (Italian diplomat who rescued many lives), Antonia Locatelli (Italian volunteer who in 1992, two years before the actual genocide, tried to save 300 or 400 Tutsis by calling officials in the international community and was later murdered by the Interahamwe), Jacqueline Mukansonera (Hutu woman who saved a Tutsi during the genocide), Paul Rusesabagina (the Academy Award nominated film Hotel Rwanda is based on his story), Carl Wilkens (the only American who chose to remain in Rwanda during the genocide), André Sibomana (Hutu priest and journalist who saved many lives) and Captain Mbaye Diagne (Senegalese army officer of UNAMIR who saved many lives before he was killed).
Rape was used as a tool by the Interahamwe, the chief perpetrators, to separate the consciously heterogeneous population and to drastically exhaust the opposing group. The use of propaganda played an important role in both the genocide and the gender specific violence. The Hutu propaganda depicted Tutsi women as "a sexually seductive ' fifth column ' in league with the Hutus ' enemies ''. The exceptional brutality of the sexual violence, as well as the complicity of Hutu women in the attacks, suggests that the use of propaganda had been effective in the exploitation of gendered needs which had mobilized both females and males to participate. Soldiers of the Army for the Liberation of Rwanda and the Rwandan Defence Forces, including the Presidential Guard, and civilians also committed rape against mostly Tutsi women. Although Tutsi women were the main targets, moderate Hutu women were also raped.
Along with the Hutu moderates, Hutu women who were married to or who hid Tutsis were also targeted. In his 1996 report on Rwanda, the UN Special Rapporteur Rene Degni - Segui stated, "Rape was the rule and its absence was the exception. '' He also noted, "Rape was systematic and was used as a weapon. '' With this thought and using methods of force and threat, the genocidaires forced others to stand by during rapes. A testimonial by a woman of the name Maria Louise Niyobuhungiro recalled seeing local peoples, other generals and Hutu men watching her get raped about 5 times a day. Even when she was kept under watch of a woman, she would give no sympathy or help and furthermore, forced her to farm land in between rapes.
Many of the survivors became infected with HIV from the HIV - infected men recruited by the genocidaires. During the conflict, Hutu extremists released hundreds of patients suffering from AIDS from hospitals, and formed them into "rape squads. '' The intent was to infect and cause a "slow, inexorable death '' for their future Tutsi rape victims. Tutsi women were also targeted with the intent of destroying their reproductive capabilities. Sexual mutilation sometimes occurred after the rape and included mutilation of the vagina with machetes, knives, sharpened sticks, boiling water, and acid. Men were also the victims of sexual violation, including public mutilation of the genitals.
It is estimated by some experts that between 250,000 and 500,000 women were raped during the genocide.
The pygmy people called the Batwa (or ' Twa ') made up about 1 % of Rwanda 's population. An estimated 10,000 of the 30,000 strong population was killed. They are sometimes referred to as the "Forgotten victims '' of the Rwandan genocide. In the months leading up to the genocide, Hutu radio stations accused the Batwa of aiding the RPF and Twa survivors describe Hutu fighters as threatening to kill them all.
On 7 April, as the genocide started, RPF commander Paul Kagame warned the crisis committee and UNAMIR that he would resume the civil war if the killing did not stop. The next day, Rwandan government forces attacked the national parliament building from several directions, but RPF troops stationed there successfully fought back. The RPF then began an attack from the north on three fronts, seeking to link up quickly with the isolated troops in Kigali. Kagame refused to talk to the interim government, believing that it was just a cover for Bagosora 's rule and not committed to ending the genocide. Over the next few days, the RPF advanced steadily south, capturing Gabiro and large areas of the countryside to the north and east of Kigali. They avoided attacking Kigali or Byumba, but conducted manoeuvres designed to encircle the cities and cut off supply routes. The RPF also allowed Tutsi refugees from Uganda to settle behind the front line in the RPF controlled areas.
Throughout April, there were numerous attempts by UNAMIR to establish a ceasefire, but Kagame insisted each time that the RPF would not stop fighting unless the killings stopped. In late April, the RPF secured the whole of the Tanzanian border area and began to move west from Kibungo, to the south of Kigali. They encountered little resistance, except around Kigali and Ruhengeri. By 16 May, they had cut the road between Kigali and Gitarama, the temporary home of the interim government, and by 13 June, had taken Gitarama itself, following an unsuccessful attempt by the Rwandan government forces to reopen the road; the interim government was forced to relocate to Gisenyi in the far north west. As well as fighting the war, Kagame was recruiting heavily to expand the army. The new recruits included Tutsi survivors of the genocide and refugees from Burundi, but were less well trained and disciplined than the earlier recruits.
Having completed the encirclement of Kigali, the RPF spent the latter half of June fighting for the city itself. The government forces had superior manpower and weapons, but the RPF steadily gained territory as well as conducting raids to rescue civilians from behind enemy lines. According to Dallaire, this success was due to Kagame 's being a "master of psychological warfare ''; he exploited the fact that the government forces were concentrating on the genocide rather than the fight for Kigali, and capitalised on the government 's loss of morale as it lost territory. The RPF finally defeated the Rwandan government forces in Kigali on 4 July, and on 18 July took Gisenyi and the rest of the northwest, forcing the interim government into Zaire and ending the genocide. At the end of July 1994, Kagame 's forces held the whole of Rwanda except for the zone in the south - west which had been occupied by a French - led United Nations force as part of Opération Turquoise.
The Liberation Day for Rwanda would come to be marked as 4 July and is commemorated as a public holiday.
The United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda (UNAMIR) had been in Rwanda since October 1993, with a mandate to oversee the implementation of the Arusha Accords. UNAMIR commander Roméo Dallaire learned of the Hutu Power movement during the mission 's deployment, as well as plans for the mass extermination of Tutsi, Dallaire learned of secret weapons caches, but his request to raid them was turned down by the UN Department of Peacekeeping Operations (DPKO). UNAMIR 's effectiveness in peacekeeping was also hampered by President Habyarimana and Hutu hardliners, and by April 1994, the Security Council threatened to terminate UNAMIR 's mandate if it did not make progress.
Following the death of Habyarimana, and the start of the genocide, Dallaire liaised repeatedly with both the Crisis Committee and the RPF, attempting to re-establish peace and prevent the resumption of the civil war. Neither side was interested in a ceasefire, the government because it was controlled by the genocidaires, and the RPF because it considered it necessary to fight to stop the killings. UNAMIR 's Chapter VI mandate rendered it powerless to intervene militarily, and most of its Rwandan staff were killed in the early days of the genocide, severely limiting its ability to operate.
UNAMIR was therefore largely reduced to a bystander role, and Dallaire later labelled it a "failure. '' Its most significant contribution was to provide refuge for thousands of Tutsi and moderate Hutu at its headquarters in Amahoro Stadium, as well as other secure UN sites, and to assist with the evacuation of foreign nationals. On 12 April, the Belgian government, which was one of the largest troop contributors to UNAMIR, and had lost ten soldiers protecting Prime Minister Uwilingiliyimana, announced that it was withdrawing, reducing the force 's effectiveness even further. In mid-May, the UN finally conceded that "acts of genocide may have been committed, '' and agreed to reinforcement, which would be known as UNAMIR 2. The new soldiers did not start arriving until June, and following the end of the genocide in July, the role of UNAMIR 2 was largely confined to maintaining security and stability, until its termination in 1996.
During President Habyarimana 's years in power, France maintained very close relations with him, as part of its Françafrique policy, and assisted Rwanda militarily against the RPF during the Civil War; France considered the RPF, along with Uganda, as part of a "plot '' to increase Anglophone influence at the expense of French influence. During the first few days of the genocide, France launched Amaryllis, a military operation assisted by the Belgian army and UNAMIR, to evacuate expatriates from Rwanda. The French and Belgians refused to allow any Tutsi to accompany them, and those who boarded the evacuation trucks were forced off at Rwandan government checkpoints, where they were killed. The French also separated several expatriates and children from their Tutsi spouses, rescuing the foreigners but leaving the Rwandans to likely death. The French did, however, rescue several high - profile members of Habyarimana 's government, as well as his wife, Agathe.
In late June 1994, France launched Opération Turquoise, a UN-mandated mission to create safe humanitarian areas for displaced persons, refugees, and civilians in danger; from bases in the Zairian cities of Goma and Bukavu, the French entered southwestern Rwanda and established the zone Turquoise, within the Cyangugu -- Kibuye -- Gikongoro triangle, an area occupying approximately a fifth of Rwanda. Radio France International estimates that Turquoise saved around 15,000 lives, but with the genocide coming to an end and the RPF 's ascendancy, many Rwandans interpreted Turquoise as a mission to protect Hutu from the RPF, including some who had participated in the genocide. The French remained hostile to the RPF, and their presence temporarily stalled the RPF 's advance.
A number of inquiries have been held into French involvement in Rwanda, including the 1998 French Parliamentary Commission on Rwanda, which accused France of errors of judgement, including "military cooperation against a background of ethnic tensions, massacres and violence, '' but did not accuse France of direct responsibility for the genocide itself. A 2008 report by the Rwandan government - sponsored Mucyo Commission accused the French government of knowing of preparations for the genocide and helping to train Hutu militia members.
Intelligence reports indicate that United States president Bill Clinton and his cabinet were aware before the height of the massacre that a "final solution to eliminate all Tutsis '' was planned. However, fear of a repeat of the events in Somalia shaped US policy at the time, with many commentators identifying the graphic consequences of the Battle of Mogadishu as the key reason behind the US 's failure to intervene in later conflicts such as the Rwandan genocide. After the battle, the bodies of several US casualties of the conflict were dragged through the streets of Mogadishu by crowds of local civilians and members of Aidid 's Somali National Alliance. According to the US 's former deputy special envoy to Somalia, Walter Clarke: "The ghosts of Somalia continue to haunt US policy. Our lack of response in Rwanda was a fear of getting involved in something like a Somalia all over again. '' President Clinton has referred to the failure of the U.S. government to intervene in the genocide as one of his main foreign policy failings, saying "I do n't think we could have ended the violence, but I think we could have cut it down. And I regret it. '' Eighty percent of the discussion in Washington concerned the evacuation of American citizens.
Israel has been accused of selling arms (guns, bullets and grenades) to the Rwandan government that were used during the genocide. In 2016, the Israeli Supreme Court decided that records documenting Israel 's arms sales to Rwanda during the 1994 genocide would remain sealed and concealed from the public.
The Roman Catholic Church affirms that genocide took place but states that those who took part did so without the permission of the Church. Though religious factors were not prominent, in its 1999 report Human Rights Watch faulted a number of religious authorities in Rwanda, including Roman Catholics, Anglicans, and Protestants, for failing to condemn the genocide -- though that accusation was belied over time. Some in its religious hierarchy have been tried and convicted for their participation by the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda. Bishop Misago was accused of corruption and complicity in the genocide, but was cleared of all charges in 2000. Many other Catholic and other clergy, however, gave their lives to protect Tutsis from slaughter. Some clergy participated in the massacres. In 2006, Father Athanase Seromba was sentenced to 15 years imprisonment (increased on appeal to life imprisonment) by the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda for his role in the massacre of 2,000 Tutsis. The court heard that Seromba lured the Tutsis to the church, where they believed they would find refuge. When they arrived, he ordered bulldozers to crush the refugees within and Hutu militias to kill any survivors.
Following the RPF victory, approximately two million Hutu fled to refugee camps in neighbouring countries, particularly Zaire, fearing RPF reprisals for the Rwandan genocide. The camps were crowded and squalid, and thousands of refugees died in disease epidemics, including cholera and dysentery. The camps were set up by the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), but were effectively controlled by the army and government of the former Hutu regime, including many leaders of the genocide, who began rearming in a bid to return to power in Rwanda.
By late 1996, Hutu militants from the camps were launching regular cross-border incursions, and the RPF - led Rwandan government launched a counteroffensive. Rwanda provided troops and military training to the Banyamulenge, a Tutsi group in the Zairian South Kivu province, helping them to defeat Zairian security forces. Rwandan forces, the Banyamulenge, and other Zairian Tutsi, then attacked the refugee camps, targeting the Hutu militia. These attacks caused hundreds of thousands of refugees to flee; many returned to Rwanda despite the presence of the RPF, while others ventured further west into Zaire. The defeated forces of the former regime continued a cross-border insurgency campaign, supported initially by the predominantly Hutu population of Rwanda 's northwestern provinces. By 1999, a programme of propaganda and Hutu integration into the national army, succeeded in bringing the Hutu to the government side and the insurgency was defeated.
In addition to dismantling the refugee camps, Kagame began planning a war to remove long - time dictator President Mobutu Sese Seko from power. Mobutu had supported the genocidaires based in the camps, and was also accused of allowing attacks on Tutsi people within Zaire. Together with Uganda, the Rwandan government supported an alliance of four rebel groups headed by Laurent - Désiré Kabila, which began waging the First Congo War in 1996. The rebels quickly took control of the North and South Kivu provinces and later advanced west, gaining territory from the poorly organised and demotivated Zairian army with little fighting, and controlling the whole country by 1997. Mobutu fled into exile, and Zaire was renamed the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). However, Rwanda fell out with the new Congolese government in 1998, and Kagame supported a fresh rebellion, leading to the Second Congo War, which would last up until 2003 and cause millions of deaths and massive damage. A United Nations (UN) report in 2010 accused the Rwandan army of committing wide scale human rights violations and crimes against humanity in the Congo during those wars, charges denied by the Rwandan government.
The infrastructure and economy of the country had suffered greatly during the genocide. Many buildings were uninhabitable, and the former regime had carried with them all currency and moveable assets when they fled the country. Human resources were also severely depleted, with over 7001400000000000000 ♠ 40 % of the population having been killed or fled. Many of the remainder were traumatised: most had lost relatives, witnessed killings or participated in the genocide. The long - term effects of war rape in Rwanda for the victims include social isolation, sexually transmitted diseases, unwanted pregnancies and babies, with some women resorting to self - induced abortions. The army, led by Paul Kagame, maintained law and order while the government began the work of rebuilding the country 's structures.
Non-governmental organisations began to move back into the country, but the international community did not provide significant assistance to the new regime, and most international aid was routed to the refugee camps which had formed in Zaire following the exodus of Hutu from Rwanda. Kagame strove to portray the government as inclusive and not Tutsi dominated. He directed removal of ethnicity from citizens ' national identity cards, and the government began a policy of downplaying the distinctions among Hutu, Tutsi, and Twa.
During the genocide and in the months following the RPF victory, RPF soldiers killed many people they accused of participating in or supporting the genocide. Many of these soldiers were recent Tutsi recruits from within Rwanda, who had lost family or friends and sought revenge. The scale, scope, and source of ultimate responsibility of these killings is disputed. Human Rights Watch, as well as scholars such as Prunier, allege that the death toll might be as high as 100,000, and that Kagame and the RPF elite either tolerated or organised the killings. In an interview with journalist Stephen Kinzer, Kagame acknowledged that killings had occurred but stated that they were carried out by rogue soldiers and had been impossible to control. The RPF killings gained international attention with the 1995 Kibeho massacre, in which soldiers opened fire on a camp for internally displaced persons in Butare Province. Australian soldiers serving as part of UNAMIR estimated at least 4,000 people were killed, while the Rwandan government claimed that the death toll was 338.
The systematic destruction of the judicial system during the genocide and civil war was a major problem. After the genocide, over one million people were potentially culpable for a role in the genocide, nearly one - fifth of the population remaining after the summer of 1994. After the genocide, the RPF pursued a policy of mass arrests for the genocide, jailing over 100,000 in the two years after the genocide. The pace of arrests overwhelmed the physical capacity of the Rwandan prison system, leading to what Amnesty International deemed "cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment. '' The country 's nineteen prisons were designed to hold about eighteen thousand inmates, but at their peak in 1998 there were 100,000 people in detention facilities across the country.
Government institutions, including judicial courts, were destroyed, and many judges, prosecutors, and employees were murdered. Of 750 judges, 506 did not remain after the genocide -- many were murdered and most of the survivors fled Rwanda. By 1997, Rwanda only had fifty lawyers in its judicial system. These barriers caused the trials to proceed very slowly: with 130,000 suspects held in Rwandan prisons after the genocide, 3,343 cases were handled between 1996 and the end of 2000. Of those defendants, twenty percent received death sentences, thirty - two percent received life in prison, and twenty percent were acquitted. It was calculated that it would take over two hundred years to conduct the trials of the suspects in prison -- not including the ones who remained at large.
The government began the long - awaited genocide trials, which had an uncertain start at the end of 1996 and inched forward in 1997. It was not until 1996 that courts finally began trials for genocide cases with the enactment of Organic Law N ° 08 / 96 of 30 on 30 August 1996. This law initiated the prosecution of genocide crimes committed during the genocide and of crimes against humanity from October 1990. This law established the regular domestic courts as the core mechanism for responding to genocide until it was amended in 2001 to include the Gacaca courts. The Organic Law established four categories for those involved in the genocide, specifying the limits of punishment for members of each category. The first category was reserved those who were "planners, organizers, instigators, supervisors and leaders '' of the genocide and any who used positions of state authority to promote the genocide. This category also applied to murderers who distinguished themselves on the basis of their zeal or cruelty, or who engaged in sexual torture. Members of this first category were eligible for the death sentence.
While Rwanda had the death penalty prior to the 1996 Organic law, in practice no executions had taken place since 1982. Twenty - two individuals were executed by firing squad in public executions in April 1997. After this, Rwanda conducted no further executions, though it did continue to issue death sentences until 2003. On 25 July 2007 the Organic Law Relating to the Abolition of the Death Penalty came into law, abolishing the death penalty and converting all existing death penalty sentences to life in prison under solitary confinement.
In response to the overwhelming number of potentially culpable individuals and the slow pace of the traditional judicial system, the government of Rwanda passed Organic Law N ° 40 / 2000 in 2001. This law established Gacaca Courts at all administrative levels of Rwanda and in Kigali. It was mainly created to lessen the burden on normal courts and provide assistance in the justice system to run trials for those already in prison. The least severe cases, according to the terms of Organic Law N ° 08 / 96 of 30, would be handled by these Gacaca Courts. With this law, the government began implementing a participatory justice system, known as Gacaca, in order to address the enormous backlog of cases. The Gacaca court system traditionally dealt with conflicts within communities, but it was adapted to deal with genocide crimes. Among the principal objectives of the courts were identification of the truth about what happened during the genocide, speeding up the process of trying genocide suspects, national unity and reconciliation, and demonstrating the capacity of the Rwandan people to resolve their own problems.
The Gacaca court system faced many controversies and challenges; they were accused of being puppets of the RPF - dominated government. The judges (known as Inyangamugayo, which means "those who detest dishonesty '' in Kinyarwanda) who preside over the genocide trials were elected by the public. After election, the judges received training, but there was concern that the training was not adequate for serious legal questions or complex proceedings. Furthermore, many judges resigned after facing accusations of participating in the genocide; 27.1 % of them were so accused. There was also a lack of defense counsel and protections for the accused, who were denied the right to appeal to ordinary courts. Most trials were open to the public, but there were issues with witness intimidation. The Gacaca courts did not try those responsible for massacres of Hutu civilians committed by members of the RPF, which controlled the Gacaca Court system.
On 18 June 2012, the Gacaca court system was officially closed after facing criticism. It is estimated that the Gacaca court system tried over one million cases during its lifetime.
Meanwhile, the UN established the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda, currently based in Arusha, Tanzania. The UN Tribunal has jurisdiction over high - level members of the government and armed forces, while Rwanda is responsible for prosecuting lower - level leaders and local people.
Since the ICTR was established as an ad hoc international jurisdiction, the ICTR was scheduled to close by the end of 2014, after it would complete trials by 2009 and appeals by 2010 or 2011. Initially, the U.N. Security Council established the ICTR in 1994 with an original mandate of four years without a fixed deadline and set on addressing the crimes committed during the Rwandan genocide. As the years passed, it became apparent that the ICTR would exist long past its original mandate. However, with the announcement of its closing, there was a concern over whether the Rwandan genocide would still have an authority like that of the ICTR in prosecuting high - ranking fugitives and with access to international sources. The ICTR officially closed on 31 December 2015, and its remaining functions were handed over to the Mechanism for International Criminal Tribunals.
There are an estimated 300,000 survivors of the Rwandan genocide.
The 2007 report on the living conditions of survivors conducted by the Ministry in charge of Social Affairs in Rwanda reported the following situation of survivors:
There are a number of organizations representing and supporting these survivors of the genocide. These are:
SURF (or the Survivors Fund) is the main international charity dedicated to aiding and assisting the survivors of the Rwandan genocide. Since 1997, SURF has been advocating and fundraising internationally in support of the efforts of grassroots survivors organisations in Rwanda, including IBUKA (National Umbrella of Survivors ' Organisations), AVEGA (Association of Widows of the Genocide), AOCM (Association of Orphan - Headed Households), Uyisenga N'Manzi (Organisation of Child Survivors with HIV / AIDS) and Solace Ministries (Christian Survivors Support Organisation). Its focus is to ensure that the voices of survivors are listened to and heard, memories of the genocide are kept alive, victims of the genocide are never forgotten and survivors of the genocide are supported in Rwanda, and in the UK where it is based.
IBUKA is a high - profile lobby group with a particular interest in addressing justice for survivors and coordinating and leading joint survivors ' projects on a national level. A direct translation of IBUKA is "remember '', which is the objective of the umbrella association. It is composed of ten member organisations, which work to perpetuate the memory of genocide and provide support to genocide survivors. Speaking out is a sign of confidence of the survivors and being heard increases that confidence, which is what IBUKA strives to achieve.
AVEGA was founded in 1995 by 50 widowed survivors, who realised after the genocide that there was no one left to care for them or their children. The charity provides a means of support and recovery, and promotes self - fulfilment and self - reliance through many programmes, ranging from social networking to job training and from home construction to peer counselling. AVEGA now has five centres across Rwanda.
AOCM respond to the needs of orphans who survived the genocide, in particular to promote the general welfare of its 40,000 members in 10,000 orphan - headed households. Its staff are all orphans themselves who head households. SURF helped AOCM build its capacity to advocate to give orphaned survivors of the genocide a stronger voice in Rwanda. AOCM is now an established and reputable, growing child - advocacy organisation.
Uyisenga N'Manzi is a community - based organization that provides economic, educational and health - related support for child - headed households in Kigali. According to the International Fund for Rwanda, over 120,000 homes became child - headed households as a result of the 1994 genocide, and that number continues to grow as adults succumb to AIDS. In some cases, the head of household is as young as 10 or 12.
Solace Ministries is an officially registered Christian based charity, which supports traumatized widows and orphans of genocide, especially people living with HIV / AIDS. It helps to restore hope and overcome feelings of despair, loneliness, hatred, anger and resentment among its members. Its programs include counseling; childcare and development programs; community development programs; health and relief; capacity building and research. More importantly, it provides a vital secure environment for survivors to meet and pray together.
Streets Ahead Rwanda supports street children living in Eastern Rwanda who continue to suffer the effects of the Rwandan genocide. The charity works in partnership with the Streets Ahead Children 's Centre which is an NGO based in Rwanda. The centre is based in Kayonza but reintegrates children across the entire country.
Canadian Lieutenant - General Roméo Dallaire became the best - known eyewitness to the genocide after co-writing the 2003 book Shake Hands with the Devil: The Failure of Humanity in Rwanda, describing his experiences with depression and post-traumatic stress disorder. Another firsthand account of the Rwandan genocide is offered by Dr. James Orbinski in his book An Imperfect Offering: Humanitarian Action in the Twenty - first Century. Among survivors, Immaculée Ilibagiza documented her story in Left to Tell: Discovering God Amidst the Rwandan Holocaust. The book recounts how she survived for 91 days with seven other women during the genocide in a damp and small bathroom, no larger than 3 feet (0.91 m) long and 4 feet (1.2 m) wide. Gil Courtemanche, a French - Canadian writer, authored Dimanche à la piscine à Kigali (A Sunday at the Pool in Kigali), which focuses on events in Kigali during the genocide.
The critically acclaimed and multiple Academy Award - nominated 2004 film Hotel Rwanda is based on the experiences of Paul Rusesabagina, a Kigali hotelier at the Hôtel des Mille Collines who sheltered over a thousand refugees during the genocide. It is listed by the American Film Institute as one of the 100 most inspirational movies of all time. This same story is related in Rusesabagina 's 2006 autobiography An Ordinary Man.
In 2005, HBO produced a television movie named Sometimes in April. The story centers on two brothers: Honoré Butera, working for Radio Télévision Libre des Mille Collines, and Augustin Muganza, a captain in the Rwandan army (who was married to a Tutsi woman), who bear witness to the killing of close to over a million people in 100 days while becoming divided by politics and losing some of their own family.
Dallaire 's book was made into the movie Shake Hands with the Devil in 2007. Courtemanche 's book was also made into a movie, A Sunday in Kigali (2007).
The documentary Earth Made of Glass, an independent film, about the personal and political costs of the genocide, focusing on Rwandan President Paul Kagame and genocide survivor Jean - Pierre Sagahutu, premiered at the 2010 Tribeca Film Festival.
In 2005, Alison Des Forges wrote that eleven years after the genocide, films for popular audiences on the subject greatly increased the "widespread realization of the horror that had taken the lives of more than half a million Tutsi ''. In 2007, Charlie Beckett, Director of POLIS, said: "How many people saw the movie Hotel Rwanda? (It is) ironically the way that most people now relate to Rwanda. ''
Among songs, "Rwanda '' by the punk - ska band Rancid from the album Rancid is about the Rwandan genocide. So is the punk - ska band Rx Bandits 's song "In All Rwanda 's Glory '' on their album Progress, which they say contains "overly political lyrics ''. Brooke Fraser wrote the song "Albertine '' on her album Albertine about an eponymous orphan from the genocide whom Fraser met one time in Rwanda in 2005. In 2016, the Christian metalcore band Fit for a King explained that a song entitled "Stacking Bodies '', on their newest album is about the Rwandan genocide.
Former journalist and United States Ambassador to the United Nations Samantha Power is interviewed about the Rwandan genocide in Watchers of the Sky, a 2014 documentary by Edet Belzberg about genocide throughout history and its eventual inclusion in international law.
Juliane Okot Bitek 's book of poetry, 100 Days (University of Alberta Press, 2016) uses the Rwandan genocide as a framework within which to explore "the senseless loss of life and of innocence '' as well as "her own family 's experience of displacement under the regime of Idi Amin '' Juliane Okot Bitek is the daughter of Ugandan poet Okot p'Bitek.
The context of the 1994 Rwandan genocide continues to be a matter of historical debate. There have been frequent charges of revisionism.
A "double genocides '' theory, accusing the Tutsis of engaging in a "counter-genocide '' against the Hutus, is promulgated in Black Furies, White Liars, the controversial book by French investigative journalist Pierre Péan. One 2009 study of central and southern Rwanda, based on 8 months of field research in Rwanda over a period of 2 years, found, however, that the absolute number of Tutsis killed was double that for Hutus, and that the patterns of killing for the two groups differed. Jean - Pierre Chrétien, a French historian whom Péan describes as an active member of the "pro-Tutsi lobby '', criticized Péan 's "amazing revisionist passion ''.
Another person accused of genocide revisionism is the Montreal writer Robin Philpot, whom Gerald Caplan identified in a 2007 Globe and Mail article as believing that "many people were killed in 1994 by both sides making those who carried out the genocide and their enemies morally equivalent. '' He further charges that Philpot argued "(t) here was no one - sided conspiracy by armed Hutu forces and militias against a million defenceless Tutsi, he says. ''
-- Christian Davenport Professor of Peace Studies at Michigan
In 2009, Christian Davenport of the University of Michigan and Allan C. Stam, the Daniel Webster Professor of Government at Dartmouth, posed the question: "What really happened in Rwanda? '' The pair do not question that an anti-Tutsi genocide took place in 1994, but their investigation led them to conclude that "conventional wisdom was only partly correct ''. They argue that the genocide constituted only part of the slaughter of spring and summer 1994; that the RPF was "clearly responsible '' for another major portion of the killings; that the victims were "fairly evenly distributed between Tutsi and Hutu ''; that the majority of the dead were actually Hutu, rather than Tutsi; and that, "among other things, it appears that there simply were n't enough Tutsi in Rwanda at the time to account for all the reported deaths. ''
In October 2014, a BBC documentary, Rwanda: The Untold Story, was aired featuring interviews with Davenport and Stam and it suggested that Kagame 's RPF was involved in the shooting down of Habyarimana 's plane. It aroused considerable controversy, as well as earning the ire of the Rwandan government, which banned the BBC 's Kinyarwanda - language radio broadcasts from the country before conducting a three - week inquiry into the documentary. In November 2014, Emmanuel Mughisa (also known as Emile Gafarita), a former Rwandan soldier who said he had evidence that Kagame had ordered Habyarimana 's plane shot down, was abducted in Nairobi hours after he was called to testify at the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda, "join (ing) a long list of Mr Kagame 's opponents who have disappeared or died. ''
Under the Rwandan constitution, "revisionism, negationism and trivialisation of genocide '' are criminal offences. Hundreds of people have been tried and convicted for "genocide ideology '', "revisionism '', and other laws ostensibly related to the genocide. Of the 489 individuals convicted of "genocide revisionism and other related crimes '' in 2009, five were sentenced to life imprisonment, a further five were sentenced to more than 20 years in jail, 99 were sentenced to 10 -- 20 years in jail, 211 received a custodial sentence of 5 -- 10 years, and the remaining 169 received jail terms of less than five years. Amnesty International has criticized the Rwandan government for using these laws to "criminalize legitimate dissent and criticism of the government. '' In 2010, an American law professor and attorney, Peter Erlinder, was arrested in Kigali and charged with genocide denial while defending presidential candidate Victoire Ingabire.
Luis, J.R.; et al. (2004). "The Levant versus the Horn of Africa: Evidence for Bidirectional Corridors of Human Migrations ''. American Journal of Human Genetics. 74 (3): 532 -- 544. doi: 10.1086 / 382286. PMC 1182266. PMID 14973781.
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when does a man called ove take place | A Man Called Ove (novel) - wikipedia
2012 Sweden
A Man Called Ove (original title in Swedish: En man som heter Ove) is a 2012 novel by Fredrik Backman, a Swedish columnist, blogger and writer. It was published in English in 2013. The English version reached the New York Times Best Seller list 18 months after it was published and stayed on the list for 42 weeks.
In January 2015 a stage version of the book, with Johan Rheborg in the leading role as Ove, had its premiere in Stockholm. In addition, it was adapted as a film of the same name, which was premiered on 25 December 2015, with Rolf Lassgård in the leading role.
"Ove is a curmudgeon -- the kind of man who points at people he dislikes as if they were burglars caught outside his bedroom window. He has staunch principles, strict routines, and a short fuse. People call him "the bitter neighbor from hell. '' However, behind the cranky exterior there is a story and a sadness. So when one November morning a chatty young couple with two chatty young daughters move in next door and accidentally flatten Ove 's mailbox, it is the lead - in to a comical and heartwarming tale of unkempt cats, unexpected friendship, and the ancient art of backing up a U-Haul. All of which will change one cranky old man and a local residents ' association to their very foundations. ''
-- promotional blurb on U.S. edition cover jacket
In July 2014, Dreamscape Media released an audiobook version of this book, read in English by American actor George Newbern.
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who practiced the case study method of observation | Participant observation - wikipedia
Participant observation is one type of data collection method typically used in qualitative research. It is a widely used methodology in many disciplines, particularly cultural anthropology, European ethnology, sociology, communication studies, human geography and social psychology. Its aim is to gain a close and intimate familiarity with a given group of individuals (such as a religious, occupational, sub cultural group, or a particular community) and their practices through an intensive involvement with people in their cultural environment, usually over an extended period of time. The method originated in the field research of social anthropologists, especially Bronisław Malinowski and his students in Britain, the students of Franz Boas in the United States, and in the later urban research of the Chicago School of sociology.
Participant observation was used extensively by Frank Hamilton Cushing in his study of the Zuni Indians in the later part of the nineteenth century, followed by the studies of non-Western societies by people such as Bronisław Malinowski, E.E. Evans - Pritchard, and Margaret Mead in the first half of the twentieth century. It emerged as the principal approach to ethnographic research by anthropologists and relied on the cultivation of personal relationships with local informants as a way of learning about a culture, involving both observing and participating in the social life of a group. By living with the cultures they studied, researchers were able to formulate first hand accounts of their lives and gain novel insights. This same method of study has also been applied to groups within Western society, and is especially successful in the study of sub-cultures or groups sharing a strong sense of identity, where only by taking part may the observer truly get access to the lives of those being studied. The postmortem publication of Grenville Goodwin 's decade of work as a participant - observer with the Western Apache, The Social Organization of the Western Apache, established him as a prominent figure in the field of ethnology.
Since the 1980s, some anthropologists and other social scientists have questioned the degree to which participant observation can give veridical insight into the minds of other people. At the same time, a more formalized qualitative research program known as grounded theory, initiated by Glaser and Strauss, began gaining currency within American sociology and related fields such as public health. In response to these challenges, some ethnographers have refined their methods, either making them more amenable to formal hypothesis - testing and replicability, or framing their interpretations within a more carefully considered epistemology.
The development of participant - observation as a research tool has therefore not been a haphazard process, but instead has practiced a great deal of self - criticism and review. It has as a result become specialized. Visual anthropology can be viewed as a subset of methods of participant - observation, as the central questions in that field have to do with how to take a camera into the field, while dealing with such issues as the observer effect. Issues with entry into the field have evolved into a separate subfield. Clifford Geertz 's famous essay on how to approach the multi-faceted arena of human action from an observational point of view, in Interpretation of Cultures uses the simple example of a human wink, perceived in a cultural context far from home.
Such research involves a range of well - defined, though variable methods: informal interviews, direct observation, participation in the life of the group, collective discussions, analyses of personal documents produced within the group, self - analysis, results from activities undertaken off or online, and life - histories. Although the method is generally characterized as qualitative research, it can (and often does) include quantitative dimensions. Traditional participant observation is usually undertaken over an extended period of time, ranging from several months to many years, and even generations. An extended research time period means that the researcher is able to obtain more detailed and accurate information about the individuals, community, and / or population under study. Observable details (like daily time allotment) and more hidden details (like taboo behavior) are more easily observed and interpreted over a longer period of time. A strength of observation and interaction over extended periods of time is that researchers can discover discrepancies between what participants say -- and often believe -- should happen (the formal system) and what actually does happen, or between different aspects of the formal system; in contrast, a one - time survey of people 's answers to a set of questions might be quite consistent, but is less likely to show conflicts between different aspects of the social system or between conscious representations and behavior.
In participant observation, a researcher 's discipline based interests and commitments shape which events he or she considers are important and relevant to the research inquiry. According to Howell (1972), the four stages that most participant observation research studies are establishing rapport or getting to know the people, immersing oneself in the field, recording data and observations, and consolidating the information gathered.
Narrative Analysis: categorizing information gathered through interviews, finding common themes, and constructing a coherent story from data.
Participant observation is not simply showing up at a site and writing things down. On the contrary, participant observation is a complex method that has many components. One of the first things that a researcher or individual must do after deciding to conduct participant observations to gather data is decide what kind of participant observer he or she will be. Spradley provides five different types of participant observations summarised below.
Participant Observation Type Chart.
Limitations To Any Participant Observation
Participant observation can only do so much for the researcher because the sole presence of the researcher in the field will influence the participants ' behavior (see: observer - expectancy effect). Researchers engaging in this type of qualitative research method must be aware that participants may act differently or put up a facade that is in accordance to what they believe the researcher is studying. This is why it is important to employ rigor in any qualitative research study. A useful method of rigor to employ is member - checking or triangulation.
While gathering data through participant observation, investigator triangulation would be a way to ensure that one researcher is not letting his or her biases or personal preferences in the way of observing and recording meaningful experiences. As the name suggests, investigator triangulation involves multiple research team members gathering data about the same event, but this method ensures a variety of recorded observations due to the varying theoretical perspectives of each research team member. In other words, triangulation, be it data, investigator, theory or methodological triangulation, is a form of cross-checking information.
Member checking is when the researcher asks for participant feedback on his or her recorded observations to ensure that the researcher is accurately depicting the participants ' experiences and the accuracy of conclusions drawn from the data. This method can be used in participant observation studies or when conducting interviews. Member - checking and triangulation are good methods to use when conducting participant observations, or any other form of qualitative research, because they increase data and research conclusion credibility and transferability. In quantitative research, credibility is liken to internal validity, or the knowledge that our findings are representative of reality, and transferability is similar to external validity or the extent to which the findings can be generalized across different populations, methods, and settings.
A variant of participant observation is observing participation, described by Marek M. Kaminski, who explored prison subculture as a political prisoner in communist Poland in 1985. "Observing '' or "observant '' participation has also been used to describe fieldwork in sexual minority subcultures by anthropologists and sociologists who are themselves lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender, as well as amongst political activists and in protest events. The different phrasing is meant to highlight the way in which their partial or full membership in the community / subculture that they are researching both allows a different sort of access to the community and also shapes their perceptions in ways different from a full outsider. This is similar to considerations by anthropologists such as Lila Abu - Lughod on "halfie anthropology '', or fieldwork by bicultural anthropologists on a culture to which they partially belong.
As with any form of research dealing with human subjects, the researcher must ensure the ethical boundaries are never crossed by those conducting the subjects of study. The researcher must have clearly established boundaries before the onset of the study, and have guidelines in place should any issues cross the line of ethical behavior. One of the issues would be if the researcher is studying a population where illegal activities may occur or when working with minor children. In participant observation, the ethical concern that is most salient is that of informed consent and voluntary participation. There is the issue of deciding to obtain informed consent from every individual in the group of study, obtain the informed consent for participant observation from the person of leadership, or not inform anyone of one 's true purpose in fear of influencing the attitudes of members, thus skewing the observations recorded.
The decision is based on the nature of the study and the researcher 's own personal thoughts on the cost - benefit ratio of the situation. Participant observation also brings up the issue of voluntary participation in events the researcher observes and records. There may be instances when members do not want to be a part of the study and request that all data collected pertinent to them be removed. In this case, the researcher is obligated to relinquish data that may identify the members in any way. Above anything else, it is the researcher 's responsibility that the participants of the study do not suffer any ill effects directly or indirectly from the study, participants are informed of their rights as subjects of the study, and that the group was justly chosen for study (The Belmont Report).
The American Anthropological Association and American Sociological Association both have comprehensive statements concerning the code of conduct for research.
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who did the last drop kick in the nfl | Drop kick - wikipedia
A drop kick is a type of kick in various codes of football. It involves a player dropping the ball and then kicking it when it bounces off the ground.
Drop kicks are most importantly used as a method of restarting play and scoring points in rugby union and rugby league. Association football goalkeepers also often return the ball to play with drop kicks. The kick was once in wide use in both Australian rules football and gridiron football, but is today rarely seen in either sport.
The drop kick technique in rugby codes is usually to hold the ball with one end pointing downwards in two hands above the kicking leg. The ball is dropped onto the ground in front of the kicking foot, which makes contact at the moment or fractionally after the ball touches the ground, called the half - volley. The kicking foot usually makes contact with the ball slightly on the instep.
In a rugby union kick - off, or drop out, the kicker usually aims to kick the ball high but not a great distance, and so usually strikes the ball after it has started to bounce off the ground, so the contact is made close to the bottom of the ball.
In rugby league, drop kicks are mandatory to restart play from the goal line (called a goal line drop - out) after the defending team is tackled or knocks on in the in - goal area or the defending team causes the ball to go dead or into touch - in - goal. Drop kicks are also mandatory to restart play from the 20 metre line after an unsuccessful penalty goal attempt goes dead or into touch - in - goal and to score a drop goal (sometimes known as a field goal) in open play, which is worth one point.
Drop kicks are optional for a penalty kick to score a penalty goal (this being done rarely, as place kicks are generally used) and when kicking for touch (the sideline) from a penalty, although the option of a punt kick is usually taken instead.
In rugby union, a drop kick is used for the kick - off and restarts and to score a drop goal (sometimes called a field goal). Originally, it was one of only two ways to score points, along with the place kick.
Drop kicks are mandatory from the centre spot to start a half (a kick - off), from the centre spot to restart the game after points have been scored, to restart play from the 22 - metre line (called a drop - out) after the ball is touched down or made dead in the in - goal area by the defending team when the attacking team kicked or took the ball into the in - goal area, and to score a drop goal (sometimes called a field goal) in open play, which is worth three points.
Drop kicks are optional for a conversion kick after a try has been scored. This is rare, as place kicks are almost always used for the conversion; a drop kick is sometimes used late in a game if the scoring team needs to score again quickly, and taking a place kick would be slower. Also, if a gust of wind blows the ball over on a place kick attempt after the kicker has begun his run - up, thus allowing the opposing team to begin a charge down, then there is no time to reset the ball, and the kicker may attempt a quick drop kick. Drop kicks are also optional for a penalty kick to score a penalty goal. This is rare, as place kicks are almost always used. When kicking for touch (the sideline) from a penalty, a drop kick may be used. This is rare, as the option of a punt kick is almost always taken instead.
The usage of drop kicks in rugby sevens is the same as in rugby union, except that drop kicks are used for all conversion attempts and for penalty kicks, both of which must be taken within 40 seconds of the try being scored or the award of the penalty.
In both American and Canadian football, one method of scoring a field goal or extra point is by drop - kicking the football through the goal.
It contrasts to a punt, wherein the player kicks the ball without letting it hit the ground first; and a placekick, wherein the player kicks a stationary ball off the ground: "from placement ''. A drop kick is significantly more difficult; as Jim Thorpe once explained, "I regard the place kick as almost two to one safer than the drop kick in attempting a goal from the field. ''
The drop kick was often used in early football as a surprise tactic. The ball would be snapped or lateraled to a back, who would fake a run or pass, but then would kick the field goal instead. This method of scoring worked well in the 1920s and early 1930s, when the football was rounder at the ends (similar to a modern rugby ball). Early football stars such as Charles Brickley, Frank Hudson, Jim Thorpe, Paddy Driscoll, and Al Bloodgood were skilled drop - kickers; Driscoll in 1925 and Bloodgood in 1926 hold a tied NFL record of four drop kicked field goals in a single game. Driscoll 's 55 yard drop kick in 1924 stood as the unofficial record for field goal range until Bert Rechichar kicked a 56 - yard field goal (by placekick) in 1953.
In 1934, the ball was made more pointed at the ends. The creation of the pointed football is generally credited to Shorty Ray, at the time a college football official and later the NFL 's head of officiating. This made passing the ball easier, as was its intent, but made the drop kick obsolete, as the more pointed ball did not bounce up from the ground reliably. The drop kick was supplanted by the place kick, which can not be attempted out of a formation generally used as a running or passing set. The drop kick remains in the rules, but is seldom seen, and rarely effective when attempted. In Canadian football the drop kick can be taken from any point on the field, unlike placekicks which must be attempted behind the line of scrimmage.
Before the NFL -- AFL merger, the last successful drop kick in the NFL was executed by Scooter McLean of the Chicago Bears in their 37 -- 9 victory over the New York Giants on December 21, 1941, in the NFL Championship game at Chicago 's Wrigley Field. Though it was not part of the NFL at the time, the All - America Football Conference saw its last drop kick November 28, 1948, when Joe Vetrano of the San Francisco 49ers drop kicked an extra point after a muffed snap against the Cleveland Browns.
The only successful drop kick in the NFL since the 1940s was by Doug Flutie, the backup quarterback of the New England Patriots, against the Miami Dolphins on January 1, 2006, for an extra point after a touchdown. Flutie had estimated "an 80 percent chance '' of making the drop kick, which was called to give Flutie, 43 at the time, the opportunity to make a historic kick in his final NFL game; the drop kick was his last play in the NFL. After the game, New England coach Bill Belichick said, "I think Doug deserves it, '' and Flutie said, "I just thanked him for the opportunity. ''
Dallas Cowboys punter Mat McBriar attempted a maneuver similar to a drop kick during the 2010 Thanksgiving Day game after a botched punt attempt, but the ball bounced several times before the kick and the sequence of events is officially recorded as a fumble, followed by an illegal kick, with the fumble being recovered by the New Orleans Saints 29 yards downfield from the spot of the kick. The Saints declined the illegal kick penalty.
New England Patriots kicker Stephen Gostkowski attempted an onside drop kick on a free kick after a safety against the Pittsburgh Steelers on October 30, 2011. The kick went out of bounds.
New Orleans Saints quarterback Drew Brees, a former teammate of Flutie 's, executed a drop kick late on an extra point attempt in the fourth quarter of the 2012 Pro Bowl; the kick fell short.
New England Patriots special teams player Nate Ebner attempted an onside drop kick on a kickoff after a Patriots touchdown against the Philadelphia Eagles on December 6, 2015. The kick was recovered by the Eagles at their own 41 yard line. Two weeks later, on December 20, Buffalo Bills punter Colton Schmidt executed what is believed to be an unintentional drop kick after a botched punt against the Washington Redskins; because the Redskins recovered the kick, it was treated as a punt (and not as a field goal attempt, which would have pushed the ball back to the spot of the kick).
The last successful drop kick extra point in the NCAA was by Jason Millgan of Hartwick College on December 11, 1998, St. Lawrence University. Frosty Peters of Montana State College made 17 drop kicks in one game in 1924.
In the Canadian game, the drop kick can be attempted at any time by either team. Any player on the kicking team behind the kicker, and including the kicker, can recover the kick. When a drop kick goes out of bounds, possession on the next scrimmage goes to the non-kicking team.
On September 8, 1974, Tom Wilkinson, quarterback for the Edmonton Eskimos, unsuccessfully attempted a drop kick field goal in the final seconds of a 24 -- 2 romp over the Winnipeg Blue Bombers. This may have been the last time the play was deliberately attempted in the CFL.
During one game in the 1980s, Hamilton Tiger - Cats wide receiver Earl Winfield was unable to field a punt properly; in frustration, he kicked the ball out of bounds. The kick was considered a drop kick and led to a change of possession, with the punting team regaining possession of the ball.
In Arena football, a drop - kicked extra point counts for two points rather than one and a drop - kicked field goal counts for four points rather than three. The most recent conversion of a drop kick was by Geoff Boyer of the Pittsburgh Power on June 16, 2012; it was the first successful conversion in the Arena Football League since 1997.
Once the preferred method of conveying the ball over long distances, the drop - kick has been superseded by the drop punt as a more accurate means of delivering the ball to a fellow player. It is, therefore, no longer used in the game as it is considered too unpredictable.
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asap mob cozy tapes vol 2 album cover | Cozy Tapes Vol. 2: Too Cozy - wikipedia
Cozy Tapes Vol. 2: Too Cozy is the second studio album by American hip hop collective ASAP Mob. It was released on August 25, 2017, by ASAP Worldwide, Polo Grounds Music and RCA Records. The album features guest appearances from Big Sean, Playboi Carti, Pro Era, Quavo, Lil Uzi Vert, Lil Yachty, Chief Keef, Gucci Mane, Schoolboy Q, Frank Ocean, Jaden Smith, Smooky Margielaa and Flatbush Zombies. It was preceded by two singles, "RAF '' featuring ASAP Rocky, Playboi Carti, Quavo, Lil Uzi Vert and Frank Ocean, and "Feels So Good '' featuring ASAP Rocky, ASAP Ferg, ASAP Nast, ASAP Twelvyy and ASAP Ant.
On July 4, 2017, ASAP Mob confirmed the second installment of their Cozy Tapes series. Its released was preceded by solo releases from two other ASAP Mob members in August, with ASAP Twelvyy 's 12 album on August 4 and ASAP Ferg 's Still Striving mixtape on August 18.
The track listing surfaced online on August 22, a few days before release.
The album 's promotional single, "Wrong '' featuring ASAP Rocky and ASAP Ferg, was released on April 28, 2017, it was produced by Harry Fraud, which did not make the final track listing.
The music video for the song, titled "RAF '', was released on July 24, 2017, directed by ASAP Rocky and Austin Winchell.
On July 25, 2017, ASAP Mob announced the Too Cozy Tour to accompany the album across the United States from September to November 2017.
The lead single, "RAF '' featuring ASAP Rocky, Playboi Carti, Quavo, Lil Uzi Vert and Frank Ocean, was released on May 15, 2017. The second single, "Feels So Good '' featuring ASAP Rocky, ASAP Ferg, ASAP Nast, ASAP Twelvyy and ASAP Ant, was released on August 16, 2017.
At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream publications, the album received an average score of 70, based on five reviews. M.T. Richards of Exclaim! criticised the album for a lack of originality and cohesion: "Rocky and his acolytes convene for a rundown of trends worth exploiting; as such, it often sounds like a Migos album as interpreted by 16 clueless New Yorkers. The lack of thump and energy is fatal, throwing cold water on any chance Rocky may have had at profiting off of Migos ' grassroots momentum. At its best ('' Frat Rules "), CTV2 is perfunctory; at its worst ('' Get a Bag "), it denotes a scornful disinterest in what makes club - goers tick. '' Greg Whitt of Consequence of Sound commented that Cozy Tapes Vol. 2 has "a loose family vibe. One gets the sense that almost anyone who dropped by the studio as they were recording had the chance to make the album. As such, the album 's not a show of force, it 's a party. ''
Cozy Tapes Vol. 2 debuted at number six on the US Billboard 200 with 41,000 album - equivalent units. The album also entered at number 54 on the UK Albums Chart, selling 1,000 album - equivalent units in its first week. It also entered at number 22 on the UK R&B Chart.
Notes
Sample credits
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who sang if i ain't got you first | If I Ai n't Got You - wikipedia
"If I Ai n't Got You '' is a song by American singer Alicia Keys from her second studio album The Diary of Alicia Keys (2003). Inspired by the 2001 death of Aaliyah, the terrorist September 11 attacks, and other different events in the world and in Keys ' life at that time, it is about "how material things do n't feed the soul. '' Musically, the slow bluesy piano ballad features musicians Hugh McCracken on guitar and Steve Jordan on drums.
Released in February 2004 as the album 's second single, the song peaked at number four on the US Billboard Hot 100 and became Keys ' second consecutive R&B chart - topper, remaining atop of the Hot R&B / Hip - Hop Songs chart for six weeks. The song received two nominations at the 2005 Grammy Awards, for Song of the Year and Best Female R&B Vocal Performance, winning in the latter.
A remix featuring Usher, a Kanye West Radio Mix, and a Spanish - language version featuring Arturo Sandoval appear on the bonus CD of select international pressings of The Diary of Alicia Keys. The song is featured in the 2004 PlayStation 2 karaoke game Karaoke Revolution Volume 3.
The single cover depicts Keys similarly to the subject of Man Ray 's 1924 painting Le Violon d'Ingres.
Keys said that the idea of the song was inspired by Aaliyah 's death: "The song idea came together right after Aaliyah passed away. It was such a sad time and no one wanted to believe it. It just made everything crystal clear to me -- what matters, and what does n't. ''
"If I Ai n't Got You '' debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 at number sixty - four on the issue dated March 6, 2004, peaking at number four, four months later, on July 3, 2004. It spent twenty non-consecutive weeks in the top ten, one of the longest stays of any song that year and outlasting many number one singles. The song topped the Hot R&B / Hip - Hop Songs on May 1, 2004 and spent six non-consecutive weeks atop the chart. It was also successful on Billboard component charts, reaching number five on the Rhythmic Top 40 and number nine on the Mainstream Top 40. The single was ultimately placed at number three on the Billboard Year - End Hot 100 chart of 2004.
In the United Kingdom, "If I Ai n't Got You '' debuted and peaked at number eighteen on the UK Singles Chart for the week ending April 10, 2004. In late September 2009, the single returned to the chart at number fifty - four.
The music video, directed by Diane Martel, is set in a wintry New York City and features a cameo by rapper and actor Method Man as Keys ' on - screen boyfriend.
Credits adapted from the liner notes of The Diary of Alicia Keys.
shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
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how long are season 8 game of thrones episodes | Game of Thrones (season 8) - Wikipedia
The eighth and final season of the fantasy drama television series Game of Thrones was announced by HBO in July 2016. Unlike the first six seasons that each had ten episodes and the seventh that had seven episodes, the eighth season will have only six episodes. Like the previous season, it will largely consist of original content not found currently in George R.R. Martin 's A Song of Ice and Fire series and will also adapt material Martin has revealed to showrunners about the upcoming novels in the series, The Winds of Winter and A Dream of Spring.
The season will be adapted for television by David Benioff and D.B. Weiss. Filming officially began on October 23, 2017, and concluded in July 2018. The season is scheduled to premiere during the first half of 2019.
The eighth and final season of the fantasy drama television series Game of Thrones was announced by HBO in July 2016, and, like the previous season, it will largely consist of original content not found currently in George R.R. Martin 's A Song of Ice and Fire series and will instead adapt material Martin has revealed to showrunners about the upcoming novels in the series, The Winds of Winter and A Dream of Spring.
Series creators and executive producers David Benioff and D.B. Weiss will serve as showrunners for the eighth season. The directors for the eighth season were announced in September 2017. Miguel Sapochnik, who previously directed "The Gift '' and "Hardhome '' on season 5, as well as "Battle of the Bastards '' and "The Winds of Winter '' on season 6 will return as director. He will divide up direction of the first five episodes with David Nutter, who had directed two episodes on seasons two, three and five, including "The Rains of Castamere '' and "Mother 's Mercy ''. The final episode of the show will be directed by Benioff and Weiss, who have previously directed one episode each.
At the show 's South by Southwest panel on March 12, 2017, Benioff and Weiss announced the writers for the show to be Dave Hill (episode 1) and Bryan Cogman (episode 2). The showrunners will then divide up the screenplay for the remaining four episodes amongst themselves.
Writing for the eighth season started with a 140 - page outline. Benioff said that the divvying up process and who should write what section became more difficult because "this would be the last time that we would be doing this ''.
In an interview with Entertainment Weekly, HBO programming president Casey Bloys stated that instead of the series finale being a feature film, the final season would be "six one - hour movies '' on television. He continued, "The show has proven that TV is every bit as impressive and in many cases more so, than film. What they 're doing is monumental. '' Filming officially began on October 23, 2017, and concluded in July 2018.
Co-creators David Benioff and D.B. Weiss have said that the seventh and eighth season would likely consist of fewer episodes, stating that after season six, they were "down to our final 13 episodes after this season. We 're heading into the final lap. '' Benioff and Weiss stated that they were unable to produce 10 episodes in the show 's usual 12 to 14 - month time frame, as Weiss said, "It 's crossing out of a television schedule into more of a mid-range movie schedule. '' HBO confirmed in July 2016, that the seventh season would consist of seven episodes, and would premiere later than usual in mid-2017 because of the later filming schedule. Benioff and Weiss later confirmed that the eighth season will consist of six episodes, and is expected to premiere later than usual for the same reason.
Benioff and Weiss spoke about the end of the show, saying, "From the beginning we 've wanted to tell a 70 - hour movie. It will turn out to be a 73 - hour movie, but it 's stayed relatively the same of having the beginning, middle and now we 're coming to the end. It would have been really tough if we lost any core cast members along the way, I 'm very happy we 've kept everyone and we get to finish it the way we want to. '' The season is scheduled to premiere during the first half of 2019.
Ramin Djawadi is set to return as the composer of the show for the eighth season.
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where do maple trees grow in the united states | Maple - wikipedia
See either species grouped by sections alphabetical list of species
Acer / ˈeɪsər / is a genus of trees or shrubs commonly known as maple. The genus is placed in the Sapindaceae family. There are approximately 128 species, most of which are native to Asia, with a number also appearing in Europe, northern Africa, and North America. Only one species, Acer laurinum, extends to the Southern Hemisphere. The type species of the genus is the sycamore maple, Acer pseudoplatanus, the most common maple species in Europe.
Maple species, such as Acer rubrum, may be monoecious, dioecious or polygamodioecious.
Most maples are trees growing to a height of 10 -- 45 m (33 -- 148 ft). Others are shrubs less than 10 meters tall with a number of small trunks originating at ground level. Most species are deciduous, and many are renowned for their autumn leaf colour, but a few in southern Asia and the Mediterranean region are evergreen. Most are shade - tolerant when young and are often riparian, understory, or pioneer species rather than climax overstory trees with a few exceptions such as Sugar Maple. Many of the root systems are typically dense and fibrous, inhibiting the growth of other vegetation underneath them. A few species, notably Acer cappadocicum, frequently produce root sprouts, which can develop into clonal colonies.
Maples are distinguished by opposite leaf arrangement. The leaves in most species are palmate veined and lobed, with 3 to 9 (rarely to 13) veins each leading to a lobe, one of which is central or apical. A small number of species differ in having palmate compound, pinnate compound, pinnate veined or unlobed leaves. Several species, including Acer griseum (Paperbark maple), Acer mandshuricum (Manchurian maple), Acer maximowiczianum (Nikko maple) and Acer triflorum (Three - flowered maple), have trifoliate leaves. One species, Acer negundo (Box - elder), has pinnately compound leaves that may be simply trifoliate or may have five, seven, or rarely nine leaflets. A few, such as Acer laevigatum (Nepal maple) and Acer carpinifolium (Hornbeam maple), have pinnately veined simple leaves.
The flowers are regular, pentamerous, and borne in racemes, corymbs, or umbels. They have four or five sepals, four or five petals about 1 -- 6 mm long (absent in some species), four to ten stamens about 6 -- 10 mm long, and two pistils or a pistil with two styles. The ovary is superior and has two carpels, whose wings elongate the flowers, making it easy to tell which flowers are female. Maples flower in late winter or early spring, in most species with or just after the appearance of the leaves, but in some before the trees leaf out.
Maple flowers are green, yellow, orange or red. Though individually small, the effect of an entire tree in flower can be striking in several species. Some maples are an early spring source of pollen and nectar for bees.
The distinctive fruits are called samaras, "maple keys '', "helicopters '', "whirlybirds '' or "polynoses ''. These seeds occur in distinctive pairs each containing one seed enclosed in a "nutlet '' attached to a flattened wing of fibrous, papery tissue. They are shaped to spin as they fall and to carry the seeds a considerable distance on the wind. People often call them "helicopters '' due to the way that they spin as they fall. During World War II, the US Army developed a special air drop supply carrier that could carry up to 65 pounds of supplies and was based on the Maple seed. Seed maturation is usually in a few weeks to six months after flowering, with seed dispersal shortly after maturity. However, one tree can release hundreds of thousands of seeds at a time. Depending on the species, the seeds can be small and green to orange and big with thicker seed pods. The green seeds are released in pairs, sometimes with the stems still connected. The yellow seeds are released individually and almost always without the stems. Most species require stratification in order to germinate, and some seeds can remain dormant in the soil for several years before germinating.
The genus Acer together with genus Dipteronia are either classified in a family of their own, the Aceraceae, or else classified as members of the family Sapindaceae. Recent classifications, including the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group system, favour inclusion in Sapindaceae. When put in family Sapindaceae, genus Acer is put in subfamily Hippocastanoideae.
The genus is subdivided by its morphology into a multitude of sections and subsections.
Fifty - four species of maples meet the International Union for Conservation of Nature criteria for being under threat of extinction in their native habitat.
The leaves are used as a food plant for the larvae of a number of the Lepidoptera order. (see List of Lepidoptera that feed on maples). In high concentrations, caterpillars, like the greenstriped mapleworm (Dryocampa rubicunda), can feed on the leaves so much that they cause temporary defoliation of host maple trees. Aphids are also very common sap - feeders on maples. In horticultural applications a dimethoate spray will solve this.
In the United States and Canada, all maple species are threatened by the Asian long - horned beetle (Anoplophora glabripennis). Infestations have resulted in the destruction of thousands of maples and other tree species in Illinois, Massachusetts, New Jersey and New York.
Maples are affected by a number of fungal diseases. Several are susceptible to Verticillium wilt caused by Verticillium species, which can cause significant local mortality. Sooty bark disease, caused by Cryptostroma species, can kill trees that are under stress due to drought. Death of maples can rarely be caused by Phytophthora root rot and Ganoderma root decay. Maple leaves in late summer and autumn are commonly disfigured by "tar spot '' caused by Rhytisma species and mildew caused by Uncinula species, though these diseases do not usually have an adverse effect on the trees ' long - term health.
A maple leaf is on the coat of arms of Canada, and is on the Canadian flag. The maple is a common symbol of strength and endurance and has been chosen as the national tree of Canada. Maple leaves are traditionally an important part of Canadian Forces military regalia, for example the military rank insignia for generals use maple leaf symbols. There are 10 species naturally growing in the country, with at least one in each province. Although the idea of the tree as a national symbol originally hailed from the province of Quebec where the sugar maple is significant, today 's arboreal emblem of Canada rather refers to a generic maple. The design on the flag is an eleven - point stylization modeled after a sugar maple leaf (which normally bears 23 points).
It is also in the name of Canadian ice hockey club Toronto Maple Leafs.
The first attested use of the word was in 1260 as "Mapole '', and it also appears a century later in Geoffrey Chaucer 's Canterbury Tales, spelled as "mapul ''.
The maple is also a symbol of Hiroshima, ubiquitous in the local meibutsu.
Some species of maple are extensively planted as ornamental trees by homeowners, businesses and municipalities due to their fall colour, relatively fast growth, ease of transplanting, and lack of hard seeds that would pose a problem for mowing lawns. Particularly popular are Norway Maple (although it is considered invasive in North America), Silver Maple, Japanese Maple, and Red Maple. Other maples, especially smaller or more unusual species, are popular as specimen trees.
Numerous maple cultivars that have been selected for particular characteristics can be propagated only by asexual reproduction such as cuttings, tissue culture, budding or grafting. Acer palmatum (Japanese maple) alone has over 1,000 cultivars, most selected in Japan, and many of them no longer propagated or not in cultivation in the Western world. Some delicate cultivars are usually grown in pots and rarely reach heights of more than 50 -- 100 cm.
Maples are a popular choice for the art of bonsai. Japanese maple (Acer palmatum), Trident maple (A. buergerianum), Amur maple (A. ginnala), Field maple (A. campestre) and Montpellier maple (A. monspessulanum) are popular choices and respond well to techniques that encourage leaf reduction and ramification, but most species can be used.
Maple collections, sometimes called aceretums, occupy space in many gardens and arboreta around the world including the "five great W 's '' in England: Wakehurst Place Garden, Westonbirt Arboretum, Windsor Great Park, Winkworth Arboretum and Wisley Garden. In the United States, the aceretum at the Harvard - owned Arnold Arboretum in Boston is especially notable. In the number of species and cultivars, the Esveld Aceretum in Boskoop, Netherlands is the largest in the world.
Many maples have bright autumn foliage, and many countries have leaf - watching traditions. In Japan, the custom of viewing the changing colour of maples in the autumn is called "momijigari ''. Nikko and Kyoto are particularly favoured destinations for this activity. In addition, in Korea, the same viewing activity is called "Danpung - Nori '' and the Seoraksan and Naejang - san mountains are very famous places for it.
The Acer saccharum (sugar maple) are a contributor to seasonal fall tourism in North America, particularly in Central Ontario, Québec, and the northern tier of the United States including Wisconsin, Michigan, Vermont, New York, New Hampshire and Western Massachusetts.
Maples are important as source of syrup and wood. Dried wood is often used for the smoking of food. Charcoal from maples is an integral part of the Lincoln County Process used to make Tennessee Whiskey. They are also cultivated as ornamental plants and have benefits for tourism and agriculture.
The Sugar maple (A. saccharum) is tapped for sap, which is then boiled to produce maple syrup or made into maple sugar or maple taffy. It takes about 40 litres (42 US qt) of sugar maple sap to make 1 litre (1.1 US qt) of syrup. While any Acer species may be tapped for syrup, many do not have sufficient quantities of sugar to be commercially useful.
Some of the larger maple species have valuable timber, particularly Sugar maple in North America, and Sycamore maple in Europe. Sugar maple wood -- often known as "hard maple '' -- is the wood of choice for bowling pins, bowling alley lanes, pool cue shafts, and butcher 's blocks. Maple wood is also used for the manufacture of wooden baseball bats, though less often than ash or hickory due to the tendency of maple bats to shatter when broken. The maple bat was introduced to Major League Baseball (MLB) in 1998 by Sam Bat founder Sam Holman. Today it is the standard maple bat most in use by professional baseball. Maple is also commonly used in archery as the core material in the limbs of a recurve bow due to its stiffness and strength.
Maple wood is often graded based on physical and aesthetic characteristics. The most common terminology includes the grading scale from common # 2; which is unselected and often used for craft woods; common # 1, used for commercial and residential buildings; clear; and select grade, which is sought for fine woodworking.
Some maple wood has a highly decorative wood grain, known as flame maple, quilt maple, birdseye maple and burl wood. This condition occurs randomly in individual trees of several species, and often can not be detected until the wood has been sawn, though it is sometimes visible in the standing tree as a rippled pattern in the bark.
These select decorative wood pieces also have subcategories that further filter the aesthetic looks. Crotch Wood, Bees Wing, Cats Paw, Old Growth and Mottled are some terms used to describe the look of these decorative woods.
Maples have a long history of use for furniture production in the United States.
Maple is considered a tonewood, or a wood that carries sound waves well, and is used in numerous musical instruments. Maple is harder and has a brighter sound than mahogany, which is another major tonewood used in instrument manufacture.
The back, sides, and neck of most violins, violas, cellos, and double basses are made from maple.
Electric guitar necks are commonly made from maple, having good dimensional stability. The necks of the Fender Stratocaster and Telecaster were originally an entirely maple one piece neck, but later were also available with rosewood fingerboards. Les Paul desired an all maple guitar, but due to the weight of maple, only the tops of Gibson 's Les Paul guitars are made from carved maple, often using quilted or flamed maple tops. Due to its weight, very few solid body guitars are made entirely from maple, but many guitars have maple necks, tops or veneers.
Maple is also often used to make bassoons and sometimes for other woodwind instruments like maple recorders.
Many drums are made from maple. From the 70s to the 90s, maple drum kits were a vast majority of all drum kits made, but in recent years, birch has become popular for drums once again. Some of the best drum - building companies use maple extensively throughout their mid-pro range. Maple drums are favored for their bright resonant sound. Certain types of drum sticks are also made from maple.
As they are a major source of pollen in early spring before many other plants have flowered, maples are important to the survival of honeybees that play a commercially important role later in the spring and summer.
Maple is used as pulpwood. The fibers have relatively thick walls that prevent collapsing upon drying. This gives good bulk and opacity in paper. Maple also gives paper good printing properties.
Acer cappadocicum (Cappadocian maple)
Acer carpinifolium leaves
Acer freemanii ' Autumn Blaze ' (a cross between Acer rubrum and Acer saccharinum
Acer macrophyllum flowers and young leaves
Acer laevigatum leaves and fruit
Acer sempervirens foliage
Acer ginnala foliage
Acer palmatum trees and bamboo in Japan
Acer grandidentatum (Bigtooth Maple) in autumn colour
Acer platanoides leaf
Acer palmatum leaf in autumn
Acer platanoides (Norway maple) samaras
Acer griseum (Paperbark maple)
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