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where were photovoltaic cells first used to provide electricity | Photovoltaics - wikipedia
Photovoltaics (PV) is a term which covers the conversion of light into electricity using semiconducting materials that exhibit the photovoltaic effect, a phenomenon studied in physics, photochemistry, and electrochemistry.
A typical photovoltaic system employs solar panels, each comprising a number of solar cells, which generate electrical power. PV installations may be ground - mounted, rooftop mounted or wall mounted. The mount may be fixed, or use a solar tracker to follow the sun across the sky.
Solar PV has specific advantages as an energy source: once installed, its operation generates no pollution and no greenhouse gas emissions, it shows simple scalability in respect of power needs and silicon has large availability in the Earth 's crust.
PV systems have the major disadvantage that the power output is dependent on direct sunlight, so about 10 - 25 % is lost if a tracking system is not used, since the cell will not be directly facing the sun at all times. Dust, clouds, and other things in the atmosphere also diminish the power output. Another main issue is the concentration of the production in the hours corresponding to main insolation, which do not usually match the peaks in demand in human activity cycles. Unless current societal patterns of consumption and electrical networks mutually adjust to this scenario, electricity still needs to be stored for later use or made up by other power sources, usually hydrocarbon.
Photovoltaic systems have long been used in specialized applications, and standalone and grid - connected PV systems have been in use since the 1990s. They were first mass - produced in 2000, when German environmentalists and the Eurosolar organization got government funding for a ten thousand roof program.
Advances in technology and increased manufacturing scale have in any case reduced the cost, increased the reliability, and increased the efficiency of photovoltaic installations. Net metering and financial incentives, such as preferential feed - in tariffs for solar - generated electricity, have supported solar PV installations in many countries. More than 100 countries now use solar PV.
After hydro and wind powers, PV is the third renewable energy source in terms of global capacity. At the end of 2016, worldwide installed PV capacity increased to more than 300 gigawatts (GW), covering approximately two percent of global electricity demand. China, followed by Japan and the United States, is the fastest growing market, while Germany remains the world 's largest producer, with solar PV providing seven percent of annual domestic electricity consumption. With current technology (as of 2013), photovoltaics recoups the energy needed to manufacture them in 1.5 years in Southern Europe and 2.5 years in Northern Europe.
The term "photovoltaic '' comes from the Greek φῶς (phōs) meaning "light '', and from "volt '', the unit of electro - motive force, the volt, which in turn comes from the last name of the Italian physicist Alessandro Volta, inventor of the battery (electrochemical cell). The term "photo - voltaic '' has been in use in English since 1849.
Photovoltaics are best known as a method for generating electric power by using solar cells to convert energy from the sun into a flow of electrons by the photovoltaic effect.
Solar cells produce direct current electricity from sunlight which can be used to power equipment or to recharge a battery. The first practical application of photovoltaics was to power orbiting satellites and other spacecraft, but today the majority of photovoltaic modules are used for grid connected power generation. In this case an inverter is required to convert the DC to AC. There is a smaller market for off - grid power for remote dwellings, boats, recreational vehicles, electric cars, roadside emergency telephones, remote sensing, and cathodic protection of pipelines.
Photovoltaic power generation employs solar panels composed of a number of solar cells containing a photovoltaic material. Copper solar cables connect modules (module cable), arrays (array cable), and sub-fields. Because of the growing demand for renewable energy sources, the manufacturing of solar cells and photovoltaic arrays has advanced considerably in recent years.
Solar photovoltaic power generation has long been seen as a clean energy technology which draws upon the planet 's most plentiful and widely distributed renewable energy source -- the sun. Cells require protection from the environment and are usually packaged tightly in solar panels.
Photovoltaic power capacity is measured as maximum power output under standardized test conditions (STC) in "W '' (watts peak). The actual power output at a particular point in time may be less than or greater than this standardized, or "rated '', value, depending on geographical location, time of day, weather conditions, and other factors. Solar photovoltaic array capacity factors are typically under 25 %, which is lower than many other industrial sources of electricity.
For best performance, terrestrial PV systems aim to maximize the time they face the sun. Solar trackers achieve this by moving PV panels to follow the sun. The increase can be by as much as 20 % in winter and by as much as 50 % in summer. Static mounted systems can be optimized by analysis of the sun path. Panels are often set to latitude tilt, an angle equal to the latitude, but performance can be improved by adjusting the angle for summer or winter. Generally, as with other semiconductor devices, temperatures above room temperature reduce the performance of photovoltaics.
A number of solar panels may also be mounted vertically above each other in a tower, if the zenith distance of the Sun is greater than zero, and the tower can be turned horizontally as a whole and each panels additionally around a horizontal axis. In such a tower the panels can follow the Sun exactly. Such a device may be described as a ladder mounted on a turnable disk. Each step of that ladder is the middle axis of a rectangular solar panel. In case the zenith distance of the Sun reaches zero, the "ladder '' may be rotated to the north or the south to avoid a solar panel producing a shadow on a lower solar panel. Instead of an exactly vertical tower one can choose a tower with an axis directed to the polar star, meaning that it is parallel to the rotation axis of the Earth. In this case the angle between the axis and the Sun is always larger than 66 degrees. During a day it is only necessary to turn the panels around this axis to follow the Sun. Installations may be ground - mounted (and sometimes integrated with farming and grazing) or built into the roof or walls of a building (building - integrated photovoltaics).
Another recent development involves the makeup of solar cells. Perovskite is a very inexpensive material which is being used to replace the expensive crystalline silicon which is still part of a standard PV cell build to this day. Michael Graetzel, Director of the Laboratory of Photonics and Interfaces at EPFL says, "Today, efficiency has peaked at 18 percent, but it 's expected to get even higher in the future. '' This is a significant claim, as 20 % efficiency is typical among solar panels which use more expensive materials.
Electrical efficiency (also called conversion efficiency) is a contributing factor in the selection of a photovoltaic system. However, the most efficient solar panels are typically the most expensive, and may not be commercially available. Therefore, selection is also driven by cost efficiency and other factors.
The electrical efficiency of a PV cell is a physical property which represents how much electrical power a cell can produce for a given insolation. The basic expression for maximum efficiency of a photovoltaic cell is given by the ratio of output power to the incident solar power (radiation flux times area)
The efficiency is measured under ideal laboratory conditions and represents the maximum achievable efficiency of the PV material. Actual efficiency is influenced by the output Voltage, current, junction temperature, light intensity and spectrum.
The most efficient type of solar cell to date is a multi-junction concentrator solar cell with an efficiency of 46.0 % produced by Fraunhofer ISE in December 2014. The highest efficiencies achieved without concentration include a material by Sharp Corporation at 35.8 % using a proprietary triple - junction manufacturing technology in 2009, and Boeing Spectrolab (40.7 % also using a triple - layer design). The US company SunPower produces cells that have an efficiency of 21.5 %, well above the market average of 12 -- 18 %.
There is an ongoing effort to increase the conversion efficiency of PV cells and modules, primarily for competitive advantage. In order to increase the efficiency of solar cells, it is important to choose a semiconductor material with an appropriate band gap that matches the solar spectrum. This will enhance the electrical and optical properties. Improving the method of charge collection is also useful for increasing the efficiency. There are several groups of materials that are being developed. Ultrahigh - efficiency devices (η > 30 %) are made by using GaAs and GaInP2 semiconductors with multijunction tandem cells. High - quality, single - crystal silicon materials are used to achieve high - efficiency, low cost cells (η > 20 %).
Recent developments in Organic photovoltaic cells (OPVs) have made significant advancements in power conversion efficiency from 3 % to over 15 % since their introduction in the 1980s. To date, the highest reported power conversion efficiency ranges from 6.7 % to 8.94 % for small molecule, 8.4 % -- 10.6 % for polymer OPVs, and 7 % to 21 % for perovskite OPVs. OPVs are expected to play a major role in the PV market. Recent improvements have increased the efficiency and lowered cost, while remaining environmentally - benign and renewable.
Several companies have begun embedding power optimizers into PV modules called smart modules. These modules perform maximum power point tracking (MPPT) for each module individually, measure performance data for monitoring, and provide additional safety features. Such modules can also compensate for shading effects, wherein a shadow falling across a section of a module causes the electrical output of one or more strings of cells in the module to decrease.
One of the major causes for the decreased performance of cells is overheating. The efficiency of a solar cell declines by about 0.5 % for every 1 degree Celsius increase in temperature. This means that a 100 degree increase in surface temperature could decrease the efficiency of a solar cell by about half. Self - cooling solar cells are one solution to this problem. Rather than using energy to cool the surface, pyramid and cone shapes can be formed from silica, and attached to the surface of a solar panel. Doing so allows visible light to reach the solar cells, but reflects infrared rays (which carry heat).
historical cumulative capacity average projection for 2015 (+ 55 GW, 233 GW) low scenario reaches 396 GW by 2019 high scenario reaches 540 GW by 2019
Solar photovoltaics is growing rapidly and worldwide installed capacity reached about 300 gigawatts (GW) by the end of 2016. Since 2000, installed capacity has seen a growth factor of about 57. The total power output of the world 's PV capacity in a calendar year in 2014 is now beyond 200 TWh of electricity. This represents 1 % of worldwide electricity demand. More than 100 countries use solar PV. China, followed by Japan and the United States is now the fastest growing market, while Germany remains the world 's largest producer, contributing more than 7 % to its national electricity demands. Photovoltaics is now, after hydro and wind power, the third most important renewable energy source in terms of globally installed capacity.
Several market research and financial companies foresee record - breaking global installation of more than 50 GW in 2015. China is predicted to take the lead from Germany and to become the world 's largest producer of PV power by installing another targeted 17.8 GW in 2015. India is expected to install 1.8 GW, doubling its annual installations. By 2018, worldwide photovoltaic capacity is projected to doubled or even triple to 430 GW. Solar Power Europe (formerly known as EPIA) also estimates that photovoltaics will meet 10 % to 15 % of Europe 's energy demand in 2030.
In 2017 a study in Science estimated that by 2030 global PV installed capacities will be between 3,000 and 10,000 GW. The EPIA / Greenpeace Solar Generation Paradigm Shift Scenario (formerly called Advanced Scenario) from 2010 shows that by the year 2030, 1,845 GW of PV systems could be generating approximately 2,646 TWh / year of electricity around the world. Combined with energy use efficiency improvements, this would represent the electricity needs of more than 9 % of the world 's population. By 2050, over 20 % of all electricity could be provided by photovoltaics.
Michael Liebreich, from Bloomberg New Energy Finance, anticipates a tipping point for solar energy. The costs of power from wind and solar are already below those of conventional electricity generation in some parts of the world, as they have fallen sharply and will continue to do so. He also asserts, that the electrical grid has been greatly expanded worldwide, and is ready to receive and distribute electricity from renewable sources. In addition, worldwide electricity prices came under strong pressure from renewable energy sources, that are, in part, enthusiastically embraced by consumers.
Deutsche Bank sees a "second gold rush '' for the photovoltaic industry to come. Grid parity has already been reached in at least 19 markets by January 2014. Photovoltaics will prevail beyond feed - in tariffs, becoming more competitive as deployment increases and prices continue to fall.
In June 2014 Barclays downgraded bonds of U.S. utility companies. Barclays expects more competition by a growing self - consumption due to a combination of decentralized PV - systems and residential electricity storage. This could fundamentally change the utility 's business model and transform the system over the next ten years, as prices for these systems are predicted to fall.
Data: IEA - PVPS Snapshot of Global PV 1992 -- 2015 report, March 2015 Also see Solar power by country for a complete and continuously updated list
Types of impacts
While solar photovoltaic (PV) cells are promising for clean energy production, their deployment is hindered by production costs, material availability, and toxicity. Data required to investigate their impact are sometimes affected by a rather large amount of uncertainty. The values of human labor and water consumption, for example, are not precisely assessed due to the lack of systematic and accurate analyses in the scientific literature.
Life cycle assessment (LCA) is one method of determining environmental impacts from PV. Many studies have been done on the various types of PV including first generation, second generation, and third generation. Usually these PV LCA studies select a cradle to gate system boundary because often at the time the studies are conducted, it is a new technology not commercially available yet and their required balance of system components and disposal methods are unknown.
A traditional LCA can look at many different impact categories ranging from global warming potential, eco-toxicity, human toxicity, water depletion, and many others.
Most LCAs of PV have focused on two categories: carbon dioxide equivalents per kWh and energy pay - back time (EPBT). The EPBT is defined as "the time needed to compensate for the total renewable - and non-renewable - primary energy required during the life cycle of a PV system ''. A 2015 review of EPBT from first and second generation PV suggested that there was greater variation in embedded energy than in efficiency of the cells implying that it was mainly the embedded energy that needs to reduce to have a greater reduction in EPBT. One difficulty in determining impacts due to PV is to determine if the wastes are released to the air, water, or soil during the manufacturing phase. Research is underway to try to understand emissions and releases during the lifetime of PV systems.
Impacts from first - generation PV
Crystalline silicon modules are the most extensively studied PV type in terms of LCA since they are the most commonly used. Mono - crystalline silicon photovoltaic systems (mono - si) have an average efficiency of 14.0 %. The cells tend to follow a structure of front electrode, anti-reflection film, n - layer, p - layer, and back electrode, with the sun hitting the front electrode. EPBT ranges from 1.7 to 2.7 years. The cradle to gate of CO-eq / kWh ranges from 37.3 to 72.2 grams.
Techniques to produce multi-crystalline silicon (multi-si) photovoltaic cells are simpler and cheaper than mono - si, however tend to make less efficient cells, an average of 13.2 %. EPBT ranges from 1.5 to 2.6 years. The cradle to gate of CO-eq / kWh ranges from 28.5 to 69 grams. Some studies have looked beyond EPBT and GWP to other environmental impacts. In one such study, conventional energy mix in Greece was compared to multi-si PV and found a 95 % overall reduction in impacts including carcinogens, eco-toxicity, acidification, eutrophication, and eleven others.
Impacts from second generation
Cadmium telluride (CdTe) is one of the fastest - growing thin film based solar cells which are collectively known as second generation devices. This new thin film device also shares similar performance restrictions (Shockley - Queisser efficiency limit) as conventional Si devices but promises to lower the cost of each device by both reducing material and energy consumption during manufacturing. Today the global market share of CdTe is 5.4 %, up from 4.7 % in 2008. This technology 's highest power conversion efficiency is 21 %. The cell structure includes glass substrate (around 2 mm), transparent conductor layer, CdS buffer layer (50 -- 150 nm), CdTe absorber and a metal contact layer.
CdTe PV systems require less energy input in their production than other commercial PV systems per unit electricity production. The average CO-eq / kWh is around 18 grams (cradle to gate). CdTe has the fastest EPBT of all commercial PV technologies, which varies between 0.3 and 1.2 years.
Copper Indium Gallium Diselenide (CIGS) is a thin film solar cell based on the copper indium diselenide (CIS) family of chalcopyrite semiconductors. CIS and CIGS are often used interchangeably within the CIS / CIGS community. The cell structure includes soda lime glass as the substrate, Mo layer as the back contact, CIS / CIGS as the absorber layer, cadmium sulfide (CdS) or Zn (S, OH) x as the buffer layer, and ZnO: Al as the front contact. CIGS is approximately 1 / 100th the thickness of conventional silicon solar cell technologies. Materials necessary for assembly are readily available, and are less costly per watt of solar cell. CIGS based solar devices resist performance degradation over time and are highly stable in the field.
Reported global warming potential impacts of CIGS range from 20.5 -- 58.8 grams CO-eq / kWh of electricity generated for different solar irradiation (1,700 to 2,200 kWh / m / y) and power conversion efficiency (7.8 -- 9.12 %). EPBT ranges from 0.2 to 1.4 years, while harmonized value of EPBT was found 1.393 years. Toxicity is an issue within the buffer layer of CIGS modules because it contains cadmium and gallium. CIS modules do not contain any heavy metals.
Impacts from third generation
Third - generation PVs are designed to combine the advantages of both the first and second generation devices and they do not have Shockley - Queisser limit, a theoretical limit for first and second generation PV cells. The thickness of a third generation device is less than 1 μm.
One emerging alternative and promising technology is based on an organic - inorganic hybrid solar cell made of methylammonium lead halide perovskites. Perovskite PV cells have progressed rapidly over the past few years and have become one of the most attractive areas for PV research. The cell structure includes a metal back contact (which can be made of Al, Au or Ag), a hole transfer layer (spiro - MeOTAD, P3HT, PTAA, CuSCN, CuI, or NiO), and absorber layer (CH NH PbIxBr - x, CH NH PbIxCl - x or CH NH PbI), an electron transport layer (TiO, ZnO, Al O or SnO) and a top contact layer (fluorine doped tin oxide or tin doped indium oxide).
There are a limited number of published studies to address the environmental impacts of perovskite solar cells. The major environmental concern is the lead used in the absorber layer. Due to the instability of perovskite cells lead may eventually be exposed to fresh water during the use phase. These LCA studies looked at human and ecotoxicity of perovskite solar cells and found they were surprisingly low and may not be an environmental issue. Global warming potential of perovskite PVs were found to be in the range of 24 -- 1500 grams CO-eq / kWh electricity production. Similarly, reported EPBT of the published paper range from 0.2 to 15 years. The large range of reported values highlight the uncertainties associated with these studies. Celik et al. (2016) critically discussed the assumptions made in perovskite PV LCA studies.
Two new promising thin film technologies are copper zinc tin sulfide (Cu ZnSnS or CZTS), zinc phosphide (Zn P) and single - walled carbon nano - tubes (SWCNT). These thin films are currently only produced in the lab but may be commercialized in the future. The manufacturing of CZTS and (Zn P) processes are expected to be similar to those of current thin film technologies of CIGS and CdTe, respectively. While the absorber layer of SWCNT PV is expected to be synthesized with CoMoCAT method. by Contrary to established thin films such as CIGS and CdTe, CZTS, Zn P, and SWCNT PVs are made from earth abundant, nontoxic materials and have the potential to produce more electricity annually than the current worldwide consumption. While CZTS and Zn P offer good promise for these reasons, the specific environmental implications of their commercial production are not yet known. Global warming potential of CZTS and Zn P were found 38 and 30 grams CO-eq / kWh while their corresponding EPBT were found 1.85 and 0.78 years, respectively. Overall, CdTe and Zn P have similar environmental impacts but can slightly outperform CIGS and CZTS. Celik et al. performed the first LCA study on environmental impacts of SWCNT PVs, including a laboratory - made 1 % efficient device and an aspirational 28 % efficient four - cell tandem device and interpreted the results by using mono - Si as a reference point. the results show that compared to monocrystalline Si (mono - Si), the environmental impacts from 1 % SWCNT was ∼ 18 times higher due mainly to the short lifetime of three years. However, even with the same short lifetime, the 28 % cell had lower environmental impacts than mono - Si.
Organic and polymer photovoltaic (OPV) are a relatively new area of research. The tradition OPV cell structure layers consist of a semi-transparent electrode, electron blocking layer, tunnel junction, holes blocking layer, electrode, with the sun hitting the transparent electrode. OPV replaces silver with carbon as an electrode material lowering manufacturing cost and making them more environmentally friendly. OPV are flexible, low weight, and work well with roll - to roll manufacturing for mass production. OPV uses "only abundant elements coupled to an extremely low embodied energy through very low processing temperatures using only ambient processing conditions on simple printing equipment enabling energy pay - back times ''. Current efficiencies range from 1 -- 6.5 %, however theoretical analyses show promise beyond 10 % efficiency.
Many different configurations of OPV exist using different materials for each layer. OPV technology rivals existing PV technologies in terms of EPBT even if they currently present a shorter operational lifetime. A 2013 study analyzed 12 different configurations all with 2 % efficiency, the EPBT ranged from 0.29 -- 0.52 years for 1 m2 of PV. The average CO-eq / kWh for OPV is 54.922 grams.
Source: Apricus
There have been major changes in the underlying costs, industry structure and market prices of solar photovoltaics technology, over the years, and gaining a coherent picture of the shifts occurring across the industry value chain globally is a challenge. This is due to: "the rapidity of cost and price changes, the complexity of the PV supply chain, which involves a large number of manufacturing processes, the balance of system (BOS) and installation costs associated with complete PV systems, the choice of different distribution channels, and differences between regional markets within which PV is being deployed ''. Further complexities result from the many different policy support initiatives that have been put in place to facilitate photovoltaics commercialisation in various countries.
The PV industry has seen dramatic drops in module prices since 2008. In late 2011, factory-gate prices for crystalline - silicon photovoltaic modules dropped below the $1.00 / W mark. The $1.00 / W installed cost, is often regarded in the PV industry as marking the achievement of grid parity for PV. Technological advancements, manufacturing process improvements, and industry re-structuring, mean that further price reductions are likely in coming years. As of 2017 power - purchase agreement prices for solar farms below $0.05 / kWh are common in the United States and the lowest bids in several international countries were about $0.03 / kWh.
Financial incentives for photovoltaics, such as feed - in tariffs, have often been offered to electricity consumers to install and operate solar - electric generating systems. Government has sometimes also offered incentives in order to encourage the PV industry to achieve the economies of scale needed to compete where the cost of PV - generated electricity is above the cost from the existing grid. Such policies are implemented to promote national or territorial energy independence, high tech job creation and reduction of carbon dioxide emissions which cause global warming. Due to economies of scale solar panels get less costly as people use and buy more -- as manufacturers increase production to meet demand, the cost and price is expected to drop in the years to come.
Solar cell efficiencies vary from 6 % for amorphous silicon - based solar cells to 44.0 % with multiple - junction concentrated photovoltaics. Solar cell energy conversion efficiencies for commercially available photovoltaics are around 14 -- 22 %. Concentrated photovoltaics (CPV) may reduce cost by concentrating up to 1,000 suns (through magnifying lens) onto a smaller sized photovoltaic cell. However, such concentrated solar power requires sophisticated heat sink designs, otherwise the photovoltaic cell overheats, which reduces its efficiency and life. To further exacerbate the concentrated cooling design, the heat sink must be passive, otherwise the power required for active cooling would reduce the overall efficiency and economy.
Crystalline silicon solar cell prices have fallen from $76.67 / Watt in 1977 to an estimated $0.74 / Watt in 2013. This is seen as evidence supporting Swanson 's law, an observation similar to the famous Moore 's Law that states that solar cell prices fall 20 % for every doubling of industry capacity.
As of 2011, the price of PV modules has fallen by 60 % since the summer of 2008, according to Bloomberg New Energy Finance estimates, putting solar power for the first time on a competitive footing with the retail price of electricity in a number of sunny countries; an alternative and consistent price decline figure of 75 % from 2007 to 2012 has also been published, though it is unclear whether these figures are specific to the United States or generally global. The levelised cost of electricity (LCOE) from PV is competitive with conventional electricity sources in an expanding list of geographic regions, particularly when the time of generation is included, as electricity is worth more during the day than at night. There has been fierce competition in the supply chain, and further improvements in the levelised cost of energy for solar lie ahead, posing a growing threat to the dominance of fossil fuel generation sources in the next few years. As time progresses, renewable energy technologies generally get cheaper, while fossil fuels generally get more expensive:
The less solar power costs, the more favorably it compares to conventional power, and the more attractive it becomes to utilities and energy users around the globe. Utility - scale solar power can now be delivered in California at prices well below $100 / MWh ($0.10 / kWh) less than most other peak generators, even those running on low - cost natural gas. Lower solar module costs also stimulate demand from consumer markets where the cost of solar compares very favorably to retail electric rates.
As of 2011, the cost of PV has fallen well below that of nuclear power and is set to fall further. The average retail price of solar cells as monitored by the Solarbuzz group fell from $3.50 / watt to $2.43 / watt over the course of 2011.
For large - scale installations, prices below $1.00 / watt were achieved. A module price of 0.60 Euro / watt ($0.78 / watt) was published for a large scale 5 - year deal in April 2012.
By the end of 2012, the "best in class '' module price had dropped to $0.50 / watt, and was expected to drop to $0.36 / watt by 2017.
In many locations, PV has reached grid parity, which is usually defined as PV production costs at or below retail electricity prices (though often still above the power station prices for coal or gas - fired generation without their distribution and other costs). However, in many countries there is still a need for more access to capital to develop PV projects. To solve this problem securitization has been proposed and used to accelerate development of solar photovoltaic projects. For example, SolarCity offered, the first U.S. asset - backed security in the solar industry in 2013.
Photovoltaic power is also generated during a time of day that is close to peak demand (precedes it) in electricity systems with high use of air conditioning. More generally, it is now evident that, given a carbon price of $50 / ton, which would raise the price of coal - fired power by 5c / kWh, solar PV will be cost - competitive in most locations. The declining price of PV has been reflected in rapidly growing installations, totaling about 23 GW in 2011. Although some consolidation is likely in 2012, due to support cuts in the large markets of Germany and Italy, strong growth seems likely to continue for the rest of the decade. Already, by one estimate, total investment in renewables for 2011 exceeded investment in carbon - based electricity generation.
In the case of self consumption payback time is calculated based on how much electricity is not brought from the grid. Additionally, using PV solar power to charge DC batteries, as used in Plug - in Hybrid Electric Vehicles and Electric Vehicles, leads to greater efficiencies. Traditionally, DC generated electricity from solar PV must be converted to AC for buildings, at an average 10 % loss during the conversion. An additional efficiency loss occurs in the transition back to DC for battery driven devices and vehicles, and using various interest rates and energy price changes were calculated to find present values that range from $2,057 to $8,213 (analysis from 2009).
For example, in Germany with electricity prices of 0.25 euro / kWh and Insolation of 900 kWh / kW one kW will save 225 euro per year and with installation cost of 1700 euro / kW means that the system will pay back in less than 7 years.
Overall the manufacturing process of creating solar photovoltaics is simple in that it does not require the culmination of many complex or moving parts. Because of the solid state nature of PV systems they often have relatively long lifetimes, anywhere from 10 to 30 years. In order to increase electrical output of a PV system the manufacturer must simply add more photovoltaic components and because of this economies of scale are important for manufacturers as costs decrease with increasing output.
While there are many types of PV systems known to be effective, crystalline silicon PV accounted for around 90 % of the worldwide production of PV in 2013. Manufacturing silicon PV systems has several steps. First, polysilicon is processed from mined quartz until it is very pure (semi-conductor grade). This is melted down when small amounts of Boron, a group III element, are added to make a p - type semiconductor rich in electron holes. Typically using a seed crystal, an ingot of this solution is grown from the liquid polycrystalline. The ingot may also be cast in a mold. Wafers of this semiconductor material are cut from the bulk material with wire saws, and then go through surface etching before being cleaned. Next, the wafers are placed into a phosphorus vapor deposition furnace which lays a very thin layer of phosphorus, a group V element, which creates an N - type semiconducting surface. To reduce energy losses an anti-reflective coating is added to the surface, along with electrical contacts. After finishing the cell, cells are connected via electrical circuit according to the specific application and prepared for shipping and installation.
Crystalline silicon photovoltaics are only one type of PV, and while they represent the majority of solar cells produced currently there are many new and promising technologies that have the potential to be scaled up to meet future energy needs.
Another newer technology, thin - film PV, are manufactured by depositing semiconducting layers on substrate in vacuum. The substrate is often glass or stainless - steel, and these semiconducting layers are made of many types of materials including cadmium telluride (CdTe), copper indium diselenide (CIS), copper indium gallium diselenide (CIGS), and amorphous silicon (a-Si). After being deposited onto the substrate the semiconducting layers are separated and connected by electrical circuit by laser - scribing. Thin - film photovoltaics now make up around 20 % of the overall production of PV because of the reduced materials requirements and cost to manufacture modules consisting of thin - films as compared to silicon - based wafers.
Other emerging PV technologies include organic, dye - sensitized, quantum - dot, and Perovskite photovoltaics. OPVs fall into the thin - film category of manufacturing, and typically operate around the 12 % efficiency range which is lower than the 12 -- 21 % typically seen by silicon based PVs. Because organic photovoltaics require very high purity and are relatively reactive they must be encapsulated which vastly increases cost of manufacturing and meaning that they are not feasible for large scale up. Dye - sensitized PVs are similar in efficiency to OPVs but are significantly easier to manufacture. However these dye - sensitized photovoltaics present storage problems because the liquid electrolyte is toxic and can potentially permeate the plastics used in the cell. Quantum dot solar cells are quantum dot sensitized DSSCs and are solution processed meaning they are potentially scalable, but currently they peak at 12 % efficiency. Perovskite solar cells are a very efficient solar energy converter and have excellent optoelectric properties for photovoltaic purposes, but they are expensive and difficult to manufacture.
A photovoltaic system, or solar PV system is a power system designed to supply usable solar power by means of photovoltaics. It consists of an arrangement of several components, including solar panels to absorb and directly convert sunlight into electricity, a solar inverter to change the electric current from DC to AC, as well as mounting, cabling and other electrical accessories. PV systems range from small, roof - top mounted or building - integrated systems with capacities from a few to several tens of kilowatts, to large utility - scale power stations of hundreds of megawatts. Nowadays, most PV systems are grid - connected, while stand - alone systems only account for a small portion of the market.
The 122 PW of sunlight reaching the Earth 's surface is plentiful -- almost 10,000 times more than the 13 TW equivalent of average power consumed in 2005 by humans. This abundance leads to the suggestion that it will not be long before solar energy will become the world 's primary energy source. Additionally, solar electric generation has the highest power density (global mean of 170 W / m) among renewable energies.
Solar power is pollution - free during use, which enables it to cut down on pollution when it is substituted for other energy sources. For example, MIT estimated that 52,000 people per year die prematurely in the U.S. from coal - fired power plant pollution and all but one of these deaths could be prevented from using PV to replace coal. Production end - wastes and emissions are manageable using existing pollution controls. End - of - use recycling technologies are under development and policies are being produced that encourage recycling from producers.
PV installations can operate for 100 years or even more with little maintenance or intervention after their initial set - up, so after the initial capital cost of building any solar power plant, operating costs are extremely low compared to existing power technologies.
Grid - connected solar electricity can be used locally thus reducing transmission / distribution losses (transmission losses in the US were approximately 7.2 % in 1995).
Compared to fossil and nuclear energy sources, very little research money has been invested in the development of solar cells, so there is considerable room for improvement. Nevertheless, experimental high efficiency solar cells already have efficiencies of over 40 % in case of concentrating photovoltaic cells and efficiencies are rapidly rising while mass - production costs are rapidly falling.
In some states of the United States, much of the investment in a home - mounted system may be lost if the home - owner moves and the buyer puts less value on the system than the seller. The city of Berkeley developed an innovative financing method to remove this limitation, by adding a tax assessment that is transferred with the home to pay for the solar panels. Now known as PACE, Property Assessed Clean Energy, 30 U.S. states have duplicated this solution.
There is evidence, at least in California, that the presence of a home - mounted solar system can actually increase the value of a home. According to a paper published in April 2011 by the Ernest Orlando Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory titled An Analysis of the Effects of Residential Photovoltaic Energy Systems on Home Sales Prices in California:
The research finds strong evidence that homes with PV systems in California have sold for a premium over comparable homes without PV systems. More specifically, estimates for average PV premiums range from approximately $3.9 to $6.4 per installed watt (DC) among a large number of different model specifications, with most models coalescing near $5.5 / watt. That value corresponds to a premium of approximately $17,000 for a relatively new 3,100 watt PV system (the average size of PV systems in the study).
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who plays captain hook once upon a time | Colin O'Donoghue - wikipedia
Colin Arthur O'Donoghue (born 26 January 1981) is an Irish actor and musician, best known for portraying Captain Killian "Hook '' Jones on the TV show Once Upon a Time. He appeared in the 2011 horror thriller film The Rite (2011) as a skeptical novice priest, Michael Kovak.
O'Donoghue, the son of Con and Mary O'Donoghue, was born and raised in Drogheda, County Louth, in a Roman Catholic family. He attended local schools, and later The Gaiety School of Acting in Dublin. At age 16, he went to Paris for a month to learn French.
O'Donoghue's early career was mainly split between theatre and television work in Ireland and the UK. In 2003, he won the Irish Film and Television Award for "Best New Talent '' for his role as Norman in "Home For Christmas ''.
In 2009, he appeared as Duke Philip of Bavaria in an episode of season 3 of the Showtime historical - fiction series The Tudors. He made his Hollywood film debut alongside Anthony Hopkins in the horror thriller film The Rite (2011). He made an audition video for The Rite in a friend 's home studio in Drogheda and sent it to the United States. He plays guitar and sings in a band called The Enemies, formed in 2003 in Ireland.
In 2012, O'Donoghue was cast as Captain Hook / Killian Jones in the second season of the hit ABC series Once Upon a Time. In 2014, O'Donoghue was cast as the main character in "The Dust Storm '', an independent film set in Nashville, Tennessee as a musician called "Brennan ''.
Christina Perri wrote a song, "The Words '', which she dedicated to Colin 's character (Captain Hook) in Once Upon a Time.
O'Donoghue was part of the five - piece Irish band, "The Enemies '', which was formed in 2003 by O'Donoghue and a close friend, Ronan McQuillan. The Enemies released their self - titled debut EP on 7 March 2011 prior to their self - funded first album on track. He played guitar and sang backing vocals on the band 's first EP and debut album.
Although the band was unsigned, it was commissioned by General Motors to record tracks for their "Chevy route 66 '' online campaign. The band worked on the music for Coca - Cola 's "5BY20 '' project. Their debut album Sounds Big on the Radio was to be released in March 2013, which was later scheduled for 2014. In May 2013, he announced he was leaving the band due to the filming schedule of Once Upon a Time.
For his role in Home for Christmas, he was awarded Best New Talent at the 1st Irish Film & Television Awards, held on 1 November 2003.
O'Donoghue married his wife Helen, a schoolteacher, in 2009, shortly after his appearance on The Tudors. The couple have been together since they were eighteen and have two children: a son and a daughter.
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when do you get a star on the walk of fame | Hollywood Walk of Fame - wikipedia
The Hollywood Walk of Fame comprises more than 2,600 five - pointed terrazzo and brass stars embedded in the sidewalks along 15 blocks of Hollywood Boulevard and three blocks of Vine Street in Hollywood, California. The stars are permanent public monuments to achievement in the entertainment industry, bearing the names of a mix of actors, musicians, directors, producers, musical and theatrical groups, fictional characters, and others. The Walk of Fame is administered by the Hollywood Chamber of Commerce and maintained by the self - financing Hollywood Historic Trust. It is a popular tourist destination, with a reported 10 million visitors in 2003.
The Walk of Fame runs 1.3 miles (2.1 km) east to west on Hollywood Boulevard from Gower Street to La Brea Avenue, plus a short segment of Marshfield Way that runs diagonally between Hollywood and La Brea; and 0.4 miles (0.64 km) north to south on Vine Street between Yucca Street and Sunset Boulevard. According to a 2003 report by the market research firm NPO Plog Research, the Walk attracts about 10 million visitors annually -- more than Sunset Strip, TCL Chinese Theatre (formerly Grauman 's), the Queen Mary, and the Los Angeles County Museum of Art -- and has played an important role in making tourism the largest industry in Los Angeles County.
As of 2017, the Walk of Fame comprises over 2,600 stars, spaced at 6 - foot (1.8 m) intervals. The monuments are coral - pink terrazzo five - point stars rimmed with brass (not bronze, an oft - repeated inaccuracy) inlaid into a charcoal - colored terrazzo background. In the upper portion of each star field the name of the honoree is inlaid in brass block letters. Below the inscription, in the lower half of the star field, a round inlaid brass emblem indicates the category of the honoree 's contributions. The emblems symbolize five categories within the entertainment industry:
Of all the stars on the Walk to date, 47 % have been awarded in the motion pictures category, 24 % in television, 17 % in audio recording, 10 % in radio, and less than 2 % in the live performance category. Approximately 20 new stars are added to the Walk each year.
Special category stars recognize various contributions by corporate entities, service organizations, and special honorees, and display emblems unique to those honorees. For example, former Los Angeles mayor Tom Bradley 's star displays the Seal of the City of Los Angeles; the Los Angeles Police Department (LAPD) star emblem is a replica of a Hollywood Division badge; and stars representing corporations, such as Victoria 's Secret and the Los Angeles Dodgers, display the honoree 's corporate logo. The "Friends of the Walk of Fame '' monuments are charcoal terrazzo squares rimmed by miniature pink terrazzo stars displaying the five standard category emblems, along with the sponsor 's corporate logo, with the sponsor 's name and contribution in inlaid brass block lettering. Special stars and Friends monuments are granted by the Hollywood Chamber of Commerce or the Hollywood Historic Trust, but are not part of the Walk of Fame proper and are located nearby on private property.
The monuments for the Apollo 11 mission to the Moon are uniquely shaped: Four identical circular moons, bearing the names of the three astronauts (Neil A. Armstrong, Edwin E. Aldrin Jr., Michael Collins) the date of the first Moon landing ("7 / 20 / 69 ''), and the words "Apollo XI '', are set on each of the four corners of the intersection of Hollywood and Vine. The moons are silver and grey terrazzo circles rimmed in brass on a square pink terrazzo background, with the television emblem inlaid at the top of each circle.
The Hollywood Chamber of Commerce credits E.M. Stuart, its volunteer president in 1953, with the original idea for creating a Walk of Fame. Stuart reportedly proposed the Walk as a means to "maintain the glory of a community whose name means glamor and excitement in the four corners of the world. '' Harry Sugarman, another Chamber member and president of the Hollywood Improvement Association, receives credit in an independent account. A committee was formed to flesh out the idea, and an architectural firm was retained to develop specific proposals. By 1955 the basic concept and general design had been agreed upon, and plans were submitted to the Los Angeles City Council.
Multiple accounts exist for the origin of the star concept. According to one, the historic Hollywood Hotel -- which stood for more than 50 years on Hollywood Boulevard at the site now occupied by the Hollywood and Highland complex and the Dolby (formerly Kodak) Theatre -- displayed stars on its dining room ceiling above the tables favored by its most famous celebrity patrons, and that may have served as an early inspiration. By another account, the stars were "inspired... by Sugarman 's (Tropics Restaurant) drinks menu, which featured celebrity photos framed in gold stars. ''
In February 1956 a prototype was unveiled featuring a caricature of an example honoree (John Wayne, by some accounts) inside a blue star on a brown background. However, caricatures proved too expensive and difficult to execute in brass with the technology available at the time; and the brown and blue motif was vetoed by Charles E. Toberman, the legendary real estate developer known as "Mr. Hollywood '', because the colors clashed with a new building he was erecting on Hollywood Boulevard.
By March 1956 the final design and coral - and - charcoal color scheme had been approved, and between the spring of 1956 and the fall of 1957, 1,558 honorees were selected by committees representing the four major branches of the entertainment industry at that time: motion pictures, television, audio recording, and radio. The committees met at the Brown Derby restaurant, and included such prominent names as Cecil B. DeMille, Samuel Goldwyn, Jesse L. Lasky, Walt Disney, Hal Roach, Mack Sennett, and Walter Lantz.
A requirement stipulated by the original audio recording committee (and later rescinded) specified minimum sales of one million records or 250,000 albums for all music category nominees. The committee soon realized that many important recording artists would be excluded from the Walk by that requirement. As a result, the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences was formed for the purpose of creating a separate award system for the music business. The first Grammy Awards were presented in Beverly Hills in 1959.
Construction of the Walk began in 1958 but two lawsuits delayed completion. The first was filed by local property owners challenging the legality of the $ 1.25 million tax assessment levied upon them to pay for the Walk, along with new street lighting and trees. In October 1959 the assessment was ruled legal. The second lawsuit, filed by Charles Chaplin, Jr., sought damages for the exclusion of his father, whose nomination had been withdrawn due to pressure from multiple quarters (see Controversial additions). Chaplin 's suit was dismissed in 1960, paving the way for completion of the project.
While Joanne Woodward is often singled out as the first to receive a star on the Walk of Fame, in fact there was no "first '' recipient; the original stars were installed as a continuous project, with no individual ceremonies. Woodward 's name was one of eight drawn at random from the original 1,558 and inscribed on eight prototype stars that were built while litigation was still holding up permanent construction. The eight prototypes were installed temporarily on the northwest corner of Hollywood Boulevard and Highland Avenue in August 1958 to generate publicity and to demonstrate how the Walk would eventually look. The other seven names were Olive Borden, Ronald Colman, Louise Fazenda, Preston Foster, Burt Lancaster, Edward Sedgwick, and Ernest Torrence. Official groundbreaking took place on February 8, 1960. On March 28, 1960, the first permanent star, director Stanley Kramer 's, was completed on the easternmost end of the new Walk near the intersection of Hollywood and Gower. The Joanne Woodward legend may have originated, according to one source, because she was the first to pose with her star for photographers.
Though the Walk was originally conceived in part to encourage redevelopment of Hollywood Boulevard, the 1960s and 1970s were periods of protracted urban decay in the Hollywood area as residents moved to suburbs. After the initial installation of approximately 1,500 stars in 1960 and 1961, eight years passed without the addition of a new star. In 1962 the Los Angeles City Council passed an ordinance naming the Hollywood Chamber of Commerce "the agent to advise the City '' about adding names to the Walk, and the Chamber, over the following six years, devised rules, procedures, and financing methods to do so. In December 1968, Richard D. Zanuck was awarded the first star in eight years in a presentation ceremony hosted by Danny Thomas. In July 1978 the City of Los Angeles designated the Hollywood Walk of Fame a Los Angeles Historic - Cultural Monument.
Radio personality, television producer and Chamber member Johnny Grant is generally credited with implementing the changes that resuscitated the Walk and established it as a significant tourist attraction. Beginning in 1968, he stimulated publicity and encouraged international press coverage by requiring that each recipient personally attend his or her star 's unveiling ceremony. Grant later recalled that "it was tough to get people to come accept a star '' until the neighborhood finally began its recovery in the 1980s. In 1980 he instituted a fee of $2,500, payable by the person or entity nominating the recipient, to fund the Walk of Fame 's upkeep and minimize further taxpayer burden. The fee has increased incrementally over time; by 2002 it had reached $15,000, and stood at $30,000 in 2012. The current (2017) fee is $40,000.
Grant was awarded a star in 1980 for his television work. In 2002, he received a second star in the "special '' category to acknowledge his pivotal role in improving and popularizing the Walk. He was also named chairman of the Selection Committee and Honorary Mayor of Hollywood (a ceremonial position previously held by Art Linkletter and Monty Hall, among others). He remained in both offices from 1980 until his death in 2008 and hosted the great majority of unveiling ceremonies during that period. His unique special - category star, with its emblem depicting a stylized "Great Seal of the City of Hollywood '', is located at the entrance to the Dolby Theatre adjacent to Johnny Grant Way.
In 1984 a fifth category, Live Theatre, was added to permit acknowledgment of contributions from the live performance branch of the entertainment industry, and a second row of stars was created on each sidewalk to alternate with the existing stars.
In 1994 the Walk of Fame was extended one block to the west on Hollywood Boulevard, from Sycamore Avenue to North LaBrea Avenue (plus the short segment of Marshfield Way that connects Hollywood and La Brea), where it now ends at the silver "Four Ladies of Hollywood '' gazebo and the special "Walk of Fame '' star. At the same time, Sophia Loren was honored with the 2,000 th star on the Walk.
During construction of tunnels for the Los Angeles subway system in 1996 the Metropolitan Transportation Authority removed and stored more than 300 stars. Controversy arose when the MTA proposed a money - saving measure of jackhammering the 3 - by - 3 - foot terrazzo pads, preserving only the brass lettering, surrounds, and medallions, then pouring new terrazzo after the tunnels were completed; but the Cultural Heritage Commission ruled that the star pads were to be removed intact.
In 2008 a long - term restoration project began with an evaluation of all 2,365 stars on the Walk at the time, each receiving a letter grade of A, B, C, D, or F. Honorees whose stars received F grades, indicating the most severe damage, were Joan Collins, Peter Frampton, Dick Van Patten, Paul Douglas, Andrew L. Stone, Willard Waterman, Richard Boleslavsky, Ellen Drew, Frank Crumit, and Bobby Sherwood. Fifty celebrities ' stars received "D '' grades. The damage ranged from minor cosmetic flaws caused by normal weathering to holes and fissures severe enough to constitute a walking hazard. At least 778 stars will eventually be repaired or replaced during the ongoing project at an estimated cost of $4 million to $4.2 million.
The restoration is a collaboration among the Hollywood Chamber of Commerce and various Los Angeles city and county governmental offices, along with the MTA, which operates the Metro Red Line that runs beneath the Walk, since earth movement due to the presence of the subway line is thought to be partly responsible for the damage.
To encourage supplemental funding for the project by corporate sponsors, the "Friends of Walk of Fame '' program was inaugurated. Absolut Vodka became the first Friend with a donation of $1 million, followed by L'Oréal. Friends are recognized with honorary plaques adjacent to the Walk of Fame in front of the Dolby Theatre. The program received some criticism. Alana Semuels of the Los Angeles Times described it as "just the latest corporate attempt to buy some good buzz, '' and, quoting an area brand strategist, "I think Johnny Grant would roll over in his grave. '' Karen Fondu, President of L'Oréal Paris, countered that the association was "a natural affinity. ''
The original selection committees chose to recognize some entertainers ' contributions in multiple categories with multiple stars. Gene Autry is the only honoree with stars in all five categories. Bob Hope, Mickey Rooney, Roy Rogers, and Tony Martin each have stars in four categories -- Rooney has three of his own and a fourth with his eighth and final wife, Jan, while Rogers also has three of his own, and a fourth with his band, Sons of the Pioneers. Thirty - three people, including Bing Crosby, Frank Sinatra, Dean Martin, Dinah Shore, Gale Storm, Danny Kaye, Douglas Fairbanks Jr., and Jack Benny, have stars in three categories.
Seven recording artists have two stars in the same category for distinct achievements: Michael Jackson, as a soloist and as a member of The Jackson 5; Diana Ross, as a member of The Supremes and for her solo work; Smokey Robinson, as a solo artist and as a member of The Miracles; and John Lennon, Ringo Starr, George Harrison, and Paul McCartney as individuals and as members of The Beatles. Cher forfeited her opportunity by declining to schedule the mandatory personal appearance when she was selected in 1983. She did attend the unveiling of the Sonny & Cher star in 1998 as a tribute to her recently deceased ex-husband, Sonny Bono.
George Eastman is the only honoree with two stars in the same category for the same achievement, the invention of roll film.
In 1977, Country Singer Loretta Lynn was the first of her genre to receive a star on the Walk of Fame.
Charlie Chaplin is the only honoree to be selected twice for the same star on the Walk. He was unanimously voted into the initial group of 500 in 1956 but the Selection Committee ultimately excluded him, ostensibly due to questions regarding his morals (he had been charged with violating the Mann Act -- and exonerated -- during the White Slavery hysteria of the 1940s), but more likely due to his left - leaning political views. The rebuke prompted an unsuccessful lawsuit by his son, Charles Chaplin Jr. His star was finally added to the Walk in 1972, the same year he received his Academy Award; but even then, 16 years later, the Chamber of Commerce received angry letters from across the country protesting its decision to include him.
The committee 's Chaplin difficulties reportedly contributed to its decision in 1978 against awarding a star to Paul Robeson, the brilliant but controversial opera singer, actor, athlete, writer, lawyer, and social activist. The resulting outcry from the entertainment industry, civic circles, local and national politicians, and many other quarters was so intense that the decision was reversed and Robeson was awarded a star in 1979.
Two pairs of stars share identical names representing different people. There are two Harrison Ford stars, honoring the silent film actor (at 6665 Hollywood Boulevard), and the present - day actor (in front of the Dolby Theatre at 6801 Hollywood Boulevard). Two Michael Jackson stars represent the singer / dancer / songwriter (at 6927 Hollywood Boulevard), and the radio personality (at 1597 Vine Street). When the recording artist Jackson died in 2009, fans mistakenly began leaving flowers, candles, and other tributes at the Vine Street star. Upon learning of this, the radio host wrote on his website, "I am willingly loan (ing) it to him and, if it would bring him back, he can have it. ''
The most common surname, with sixteen stars, is Williams: Andy Williams, Bill Williams, Billy Dee Williams, Cindy Williams, Earle Williams, Esther Williams, Guy Williams, Hank Williams, Joe Williams, Kathlyn Williams, Paul Williams, Pharrell Williams, Robin Williams, Roger Williams, Tex Williams and Vanessa Williams. There are fourteen stars with the surname Moore, twelve with Jones, and seven with Smith.
The largest collection of stars honoring one group of blood relatives is the widely scattered set of seven representing the Barrymore family: John Barrymore, his brother Lionel (who has two), and sister Ethel, their uncle Sidney Drew, John 's son John Drew Barrymore, and John Drew 's daughter Drew Barrymore.
Walk of Fame rules prohibit consideration of nominees whose contributions fall outside the five major entertainment categories, but the selection committee has been known to conjure some interesting rule interpretations to justify a selection. The Walk 's four round Moon landing monuments at the corners of Hollywood and Vine, for example, officially recognize the Apollo 11 astronauts for "contributions to the television industry ''. Johnny Grant acknowledged, in 2005, that classifying the first Moon landing as a television entertainment event was "a bit of a stretch ''. Magic Johnson 's considerable basketball skills had no direct connection to movies, music, TV, radio, or theater, but the committee added him to the motion picture category, based on his ownership of the Magic Johnson Theatre chain, citing as precedent Sid Grauman, builder of Grauman 's (now TCL) Chinese Theatre. "(Now) people want Orville Redenbacher, '' Grant quipped in the 2005 interview, "because his popcorn is in all the theaters. ''
Muhammad Ali 's star was granted after the committee decided that boxing could be considered a form of "live performance ''. Its placement, on a wall of the Dolby Theatre, makes it the only star mounted on a vertical surface, acceding to Ali 's request that his name not be walked upon.
All living honorees have been required since 1968 to personally attend their star 's unveiling, and approximately 40 have declined the honor due to this condition. The only recipient to date who failed to appear after agreeing to do so was Barbra Streisand, in 1976. Her star was unveiled anyway, near the intersection of Hollywood and Highland. Streisand did attend when her husband, James Brolin, unveiled his star in 1998 two blocks to the east.
Fourteen stars are identified with a one - word stage name, including Parkyakarkus, the principal pseudonym of Harry Einstein, the comedian and radio personality (and father of Albert Brooks and Bob Einstein). The other 13 are Cantinflas, Houdini, Liberace, Mako, Meiklejohn, Paderewski, Roseanne, Sabu, Shakira, Slash, Sting, Thalía, and Usher.
The largest group of individuals represented by a single star is the estimated 122 adults and 12 children collectively known as the Munchkins, from the landmark 1939 film The Wizard of Oz.
Clayton Moore is so inextricably linked with his Lone Ranger character, even though he played other roles during his career, that he is one of only two actors to have his character 's name alongside his own on his star. The other is Tommy Riggs, whose star reads, "Tommy Riggs & Betty Lou. ''
For more than 40 years, singer Jimmy Boyd was the youngest star recipient at age 20, but he lost that distinction in 2004 to 18 - year - old twins Mary - Kate and Ashley Olsen. Their joint star (the only one shared by twins) is outside the Dolby Theatre, near the Hollywood and Highland Center.
The Westmores received the first star honoring contributions in theatrical make - up. Other make - up artists on the walk are Max Factor, John Chambers and Rick Baker. Three stars recognize experts in special effects: Ray Harryhausen, Dennis Muren, and Stan Winston. Only one costume designer has received a star, eight - time Academy Award winner Edith Head.
Sidney Sheldon is one of two novelists with a star, which he earned for writing screenplays such as The Bachelor and the Bobby - Soxer before turning to novels. The other is Ray Bradbury, whose books and stories have formed the basis of dozens of movies and television programs over a nearly 60 - year period.
Ten inventors have stars on the Walk: George Eastman (as mentioned); Thomas Edison, inventor of the first true film projector and holder of numerous patents related to motion - picture technology; Lee de Forest, inventor of the vacuum tube, which made radio and TV possible, and Phonofilm, which made sound movies possible; Merian C. Cooper, co-inventor of the Cinerama process; Herbert Kalmus, inventor of Technicolor; Auguste and Louis Lumière, inventors of important components of the motion picture camera; Mark Serrurier, inventor of the technology used for film editing; Hedy Lamarr, co-inventor of a frequency - hopping radio guidance system that was a precursor to Wi - Fi networks and cellular telephone systems; and Ray Dolby, co-developer of the video tape recorder and inventor of the Dolby noise reduction system.
A few star recipients moved on after their entertainment careers to political notability. Two US presidents, Ronald Reagan and Donald Trump, have stars on the Walk. Reagan is also one of two Governors of California with a star; the other is Arnold Schwarzenegger. One U.S. senator (George Murphy) and two members of the U.S. House of Representatives (Helen Gahagan and Sonny Bono) have stars. Ignacy Paderewski, who served as Prime Minister of Poland between the World Wars, is the only European head of government represented. Film and stage actor Albert Dekker served one term in the California State Assembly during the 1940s, which was notable for his outspoken public criticism of Senator Joseph McCarthy 's anti-communism demagoguery, leading to his blacklisting.
In 1978, in honor of his 50th anniversary, Mickey Mouse became the first animated character to receive a star. Other animated recipients are Bugs Bunny, Donald Duck, Woody Woodpecker, Snow White, Tinker Bell, Winnie - the - Pooh, Shrek, The Simpsons, the Rugrats, and Snoopy. The star inscribed Charlie Tuna honors not the animated advertising mascot, but Art Ferguson, the long - time radio personality and game show announcer.
Other fictional characters on the Walk include the Munchkins (as mentioned), two individual Muppets (Kermit the Frog and Big Bird) and the Muppets as a group, one monster (Godzilla), and three non-animated canine characters (Strongheart, Lassie, and Rin Tin Tin).
Ten stars recognize cartoonists and animators: Walt Disney, Chuck Jones, Friz Freleng, Walter Lantz, Hanna -- Barbera, Charles M. Schulz, Jay Ward, Dr. Seuss, Matt Groening and John Lasseter. Two puppeteers have stars: Jim Henson and Shari Lewis, as does Fran Allison, who appeared with Burr Tillstrom 's puppets on the TV show Kukla, Fran and Ollie.
Locations of individual stars are not necessarily random or arbitrary. Stars of most legendary and world - famous celebrities -- the so - called "show business royalty '' -- are found in front of TCL (formerly Grauman 's) Chinese Theatre. Oscar winners ' stars are usually placed near the Dolby Theatre, site of the annual Academy Awards presentations. Decisions are occasionally made with a dollop of whimsy: Mike Myers 's star, for example, lies in front of an adult store called the International Love Boutique, an association with his Austin Powers roles; Roger Moore 's star is located at 7007 Hollywood Boulevard in recognition of his seven James Bond films; Ed O'Neill 's star is located outside a shoe store in reference to his character 's occupation on the TV show Married... with Children; and the last star, at the very end of the westernmost portion of the Walk, belongs to The Dead End Kids.
Honorees may request a specific location for their star, although final decisions remain with the Chamber. Jay Leno, for example, requested a spot near the corner of Hollywood Blvd. and Highland Ave. because he was twice picked up at that location by police for vagrancy (though never actually charged) shortly after his arrival in Hollywood. George Carlin chose to have his star placed in front of the KDAY radio station near the corner of Sunset Blvd. and Vine St., where he first gained national recognition. Carol Burnett explained her choice in her 1986 memoir: While working as an usherette at the historic Warner Brothers Theatre (now the Hollywood Pacific Theatre) during the 1951 run of Alfred Hitchcock 's film Strangers on a Train, she took it upon herself to advise a couple arriving during the final few minutes of a showing to wait for the next showing, to avoid seeing (and spoiling) the ending. The theater manager fired her on the spot for "insubordination '' and humiliated her by stripping the epaulets from her uniform in the theater lobby. Twenty - six years later, at her request, Burnett 's star was placed at the corner of Hollywood and Wilcox -- in front of the theater.
In 2010 Julia Louis - Dreyfus 's star was constructed with the name "Julia Luis Dreyfus ''. The actress was reportedly amused, and the error was corrected. A similar mistake was made on Dick Van Dyke 's star in 1993 ("Vandyke ''), and rectified.
Film and television actor Don Haggerty 's star originally displayed the first name "Dan ''. The mistake was fixed, but years later the television actor Dan Haggerty (of Grizzly Adams fame, no relation to Don) also received a star. The confusion eventually sprouted an urban legend that Dan Haggerty was the only honoree to have a star removed from the Walk of Fame.
For 28 years, the star intended to honor Mauritz Stiller, the Helsinki - born pioneer of Swedish film who brought Greta Garbo to the United States, read "Maurice Diller '', possibly due to mis - transcription of verbal dictation. The star was finally remade with the correct name in 1988.
Three stars remain misspelled: opera diva Lotte Lehmann 's first name is spelled "Lottie ''; Cinerama co-inventor and King Kong creator, director, and producer Merian C. Cooper 's first name is spelled "Meriam ''; and cinematography pioneer Auguste Lumière 's first name is listed as "August ''.
Monty Woolley, the veteran film and stage actor best known for The Man Who Came to Dinner (1942) and the classic line "Time flies when you 're having fun '', is officially listed in the motion picture category, but his star on the Walk of Fame bears the television emblem. Woolley did appear on the small screen late in his career, but his TV contributions were eclipsed by his extensive stage, film, and radio work. Similarly, the star of film actress Carmen Miranda bears the TV emblem, although her official category is motion pictures. Radio and television talk show host Larry King is officially a television honoree, but his star displays a film camera.
The Los Angeles Times, which documented and photographed the Walk as part of its Hollywood Star Walk project, reported that it could not find two stars, honoring Richard Crooks and the film career of Geraldine Farrar. (Farrar 's music star is located on the 1700 block of Vine Street.)
Acts of vandalism occur on the Walk on a regular basis, ranging from profanity and political statements written on stars with markers to attempted removal of brass emblems with chisels. Closed circuit surveillance cameras have been installed on the stretch of Hollywood Boulevard between La Brea Avenue and Vine Street in an effort to discourage mischievous activities.
Four of the stars, which weigh about 300 pounds (140 kg) each, have been stolen from the Walk of Fame. In 2000, James Stewart 's and Kirk Douglas 's stars disappeared from their locations near the intersection of Hollywood and Vine, where they had been temporarily removed for a construction project. Police recovered them in the suburban community of South Gate when they arrested a man involved in an incident there and searched his house. The suspect was a construction worker employed on the Hollywood and Vine project. The stars had been badly damaged, and had to be remade. One of Gene Autry 's five stars (it is not clear which one) was also stolen from a construction area. Johnny Grant later received an anonymous phone tip that the missing star was in Iowa, but it was never found. "Someday, it will end up on eBay, '' Grant once joked. The most brazen and ambitious theft occurred in 2005 when thieves used a concrete saw to remove Gregory Peck 's star from its Hollywood Boulevard site at the intersection of North El Centro Avenue, near North Gower. The star was replaced almost immediately, but the original was never recovered and the perpetrators never caught.
In late 2009, rumors circulated widely on media outlets and the Internet that John Lennon 's star had been stolen, but it was merely being relocated farther south on Vine Street to an area near the circular Capitol Records Building, adjacent to the stars of bandmates George Harrison and Ringo Starr. Paul McCartney 's star was installed in the same location in 2012.
Donald Trump 's star -- received as host of The Apprentice television series -- was repeatedly defaced during the 2016 presidential campaign. In late October, near the end of the race, a man named Jamie Otis (who claimed to be an heir to the Otis Elevator fortune) used a sledge hammer and a pickaxe to destroy all of the star 's brass inlays. He readily admitted to the vandalism, which he described as "civil disobedience '' and "freedom of expression '', and told reporters that he originally planned to remove the entire star and auction it to raise money for the women who accused Trump of sexually assaulting them. Otis was arrested three weeks after the incident, charged with one count of felony vandalism, and sentenced to three years ' probation plus $3400 in restitution payments. The star itself was repaired, and has since been the site of pro-Trump demonstrations.
The Four Ladies of Hollywood gazebo -- known officially as the Hollywood and La Brea Gateway -- stands upon a small triangular island formed by the confluence of Hollywood Boulevard, Marshfield Way, and North La Brea Avenue at the westernmost extension of the Walk of Fame. It was commissioned in 1993 by the Los Angeles Community Redevelopment Agency Art Program and created by the architect, production designer, and film director Catherine Hardwicke as a tribute to the multi-ethnic women of Hollywood. The gazebo is a stainless steel stylized Art Deco lattice structure. The roof is an arched square supporting a circular dome, which is topped by a central obelisk with descending neon block letters spelling "Hollywood '' on each of its four sides. Atop the obelisk is a small gilded weathervane - style sculpture of Marilyn Monroe in her iconic billowing skirt pose from The Seven Year Itch. The domed structure is held aloft by four caryatids sculpted by Harl West to represent the African - American actress Dorothy Dandridge, Asian - American actress Anna May Wong, Mexican actress Dolores del Río, and the multi-ethnic, Brooklyn - born actress Mae West.
The gazebo was dedicated on February 1, 1994, to a mixed reception. Los Angeles Times art critic Christopher Knight called it "the most depressingly awful work of public art in recent years '', representing the opposite of Hardwicke 's intended tribute to women. "Sex, as a woman 's historic gateway to Hollywood '', he wrote, "could n't be more explicitly described ''. Independent writer and film producer Gail Choice called it a fitting tribute to a group of pioneering and courageous women who "carried a tremendous burden on their feminine shoulders. Never in my wildest dreams did I believe I 'd ever see women of color immortalized in such a creative and wonderful fashion. '' Hardwicke contended that critics had missed the "humor and symbolism '' of the structure, which "embraces and pokes fun at the glamour, the polished metallic male form of the Oscar, and the pastiche of styles and dreams that pervades Tinseltown. ''
Each year an average of 200 nominations are submitted to the Hollywood Chamber of Commerce Walk of Fame Selection Committee. Anyone, including fans, can nominate anyone active in the field of entertainment as long as the nominee or his or her management approves the nomination (a letter of agreement from the nominated celebrity or representative must accompany the application). Nominees must have a minimum of five years ' experience in the category for which they are nominated and a history of "charitable contributions ''. Posthumous nominees must have been deceased at least five years. At a meeting each June, the committee selects approximately 20 celebrities to receive stars on the Walk of Fame during the following year. One posthumous award is given each year as well. The nominations of those not selected are rolled over to the following year for reconsideration; those not selected two years in a row are dropped, and must be renominated to receive further consideration. Living recipients must agree to personally attend a presentation ceremony within five years of selection. A relative of deceased recipients must attend posthumous presentations. Presentation ceremonies are open to the public.
A fee (currently $40,000), payable at time of selection, is collected to pay for the creation and installation of the star, as well as general maintenance of the Walk of Fame. The fee is usually paid by the nominating organization, which may be a fan club, or a film studio, record company, broadcaster, or other sponsor involved with the prospective honoree. The Starz cable network, for example, paid for Dennis Hopper 's star as part of the promotion for its series Crash. It was unveiled in March 2010 shortly before Hopper 's death.
Numerous major entertainment figures and legendary show business acts are not included on the Walk of Fame for a variety of reasons. Some, such as Julia Roberts and Clint Eastwood, have declined to participate; nominations can not proceed without the nominee 's consent. Others, such as George Clooney and John Denver, were nominated but would not agree to the mandatory personal appearance at the unveiling ceremony. (Denver received a posthumous star in 2014.) Others have simply never been nominated, or do not have a nominator willing or able to pay the selection fee, or have less than the required five years ' minimum involvement in their designated field. Others are merely victims of selection constraints and probability; only about 10 % of nominees are selected each year.
Traditionally, the identities of selection committee members, other than its chairman, have not been made public in order to minimize conflicts of interest and to discourage lobbying by celebrities and their representatives (a significant problem during the original selections in the late 1950s). However, in 1999, in response to intensifying charges of secrecy in the selection process, the Chamber disclosed the members ' names: Johnny Grant, the longtime chair and representative of the television category; Earl Lestz, president of Paramount Studio Group (motion pictures); Stan Spero, retired manager with broadcast stations KMPC and KABC (radio); Kate Nelson, owner of the Palace Theatre (live performance); and Mary Lou Dudas, vice president of A&M Records (recording industry). Since that 1999 announcement the Chamber has revealed only that Lestz (who received his own star in 2004) became chairman after Grant died in 2008. Their current official position is that "each of the five categories is represented by someone with expertise in that field ''.
In 2010, Lestz was replaced as chairman by John Pavlik, former Director of Communications for the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences. While no public announcement was made to that effect, he was identified as chairman in the Chamber 's press release announcing the 2011 star recipients. The current chair, according to the Chamber 's 2016 selection announcement, is film producer Maureen Schultz.
Some fans show respect for star recipients both living and dead by laying flowers or other symbolic tributes at their stars. Others show their support in other ways; the star awarded to Julio Iglesias, for example, is kept in "pristine condition (by) a devoted band of elderly women (who) scrub and polish it once a month ''.
The Hollywood Chamber of Commerce has adopted the tradition of placing flower wreaths at the stars of newly deceased awardees; for example Bette Davis in 1989, Katharine Hepburn in 2003, and Jackie Cooper in 2011. The stars of other deceased celebrities, such as Elizabeth Taylor, Richard Pryor, Ricardo Montalbán, James Doohan, Frank Sinatra, Robin Williams, Joan Rivers and George Harrison have become impromptu memorial and vigil sites as well, and some continue to receive anniversary remembrances.
Route map: Google
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how long is the movie jumanji part 2 | Jumanji: Welcome to the Jungle - wikipedia
Jumanji: Welcome to the Jungle is a 2017 American adventure comedy film directed by Jake Kasdan and written by Chris McKenna, Erik Sommers, Scott Rosenberg, and Jeff Pinkner based on a story by McKenna. Part of the Jumanji franchise, the film is a sequel to Jumanji (1995, based on the 1981 children 's book of the same name by Chris Van Allsburg). It pays tribute to Robin Williams, star of the first film, by mentioning his character 's name. In addition, a replica of the board game piece used by Williams ' character also appears as a clue for the Jumanji game 's new players. The film stars Dwayne Johnson, Jack Black, Kevin Hart, Karen Gillan, Nick Jonas, and Bobby Cannavale. Set twenty - one years after Jumanji, it follows four teenagers who are transported into the video game world of Jumanji and play as their chosen characters. Joining another player, they must overcome the game 's magical power to win and return home.
Principal photography began in Honolulu in September 2016 and ended in Atlanta in December. Jumanji: Welcome to the Jungle premiered at the Grand Rex in Paris on December 5, 2017, and was theatrically released in the United States on December 20 in RealD 3D and IMAX. The film received generally positive reviews from critics, who called it a "pleasant surprise '' and praised the cast. It has grossed over $955 million worldwide, the fifth - highest - grossing film of 2017 and the 42nd - highest - grossing film of all time.
In 1996 in Brantford, New Hampshire, teenager Alex Vreeke receives the Jumanji board game which was found by his father on a beach after it was thrown over a bridge by Alan Parrish and Sarah Whittle 27 years earlier. Alex sets the game aside. That night, it transforms into a video game cartridge which catches Alex 's attention when he is awakened by the Jumanji drums and he is transported into the game.
Twenty years later, in 2016, four Brantford High School students serve detention: Spencer Gilpin, caught writing an essay for former friend Anthony "Fridge '' Johnson (also in detention); Bethany Walker, who made a video call during an English - class quiz and Martha Kaply, who refused to participate in gym class. They are sent to the school basement to prepare magazines for recycling and to think about their future. Fridge discovers Alex 's discarded video - game system when he explores the basement, and he and Spencer set up the game. Although it has five playable characters, the first one can not be selected. Spencer and Fridge choose two characters, and the girls choose their own. When Spencer presses "Start '', they are transported into the game.
They are in a jungle, in the forms of their game avatars. Spencer is tough, muscular explorer and archaeologist Smolder Bravestone; Fridge is diminutive zoologist Franklin "Mouse '' Finbar, whom he chose after misreading "Mouse '' as "Moose ''; Bethany is chubby male cartographer and intellectual Sheldon "Shelly '' Oberon (whose nickname she mistook for a woman 's), and Martha is beautiful commando and martial arts expert Ruby Roundhouse. They each have three lives; Spencer deduces that if they lose all three, they really die.
They learn the game 's story from NPC Nigel: corrupt archeologist Russel Van Pelt stole the Jaguar 's Eye (a magic jewel) from its shrine, cursing Jumanji. Nigel escaped Van Pelt with the jewel, and the players must return it to a jaguar statue and call "Jumanji '' to lift the curse. Nigel warns them that Van Pelt will stop at nothing to retrieve the jewel, which gives him control of Jumanji 's animals. They begin tackling the game 's increasingly - difficult "levels '', losing lives as they do so. The four are rescued by Alex (the missing fifth player, whose avatar is pilot Jefferson "Seaplane '' McDonough). Taking shelter in a jungle house built by Alan Parrish, Alex believes that he has been in the game for a few months and is distressed to learn that it is really twenty years. The newcomers vow to help him return home. They break into a transportation shed, commandeering a helicopter to fly to the jaguar statue and return the jewel, but Fridge drops the jewel into a herd of white rhinoceros. Spencer uses one of Fridge 's lives, pushing him out of the helicopter as a distraction, and retrieves the jewel. Alex loses his last life when a mosquito bites him, but Bethany performs CPR and transfers one of her lives to him.
At the statue, the players are surrounded by a pack of jaguars and Van Pelt 's forces. They outmaneuver their opposition while Spencer and Martha race to the statue. Van Pelt confronts Martha (trapped in a pit of mambas) and demands the jewel, but she sacrifices one of her lives to re-spawn and get it to Spencer. With the players on their last lives, they end the game with Van Pelt disintegrating into a bunch of rats and return to the real world; Nigel bids them farewell, but Alex does not appear with them. They find the formerly - dilapidated Vreeke home restored and decorated for a Christmas family gathering. An adult Alex arrives, returning to where he left off in 1996. Now married with children, he named his eldest daughter after Bethany out of gratitude for saving his life and introduces them to his infant son, Andy.
Spencer and Fridge reconcile, Bethany begins caring for others than herself and plans a summer backpacking adventure, Martha and Spencer become romantically involved and the four are now friends after their experiences in the game. When they hear Jumanji 's drumbeats, they bring the game behind the school and Fridge destroys it with a bowling ball (also found in detention) to prevent anyone from playing it again.
In July 2012, rumors circulated that a remake of Jumanji was in development. In an interview with The Hollywood Reporter, Columbia Pictures president Doug Belgrad said: "We 're going to try and reimagine Jumanji and update it for the present. '' On August 1, 2012, it was confirmed that Matthew Tolmach would produce the new version with William Teitler (who produced the original film).
In August 2015, Sony Pictures Entertainment announced that the film was scheduled for release on December 25, 2016. Online reception to the news was negative, with some saying that the announcement came too soon after the August 2014 death of Robin Williams (who played Alan Parrish in the original film). The announcement was criticized by Bradley Pierce (who played Peter Shepherd in Jumanji) and by E! News, which called the remake "unnecessary and kind of insulting ''. On October 23, 2015 Scott Rosenberg was hired to rewrite the script for the film, whose production was a high priority for the studio. On January 14, 2016, Deadline Hollywood reported that Jake Kasdan had been hired to direct the film from a script by Rosenberg and Jeff Pinkner based on a draft by original writers Chris McKenna and Erik Sommers.
On April 15, Variety reported that Dwayne Johnson and Kevin Hart were in early talks to star in the film (although both actors had other projects). Later in the month, Johnson confirmed his casting on Instagram. In July, it was reported that Nick Jonas had joined the film 's cast with Johnson, Hart, and Jack Black. The following month, Johnson said that the film would not be a reboot but a continuation of the 1995 film; Karen Gillan was announced as part of the cast. On September 20, Ser'Darius Blain was cast as Anthony "Fridge '' Johnson and Madison Iseman as Bethany Walker. Two days later, Rhys Darby was cast as Nigel Billingsley, Morgan Turner as Martha Kaply, and Alex Wolff as Spencer Gilpin. In November 2016, Bobby Cannavale announced his casting in the film, and in December 2016, Tim Matheson joined the cast as Old Man Vreeke. Although James Newton Howard was originally signed to compose the film 's score, he was replaced by Henry Jackman when the film 's release date was postponed six months.
In March 2017, during CinemaCon, it was announced that the film 's complete title was Jumanji: Welcome to the Jungle. Its plot involved teenagers cleaning out a school 's basement who find a vintage video - game version of Jumanji and are sucked into the first film 's jungle setting. Although fans debated whether the film was a sequel or a reboot, the second trailer (released on September 20, 2017) indicated that the sequel is set twenty - one years after the first.
Principal photography began on September 19, 2016, in Honolulu, Hawaii, primarily at the Kualoa Ranch nature reserve. The film wrapped on December 8 in Atlanta, Georgia.
In August 2015, Sony gave the film a release date of December 25, 2016. Since filming did not begin until September 2016, the release was pushed back to July 28 and then to December 20, 2017.
On November 29, 2017, it was announced that Amazon Prime members in the United States would have early access to tickets for a December 8 screening of the film at select Regal, National Amusements, ArcLight Cinemas and AMC theaters. The screenings sold out at 1,200 theaters and earned $1.9 million. The film was released on IMAX 2D on January 12, 2018.
Jumanji: Welcome to the Jungle was released on Digital HD on March 6, 2018 and on DVD, Blu - ray and 4K Ultra HD Blu - ray on March 20, although the film was still in theatres. The Blu - ray and digital versions include two additional featurettes: "Surviving the Jungle: Spectacular Stunts! '' and "Book to Board Game to Big Screen & Beyond! Celebrating The Legacy of Jumanji. ''
As of April 15, 2018, Jumanji: Welcome to the Jungle has grossed $404 million in the United States and Canada and $550.6 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $954.6 million. On April 10, 2018, the film passed Spider - Man ($403,706,375) to become Sony 's highest - grossing film domestically. Deadline Hollywood calculated its net profit as $305.7 million when factoring all expenses and revenues, making it 2017 's fourth-most - profitable release.
In the U.S. and Canada, the film was released on December 20, 2017 with The Greatest Showman and was projected to gross about $60 million from 3,765 theaters in its six - day opening weekend; the studio predicted a $45 million debut. It earned $7.2 million on its first day and $7.6 million on its second day. Over the three - day weekend, the film grossed $36.2 million (for a six - day total of $71.9 million), finishing second at the box office behind Star Wars: The Last Jedi. Its earnings increased to $50.1 million during its second weekend, again finishing in second place at the box office. The 38.4 - percent weekend - to - weekend increase was the fourth - largest for a film playing in over 3,000 theaters; The Greatest Showman set the record for best hold the same weekend. The film passed Star Wars: The Last Jedi for the top spot the following weekend, declining 28.1 percent to $36 million, and finished first again the following week with $28.1 million (and a total of $35.2 million over the four - day MLK weekend). Jumanji: Welcome to the Jungle remained atop the box office for its third weekend, earning $19.5 million.
It again topped the box office the following week with $20 million, despite the release of 12 Strong and Den of Thieves. The film continued to do well the following week, dropping 16 percent (to $16.4 million) and finishing second to Maze Runner: The Death Cure, before regaining the top spot the following weekend with $11.1 million.
On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 76 % based on 186 reviews, and an average rating of 6.2 / 10. The website 's critical consensus reads, "Jumanji: Welcome to the Jungle uses a charming cast and a humorous twist to offer an undemanding yet solidly entertaining update on its source material. '' On Metacritic, which assigns a weighted average, the film has a normalized score of 58 out of 100, based on 44 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews. '' Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A -- '' on an A+ to F scale, while PostTrak reported filmgoers gave it an 84 % overall positive score.
Dave White of TheWrap praised the cast and called the film a pleasant surprise: "Jumanji: Welcome to The Jungle is the Christmas tentpole release that aims to please and succeeds, a funny family entertainment product that subverts more expectations than it was obligated to contractually ''. David Ehrlich of IndieWire gave the film a C grade, calling it unnecessary but mildly amusing: "Jumanji: Welcome to the Jungle is further proof that even the stalest whiff of brand recognition has become preferable to originality. Only part of the blame for that belongs to the studios but after cannibalizing themselves for much of the last 20 years, Hollywood has clearly eaten their way down to the crumbs ''. For Variety, Owen Gleiberman wrote: "Excitement! Suspense! Childlike innocence! Ingeniously staged action set pieces! These are a few of the things you will not find, anywhere, in Jumanji: Welcome to the Jungle... It 's supposed to be a board game come to life but really, it 's just a bored game. ''
Dwayne Johnson, Jack Black and Nick Jonas discussed Jumanji 3 's plot in interviews, including the possibility of the film 's exploring the origins of the game. According to Karen Gillan, the alternate ending of Jumanji: Welcome to the Jungle would have left the door open for another installment. In February 2018 it was announced that Kasdan would direct the sequel, with Rosenberg and Pinkner again writing the script and Johnson, Hart, Black and Gillan reprising their roles.
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who plays howard hamlin on better call saul | Patrick Fabian - wikipedia
Patrick Fabian (born December 7, 1964) is an American actor of film, stage and television. He is best known for his role on Better Call Saul as Howard Hamlin. His film roles include End Game (2006), The Last Exorcism (2010), Pig (2011) and Jimmy (2013).
Fabian was born in Pittsburgh, and grew up in New Cumberland, Pennsylvania. His father worked for the Pennsylvania student loan program. He attended Penn State University and received his Bachelor of Fine Arts in Performance. He moved to California where he earned a master 's degree from California State University, Long Beach.
One of Fabian 's earliest prominent roles was as Professor Jeremiah Laskey on NBC 's Saved by the Bell: The College Years (1993 -- 94). He was in the main cast of the short - lived television series Valentine (2008 -- 09) and Working Class (2011). He had recurring roles on Joan of Arcadia, Veronica Mars, Gigantic, and Big Love.
Fabian has appeared in a number of films including The Last Exorcism, and has had a number of guest appearances on high - profile TV shows including Will & Grace and Friends. More recently, Fabian was cast to play Howard Hamlin, a main role in the AMC television series, Better Call Saul.
Fabian 's theatre work in New York includes The Food Chain by Nicky Silver, Humpty Dumpty by Eric Bogosian, Six Degrees of Separation (national tour), and, in Los Angeles, Diva by Howard Gould, and Dinner With Friends by Donald Margulies, as well as two seasons at LA 's Shakespeare Festival.
Fabian has been a member of SAG - AFTRA 's National and Los Angeles Local Board of Directors, running under the Unite for Strength slate.
He is married to writer and comedian Mandy Steckelberg; the couple have two daughters.
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when did the first flat screen computer monitor come out | Flat panel display - wikipedia
Flat - panel displays are electronic viewing technologies used to enable people to see content (still images, moving images, text, or other visual material) in a range of entertainment, consumer electronics, personal computer, and mobile devices, and many types of medical, transportation and industrial equipment. They are far lighter and thinner than traditional cathode ray tube (CRT) television sets and video displays and are usually less than 10 centimetres (3.9 in) thick. Flat - panel displays can be divided into two display device categories: volatile and static. Volatile displays require that pixels be periodically electronically refreshed to retain their state (e.g., liquid - crystal displays (LCD)). A volatile display only shows an image when it has battery or AC mains power. Static flat - panel displays rely on materials whose color states are bistable (e.g., e-book reader tablets from Sony), and as such, flat - panel displays retain the text or images on the screen even when the power is off. As of 2016, flat - panel displays have almost completely replaced old CRT displays. In many 2010 - era applications, specifically small portable devices such as laptops, mobile phones, smartphones, digital cameras, camcorders, point - and - shoot cameras, and pocket video cameras, any display disadvantages of flat - panels (as compared with CRTs) are made up for by portability advantages (thinness and lightweightness).
Most 2010s - era flat - panel displays use LCD and / or LED technologies. Most LCD screens are back - lit as color filters are used to display colors. Flat - panel displays are thin and lightweight and provide better linearity and they are capable of higher resolution than typical consumer - grade TVs from earlier eras. The highest resolution for consumer - grade CRT TVs was 1080i; in contrast, many flat - panels can display 1080p or even 4K resolution. As of 2016, some devices that use flat - panels, such as tablet computers, smartphones and, less commonly, laptops, use touchscreens, a feature that enables users to select onscreen icons or trigger actions (e.g., playing a digital video) by touching the screen. Many touchscreen - enabled devices can display a virtual QWERTY or numeric keyboard on the screen, to enable the user to type words or numbers.
A multifunctional monitor (MFM) is a flat - panel display that has additional video inputs (more than a typical LCD monitor) and is designed to be used with a variety of external video sources, such as VGA input, HDMI input from a VHS VCR or video game console and, in some cases, a USB input or card reader for viewing digital photos). In many instances, an MFM also includes a TV tuner, making it similar to a LCD TV that offers computer connectivity.
The first engineering proposal for a flat - panel TV was by General Electric as a result of its work on radar monitors. Their publication of their findings gave all the basics of future flat - panel TVs and monitors. But GE did not continue with the R&D required and never built a working flat panel at that time. The first production flat - panel display was the Aiken tube, developed in the early 1950s and produced in limited numbers in 1958. This saw some use in military systems as a heads up display, but conventional technologies overtook its development. Attempts to commercialize the system for home television use ran into continued problems and the system was never released commercially. The Philco Predicta featured a relatively flat (for its day) cathode ray tube setup and would be the first commercially released "flat panel '' upon its launch in 1958; the Predicta was a commercial failure. The plasma display panel was invented in 1964 at the University of Illinois, according to The History of Plasma Display Panels. The first active - matrix addressed display was made by T Peter Brody 's Thin - Film Devices department at Westinghouse Electric Corporation in 1968. In 1977, James P Mitchell prototyped and later demonstrated what was perhaps the earliest monochromatic flat panel LED television display LED Display. As of 2012, 50 % of global market share in flat - panel display (FPD) production is by Taiwanese manufacturers such as AU Optronics and Chimei Innolux Corporation.
Liquid crystal displays (LCDs) are lightweight, compact, portable, cheap, more reliable, and easier on the eyes than cathode ray tube screens. LCD screens use a thin layer of liquid crystal, a liquid that exhibits crystalline properties. It is sandwiched between two electrically conducting plates. The top plate has transparent electrodes deposited on it, and the back plate is illuminated so that the viewer can see the images on the screen. By applying controlled electrical signals across the plates, various segments of the liquid crystal can be activated, causing changes in their light diffusing or polarizing properties. These segments can either transmit or block light. An image is produced by passing light through selected segments of the liquid crystal to the viewer. They are used in various electronics like watches, calculators, and notebook computers.
Some LCD screens are backlit with a number of light - emitting diodes (LEDs). LEDs are two - lead semiconductor light source that resembles a basic "pn - junction '' diode, except that an LED also emits light. This form of LCD (liquid crystal display) is the most prevalent in the 2010s. The image is still generated by the LCD.
A plasma display consists of two glass plates separated by a thin gap filled with a gas such as neon. Each of these plates has several parallel electrodes running across it. The electrodes on the two plates are at right angles to each other. A voltage applied between the two electrodes one on each plate causes a small segment of gas at the two electrodes to glow. The glow of gas segments is maintained by a lower voltage that is continuously applied to all electrodes. In the 2010s, plasma displays have been discontinued by numerous manufacturers.
In an electroluminescent display (ELD), the image is created by applying electrical signals to the plates which makes the phosphor glow.
An OLED (organic light - emitting diode) is a light - emitting diode (LED) in which the emissive electroluminescent layer is a film of organic compound which emits light in response to an electric current. This layer of organic semiconductor is situated between two electrodes; typically, at least one of these electrodes is transparent. OLEDs are used to create digital displays in devices such as television screens, computer monitors, portable systems such as mobile phones, handheld game consoles and PDAs. A major area of research is the development of white OLED devices for use in solid - state lighting applications. (1) (2) (3)
QLED - QLED or Quantum Dot LED is a flat panel display technology introduced by Samsung under this trade mark. Other television set manufacturers such as Sony have used the same technology to enhance the backlighting of LCD Television already in 2013. Quantum dots create their own unique light when illuminated by a light source of shorter wavelenght such as blue LEDs. This type of LED TV introduced by Samsung enhances the color gamut of LCD panels, where the image is still generated by the LCD. In the view of Samsung, quantum dot displays for large - screen TVs are expected to become more popular than the OLED displays in the coming years. This is surprising because Samsung Galaxy devices such as smartphones are mainly equipped with OLED displays manufactured by Samsung as well. Samsung states on their website that the QLED TV they produce can determine what part of the display needs more or less contrast. Samsung also announced a partnership with Microsoft that will promote the new Samsung QLED TV.
Volatile displays require that pixels be periodically refreshed to retain their state, even for a static image. As such, a volatile screen needs electrical power, either from mains electricity (being plugged into a wall socket) or a battery to maintain an image on the display or change the image. This refresh typically occurs many times a second. If this is not done, for example, if there is a power outage, the pixels will gradually lose their coherent state, and the image will "fade '' from the screen.
The following flat - display technologies have been commercialized in 1990s to 2010s:
Technologies that were extensively researched, but their commercialization was limited or has been ultimately abandoned:
Static flat - panel displays rely on materials whose color states are bistable. This means that the image they hold requires no energy to maintain, but instead requires energy to change. This results in a much more energy - efficient display, but with a tendency towards slow refresh rates which are undesirable in an interactive display. Bistable flat - panel displays are beginning deployment in limited applications (Cholesteric displays, manufactured by Magink, in outdoor advertising; electrophoretic displays in e-book reader devices from Sony and iRex; anlabels).
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what is the largest manta ray on record | Giant oceanic manta ray - wikipedia
The giant oceanic manta ray (Manta birostris) is a species of ray in the family Mobulidae, and the largest type of ray in the world. They are circumglobal and are typically found in tropical and subtropical waters, but can also be found in temperate waters.
The giant oceanic manta ray can grow to a disc size of up to 7 m (23 ft) across with a weight of about 1,350 kg (2,980 lb) but average size commonly observed is 4.5 m (15 ft). It is dorsoventrally flattened and has large, triangular pectoral fins on either side of the disc. At the front, it has a pair of cephalic fins which are forward extensions of the pectoral fins. These can be rolled up in a spiral for swimming or can be flared out to channel water into the large, forward - pointing, rectangular mouth when the animal is feeding. The teeth are in a band of 18 rows and are restricted to the central part of the lower jaw. The eyes and the spiracles are on the side of the head behind the cephalic fins, and the gill slits are on the ventral (under) surface. It has a small dorsal fin and the tail is long and whip - like. The manta ray does not have a spiny tail as do the closely related devil rays (Mobula spp.) but has a knob - like bulge at base of its tail.
The skin is smooth with a scattering of conical and ridge - shaped tubercles. The colouring of the dorsal (upper) surface is black, dark brown, or steely blue, sometimes with a few pale spots and usually with a pale edge. The ventral surface is white, sometimes with dark spots and blotches. The markings can often be used to recognise individual fish. Manta birostris is similar in appearance to Manta alfredi and the two species may be confused as their distribution overlaps. However, there are distinguishing features.
The oceanic manta ray is larger than the reef manta ray, 4 to 5 meters in average against 3 to 3.5 meters. However, if the observed rays are young, their size can easily bring confusion. Only the color pattern remains an effective way to distinguish them. The reef manta ray has a dark dorsal side with usually two lighter areas on top of the head, looking like a nuanced gradient of its dark dominating back coloration and whitish to greyish, the longitudinal separation between these two lighter areas forms a kind of "Y ''. While for the oceanic manta ray, the dorsal surface is deep dark and the two white areas are well marked without gradient effect. The line of separation between these two white areas form meanwhile a "T ''.
Difference can also be made by their ventral coloration, the reef manta ray has a white belly with often spots between the branchial gill slits and other spots spread across trailing edge of pectoral fins and abdominal region. The oceanic manta ray has also a white ventral coloration with spots clustered around lower region of its abdomen. Its cephalic fins, inside of its mouth and its gill slits are often black.
The giant oceanic manta ray has a widespread distribution in tropical and temperate waters worldwide. In the Northern Hemisphere, it has been recorded as far north as southern California and New Jersey in the United States, Aomori Prefecture in Japan, the Sinai Peninsula in Egypt, and the Azores in the northern Atlantic. In the Southern Hemisphere, it occurs as far south as Peru, Uruguay, South Africa, and New Zealand.
It is an ocean - going species and spends most of its life far from land, travelling with the currents and migrating to areas where upwellings of nutrient - rich water increase the availability of zooplankton. The oceanic manta ray is often in association with offshore oceanic islands.
There are few aquariums with manta ray in captivity. One of them is the Marine Life Park, a part of the Resorts World Sentosa in Singapore. Another one is Nausicaá, the biggest aquarium of Europe (at the date of 2018) in Boulogne - sur - Mer, France.
When traveling in deep water, the giant oceanic manta ray swims steadily in a straight line, while further inshore it usually basks or swims idly around. Mantas may travel alone or in groups of up to 50 and sometimes associate with other fish species, as well as sea birds and marine mammals. They are filter feeders and consume large quantities of zooplankton in the form of shrimp, krill, and planktonic crabs. An individual manta may eat about 13 % of its body weight each week. When foraging, it usually swims slowly around its prey, herding the planktonic creatures into a tight group before speeding through the bunched - up organisms with its mouth open wide. While feeding, the cephalic fins are spread to channel the prey into its mouth and the small particles are sifted from the water by the tissue between the gill arches. As many as 50 individual fish may gather at a single, plankton - rich feeding site.
The giant oceanic manta ray sometimes visits a cleaning station on a coral reef, where it adopts a near - stationary position for several minutes while cleaner fish consume bits of loose skin and external parasites. Such visits occur most frequently at high tide. It does not rest on the seabed as do many flat fish, as it needs to swim continuously to channel water over its gills for respiration.
Males become sexually mature when their disc width is about 4 m (13 ft), while females need to be about 5 m (16 ft) wide to breed. When a female is becoming receptive, one or several males may swim along behind her in a "train ''. During copulation, one of these males grips the female 's pectoral fin with his teeth and they continue to swim with their ventral surfaces in contact. He inserts his claspers into her cloaca and these form a tube through which the sperm is pumped. The pair remains coupled together for several minutes before going their own ways.
The fertilized eggs develop within the female 's oviduct. At first, they are enclosed in an egg case and the developing embryos feed on the yolk. After the egg hatches, the pup remains in the oviduct and receives nourishment from a milky secretion. As it does not have a placental connection with its mother, the pup relies on buccal pumping to obtain oxygen. The brood size is usually one but occasionally two embryos develop simultaneously. The gestation period is thought to be 12 -- 13 months. When fully developed, the pup is 1.4 m (4 ft 7 in) in disc width, weighs 9 kg (20 lb) and resembles an adult. It is expelled from the oviduct, usually near the coast, and it remains in a shallow - water environment for a few years while it grows.
The oceanic manta has the largest brain to mass ratio of any cold blooded fish. It heats the blood going to its brain and is one of the few animals to pass the mirror test
Because of its large size and velocity in case of danger (24 km / h escape speed), the oceanic manta ray has very few natural predators that could be fatal to it. Only large sharks and dolphins, such as the tiger shark (Galeocerdo cuvier), the great hammerhead shark (Sphyrna mokarran), the bullshark (Carcharhinus leucas), the False killer whale (Pseudora crassidens), and the killer whale (Orcinus orca), are capable of preying on the ray. Nonlethal shark bites are very common occurrences, with a vast majority of adult individuals bearing the scars of at least one attack.
The oceanic manta ray is considered to be vulnerable by the IUCN 's Red List of Endangered Species because its population has decreased drastically over the last twenty years due to overfishing. Whatever the type of fishing (artisanal, targeted or bycatch), the impact on a population which has a low fecundity rate, a long gestation period with mainly a single pup at a time, and a late sexual maturity can only be seriously detrimental to a species that can not compensate for the losses over several decades. In recent years, fishing for manta rays has been significantly boosted by the price of their gill rakers on the traditional Chinese Medicine market.
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when did smosh get bought by a company | Smosh - wikipedia
Smosh is an American sketch comedy YouTube channel created by Ian Andrew Hecox (born November 30, 1987) and Daniel Anthony Padilla (/ pəˈdiːə /, commonly called Anthony, born September 16, 1987).
Anthony Padilla created a website called smosh.com in 2002. He was later joined by his friend Ian Hecox. Soon afterward, they began to post videos on YouTube in the autumn of 2005 and became one of the most popular channels on the site. As of August 2017, the Smosh channel has over 6 billion video views and 22 million subscribers, making it the 12th most subscribed channel on YouTube. The Smosh team has expanded to include others to handle animated, other language, and video gaming content videos, and the sketches have included more actors. After Padilla left Smosh to pursue his solo YouTube channel in June 2017, Hecox became the only co-founder that is currently an active member of the Smosh team.
The Smosh channel has experienced three different spans as the most subscribed YouTube channel. The first period spanned from May to June 2006, the second spanned from April 2007 to September 2008, and the third span lasted from January to August 2013. Smosh has more subscribers than any other American Youtube Channel that is not a Vevo channel, or a channel owned by Youtube itself.
The franchise began when Anthony Padilla built a website in 2002, smosh.com, and made several different Flash animations. He has stated that the name Smosh came from an incident where he mistook a friend explaining a mosh pit, as a "smosh pit ''. Other content creators in the pre-YouTube era would also upload videos to smosh.com, including future YouTuber TomSka. Later, his friend, Ian Hecox, joined the venture. Padilla and Hecox first met in their sixth grade science class. They became friends, and quickly discovered their knack for comedy. In 2005, they joined YouTube and made several videos together, lip syncing the theme songs to Mortal Kombat, Power Rangers, and Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles. At first, these videos were not intended to be posted online, but after they sent them to their friends, they started a YouTube channel.
One of Smosh 's earliest videos, "Pokémon Theme Music Video, '' was released on November 28, 2005. It followed the same style as their other earlier videos, featuring the duo lip - synching the original English theme song for the Pokémon anime. However, the video instantly became much more popular than any of their other videos; over the course of its lifetime, it gained over 24 million views, becoming the most - viewed video on all of YouTube at that time. It held that title until it was removed due to a copyright notice.
The success of their Pokémon video and other videos led Smosh to be featured in the "Person of the Year: You '' issue of Time Magazine, published December 13, 2006 and on Time.com. In March 2007, a user named Andii2000 (now renamed as John) re-uploaded the original Pokémon video; it has over 15.8 million views as of October 2016. Due to the channel 's continued success, and Smosh 's partnership with YouTube, the two recreated the video in November 2010, this time changing the words to be critical of The Pokémon Company taking down the Pokémon theme video.
Over the course of the next few years, Smosh began to diversify. They started making short YouTube skits, such as their annual video series Food Battle and That Damn Neighbor. Smosh continued to grow in popularity and became one of the most subscribed channels on YouTube. In 2009, Smosh prepared a massive redesign of Smosh.com, added a games section, and put extras in the video section. In January 2010, Smosh launched the "Smosh Pit '' feature, a blog that consists of various pieces of pop - culture trivia, and written comedy. In addition, 2010 saw the channel launch 3 different Smosh - based web series: Ian Is Bored, which started as a collection of comedic videos by Hecox, but then turned into both Hecox and Padilla making vlog like videos, and renamed Smosh Is Bored; Ask Charlie, where people ask Charlie, from their January 2010 Charlie the Drunk Guinea Pig video, random questions; and Lunchtime with Smosh, a comedy series featuring Smosh getting and eating food from various places, and answering Twitter questions from their fans on Twitter. Some of Smosh 's most popular video series include Pokémon in Real Life and If ____ Was Real. Also in early 2010, Smosh created the "iShut Up App '' for Android phones as part of a Google sponsorship; it eventually made its way to the iTunes app store. In 2011, Smosh was acquired by Alloy Digital (now Defy Media).
In 2012, the duo started three new YouTube channels, ElSmosh, with Smosh videos dubbed in Spanish, Shut Up! Cartoons, with various animated videos, and Smosh Games, with gaming - related content hosted alongside Mari Takahashi, David "Lasercorn '' Moss, Matthew Sohinki, and Joshua "Jovenshire '' Ovenshire. Some of Smosh 's most popular videos are video - game themed music videos. These songs (along with other original songs) have been released in 4 albums to date -- Sexy Album (2010), If Music Were Real (2011), Smoshtastic (2012), and The Sweet Sound of Smosh (2013). In January 2013, the Smosh channel surpassed Ray William Johnson in subscribers. Smosh released Super Head Esploder X, a video game for iPads, iPhones, and iPods, in February 2013, and in July 2013 started an Indiegogo campaign for an iOS and PC game, Food Battle: The Game. Hecox and Padilla raised $258,777 to hire video game producers to create a game based on their characters and the foods used in their annual Food Battle series. Smosh donated 10 % of the funds to three charities in November 2014, as well as releasing the game.
In February 2014, Smosh released a mobile app to access Smosh videos and other content from their website, and in late 2014 an Xbox One app. Later in 2014, a fan run channel Smosh France became an official Smosh channel. In March 2015, Smosh re-launched the Smosh Games Alliance, a multi-channel network where fans join to enjoy network benefits in exchange for a percentage of the ad revenue. In 2015, the duo announced Noah Grossman, Keith Leak II, Olivia Sui, Courtney Miller, and Shayne Topp, as new regular cast members for Smosh videos. A sketch series, called Every (Blank) Ever, has been released every two weeks since May 2015.
In January 2016, a web sitcom was launched on the main Smosh channel. Part Timers is a comedy - drama which takes place at a fictional children 's arcade and pizza place called Pork E. Pine 's, which takes inspiration from Hecox 's first job at Chuck E. Cheese 's. Each episode presents a challenge that the team must overcome to keep the business going. The series features regular Smosh cast members, Grossman (as Pete), Hecox (as Ian), and Padilla (as Anton), in addition to Cat Alter (as Mads), Jade Martz (as Ella), Casey Webb (as Dinger), and Natalie Whittle (as Lori). The series was released every Monday on the Smosh channel from January to May 2016. During the month of February, new cast member Boze was added to the Smosh Family, joining the cast of Smosh Games.
On June 14, 2017, Padilla announced he would be leaving Smosh to pursue independent video ventures due to a "lack in creative freedom ''. Hecox will remain with Smosh, and has stated "I 'm really looking forward to taking Smosh to the next phase, and we ca n't wait for people to see what we have coming up. ''
On September 18, 2014, Lionsgate announced that a feature - length movie was in development, Smosh: The Movie was released on July 23, 2015. It is directed by Alex Winter, written by Eric Falconer, and aside from Hecox and Padilla, stars Jenna Marbles, Grace Helbig, Harley Morenstein, Michael Ian Black, Mark Fischbach (Markiplier), and Steve Austin. Smosh also gave their voices as Hal and Bubbles in The Angry Birds Movie, a 2016 film based on the video game franchise of the same name. Smosh also created the film Ghostmates for YouTube Red. The movie was released on December 14, 2016.
Ten Smosh - related channels exist on YouTube, though only seven have scheduled content.
Smosh (youtube.com/smosh)
"Smosh '' is the original and main channel of all ten channels. It has over 22 million subscribers, and over 6.6 billion views. The channel is where the Smosh team posts skits and other videos starring Noah Grossman, Ian Hecox, Keith Leak II, Courtney Miller, Olivia Sui, and Shayne Topp. Smosh has many complete and ongoing series which include:
Smosh Games (youtube.com/SmoshGames)
"Smosh Games '' uploads numerous videos a week, consisting of Let 's Plays and video game commentary shows. Padilla and Hecox appear less regularly on this channel, with fellow Smosh Games members Mari Takahashi, David "Lasercorn '' Moss, Matthew Sohinki, Joshua "Jovenshire '' Ovenshire, Amra "Flitz '' Ricketts, and Wesley "Wes The Editor '' Johnson handling most hosting duties. It has over 7.1 million subscribers, and over 2.4 billion video views as of October 2016. Takahashi, Moss, Sohinki, Ovenshire, Ricketts, and Johnson also have their own channels, which are not considered part of the Smosh roster. Since summer 2015, the channel has hosted annual "Smosh Summer Games '' and "Smosh Winter Games '' events, primarily hosted on the Smosh Games channel with other videos posted to Smosh 2nd Channel as well. The first Summer Games in 2015 introduced Shayne Topp to the Smosh family as a referee, while the 2017 Winter Games introduced Ericka Bozeman. Damien Haas joined later in 2017. In August that year, Sohinki and Lasercorn announced that they would no longer be full time members of Smosh Games, in order to focus on their new project Toaster Ghost. They have not ruled out appearing in future Smosh related videos, though.
Smosh 2nd Channel (youtube.com/IanH)
From "Smosh 2nd Channel '' (originally named "IanH '', and was used at first for vlogs and other non-scripted videos), Hecox and Padilla upload their side series Smosh is Bored on Mondays, while the rest of the team uploads vlogs on Thursdays, and Put It In My Mouth and Smosh 's Seriously Super Stupid Sleepover on Saturdays. It has over 5.3 million subscribers and over 1.4 billion views. Smosh Pit Weekly was a series on the channel hosted by Mari Takahashi from April 2011 to August 2015, posted on Saturdays.
On July 28, 2017, Ian Hecox announced that Smosh 2nd Channel would be renamed "Smosh Pit '' in the near future, and that Smosh Pit Weekly would be revived, with Mari Takahashi returning as the host. Two other shows, WHOA! Nature, starring Courtney Miller and Olivia Holt, and One Hour Song Machine, starring Keith Leak II, were announced.
ElSmosh (youtube.com/ElSmosh)
On "ElSmosh '', the team uploads ElSmosh Pit de la Semana (Smosh Pit Weekly), Honest Game Trailers, a series from Smosh Games narrated in Spanish, and new Smosh episodes that have been dubbed over in Spanish. It has over 3.1 million subscribers.
Shut Up! Cartoons (youtube.com/ShutUpCartoons)
"Shut Up! Cartoons '' uploads a number of animated series, created by different animators. It has over 2.0 million subscribers.
AnthonyPadilla (youtube.com/AnthonyPadilla)
"AnthonyPadilla '' hosts vlogs uploaded by Padilla. Most videos uploaded prior to 2016 were removed in 2016 when Padilla revived the channel to upload personal vlogs. It has over 2.3 million subscribers. Since Padilla 's departure from Smosh, the channel is no longer associated with the brand.
New AskCharlie EVERY WEDNESDAY (youtube.com/askcharlie)
"AskCharlie '', active from May 2010 to December 2011, hosts videos from the Ask Charlie series, where an anthropomorphic guinea pig, named Charlie the Drunk Guinea Pig, answers viewer submitted questions.
Smosh Games Alliance (youtube.com/SmoshGamesAlliance)
The Smosh Games Alliance (SGA) channel is used for extra content for the Smosh Games crew. Originally it utilized fan - submitted gaming content, spotlighting it on the channel, and offered tutorials in "Smosh University ''. It continues to hosts more vlogs with the Smosh Games crew. It has over 294 thousand subscribers. No videos have been uploaded to the channel since December 30, 2016.
Honest Trailer en Español
(alternating weeks)
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total number of mutual fund advisors in india | Mutual funds in India - Wikipedia
The first introduction of a mutual fund in India occurred in 1963, when the Government of India launched Unit Trust of India (UTI). UTI enjoyed a monopoly in the Indian mutual fund market until 1987, when a host of other government - controlled Indian financial companies established their own funds, including State Bank of India, Canara Bank and by Punjab National Bank.
Deposit being available in the market less than 10 % of Indian households have invested in mutual funds. A recent report on Mutual Fund Investments in India published by research and analytics firm, Boston Analytics, suggests investors are holding back from putting their money into mutual funds due to their perceived high risk and a lack of information on how mutual funds work. There are 46 Mutual Funds as of June 2013.
The primary reason for not investing appears to be correlated with city size. Among respondents with a high savings rate, close to 40 % of those who live in metros and Tier I cities considered such investments to be very risky, whereas 33 % of those in Tier II cities said they did not know how or where to invest in such assets.
Mutual Funds in India are being distributed by various channels, like: Corporate Distributors, Individual Distributors, Post Offices and Banks. All these distribution channels are broadly divided into two key types:
The former one sells the MF plans labeled as ' Direct Plans ' and the later one sells the MF Plans labelled as ' Regular Plan '
SEBI had issued a consultation paper on October 07, 2016 seeking public comments on the clarifications / amendments to SEBI (Investment Advisers) Regulations, 2013 (' IA Regulations '). Large number of comments have been received on the proposals enumerated in the consultation paper. Based on the feedback received and meetings held with market participants, the following proposals are stated below for public comments:
To prevent the conflict of interest that exists between "advising '' of investment products and "selling '' of investment products by the same entity / person, there should be clear segregation between these two activities. The investment adviser should act in the best interest of the client and should not receive commission from the product manufacturer. Further, the investment adviser shall act with due skill, care and diligence and shall ensure that its advice is offered after thorough analysis and taking into account the available investment alternatives and matching them with client 's suitability and needs. Thus, entities engaged solely in the business of "advising '' on investment products shall not be permitted to sell any products to prevent conflict of interest.
Existing Provision: In terms of Regulation 22 of IA Regulations, banks, NBFCs and body corporates providing investment advisory services to their clients shall keep their investment advisory services segregated from distribution / execution services. Such entities are allowed to offer investment advisory services only through separately identifiable departments or divisions (SIDDs). The distribution or execution services can only be offered subject to the following:
Proposal: Regulation 22 and other applicable provisions of IA Regulations are proposed to be amended as under:
i. There shall be clear segregation between the investment advisory activities and distribution / execution services. An entity offering investment advisory services shall not be permitted to offer distribution / execution services.
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Larger Indian Mutual Fund Industry has benefited from outsourcing the activity of servicing their investors to two of the leading Registrar and Transfer Agents (RTAs) in India namely CAMS and Karvy. While CAMS commands close to 65 % of the Assets servicing, rest is with Karvy. Franklin Templeton Mutual Fund services its investors through its own in - house RTA set up.
Both the RTAs have vibrant network of their local offices which enable the Mutual Fund Investors to transact locally. These touch points (or) Customer Service Centers (CSCs), provide a wide range of servicing including, financial transaction acceptance & processing, non financial changes, KYC fulfillment formalities, nomination registration, transmission of units apart from providing statement of accounts etc.
Assets under management (AUM) is a financial term denoting the market value of all the funds being managed by a financial institution (a mutual fund, hedge fund, private equity firm, venture capital firm, or brokerage house) on behalf of its clients, investors, partners, depositors, etc. The average assets under management of all mutual funds in India for the quarter Dec 2015 to Mar 2016 (in ₹ Lakh) is given below:
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where do you put san in japanese name | Japanese honorifics - wikipedia
The Japanese language makes use of honorific suffixes when referring to others in a conversation. These suffixes are attached to the end of names, and are often gender - neutral. Honorific suffixes also indicate the level of the speaker and referred individual 's relationship and are often used alongside other components of Japanese honorific speech, called keigo (敬語).
Although honorifics are not part of the basic grammar of the Japanese language, they are a fundamental part of the sociolinguistics of Japanese, and proper use is essential to proficient and appropriate speech. Referring to oneself using an honorific, or dropping an honorific when it is required, is a serious faux pas, in either case coming across as clumsy or arrogant.
They can be applied to either the first or last name depending on which is given. In situations where both the first and last names are spoken, the suffix is attached to whichever comes last in the word order.
An honorific is generally used when referring to the person one is talking to (one 's interlocutor), or when referring to an unrelated third party in speech. It is dropped, however, by some superiors, when referring to one 's in - group, or in formal writing, and is never used to refer to oneself, except for dramatic effect, or some exceptional cases.
Dropping the honorific suffix when referring to one 's interlocutor, which is known as to yobisute (呼び捨て), implies a high degree of intimacy and is generally reserved for one 's spouse, younger family members, social inferiors (as in a teacher addressing students in traditional arts), and very close friends. Within sports teams or among classmates, where the interlocutors approximately have the same age or seniority, it can be acceptable to use family names without honorifics. Some people of the younger generation, roughly born since 1970, prefer to be referred to without an honorific. However, dropping honorifics is a sign of informality even with casual acquaintances.
When referring to a third person, honorifics are used except when referring to one 's family members while talking to a non-family member, or when referring to a member of one 's company while talking to a customer or someone from another company -- this is the uchi -- soto (in - group / out group) distinction. Honorifics are not used to refer to oneself, except when trying to be arrogant (ore - sama), to be cute (- chan), or sometimes when talking to young children to teach them how to address the speaker.
Use of honorifics is correlated with other forms of honorific speech in Japanese, such as use of the polite form (- masu, desu) versus the plain form -- using the plain form with a polite honorific (- san, - sama) can be jarring, for instance.
While these honorifics are solely used on proper nouns, these suffixes can turn common nouns into proper nouns when attached to the end of them. This can be seen on words such as 猫 ちゃん ("neko - chan '') which turns the common noun neko (cat) into a proper noun which would refer solely to that particular cat, while adding the honorific - chan can also mean cute or small.
When translating honorific suffixes into English, separate pronouns or adjectives must be used in order to convey characteristics to the person they are referencing as well. While some honorifics such as "- san '' are very frequently used due to their gender neutrality and very simple definition of polite unfamiliarity, other honorifics such as "- chan '' or "- kun '' are more specific as to the context in which they must be used as well as the implications they give off when attached to a person 's name. These implications can only be translated into English using either adjectives or adjective word phrases.
San (さん) (sometimes pronounced han (は ん) in Kansai dialect) is the most commonplace honorific and is a title of respect typically used between equals of any age. Although the closest analog in English are the honorifics "Mr. '', "Miss '', "Ms. '', or "Mrs. '', - san is almost universally added to a person 's name; "- san '' can be used in formal and informal contexts and for any gender. Because it is the most common honorific, it is also the most often used to convert common nouns into proper ones, as seen below.
San may be used in combination with workplace nouns, so a bookseller might be addressed or referred to as honya - san ("bookstore '' + san) and a butcher as nikuya - san ("butcher 's shop '' + san).
San is sometimes used with company names. For example, the offices or shop of a company called Kojima Denki might be referred to as "Kojima Denki - san '' by another nearby company. This may be seen on small maps often used in phone books and business cards in Japan, where the names of surrounding companies are written using san.
San can be attached to the names of animals or even inanimate objects. For example, a pet rabbit might be called usagi - san, and fish used for cooking can be referred to as sakana - san, but both would be considered childish (akin to "Mr. Fish '' or "Mr. Fishy '' to equivalate in English) and would be avoided in formal speech. Married people often refer to their spouse with san.
Due to - san being gender neutral and commonly used, it can be used to refer to people who are not close or whom one does not know. However, it may not be appropriate when using it on someone who is close or when it is clear that other honorifics should be used.
Online, Japanese gamers often append a numeral 3 to another player 's name to denote san (e.g., Taro3 conveys Taro - san), since the number three is also pronounced san.
Sama (様 (さま)) is a more respectful version for people of a higher rank than oneself, toward one 's guests or customers (such as a sports venue announcer addressing members of the audience), and sometimes toward people one greatly admires. It is seemingly said to be the origin word for "- san '' but there is no major evidence otherwise. Deities such as the native Shinto kami and the Christian God, are referred to as kami - sama, meaning "Revered spirit - sama ''. When used to refer to oneself, sama expresses extreme arrogance (or self - effacing irony), as in praising one 's self to be of a higher rank, as with ore - sama (俺 様, "my esteemed self '').
Sama customarily follows the addressee 's name on postal packages and letters and in business email.
Sama also appears in such set phrases as omachidō sama ("thank you for waiting '') or otsukare sama ("thank you for a good job '').
With the exception of the Emperor of Japan, sama can be used to informally address the Empress and other members of the Imperial Family. The Emperor is, however, always addressed as Heika (Your Majesty). (See "Royal and official titles '' below).
Kun (君 (くん)) is generally used by people of senior status addressing or referring to those of junior status, by anyone addressing or it can be used when referring to men in general, male children or male teenagers, or among male friends. It can be used by males or females when addressing a male whom they are emotionally attached to or have known for a long time. Although it may seem rude in workplaces, the suffix is also used by juniors when referring to seniors in both academic situations and workplaces, more typically when the two people are associated.
Although kun is generally used for boys, it is not a hard rule. For example, kun can be used to name a close personal friend or family member of any gender. In business settings, young female employees are addressed as kun by older males of senior status. It can be used by male teachers addressing their female students.
' Kun ' can mean different things depending on the gender. "Kun '' for females is a more respectful name than calling them cute. Kun is not only used to address females formally; it can also be used for a very close friend or family member. Calling a female ' Kun ' is not insulting, and can also mean that the person is respected, although that is not the normal implication. Rarely, sisters with the same name, such as ' Miku, ' may be differentiated by calling one ' Miku ~ Chan ' and the other ' Miku ~ San ' or ' Sama, ' and on some occasions ' Kun. ' ' Chan ' and ' Kun ' occasionally mean similar things. General use of ' Kun ' in females mean "sweet and kind. ''
In the National Diet (Legislature), the Speaker of the House uses kun when addressing Diet members and ministers. An exception was when Takako Doi was the Speaker of the lower house, where she used the title san.
Chan (ちゃん) is a diminutive suffix; it expresses that the speaker finds a person endearing. It is seemingly said to have come from a "cute '' pronouncing of - san (in Japanese, replacing s sounds with ch sounds is seen as cute), although there is no evidence otherwise as this suffix has been used since the early days of ancient Japan. In general, chan is used for babies, young children, friends, grandparents and adolescents. It may also be used towards cute animals, lovers, close friends, any youthful woman, or between friends. Using chan with a superior 's name is considered to be condescending and rude.
Although traditionally, honorifics are not applied to oneself, some people adopt the childish affectation of referring to themselves in the third person using chan (childish because it suggests that one has not learned to distinguish between names used for oneself and names used by others). For example, a young woman named Kanako might call herself Kanako - chan rather than using a first person pronoun. "Chan '' is only used between people who have known each other for a long time or who are of the same gender. Otherwise, using this for someone, especially adults, only known for a short period of time, can be seen as offensive.
Tan (たん) is an even more cute or affectionate variant of "chan ''. It evokes a small child 's mispronunciation of that form of address, or baby talk -- similar to how, for example, a speaker of English might use "widdle '' instead of "little '' when speaking to a baby. Moe anthropomorphisms are often labeled as "- tan '', e.g., the commercial mascot Habanero - tan, the manga figure Afghanis - tan or the OS - tans representing operating systems.
Bō (坊 (ぼう)) is another diminutive that expresses endearment. Like "chan '', it is used for babies or young children, but is exclusively used for boys instead of girls.
Senpai (先輩 (せん ぱい)) is used to address or refer to one 's elder colleagues in a school, dojo, or sports club. So at school, the students in higher grades than oneself are senpai. Teachers are not senpai, but rather they are "Sensei. '' Neither are students of the same or lower grade: they are referred to as kōhai. In a business environment, those with more experience are senpai.
Sensei (先生 (せんせい)) (literally meaning "former - born '') is used to refer to or address teachers, doctors, politicians, lawyers, and other authority figures. It is used to show respect to someone who has achieved a certain level of mastery in an art form or some other skill, such as accomplished novelists, musicians, artists and martial artists. In Japanese martial arts, sensei typically refers to someone who is the head of a dojo. As with senpai, sensei can be used not only as a suffix, but also as a stand - alone title. The term is not generally used when addressing a person with very high academic expertise; the one used instead is hakase (博士 (はかせ)) (lit. "Doctor '' or "PhD '').
Sensei can be used fawningly, and it can also be employed sarcastically to ridicule such fawning. The Japanese media invoke it (rendered in katakana, akin to scare quotes or italics in English) to highlight the megalomania of those who allow themselves to be sycophantically addressed with the term.
Shi (氏 (し)) is used in formal writing, and sometimes in very formal speech, for referring to a person who is unfamiliar to the speaker, typically a person known through publications whom the speaker has never actually met. For example, the shi title is common in the speech of newsreaders. It is preferred in legal documents, academic journals, and certain other formal written styles. Once a person 's name has been used with shi, the person can be referred to with shi alone, without the name, as long as there is only one person being referred to.
It is common to use a job title after someone 's name, instead of using a general honorific. For example, an athlete (選手, senshu) named Ichiro might be referred to as "Ichiro - senshu '' rather than "Ichiro - san '', and a master carpenter (棟梁, tōryō) named Suzuki might be referred to as "Suzuki - tōryō '' rather than "Suzuki - san ''.
In a business setting, it is common to refer to people using their rank, especially for positions of authority, such as department chief (部長, buchō) or company president (社長, shachō). Within one 's own company or when speaking of another company, title + san is used, so a president is shachō - san. When speaking of one 's own company to a customer or another company, the title is used by itself or attached to a name, so a department chief named Suzuki is referred to as Buchō or Suzuki - buchō.
However, when referring to oneself, the title is used indirectly, as using it directly is perceived as arrogant. Thus, a department chief named Suzuki will introduce themselves as 部長 の 鈴木 Buchō - no - Suzuki, rather than × 鈴木 部長 * Suzuki - buchō.
Convicted and suspected criminals were once referred to without any title, but now an effort is made to distinguish between suspects (容疑 者, yōgisha), defendants (被告, hikoku), and convicts (受刑 者, jukeisha), so as not to presume guilt before anything has been proven. These titles can be used by themselves or attached to names.
However, although "suspect '' and "defendant '' began as neutral descriptions, they have become derogatory over time. When actor and musician Gorō Inagaki was arrested for a traffic accident in 2001, some media referred him with the newly made title menbā (メンバー), originating from the English word member, to avoid use of yōgisha (容疑 者, suspect). But in addition to being criticized as an unnatural term, this title also became derogatory almost instantly -- an example of euphemism treadmill.
There are several different words for "our company '' and "your company ''. "Our company '' can be expressed with the humble heisha (弊社, "clumsy / poor company '') or the neutral jisha (自社, "our own company ''), and "your company '' can be expressed with the honorific kisha (貴社, "noble company '', used in writing) or onsha (御社, "honorable company '', used in speech). Additionally, the neutral tōsha (当社, "this company '') can refer to either the speaker 's or the listener 's company. All of these titles are used by themselves, not attached to names.
When mentioning a company 's name, it is considered important to include its status depending on whether it is incorporated (株式 会社, kabushikigaisha) or limited (有限 会社, yūgen gaisha). These are often abbreviated as 株 and 有 respectively.
Tono (殿 (と の)), pronounced dono (どの) when attached to a name, roughly means "lord '' or "master ''. It does not equate noble status; rather it is a term akin to "milord '' or French "monseigneur '', and lies below sama in level of respect. This title is not commonly used in daily conversation, but it is still used in some types of written business correspondence, as well as on certificates and awards, and in written correspondence in tea ceremonies. It is / was also used to indicate that the person referred to has the same (high) rank as the referrer, yet commands respect from the speaker.
No kimi (の 君) is another suffix coming from Japanese history. It was used to denominate Lords and Ladies in the Court, especially during the Heian period. The most famous example is the Prince Hikaru Genji, protagonist of The Tale of Genji who was called "Hikaru no Kimi "(光 の 君). Nowadays, this suffix can be used as a metaphor for someone who behaves like a prince or princess from ancient times, but its use is very rare. Its main usage remains in historical dramas.
This suffix also appears when addressing lovers in letters from a man to a woman, as in, "Murasaki no kimi '' or "My beloved Ms. Murasaki ''.
Ue (上) literally means "above '', and denotes a high level of respect. While its use is no longer common, it is still seen in constructions like chichi - ue (父上), haha - ue (母上) and ane - ue (姉 上), reverent terms for "father '', "mother '' and "sister '' respectively. Receipts that do not require specification of the payer 's name are often filled in with ue - sama.
Martial artists often address their teachers as sensei. Junior and senior students are organized via a senpai / kōhai system. Also in some systems of karate, O - Sensei is the title of the (deceased) head of the style. This is how the founder of Aikido, Morihei Ueshiba is often referred to by practitioners of that art. The ' O ' prefix itself, translating roughly as "great (er) '' or "major, '' is also an honorific.
Various titles are also employed to refer to senior instructors. Which titles are used depends on the particular licensing organization.
Shōgō (称号, "title '', "name '', "degree '') are martial arts titles developed by the Dai Nippon Butoku Kai, the Kokusai Budoin and the International Martial Arts Federation Europe. Many organizations in Japan award such titles upon a sincere study and dedication of Japanese martial arts. The below mentioned titles are awarded after observing a person 's martial arts skills, his / her ability of teaching and understanding of martial arts and the most importantly as a role model and the perfection of one 's character.
Levels of black belts sometimes used as martial arts titles
In informal speech, some Japanese people may use contrived suffixes in place of normal honorifics. This is essentially a form of wordplay, with suffixes being chosen for their sound, or for friendly or scornful connotations. Although the range of such suffixes that might be coined is limitless, some have gained such widespread usage that the boundary between established honorifics and wordplay has become a little blurred. Examples of such suffixes include variations on chan (see below), bee (scornful), and rin (friendly). Note that unlike a proper honorific, use of such suffixes is governed largely by how they sound in conjunction with a particular name, and on the effect the speaker is trying to achieve.
Some honorifics have baby talk versions -- mispronunciations stereotypically associated with small children and cuteness, and more frequently used in popular entertainment than in everyday speech. The baby talk version of sama is chama (ちゃ ま).
There are even baby talk versions of baby talk versions. Chan can be changed to tan (たん), and less often, chama (ちゃ ま) to tama (たま).
Words for family members have two different forms in Japanese. When referring to one 's own family members while speaking to a non-family - member, neutral, descriptive nouns are used, such as haha (母) for "mother '' and ani (兄) for "older brother ''. When addressing one 's own family members or addressing or referring to someone else 's family members, honorific forms are used. Using the suffix - san, as is most common, "mother '' becomes okāsan (お母さん) and "older brother '' becomes oniisan (お 兄さん). The honorifics - chan and - sama may also be used instead of - san, to express a higher level of closeness or reverence, respectively.
The general rule is that a younger family member (e.g., a young brother) addresses an older family member (e.g., a big brother) using an honorific form, while the older family member calls the younger one only by name.
The honorific forms are:
The initial o - (お) in these nouns is itself an honorific prefix. In more casual situations the speaker may omit this prefix but will keep the suffix.
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can a corporation be an attorney in fact | Power of attorney - wikipedia
A power of attorney (POA) or letter of attorney is a written authorization to represent or act on another 's behalf in private affairs, business, or some other legal matter. The person authorizing the other to act is the principal, grantor, or donor (of the power). The one authorized to act is the agent or, in some common law jurisdictions, the attorney - in - fact.
Formerly, the term "power '' referred to an instrument signed under seal while a "letter '' was an instrument under hand, meaning that it was simply signed by the parties, but today a power of attorney need not be signed under seal. Some jurisdictions require that powers of attorney be notarized or witnessed, but others will enforce a power of attorney as long as it is signed by the grantor.
The term attorney - in - fact is used in many jurisdictions instead of the term agent. That term should be distinguished from the term attorney - at - law. In the United States, an attorney - at - law is a solicitor who is also licensed to be an advocate in a particular jurisdiction. An attorney - in - fact may be a layperson and is authorized to act pursuant to the powers granted by a power of attorney, but may not engage in acts that would constitute the unauthorized practice of law.
In the context of the unincorporated reciprocal inter-insurance exchange (URIE) the attorney - in - fact is a stakeholder / trustee who takes custody of the subscriber funds placed on deposit with him, and then uses those funds to pay insurance claims. When all the claims are paid, the attorney - in - fact then returns the leftover funds to the subscribers.
The Uniform Power of Attorney Act employs the term agent. As an agent, an attorney - in - fact is a fiduciary for the principal, so the law requires an attorney - in - fact to be completely honest with and loyal to the principal in their dealings with each other.
Care must be taken when selecting an attorney - in - fact, as some attorneys - at - fact have used their authority to steal the assets of vulnerable individuals such as the elderly (see elder abuse).
The person who creates a power of attorney, known as the grantor, can only do so when he / she has the requisite mental capacity. Suppose the grantor loses capacity to grant permission after the power of attorney has been created (for example, from Alzheimer 's disease or a head injury in a car crash); then the power will probably no longer be effective. In some powers of attorney the grantor states that he / she wishes the document to remain in effect even after he / she becomes incapacitated. This type of power is commonly referred to as a durable power of attorney. If someone is already incapacitated, it is not possible for that person to execute a valid power. If a person does not have the capacity to execute a power of attorney (and does not already have a durable power in place), often the only way for another party to act on their behalf is to have a court impose a conservatorship or a guardianship.
Depending on the jurisdiction, a power of attorney may be oral and, whether witnessed, will hold up in court, the same as if it were in writing. For some purposes, the law requires a power of attorney to be in writing. Many institutions, such as hospitals, banks and, in the United States, the Internal Revenue Service, require a power of attorney to be in writing before they will honor it, and they will usually keep a duplicate original or a copy for their records. Nursing homes often follow the same practice.
The equal dignity rule is a principle of law that requires an authorization for someone performing certain acts for another person to have been appointed with the same formality as required for the act the representative is going to perform. This means, for example, that if a principal authorizes someone to sell the principal 's house or other real property, and the law requires a contract for the sale of real property to be in writing (which is required under the Statute of Frauds in most U.S. jurisdictions), then the authorization for the other person to sign the sales contract and deed must be in writing too. Likewise, in common - law jurisdictions other than the U.S., a power of an attorney to execute a deed (i.e. instrument under seal or executed in presence of two witnesses) must be itself executed as a deed.
In order for a power of attorney to become a legally enforceable document, at a minimum it must be signed and dated by the principal. Some jurisdictions also require that a power of attorney be witnesses, notarized, or both. Even when not required, having the document reviewed and signed (and often stamped) by a notary public may increase the likelihood of withstanding a legal challenge.
If the attorney - in - fact is being paid to act on behalf of the principal, a contract for payment may be separate from the document granting power of attorney. If that separate contract is in writing, as a separate document it may be kept private between the principal and agent even when the power of attorney is presented to others for the purposes of carrying out the agent 's duties.
A power of attorney may be: special (also called limited), general, or temporary. A special power of attorney is one that is limited to a specified act or type of act. A general power of attorney is one that allows the agent to make all personal and business decisions A temporary power of attorney is one with a limited time frame. If ever required, a durable power of attorney can be revoked or changed as long as the principal is still mentally competent to act.
Under the common law, a power of attorney becomes ineffective if its grantor dies or becomes "incapacitated, '' meaning unable to grant such a power, because of physical injury or mental illness, for example, unless the grantor (or principal) specifies that the power of attorney will continue to be effective even if the grantor becomes incapacitated. This type of power of attorney is called "power of attorney with durable provisions '' in the United States or "enduring power of attorney '' elsewhere. In effect, under a durable power of attorney (DPA), the authority of the attorney - in - fact to act and / or make decisions on behalf of the grantor continues until the grantor 's death.
In some jurisdictions, a durable power of attorney can also be a "health care power of attorney. '' This particular affidavit gives the attorney - in - fact the authority to make health - care decisions for the grantor, up to and including terminating care and life support. The grantor can typically modify or restrict the powers of the agent to make end - of - life decisions. In many jurisdictions a health care power of attorney is also referred to as a "health care proxy '' and, as such, the two terms are sometimes used interchangeably.
Related to the health care power of attorney is a separate document known as an advance health care directive, also called a "living will ''. A living will is a written statement of a person 's health care and medical wishes but does not appoint another person to make health care decisions. Depending upon the jurisdiction, a health care power of attorney may or may not appear with an advance health care directive in a single, physical document. For example, the California legislature has adopted a standard power of attorney for health care and advance health care directive form that meets all of that state 's legal wording requirements for a power of attorney and advance health care directive in a single document. Compare this to New York State, which enacted a Health Care Proxy law that requires a separate document be prepared appointing one as your health care agent.
In some U.S. states and other jurisdictions, it is possible to grant a springing power of attorney; i.e., a power that takes effect only after the incapacity of the grantor or some other definite future act or circumstance. After such incapacitation the power is identical to a durable power, but can not be invoked before the incapacity. This power may be used to allow a spouse or family member to manage the grantor 's affairs in case illness or injury makes the grantor unable to act. If a springing power is used, the grantor should specify exactly how and when the power springs into effect. As the result of privacy legislation in the U.S., medical doctors will often not reveal information relating to capacity of the principal unless the power of attorney specifically authorizes them to do so.
Determining whether the principal is "disabled '' enough to initiate this type of representation is a formal process. Springing powers of attorney are not automatic, and institutions may refuse to work with the attorney - in - fact. Disputes are then resolved in court.
Unless the power of attorney has been made irrevocable by its own terms or by some legal principle, the grantor may revoke the power of attorney by telling the attorney - in - fact it is revoked. However, if the principal does not inform third parties and it is reasonable for the third parties to rely upon the power of attorney being in force, the principal might still be bound by the acts of the agent, though the agent may also be liable for such unauthorized acts.
Standardized forms are available for various kinds of powers of attorney, and many organizations provide them for their clients, customers, patients, employees, or members. However, the grantor should exercise caution when using a standardized POA form obtained from a source other than a lawyer because there is considerable variation in approved formats among the states. In some states statutory power of attorney forms are available. Examples include the California Statutory Form Power of Attorney, New York Form Power of Attorney and Wisconsin Form Power of Attorney.
Although a power of attorney grants the agent powers to perform acts in the absence of the grantor, the POA can not grant powers to the agent that conflict with rules and regulations governing people and companies that the agent deals with. For example, if a bank has regulations that require the grantor to be physically present in the bank to perform certain actions, the POA can not grant the agent power to perform those actions in the absence of the grantor.
Robert 's Rules of Order notes that proxy voting involves granting a power of attorney. The term "proxy '' refers to both the power of attorney itself and the person to whom it is granted.
In financial situations wherein a principal requests a securities broker to perform extensive investment functions on the principal 's behalf, independent of the principal 's advice, power of attorney must be formally granted to the broker to trade in the principal 's account. This rule also applies to principals who instruct their brokers to perform certain specific trades and principals who trust their brokers to perform certain trades in the principal 's best interest.
In Australia, anyone with capacity can grant a power of attorney. This can be done either for a pre-defined period of time, or in perpetuity ("enduring ''). The power of attorney can be granted to one individual, or to multiple individuals. When granted to multiple individuals, they may be authorised either to act jointly (all together) or to act severally (each can act individually).
In English and Welsh law, anyone with capacity can grant a power of attorney. These can be general (i.e., to do anything which can legally be done by an attorney), or relate to a specific act (e.g., to sell freehold property). A power of attorney is only valid while the donor has the capacity to ratify the attorney 's actions, unless it is made in the form of a lasting power of attorney and registered with the Office of the Public Guardian. This new form of power of attorney was introduced in 2007 under the Mental Capacity Act 2005 and replaced the former enduring power of attorney, although EPAs correctly made before the law changed are still valid. EPAs only need to be registered if the donor has since lost capacity.
The Office of the Public Guardian provides online process for registering power of attorney.
Many of the provisions in the earlier paragraphs above use terminology different from either common UK usage or terms used in the Mental Capacity Act 2005. Examples are enduring power of attorney, advance directive, and notary public.
Irish law there are two forms of power of attorney:
The death of the donor ends both.
The relevant legislation is the Powers of Attorney Act 1996 and the Enduring Powers of Attorney Regulations 1996 (SI No. 196 / 1996) as amended by SI No. 287 / 1996. Part 7 of the Assisted Decision - Making (Capacity) Act 2015 provides for new arrangements for those who wish to make an Enduring Power of Attorney and once the 2015 act is commenced, no new powers of attorney will be created under the 1996 act.
A solicitor is not necessary when creating Power of Attorney - it can be created when signed by the donor in the presence of a witness.
Creating an Enduring Power of Attorney requires the following:
The courts play a general supervisory role in the implementation of the power.
Under Russian law, specifically art. 185 of the Russian Civil Code, a power of attorney may be executed under hand or in notarial form. The power of attorney to act must be notarially executed. Notarial execution is required for any power of attorney made for concluding a contract subject to special public recordation, namely those dealing with interests in immovable property.
A power of attorney, pursuant to art. 186 of the Russian Civil Code, must also be dated. Any POA without an express date of execution is void.
A power of attorney can not be irrevocable. The grantor may terminate the POA at any time at his or her sole discretion. Any waiver of this right is void, as provided by the Civil Code.
The Office of the Public Guardian in Scotland offers the eAttorney Electronic Power of Attorney (EPOAR) system for the submission and payment of powers of attorney registrations.
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who is known as the last son of krypton | The Last Son of Krypton - wikipedia
The Last Son of Krypton may refer to:
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in population pyramid left hand side of pyramid is used to show | Population pyramid - wikipedia
A population pyramid, also called an "age - sex pyramid '', is a graphical illustration that shows the distribution of various age groups in a population (typically that of a country or region of the world), which forms the shape of a pyramid when the population is growing. This tool can be used to visualize and age of a particular population. It is also used in ecology to determine the overall age distribution of a population; an indication of the reproductive capabilities and likelihood of the continuation of a species.
Population pyramids often contain continuous stacked - histogram bars, making it a horizontal bar diagram. The population size is depicted on the x-axis (horizontal) while the age - groups are represented on the y - axis (vertical). The size of the population can either be measured as a percentage of the total population or by raw number. Males are conventionally shown on the left and females on the right. Population pyramids are often viewed as the most effective way to graphically depict the age and distribution of a population, partly because of the very clear image these pyramids represent. A great deal of information about the population broken down by age and sex can be read from a population pyramid, and this can shed light on the extent of development and other aspects of the population.
The measures of central tendency, mean, median, and mode, should be considered when assessing a population pyramid. since the data is not completely accurate. For example, the average age could be used to determine the type of population in a particular region. A population with an average age of 15 would have a young population compared to a population that has an average age of 55, which would be considered an older population. It is also important to consider these measures because the collected data is not completely accurate. The mid-year population is often used in calculations to account for the number of births and deaths that occur.
A population pyramid gives a clear picture of how a country transitions from high fertility to low fertility rate. The broad base of the pyramid means the majority of population lies between ages 0 -- 14, which tells us that the fertility rate of the country is high and above population sub-replacement fertility level. The older population is declining over time due to a shorter life expectancy of sixty years. However, there are still more females than males in these ranges since women have a longer life expectancy. As reported by the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, women tend to live longer than men because women do not partake in risky behaviors. Also, Weeks ' Population: an Introduction to Concepts and Issues, considered that the sex ratio gap for the older ages will shrink due to women 's health declining due to the effects of smoking, as suggested by the United Nations and U.S. Census Bureau. Moreover, it can also reveal the age - dependency ratio of a population. Populations with a big base, young population, or a big top, an older population, shows that there is a higher dependency ratio. The dependency ratio refers to how many people are dependent on the working class (ages 15 - 64). According to Weeks ' Population: an Introduction to Concepts and Issues, population pyramids can be used to predict the future, known as a population forecast. Population momentum, when a population 's birth rates continue to increase even after replacement level has been reached, can even be predicted if a population has a low mortality rate since the population will continue to grow. This then brings up the term doubling time, which is used to predict when the population will double in size. Lastly, a population pyramid can even give insight on the economic status of a country from the age stratification since the distribution of supplies are not evenly distributed through a population.
In the demographic transition model, the size and shape of population pyramids vary. In stage one of the demographic transition model, the pyramids have the most defined shape. They have the ideal big base and skinny top. In stage two, the pyramid looks similar, but starts to widen in the middle age groups. In stage three, the pyramids start to round out and look similar in shape to a tombstone. In stage four, there is a decrease in the younger age groups. This causes the base of the widened pyramid to narrow. Lastly, in stage five, the pyramid starts to take on the shape of a kite as the base continues to decrease. The shape of the population is dependent upon what the economy is like in the country. More developed countries can be found in stages three four and five while the least developed countries have a population represented by the pyramids in stages one and two.
Each country will have different or unique population pyramids. However, most population pyramids will be defined as the following: Stationary, expansive, or constrictive. These types have been identified by the fertility and mortality rates of a country.
Gary Fuller (1995) described Youth bulge as a type of expansive pyramid. Gunnar Heinsohn (2003) argues that an excess in especially young adult male population predictably leads to social unrest, war and terrorism, as the "third and fourth sons '' that find no prestigious positions in their existing societies rationalize their impetus to compete by religion or political ideology.
Heinsohn claims that most historical periods of social unrest lacking external triggers (such as rapid climatic changes or other catastrophic changes of the environment) and most genocides can be readily explained as a result of a built - up youth bulge, including European colonialism, 20th - century fascism, rise of Communism during the Cold War, and ongoing conflicts such as that in Darfur and terrorism. This factor has been also used to account for the Arab Spring events. Economic recessions, such as the Great Depression of the 1930s and the Late 2000 's recession, are also claimed to be explained in part due to a large youth population who can not find jobs. Youth bulge can be seen as one factor among many in explaining social unrest and uprisings in society. A 2016 study finds that youth bulges increases the chances of non-ethnic civil wars, but not ethnic civil wars.
A large population of adolescents entering the labor force and electorate strains at the seams of the economy and polity, which were designed for smaller populations. This creates unemployment and alienation unless new opportunities are created quickly enough -- in which case a ' demographic dividend ' accrues because productive workers outweigh young and elderly dependents. Yet the 16 -- 30 age range is associated with risk - taking, especially among males. In general, youth bulges in developing countries are associated with higher unemployment and, as a result, a heightened risk of violence and political instability. For Cincotta and Doces (2011), the transition to more mature age structures is almost a sine qua non for democratization.
To reverse the effects of youth bulges, specific policies such as creating more jobs, improving family planning programs, and reducing over all infant mortality rates should be a priority.
Population pyramid of Egypt in 2005. Many of those 30 and younger are educated citizens who are experiencing difficulty finding work.
Nearly half of Libya 's 2011 population consists of children younger than age 20.
The Middle East and North Africa are currently experiencing a prominent youth bulge. "Across the Middle East, countries have experienced a pronounced increase in the size of their youth populations over recent decades, both in total numbers and as a percentage of the total population. Today, the nearly 111 million individuals aging between 15 to 29 living across the region make up nearly 27 percent of the region 's population. '' Structural changes in service provision, especially health care, beginning in the 1960s created the conditions for a demographic explosion, which has resulted in a population consisting primarily of younger people. It is estimated that around 65 % of the regional population is under the age of 30.
The Middle East has invested more in education, including religious education, than most other regions such that education is available to most children. However, that education has not led to higher levels of employment, and youth unemployment is currently at 25 %, the highest of any single region. Of this 25 %, over half are first time entrants into the job market.
The youth bulge in the Middle East and North Africa has been favorably compared to that of East Asia, which harnessed this human capital and saw huge economic growth in recent decades. The youth bulge has been referred to by the Middle East Youth Initiative as a demographic gift, which, if engaged, could fuel regional economic growth and development. "While the growth of the youth population imposes supply pressures on education systems and labor markets, it also means that a growing share of the overall population is made up of those considered to be of working age; and thus not dependent on the economic activity of others. In turn, this declining dependency ratio can have a positive impact on overall economic growth, creating a demographic dividend. The ability of a particular economy to harness this dividend, however, is dependent on its ability to ensure the deployment of this growing working - age population towards productive economic activity, and to create the jobs necessary for the growing labor force. ''
Additional References:
US Census Bureau, Demographic Internet Staff. "International Programs, International Data Base. '' Information Gateway - U.S. Census Bureau, 27 June 2011, www.census.gov/data-tools/demo/idb/informationGateway.php.
"Population Pyramids of the World from 1950 to 2100. '' PopulationPyramid.net, www.populationpyramid.net/world/2016/.
DataFinder U.S. and World Data by The Population Reference Bureau, www.prb.org/DataFinder.aspx.
"Databases. '' United Nations, United Nations, www.un.org/en/databases/index.html.
Boucher, Lauren. "What Are the Different Types of Population Pyramids? '' Population Education, 11 Mar. 2018, populationeducation.org/what-are-different-types-population-pyramids.
Weeks, John Robert. Population: an Introduction to Concepts and Issues. Cengage Learning, 2016.
Zarulli, Virginia, et al. "Women Live Longer than Men Even during Severe Famines and Epidemics. '' Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Sciences, 3 Jan. 2018, www.pnas.org/content/early/2018/01/03/1701535115.
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who wants to be a millionaire which channel | Who Wants to Be a Millionaire (U.S. game show) - wikipedia
Who Wants to Be a Millionaire (often informally called Millionaire) is an American television game show based on the same - titled British program and developed for the United States by Michael Davies. The show features a quiz competition in which contestants attempt to win a top prize of $1,000,000 by answering a series of multiple - choice questions of increasing difficulty (although, for a time, most of the questions were of random difficulty). The program has endured as one of the longest - running and most successful international variants in the Who Wants to Be a Millionaire? franchise.
The original U.S. version aired on ABC from August 16, 1999, to June 27, 2002, and was hosted by Regis Philbin. The daily syndicated version of the show began airing on September 16, 2002, and was hosted for eleven seasons by Meredith Vieira until May 31, 2013. Later hosts included Cedric the Entertainer in the 2013 -- 14 season, Terry Crews in the following season (2014 -- 15), and Chris Harrison, who began hosting on September 14, 2015.
As the first U.S. network game show to offer a million - dollar top prize, the show made television history by becoming one of the highest - rated game shows in the history of American television. The U.S. Millionaire has won seven Daytime Emmy Awards, and TV Guide ranked it No. 6 in its 2013 list of the 60 greatest game shows of all time.
At its core, the game is a quiz competition in which the goal is to correctly answer a series of fourteen (originally fifteen) consecutive multiple - choice questions. The questions are of increasing difficulty, except in the 2010 -- 15 format overhaul, where the contestants were faced with a round of ten questions of random difficulty, followed by a round of four questions of increasing difficulty. Each question is worth a specified amount of money; the amounts are cumulative in the first round, but not in the second. If the contestant gives a wrong answer to any question, their game is over and their winnings are reduced (or increased, in the first two questions) to $1,000 for tier - one questions, $5,000 for tier - two questions, and $50,000 for tier - three questions. However, the contestant has the option of "walking away '' without giving an answer after being presented with a question, in which case the game ends and the contestant is guaranteed to walk away with all the money they have previously received. With the exception of the shuffle format, upon correctly answering questions five and ten, contestants are guaranteed at least the amount of prize money associated with that level. If the contestant gives an incorrect answer, their winnings drop down to the last milestone achieved. Since 2015, if the contestant answers a question incorrectly before reaching question five, he or she leaves with $1,000, even on the first question that is worth only $500. For celebrities, the minimum guarantee for their nominated charities is $10,000. Prior to the shuffle format, a contestant left with nothing if (s) he answered a question incorrectly before reaching the first milestone. In the shuffle format era, contestants who incorrectly answered a question had their winnings reduced to $1,000 in round one and $25,000 in round two.
On the ABC versions, ten contestants competed in a preliminary "Fastest Finger '' round for the right to play the main game on each episode. The contestants were presented with a question and a list of four answers which needed to be put in a specific order. Using keys on their podiums, each of the contestants attempted to enter the correct order in the shortest amount of time, with a maximum time limit of 20 seconds. If the main game ended and there was still time available for another game, the remaining contestants played another Fastest Finger round for a chance to play the main game. In the event of a tie between two or more contestants, those contestants played an additional Fastest Finger question to break the tie. If all contestants answered the question incorrectly, the round was repeated with another question. Fastest Finger was eliminated from the gameplay when the syndicated version premiered in 2002.
From 2008 to 2010, time limits were used for each question. Contestants were given up to 15 seconds each for questions one through five, 30 seconds each for questions six through ten, and 45 seconds each for questions eleven through fourteen. Unused time was banked, and if the contestant reached question fifteen, he or she was given 45 seconds plus the amount of time previously banked. If the clock reached zero before a contestant could provide a final answer, the contestant was forced to walk away with the winnings they had at that point. During the clock format era, a "Millionaire Menu '' was introduced, in which categories are revealed for each question at the beginning of the game, and are made visible to the contestant for their future reference. Some prize levels also changed at the start of season eight. Most of the episodes in season eight (from the "Million Dollar Tournament of Ten '' onward) featured special "Celebrity Questions '' that were mid-level in monetary value, and were provided by notable individuals whose identities were not revealed until the contestant reached their special questions.
When the ninth syndicated season began on September 13, 2010, the format was overhauled. Ten questions were asked in round one, each assigned one of ten different money amounts which were randomized at the beginning of the game, as were the questions themselves. The difficulty of the questions was not tied to the dollar value. The dollar values for each question remained hidden until a contestant either provided a correct answer or chose to "jump '' the question. The value of each question answered correctly was added to the contestant 's bank, for a maximum total of $68,600. A contestant who completed the round successfully could walk at any subsequent point with all the money in their bank, or could walk without completing the round with half that amount (e.g., a contestant who banked $30,000 would leave with $15,000). After completing round one, the contestant moved on to a second round of gameplay (the "Classic Millionaire '' round), in which four non-categorized questions were played for set non-cumulative values and a correct answer augmented the contestant 's winnings to that point, as in the older formats. The shuffle format changes, including the randomization and double - round distribution of questions, were reverted for the fourteenth syndicated season.
From 2011 to 2014, certain weeks of the show were designated as "Double Your Money '' weeks. In those, a pre-selected question in round one was designated the "Double Money Question. '' When a contestant answered such a question correctly, the monetary value behind the question was doubled and added to his or her bank, giving him or her the possibility of adding up to $50,000 to his or her bank on a single question; under these special rules, it was possible for a contestant to finish round one with a maximum total of $93,600 in their bank. However, when a contestant "jumped '' the question, they forfeited the doubled money.
In the event that a contestant leaves and very little time remains (in the final part of an episode), a randomly selected audience member is given one chance to win $1,000 by answering the next question intended for the previous contestant (or $2,000 if the next question was on a Double Money episode). Regardless of the outcome, the audience member receives a special prize. In seasons nine and ten, the prize was a copy of the Millionaire video game; as of season eleven, audience members now receive 20 free playings for a Facebook game based on the show 's format. In season thirteen, which gave this game the name "Thousandaire '', the question the audience player faced did not come from the previous player 's stack, but was instead a separate question. Two additional audience games were also introduced and played in season thirteen: "Team Millionaire '', where two audience members are both presented with a single question and lock in their individual answers separately for the chance to win $500 and a bonus question with which they can double their money; and "Fastest Feet '', a variation of Fastest Finger which four audience members play for the chance to split $1,000.
Five different ladders have been used for a season or more over the course of the series.
The original primetime payment structure was also used for the first two seasons of the syndicated version. The third syndicated season saw a reduction in the values for questions ten through twelve. In the eighth syndicated season, the lower question values were adjusted to raise the first safe haven to $5,000. When the "shuffle format '' was used, the first ten questions had random amounts from $100 to $25,000, as listed above. In addition, the number of questions needed to win the million was reduced to 14, removing the $50,000 level; the last four values remained the same for round two. When the shuffle format ended at the start of the 2015 -- 16 season, the switch to 14 questions was retained; the first safe haven was kept at $5,000, but the second was raised to $50,000.
The $500,000 and $1,000,000 prizes were initially lump - sum payments, but were changed to annuities in September 2002 when the series moved to syndication. Contestants winning either of these prizes receive $250,000 thirty days after their show broadcasts and the remainder paid in equal annual payments. The $500,000 prize consists of $25,000 per year for 10 years, while the $1,000,000 prize consists of $37,500 per year for 20 years.
Any contestant who answers one of the first five questions incorrectly still receives a $1,000 consolation prize, contrary to what the home audience is told. This is in contrast to the old format, in which contestants who answered one of the first five questions incorrectly actually left with nothing at all.
Contestants are given a series of lifelines to aid them with difficult questions. They can use as many lifelines as desired per question, but each lifeline can only be used once per game. Three lifelines are available from the start of the game. Depending on the format of the show, additional lifelines may become available after the contestant correctly answers the fifth or tenth question. In the clock format, usage of lifelines temporarily paused the clock while the lifelines were played.
The show 's original three lifelines were "50: 50 '', in which the computer eliminates two of the incorrect answers; "Phone - a-Friend '', which allowed the contestant to make a 30 - second call to one of a number of friends (who provided their phone numbers in advance) and read them the question and answer choices, after which the friend provided input; and "Ask the Audience '', in which audience members use touch pads to designate what they believe the correct answer to be, after which the percentage of the audience choosing each specific option is displayed to the contestant. 50: 50 was eliminated at the end of the show 's sixth syndicated season, only to be restored in season fourteen. Phone - a-Friend was removed on the episode aired January 11, 2010, after it was determined that there was an increasing trend of contestants ' friends using search engines and other Internet resources, unfairly privileging individuals who had computer access over those who did not, and that it was contrary to the original intent of the lifeline where friends were supposed to provide assistance based on what they already knew. From 2004 to 2008, there was a fourth lifeline called "Switch the Question '', earned upon answering question ten, in which the computer replaced, at the contestant 's request, one question with another of the same monetary value; however, any lifelines used on the original question were not reinstated for the new question. Switch the Question returned as "Cut the Question '' on a special week of shows with child contestants aired in 2014.
During the Super Millionaire spin - off, two new lifelines were introduced: "Double Dip '', which allowed the contestant to make two guesses at a question, but required them to play out the question, forbidding them to walk away or use any further lifelines; and "Three Wise Men '', in which the contestant was allowed to ask a sequestered panel of three people chosen by the producers, appearing via face - to - face audio and video feeds, which answer they believed was correct, within a time limit of 30 seconds. When the clock format was implemented, Double Dip replaced 50: 50, and the show introduced a new lifeline called "Ask the Expert '', which was like Three Wise Men but had one person (usually a celebrity or a former Millionaire contestant) functioning as an expert instead of a panel of three people, lacked the time limit of its predecessor, and allowed the contestant and expert to discuss the question. Ask the Expert was originally available after the fifth question, but was moved to the beginning of the game after Phone - a-Friend was removed.
The show 's lifelines sometimes used corporate sponsorship. The Phone - a-Friend lifeline was sponsored by the original AT&T throughout the run of the ABC primetime show and in the first season of the syndicated version, then by the current AT&T for the 2009 primetime episodes. From 2004 to 2006, Ask the Audience was sponsored by AOL, which allowed users of its Instant Messenger to add the screen name MillionaireIM to their buddy list and receive an instant message with the question and the four possible answers, to which the users replied with their choices. In addition, the Ask the Expert lifeline was sponsored by Skype for its live audio and video feeds.
During the shuffle format era, the show introduced a new lifeline, "Jump the Question '', which was able to be used twice in a single game for seasons nine through twelve. At any point prior to selecting a final answer, a contestant could use Jump the Question to skip the current question and move on to the next one, thus reducing the number of questions they had to correctly answer. However, if the contestant used Jump the Question, they did not gain any money from the question they chose to skip (for example, a contestant would not gain the typical $100,000 if they jumped to the $250,000 question). This lifeline could not be used on the $1 million question, since it is the final question in the game. The "Plus One '' lifeline, introduced in season thirteen, allows a contestant to bring a companion with him or her to the podium for help in answering a question. The introduction of this lifeline reduced the number of Jump the Question lifelines available from two to one. On occasional specially designated weeks, starting with a Halloween - themed week that aired from October 29 to November 2, 2012, the shuffle format used a special lifeline called "Crystal Ball '', which allows the contestant to see the money value of a round one question prior to giving an answer. Jump the Question was removed at the end of the show 's thirteenth syndicated season. For the show 's fourteenth season, during a special week of college shows, players got another lifeline called "Extra Help '', played similarly to "Plus One '' and allowing for another companion to help the player; however, it could only be used after "Plus One '' was used.
The first contestant to correctly answer all 15 questions and win the top prize of $1,000,000 was John Carpenter, on the episode aired November 19, 1999. In 2000, the million dollar top prize was awarded five times: to Dan Blonsky on the episode aired January 18, to Joe Trela on March 23, to Bob House on June 13, to Kim Hunt on July 6, and to David Goodman on July 11.
In January 2001, when no contestant had won $1 million in any show that aired over a period of five months, the top prize was then changed from a flat $1 million to an accumulating jackpot that increased by $10,000 for each episode where the top prize was not won. On April 10, 2001, Kevin Olmstead correctly answered the final question and won $2,180,000, making him the biggest winner in television history at the time. The top prize for correctly answering the final question returned to $1 million following Olmstead 's win and has remained unchanged since; just five days after Olmstead 's win, the standard $1 million prize was awarded to Bernie Cullen. The last top prize winner on the original network version was Ed Toutant, on the episode aired September 7, 2001; he had previously appeared on the episode aired January 31, 2001 when the jackpot was $1,860,000, where he was ruled to have answered his $16,000 question incorrectly, but when it was discovered that there was a mistake in that question, Toutant was invited back and won the $1,860,000 jackpot. On the Super Millionaire spin - off, Robert Essig won $1,000,000 after answering the twelfth question and then walked away, not reaching the final question for $10,000,000.
On the syndicated version 's first season, two contestants correctly answered all 15 questions and won the top prize of $1,000,000: Kevin Smith on February 18, 2003, and Nancy Christy on May 8 of the same year. During the Million Dollar Tournament of Ten which aired in November 2009, Sam Murray, who had previously supplied correct responses for eleven questions, risked his winnings on a special $1,000,000 question; he was the only contestant to answer his question correctly.
The original network version of the U.S. Millionaire and the subsequent primetime specials were hosted by Regis Philbin. When the syndicated version was being developed, the production team felt that it was not feasible for Philbin to continue hosting, as the show recorded four episodes in a single day, and that the team was looking for qualities in a new host: it had to be somebody who would love the contestants and be willing to root for them. Rosie O'Donnell was initially offered a hosting position on this new edition, but declined the opportunity almost immediately. Eventually Meredith Vieira, who had previously competed in a celebrity charity event on the original network version, was named host of the new syndicated edition.
ABC originally offered Vieira hosting duties on the syndicated Millionaire to sweeten one of her re-negotiations for the network 's daytime talk show The View, which she was moderating at the time. When the show was honored by GSN on its Gameshow Hall of Fame special, Vieira herself further explained her motivation for hosting the syndicated version as follows:
From 2007 to 2011, when Vieira was concurrently working as a co-host of Today, guest hosts appeared in the second half of each season of the syndicated version. Guest hosts who filled in for Vieira included Philbin, Al Roker, Tom Bergeron, Tim Vincent, Dave Price, Billy Bush, Leeza Gibbons, Cat Deeley, Samantha Harris, Shaun Robinson, Steve Harvey, John Henson, Sherri Shepherd, Tim Gunn, and D.L. Hughley.
On January 10, 2013, Vieira announced that after eleven seasons with the syndicated Millionaire, she would be leaving the show as part of an effort to focus on other projects in her career. She finalized taping of her last episodes with the show in November 2012. While Philbin briefly considered a return to the show, Cedric the Entertainer was introduced as her successor when season twelve premiered on September 2, 2013. On April 30, 2014, Deadline announced that Cedric had decided to leave the show in order to lighten his workload, resulting in him being succeeded by Terry Crews for the 2014 -- 15 season. Crews was succeeded by Chris Harrison, host of The Bachelor and its spin - offs, when season 14 premiered on September 14, 2015.
The original executive producers of the U.S. Millionaire were British television producers Michael Davies and Paul Smith, the latter of whom undertook the responsibility of licensing Millionaire to American airwaves as part of his effort to transform the UK program into a global franchise. Smith served until 2007 and Davies until 2010; additionally, Leigh Hampton (previously co-executive producer in the later days of the network version and in the syndicated version 's first two seasons) served as an executive producer from 2004 to 2010. Rich Sirop, who was previously a supervising producer, became the executive producer in 2010 and held that position until 2014, when he left Millionaire to hold the same position with Vieira 's newly launched syndicated talk show, and was replaced by James Rowley. Vincent Rubino, who had previously been the syndicated Millionaire 's supervising producer for its first two seasons, served as that version 's co-executive producer for the 2004 -- 05 season, after which he was succeeded by Vieira herself, who continued to hold the title until her departure in 2013 (sharing her position with Sirop for the 2009 -- 10 season).
Producers of the network version included Hampton, Rubino, Leslie Fuller, Nikki Webber, and Terrence McDonnell. For its first two seasons the syndicated version had Deirdre Cossman for its managing producer, then Dennis F. McMahon became producer for the next two seasons (joined by Dominique Bruballa as his line producer), after which Jennifer Weeks produced the next four seasons of syndicated Millionaire shows, initially accompanied by Amanda Zucker as her line producer, but later joined for the 2008 -- 09 season by Tommy Cody (who became sole producer in the 2009 -- 10 season). The first 65 shuffle format episodes were produced by McPaul Smith, and as of 2011, the title of producer is held by Bryan Lasseter. The network version had Ann Miller and Tiffany Trigg for its supervising producers; they were joined by Wendy Roth in the first two seasons, and by Michael Binkow in the third and final season. After Rubino 's promotion to co-executive producer, the syndicated version 's later supervising producers included Sirop (2004 -- 09), Geena Gintzig (2009 -- 10), Brent Burnette (2010 -- 12), Geoff Rosen (2012 -- 14), and Liz Harris (2014 -- 16), who currently serves as the co-executive producer.
The original network version of Millionaire was directed by Mark Gentile, who later served as the syndicated version 's consulting producer for its first two seasons, and then as the director of Duel, which ran on ABC from December 2007 to July 2008. The syndicated version was directed by Matthew Cohen from 2002 to 2010, by Rob George from 2010 to 2013, and by Brian McAloon in the 2013 -- 14 season. Former Price Is Right director Rich DiPirro became Millionaire 's director in 2014.
The U.S. version of Millionaire is a co-production of 2waytraffic, a division of Sony Pictures Entertainment, and Valleycrest Productions, a division of The Walt Disney Company. 2waytraffic purchased Millionaire 's original production company Celador in 2008, while Valleycrest has produced the series since its beginning, and holds the copyright on all U.S. Millionaire episodes to date. The show is distributed by Valleycrest 's corporate sibling Disney - ABC Home Entertainment & Television Distribution (previously known as Buena Vista Television).
The U.S. Millionaire was taped at ABC 's Television Center East studio on the Upper West Side of Manhattan in New York from 1999 to 2012. Tapings were moved to NEP Broadcasting 's Metropolis Studios in East Harlem in 2013, and production moved to studios located in Stamford, Connecticut the following year. For the 2016 -- 17 season, production relocated to Bally 's Hotel and Casino in Las Vegas, Nevada. Episodes of the syndicated version are produced from June to December. The show originally taped four episodes in a single day, but that number has since been changed to five.
When the U.S. version of Millionaire was first conceived in 1998, Michael Davies was a young television producer who was serving as the head of ABC 's little - noticed reality programming division (at a time when reality television had not yet become a phenomenon in America). At that time, ABC was lingering in third place in the ratings indexes among U.S. broadcast networks, and was on the verge of losing its status as one of the "Big Three '' networks. Meanwhile, the popularity of game shows was at an all - time nadir, as with the exception of The Price Is Right, the genre was absent from networks ' daytime lineups at that point. Having earlier created Debt for Lifetime Television and participated with Al Burton and Donnie Brainard in the creation of Win Ben Stein 's Money for Comedy Central, Davies decided to create a primetime game show that would save the network from collapse and revive interest in game shows.
Davies originally considered reviving CBS 's long - lost quiz show The $64,000 Question for a new era, with a new home on ABC. However, this effort 's development was limited as when the producer heard that the British Millionaire was about to make its debut, he got his friends and family members in the UK to record the show, and subsequently ended up receiving about eight FedEx packages from different family members, each containing a copy of Millionaire 's first episode. Davies was so captivated by everything that he had seen and heard, from host Chris Tarrant 's intimate involvement with the contestant to the show 's lighting system and music tracks, that he chose to abandon his work on the $64,000 Question revival in favor of introducing Millionaire to American airwaves, convinced that it would become extraordinarily popular.
When Davies presented his ideas for the U.S. Millionaire to ABC, the network 's executives initially rejected them, so he resigned his position there and became an independent producer. Determined to bring his idea for the show to fruition, Davies decided that he was betting his whole career on Millionaire 's production, and the first move that he made was planning to attach a celebrity host to the show. Along with Philbin, a number of other popular television personalities were considered for hosting positions on the U.S. Millionaire during its development, including Peter Jennings, Bob Costas, Phil Donahue, and Montel Williams, but among those considered, it was Philbin who wanted the job the most, and when he saw an episode of the British Millionaire and was blown away by his content, Davies and his team ultimately settled on having him host the American show. When Davies approached ABC again after having hired Philbin, the network finally agreed to accept the U.S. Millionaire. With production now ready to begin, the team had only five months to finish developing the show and get it launched, with Davies demanding perfection in every element of Millionaire 's production.
With few exceptions, any legal resident of the United States who is 18 years of age or older has the potential of becoming a contestant through Millionaire 's audition process. Those ineligible include employees, immediate family or household members, and close acquaintances of SPE, Disney, or any of their respective affiliates or subsidiaries; television stations that broadcast the syndicated version; or any advertising agency or other firm or entity engaged in the production, administration, or judging of the show. Also ineligible are current candidates for political office and individuals who have appeared on a different game show outside of cable that has been broadcast within the past year, is intended to be broadcast within the next year, or played the main game on any of the U.S. versions of Millionaire itself.
Potential contestants of the original primetime version had to compete in a telephone contest which had them dial a toll - free number and answer three questions by putting objects or events in order. Callers had ten seconds to enter the order on a keypad, with any incorrect answer ending the game / call. The 10,000 to 20,000 candidates who answered all three questions correctly were selected into a random drawing in which approximately 300 contestants competed for ten spots on the show using the same phone quiz method. Accommodations for contestants outside the New York City area included round trip airfare (or other transportation) and hotel accommodations.
The syndicated version 's potential contestants, depending on tryouts, are required to pass an electronically scored test comprising a set of thirty questions which must be answered within a 10 - minute time limit. Contestants who fail the test are eliminated, while those who pass are interviewed for an audition by the production staff, and those who impress the staff the most are then notified by postal mail that they have been placed into a pool for possible selection as contestants. At the producers ' discretion, contestants from said pool are selected to appear on actual episodes of the syndicated program; these contestants are given a phone call from staff and asked to confirm the information on their initial application form and verify that they meet all eligibility requirements. Afterwards, they are given a date to travel to the show 's taping facilities to participate in a scheduled episode of the show. Unlike its ABC counterpart, the syndicated version does not offer transportation or hotel accommodations to contestants at the production company 's expense; that version 's contestants are instead required to provide transportation and accommodations of their own.
The syndicated Millionaire also conducts open casting calls in various locations across the United States to search for potential contestants. These are held in late spring or early summer, with all dates and locations posted on the show 's official website. The producers make no guarantee on how many applicants will be tested at each particular venue; however, the show will not test any more than 2,500 individuals per audition day.
In cases when the show features themed episodes with two people playing as a team, auditions for these episodes ' contestants are announced on the show 's website. Both members of the team must pass the written test and the audition interview successfully in order to be considered for selection. If only one member of the team passes, he or she is placed into the contestant pool alone and must continue the audition process as an individual in order to proceed.
Originally, the U.S. Millionaire carried over the musical score from the British version, composed by father - and - son duo Keith and Matthew Strachan. Unlike older game show musical scores, Millionaire 's musical score was created to feature music playing almost throughout the entire show. The Strachans ' main Millionaire theme song took some inspiration from the "Mars '' movement of Gustav Holst 's The Planets, and their question cues from the $2,000 to the $32,000 / $25,000 level, and then from the $64,000 / $50,000 level onwards, took the pitch up a semitone for each subsequent question, in order to increase tension as the contestant progressed through the game. On GSN 's Gameshow Hall of Fame special, the narrator described the Strachan tracks as "mimicking the sound of a beating heart, '' and stated that as the contestant worked their way up the money ladder, the music was "perfectly in tune with their ever - increasing pulse. ''
The original Millionaire musical score holds the distinction of being the only game show soundtrack to be acknowledged by the American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers, as the Strachans were honored with numerous ASCAP awards for their work, the earliest of them awarded in 2000. The original music cues were given minor rearrangements for the clock format in 2008; for example, the question cues were synced to the "ticking '' sounds of the game clock. Even later, the Strachan score was removed from the U.S. version altogether for the introduction of the shuffle format in 2010, in favor of a new musical score with cues written by Jeff Lippencott and Mark T. Williams, co-founders of the Los Angeles - based company Ah2 Music.
The U.S. Millionaire 's basic set is a direct adaptation of the British version 's set design, which was conceived by Andy Walmsley. Paul Smith 's original licensing agreement for the U.S. Millionaire required that the show 's set design, along with all other elements of the show 's on - air presentation (musical score, lighting system, host 's wardrobe, etc.), adhere faithfully to the way in which they were presented in the British version; this same licensing agreement applied to all other international versions of the show, making Walmsley 's Millionaire set design the most reproduced scenic design in television history. The original version of the U.S. Millionaire 's set cost $200,000 to construct. The U.S. Millionaire 's production design is handled by George Allison, whose predecessors have included David Weller and Jim Fenhagen.
Unlike older game shows whose sets are or were designed to make the contestant (s) feel at ease, Millionaire 's set was designed to make the contestant feel uncomfortable, so that the program feels more like a movie thriller than a typical quiz show. The floor is made of Plexiglas beneath which lies a huge dish covered in mirror paper. Before the shuffle format was implemented in 2010, the main game had the contestant and host sit in chairs in the center of the stage, known as "Hot Seats ''; these measured 3 feet (0.91 m) high, were modeled after chairs typically found in hair salons, and each seat featured a computer monitor directly facing it to display questions and other pertinent information. Shortly after the shuffle format was introduced to Millionaire, Vieira stated in an interview with her Millionaire predecessor on his morning talk show that the Hot Seat was removed because it was decided that the seat, which was originally intended to make the contestant feel nervous, actually ended up having contestants feel so comfortable in it that it did not service the production team any longer.
The lighting system is programmed to darken the set as the contestant progresses further into the game. There are also spotlights situated at the bottom of the set area that zoom down on the contestant when they answer a major question; to increase the visibility of the light beams emitted by such spotlights, oil is vaporized, creating a haze effect. Media scholar Dr. Robert Thompson, a professor at Syracuse University, stated that the show 's lighting system made the contestant feel as though they were outside of prison when an escape was in progress.
When the shuffle format was introduced, the Hot Seats and corresponding monitors were replaced with a single podium, and as a result, the contestant and host stand throughout the game and are also able to walk around the stage. Also, two video screens were installed -- one that displays the current question in play, and another that displays the contestant 's cumulative total and progress during the game. In September 2012, the redesigned set was improved with a modernized look and feel, in order to take into account the show 's transition to high - definition broadcasting, which had just come about the previous year. The two video screens were replaced with two larger ones, having twice as many projectors as the previous screens had; the previous contestant podium was replaced with a new one; and light - emitting diode (LED) technology was integrated into the lighting system to give the lights more vivid colors and the set and gameplay experience a more intimate feel.
The U.S. version of Millionaire was launched by ABC as a half - hour primetime program on August 16, 1999. When it premiered, it became the first U.S. network game show to offer a million - dollar top prize to contestants. After airing thirteen episodes and reaching an audience of 15 million viewers by the end of the show 's first week on the air, the program expanded to an hour - long format when it returned in November. The series, of which episodes were originally shown only a day after their initial taping, was promoted to regular status on January 18, 2000 and, at the height of its popularity, was airing on ABC five nights a week. The show was so popular during its original primetime run that rival networks created or re-incarnated game shows of their own (e.g., Greed, Twenty One, etc.), as well as importing various game shows of British and Australian origin to America (such as Winning Lines, Weakest Link, and It 's Your Chance of a Lifetime).
The nighttime version initially drew in up to 30 million viewers a day three times a week, an unheard - of number in modern network television. In the 1999 -- 2000 season, it averaged No. 1 in the ratings against all other television shows, with 28,848,000 viewers. In the next season (2000 -- 01), three nights out of the five weekly episodes placed in the top 10. However, the show 's ratings began to fall during the 2000 -- 01 season, so that at the start of the 2001 -- 02 season, the ratings were only a fraction of what they had been one year before, and by season 's end, the show was no longer even ranked among the top 20. ABC 's reliance on the show 's popularity led the network to fall quickly from its former spot as the nation 's most watched network.
As ABC 's overexposure of the primetime Millionaire led the public to tire of the show, there was speculation that the show would not survive beyond the 2001 -- 02 season. The staff planned on switching it to a format that would emphasize comedy more than the game and feature a host other than Philbin, but in the end, the primetime show was canceled, with its final episode airing on June 27, 2002.
In 2001, Millionaire producers began work on a half - hour daily syndicated version of the show, with the idea being that it would serve as an accompaniment to the network series which was still in production. ABC 's cancellation of the network Millionaire ended that idea; however, the syndicated Millionaire still had enough interest to be greenlit and BVT sold the series to local stations for the 2002 -- 03 season. The syndicated series nearly met the same fate as its predecessor, however, due in part to worries that stemmed from a decision made by one of its affiliates.
In the New York media market, BVT sold the syndicated Millionaire to CBS 's flagship station, WCBS - TV. In the season that had passed, WCBS ' mid-afternoon schedule included the syndicated edition of NBC 's Weakest Link, which aired at 4 pm from its January 2002 premiere. Joining Millionaire as a new syndicated series was a spinoff of The Oprah Winfrey Show hosted by Dr. Phil McGraw. WCBS picked up both series for 2002 -- 03, with Dr. Phil serving as lead - in for the syndicated Millionaire, which was plugged into the time slot that Weakest Link had been occupying.
At mid-season, WCBS announced that for the 2003 -- 04 season it had acquired the broadcast rights to The People 's Court after WNBC, which had been airing the revived series since its 1997 debut, dropped it from its lineup. WCBS announced plans to move The People 's Court into the time slot that was occupied by Millionaire and the still - airing 4: 30 pm local newscast once it joined the station 's lineup in September 2003. This led to speculation that the syndicated Millionaire would not be returning for a second season, and BVT 's concerns over losing its New York affiliate were compounded by the fact that there were not many time slots available for the show in New York outside of the undesirable late - night slots that syndicators try to avoid.
In June 2003, a shakeup at one of BVT 's corporate siblings provided the series with an opening. ABC announced that it would be returning the 12: 30 pm network time slot to its affiliates in October of that year following the cancellation of the soap opera Port Charles. ABC 's flagship, WABC - TV, was thus in need of a program to fill the slot and BVT went to them asking if the station would pick up Millionaire. WABC agreed to do this and when the new season launched that fall, the station began airing Millionaire at 12: 30 pm. Millionaire continued to air on WABC in the afternoon until the end of the 2014 -- 15 season, when it acquired the broadcast rights to FABLife for the 2015 -- 16 season. To make room for FABLife, the afternoon airing of Millionaire was moved to independent station WLNY - TV; however, FABLife was canceled in January 2016, and as a result, Millionaire moved back to WABC for the 2016 -- 17 season.
According to e-mails released in the Sony Pictures Entertainment hack, Millionaire narrowly avoided cancellation after the 2014 -- 15 season. The show 's declining ratings prompted DADT to demand a dramatically reduced licensing fee for renewal, which SPE was hesitant to accept. The series was nonetheless renewed for the 2015 -- 16 season, with various cuts to the show 's production budget and a return to the original format (but with only 14 questions). Had the show not been renewed, SPE would have placed the show on extended hiatus for three years, reclaimed full rights to the show (without the innovations and format added in the syndicated run, to which DADT owns intellectual property rights), and shopped the revived show to another network or syndicator. In January 2017, it was announced that Millionaire has been renewed through 2018.
GSN acquired the rerun rights to the U.S. Millionaire in August 2003. The network initially aired only episodes from the three seasons of the original prime - time run; however, additional episodes were later added. These included the Super Millionaire spin - off, which aired on GSN from May 2005 to January 2007, and the first two seasons of the syndicated version, which began airing on November 10, 2008.
Various special editions and tournaments have been conducted which feature celebrities playing the game and donating winnings to charities of their choice. During celebrity editions on the original ABC version, contestants were allowed to receive help from their fellow contestants during the first ten questions. The most successful celebrity contestants throughout the show 's run have included Drew Carey, Rosie O'Donnell, Norm Macdonald, and Chip Esten, all of whom won $500,000 for their respective charities. The episode featuring O'Donnell's $500,000 win averaged 36.1 million viewers, the highest number for a single episode of the show.
There have also been special weeks featuring two or three family members or couples competing as a team, a "Champions Edition '' where former big winners returned and split their winnings with their favorite charities, a "Zero Dollar Winner Edition '' featuring contestants who previously missed one of the first - tier questions and left with nothing, and a "Tax - Free Edition '' in which H&R Block calculated the taxes of winnings to allow contestants to earn stated winnings after taxes, and various theme weeks featuring college students, teachers, brides - to - be, etc. as contestants. Additionally, the syndicated version once featured an annual "Walk In & Win Week '' with contestants who were randomly selected from the audience without having to take the audition test.
Special weeks have also included shows featuring questions concerning specific topics, such as professional football, celebrity gossip, movies, and pop culture. During a week of episodes in November 2007, to celebrate the 1,000 th episode of the syndicated Millionaire, all contestants that week started with $1,000 so that they could not leave empty - handed, and only had to answer ten questions to win $1,000,000. During that week, twenty home viewers per day also won $1,000 each.
In 2004, Philbin returned to host 12 episodes of a spin - off program titled Who Wants to Be a Super Millionaire in which contestants could potentially win $10,000,000. ABC aired five episodes of this spin - off during the week of February 22, 2004, and an additional seven episodes later that year in May. As usual, contestants had to answer a series of 15 multiple - choice questions of increasing difficulty, but the dollar values rose substantially. The first five questions for Super Millionaire were worth $1,000, $2,000, $3,000, $4,000, $5,000 (the first safe haven), the remaining ten questions were worth $10,000, $20,000, $30,000, $50,000, $100,000 (the second safe haven), $500,000, $1,000,000, $2,500,000, $5,000,000, and $10,000,000.
Contestants were given the standard three lifelines in place at the time (50: 50, Ask the Audience, and Phone - a-Friend) at the beginning of the game. However, after correctly answering the $100,000 question, the contestant earned two additional lifelines: Three Wise Men and Double Dip. The Three Wise Men lifeline involved a panel of three experts, one of whom was always a former Millionaire contestant and at least one of whom was female. When this lifeline was used, the contestant and panel had 30 seconds to discuss the question and choices before the audio and video feeds were dropped. Double Dip gave a contestant two chances to answer a question. Once used, no further lifelines could be used; moreover, if the "first final answer '' was incorrect, the contestant could not walk away. If the "second final answer '' was also wrong, the contestant left with $100,000.
To celebrate the tenth anniversary of Millionaire 's U.S. debut, the show returned to ABC primetime for an eleven - night event hosted by Philbin, which aired August 9 -- 23, 2009. The Academy Award - winning movie Slumdog Millionaire and the 2008 economic crisis helped boost interest of renewal of the game show.
The episodes featured game play based on the previous rule set of the syndicated version (including the rule changes implemented in season seven) but used the Fastest Finger round to select contestants. Various celebrities also made special guest appearances at the end of every episode; each guest played one question for a chance at $50,000 for a charity of their choice, being allowed to use any one of the four lifelines in place at the time (Phone - a-Friend, Ask the Audience, Double Dip, and Ask the Expert), but still earned a minimum of $25,000 for the charity if they answered the question incorrectly.
On August 18, 2009, New York City resident Nik Bonaddio appeared on the program, winning $100,000 with the help of the audience and later, Gwen Ifill as his lifelines. Bonaddio then used the proceeds to start the sports analytics firm numberFire, which was sold in September 2015 to FanDuel, a fantasy sports platform.
The finale of the tenth anniversary special, which aired on August 23, 2009, featured Ken Basin, an entertainment lawyer, Harvard Law graduate, and former Jeopardy! contestant, who went on to become the first contestant to play a $1,000,000 question in the "clock format '' era. With a time of 4: 39 (45 seconds + 3: 54 banked time), Basin was given a question involving President Lyndon Baines Johnson 's fondness for Fresca. Using his one remaining lifeline, Basin asked the audience, which supported his own hunch of Yoo - hoo rather than the correct answer. He decided to answer the question and lost $475,000, becoming the first contestant in the U.S. version to answer a $1,000,000 question incorrectly. After Basin finished his run, Vieira appeared on - camera and announced that all remaining Fastest Finger contestants would play with her on the first week of the syndicated version 's eighth season. After this, the million dollar question was not played again on a standard episode until September 25, 2013, when Josina Reaves became the second U.S. Millionaire contestant to incorrectly answer her $1,000,000 question, but only lost $75,000 as she used her Jump the Question lifelines on her $250,000 and $500,000 questions.
Although the syndicated Millionaire had produced two millionaires in its first season, Nancy Christy 's May 2003 win was still standing as the most recent when the program began its eighth season in fall of 2009. Deciding that six - plus years had been too long since someone had won the top prize, producers conducted a tournament to find a third million dollar winner. For the first nine weeks of the 2009 -- 10 season, each episode saw contestants attempt to qualify for what was referred to as the "Tournament of Ten ''. Contestants were seeded based on how much money they had won, with the biggest winner ranked first and the lowest ranked tenth. Ties were broken based on how much time a contestant had banked when they had walked away from the game.
The tournament began on the episode aired November 9, 2009, and playing in order from the lowest to the highest seed, tournament contestants played one at a time at the end of that episode and the next nine. The rules were exactly the same as they were for a normal million dollar question under the clock format introduced the season before, except here, the contestants had no lifelines at their disposal. Each contestant received a base time of 45 seconds. For each question they had answered before walking away, the contestants received any unused seconds that were left when they gave their answers. The accumulated total of those unused seconds was then added to the base time to give the contestants their final question time limit.
Each contestant had the same decision facing them as before, which was whether to attempt to answer the question or walk away with their pre-tournament total intact. Attempting the question and answering incorrectly incurred the same penalty as in regular play, with a reduction of their pre-tournament winnings to $25,000. If the question was answered correctly, the player that did so became the tournament leader. If another player after him / her answered correctly, that player assumed the lead and the previous leader kept their pre-tournament winnings. The highest remaining seed to have attempted and correctly answered their question at the end of the tournament on November 20, 2009 would be declared the winner and become the syndicated series ' third millionaire.
The first contestant to attempt to answer the million dollar question was Sam Murray, the tournament 's eighth - seeded qualifier. On November 11, Murray was asked approximately how many people had lived on Earth in its history and correctly guessed 100 billion. Murray was still atop the leaderboard entering the November 20 finale as he remained the only contestant to even attempt to answer his or her question. The only person who could defeat him was top seed and $250,000 winner Jehan Shamsid - Deen, who was asked a question regarding the Blorenge, cited as "a rare example of a word that rhymes with orange ''. Shamsid - Deen considered taking the risk, believing (correctly) that the name belonged to a mountain in Wales. However, she decided that the potential of losing $225,000 did not justify the risk and elected to walk away from the question, giving Murray the win and the million dollar prize.
Since its introduction to the United States, Who Wants to Be a Millionaire has been credited with not only single - handedly reviving the game show genre, but also breaking new ground for it. The series revolutionized the look and feel of game shows with its unique lighting system, dramatic music cues, and futuristic set. The show also became one of the highest - rated and most popular game shows in U.S. television history, and has been credited with paving the way for the rise of the reality TV phenomenon to prominence throughout the 2000s.
The U.S. Millionaire also made catchphrases out of various lines used on the show. In particular, "Is that your final answer? '', asked by Millionaire 's hosts whenever a contestant 's answer needs to be verified, was popularized by Philbin during his tenure as host, and was also included on TV Land 's special "100 Greatest TV Quotes and Catch Phrases '', which aired in 2006. Meanwhile, during his tenure as host, Cedric signed off shows with a catchphrase of his own, "Watch yo ' wallet! ''
The original primetime version of the U.S. Millionaire won two Daytime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Game / Audience Participation Show in 2000 and 2001. Philbin was honored with a Daytime Emmy in the category of Outstanding Game Show Host in 2001, while Vieira received one in 2005, and another in 2009. TV Guide ranked the U.S. Millionaire # 7 on its 2001 list of the 50 Greatest Game Shows of All Time, and later ranked it # 6 on its 2013 "60 Greatest Game Shows '' list. GSN ranked Millionaire # 5 on its August 2006 list of the 50 Greatest Game Shows of All Time, and later honored the show in January 2007 on its only Gameshow Hall of Fame special.
In 2000, Pressman released two board game adaptions of Millionaire as well as a junior edition recommended for younger players. Several video games based on the varying gameplay formats of Millionaire have also been released throughout the course of the show 's U.S. history.
Between 1999 and 2001, Jellyvision produced five video game adaptations based upon the original primetime series for personal computers and Sony 's PlayStation console, all of them featuring Philbin 's likeness and voice. The first of these adaptations was published by Disney Interactive, while the later four were published by Buena Vista Interactive which had just been spun off from DI when it reestablished itself in attempts to diversify its portfolio. Of the five games, three featured general trivia questions, one was sports - themed, and another was a "Kids Edition '' featuring easier questions. In 2008, Imagination Games released a DVD version of the show, based on the 2004 -- 08 format and coming complete with Vieira 's likeness and voice, as well as a quiz book and a 2009 desktop calendar. Additionally, two Millionaire video games were released by Ludia in conjunction with Ubisoft in 2010 and 2011; the first of these was a game for Nintendo 's Wii console and DS handheld system based on the clock format, while the second, for Microsoft 's Xbox 360, was based on the shuffle format.
Ludia has also created a Facebook game based on Millionaire, which debuted on March 21, 2011. This game features an altered version of the shuffle format, condensing the number of questions to twelve -- eight in round one, and four in round two. A contestant can compete against eight other Millionaire fans in round one, and play round two alone if they make it into the top three. There is no "final answer '' rule; the contestant 's responses are automatically locked in. Answering a question correctly earns a contestant the value of that question, multiplied by the number of people who responded incorrectly. Contestants are allowed to use two of their Facebook friends as Jump the Question lifelines in round one, and to use the Ask the Audience lifeline in round two to invite up to 50 such friends of theirs to answer a question for a portion of the prize money of the current question.
Who Wants to Be a Millionaire -- Play It! was an attraction at the Disney 's Hollywood Studios theme park (when it was known as Disney - MGM Studios) at the Walt Disney World Resort in Orlando, Florida and at Disney California Adventure Park in Anaheim, California. Both the Florida and California Play It! attractions opened in 2001; the California version closed in 2004, and the Florida version closed in 2006 and was replaced by Toy Story Midway Mania!
The format in the Play It! attraction was very similar to that of the television show that inspired it. When a show started, a "Fastest Finger '' question was given, and the audience was asked to put the four answers in order; the person with the fastest time was the first contestant in the Hot Seat for that show. However, the main game had some differences: for example, contestants competed for points rather than dollars, the questions were set to time limits, and the Phone - a-Friend lifeline became Phone a Complete Stranger which connected the contestant to a Disney cast member outside the attraction 's theater who would find a guest to help. After the contestant 's game was over, they were awarded anything from a collectible pin, to clothing, to a Millionaire CD game, to a 3 - night Disney Cruise.
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who plays the cat in the hat in the movie | The Cat in the Hat (film) - Wikipedia
The Cat in the Hat (also known as Dr. Seuss ' The Cat in the Hat) is a 2003 American family comedy film directed by Bo Welch. It is based on the 1957 Dr. Seuss book of the same name. The film stars Mike Myers in the title role of the Cat in the Hat, and Dakota Fanning as Sally. Sally 's brother (who is unnamed in the book and the 1971 TV special), Conrad, is portrayed by Spencer Breslin. The film is the second feature - length Dr. Seuss adaptation after the 2000 holiday film How the Grinch Stole Christmas.
The idea was originally conceived in 2001, with Tim Allen initially cast as the Cat, but he dropped his role due to work on The Santa Clause 2, and the role was later given to Myers. Filming took place in California for three months. While the basic plot parallels that of the book, the film filled out its 82 minutes by adding new subplots and characters significantly different from the original story.
Released on November 21, 2003, in the United States, the film grossed $134 million worldwide, but was critically panned by critics. After the film 's release, Seuss ' widow, Audrey Geisel, decided not to allow any further live - action adaptations of Seuss ' works to be produced, and as a result, a planned sequel based on The Cat in the Hat Comes Back was scrapped.
Conrad and Sally Walden live in the city of Anville with their mother, Joan. Joan works for neat - freak Hank Humberfloob, as a real estate agent, and is hosting an office party at her house. One day, she is called back to the office, leaving the kids with Mrs. Kwan, a tired babysitter, and forbidding them to enter the living room, which is being kept pristine for the upcoming party. Joan is also dating their next - door neighbor, Larry Quinn, much to Conrad 's dismay. Larry is constantly on the lookout for any mischief Conrad may be up to, as he wants nothing more than to send him away to military school, as Conrad has earned the reputation of "hot - headed trouble - maker '', while his sister is characterized as "perfect and well - behaved ''.
Once their mother leaves, Sally and Conrad meet a humanoid, oversized talking cat in a hat in their house. The Cat reveals he wants them to learn to have fun, but the children 's pet fish does n't want the Cat around when Joan is away. The Cat then leaves a trail of destruction across the house. In the process, he releases two trouble - making things, Thing 1 and Thing 2, from a crate that he explains is actually a portal to another world. The Cat tells Conrad that he only has one rule: never open the crate, then allows the Things to have fun, but they make a mess out of the house. Despite the Cat 's warning, Conrad picks the lock on the crate. When the crate 's lock attaches itself to the collar of the family dog, Nevins, Cat and the kids must go find him and the lock. They drive a super-powered car which Cat names it S.L.O.W. (Super Luxurious Omnidirectional Whatchamajigger) in search of Nevins and use Cat 's magic hat. Conrad realizes that the Things always do the opposite to what they are told, and that this can be used to their advantage and has them stall Joan.
Meanwhile, Larry is revealed to be an unemployed slob with dentures, and is in financial debt, though claiming that he is a successful businessman in the hopes of marrying Joan for her money. Larry sees Nevins running across the street and tracks down Joan to tell her, but Things 1 and 2 have stalled her on the road, posing as police officers. Larry goes back to the house, telling Joan to meet him there.
By the time the kids and the Cat (and Larry) return to the house with the lock, a huge mess spills from the unlocked crate and enters the house, seemingly killing Larry in the process. They navigate their way through the oversized house and find the crate while cleaning up. The house is returned to its normal proportions but then immediately falls apart. The Cat tells the kids that he planned the whole day, including making not opening the crate his one rule, as he knew Conrad could not resist. The kids angrily tell the Cat to leave the house. Conrad prepares to face the consequences when Joan comes home, but Sally says she will share the blame. The Cat, having overheard this, happily returns to clean up the mess with a great cleaning contraption. named D.I.R.T. (Dynamic Industrial Renovating Tractormajigger) Afterwards The Cat says goodbye and departs as Joan is arriving. Larry returns, revealing he survived when all is restored, thinking he has busted the kids, but when Joan sees the clean house (and a messy Larry), she does not believe Larry and dumps him. After the successful party, Joan spends time with her children and the Cat finishes narrating. The film ends as he and his things decide to go on a vacation.
DreamWorks Pictures acquired rights to the original book in 1997. However, production did not originally start until after the 2000 Christmas / comedy film How the Grinch Stole Christmas, based on another Dr. Seuss book of the same name, became a commercial success. Brian Grazer, who was the producer of The Grinch, stated, "Because we grew up with these books, and because they have such universal themes and the illustrations ignite such fantasy in your mind as a child -- the aggregation of all those feelings -- it leaves an indelible, positive memory. And so when I realized I had a chance to convert first The Grinch and then, The Cat in the Hat, into movies, I was willing to do anything to bring them to the screen. '' Grazer contacted Bo Welch over the phone with the offer to direct the film, and he accepted. When production began, songs written by Randy Newman were dropped because they were deemed inferior. Newman 's cousin, David Newman, composed the score for the film. Although Welch and a publicist for Myers denied it, several people said Myers had considerable input into the film 's direction, telling some of the cast (co-stars Baldwin and Preston) how to perform their scenes.
Tim Allen was originally planned to play the role of the Cat. The script would be originally based on a story conceived by Allen, who admitted that as a child he was afraid of Seuss ' "mischievous feline '' babysitter. Allen stated, "My dream is to give it the edge that scared me. '' However, producers did not commission a screenplay until late February 2001, when Alec Berg, Jeff Schaffer, and Dave Mandel (who were also writers on Seinfeld) were hired to write the script (replacing the original draft of the film that was written a few years before), so the film would not be ready to shoot before the deadline. Allen was also committed to shooting Disney 's The Santa Clause 2, which was also delayed because Allen wanted a script rewrite. Due to a scheduling conflict with The Santa Clause 2, he dropped out his role. In March 2002, the role of the Cat was given to Mike Myers, even though he had an argument with Grazer about starring in a cancelled Saturday Night Live skit named Dieter. Myers stated in an interview that he was a long - time fan of the original Dr. Seuss book, and that it was the first book he ever read.
Makeup for the character was designed by Steve Johnson. The Cat costume was made of angora and human hair and was fitted with a cooling system. To keep Myers cool during the outdoor shoots, a portable air conditioner was available that connected a hose to the suit between shots. The tail and ears were battery operated. The Fish was considered somewhat of a unique character for Rhythm & Hues (responsible for some of the effects and animation in such films as Cats & Dogs, The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King, and Scooby - Doo), in that the character had no shoulders, hips or legs, so all of the physical performance had to emit from the eyes, head and fin motion. Sean Hayes, who provided the voice for the Fish, found the role significantly different from his usual on - camera jobs; he did not know how the final animation would look, and all of his work took place alone in a sound booth.
Prior to filming, giant props for the film were stolen from the set. Local police found the props vandalized in a mall car park in Pomona, California. The props were covered with graffiti. No arrests had been made, and filming was to start the next week. Principal photography took place mostly in California from October 2002 until January 2003. The neighborhood and the town centre was filmed in a rural valley near Simi Valley, where 24 houses (each 26 - feet square and 52 - feet tall) were constructed. The downtown area outdoor shots were filmed along a Pomona street where a number of antique and gift shops are located. The community decided not to redecorate after filming ended, so the surreal paint scheme and some of the signage could still be seen as it appears in the film. Because of so much smog in the area, the sky had to be digitally replaced with the cartoon - like sky and colours of the background had to be digitally fixed.
The soundtrack was released on November 18, 2003. It includes David Newman 's score, plus a song by Smash Mouth ("Getting Better '') and ("Hang On '') that makes it the third film in a row playing a song in a film starring Mike Myers, after Shrek (2001) and Austin Powers in Goldmember (2002). The soundtrack also includes a couple of songs performed by Mike Myers (the role of the Cat). Newman 's score won a BMI Film Music Award.
All music composed by David Newman, except as noted.
The Cat in the Hat was released on VHS and DVD on March 16, 2004. It features 16 deleted scenes, 20 outtake scenes, almost a dozen featurettes, and a "Dance with the Cat '' tutorial to teach kids a Cat in the Hat dance. On February 7, 2012, the film was released on Blu - ray.
The Cat in the Hat opened theatrically on November 21, 2003 and earned $38,329,160 in its opening weekend, ranking first in the North American box office. The film ended its theatrical run on March 18, 2004, having grossed $101,149,285 domestically and $32,811,256 overseas for a worldwide total of $133,960,541.
Review aggregate website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 10 % approval rating based on reviews from 158 critics. The website 's consensus reads: "Filled with double entendres and potty humor, this Cat falls flat. '' On Metacritic, the film has a score of 19 / 100 based on 37 reviews, indicating "overwhelming dislike ''.
Peter Travers of Rolling Stone gave the film one star, stating, "Cat, another over-blown Hollywood raid on Dr. Seuss, has a draw on Mike Myers, who inexplicably plays the Cat by mimicking Bert Lahr in The Wizard of Oz. '' Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun - Times gave the film 2 out of 4 stars. Although he praised the production design, he considered the film to be "all effects and stunts and CGI and prosthetics, with no room for lightness and joy ''. Ebert and co-host Richard Roeper gave the film "Two Thumbs Down ''. Roeper said of Myers ' performance that "Maybe a part of him was realizing as the movie was being made that a live - action version of The Cat in the Hat just was n't a great idea. '' Ebert had the same problem with the film that he had with How the Grinch Stole Christmas, in that "If there is one thing I 've learned from these two movies is that we do n't want to see Jim Carrey as a Grinch, and we do n't want to see Mike Myers as a cat. These are talented comedians, let 's see them do their stuff, do n't bury them under a ton of technology. ''
Concerns were also raised over the PG rating of the film with some critics, stating that it should have instead been rated PG - 13 in relation to its high amount of adult content.
Leonard Maltin in his Movie Guide gave it one and a half stars out of four saying that the "Brightly colored adaptation of the beloved rhyming book for young children is a betrayal of everything Dr. Seuss ever stood for, injecting potty humor and adult (wink - wink) jokes into a mixture of heavy - handed slapstick and silliness. '' Maltin also claimed that the film 's official title which included Dr Seuss ' The Cat in the Hat was "an official insult ''. However, Jeffrey Lyons from NBC - TV, enjoyed the film and considered it "enormously funny ''.
Baldwin addressed complaints the film received because of its dissimilarity to the source material. He expressed a belief that a film is "an idea about something '' and that because Dr. Seuss ' work is so unique, making a feature - length film out of one of his stories would entail taking liberties and making broad interpretations.
The film also received three nominations at the Hollywood Makeup & Hairstylists Guild Awards.
On the day of the film 's release, Mike Myers stated in an interview that he expected a sequel where the kids meet the Cat again, since there was a sequel to the book. A sequel based on The Cat in the Hat Comes Back was in development, a little more than a month before the film 's release. In February 2004, Dr. Seuss ' widow, Audrey Geisel, said she would never allow any further live action adaptations of her husband 's works, and the sequel was eventually cancelled.
On March 15, 2012, a computer animated Cat in the Hat adaptation was announced by Universal Pictures and Illumination Entertainment, following the success of The Lorax. On January 24, 2018, Warner Animation Group announced that they have picked up the rights for the animated Cat in the Hat reboot movie, along with many of Seuss ' works.
Platform
The Cat in the Hat is a 2003 platformer video game released by Vivendi Universal Games and developed by Magenta Software and Digital Eclipse. It is based on the film of the same name. The game was released for PlayStation 2, Xbox, and Game Boy Advance on November 5, 2003, and PC on November 9, 2003, shortly before the film 's theatrical release. A version for the Nintendo GameCube was planned to be released, but it was later cancelled.
The Cat in the Hat game received mixed reviews (except for the PC version, which received negative reviews).
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when does the us open tennis tournament start | US Open (Tennis) - wikipedia
Coordinates: 40 ° 44 ′ 59.26 '' N 73 ° 50 ′ 45.91 '' W / 40.7497944 ° N 73.8460861 ° W / 40.7497944; - 73.8460861
The United States Open Tennis Championships is a hard court tennis tournament. The tournament is the modern version of one of the oldest tennis championships in the world, the U.S. National Championship, for which men 's singles was first played in 1881.
Since 1987, the US Open has been chronologically the fourth and final Grand Slam tournament of the year. The other three, in chronological order, are the Australian Open, the French Open, and Wimbledon. The US Open starts on the last Monday of August and continues for two weeks, with the middle weekend coinciding with the U.S. Labor Day holiday.
The tournament consists of five primary championships: men 's and women 's singles, men 's and women 's doubles, and mixed doubles. The tournament also includes events for senior, junior, and wheelchair players. Since 1978, the tournament has been played on acrylic hard courts at the USTA Billie Jean King National Tennis Center in Flushing Meadows -- Corona Park, Queens, New York City. The US Open is owned and organized by the United States Tennis Association (USTA), a non-profit organization, and the chairperson of the US Open is Katrina Adams. Revenue from ticket sales, sponsorships, and television contracts are used to develop tennis in the United States.
The US Open is the only Grand Slam tournament that employs tiebreakers in every set of a singles match. For the other three Grand Slam events, a match that reaches 6 -- 6 in the last possible set (the third for women and the fifth for men) continues until a player takes a two - game lead. As with the US Open, those events use tiebreakers to decide the other sets.
The US Open also is the only Grand Slam tournament with 16 qualifiers (instead of 12) in the women 's singles draw.
The tournament was first held in August 1881 on grass courts at the Newport Casino in Newport, Rhode Island. That year, only clubs that were members of the United States National Lawn Tennis Association (USNLTA) were permitted to enter. Richard Sears won the men 's singles at this tournament, which was the first of his seven consecutive singles titles.
From 1884 through 1911, the tournament used a challenge system whereby the defending champion automatically qualified for the next year 's final, where he would play the winner of the all - comers tournament. In 1915, the national championship was relocated to the West Side Tennis Club in Forest Hills, Queens, New York City. The effort to relocate it to New York City began as early as 1911 when a group of tennis players, headed by New Yorker Karl Behr, started working on it.
In the first years of the U.S. National Championship, only men competed and the tournament was known as the U.S. National Singles Championships for Men. In 1887, six years after the men 's nationals were first held, the first U.S. Women 's National Singles Championship was held at the Philadelphia Cricket Club. The winner was 17 - year - old Philadelphian Ellen Hansell. This was followed by the introduction of the U.S. Women 's National Doubles Championship in 1899 and the U.S. Mixed Doubles Championship in 1892. The women 's tournament used a challenge system from 1888 through 1918, except in 1917. Between 1890 and 1906, sectional tournaments were held in the east and the west of the country to determine the best two doubles teams, which competed in a play - off for the right to compete against the defending champions in the challenge round.
In early 1915, a group of about 100 tennis players signed a petition in favor of moving the tournament. They argued that most tennis clubs, players, and fans were located in the New York City area and that it would therefore be beneficial for the development of the sport to host the national championship there. This view was opposed by another group of players that included eight former national singles champions. This contentious issue was brought to a vote at the annual USNLTA meeting on February 5, 1915, with 128 votes in favor of and 119 against relocation.
From 1921 through 1923, the tournament was played at the Germantown Cricket Club in Philadelphia. It returned to the West Side Tennis Club in 1924 following completion of the 14,000 - seat Forest Hills Stadium. Although many already regarded it as a major championship, the International Lawn Tennis Federation officially designated it as one of the world 's major tournaments commencing in 1924.
At the 1922 U.S. National Championships, the draw seeded players for the first time to prevent the leading players from playing each other in the early rounds.
The open era began in 1968 when professional tennis players were allowed to compete for the first time at the Grand Slam tournament held at the West Side Tennis Club. The previous U.S. National Championships had been limited to amateur players. Except for mixed doubles, all events at the 1968 national tournament were open to professionals. That year, 96 men and 63 women entered, and prize money totaled US $100,000. In 1970, the US Open became the first Grand Slam tournament to use a tiebreaker to decide a set that reached a 6 -- 6 score in games. From 1970 through 1974, the US Open used a best - of - nine - point sudden - death tiebreaker before moving to the International Tennis Federation 's (ITF) best - of - twelve points system. In 1973, the US Open became the first Grand Slam tournament to award equal prize money to men and women, with that year 's singles champions, John Newcombe and Margaret Court, receiving US $25,000 each. Beginning in 1975, the tournament was played on clay courts instead of grass, and floodlights allowed matches to be played at night.
In 1978, the tournament moved from the West Side Tennis Club to the larger and newly constructed USTA National Tennis Center in Flushing Meadows, Queens, three miles to the north. The tournament 's court surface also switched from clay to hard. Jimmy Connors is the only individual to have won US Open singles titles on three surfaces (grass, clay, and hard), while Chris Evert is the only woman to win US Open singles titles on two surfaces (clay and hard).
The US Open is the only Grand Slam tournament that has been played every year since its inception.
During the 2006 US Open, the complex was renamed to "USTA Billie Jean King National Tennis Center '' in honor of Billie Jean King, a four - time US Open singles champion and women 's tennis pioneer.
From 1984 through 2015, the US Open deviated from traditional scheduling practices for tennis tournaments with a concept that came to be known as "Super Saturday '': the men 's and women 's finals were played on the final Saturday and Sunday of the tournament respectively, and their respective semifinals were held one day prior. The Women 's final was originally held in between the two men 's semi-final matches; in 2001, the Women 's final was moved to the evening so it could be played on primetime television, citing a major growth in popularity for women 's tennis among viewers. This scheduling pattern helped to encourage television viewership, but proved divisive among players because it only gave them less than a day 's rest between their semi-finals and championship match.
For five consecutive tournaments between 2007 through 2012, the men 's final was postponed to Monday due to weather. In 2013 and 2014, the USTA intentionally scheduled the men 's final on a Monday -- a move praised for allowing the men 's players an extra day 's rest following the semifinals, but drew the ire of the ATP for further deviating from the structure of the other Grand Slams. In 2015, the Super Saturday concept was dropped, and the US Open returned to a format similar to the other Grand Slams, with men 's and women 's finals on Saturday and Sunday. However, weather delays forced both sets of semifinals to be held on Friday that year.
The grounds of the US Open have 22 outdoor courts (plus 12 practice courts just outside the East Gate) consisting of four "show courts '' (Arthur Ashe Stadium, Louis Armstrong Stadium, the Grandstand, and Court 17), 13 field courts, and 5 practice courts.
The main court is the 23,771 - seat Arthur Ashe Stadium, which opened in 1997. A US $180 million retractable roof was added in 2016. The stadium is named after Arthur Ashe, the African - American who won the men 's singles title at the inaugural US Open in 1968, the Australian Open in 1970, and Wimbledon in 1975 and who was inducted into the International Tennis Hall of Fame in 1985. The next largest court is the 14,061 - seat Louis Armstrong Stadium, which cost US $200 million to build and opened in 2018. The 6,400 - seat lower tier of this stadium is separately ticketed, reserved seating while the 7,661 - seat upper tier is general admission and not separately ticketed. The third largest court is the 8,125 - seat Grandstand in the southwest corner of the grounds, which opened in 2016. Court 17 in the southeast corner of the grounds is the fourth largest stadium. It opened with temporary seating in 2011 and received its permanent seating the following year. It has a seating capacity of 2,800, all of which is general admission and not separately ticketed. It is nicknamed "The Pit '', partly because the playing surface is sunk 8 feet into the ground. The total seating capacity for practice courts P1 - P5 is 672 and for competition Courts 4 -- 16 is 12,656, itemized as follows:
All the courts used by the US Open are illuminated, allowing matches and television coverage to extend into primetime. In 2001, the women 's singles final was intentionally scheduled for primetime for the first time. CBS Sports president Sean McManus cited significant public interest in star players Serena Williams and Venus Williams and the good ratings performance of the 1999 women 's singles final, which was pushed into primetime by rain delays.
Since 1978, the US Open has been played on a hard court surface called Pro DecoTurf. It is a multi-layer cushioned surface and classified by the International Tennis Federation as medium - fast. Each August before the start of the tournament, the courts are resurfaced.
Since 2005, all US Open and US Open Series tennis courts have been painted a shade of blue (trademarked as "U.S. Open Blue '') inside the lines to make it easier for players, spectators, and television viewers to see the ball. The area outside the lines is still painted "U.S. Open Green ''.
In 2006, the US Open introduced instant replay reviews of line calls, using the Hawk - Eye computer system. It was the first Grand Slam tournament to use the system. According to many experts, the system was implemented because of a controversial quarterfinal match at the 2004 US Open between Serena Williams and Jennifer Capriati, where important line calls went against Williams. Instant replay was available only on the Arthur Ashe Stadium and Louis Armstrong Stadium courts through the 2008 tournament. In 2009, it became available on the Grandstand court. Starting in 2018, all competition courts are outfitted with Hawk - Eye and all matches in the main draws (Mens and Womens Singles and Doubles) follow the same procedure - each player is allowed 3 incorrect challenges per set, with one more being allowed in a tiebreak.
In 2007, JP Morgan Chase renewed its sponsorship of the US Open and, as part of the arrangement, the replay system was renamed to "Chase Review '' on in - stadium video and television.
Sources: US Open, Record Attendance 2018, City University of New York (CUNY)
The total prize money for the 2018 US Open is US $53 million. Of that amount, US $50,565,840 is for player base compensation and is divided as follows:
The men 's and women 's singles prize money (US $40,912,000) accounts for 80.9 percent of total player base compensation, while men 's and women 's doubles (US $6,140,840), men 's and women 's singles qualifying (US $3,008,000), and mixed doubles (US $505,000) account for 12.1 percent, 5.9 percent, and 1.0 percent, respectively. The prize money for the wheelchair draw amounts to a total of US $350,000. The singles winners of the men and women draws receive US $31,200 and the winner of the quad singles receives US $23,400.
The United States Tennis Association in 2012 agreed to increase the US Open prize money to US $50,400,000 by 2017. As a result, the prize money for the 2013 tournament was US $33.6 million, a record US $8.1 million increase from 2012. The champions of the 2013 US Open Series also had the opportunity to add US $2.6 million in bonus prize money, potentially bringing the total 2013 US Open purse to more than US $36 million. In 2014, the prize money was US $38.3 million. In 2015, the prize money was raised to US $42.3 million.
Ranking points for the men (ATP) and women (WTA) have varied at the US Open through the years but presently singles players receive the following points:
Novak Djokovic won the men 's singles title. This was his third US Open singles title and fourteenth Grand Slam singles title.
Naomi Osaka won the women 's singles title. This was her first Grand Slam title, becoming the first Japanese player to win the Grand Slam singles title.
Mike Bryan was part of the winning men 's doubles team in 2018. This was his seventh US Open title, it was his eighteenth Grand Slam Men 's Doubles title and twenty - second Grand Slam title overall.
Jack Sock was part of the winning men 's doubles team in 2018. This was his second US Open title, it was his third Grand Slam Men 's Doubles title, and fourth Grand Slam title overall.
Ashleigh Barty was part of the winning women 's doubles team in 2018. This was her first Grand Slam doubles title by previously reaching the final in 2013.
CoCo Vandeweghe was part of the winning women 's doubles team in 2018. This was her first Grand Slam doubles title.
Bethanie Mattek - Sands was part of the winning Mixed Doubles team in 2018. This was her third Mixed Doubles title and her second title at the US Open.
Jamie Murray was part of the winning Mixed Doubles team in 2018. This was his second US Open mixed doubles title, third US Open title overall, fourth Grand Slam mixed doubles title, and sixth Grand Slam title overall.
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when will the wisconsin gerrymandering case be decided | Gill v. Whitford - wikipedia
Gill v. Whitford is a United States Supreme Court case involving the constitutionality of partisan gerrymandering. Other forms of gerrymandering based on racial or ethnic grounds have been deemed unconstitutional, and while the Supreme Court has identified that extreme partisan gerrymandering can also be unconstitutional, the Court has not agreed on how this can be defined, leaving the question to lower courts to decide.
The case arose following the 2011 redistricting plan for the State of Wisconsin created by Republican legislators to maximize the likelihood that the Republicans would be able to secure additional seats in the State legislature over the next few election cycles. The plan was challenged by Democratic citizens, claiming the redistricting plan caused their votes to be "wasted. '' The case was filed in 2015, and by 2016, the District Court for the Western District of Wisconsin ruled in favor of the Democrats, based on the evaluation of the efficiency gap measure developed for this case, and ordered Wisconsin to redo its districts by 2017. The State appealed the ruling to the Supreme Court, which heard the case in October 2017 and is expected to issue its ruling in June 2018. During the Court 's deliberations, it also accepted to hear the merits of another partisan gerrymandering case, Benisek v. Lamone, related to the 2011 redistricting of Maryland 's 6th congressional district, which it heard oral arguments in March 2018.
While some political scientists agree that Wisconsin 's map was heavily biased, it is expected that the case will center on whether the efficiency gap measures and other metrics provided by political scientists meet the criteria that Justice Anthony Kennedy set forth in his decision from Vieth v. Jubelirer (2004), the previous Supreme Court case dealing with partisan gerrymandering.
In the United States, each state has a number of Representatives to the House of Representatives proportional to the state 's population determined by the United States Census conducted every ten years under Article One of the United States Constitution, with each state having at least one Representative regardless of its population size. When the number of Representatives for a state determined by the most - recent Census changes, the state is required to redistrict, drawing out new boundaries to create a number of geographic districts equal to the number of Representatives. Once set, a voter residing in a specific district may only vote in the Representative election for that district. Many states further use Census data to determine the internal state districts that are used to determine representation in the state government.
The process of redistricting can become highly politicized, since redistricting is typically done by political party that holds the majority of state elected officials. Notably, the practice of Gerrymandering redistricting, drawing convoluted district boundaries to favor or disadvantage certain socioeconomic groups, has been frequently used to improve the political party 's chances of securing elections in the future. While the Supreme Court of the United States has ruled that redistricting that discriminates on racial or ethnic grounds is unconstitutional, the Court has been reluctant to issue a similarly strong ruling for partisan redistricting. The Court has ruled that excessive partisan gerrymandering violates the Constitution. However, the ruling has yet to adopt a standard for determining partisan gerrymandering in redistricting, with proposed tests being too ambiguous for the courts to apply. In the decision for the 2004 case Vieth v. Jubelirer, which ruled that perceived partisan gerrymandering in Pennsylvania was not unconstitutional, the nine Justices were split. The four Justices in the plurality believed it was impossible to define a standard to judge partisan gerrymandering, while four others could not agree on an existing standard to be used. Justice Anthony Kennedy, in his concurrence with the plurality, believed that some manageable standard for determining partisan gerrymandering could be developed, and challenged lower courts to help identify this standard.
In 2011, Republican legislators in Wisconsin redrew the state Assembly districts based on the latest 2010 census data. This effort was driven by the Republican Party 's REDMAP (Redistricting Majority Project) to assure the party had control of the United States House of Representatives and state legislators, principally through favorable redistricting. The 2011 mapmakers developed a model for evaluating voters ' party preferences in aggregate, and drew up spreadsheets identifying likely winners in various proposed districts, labelling these districts as "assertive '' or "aggressive '' to indicate how likely each was to elect a Republican. They also collaborated with a political science professor, who determined "that Republicans would maintain a majority under any likely voting scenario. '' Under the "final map, '' mapmakers determined that "Republicans could expect to win 59 Assembly seats, with 38 safe Republican seats, 14 leaning Republican, 10 swing, 4 leaning Democratic, and 33 safe Democratic seats. '' The new redistricting map was approved by the State as Act 43, in August 2011. Reflecting this, in the 2012 elections, the Republicans gained 60.6 percent of the seats in the State Assembly, despite receiving only 48.6 percent of the statewide vote.
On July 8, 2015, the case was filed with the U.S. District Court for the Western District of Wisconsin arguing that Wisconsin 's 2011 state assembly map was unconstitutional partisan gerrymandering favoring the Republican - controlled legislature which discriminated against Democratic voters. The case was filed by the Campaign Legal Center (CLC), representing twelve plaintiffs that were registered Democrats. The lead plaintiff, Professor William Whitford, from University of Wisconsin, stated, "In a democracy citizens are supposed to choose their legislators. In Wisconsin, legislators have chosen their voters. '' The plaintiffs argued that the map violates the Fourteenth Amendment 's guarantee of equal protection. Whitford 's complaint specifically claimed that the redrawn maps purposely diluted Democratic voters so that they would be wasted votes (that is, "cracking '' the votes) while organizing a small number of districts to pack in a large number of Democratic voters to limit the number of seats the party would win ("packing '' the votes). The District Court case was originally filed as Whitford v. Nichol, as Gerald Nicole had been the chairman of the state elections board; he was succeeded by Beverly Gill during the course of the case.
In 2016, a three - judge federal panel allowed the case to proceed to trial, the first time a case regarding gerrymandering has proceeded in three decades. On November 21, 2016, a 2 - 1 decision declared that the map was unconstitutional. To assess the validity of the map, the panel developed a three - pronged test that asked if the redistricting "(1) (was) intended to place a severe impediment on the effectiveness of the votes of individual citizens on the basis of their political affiliation, (2) has that effect, and (3) can not be justified on other, legitimate legislative grounds. '' The panel judged these prongs based on whether they created an entrenchment of power, specifically defined as "making that party -- and therefore the state government -- impervious to the interests of citizens affiliated with other political parties '', which has been the basis for unconstitutional gerrymandering in the past. In the panel, Judge Kenneth Francis Ripple 's opinion, joined by Judge Barbara Brandriff Crabb, was that the map worked better than its drafters had hoped. "It secured for Republicans a lasting Assembly majority. It did so by allocating votes among the newly created districts in such a way that, in any likely electoral scenario, the number of Republican seats would not drop below 50 %. ''
The panel also used the Efficiency Gap measure, developed in 2014 by law professor and lead prosecutor for the plaintiffs Nicholas Stephanopoulos, and political scientist Eric McGhee. The Efficiency Gap relates the number of wasted votes for each party across the state, with a gaps of 0 % equating to a fair distribution. By definition, an Efficiency Gap of more than 7 % would have allowed the Republicans to retain their advantage throughout the life of the Act 43 map. The panel determined that the Efficiency Gap was 13 % and 10 % for the 2012 and 2014 elections, respectively, exceeding the 7 % criteria.
Judge William C. Griesbach dissented, believing that there were more appropriate measures they could take to prevent partisan gerrymandering, such as requiring a non-partisan redistricting panel. Griesbach also believed that the entrenchment principle would not be accepted by the Supreme Court over more traditional methods of measuring deviation, and that the use of the relatively new Efficiency Gap measure mischaracterizes the nature of a wasted vote.
The District Court 's decision was seen as potentially satisfying the requirements for a test requested by the Supreme Court in Vieth; the three - prong test provided by the Court was able to distinguish between inherent and invidious gerrymandering through the narrowly defined anti-entrenchment principle through the lifetime of the districting map. It also introduced reproducible measurements through the Efficiency Gap that allow biases redistricting schemes to be quantified.
The panel deferred its ruling on the remedy which was handed down on January 27, 2017. The District Court ordered the State of Wisconsin to redraw their districts by November 1, 2017 as remedy for the case, using proposals brought by the plaintiffs to guide their decisions.
The State announced its intentions to appeal to the Supreme Court of the United States following the District Court 's ruling in November 2016. Due to special procedures in the Supreme Court involving voters ' rights cases, the Supreme Court was required to take the case, though whether they would summarily rule to affirm or reverse, or hear the case in full, would be up to the discretion of the Court. The State asked that the action in the District Court be put on hold until the appeal is decided. The State requested that the Supreme Court overturn the trial court 's decision and allow the Legislature to continue drawing its assembly maps. The State was joined through amicus curiae briefs filed by twelve other states led by Texas. Separately, the CLC and its co-counsel from the District Court filed a Motion to Affirm the District Court 's ruling on May 8, 2017.
In June 2017, the Supreme Court agreed to hear the state 's challenge to the District Court 's decision in the case Gill v. Whitford, granting the request to put the remapping action on hold. It will be the first time that the Supreme Court will evaluate partisan redistricting based on the First Amendment 's freedom of association clause in addition to the Equal Protection Clause. The case received at least 54 amicus curiae briefs across numerous fields. Among these included several political scholars which had the consensus that "by any measure, Wisconsin 's 2010 redistricting plan is extremely biased ''. These scholars introduced other metrics besides the efficiency gaps that equally demonstrated the partisan bias in Wisconsin 's plan, which were expected to be considered to be evaluated by the Justices.
Oral arguments were heard on October 3, 2017 as the first before the Court in its new term. Oral arguments were given by Paul Smith of the CLC, representing the original plaintiffs, and by Misha Tseytlin, the Wisconsin Solicitor General. Erin E. Murphy participated in oral argument as an amicus on behalf of Wisconsin 's State Senate. Smith argued that while the Court 's previous attempts to regulate partisan gerrymandering failed due to lack of a usable measure, modern statistics and advanced computing available today made it very easy for the Wisconsin Republicans to create their favorable redistricting plan, but these tools would be just as useful to determine when partisan gerrymandering had occurred. Smith also iterated that the Supreme Court was "the only institution in the United States... that can solve this problem ''. Tsetylin warned the Court that should they find against the State, that redistricting would become heavily influenced by social science metrics, and that it would "shift districting from elected public officials to the courts ''.
Court observers identified that the Justices were split from the oral session. The four Justices that were considered liberal appeared to side with the original plaintiffs in arguing that the redistricting plan was biased, with Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg proposing that if they did not intervene here, Republicans would likely be able to stack other states in a similar manner, and it would de-incentive voters not favored by such redistricting plans to vote. Four of the conservative Justices felt the Court should not intervene, with Chief Justice John Roberts fearing that if they get involved, it would open up for more redistricting challenges that the Supreme Court would need to take up, and could harm the Court 's credibility. The conservative Justices also questioned if the defendants had legal standing to bring the case forward in the first place.
The decision is expected to hinge on Justice Kennedy, who had held a middle ground in Vieth and wrote in his opinion about the need to find a "manageable standard '' to determine if a partisan gerrymandering had occurred. Commentators observed that the stay of the District Court order was split 5 - 4, with Kennedy supporting the majority. During the oral arguments, Kennedy had appeared to side with the conservatives on asking about the legitimacy of the original plaintiffs in bringing the case, but asked both sides difficult questions relating to the redistricting approaches, leaving it difficult for observers to tell which way he would decide. However, some writers expect he will side with the lower court and not for the appellants.
A decision in the case is expected by June 2018. Subsequent to the oral arguments, the Court had agreed to hear one other partisan redistricting case in the same term: Benisek v. Lamone, accepted in December 2017 and heard by the Court in March 2018, which is based on Democratic - favored redistricting of Maryland 's 6th congressional district.
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meaning of fire and the flood vance joy | Fire and the Flood - Wikipedia
"Fire and the Flood '' is a single by Australian singer - songwriter Vance Joy, the song is included on the deluxe edition of his debut studio album Dream Your Life Away (2014). The song was released on 24 July 2015 and tops the ARIA chart for Aussie artists on the Australian Singles Chart.
Joy wrote the song in February 2015 and recorded it in Los Angeles. Joy explains; "There was a couple of moments when the song started coming together. I wrote this guitar riff that ended up being the line that the horns play and just a few lyrics that were rolling around in my head... When we were recording it, it feels like an epic song so we may as well treat it that way. ''
The video was directed by Hayley Young and released on 22 July 2015.
The video features Joy staring down the barrel of the camera while some dramatic scenes unfold in the background.
The song was used in the trailer for the movie The Space Between Us.
The song was used in the final delivery sequence in the movie Storks.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
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what movie did the song dancing queen play in | Dancing Queen - wikipedia
"Dancing Queen '' is a Europop song by the Swedish group ABBA, and the lead single from their fourth studio album, Arrival. It was written by Benny Andersson, Björn Ulvaeus and Stig Anderson. Andersson and Ulvaeus also produced the song. "Dancing Queen '' was released as a single in Sweden on 15 August 1976, followed by a UK release and the rest of Europe a few days later. It was a worldwide hit. It became ABBA 's only number one hit in the United States, and topped the charts in Australia, The Netherlands, Belgium, Ireland, Mexico, New Zealand, Norway, South Africa, Spain, Sweden, the United Kingdom, Germany and Zimbabwe. "Dancing Queen '' also reached the Top 5 in many other countries.
Musically, "Dancing Queen '' is a Europop version of American disco music. As disco music dominated the US charts, the group decided to follow the trend, replicating Phil Spector 's Wall of Sound arrangements. The song alternates between "languid yet seductive verses '' and a "dramatic chorus that ascends to heart - tugging high notes. '' It features keyboard lines by Andersson, which accentuate the melody 's sophistication and classical complexity, while Ulvaeus and Andersson interlace many instrumental hooks in and out of the mix. Anni - Frid Lyngstad and Agnetha Fältskog 's layered vocals have been noted for their dynamism, "(negotiating) the melody 's many turns flawlessly. '' Lyrically, the song concerns a visit to the discotheque, but approaches the subject from the joy of dancing itself. The music video on YouTube has 240 million views as of March 2018.
The recording sessions for "Dancing Queen '' began on 4 August 1975. The demo was called "Boogaloo '' and as the sessions progressed, Andersson and Ulvaeus found inspiration in the dance rhythm of George McCrae 's "Rock Your Baby, '' as well as the drumming on Dr. John 's 1972 album, Dr. John 's Gumbo. The opening melody echoes "Sing My Way Home '' by Delaney & Bonnie (from Motel Shot, 1971). Fältskog and Lyngstad recorded the vocals during sessions in September 1975, and the track was completed three months later.
During the sessions, Benny Andersson brought a tape home with the backing track on it and played it to Anni - Frid Lyngstad, who apparently started crying when listening. Lyngstad said, "I found the song so beautiful. It 's one of those songs that goes straight to your heart. '' Agnetha Fältskog later said: "It 's often difficult to know what will be a hit. The exception was ' Dancing Queen. ' We all knew it was going to be massive. '' Benny Andersson agreed, calling it "one of those songs where you know during the sessions that it 's going to be a smash hit. ''
While working on the lyrics, the first half of the second verse was scrapped: "Baby, baby, you 're out of sight / hey, you 're looking all right tonight / when you come to the party / listen to the guys / they 've got the look in their eyes... '' It survives in footage from a recording session.
"Dancing Queen '' premiered on German and Japanese TV during the spring of 1976. It saw its first live and domestic performance on 18 June 1976, televised on Swedish TV during an all - star gala staged by Kjerstin Dellert at the Royal Swedish Opera in honour of King Carl XVI Gustaf of Sweden and his bride - to - be, Silvia Sommerlath, who were married the next day.
For their 1980 Spanish - language compilation - album Gracias Por La Música, ABBA recorded a Spanish version of "Dancing Queen '', renamed "Reina Danzante '', with Spanish lyrics provided by Buddy Mary McCluskey. The track was retitled "La Reina Del Baile '' when included on the compilation album ABBA Oro: Grandes Éxitos in the 1990s.
In 1993, in honour of Swedish Queen Silvia 's 50th birthday, Anni - Frid Lyngstad was asked to perform "Dancing Queen '' on stage, repeating ABBA 's 1976 performance of the song at the pre-wedding gala for King Carl XVI Gustaf and Queen Silvia. Frida contacted The Real Group and together they did an a cappella version of the song on stage at the Royal Opera House in Stockholm, in front of the king and queen. The Swedish prime minister at the time, Ingvar Carlsson, was also in the audience that night and said it was an ingenious idea to perform "Dancing Queen '' a cappella. The performance was recorded by Sweden 's Television (SVT) and is included in the biographical documentary Frida -- The DVD and The Real Group 's 1994 compilation album Varför får man inte bara vara som man är.
For the soundtrack of the 1994 Australian film Muriel 's Wedding, songwriters Ulvaeus and Andersson allowed the use of "Dancing Queen '' and other ABBA hits. "Dancing Queen '' was among the ABBA songs included in Mamma Mia!, the jukebox musical first produced in 1999 and adapted into a movie released in 2008.
The first International Standard Musical Work Code was assigned in 1995 to "Dancing Queen ''; the code is T - 000.000. 001 - 0.
"Dancing Queen '' was a worldwide hit, topping the charts in more than a dozen countries including ABBA 's native Sweden (where it spent 14 weeks at the top), Australia, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, Germany, the United Kingdom, Ireland, Mexico, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway (where it charted for 32 weeks (VG - lista Top 10), making it the 11th best - performing single in that country), South Africa and Rhodesia. "Dancing Queen '' also topped the charts in the United States, ABBA 's only No. 1 on the Billboard Hot 100, and was a Top 5 hit in Austria, Finland, France and Switzerland. The song sold over three million copies. The track was the fourth biggest single of 1976 in the UK.
According to Donald A. Guarisco of AllMusic, the track 's "sincerity and sheer musicality have allowed it to outlast the disco boom and become a standard of dance - pop. '' The song 's release also cemented ABBA as an international act and signified the beginning of the group 's ' classic period ', which would span the following four years. It has become a standard for dance divas like Carol Douglas and Kylie Minogue, and has been covered numerous times by acts including U2. The song has been adopted by the and, according to Mojo magazine, remains one of the most ubiquitous ".
In the UK Singles Chart, "Dancing Queen '' was the last of three consecutive chart - toppers for ABBA in 1976, following "Mamma Mia '' and "Fernando '' earlier in the year. The song was re-released in the UK in 1992, taking advantage of an ABBA revival sparked by the success of Erasure 's Abba-esque EP. The re-issued "Dancing Queen '' reached No. 16 in the UK in September 1992.
In 2000, "Dancing Queen '' came fourth in a Channel 4 television poll of "The 100 Best Number Ones ''. It was chosen as No. 148 on the Recording Industry Association of America 's Songs of the Century list. It is ranked No. 174 on Rolling Stone 's 2004 list of The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time, the only ABBA song on the list. That same year, it made VH1 's 100 Greatest Dance Songs in Rock & Roll at No. 97. Also in 2000, editors of Rolling Stone with MTV compiled a list of the best 100 pop songs; "Dancing Queen '' placed 12th among songs of the 1970s.
On 9 November 2002, the results of a poll, "Top 50 Favourite UK # 1 's '', was broadcast on Radio 2, celebrating the 50th anniversary of The Official UK Charts Company. 188,357 listeners voted and "Dancing Queen '' came out at No. 8. On 5 December 2010, Britain 's ITV broadcast the results of a poll to determine "The Nation 's Favourite ABBA Song '' in which "Dancing Queen '' placed at No. 2.
In 2009, the British performing rights group Phonographic Performance Limited celebrated its 75th anniversary by listing the 75 songs that have played most in Great Britain on the radio, in clubs and on jukeboxes. "Dancing Queen '' was number eight on the list.
Former US presidential candidate John McCain named "Dancing Queen '' as his favourite song in a top - 10 list submitted to Blender magazine in August 2008.
In August 2012, listeners to the 1970s - themed UK radio station "Smooth 70s '' voted "Dancing Queen '' as their favourite hit of the decade.
In October 2014, the musical instrument insurer Musicguard carried out a survey determining "Dancing Queen '' to be the United Kingdom 's favourite "floorfiller ''. Unlike its closest competitors, "Billie Jean '' by Michael Jackson (No. 2) and "Twist and Shout '' by The Beatles (No. 3), it turned out to be very popular throughout the nation whereas the other two were strong regional favourites.
In 2015, "Dancing Queen '' was inducted into the Recording Academy 's Grammy Hall of Fame.
In September 2016, The Guardian ran an article by Tim Jonze entitled "Why Abba 's Dancing Queen is the best pop song ever ''. Jonze writes: "Dancing Queen is beautifully produced: catchy and euphoric, the perfect backdrop for a song that encapsulates the carefree bliss of youth ''. Several artists are cited as being influenced by the song, including Elvis Costello ("Oliver 's Army ''), MGMT ("Time to Pretend '') and Chris Stein of Blondie ("Dreaming ''). In 1993, Hong Kong singer Angela Pang covered this song in Cantonese.
7 '' Vinyl
1992 7 '' European re-issue
1992 12 "/ CD European re-issue
1992 12 '' US re-issue
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
"Dancing Queen '' is a single released by A-Teens, an ABBA tribute band from Sweden. It is the fourth and final single from their first album, The ABBA Generation.
When the single came out in the spring of 2000, it peaked at number one in Mexico, becoming their first number one hit in that country. The song was also a smash hit in South America peaking at number three in Argentina, number five in Chile, number six in Colombia and number fifteen in Brazil.
This was the main single for the United States promotion, when the album was released in March 2000. "Dancing Queen '' reached ninety - five on the Billboard Hot 100, thirty - six on Airplay and number thirteen on the Hot Single Sales Chart.
"Dancing Queen '' was released as a double A-side with "The Name of the Game '' in Europe, where both songs were promoted on radio simultaneously; Universal Music Group thought that "Dancing Queen '', being the last single, needed a back - up to be successful. The video for "The Name of the Game '' was an unofficial video, made especially for an A-Teens TV special in Sweden and it was never intended to be a promotional video. It was only aired by Channel 4. It appeared in the album Lizzie McGuire: Total Party!.
Directed by Patrick Kiely, the video is set in a big high school. The video is a tribute to the movie The Breakfast Club, where band members (and extras serving as background dancers) are left in a classroom which transforms into a nightclub. Paul Gleason, the actor who played the assistant principal in the film, reprises the role for the video. It also appears in Night at the Museum: Secret of the Tomb.
European 2 - Track CD single
European / Mexican CD maxi
US CD single
US cassette
Naya Rivera and Amber Riley of the Glee cast performed the song in "Prom Queen ''. It charted on the Billboard Hot 100. U.K pop group ' Brotherhood of Man ' also recorded the song.
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when did germany become a member of the league of nations | League of Nations - wikipedia
The League of Nations (abbreviated as LN in English, La Société des Nations (la sɔsjete de nɑsjɔ̃) abbreviated as SDN or SdN in French) was an intergovernmental organisation founded on 10 January 1920 as a result of the Paris Peace Conference that ended the First World War. It was the first international organisation whose principal mission was to maintain world peace. Its primary goals, as stated in its Covenant, included preventing wars through collective security and disarmament and settling international disputes through negotiation and arbitration. Other issues in this and related treaties included labour conditions, just treatment of native inhabitants, human and drug trafficking, the arms trade, global health, prisoners of war, and protection of minorities in Europe. At its greatest extent from 28 September 1934 to 23 February 1935, it had 58 members.
The diplomatic philosophy behind the League represented a fundamental shift from the preceding hundred years. The League lacked its own armed force and depended on the victorious Great Powers of WWI (France, the UK, Italy and Japan were the permanent members of the executive Council) to enforce its resolutions, keep to its economic sanctions, or provide an army when needed. The Great Powers were often reluctant to do so. Sanctions could hurt League members, so they were reluctant to comply with them. During the Second Italo - Abyssinian War, when the League accused Italian soldiers of targeting Red Cross medical tents, Benito Mussolini responded that "the League is very well when sparrows shout, but no good at all when eagles fall out. ''
After some notable successes and some early failures in the 1920s, the League ultimately proved incapable of preventing aggression by the Axis powers in the 1930s. The credibility of the organization was somewhat weakened by the fact that United States never officially joined the League and the Soviet Union joined late and only briefly. Germany withdrew from the League, as did Japan, Italy, Spain, and others. The onset of the Second World War showed that the League had failed its primary purpose, which was to prevent any future world war. The League lasted for 26 years; the United Nations (UN) replaced it after the end of the Second World War and inherited several agencies and organisations founded by the League.
The concept of a peaceful community of nations had been proposed as far back as 1795, when Immanuel Kant 's Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch outlined the idea of a league of nations to control conflict and promote peace between states. Kant argued for the establishment of a peaceful world community, not in a sense of a global government, but in the hope that each state would declare itself a free state that respects its citizens and welcomes foreign visitors as fellow rational beings, thus promoting peaceful society worldwide. International co-operation to promote collective security originated in the Concert of Europe that developed after the Napoleonic Wars in the 19th century in an attempt to maintain the status quo between European states and so avoid war. This period also saw the development of international law, with the first Geneva Conventions establishing laws dealing with humanitarian relief during wartime, and the international Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907 governing rules of war and the peaceful settlement of international disputes. As historians William H. Harbaugh and Ronald E. Powaski point out, Theodore Roosevelt was the first American President to call for an international league. At the acceptance for his Nobel Prize, Roosevelt said: "it would be a masterstroke if those great powers honestly bent on peace would form a League of Peace ''
The forerunner of the League of Nations, the Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU), was formed by the peace activists William Randal Cremer and Frédéric Passy in 1889 (and is currently still in existence as an international body with a focus on the various elected legislative bodies of the world.) The IPU was founded with an international scope, with a third of the members of parliaments (in the 24 countries that had parliaments) serving as members of the IPU by 1914. Its foundational aims were to encourage governments to solve international disputes by peaceful means. Annual conferences were established to help governments refine the process of international arbitration. Its structure was designed as a council headed by a president, which would later be reflected in the structure of the League.
At the start of the First World War the first schemes for international organisation to prevent future wars began to gain considerable public support, particularly in Great Britain and the United States. Goldsworthy Lowes Dickinson, a British political scientist, coined the term "League of Nations '' in 1914 and drafted a scheme for its organisation. Together with Lord Bryce, he played a leading role in the founding of the group of internationalist pacifists known as the Bryce Group, later the League of Nations Union. The group became steadily more influential among the public and as a pressure group within the then governing Liberal Party. In Dickinson 's 1915 pamphlet After the War he wrote of his "League of Peace '' as being essentially an organisation for arbitration and conciliation. He felt that the secret diplomacy of the early twentieth century had brought about war and thus could write that, "the impossibility of war, I believe, would be increased in proportion as the issues of foreign policy should be known to and controlled by public opinion. '' The ' Proposals ' of the Bryce Group were circulated widely, both in England and the US, where they had a profound influence on the nascent international movement.
Within two weeks of the start of the war, feminists began to mobilise against the war. Having been barred from participating in prior peace organizations, American women formed a Women 's Peace Parade Committee to plan a silent protest to the war. Led by chairwoman Fanny Garrison Villard, women from trade unions, feminist organizations, and social reform organizations, such as Kate Waller Barrett, Mary Ritter Beard, Carrie Chapman Catt, Rose Schneiderman, Lillian Wald, and others, organized 1500 women, who marched down Manhattan 's Fifth Avenue on August 29, 1914. As a result of the parade, Jane Addams became interested in proposals by two European suffragists -- Hungarian Rosika Schwimmer and British Emmeline Pethick - Lawrence -- to hold a peace conference. On 9 - 10 January 1915, a peace conference directed by Addams was held in Washington, D.C., where the delegates adopted a platform calling for creation of international bodies with administrative and legislative powers to develop a "permanent league of neutral nations '' to work for peace and disarmament.
Within months a call was made for an international women 's conference to be held in The Hague. Coordinated by Mia Boissevain, Aletta Jacobs and Rosa Manus, the Congress, which opened on April 28, 1915 was attended by 1,136 participants from both neutral and belligerent nations, and resulted in the establishment of an organization which would become the Women 's International League for Peace and Freedom (WILPF). At the close of the conference, two delegations of women were dispatched to meet with European heads of state over the next several months. They secured agreement from reluctant Foreign Ministers, who overall felt that such a body would be ineffective, but agreed to participate or not impede creation of a neutral mediating body, if other nations agreed and if President Woodrow Wilson would initiate a body. In the midst of the War, Wilson refused.
In 1915, a similar body to the Bryce group proposals was set up in the United States by a group of like - minded individuals, including William Howard Taft. It was called the League to Enforce Peace and was substantially based on the proposals of the Bryce Group. It advocated the use of arbitration in conflict resolution and the imposition of sanctions on aggressive countries. None of these early organisations envisioned a continuously functioning body; with the exception of the Fabian Society in England, they maintained a legalistic approach that would limit the international body to a court of justice. The Fabians were the first to argue for a "Council '' of states, necessarily the Great Powers, who would adjudicate world affairs, and for the creation of a permanent secretariat to enhance international co-operation across a range of activities.
In the course of the diplomatic efforts surrounding World War I, both sides had to clarify their long - term war aims. By 1916 in Britain, the leader of the Allies, and in neutral United States, long - range thinkers had begun to design a unified international organisation to prevent future wars. Historian Peter Yearwood argues that when the new coalition government of David Lloyd George took power in December 1916, there was widespread discussion among intellectuals and diplomats of the desirability of establishing such an organisation, when Lloyd George was challenged by Wilson to state his position Regarding the postwar, he endorsed such an organisation. Wilson himself Included in his Fourteen Points in January 1918 a "league of nations to insure peace and justice. '' British foreign secretary, Lord Balfour, argued that, as a condition of durable peace, "behind international law, and behind all treaty arrangements for preventing or limiting hostilities, some form of international sanction should be devised which would give pause to the hardiest aggressor. ''
By the time Germany gave up in November 1918, the war had had a profound impact, affecting the social, political and economic systems of Europe and inflicting psychological and physical damage. Anti-war sentiment rose across the world; the First World War was described as "the war to end all wars '', and its possible causes were vigorously investigated. The causes identified included arms races, alliances, militaristic nationalism, secret diplomacy, and the freedom of sovereign states to enter into war for their own benefit. One proposed remedy was the creation of an international organisation whose aim was to prevent future war through disarmament, open diplomacy, international co-operation, restrictions on the right to wage war, and penalties that made war unattractive.
In London Balfour commissioned the first official report into the matter in early 1918, under the initiative of Lord Robert Cecil. The British committee was finally appointed in February 1918. It was led by Walter Phillimore (and became known as the Phillimore Committee), but also included Eyre Crowe, William Tyrrell, and Cecil Hurst. The recommendations of the so - called Phillimore Commission included the establishment of a "Conference of Allied States '' that would arbitrate disputes and impose sanctions on offending states. The proposals were approved by the British government, and much of the commission 's results were later incorporated into the Covenant of the League of Nations.
The French also drafted a much more far - reaching proposal in June 1918; they advocated annual meetings of a council to settle all disputes, as well as an "international army '' to enforce its decisions.
The American President Woodrow Wilson instructed Edward M. House to draft a US plan which reflected Wilson 's own idealistic views (first articulated in the Fourteen Points of January 1918), as well as the work of the Phillimore Commission. The outcome of House 's work, and Wilson 's own first draft, proposed the termination of "unethical '' state behaviour, including forms of espionage and dishonesty. Methods of compulsion against recalcitrant states would include severe measures, such as "blockading and closing the frontiers of that power to commerce or intercourse with any part of the world and to use any force that may be necessary... ''
The two principal drafters and architects of the covenant of the League of Nations were Lord Robert Cecil (a British diplomat), and Jan Smuts (a South African statesman). Smuts ' proposals included the creation of a Council of the great powers as permanent members and a non-permanent selection of the minor states. He also proposed the creation of a Mandate system for captured colonies of the Central Powers during the war. Cecil focused on the administrative side, and proposed annual Council meetings and quadrennial meetings for the Assembly of all members. He also argued for a large and permanent secretariat to carry out the League 's administrative duties.
At the Paris Peace Conference in 1919, Wilson, Cecil, and Smuts all put forward their draft proposals. After lengthy negotiations between the delegates, the Hurst - Miller draft was finally produced as a basis for the Covenant. After more negotiation and compromise, the delegates finally approved of the proposal to create the League of Nations (French: Société des Nations, German: Völkerbund) on 25 January 1919. The final Covenant of the League of Nations was drafted by a special commission, and the League was established by Part I of the Treaty of Versailles. On 28 June 1919, 44 states signed the Covenant, including 31 states which had taken part in the war on the side of the Triple Entente or joined it during the conflict.
French women 's rights advocates invited international feminists to participate in a parallel conference to the Paris Conference in hopes that they could gain permission to participate in the official conference. The Inter-Allied Women 's Conference asked to be allowed to submit suggestions to the peace negotiations and commissions and were granted the right to sit on commissions dealing specifically with women and children. Though they asked for enfranchisement and full legal protection under the law equal with men, those rights were ignored. Women won the right to serve in all capacities, including as staff or delegates in the League of Nations organization. They also won a declaration that member nations should prevent trafficking of women and children and should equally support humane conditions for children, women and men labourers. At the Zürich Peace Conference held between 17 - 19 May, 1919, the women of the WILPF condemned the terms of the Treaty of Versailles for both is punitive measures, as well as its failure to provide for condemnation of violence and exclusion of women from civil and political participation. Upon reading the Rules of Procedure for the League of Nations, Catherine Marshall, an English suffragist, discovered that the guidelines were completely undemocratic and they were modified based on her suggestion.
The League would be made up of a General Assembly (representing all member states), an Executive Council (with membership limited to major powers), and a permanent secretariat. Member states were expected to "respect and preserve as against external aggression '' the territorial integrity of other members and to disarm "to the lowest point consistent with domestic safety. '' All states were required to submit complaints for arbitration or judicial inquiry before going to war. The Executive Council would create a Permanent Court of International Justice to make judgements on the disputes.
Despite Wilson 's efforts to establish and promote the League, for which he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in October 1919, the United States never joined. Senate Republicans led by Henry Cabot Lodge wanted a League with the reservation that only Congress could take the U.S. into war. Lodge gained a majority of Senators. Wilson refused to allow a compromise and the needed 2 / 3 majority was lacking.
The League held its first council meeting in Paris on 16 January 1920, six days after the Versailles Treaty and the Covenant of the League of Nations came into force. On 1 November 1920, the headquarters of the League was moved from London to Geneva, where the first General Assembly was held on 15 November 1920. The Palais Wilson on Geneva 's western lakeshore, named after US President Woodrow Wilson in recognition of his efforts towards the establishment of the League, was the League 's first permanent home.
The official languages of the League of Nations were French, English, and Spanish. The League rejected adopting Esperanto as its working language. China and Japan wanted Esperanto but France was strongly opposed.
In 1939, a semi-official emblem for the League of Nations emerged: two five - pointed stars within a blue pentagon. They symbolised the Earth 's five continents and five "races ''. A bow at the top displayed the English name ("League of Nations ''), while another at the bottom showed the French ("Société des Nations '').
The main constitutional organs of the League were the Assembly, the Council, and the Permanent Secretariat. It also had two essential wings: the Permanent Court of International Justice and the International Labour Organisation. In addition, there were several auxiliary agencies and commissions. Each organ 's budget was allocated by the Assembly (the League was supported financially by its member states).
The relations between the Assembly and the Council and the competencies of each were for the most part not explicitly defined. Each body could deal with any matter within the sphere of competence of the League or affecting peace in the world. Particular questions or tasks might be referred to either.
Unanimity was required for the decisions of both the Assembly and the Council, except in matters of procedure and some other specific cases such as the admission of new members. This requirement was a reflection of the League 's belief in the sovereignty of its component nations; the League sought solution by consent, not by dictation. In case of a dispute, the consent of the parties to the dispute was not required for unanimity.
The Permanent Secretariat, established at the seat of the League at Geneva, comprised a body of experts in various spheres under the direction of the general secretary. Its principal sections were Political, Financial and Economics, Transit, Minorities and Administration (administering the Saar and Danzig), Mandates, Disarmament, Health, Social (Opium and Traffic in Women and Children), Intellectual Cooperation and International Bureaux, Legal, and Information. The staff of the Secretariat was responsible for preparing the agenda for the Council and the Assembly and publishing reports of the meetings and other routine matters, effectively acting as the League 's civil service. In 1931 the staff numbered 707.
The Assembly consisted of representatives of all members of the League, with each state allowed up to three representatives and one vote. It met in Geneva and, after its initial sessions in 1920, it convened once a year in September. The special functions of the Assembly included the admission of new members, the periodical election of non-permanent members to the Council, the election with the Council of the judges of the Permanent Court, and control of the budget. In practice, the Assembly was the general directing force of League activities.
The League Council acted as a type of executive body directing the Assembly 's business. It began with four permanent members (Great Britain, France, Italy, Japan) and four non-permanent members that were elected by the Assembly for a three - year term. The first non-permanent members were Belgium, Brazil, Greece, and Spain.
The composition of the Council was changed several times. The number of non-permanent members was first increased to six on 22 September 1922 and to nine on 8 September 1926. Werner Dankwort of Germany pushed for his country to join the League; joining in 1926, Germany became the fifth permanent member of the Council. Later, after Germany and Japan both left the League, the number of non-permanent seats was increased from nine to eleven, and the Soviet Union was made a permanent member giving the Council a total of fifteen members. The Council met, on average, five times a year and in extraordinary sessions when required. In total, 107 sessions were held between 1920 and 1939.
The League oversaw the Permanent Court of International Justice and several other agencies and commissions created to deal with pressing international problems. These included the Disarmament Commission, the Health Organisation, the International Labour Organisation (ILO), the Mandates Commission, the International Commission on Intellectual Cooperation (precursor to UNESCO), the Permanent Central Opium Board, the Commission for Refugees, and the Slavery Commission. Three of these institutions were transferred to the United Nations after the Second World War: the International Labour Organisation, the Permanent Court of International Justice (as the International Court of Justice), and the Health Organisation (restructured as the World Health Organisation).
The Permanent Court of International Justice was provided for by the Covenant, but not established by it. The Council and the Assembly established its constitution. Its judges were elected by the Council and the Assembly, and its budget was provided by the latter. The Court was to hear and decide any international dispute which the parties concerned submitted to it. It might also give an advisory opinion on any dispute or question referred to it by the Council or the Assembly. The Court was open to all the nations of the world under certain broad conditions.
The International Labour Organisation was created in 1919 on the basis of Part XIII of the Treaty of Versailles. The ILO, although having the same members as the League and being subject to the budget control of the Assembly, was an autonomous organisation with its own Governing Body, its own General Conference and its own Secretariat. Its constitution differed from that of the League: representation had been accorded not only to governments but also to representatives of employers ' and workers ' organisations. Albert Thomas was its first director.
The ILO successfully restricted the addition of lead to paint, and convinced several countries to adopt an eight - hour work day and forty - eight - hour working week. It also campaigned to end child labour, increase the rights of women in the workplace, and make shipowners liable for accidents involving seamen. After the demise of the League, the ILO became an agency of the United Nations in 1946.
The League 's health organisation had three bodies: the Health Bureau, containing permanent officials of the League; the General Advisory Council or Conference, an executive section consisting of medical experts; and the Health Committee. The Committee 's purpose was to conduct inquiries, oversee the operation of the League 's health work, and prepare work to be presented to the Council. This body focused on ending leprosy, malaria, and yellow fever, the latter two by starting an international campaign to exterminate mosquitoes. The Health Organisation also worked successfully with the government of the Soviet Union to prevent typhus epidemics, including organising a large education campaign.
The League of Nations had devoted serious attention to the question of international intellectual co-operation since its creation. The First Assembly in December 1920 recommended that the Council take action aiming at the international organisation of intellectual work, which it did by adopting a report presented by the Fifth Committee of the Second Assembly and inviting a Committee on Intellectual Cooperation to meet in Geneva in August 1922. The French philosopher Henri Bergson became the first chairman of the committee. The work of the committee included: inquiry into the conditions of intellectual life, assistance to countries where intellectual life was endangered, creation of national committees for intellectual co-operation, co-operation with international intellectual organisations, protection of intellectual property, inter-university co-operation, co-ordination of bibliographical work and international interchange of publications, and international co-operation in archaeological research.
Introduced by the second International Opium Convention, the Permanent Central Opium Board had to supervise the statistical reports on trade in opium, morphine, cocaine and heroin. The board also established a system of import certificates and export authorisations for the legal international trade in narcotics.
The Slavery Commission sought to eradicate slavery and slave trading across the world, and fought forced prostitution. Its main success was through pressing the governments who administered mandated countries to end slavery in those countries. The League secured a commitment from Ethiopia to end slavery as a condition of membership in 1923, and worked with Liberia to abolish forced labour and intertribal slavery. The United Kingdom had not supported Ethiopian membership of the League on the grounds that "Ethiopia had not reached a state of civilisation and internal security sufficient to warrant her admission. ''
The League also succeeded in reducing the death rate of workers constructing the Tanganyika railway from 55 to 4 percent. Records were kept to control slavery, prostitution, and the trafficking of women and children. Partly as a result of pressure brought by the League of Nations, Afghanistan abolished slavery in 1923, Iraq in 1924, Nepal in 1926, Transjordan and Persia in 1929, Bahrain in 1937, and Ethiopia in 1942.
Led by Fridtjof Nansen, the Commission for Refugees was established on 27 June 1921 to look after the interests of refugees, including overseeing their repatriation and, when necessary, resettlement. At the end of the First World War, there were two to three million ex-prisoners of war from various nations dispersed throughout Russia; within two years of the commission 's foundation, it had helped 425,000 of them return home. It established camps in Turkey in 1922 to aid the country with an ongoing refugee crisis, helping to prevent disease and hunger. It also established the Nansen passport as a means of identification for stateless people.
The Committee for the Study of the Legal Status of Women sought to inquire into the status of women all over the world. It was formed in 1937, and later became part of the United Nations as the Commission on the Status of Women.
Of the League 's 42 founding members, 23 (24 counting Free France) remained members until it was dissolved in 1946. In the founding year, six other states joined, only two of which remained members throughout the League 's existence. An additional 15 countries joined later. The largest number of member states was 58, between 28 September 1934 (when Ecuador joined) and 23 February 1935 (when Paraguay withdrew).
On 26 May 1937, Egypt became the last state to join the League. The first member to withdraw permanently from the League was Costa Rica on 22 January 1925; having joined on 16 December 1920, this also makes it the member to have most quickly withdrawn. Brazil was the first founding member to withdraw (14 June 1926), and Haiti the last (April 1942). Iraq, which joined in 1932, was the first member that had previously been a League of Nations mandate.
The Soviet Union became a member on 18 September 1934, and was expelled on 14 December 1939 for invading Finland. In expelling the Soviet Union, the League broke its own rule: only 7 of 15 members of the Council voted for expulsion (United Kingdom, France, Belgium, Bolivia, Egypt, South Africa, and the Dominican Republic), short of the majority required by the Covenant. Three of these members had been made Council members the day before the vote (South Africa, Bolivia, and Egypt). This was one of the League 's final acts before it practically ceased functioning due to the Second World War.
At the end of the First World War, the Allied powers were confronted with the question of the disposal of the former German colonies in Africa and the Pacific, and the several non-Turkish provinces of the Ottoman Empire. The Peace Conference adopted the principle that these territories should be administered by different governments on behalf of the League -- a system of national responsibility subject to international supervision. This plan, defined as the mandate system, was adopted by the "Council of Ten '' (the heads of government and foreign ministers of the main Allied powers: Britain, France, the United States, Italy, Spain, and Japan) on 30 January 1919 and transmitted to the League of Nations.
League of Nations mandates were established under Article 22 of the Covenant of the League of Nations. The Permanent Mandates Commission supervised League of Nations mandates, and also organised plebiscites in disputed territories so that residents could decide which country they would join. There were three mandate classifications: A, B and C.
The A mandates (applied to parts of the old Ottoman Empire) were "certain communities '' that had
... reached a stage of development where their existence as independent nations can be provisionally recognised subject to the rendering of administrative advice and assistance by a Mandatory until such time as they are able to stand alone. The wishes of these communities must be a principal consideration in the selection of the Mandatory.
The B mandates were applied to the former German colonies that the League took responsibility for after the First World War. These were described as "peoples '' that the League said were
... at such a stage that the Mandatory must be responsible for the administration of the territory under conditions which will guarantee freedom of conscience and religion, subject only to the maintenance of public order and morals, the prohibition of abuses such as the slave trade, the arms traffic and the liquor traffic, and the prevention of the establishment of fortifications or military and naval bases and of military training of the natives for other than police purposes and the defence of territory, and will also secure equal opportunities for the trade and commerce of other Members of the League.
South West Africa and certain South Pacific Islands were administered by League members under C mandates. These were classified as "territories ''
... which, owing to the sparseness of their population, or their small size, or their remoteness from the centres of civilisation, or their geographical contiguity to the territory of the Mandatory, and other circumstances, can be best administered under the laws of the Mandatory as integral portions of its territory, subject to the safeguards above mentioned in the interests of the indigenous population. ''
The territories were governed by mandatory powers, such as the United Kingdom in the case of the Mandate of Palestine, and the Union of South Africa in the case of South West Africa, until the territories were deemed capable of self - government. Fourteen mandate territories were divided up among seven mandatory powers: the United Kingdom, the Union of South Africa, France, Belgium, New Zealand, Australia and Japan. With the exception of the Kingdom of Iraq, which joined the League on 3 October 1932, these territories did not begin to gain their independence until after the Second World War, in a process that did not end until 1990. Following the demise of the League, most of the remaining mandates became United Nations Trust Territories.
In addition to the mandates, the League itself governed the Territory of the Saar Basin for 15 years, before it was returned to Germany following a plebiscite, and the Free City of Danzig (now Gdańsk, Poland) from 15 November 1920 to 1 September 1939.
The aftermath of the First World War left many issues to be settled, including the exact position of national boundaries and which country particular regions would join. Most of these questions were handled by the victorious Allied powers in bodies such as the Allied Supreme Council. The Allies tended to refer only particularly difficult matters to the League. This meant that, during the early interwar period, the League played little part in resolving the turmoil resulting from the war. The questions the League considered in its early years included those designated by the Paris Peace treaties.
As the League developed, its role expanded, and by the middle of the 1920s it had become the centre of international activity. This change can be seen in the relationship between the League and non-members. The United States and Russia, for example, increasingly worked with the League. During the second half of the 1920s, France, Britain and Germany were all using the League of Nations as the focus of their diplomatic activity, and each of their foreign secretaries attended League meetings at Geneva during this period. They also used the League 's machinery to try to improve relations and settle their differences.
Åland is a collection of around 6,500 islands in the Baltic Sea, midway between Sweden and Finland. The islands are almost exclusively Swedish - speaking, but in 1809, the Åland Islands, along with Finland, were taken by Imperial Russia. In December 1917, during the turmoil of the Russian October Revolution, Finland declared its independence, but most of the Ålanders wished to rejoin Sweden. The Finnish government considered the islands to be a part of their new nation, as the Russians had included Åland in the Grand Duchy of Finland, formed in 1809. By 1920, the dispute had escalated to the point that there was danger of war. The British government referred the problem to the League 's Council, but Finland would not let the League intervene, as they considered it an internal matter. The League created a small panel to decide if it should investigate the matter and, with an affirmative response, a neutral commission was created. In June 1921, the League announced its decision: the islands were to remain a part of Finland, but with guaranteed protection of the islanders, including demilitarisation. With Sweden 's reluctant agreement, this became the first European international agreement concluded directly through the League.
The Allied powers referred the problem of Upper Silesia to the League after they had been unable to resolve the territorial dispute. After the First World War, Poland laid claim to Upper Silesia, which had been part of Prussia. The Treaty of Versailles had recommended a plebiscite in Upper Silesia to determine whether the territory should become part of Germany or Poland. Complaints about the attitude of the German authorities led to rioting and eventually to the first two Silesian Uprisings (1919 and 1920). A plebiscite took place on 20 March 1921, with 59.6 percent (around 500,000) of the votes cast in favour of joining Germany, but Poland claimed the conditions surrounding it had been unfair. This result led to the Third Silesian Uprising in 1921.
On 12 August 1921, the League was asked to settle the matter; the Council created a commission with representatives from Belgium, Brazil, China and Spain to study the situation. The committee recommended that Upper Silesia be divided between Poland and Germany according to the preferences shown in the plebiscite and that the two sides should decide the details of the interaction between the two areas -- for example, whether goods should pass freely over the border due to the economic and industrial interdependence of the two areas. In November 1921, a conference was held in Geneva to negotiate a convention between Germany and Poland. A final settlement was reached, after five meetings, in which most of the area was given to Germany, but with the Polish section containing the majority of the region 's mineral resources and much of its industry. When this agreement became public in May 1922, bitter resentment was expressed in Germany, but the treaty was still ratified by both countries. The settlement produced peace in the area until the beginning of the Second World War.
The frontiers of the Principality of Albania had not been set during the Paris Peace Conference in 1919, as they were left for the League to decide; they had not yet been determined by September 1921, creating an unstable situation. Greek troops conducted military operations in the south of Albania. Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (Yugoslav) forces became engaged, after clashes with Albanian tribesmen, in the northern part of the country. The League sent a commission of representatives from various powers to the region. In November 1921, the League decided that the frontiers of Albania should be the same as they had been in 1913, with three minor changes that favoured Yugoslavia. Yugoslav forces withdrew a few weeks later, albeit under protest.
The borders of Albania again became the cause of international conflict when Italian General Enrico Tellini and four of his assistants were ambushed and killed on 24 August 1923 while marking out the newly decided border between Greece and Albania. Italian leader Benito Mussolini was incensed, and demanded that a commission investigate the incident within five days. Whatever the results of the investigation, Mussolini insisted that the Greek government pay Italy fifty million lire in reparations. The Greeks said they would not pay unless it was proved that the crime was committed by Greeks.
Mussolini sent a warship to shell the Greek island of Corfu, and Italian forces occupied the island on 31 August 1923. This contravened the League 's covenant, so Greece appealed to the League to deal with the situation. The Allies agreed (at Mussolini 's insistence) that the Conference of Ambassadors should be responsible for resolving the dispute because it was the conference that had appointed General Tellini. The League Council examined the dispute, but then passed on their findings to the Conference of Ambassadors to make the final decision. The conference accepted most of the League 's recommendations, forcing Greece to pay fifty million lire to Italy, even though those who committed the crime were never discovered. Italian forces then withdrew from Corfu.
The port city of Memel (now Klaipėda) and the surrounding area, with a predominantly German population, was under provisional Allied control according to Article 99 of the Treaty of Versailles. The French and Polish governments favoured turning Memel into an international city, while Lithuania wanted to annex the area. By 1923, the fate of the area had still not been decided, prompting Lithuanian forces to invade in January 1923 and seize the port. After the Allies failed to reach an agreement with Lithuania, they referred the matter to the League of Nations. In December 1923, the League Council appointed a Commission of Inquiry. The commission chose to cede Memel to Lithuania and give the area autonomous rights. The Klaipėda Convention was approved by the League Council on 14 March 1924, and then by the Allied powers and Lithuania. In 1939 Germany retook the region following the rise of the Nazis and an ultimatum to Lithuania, demanding the return of the region under threat of war. The League of Nations failed to prevent the secession of the Memel region to Germany.
With League oversight, the Sanjak of Alexandretta in the French Mandate of Syria was given autonomy in 1937. Renamed Hatay, its parliament declared independence as the Republic of Hatay in September 1938, after elections the previous month. It was annexed by Turkey with French consent in mid-1939.
The League resolved a dispute between the Kingdom of Iraq and the Republic of Turkey over control of the former Ottoman province of Mosul in 1926. According to the British, who had been awarded a League of Nations mandate over Iraq in 1920 and therefore represented Iraq in its foreign affairs, Mosul belonged to Iraq; on the other hand, the new Turkish republic claimed the province as part of its historic heartland. A League of Nations Commission of Inquiry, with Belgian, Hungarian and Swedish members, was sent to the region in 1924; it found that the people of Mosul did not want to be part of either Turkey or Iraq, but if they had to choose, they would pick Iraq. In 1925, the commission recommended that the region stay part of Iraq, under the condition that the British hold the mandate over Iraq for another 25 years, to ensure the autonomous rights of the Kurdish population. The League Council adopted the recommendation and decided on 16 December 1925 to award Mosul to Iraq. Although Turkey had accepted League of Nations ' arbitration in the Treaty of Lausanne in 1923, it rejected the decision, questioning the Council 's authority. The matter was referred to the Permanent Court of International Justice, which ruled that, when the Council made a unanimous decision, it must be accepted. Nonetheless, Britain, Iraq and Turkey ratified a separate treaty on 5 June 1926 that mostly followed the decision of the League Council and also assigned Mosul to Iraq. It was agreed that Iraq could still apply for League membership within 25 years and that the mandate would end upon its admittance.
After the First World War, Poland and Lithuania both regained their independence but soon became immersed in territorial disputes. During the Polish -- Soviet War, Lithuania signed the Moscow Peace Treaty with the Soviet Union that laid out Lithuania 's frontiers. This agreement gave Lithuanians control of the city of Vilnius (Lithuanian: Vilnius, Polish: Wilno), the old Lithuanian capital, but a city with a majority Polish population. This heightened tension between Lithuania and Poland and led to fears that they would resume the Polish -- Lithuanian War, and on 7 October 1920, the League negotiated the Suwałki Agreement establishing a cease - fire and a demarcation line between the two nations. On 9 October 1920, General Lucjan Żeligowski, commanding a Polish military force in contravention of the Suwałki Agreement, took the city and established the Republic of Central Lithuania.
After a request for assistance from Lithuania, the League Council called for Poland 's withdrawal from the area. The Polish government indicated they would comply, but instead reinforced the city with more Polish troops. This prompted the League to decide that the future of Vilnius should be determined by its residents in a plebiscite and that the Polish forces should withdraw and be replaced by an international force organised by the League. The plan was met with resistance in Poland, Lithuania, and the Soviet Union, which opposed any international force in Lithuania. In March 1921, the League abandoned plans for the plebiscite. After unsuccessful proposals by Paul Hymans to create a federation between Poland and Lithuania, Vilnius and the surrounding area was formally annexed by Poland in March 1922. After Lithuania took over the Klaipėda Region, the Allied Conference set the frontier between Lithuania and Poland, leaving Vilnius within Poland, on 14 March 1923. Lithuanian authorities refused to accept the decision, and officially remained in a state of war with Poland until 1927. It was not until the 1938 Polish ultimatum that Lithuania restored diplomatic relations with Poland and thus de facto accepted the borders.
There were several border conflicts between Colombia and Peru in the early part of the 20th century, and in 1922, their governments signed the Salomón - Lozano Treaty in an attempt to resolve them. As part of this treaty, the border town of Leticia and its surrounding area was ceded from Peru to Colombia, giving Colombia access to the Amazon River. On 1 September 1932, business leaders from Peruvian rubber and sugar industries who had lost land as a result organised an armed takeover of Leticia. At first, the Peruvian government did not recognise the military takeover, but President of Peru Luis Sánchez Cerro decided to resist a Colombian re-occupation. The Peruvian Army occupied Leticia, leading to an armed conflict between the two nations. After months of diplomatic negotiations, the governments accepted mediation by the League of Nations, and their representatives presented their cases before the Council. A provisional peace agreement, signed by both parties in May 1933, provided for the League to assume control of the disputed territory while bilateral negotiations proceeded. In May 1934, a final peace agreement was signed, resulting in the return of Leticia to Colombia, a formal apology from Peru for the 1932 invasion, demilitarisation of the area around Leticia, free navigation on the Amazon and Putumayo Rivers, and a pledge of non-aggression.
Saar was a province formed from parts of Prussia and the Rhenish Palatinate and placed under League control by the Treaty of Versailles. A plebiscite was to be held after fifteen years of League rule to determine whether the province should belong to Germany or France. When the referendum was held in 1935, 90.3 percent of voters supported becoming part of Germany, which was quickly approved by the League Council.
In addition to territorial disputes, the League also tried to intervene in other conflicts between and within nations. Among its successes were its fight against the international trade in opium and sexual slavery, and its work to alleviate the plight of refugees, particularly in Turkey in the period up to 1926. One of its innovations in this latter area was the 1922 introduction of the Nansen passport, which was the first internationally recognised identity card for stateless refugees.
After an incident involving sentries on the Greek - Bulgarian border in October 1925, fighting began between the two countries. Three days after the initial incident, Greek troops invaded Bulgaria. The Bulgarian government ordered its troops to make only token resistance, and evacuated between ten thousand and fifteen thousand people from the border region, trusting the League to settle the dispute. The League condemned the Greek invasion, and called for both Greek withdrawal and compensation to Bulgaria.
Following accusations of forced labour on the large American - owned Firestone rubber plantation and American accusations of slave trading, the Liberian government asked the League to launch an investigation. The resulting commission was jointly appointed by the League, the United States, and Liberia. In 1930, a League report confirmed the presence of slavery and forced labour. The report implicated many government officials in the selling of contract labour and recommended that they be replaced by Europeans or Americans, which generated anger within Liberia and led to the resignation of President Charles D.B. King and his vice-president. The Liberian government outlawed forced labour and slavery and asked for American help in social reforms.
The Mukden Incident, also known as the "Manchurian Incident '' was a decisive setback that weakened The League because its major members refused to tackle Japanese aggression. Japan itself withdrew.
Under the agreed terms of the Twenty - One Demands with China, the Japanese government had the right to station its troops in the area around the South Manchurian Railway, a major trade route between the two countries, in the Chinese region of Manchuria. In September 1931, a section of the railway was lightly damaged by the Japanese Kwantung Army as a pretext for an invasion of Manchuria. The Japanese army claimed that Chinese soldiers had sabotaged the railway and in apparent retaliation (acting contrary to orders from Tokyo,) occupied all of Manchuria. They renamed the area Manchukuo, and on 9 March 1932 set up a puppet government, with Pu Yi, the former emperor of China, as its executive head. This new entity was recognised only by the governments of Italy, Spain and Nazi Germany; the rest of the world still considered Manchuria legally part of China.
The League of Nations sent observers. The Lytton Report appeared a year later (October 1932). It declared Japan to be the aggressor and demanded Manchuria be returned to China. The report passed 42 -- 1 in the Assembly in 1933 (only Japan voting against), but instead of removing its troops from China, Japan withdrew from the League. In the end, as British historian Charles Mowat argues, collective security was dead:
The League failed to prevent the 1932 war between Bolivia and Paraguay over the arid Gran Chaco region. Although the region was sparsely populated, it contained the Paraguay River, which would have given either landlocked country access to the Atlantic Ocean, and there was also speculation, later proved incorrect, that the Chaco would be a rich source of petroleum. Border skirmishes throughout the late 1920s culminated in an all - out war in 1932 when the Bolivian army attacked the Paraguayans at Fort Carlos Antonio López at Lake Pitiantuta. Paraguay appealed to the League of Nations, but the League did not take action when the Pan-American Conference offered to mediate instead. The war was a disaster for both sides, causing 57,000 casualties for Bolivia, whose population was around three million, and 36,000 dead for Paraguay, whose population was approximately one million. It also brought both countries to the brink of economic disaster. By the time a ceasefire was negotiated on 12 June 1935, Paraguay had seized control of most of the region, as was later recognised by the 1938 truce.
In October 1935, Italian dictator Benito Mussolini sent 400,000 troops to invade Abyssinia (Ethiopia). Marshal Pietro Badoglio led the campaign from November 1935, ordering bombing, the use of chemical weapons such as mustard gas, and the poisoning of water supplies, against targets which included undefended villages and medical facilities. The modern Italian Army defeated the poorly armed Abyssinians and captured Addis Ababa in May 1936, forcing Emperor of Ethiopia Haile Selassie to flee.
The League of Nations condemned Italy 's aggression and imposed economic sanctions in November 1935, but the sanctions were largely ineffective since they did not ban the sale of oil or close the Suez Canal (controlled by Britain). As Stanley Baldwin, the British Prime Minister, later observed, this was ultimately because no one had the military forces on hand to withstand an Italian attack. In October 1935, the US President, Franklin D. Roosevelt, invoked the recently passed Neutrality Acts and placed an embargo on arms and munitions to both sides, but extended a further "moral embargo '' to the belligerent Italians, including other trade items. On 5 October and later on 29 February 1936, the United States endeavoured, with limited success, to limit its exports of oil and other materials to normal peacetime levels. The League sanctions were lifted on 4 July 1936, but by that point Italy had already gained control of the urban areas of Abyssinia.
The Hoare -- Laval Pact of December 1935 was an attempt by the British Foreign Secretary Samuel Hoare and the French Prime Minister Pierre Laval to end the conflict in Abyssinia by proposing to partition the country into an Italian sector and an Abyssinian sector. Mussolini was prepared to agree to the pact, but news of the deal leaked out. Both the British and French public vehemently protested against it, describing it as a sell - out of Abyssinia. Hoare and Laval were forced to resign, and the British and French governments dissociated themselves from the two men. In June 1936, although there was no precedent for a head of state addressing the Assembly of the League of Nations in person, Haile Selassie spoke to the Assembly, appealing for its help in protecting his country.
The Abyssinian crisis showed how the League could be influenced by the self - interest of its members; one of the reasons why the sanctions were not very harsh was that both Britain and France feared the prospect of driving Mussolini and Adolf Hitler into an alliance.
On 17 July 1936, the Spanish Army launched a coup d'état, leading to a prolonged armed conflict between Spanish Republicans (the elected leftist national government) and the Nationalists (conservative, anti-communist rebels who included most officers of the Spanish Army). Julio Álvarez del Vayo, the Spanish Minister of Foreign Affairs, appealed to the League in September 1936 for arms to defend Spain 's territorial integrity and political independence. The League members would not intervene in the Spanish Civil War nor prevent foreign intervention in the conflict. Adolf Hitler and Mussolini continued to aid General Francisco Franco 's Nationalists, while the Soviet Union helped the Spanish Republic. In February 1937, the League did ban foreign volunteers, but this was in practice a symbolic move.
Following a long record of instigating localised conflicts throughout the 1930s, Japan began a full - scale invasion of China on 7 July 1937. On 12 September, the Chinese representative, Wellington Koo, appealed to the League for international intervention. Western countries were sympathetic to the Chinese in their struggle, particularly in their stubborn defence of Shanghai, a city with a substantial number of foreigners. The League was unable to provide any practical measures; on 4 October, it turned the case over to the Nine Power Treaty Conference.
Article 8 of the Covenant gave the League the task of reducing "armaments to the lowest point consistent with national safety and the enforcement by common action of international obligations. '' A significant amount of the League 's time and energy was devoted to this goal, even though many member governments were uncertain that such extensive disarmament could be achieved or was even desirable. The Allied powers were also under obligation by the Treaty of Versailles to attempt to disarm, and the armament restrictions imposed on the defeated countries had been described as the first step toward worldwide disarmament. The League Covenant assigned the League the task of creating a disarmament plan for each state, but the Council devolved this responsibility to a special commission set up in 1926 to prepare for the 1932 -- 34 World Disarmament Conference. Members of the League held different views towards the issue. The French were reluctant to reduce their armaments without a guarantee of military help if they were attacked; Poland and Czechoslovakia felt vulnerable to attack from the west and wanted the League 's response to aggression against its members to be strengthened before they disarmed. Without this guarantee, they would not reduce armaments because they felt the risk of attack from Germany was too great. Fear of attack increased as Germany regained its strength after the First World War, especially after Adolf Hitler gained power and became German Chancellor in 1933. In particular, Germany 's attempts to overturn the Treaty of Versailles and the reconstruction of the German military made France increasingly unwilling to disarm.
The World Disarmament Conference was convened by the League of Nations in Geneva in 1932, with representatives from 60 states. A one - year moratorium on the expansion of armaments, later extended by a few months, was proposed at the start of the conference. The Disarmament Commission obtained initial agreement from France, Italy, Spain, Japan, and Britain to limit the size of their navies. The Kellogg -- Briand Pact, facilitated by the commission in 1928, failed in its objective of outlawing war. Ultimately, the Commission failed to halt the military build - up by Germany, Italy, Spain and Japan during the 1930s. The League was mostly silent in the face of major events leading to the Second World War, such as Hitler 's remilitarisation of the Rhineland, occupation of the Sudetenland and Anschluss of Austria, which had been forbidden by the Treaty of Versailles. In fact, League members themselves re-armed. In 1933, Japan simply withdrew from the League rather than submit to its judgement, as did Germany the same year (using the failure of the World Disarmament Conference to agree to arms parity between France and Germany as a pretext), Italy and Spain in 1937. The final significant act of the League was to expel the Soviet Union in December 1939 after it invaded Finland.
The onset of the Second World War demonstrated that the League had failed in its primary purpose, the prevention of another world war. There were a variety of reasons for this failure, many connected to general weaknesses within the organisation. Additionally, the power of the League was limited by the United States ' refusal to join.
The origins of the League as an organisation created by the Allied powers as part of the peace settlement to end the First World War led to it being viewed as a "League of Victors ''. The League 's neutrality tended to manifest itself as indecision. It required a unanimous vote of nine, later fifteen, Council members to enact a resolution; hence, conclusive and effective action was difficult, if not impossible. It was also slow in coming to its decisions, as certain ones required the unanimous consent of the entire Assembly. This problem mainly stemmed from the fact that the primary members of the League of Nations were not willing to accept the possibility of their fate being decided by other countries, and by enforcing unanimous voting had effectively given themselves veto power.
Representation at the League was often a problem. Though it was intended to encompass all nations, many never joined, or their period of membership was short. The most conspicuous absentee was the United States. President Woodrow Wilson had been a driving force behind the League 's formation and strongly influenced the form it took, but the US Senate voted not to join on 19 November 1919. Ruth Henig has suggested that, had the United States become a member, it would have also provided support to France and Britain, possibly making France feel more secure, and so encouraging France and Britain to co-operate more fully regarding Germany, thus making the rise to power of the Nazi Party less likely. Conversely, Henig acknowledges that if the US had been a member, its reluctance to engage in war with European states or to enact economic sanctions might have hampered the ability of the League to deal with international incidents. The structure of the US federal government might also have made its membership problematic, as its representatives at the League could not have made decisions on behalf of the executive branch without having the prior approval of the legislative branch.
In January 1920, when the League was born, Germany was not permitted to join because it was seen as having been the aggressor in the First World War. Soviet Russia was also initially excluded, as Communist regimes were not welcomed. The League was further weakened when major powers left in the 1930s. Japan began as a permanent member of the Council, but withdrew in 1933 after the League voiced opposition to its occupation of Manchuria. Italy began as a permanent member of the Council, but withdrew in 1937. Spain also began as a permanent member of the Council, but withdrew in 1939. The League had accepted Germany, also as a permanent member of the Council, in 1926, deeming it a "peace - loving country '', but Adolf Hitler pulled Germany out when he came to power in 1933.
Another important weakness grew from the contradiction between the idea of collective security that formed the basis of the League and international relations between individual states. The League 's collective security system required nations to act, if necessary, against states they considered friendly, and in a way that might endanger their national interests, to support states for which they had no normal affinity. This weakness was exposed during the Abyssinia Crisis, when Britain and France had to balance maintaining the security they had attempted to create for themselves in Europe "to defend against the enemies of internal order '', in which Italy 's support played a pivotal role, with their obligations to Abyssinia as a member of the League.
On 23 June 1936, in the wake of the collapse of League efforts to restrain Italy 's war against Abyssinia, the British Prime Minister, Stanley Baldwin, told the House of Commons that collective security had
failed ultimately because of the reluctance of nearly all the nations in Europe to proceed to what I might call military sanctions... The real reason, or the main reason, was that we discovered in the process of weeks that there was no country except the aggressor country which was ready for war... (I) f collective action is to be a reality and not merely a thing to be talked about, it means not only that every country is to be ready for war; but must be ready to go to war at once. That is a terrible thing, but it is an essential part of collective security.
Ultimately, Britain and France both abandoned the concept of collective security in favour of appeasement in the face of growing German militarism under Hitler. In this context, the League of Nations was also the institution where the first international debate on terrorism took place following the 1934 assassination of King Alexander I of Yugoslavia in Marseille, showing its conspiratorial features, many of which are detectable in the discourse of terrorism among states after 9 / 11.
American diplomatic historian Samuel Flagg Bemis originally supported the League, but after two decades changed his mind:
The League of Nations lacked an armed force of its own and depended on the Great Powers to enforce its resolutions, which they were very unwilling to do. Its two most important members, Britain and France, were reluctant to use sanctions and even more reluctant to resort to military action on behalf of the League. Immediately after the First World War, pacifism became a strong force among both the people and governments of the two countries. The British Conservatives were especially tepid to the League and preferred, when in government, to negotiate treaties without the involvement of that organisation. Moreover, the League 's advocacy of disarmament for Britain, France, and its other members, while at the same time advocating collective security, meant that the League was depriving itself of the only forceful means by which it could uphold its authority.
When the British cabinet discussed the concept of the League during the First World War, Maurice Hankey, the Cabinet Secretary, circulated a memorandum on the subject. He started by saying, "Generally it appears to me that any such scheme is dangerous to us, because it will create a sense of security which is wholly fictitious ''. He attacked the British pre-war faith in the sanctity of treaties as delusional and concluded by claiming:
It (a League of Nations) will only result in failure and the longer that failure is postponed the more certain it is that this country will have been lulled to sleep. It will put a very strong lever into the hands of the well - meaning idealists who are to be found in almost every Government, who deprecate expenditure on armaments, and, in the course of time, it will almost certainly result in this country being caught at a disadvantage.
The Foreign Office minister Sir Eyre Crowe also wrote a memorandum to the British cabinet claiming that "a solemn league and covenant '' would just be "a treaty, like other treaties ''. "What is there to ensure that it will not, like other treaties, be broken? '' Crowe went on to express scepticism of the planned "pledge of common action '' against aggressors because he believed the actions of individual states would still be determined by national interests and the balance of power. He also criticised the proposal for League economic sanctions because it would be ineffectual and that "It is all a question of real military preponderance ''. Universal disarmament was a practical impossibility, Crowe warned.
As the situation in Europe escalated into war, the Assembly transferred enough power to the Secretary General on 30 September 1938 and 14 December 1939 to allow the League to continue to exist legally and carry on reduced operations. The headquarters of the League, the Palace of Nations, remained unoccupied for nearly six years until the Second World War ended.
At the 1943 Tehran Conference, the Allied powers agreed to create a new body to replace the League: the United Nations. Many League bodies, such as the International Labour Organisation, continued to function and eventually became affiliated with the UN. The designers of the structures of the United Nations intended to make it more effective than the League.
The final meeting of the League of Nations took place on 18 April 1946 in Geneva. Delegates from 34 nations attended the assembly. This session concerned itself with liquidating the League: it transferred assets worth approximately $22,000,000 (U.S.) in 1946 (including the Palace of Peace and the League 's archives) to the UN, returned reserve funds to the nations that had supplied them, and settled the debts of the League. Robert Cecil, addressing the final session, said:
Let us boldly state that aggression wherever it occurs and however it may be defended, is an international crime, that it is the duty of every peace - loving state to resent it and employ whatever force is necessary to crush it, that the machinery of the Charter, no less than the machinery of the Covenant, is sufficient for this purpose if properly used, and that every well - disposed citizen of every state should be ready to undergo any sacrifice in order to maintain peace... I venture to impress upon my hearers that the great work of peace is resting not only on the narrow interests of our own nations, but even more on those great principles of right and wrong which nations, like individuals, depend.
The League is dead. Long live the United Nations.
The Assembly passed a resolution that "With effect from the day following the close of the present session of the Assembly (i.e., April 19), the League of Nations shall cease to exist except for the sole purpose of the liquidation of its affairs as provided in the present resolution. '' A Board of Liquidation consisting of nine persons from different countries spent the next 15 months overseeing the transfer of the League 's assets and functions to the United Nations or specialised bodies, finally dissolving itself on July 31, 1947.
The archive of the League of Nations was transferred to the United Nations Office at Geneva and is now an entry in the UNESCO Memory of the World Register.
In the past few decades, the legacy of the League of Nations started to be reviewed by historians as the League Archives at Geneva were better explored, and the United Nations faced similar troubles to those of the interwar period. The current consensus state that, even though the League failed to achieve its ultimate goal of world peace, it did manage to build new roads towards expanding the rule of law across the globe; strengthened the concept of collective security, giving a voice to smaller nations; helped to raise awareness to problems like epidemics, slavery, child labor, colonial tyranny, refugee crisis and general working conditions through its numerous commissions and committees; and paved the way for new forms of statehood, as the mandate system put the colonial powers under international observation.
Professor David Kennedy portrays the League as a unique moment when international affairs were "institutionalised '', as opposed to the pre -- First World War methods of law and politics. The principal Allies in the Second World War (the UK, the USSR, France, the U.S., and the Republic of China) became permanent members of the United Nations Security Council in 1946. (In 1971 the People 's Republic of China replaced the Republic of China (then only in control of Taiwan) as permanent member of the UN Security Council, and in 1991 the Russian Federation replaced the USSR.) Decisions of the Security Council are binding on all members of the UN; unanimous decisions are not required, unlike in the League Council. Permanent members of the Security Council can wield a veto to protect their vital interests.
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who played in super bowl 1 & 2 | Super Bowl I - wikipedia
The first AFL - NFL World Championship Game in professional American football, known retroactively as Super Bowl I and referred to in some contemporaneous reports, including the game 's radio broadcast, as the Super Bowl, was played on January 15, 1967 at the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum in Los Angeles, California. The National Football League (NFL) champion Green Bay Packers defeated the American Football League (AFL) champion Kansas City Chiefs by the score of 35 -- 10.
Coming into this game, considerable animosity existed between the AFL and NFL, thus the teams representing the two rival leagues (Kansas City and Green Bay, respectively) felt pressure to win. The Chiefs posted an 11 -- 2 -- 1 record during the 1966 AFL season, and defeated the Buffalo Bills 31 -- 7, in the AFL Championship Game. The Packers finished the 1966 NFL season at 12 -- 2, and defeated the Dallas Cowboys 34 -- 27 in the NFL Championship Game. Still, many sports writers and fans believed any team in the older NFL was vastly superior to any club in the upstart AFL, and so expected Green Bay would blow out Kansas City.
The first half of Super Bowl I was competitive, as the Chiefs outgained the Packers in total yards, 181 -- 164, to come within 14 -- 10 at halftime. Early in the third quarter, Green Bay safety Willie Wood intercepted a pass and returned it fifty yards to the five - yard line. The turnover sparked the Packers to score 21 unanswered points in the second half. Green Bay quarterback Bart Starr, who completed 16 of 23 passes for 250 yards and two touchdowns, with 1 interception, was named MVP.
It remains the only Super Bowl to have been simulcast in the United States by two networks. NBC had the rights to nationally televise AFL games, while CBS held the rights to broadcast NFL games; both networks were allowed to televise the game. The first Super Bowl 's entertainment consisted of college marching bands from the University of Arizona and Grambling State University, instead of featuring popular singers and musicians as in later Super Bowls.
When the NFL began its 40th season in 1960, it had a new and unwanted rival: the American Football League. The NFL had successfully fended off several other rival leagues in the past, and so the older league initially ignored the new upstart and its eight teams, figuring it would be made up of nothing but NFL rejects, and that fans were unlikely to prefer it to the NFL. But unlike the NFL 's prior rivals, the AFL survived and prospered, in part by signing "NFL rejects '' who turned out to be highly talented players the older league had badly misjudged. Soon the NFL and AFL found themselves locked in a massive bidding war for the top free agents and prospects coming out of college. Originally, there was a tacit agreement between the two not to raid each other by signing players who were already under contract with a team from an opposing league. This policy broke down in early 1966 when the NFL 's New York Giants signed Pete Gogolak, a placekicker who was under contract with the AFL 's Buffalo Bills. The AFL owners considered this an "act of war '' and immediately struck back, signing several contracted NFL players, including eight of their top quarterbacks.
Eventually the NFL had enough and started negotiations with the AFL in an attempt to resolve the issue. As a result of the negotiations, the leagues signed a merger agreement on June 9, 1966. Among the details, both leagues agreed to share a common draft in order to end the bidding war for the top college players, as well as merge into a single league after the 1969 season. In addition, an "AFL - NFL World Championship Game '' was established, in which the AFL and NFL champions would play against each other in a game at the end of the season to determine which league had the best team.
Los Angeles was not awarded the game until December 1, less than seven weeks prior to the kickoff; likewise, the date of the game was not set until December 13. Since the AFL Championship Game originally was scheduled for Monday, December 26, and the NFL Championship Game for Sunday, January 1 (the reverse of the situation following the 1960 season), the "new '' championship game was suggested to be played Sunday, January 8. Eventually, an unprecedented TV doubleheader was held on January 1, with the AFL Championship Game telecast from Buffalo starting at 1 p.m. EST on NBC and the NFL Championship Game telecast from Dallas starting at 4 p.m. EST (3 p.m. CST) on CBS.
Coming into this "first '' game, considerable animosity still existed between the two rival leagues, with both of them putting pressure on their respective champions to trounce the other and prove each league 's dominance in professional football. Still, many sports writers and fans believed the game was a mismatch, and any team from the long - established NFL was far superior to the best team from the upstart AFL. The Green Bay Packers played the Kansas City Chiefs, with the Packers winning 35 -- 10.
The players ' shares were $15,000 each for the winning team and $7,500 each for the losing team. This was in addition to the league championship money earned two weeks earlier: the Packers shares were $8,600 each, and the Chiefs were $5,308 each.
The Chiefs entered the game after recording an 11 -- 2 -- 1 mark during the regular season. In the AFL championship game, they defeated the Buffalo Bills 31 -- 7.
Kansas City 's high - powered offense led the AFL in points scored (448) and total rushing yards (2,274). Their trio of running backs, Mike Garrett (801 yards), Bert Coan (521 yards), and Curtis McClinton (540 yards) all ranked among the top - ten rushers in the AFL. Quarterback Len Dawson was the top - rated passer in the AFL, completing 159 of 284 (56 %) of his passes for 2,527 yards and 26 touchdowns. Wide receiver Otis Taylor provided the team with a great deep threat by recording 58 receptions for 1,297 yards and eight touchdowns. Receiver Chris Burford added 58 receptions for 758 yards and eight touchdowns, and tight end Fred Arbanas, who had 22 catches for 305 yards and four touchdowns, was one of six Chiefs offensive players who were named to the All - AFL team.
The Chiefs also had a strong defense, with All - AFL players Jerry Mays and Buck Buchanan anchoring their line. Linebacker Bobby Bell, who was also named to the All - AFL team, was great at run stopping and pass coverage. The strongest part of their defense, though, was their secondary, led by All - AFL safeties Johnny Robinson and Bobby Hunt, who each recorded 10 interceptions, and defensive back Fred Williamson, who recorded four. Their head coach was Hank Stram.
The Packers were an NFL dynasty turning around what had been a losing team just eight years earlier. The team had posted an NFL - worst 1 -- 10 -- 1 record in 1958 before legendary head coach Vince Lombardi was hired in January 1959. "Their offense was like a conga dance, '' one sportswriter quipped. "1, 2, 3 and kick. ''
Lombardi was determined to build a winning team. During the preseason, he signed Fred "Fuzzy '' Thurston, who had been cut from three other teams, but ended up becoming an All - Pro left guard for Green Bay. In addition Lombardi also made a big trade with the Cleveland Browns that brought three players to the team who would become cornerstones of the defense: linemen Henry Jordan, Willie Davis, and Bill Quinlan.
Lombardi 's hard work paid off, and the Packers improved to a 7 -- 5 regular season record in 1959. They surprised the league during the following year by making it all the way to the 1960 NFL Championship Game. Although the Packers lost 17 -- 13 to the Philadelphia Eagles, they had sent a clear message that they were no longer losers. Green Bay went on to win NFL Championships in 1961, 1962, 1965, and 1966.
Packers veteran quarterback Bart Starr was the top - rated quarterback in the NFL for 1966, and won the NFL Most Valuable Player Award, completing 156 of 251 (62.2 %) passes for 2257 yards (9.0 per attempt), 14 touchdowns, and only 3 interceptions. His top targets were wide receivers Boyd Dowler and Carroll Dale, who combined for 63 receptions for 1,336 yards. Fullback Jim Taylor was the team 's top rusher with 705 yards, adding 4 touchdowns, and caught 41 passes for 331 yards and 2 touchdowns. (Before the season, Taylor had informed the team that instead of returning to the Packers in 1967, he would become a free agent and sign with the expansion New Orleans Saints. Lombardi, infuriated at what he considered to be Taylor 's disloyalty, refused to speak to Taylor the entire season.) The team 's starting halfback, Paul Hornung, was injured early in the season, but running back Elijah Pitts, a replacement, gained 857 all purpose yards. The Packers ' offensive line was also a big reason for the team 's success, led by All - Pro guards Jerry Kramer, and Fuzzy Thurston, and tackle Forrest Gregg.
Green Bay also had an excellent defense that displayed their talent in the NFL championship game, stopping the Dallas Cowboys on four consecutive plays starting from the Packers 2 - yard line on the final drive to win the game. Lionel Aldridge had replaced Quinlan, but Jordan and Davis still anchored the defensive line; linebacker Ray Nitschke excelled at run stopping and pass coverage, while the secondary was led by defensive backs Herb Adderley and Willie Wood. Wood was another example of how Lombardi found talent in players that nobody else could see. Wood had been a quarterback in college and was not drafted by an NFL team. When Wood joined the Packers in 1960, he was converted to a free safety, and went on to make the All - Pro team 9 times in his 12 - year career.
Many people considered it fitting that the Chiefs and the Packers would be the teams to play in the first ever AFL - NFL World Championship Game. Chiefs owner Lamar Hunt had founded the AFL, while Green Bay was widely considered one of the better teams in NFL history (even if they could not claim to be founding members of their own league, as the Packers joined the NFL in 1921, a year after the league 's formation). Lombardi was under intense pressure from the entire NFL to make sure the Packers not only won the game, but preferably won big to demonstrate the superiority of the NFL. CBS announcer Frank Gifford, who interviewed Lombardi prior to the game, said Lombardi was so nervous, "he held onto my arm and he was shaking like a leaf. It was incredible. '' The Chiefs saw this game as an opportunity to show they were good enough to play against any NFL team. One player who was really looking forward to competing in this game was Len Dawson, who had spent three years as a backup in the NFL before joining the Chiefs. However, the Chiefs were also nervous. Linebacker E.J. Holub said, "the Chiefs were scared to death. Guys in the tunnel were throwing up. ''
In the week prior to the game, Chiefs cornerback Fred "The Hammer '' Williamson garnered considerable publicity by boasting he would use his "hammer '' -- forearm blows to the head -- to destroy the Packers ' receivers, stating, "Two hammers to (Boyd) Dowler, one to (Carroll) Dale should be enough. '' His prediction turned out to be partially correct as Dowler was knocked out of the game early in the first quarter (although it was because of an exacerbation of an injury he had previously received during the NFL Championship game in Dallas on January 1). However, Willamson himself was knocked out cold and carried off the field on a stretcher near the end of the game.
The two teams played with their respective footballs from each league; the Chiefs used the AFL ball, the slightly narrower and longer J5V by Spalding, and the Packers played with the NFL ball, "The Duke '' by Wilson.
The AFL 's two - point conversion rule was not in force; the NFL added the two - point conversion in 1994 and it was first used in the Super Bowl that same season, Super Bowl XXIX in January 1995.
This is also the only Super Bowl where the numeric yard markers were 5 yards apart, rather than 10 as is customary today.
Justin Peters of Slate watched all the Super Bowls over a two - month period in 2015 before Super Bowl 50. He mentioned about the first Super Bowl having "two dudes in rocket packs who flew around the stadium. I can forgive a lot of bad football as long as the game features two dudes in honest - to - God rocket packs. ''
The game was played in an outdoor stadium. The temperature was mild with clear skies.
This game is the only Super Bowl to have been broadcast in the United States by two television networks simultaneously (no other NFL game was subsequently carried nationally on more than one network until December 29, 2007, when the New England Patriots faced the New York Giants on NBC, CBS, and the NFL Network). At the time, NBC held the rights to nationally televise AFL games while CBS had the rights to broadcast NFL games. Both networks were allowed to cover the game. During the week, tensions flared between the staffs of the two networks (longtime arch - rivals in American broadcasting), who each wanted to win the ratings war, to the point where a fence was built between the CBS and NBC trucks.
Each network used its own announcers: Ray Scott (doing play - by - play for the first half), Jack Whitaker (doing play - by - play for the second half) and Frank Gifford provided commentary on CBS, while Curt Gowdy and Paul Christman were on NBC. While Rozelle allowed NBC to telecast the game, he decreed it would not be able to use its cameramen and technical personnel, instead forcing it to use the feed provided by CBS, since the Coliseum was home to the NFL 's Rams.
Super Bowl I was the only Super Bowl in history that was not a sellout in terms of attendance, despite a TV blackout in the Los Angeles area (at the time, NFL games were required to be blacked out in the market of origin, even if it was a neutral site game and if it sold out). Of the 94,000 - seat capacity in the Coliseum, 33,000 went unsold. Days before the game, local newspapers printed editorials about what they viewed as a then - exorbitant $12 price for tickets, and wrote stories about how viewers could pull in the game from stations in distant markets such as Bakersfield, Santa Barbara and San Diego.
All known broadcast tapes of the game in its entirety were subsequently wiped by both NBC and CBS to save costs, a common practice at the time. This has prevented studies comparing each network 's respective telecast.
For many years, only two small samples of the telecasts were known to have survived, showing Max McGee 's opening touchdown and Jim Taylor 's first touchdown run. Both were shown in 1991 on HBO 's Play by Play: A History of Sports Television and on the Super Bowl XXV pregame show.
In January 2011, a partial recording of the CBS telecast was reported to have been found in a Pennsylvania attic and restored by the Paley Center for Media in New York. The two - inch color videotape is the most complete version of the broadcast yet discovered, missing only the halftime show and most of the third quarter. The NFL owns the broadcast 's copyright and has blocked its sale or distribution. After remaining anonymous and only communicating with the media through his lawyer, the owner of the recording, Troy Haupt, came forward to The New York Times in 2016 to tell his side of the story.
NFL Films had a camera crew present, and retains a substantial amount of film footage in its archives, some of which has been released in its film productions. One such presentation was the NFL 's Greatest Games episode about this Super Bowl, entitled The Spectacle of a Sport (also the title of the Super Bowl I highlight film).
On January 11, 2016, the NFL announced that, "in an exhaustive process that took months to complete, NFL Films searched its enormous archives of footage and were able to locate all 145 plays from Super Bowl I from more than a couple dozen disparate sources. Once all the plays were located, NFL Films was able to put the plays in order and stitch them together while fully restoring, re-mastering, and color correcting the footage. Finally, audio from the NBC Sports radio broadcast featuring announcers Jim Simpson and George Ratterman was layered on top of the footage to complete the broadcast. The final result represents the only known video footage of the entire action from Super Bowl I. '' It then announced that NFL Network would broadcast the newly pieced together game footage in its entirety on January 15, 2016 -- the 49th anniversary of the contest. This footage was nearly all on film with the exception of several player introductions and a post game locker room chat between Pat Summerall and Pete Rozelle
The Los Angeles Ramettes, majorettes who had performed at all Rams home games, entertained during pregame festivities and after each quarter. Also during the pregame, the University of Arizona band created a physical outline of the continental United States at the center of the field, with the famed Anaheim High School drill team placing banners of each NFL and AFL team at each team 's geographical location.
The halftime show featured trumpeter Al Hirt, the marching bands from the University of Arizona and Grambling State University, 300 pigeons, 10,000 balloons and a flying demonstration by the hydrogen - peroxide - propelled Bell Rocket Air Men.
The postgame trophy presentation ceremony was handled by CBS ' Pat Summerall and NBC 's George Ratterman. Summerall and Ratterman were forced to share a single microphone.
During the game, the official balls from both leagues were used -- when the Chiefs were on offense, the official AFL football (Spalding JV - 5) was used, and when the Packers were on offense, the official NFL ball (Wilson 's "The Duke '') was used. Even the officiating crew was made up of a combination of AFL and NFL referees, with the NFL 's Norm Schachter as the head referee.
After both teams traded punts on their first possessions of the game, the Packers jumped out to an early 7 -- 0 lead, driving 80 yards in six plays. The drive was highlighted by Starr 's passes, to Marv Fleming for 11, to Elijah Pitts for 22 yards on a scramble, and to Carroll Dale for 12 yards. On the last play, Bart Starr threw a pass to reserve receiver Max McGee, who had replaced re-injured starter Boyd Dowler earlier in the drive. (Dowler had injured the shoulder the previous week after scoring a third quarter touchdown; Cowboys defensive back Mike Gaechter had upended him several steps after scoring and he landed awkwardly.) McGee slipped past Chiefs cornerback Willie Mitchell, made a one - handed catch at the 23 - yard line, and then took off for a 37 - yard touchdown reception (McGee had also caught a touchdown pass after replacing an injured Dowler in the NFL championship game). On their ensuing drive, the Chiefs moved the ball to Green Bay 's 33 - yard line, but kicker Mike Mercer missed a 40 - yard field goal.
Early in the second quarter, Kansas City drove 66 yards in six plays, featuring a 31 - yard reception by receiver Otis Taylor, to tie the game on a seven - yard pass to Curtis McClinton from quarterback Len Dawson. But the Packers responded on their next drive, advancing 73 yards down the field and scoring on fullback Jim Taylor 's 14 - yard touchdown run with the team 's famed "Power Sweep '' play. Taylor 's touchdown run was the first in Super Bowl history. This drive was again highlighted by Starr 's key passes. He hit McGee for 10 yards on third and five; Dale for 15 on third and ten; Fleming for 11 on third and five; and Pitts for 10 yards on third and seven to set up Taylor 's TD on the next play.
Dawson was sacked for an eight - yard loss on the first play of the Chiefs ' next drive, but he followed it up with four consecutive completions for 58 yards, including a 27 - yarder to Chris Burford. This set up Mercer 's 31 - yard field goal to make the score 14 -- 10 at the end of the half.
At halftime, the Chiefs appeared to have a chance to win. Many people watching the game were surprised how close the score was and how well the AFL 's champions were playing. Kansas City actually outgained Green Bay in total yards, 181 -- 164, and had 11 first downs compared to the Packers ' 9. The Chiefs were exuberant at halftime. Hank Stram said later, "I honestly thought we would come back and win it. '' The Packers were disappointed with the quality of their play in the first half. "The coach was concerned '', said defensive end Willie Davis later. Lombardi told them the game plan was sound, but that they had to tweak some things and execute better.
On their first drive of the second half, the Chiefs advanced to their own 49 - yard line. But on a third - down pass play, a heavy blitz by linebackers Dave Robinson and Lee Roy Caffey collapsed the Chiefs pocket. Just as Packer end Lionel Aldridge was about to hit him, Dawson threw weakly toward tight end Fred Arbanas, but the ball was intercepted by Willie Wood. Wood raced 50 yards to Kansas City 's five - yard line where Mike Garrett dragged him down from behind. This was "the biggest play of the game, '' wrote Starr later. On their first play after the turnover, running back Elijah Pitts scored on a five - yard touchdown run to give the Packers a 21 -- 10 lead. Stram agreed that it was the critical point of the game. The Packers defense then dominated the Chiefs offense for the rest of the game, only allowing them to cross midfield once, and for just one play. The Chiefs were forced to deviate from their game plan, and that hurt them. The Kansas City offense totaled only 12 yards in the third quarter, and Dawson was held to five of 12 second - half pass completions for 59 yards.
Meanwhile, Green Bay forced Kansas City to punt from their own two - yard line after sacking Dawson twice and got the ball back with good field position on their own 44 - yard line. McGee subsequently caught three passes for 40 yards on a 56 - yard drive that ended with his 13 - yard touchdown reception.
Midway through the fourth quarter, Starr completed a 25 - yard pass to Carroll Dale and a 37 - yard strike to McGee, moving the ball to the Chiefs 18 - yard line. Four plays later, Pitts scored his second touchdown on a one - yard run to close out the scoring, giving the Packers the 35 -- 10 win. Also in the fourth quarter, Fred Williamson, who had boasted about his "hammer '' prior to the game, was knocked out when his head collided with running back Donny Anderson 's knee, and then suffered a broken arm when Chiefs linebacker Sherrill Headrick fell on him. Williamson had three tackles for the game.
Hornung was the only Packer not to see any action. Lombardi had asked him in the fourth quarter if he wanted to go in, but Hornung declined, not wanting to aggravate a pinched nerve in his neck. McGee, who caught only four passes for 91 yards and one touchdown during the season, finished Super Bowl I with seven receptions for 138 yards and two touchdowns. After the game was over, a reporter asked Vince Lombardi about if he thought Kansas City was a good team. Lombardi responded that though the Chiefs were an excellent, well - coached club, he thought several NFL teams such as Dallas were better.
The Green Bay Packers were each paid a salary of $15,000 as the winning team. The Chiefs were paid $7,500 each.
at Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum, Los Angeles, California
Sources: NFL.com Super Bowl I, Super Bowl Play Finder GB, Super Bowl Play Finder KC
Note: According to NBC Radio announcer Jim Simpson 's report at halftime of the game, Kansas City led 11 to 9 in first downs at halftime, 181 to 164 in total yards, and 142 to 113 in passing yards (Green Bay led 51 to 39 in rushing yards). Bart Starr completed eight of 13 with no interceptions, while Len Dawson was 11 of 15 with no interceptions. Green Bay led 14 -- 10 at halftime. Green Bay had the ball five times, although only for a minute or so on the last possession; they punted on their first possession, scored a touchdown on their second, punted on their third, scored a touchdown on their fourth, and had the ball when the half ended on their fifth. Kansas City had the ball four times -- punting on their first possession, driving to a missed field goal on their second possession, scoring a touchdown on their third, and kicking a field goal on their fourth.
This means, in the second half, Green Bay led 12 to six in first downs, 197 to 58 in total yards, 115 to 25 in passing yards, and 82 to 33 in rushing yards (the Packers won the second half, 21 -- 0). Starr and his late - game replacement, Zeke Bratkowski, were eight for 11 with one interception; Dawson and his late - game replacement, Pete Beathard, were just six for 17, also with one interception. Each team had the ball seven times in the second half, although Green Bay 's first possession was just one play and their seventh possession was abbreviated because the game ended. Green Bay scored a touchdown on their first (one play) possession, punted on their second, scored a touchdown on their third, was intercepted at KC 's 15 - yard line on their fourth (just Starr 's fourth interception of the year), scored a touchdown on their fifth, punted on their sixth, and had the ball when the game ended on their seventh possession. Kansas City was intercepted on their first possession -- Wood 's return to the five set up Pitts ' touchdown that made the score 21 -- 10 -- and then punted on each of their next six possessions.
Completions / attempts Carries Long gain Receptions Times targeted
Because this was the first Super Bowl, a new record was set in every category. All categories are listed in the 2016 NFL Fact book. The following records were set in Super Bowl I, according to the official NFL.com boxscore and the Pro-Football-Reference.com game summary. Some records have to meet NFL minimum number of attempts to be recognized. The minimums are shown (in parenthesis).
Turnovers are defined as the number of times losing the ball on interceptions and fumbles.
Source:
Hall of Fame ‡
Note: A six - official system was used by the NFL from 1965 through the 1977 season.
Since officials from the NFL and AFL wore different uniform designs, a "neutral '' uniform was designed for this game. These uniforms had the familiar black and white stripes, but the sleeves were all black with the official 's uniform number. This design was also worn in Super Bowl II, but was discontinued after that game when AFL officials began wearing uniforms identical to those of the NFL during the 1968 season, in anticipation of the AFL - NFL merger in 1970.
does not include 1966 or 1967 NFL championships
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orbital period of planets in our solar system | Orbital period - wikipedia
The orbital period is the time a given astronomical object takes to complete one orbit around another object, and applies in astronomy usually to planets or asteroids orbiting the Sun, moons orbiting planets, exoplanets orbiting other stars, or binary stars.
For objects in the Solar System, this is often referred to as the sidereal period, determined by a 360 ° revolution of one celestial body around another, e.g. the Earth orbiting the Sun. The name sidereal is added as it implies that the object returns to the same position relative to the fixed stars projected in the sky. When describing orbits of binary stars, the orbital period is usually referred to as just the period. For example, Jupiter has a sidereal period of 11.86 years while the main binary star Alpha Centauri AB has a period of about 79.91 years.
Another important orbital period definition can refer to the repeated cycles for celestial bodies as observed from the Earth 's surface. An example is the so - called synodic period, applying to the elapsed time where planets return to the same kind of phenomena or location. For example, when any planet returns between its consecutive observed conjunctions with or oppositions to the Sun. For example, Jupiter has a synodic period of 398.8 days from Earth; thus, Jupiter 's opposition occurs once roughly every 13 months.
Periods in astronomy are conveniently expressed in various units of time, often in hours, days, or years. They can be also defined under different specific astronomical definitions that are mostly caused by small complex eternal gravitational influences by other celestial objects. Such variations also include the true placement of the centre of gravity between two astronomical bodies (barycenter), perturbations by other planets or bodies, orbital resonance, general relativity, etc. Most are investigated by detailed complex astronomical theories using celestial mechanics using precise positional observations of celestial objects via astrometry.
There are many periods related to the orbits of objects, each of which are often used in the various fields of astronomy and astrophysics. Examples of some of the common ones include the following:
According to Kepler 's Third Law, the orbital period T (in seconds) of two point masses orbiting each other in a circular or elliptic orbit is:
where:
For all ellipses with a given semi-major axis the orbital period is the same, regardless of eccentricity.
Inversely, for calculating the distance where a body has to orbit in order to have a given orbital period:
where:
For instance, for completing an orbit every 24 hours around a mass of 100 kg, a small body has to orbit at a distance of 1.08 meters from its center of mass.
When a very small body is in a circular orbit barely above the surface of a sphere of any radius and mean density ρ (in kg / m), the above equation simplifies to (since M = Vρ = 4 / 3πa ρ) >:
So, for the Earth as the central body (or any other spherically symmetric body with the same mean density, about 5,515 kg / m) we get:
and for a body made of water (ρ ≈ 1,000 kg / m)
Thus, as an alternative for using a very small number like G, the strength of universal gravity can be described using some reference material, like water: the orbital period for an orbit just above the surface of a spherical body of water is 3 hours and 18 minutes. Conversely, this can be used as a kind of "universal '' unit of time if we have a unit of mass, a unit of length and a unit of density.
In celestial mechanics, when both orbiting bodies ' masses have to be taken into account, the orbital period T can be calculated as follows:
where:
Note that the orbital period is independent of size: for a scale model it would be the same, when densities are the same (see also Orbit # Scaling in gravity).
In a parabolic or hyperbolic trajectory, the motion is not periodic, and the duration of the full trajectory is infinite.
There are observable characteristics of two bodies which orbit a third body in different orbits, and thus have different orbital periods. This is known as their synodic period; it is the time between conjunctions, and since it is observable from either the first or the second body, the two synodic periods will be different, depending from which celestial body you are observing.
An example of this related period description is the repeated cycles for celestial bodies as observed from the Earth 's surface, the so - called synodic period, applying to the elapsed time where planets return to the same kind of phenomena or location. For example, when any planet returns between its consecutive observed conjunctions with or oppositions to the Sun. For example, Jupiter has a synodic period of 398.8 days from Earth; thus, Jupiter 's opposition occurs once roughly every 13 months.
If the orbital periods of the two bodies around the third are called P and P, so that P < P, their synodic period is given by:
Table of synodic periods in the Solar System, relative to Earth:
In the case of a planet 's moon, the synodic period usually means the Sun - synodic period, namely, the time it takes the moon to complete its illumination phases, completing the solar phases for an astronomer on the planet 's surface. The Earth 's motion does not determine this value for other planets because an Earth observer is not orbited by the moons in question. For example, Deimos 's synodic period is 1.2648 days, 0.18 % longer than Deimos 's sidereal period of 1.2624 d.
The concept of synodic period does not just apply to the Earth, but also to other planets as well, and the formula for computation is the same as the one given above. Here is a table which lists the synodic periods of some planets relative to each other:
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this will be the death of us set your goals | This Will Be the Death of Us - wikipedia
This Will Be the Death of Us is the second studio album by American rock band Set Your Goals, released July 21, 2009 on Epitaph Records.
In February 2008, vocalist Jordan Brown said the group had been "busy working on new songs over the last few months ''. In May 2008, the band posted "The Fallen... '' online. While performing on Warped Tour, guitarist Audelio Flores, Jr. said the group had been writing a lot and were in the process of working on three new songs. Drummer Mike Ambrose said they had "demoed a little bit '' and have "a lot of skeletons '' of songs. He added that the group were aiming to release a new album by spring 2009. On August 18, it was announced that the band was bought out of their contract with independent label Eulogy Recordings for $125,000. In the same announcement, it was revealed that the band was in the process of writing their next album. Though Flores said the group were going to be recording in October and November, the group were still in the writing process. On October 30, it was announced that guitarist Dan Coddaire had re-joined the group after initially leaving in 2006.
The album was produced by Mike Green (Paramore, The Matches) and is their debut on Epitaph Records after their manager reportedly paid their previous label, Eulogy Recordings, to buy out their contract. Recording was completed in late March. The album features various guest vocals including Vinnie Caruana of I Am the Avalanche and The Movielife on opener and title track, "This Will Be the Death of Us ''. Hayley Williams of Paramore also features on "The Few That Remain '', whilst ex-vocalist of Turmoil Jon Gula is featured on "Gaia Bleeds (Make Way For Man) ''. The album is closed with the 90s skate punk influenced "Our Ethos: A Legacy to Pass On '', featuring vocals from New Found Glory 's Chad Gilbert. Jordan Pundik, also of New Found Glory provides vocals on the Japanese bonus track "The Lost Boys ''.
In late March, it was revealed that the album would be released in late July. Between late March and early May, the band supported New Found Glory on their headlining tour of the US. On March 24, it was announced that the band had signed to independent label Epitaph Records. The band appeared at The Bamboozle festival in early May. In late May, the band went on a brief tour of Japan with All Time Low. On June 2, the band said that if 5,000 people retweet one of their tweets, they would release a track, and the following day, "This Will Be the Death of Us '' was posted on their Myspace profile. Shortly afterwards, the band toured Australia as part of the Take Action Tour. In July, the band went on a tour of the US with Four Year Strong, Fireworks, the Swellers and Grave Maker.
While on the tour, This Will Be the Death of Us was released on July 21. Two days later, a music video was released for "This Will Be the Death of Us ''. Further dates were added, extending the tour into late August. On September 28, a music video was released for "Summer Jam ''. Between late September and mid-November, the band supported on Mayday Parade on the AP Fall Ball Tour. In December, the group went on a UK tour. In January and February 2010, the group supported Motion City Soundtrack on their headlining tour of the US, which was followed by performances at Soundwave festival in Australia in February and March. Between late June and early August, the band performed on Warped Tour. On July 10, a music video was released for "Gaia Bleeds (Make Way for Man) ''.
All lyrics written by Jordan Brown; music composed by Set Your Goals.
The following personnel contributed to This Will Be the Death of Us:
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who colonized nigeria and when did they do it | Colonial Nigeria - wikipedia
Colonial Nigeria was the area of West Africa that later evolved into the modern day Nigeria, during the time of British rule in the 19th and 20th centuries. British influence in the region began with the prohibition of slave trade to British subjects in 1807. Britain annexed Lagos in 1861 and established the Oil River Protectorate in 1884. British influence in the Niger area increased gradually over the 19th century, but Britain did not effectively occupy the area until 1885. Other European powers acknowledged Britain 's power over the area in the 1885 Berlin Conference.
From 1886 to 1899, much of the country was ruled by Royal Niger Company, authorized by charter, and governed by George Taubman Goldie. In 1900, the Southern Nigeria Protectorate and Northern Nigeria Protectorate passed from company hands to the Crown. At the urging of governor Frederick Lugard, the two territories were amalgamated as the Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria, while maintaining considerable regional autonomy among the three major regions. Progressive constitutions after World War II provided for increasing representation and electoral government by Nigerians. The colonial period proper in Nigeria lasted from 1900 to 1960, after which Nigeria gained its independence.
Through a progressive sequence of regimes, the British imposed Crown Colony government on the area of West Africa which came to be known as Nigeria, a form of rule which was both autocratic and bureaucratic. After initially adopting an indirect rule approach, in 1906 the British merged the small Lagos Colony and the Southern Nigeria Protectorate into a new Colony of Southern Nigeria, and in 1914 that was combined with the Northern Nigeria Protectorate to form the Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria. Administration and military control of the territory was done primarily by white Britons, both in London and in Nigeria.
Following military conquest, the British imposed an economic system designed to profit from African labour. The essential basis of this system was a money economy -- specifically the British pound sterling -- which could be demanded through taxation, paid to cooperative natives, and levied as a fine.
The amalgamation of different ethnic and religious groups into one federation created internal tension which persists in Nigeria to the present day.
In the 1700s, the British Empire and other European powers had settlements and forts in West Africa but had not yet established the full - scale plantation colonies which existed in Americas. Adam Smith wrote in 1776 that the African societies were better established and more populous than those of the Americas, thus creating a more formidable barrier to European expansion.
Earlier elements related to this were its founding of the colony at Sierra Leone in 1787 as a refuge for freed slaves, the independent missionary movement intended to bring Christianity to Edo Empire, and programs of exploration sponsored by learned societies and scientific groups, such as the London - based African Association.
Local leaders, cognizant of the situation in the West Indies, India, and elsewhere, recognized the risks of British expansion. A chief of Bonny in 1860 explained that he refused a British treaty due to the tendency to "induce the Chiefs to sign a treaty whose meaning they did not understand, and then seize upon the country. ''
European slave trading from West Africa began before 1650, with people taken at a rate of about 3,000 per year. This rate rose to 20,000 per year in the last quarter of the century. The slave trade was heaviest in the period 1700 -- 1850, with an average of 76,000 people taken from Africa each year between 1783 and 1792. At first, the trade centered around West Central Africa, now the Congo. But in the 1700s, the Bight of Benin (also known as the Slave Coast) became the next most important hub. Ouidah (now part of Benin) and Lagos were the major ports in Biafra. From 1790 -- 1807, predominantly British slave traders purchased 1000 -- 2000 slaves each year in Lagos alone. The trade subsequently continued under the Portuguese. In the Bight of Biafra, the major ports were Old Calabar (Akwa Akpa), Bonny, and New Calabar. Starting in 1740, the British were the primary European slave trafficker from this area. In 1767, British traders facilitated a notorious massacre hundreds of people at Calabar after inviting them onto their ships, ostensibly to settle a local dispute.
In 1807 the Parliament of the United Kingdom enacted the Slave Trade Act, prohibiting British subjects from participating in the slave trade. Britain subsequently lobbied other European powers to stop the slave trade as well. It made anti-slavery treaties with West African powers, which it enforced militarily. Some of the treaties contained prohibitions on diplomacy conducted without British permission, or other promises to abide by British rule. This scenario provided an opportunity for naval expeditions and reconnaissance throughout the region. Britain also annexed Freetown in Sierra Leone, declaring it a Crown Colony in 1808.
The decrease in trade indirectly led to the collapse of Edo Empire. Britain withdrew from the slave trade when it was the major transporter of slaves to the Americas. The French had abolished slavery following the French Revolution, although it briefly re-established it in its Caribbean colonies under Napoleon. France sold Louisiana to the United States in 1803, the same year that it gave up on trying to regain Saint - Domingue. By the end of the Napoleonic Wars, it ended slavery in its possessions. Between them, the French and the British had purchased a majority of the slaves sold from the ports of Edo. The economy suffered from the decline in the slave trade, although considerable smuggling of slaves to the Americas continued for years.
Lagos became a major slave port in the late 1700s and into the 1850s. Much of the human trafficking which occurred there was nominally illegal, and records from this time and place are not comprehensive. According to the Trans - Atlantic Slave Voyage Database, 308,800 were sold across the Atlantic from Lagos in 1776 -- 1850. British and French traders did a large share of this business until 1807, when they were replaced by Portuguese and Spanish. By 1826 -- 1850 the British navy was interfering significantly with Lagos slave exports.
Whether British conquest of Nigeria resulted from a benevolent motive to end slavery, or more instrumental motives of wealth and power, remains a topic of dispute between African and European historians. Many locals remained unconvinced of the Crown 's authority to completely reverse the legal and moral attributes of a social institution through fiat. Regardless, slavery had decimated the population and fueled militarization and chaos, thereby paving the way for more aggressive colonisation.
Portuguese Roman Catholic priests who accompanied traders and officials to the West African coast introduced Christianity to Edo, Benin Empire in the fifteenth century. Several churches were built to serve the Edo community and a small number of African converts. When direct Portuguese contacts in the region were withdrawn, however, the influence of the Catholic missionaries waned. By the eighteenth century, evidence of Christianity had disappeared.
Although churchmen in Britain had been influential in the drive to abolish the slave trade, significant missionary activity for Africa did not develop until the 1840s. For some time, missionaries operated in the area between Lagos and Ibadan. The first missions were opened by the Church of England 's Church Missionary Society (CMS). Other Protestant denominations from Britain, Canada, and the United States also opened missions and, in the 1860s, Roman Catholic religious orders established missions. Protestant missionaries tended to divide the country into spheres of activity to avoid competition with each other, and Catholic missions similarly avoided duplication of effort among the several religious orders working there. Catholic missionaries were particularly active among the Igbo; the CMS worked among the Yoruba.
The CMS initially promoted Africans to responsible positions in the mission field; for instance, they appointed Samuel Ajayi Crowther as the first Anglican bishop of the Niger. Crowther, a liberated Yoruba slave, had been educated in Sierra Leone and in Britain, where he was ordained before returning to his homeland with the first group of CMS missionaries. The Anglicans and other religious groups had a conscious "native church '' policy to develop indigenous ecclesiastical institutions to become independent of Europeans. Crowther was succeeded as bishop by a British cleric. In the long term, the acceptance of Christianity by large numbers of Nigerians depended on the various denominations adapting to local conditions. They selected an increasingly high proportion of African clergy for the missions.
In large measure, European missionaries assumed the value of colonial rule in terms of promoting education, health and welfare measures, so they effectively reinforced colonial policy. Some African Christian communities formed their own independent churches.
(Note: All of this section to this point is from Nigeria: A Country Study (1991) prepared by staff of the Library of Congress of the United States.)
The missionaries gained in power throughout the 1800s. They caused major transformations in traditional society as they eroded the religious institutions such as human sacrifice, infanticide, and secret societies, which had formerly played a role in political authority and community life.
The principal commodities of legitimate trade were palm oil and palm kernels, which were used in Europe to make soap and as lubricants for machinery, before petroleum products were developed for that purpose. Although this trade grew to significant proportions -- palm oil exports alone were worth £ 1 billion a year by 1840 -- it was concentrated near the coast, where palm trees grew in abundance. Gradually, however, the trade forced major economic and social changes in the interior, although it hardly undermined slavery and the slave trade. The incidence of slavery in local societies increased.
Initially most palm oil (and later kernels) came from Igboland, where palm trees formed a canopy over the densely inhabited areas of the Ngwa, Nri Kingdom, Awka, and other Igbo peoples. Palm oil was used locally for cooking, the kernels were a source for food, trees were tapped for palm wine, and the fronds were used for building material. It was a relatively simple adjustment for many Igbo families to transport the oil to rivers and streams that led to the Niger Delta for sale to European merchants. The rapid expansion in exports, especially after 1830, occurred precisely at the time slave exports collapsed. The Igbo redirected slaves into the domestic economy, especially to grow the staple food crop, yams, in northern Igboland for marketing throughout the palm - tree belt. As before, Aro merchants dominated trade in the hinterland, including palm products to the coast and the sale of slaves within Igboland.
From 1815 -- 1840, palm oil exports increased by a factor of 25, from 800 to 20,000 tons per year. British merchants led the trade in palm oil, while the Portuguese and others continued the slave trade. Much of this oil was sold elsewhere in the British Empire. To produce all this oil, the economy of the southern region crossed over from mostly subsistence to the production of palm oil as a cash crop.
The Niger Delta and Calabar, which once had been known for the export of slaves, became notable for the export of palm oil. The Delta streams were called "oil rivers. '' The basic economic units in each town were "houses, '' family - operated entities that engendered loyalty for its employees. A "house '' included the extended family of the trader, including retainers and slaves. As its head, the master trader taxed other traders who were members of his "house; '' he maintained a war vessel, a large dugout canoe that could hold several tons of cargo and dozens of crew, for the defense of the harbor. Whenever a trader had become successful enough to keep a war canoe, he was expected to form his own "house ''. Economic competition among these "houses '' was so fierce that trade often erupted into armed battle between the crews of the large canoes.
Because of the hazards of climate and tropical diseases for Europeans and the absence of any centralized authorities on the mainland responsive to their interests, European merchants moored their ships outside harbours or in the delta, and used the ships as trading stations and warehouses. In time they built depots onshore and eventually moved up the Niger River to establish stations in the interior. An example was that at Onitsha, where they could bargain directly with local suppliers and purchase products likely to turn a profit.
Some European traders switched to legitimate business only when the commerce in slaves became too hazardous. The traders suffered from the risks of their position and believed they were at the mercy of the coastal rulers, whom they considered unpredictable. Accordingly, as the volume of trade increased, merchants requested that the British government appoint a consul to cover the region. Consequently, in 1849, John Beecroft was accredited as consul for the bights of Benin and Biafra, a jurisdiction stretching from Dahomey to Cameroon. Beecroft was the British representative to Fernando Po, where the prevention squadron of the British Royal Navy was stationed.
In 1850, the British created a "Court of Equity '' at Bonny, overseen by Beecroft, which would deal with trade disputes. Another court was established in 1856 at Calabar, based on an agreement with local Efik traders which prohibited them from interfering with British merchants. These courts contained majorities British members and represented a new level of presumptive British sovereignty in the Bight of Biafra.
West Africa also bought British exports, supplying 30 -- 40 % of the demand for British cotton during the Industrial Revolution of 1750 -- 1790.
At the same time, the British scientists were interested in exploring the course and related settlements along the Niger River. The delta masked the mouth of the great river, and for centuries Nigerians chose not to tell Europeans the secrets of the interior. In 1794 the African Association in Great Britain commissioned Mungo Park, an intrepid Scottish physician and naturalist, to search for the headwaters of the Niger and follow the river downstream. Park reached the upper Niger the next year by traveling inland from the Gambia River. Although he reported on the eastward flow of the Niger, he was forced to turn back when his equipment was lost to Muslim Arab slave traders. In 1805 he set out on a second expedition, sponsored by the British government, to follow the Niger to the sea. His mission failed, but Park and his party covered more than 1,500 kilometers, passing through the western portions of the Sokoto Caliphate, before drowning when their boats overturned in rapids near Bussa.
On a subsequent expedition to the Sokoto Caliphate, Hugh Clapperton learned about the mouth of the Niger River, where it reached the sea, but he died before confirming it. His servant, Richard Lander, and Lander 's brother John were the ones to demonstrate that the Niger flowed into the sea. The Lander brothers were seized by slave traders in the interior and sold down the river to a waiting European ship.
Initial British attempts to open trade with the interior by way of the Niger could not overcome climate and diseases such as malaria. A third of the people associated with an 1842 riverine expedition died. In the 1850s, the benefits of quinine had been found to combat malaria, and aided by the medicine, a Liverpool merchant, Macgregor Laird, opened the river. Laird 's efforts were stimulated by the detailed reports of a pioneer German explorer, Heinrich Barth, who traveled through much of Borno and the Sokoto Caliphate, where he recorded information about the region 's geography, economy, and inhabitants.
As part of an anti-slavery campaign and a pretext for making inroads into Lagos, Britain bombarded Lagos in November 1851, ousted the pro-slavery Oba Kosoko and established a treaty with the newly installed Oba Akintoye, who was more amenable. Lagos was annexed as a Crown Colony in 1861 via the Lagos Treaty of Cession.
British expansion accelerated in the last decades of the nineteenth century. The early history of Lagos Colony was one of repeated attempts to end the Yoruba wars. In the face of threats to the divided Yoruba states from Dahomey and the Sokoto Caliphate, as represented by the emirate of Ilorin, the British governor -- assisted by the CMS -- succeeded in imposing peace settlements on the interior.
Colonial Lagos was a busy, cosmopolitan port. Its architecture was in both Victorian and Brazilian style, as many of the black elite were English - speakers from Sierra Leone and freedmen repatriated from Brazil and Cuba. Its residents were employed in official capacities and were active in business. Africans also were represented on the Lagos Legislative Council, a largely appointed assembly. The Colony was ultimately governed by the British Colonial Office in London.
Captain John Glover, the colony 's administrator, created a militia of Hausa troops in 1861. This became the Lagos Constabulary, and subsequently the Nigerian Police Force.
In 1880, the British government and traders demonetized the Maria Theresa dollar, to the considerable dismay of its local holders, in favor of the pound. In 1891, the African Banking Corporation founded the Bank of British West Africa in Lagos.
After the Berlin Conference of 1884, Britain announced formation of the Oil Rivers Protectorate, which included the Niger Delta and extended eastward to Calabar, where the British consulate general was relocated from Fernando Po. The protectorate was organized to control and develop trade coming down the Niger. Vice consuls were assigned to ports that already had concluded treaties of cooperation with the Foreign Office. Local rulers continued to administer their territories, but consular authorities assumed jurisdiction for the equity courts established earlier by the foreign mercantile communities. A constabulary force was raised and used to pacify the coastal area.
In 1894 the territory was redesignated the Niger Coast Protectorate and was expanded to include the region from Calabar to Lagos Colony and Protectorate, including the hinterland, and northward up the Niger River as far as Lokoja, the headquarters of the Royal Niger Company. As a protectorate, it did not have the status of a colony, so its officials were appointed by the Foreign Office and not by the Colonial Office.
In 1891, the Consulate established the Niger Coast Protectorate Force or "Oil Rivers Irregulars ''.
The legitimate trade in commodities attracted a number of rough - hewn British merchants to the Niger River, as well as some men who had been formerly engaged in the slave trade but who now changed their line of wares. The large companies that subsequently opened depots in the delta cities and in Lagos were as ruthlessly competitive as the delta towns themselves and frequently used force to compel potential suppliers to agree to contracts and to meet their demands. To some extent, competition amongst these companies undermined their collective position vis - a-vis local merchants.
In the 1870s, therefore, George Taubman Goldie began amalgamating companies into the United African Company, soon renamed the National African Company.
The Royal Niger Company established its headquarters far inland at Lokoja, which was the main trading port of the company, from where it pretended to assume responsibility for the administration of areas along the Niger and Benue rivers where it maintained depots. It soon gained a virtual monopoly over trade along the River
The company interfered in the territory along the Niger and the Benue, sometimes becoming embroiled in serious conflicts when its British - led native constabulary intercepted slave raids or attempted to protect trade routes. The company negotiated treaties with Sokoto, Gwandu, and Nupe that were interpreted as guaranteeing exclusive access to trade in return for the payment of annual tribute. Officials of the Sokoto Caliphate considered these treaties quite differently; from their perspective, the British were granted only extraterritorial rights that did not prevent similar arrangements with the Germans and the French and certainly did not surrender sovereignty.
Even before gaining its charter, the Company signed treaties with local leaders which granted it broad sovereign powers. One 1885 treaty read:
We, the undersigned King and Chiefs... with the view to the bettering of the condition of our country and people, do this day cede to the National Africa Company (Limited), their heirs and assigns, forever, the whole of our territory... We also give the said National African Company (Limited) full power to settle all native disputes arising from any cause whatever, and we pledge ourselves not to enter into any war with other tribes without the sanction of the said National Africa Company (Limited).
We also understand that the said National African Company (limited) have full power to mine, farm, and build in any portion of our territory. We bind ourselves not to have any intercourse with any strangers or foreigners except through the said national African Company (Limited), and we give the said National African Company (Limited) full power to exclude all other strangers and foreigners from their territory at their discretion.
In consideration of the foregoing, the said National African Company (Limited) bind themselves not to interfere with any of the native laws or customs of the country, consistently with the maintenance of order and good government... (and) agree to pay native owners of land a reasonable amount for any portion they may require.
The company considered itself the sole legitimate government of the area, with executive, legislative, and judicial powers all subordinate to the rule of a council created by the company board of directors in London. The council was headed by a governor. The deputy governor served as political administrator for company 's territory, and appointed three officials in Nigeria to carry out the work of administration. These were the agent general, the senior judicial officer, and the commandant of the constabulary. However, the company did accept that local emirs could act as partners in governance and trade. It therefore hired native intermediaries who could conduct diplomacy, trade, and intelligence work in the local area.
The company, as was common among European businesses in Africa, paid its native workers in barter. At the turn of the century, top wages were four bags of salt (company retail price, 3s 9d) for a month of work. Trade was also conducted through a mechanism of barter and credit. Goods were made available on credit to African middlemen, who were expected to trade them at a pre-arranged price and deliver the proceeds to the company. The company 's major imports to the area included gin and low - quality firearms.
By the 1880s, the National African Company became the dominant commercial power, increasing from 19 to 39 stations between 1882 and 1993. In 1886, Taubman secured aroyal charter and his company became the Royal Niger Company. The charter allowed the company to collect customs and make treaties with local leaders.
Under Goldie 's direction, the Royal Niger Company was instrumental in depriving France and Germany of access to the region. Consequently, he may well deserve the epithet "father of Nigeria, '' which historians accorded him. He definitely laid the basis for British claims.
The Royal Niger Company had its own armed forces. This included a river fleet which it used for retaliatory attacked on uncooperative villages.
Britain 's imperialistic posture became more aggressive towards the end of the century. The appointment of Joseph Chamberlain as colonial secretary in 1895 especially marked a shift towards new territorial ambitions of the British Empire. Economically, local colonial administrators also pushed for the imposition of British colonial rule, believing that trade and taxation conducted in British pounds would prove far more lucrative than a barter trade which yielded only inconsistent customs duties.
The British led a series of military campaigns to enlarge its sphere of influence and expand its commercial opportunities. Most of the fighting was done by Hausa soldiers, recruited to fight against other groups. The superior weapons, tactics, and political unity of the British are commonly given as reasons for their decisive ultimate victory.
In 1892 the British forces set out to fight the Ijebu Kingdom, which had resisted missionaries and foreign traders. The legal justification for this campaign was a treaty signed in 1886, when the British had interceded as peacemakers to end the Ekitiparapo war, which imposed free trade requirements and mandated that all parties continue to use British channels for diplomacy. Although the Ijebu had some weapons they were wiped out by British machine guns called Maxim guns. With this victory, the British went on to conquer the rest of Yorubaland, which had also been weakened by sixteen years of civil war. By 1893, most of the other political entities in Yorubaland recognized the practical necessity signing another treaty with the British, this one explicitly joining them with the protectorate of Lagos.
In 1896 -- 1897 the forces of the Niger Coast Protectorate fought with the remnants of the Benin Empire. Following the defeat of an unsuccessful foray by Consul General James R. Phillips, a larger retaliatory force captured Benin City and drove Ovonramwen, the Oba of Benin, into exile.
The British had difficulty conquering Igboland, which lacked central political organization. In the name of liberating the Igbos from the Aro Confederacy, the British launched the Anglo - Aro War of 1901 -- 1902. Despite conquering villages by burning houses and crops, continual political control over the Igbo remained elusive. The British forces began annual pacification missions to convince the locals of British supremacy.
A campaign against the Sokoto Caliphate began in 1900 with the creation of the Protectorate of Northern Nigeria, under the direction of Governor Lugard. The British captured Kano in 1903. Deadly battles broke out sporadically through 1906. Lugard was slow to describe these excursions to the Colonial Office, which apparently learned of preparations to attack Kano from the newspapers in December 1902. Not wishing to appear out of control or weak, they approved the expedition (two days after it began) on January 19, 1903. In general the Colonial Office allowed Lugard 's expeditions to continue because they were framed as retaliatory and, as Olivier commented in 1906, "If the millions of people (in Nigeria) who do not want us there once get the notion that our people can be killed with impunity they will not be slow to attempt it. ''
Lugard informed the leaders of conquered Sokoto:
The Fulani in old times... conquered this country. They took the right to rule over it, to levy taxes, to depose kings and to create kings. They in turn have by defeat lost their rule which has come into the hands of the British. All these things which I have said the Fulani by conquest took the right to do now pass to the British. Every Sultan and Emir and the principal officers of state will be appointed by the high Commissioner throughout all this country. The High Commissioner will be guided by all the usual laws of succession and the wishes of the people and chief, but will set them aside if he desires for good cause to do so. The Emirs and chiefs who are appointed will rule over the people as of old time and take such taxes as are approved by the High Commissioner, but they will obey the laws of the Governor and will act in accordance with the advice of the Resident.
Concrete plans for transition to Crown rule -- direct control by the British government -- apparently began in 1897. In May of this year, Herbert J. Read published a Memorandum on British possessions in West Africa, which remarked upon the "inconvenient and unscientific boundaries '' between Lagos Colony, the Niger Coast Protectorate, and the Royal Niger Company. Read suggested they be merged, and more use made of Nigeria 's natural resources In the same year, the British created the Royal West African Frontier Force (RWAFF or WAFF), under the leadership of Colonel Frederick Lugard. In one year, Lugard recruited 2600 troops, evenly split between Hausa and Yoruba. The officers of the RWAFF were British. The operations of this force are still not fully known due to a policy of strict secrecy mandated by the British government.
Guidelines for running the Nigerian colony were established in 1898 by the Niger Committee, chaired by the Earl of Selborne, in 1898. The British finalized the border between Nigeria and French West Africa with the Anglo - French Convention of 1898.
The territory of the Royal Niger Company became the Northern Nigeria Protectorate, and the Company itself became a private corporation which continued to do business in Nigeria. The Company received £ 865,000 compensation for the loss of its Charter. It continued to enjoy special privileges and maintained a de facto monopoly over commerce. Under Lugard from 1900 -- 1906, the Protectorate consolidated political control over the area through military conquest and initiated the use of British currency in substitute for barter.
In 1900, the British government assumed control of the Southern and Northern Protectorates, both of which were ultimately governed by the Colonial Office at Whitehall. The staff of this office came primarily from the British upper middle class -- i.e., university - educated men, primarily not nobility, with fathers in well - respected professions. The first five heads of the Nigeria Department (1898 -- 1914) were Reginald Antrobus, William Mercer, William Baillie Hamilton, Sydney Olivier, and Charles Strachey. Olivier was a member of the Fabian Society and a friend of George Bernard Shaw.
Under the Colonial Office was the governor, who managed administration of his colony and held powers of emergency rule. The Colonial Office could veto or revise his policies. The seven men who governed Northern Nigeria, Southern Nigeria, and Lagos through 1914 were Henry McCallum, William MacGregor, Walter Egerton, Ralph Moor, Percy Girouard, Hesketh Bell, and Frederick Lugard. Most of these came from military backgrounds. All were knighted.
Walter Egerton 's sixfold agenda for 1908, as detailed on November 29, 1907, in a telegram to the Colonial Office, is representative of British priorities.
Egerton also supervised improvements to the Lagos harbour and extension of the local telegraph network.
From 1895 -- 1900, a railway was constructed running from Lagos to Ibadan; it opened in March 1901. This line was extended to Oshogbo, 100 kilometres (62 mi) away, in 1905 -- 1907, and to Zungeru and Minna in 1908 -- 1911. Its final leg enabled it to meet another line, constructed 1907 -- 1911, running from Baro, through Minnia, to Kano.
Some of these public work projects were accomplished with the help of forced labour, referred to as "Political Labour ''. Village Heads were paid 10 shillings for conscripts, and fined £ 50 if they failed to supply. Individuals could be fined or jailed for refusing to comply.
Frederick Lugard, who was appointed as High Commissioner of the Northern Nigeria Protectorate in 1900 and served until 1906 in his first term, often has been regarded by the British as their model colonial administrator. Trained as an army officer, he had served in India, Egypt, and East Africa, where he expelled Arab slave traders from Nyasaland and established the British presence in Uganda. Joining the Royal Niger Company in 1894, Lugard was sent to Borgu to counter inroads made by the French, and in 1897 he was made responsible for raising the Royal West African Frontier Force (RWAFF) from local levies to serve under British officers.
During his six - year tenure as High Commissioner, Sir Frederick Lugard (as he became in 1901) was occupied with transforming the commercial sphere of influence inherited from the Royal Niger Company into a viable territorial unit under effective British political control. His objective was to conquer the entire region and to obtain recognition of the British protectorate by its indigenous rulers, especially the Fulani emirs of the Sokoto Caliphate. Lugard 's campaign systematically subdued local resistance, using armed force when diplomatic measures failed. Borno capitulated without a fight, but in 1903 Lugard 's RWAFF mounted assaults on Kano and Sokoto. From Lugard 's point of view, clear - cut military victories were necessary because the surrenders of the defeated peoples weakened resistance elsewhere.
Lugard 's success in northern Nigeria has been attributed to his policy of indirect rule; that is, he governed the protectorate through the rulers defeated by the British. If the emirs accepted British authority, abandoned the slave trade, and cooperated with British officials in modernizing their administrations, the colonial power was willing to confirm them in office. The emirs retained their caliphate titles but were responsible to British district officers, who had final authority. The British High Commissioners could depose emirs and other officials if necessary.
Amalgamation of Nigeria was envisioned from early on in its governance, as is made clear by the report of the Niger Committee in 1898. Combining the three jurisdictions would reduce administrative expenses and facilitate deployment of resources and money between the areas. (Specifically it would enable direct subsidy of the less profitable Northern jurisdiction.) Antrobus, Fiddes, and Strachey in the Colonial Office promoted amalgamation, along with Lugard.
Following the order recommended by the Niger Committee, the Colonial Office merged Lagos Colony and the Southern Nigeria Protectorate on May 1, 1906, forming a larger protectorate (still called the Southern Nigeria Protectorate) which spanned the coastline between Dahomey and Cameroon.
Lugard advocated constantly for unification of the whole territory, and in August 1911 the Colonial Office asked Lugard to lead the amalgamated colony.
In 1912, Lugard returned to Nigeria from his six - year term as Governor of Hong Kong, to oversee the merger of the northern and southern protectorates. On May 9, 1913, Lugard submitted a formal proposal to the Colonial Office in which Northern and Southern provinces would have separate administrations, under the control of a "strongly authoritarian '' governor - general. The Colonial Office approved most of Lugard 's plan, but balked at authorizing him to pass laws without their approval. John Anderson diplomatically suggested:
If it is the necessity for formally submitting the drafts that hurts Sir F. Lugard, I should be quite prepared to omit that provision provided that the period of publication of the draft prior to enactment is extended from one month to two. If an eye is kept on the Gazettes as they come in this will enable us to warn him of any objections we may entertain to legislative proposals, and also give Liverpool and Manchester an opportunity of voicing their objections.
The task of unification was achieved on the eve of World War I. From January 1914 onwards, the newly united colony and protectorate was presided over by a proconsul, who was entitled the Governor - General of Nigeria. The militias and RWAFF battalions were reorganized into the RWAFF Nigeria Regiment.
Lugard 's governmental model for Nigeria was unique and there was apparently not much planning for its future development. Colonial official A.J. Harding commented in 1913:
Sir F. Lugard 's proposal contemplates a state which it is impossible to classify. It is not a unitary state with local government areas but with one Central Executive and one Legislature. It is not a federal state with federal Executive, Legislature and finances, like the Leewards. It is not a personal union of separate colonies under the same Governor like the Windwards, it is not a Confederation of States. If adopted, his proposals can hardly be a permanent solution and I gather that Sir F. Lugard only regards them as temporary -- at any rate in part. With one man in practical control of the Executive and Legislative organs of all the parts, the machine may work passably for sufficient time to enable the transition period to be left behind, by which time the answer to the problem -- Unitary v. Federal State -- will probably have become clear.
The Colonial Office accepted Lugard 's proposal that the governor would not be required to stay in - country full - time; consequently, as governor, Lugard spent four months out of the year in London. This scheme proved unpopular and confusing to many involved parties and was phased out.
The Protectorate was centrally administered by the Colonial Civil Service, staffed by Britishers and Africans called the British Native Staff -- many of whom originated from outside the territory. Under the Political Department of the Civil Service were Residents and District Officers, responsible for overseeing operations in each region. The Resident also oversaw a Provincial Court at the region 's capital.
Each region also had a Native Administration, staffed by locals, and possessing a Native Treasury. The Native Administration was headed by the traditional rulers -- emirs in the north -- and his District Heads, who oversaw a larger number of Village Heads. Native Administration was responsible for police, hospitals, public works, and local courts. The Colonial Civil Service used intermediaries, as the Royal Niger Company had, in an expanded role which included diplomacy, propaganda, and espionage.
Half of all taxes went to the colonial government and half went to the Native Treasury. The Treasury used a planned budget for payment of staff and development of public works projects, and therefore could not be spent at the discretion of the local emir. Herbert Richmond Palmer developed details of this model from 1906 -- 1911 as the governor of Northern Nigeria after Lugard.
In 1916 Lugard formed the Nigerian Council, a consultative body that brought together six traditional leaders -- including the Sultan of Sokoto, the Emir of Kano, and the King of Benin -- to represent all parts of the colony. The council was promoted as a device for allowing the expression of opinions that could instruct the governor - general. In practice, Lugard used the annual sessions to inform the traditional leaders of British policy, leaving them with no functions at the council 's meetings except to listen and to assent.
Unification meant only the loose affiliation of three distinct regional administrations into which Nigeria was subdivided -- northern, western, and eastern regions (see fig. 6). Each was under a lieutenant governor and provided independent government services. The governor was, in effect, the coordinator for virtually autonomous entities that had overlapping economic interests but little in common politically or socially. In the Northern Region, the colonial government took careful account of Islam and avoided any appearance of a challenge to traditional values that might incite resistance to British rule.
This system, in which the structure of authority focused on the emir to whom obedience was a mark of religious devotion, did not welcome change. As the emirs settled more and more into their role as reliable agents of indirect rule, colonial authorities were content to maintain the status quo, particularly in religious matters. Christian missionaries were barred, and the limited government efforts in education were harmonized with Islamic institutions.
In the south, by contrast, traditional leaders were employed as vehicles of indirect rule in EdoLand & Yorubaland, but Christianity and Western education undermined their sacerdotal functions. In some instances, however, a double allegiance -- to the idea of sacred monarchy for its symbolic value and to modern concepts of law and administration -- was maintained. Out of reverence for traditional kingship, for instance, the Oba of Benin, whose office was closely identified with Edo religion, was accepted as the sponsor of a Yoruba political movement. In the Eastern Region, appointed officials who were given "warrants '' and hence called warrant chiefs, were strongly resisted by the people because they lacked traditional claims.
In practice, British administrative procedures under indirect rule entailed constant interaction between colonial authorities and local rulers -- the system was modified to fit the needs of each region. In the north, for instance, legislation took the form of a decree cosigned by the governor and the emir, while in the south, the governor sought the approval of the Legislative Council. Hausa was recognized as an official language in the north, and knowledge of it was expected of colonial officers serving there. In the South, only English had official status. Regional administrations also varied widely in the quality of local personnel and in the scope of the operations they were willing to undertake. British staffs in each region continued to operate according to procedures developed before unification. Economic links among the regions increased, but indirect rule tended to discourage political interchange. There was virtually no pressure for greater unity among the regions until after the end of World War II.
Public works, such as harbour dredging and road and railway construction, opened Nigeria to economic development. British soap and cosmetics manufacturers tried to obtain land concessions for growing oil palms, but these were refused. Instead, the companies had to be content with a monopoly of the export trade in these products. Other commercial crops, such as cocoa and rubber, were encouraged, and tin was mined on the Jos Plateau.
The only significant interruption in economic development arose from natural disaster -- the great drought of 1913 - 14. Recovery came quickly and improvements in port facilities and the transportation infrastructure during World War I furthered economic development. Nigerian recruits participated in the war effort as laborers and soldiers. The Nigeria Regiment of the RWAFF, integrating troops from the north and south, saw action against German colonial forces in Cameroon and in German East Africa.
During the war, the colonial government earmarked a large portion of the Nigerian budget as a contribution to imperial defense. To raise additional revenues, Lugard took steps to institute a uniform tax structure patterned on the traditional system that he had adopted in the north during his tenure there. Taxes became a source of discontent in the south, however, and contributed to disturbances protesting British policy. In 1920 portions of former German Cameroon were mandated to Britain by the League of Nations and were administered as part of Nigeria.
Until he stepped down as governor - general in 1918, Lugard primarily was concerned with consolidating British sovereignty and with assuring local administration through traditional leaders. He was contemptuous of the educated and Westernised African elite found more in the South, and he recommended transferring the capital from Lagos, the cosmopolitan city where the influence of these people was most pronounced, to Kaduna in the north. Although the capital was not moved, Lugard 's bias in favor of the Muslim north was clear at the time. Lugard bequeathed to his successor a prosperous colony when his term as governor - general expired.
The policy of indirect rule used in Northern Nigeria became a model for British colonies elsewhere in Africa.
Lugard 's immediate successor, Sir Hugh Clifford, was an aristocratic professional administrator with liberal instincts who had won recognition for his enlightened governorship of the Gold Coast. The approaches of the two governors to colonial development were diametrically opposed. In contrast to Lugard, Clifford argued that colonial government had the responsibility to introduce as quickly as practical the benefits of Western experience. He was aware that the Muslim north would present problems, but he had hopes for progress along the lines which he laid down in the south, where he anticipated "general emancipation '' leading to a more representative form of government. Clifford emphasized economic development, encouraging enterprises by immigrant southerners in the north while restricting European participation to capital intensive activity.
Uneasy with the amount of latitude allowed traditional leaders under indirect rule, Clifford opposed further extension of the judicial authority held by the northern emirs. He said that he did "not consider that their past traditions and their present backward cultural conditions afford to any such experiment a reasonable chance of success. '' In the south, he saw the possibility of building an elite educated in schools modeled on a European method (and numerous elite children attended high - ranking colleges in Britain during the colonial years). These schools would teach "the basic principles that would and should regulate character and conduct. '' In line with this attitude, he rejected Lugard 's proposal for moving the capital from Lagos, the stronghold of the elite in whom he placed so much confidence for the future.
Clifford also believed that indirect rule encouraged centripetal tendencies. He argued that the division into two separate colonies was advisable unless a stronger central government could bind Nigeria into more than just an administrative convenience for the three regions. Whereas Lugard had applied lessons learned in the north to the administration of the south, Clifford was prepared to extend to the north practices that had been successful in the south. Sir Richmond Palmer, acting as lieutenant - governor in the North, disagreed with Clifford and advocated the principles of Lugard and further decentralisation.
The Colonial Office, where Lugard was still held in high regard, accepted that changes might be due in the south, but it forbade fundamental alteration of procedures in the north. A.J. Harding, director of Nigerian affairs at the Colonial Office, defined the official position of the British government in support of indirect rule when he said that "direct government by impartial and honest men of alien race... never yet satisfied a nation long and... under such a form of government, as wealth and education increase, so do political discontent and sedition. ''
The British treasury initially supported the landlocked Northern Nigeria Protectorate with grants, totaling £ 250,000 or more each year. Its revenue quickly increased, from £ 4,424 in 1901 to £ 274,989 in 1910. The Southern Protectorate financed itself from the outset, with revenue increasing from £ 361,815 to £ 1,933,235 over the same period.
After establishing political control of the country, the British implemented a system of taxation in order to force the indigenous Africans to shift from subsistence farming to wage labor. Sometimes forced labor was used directly for public works projects. These policies met with ongoing resistance
Much of the colony 's budget went to payments of its military, the Royal West African Frontier Force (RWAFF). In 1936, of £ 6,259,547 income for the Nigerian state, £ 1,156,000 went back to England as home pay for British officials in the Nigerian civil service.
Oil exploration began in 1906 under John Simon Bergheim 's Nigeria Bitumen Corporation, to which the Colonial Office granted exclusive rights. In 1907, the Corporation received a loan of £ 25,000, repayable upon discovery of oil. Other firms applying for licenses were rejected. In November 1908, Bergheim reported striking oil; in September 1909, he reported extracting 2,000 barrels per day. However, development of the Nigerian oilfields slowed when Bergheim died in a car crash in September 1912. Lugard, replacing Egerton as governor, aborted the project in May 1913. The British turned to Persia for oil.
European traders in Nigeria initially made widespread use of cowrie, which was already valued locally. The influx of cowrie lead to inflation.
British colonialism created Nigeria, joining diverse peoples and regions in an artificial political entity along the Niger River. The nationalism that became a political factor in Nigeria during the interwar period derived both from an older political particularism and broad pan-Africanism, rather than from any sense among the people of a common Nigerian nationality. The goal of activists initially was not self - determination, but increased participation on a regional level in the governmental process.
Inconsistencies in British policy reinforced existing cleavages based on regional animosities, as the British tried both to preserve the indigenous cultures of each area and to introduce modern technology, and Western political and social concepts. In the north, appeals to Islamic legitimacy upheld the rule of the emirs, so that nationalist sentiments were related to Islamic ideals. Modern nationalists in the south, whose thinking was shaped by European ideas, opposed indirect rule, as they believed that it had strengthened what they considered an anachronistic ruling class and shut out the emerging Westernised elite.
The southern nationalists were inspired by a variety of sources, including such prominent American - based activists as Marcus Garvey and W.E.B. Du Bois. Nigerian students abroad, particularly at British schools, joined those from other colonies in pan-African groups, such as the West African Students Union, founded in London in 1925. Early nationalists tended to ignore Nigeria as the focus of patriotism. Their common denominators tended to be based on newly assertive ethnic consciousness, particularly that of the Yoruba and Igbo. Despite acceptance of European and North American influences, the nationalists were critical of colonialism for its failure to appreciate the antiquity, richness and complexity of indigenous cultures. They wanted self - government, charging that only colonial rule prevented the unshackling of progressive forces in Nigeria and other states.
Political opposition to colonial rule often assumed religious dimensions. Independent Christian churches had emerged at the end of the nineteenth century. European interpretations of Christian orthodoxy in some cases refused to allow the incorporation of local customs and practices, although the various mission denominations interpreted Christianity in different ways. Most Europeans tended to overlook their own differences and were surprised and shocked that Nigerians wanted to develop new denominations independent of European control. Protestant sects had flourished in Christianity since the Reformation; the emergence of independent Christian churches in Nigeria (as of black denominations in the United States) was another phase of this history. The pulpits of the independent congregations became avenues for the free expression of critics of colonial rule.
In the 1920s, Nigerians began to form a variety of associations, such as professional and business associations, such as the Nigerian Union of Teachers; the Nigerian Law Association, which brought together lawyers, many of whom had been educated in Britain; and the Nigerian Produce Traders ' Association, led by Obafemi Awolowo. While initially organized for professional and fraternal reasons, these were centers of educated people who had chances to develop their leadership skills in the organizations, as well as form broad social networks.
Ethnic and kinship organizations that often took the form of a tribal union also emerged in the 1920s. These organizations were primarily urban phenomena that arose after numerous rural migrants moved to the cities. Alienated by the anonymity of the urban environment and drawn together by ties to their ethnic homelands -- as well as by the need for mutual aid -- the new city dwellers formed local clubs that later expanded into federations covering whole regions. By the mid-1940s, the major ethnic groups had formed such associations as the Igbo Federal Union and the Egbe Omo Oduduwa (Society of the Descendants of Oduduwa), a Yoruba cultural movement, in which Awolowo played a leading role. In some cases, British assignment of people to ethnic groups, and treatment based along ethnic lines, led to identification with ethnicity where none had existed before.
A third type of organization that was more pointedly political was the youth or student group, which became the vehicle of intellectuals and professionals. They were the most politically conscious segment of the population and created the vanguard of the nationalist movement. Newspapers, some of which were published before World War I, provided coverage of nationalist views.
The 1922 constitution provided Nigerians the chance to elect a handful of representatives to the Legislative Council. The principal figure in the political activity that ensued was Herbert Macauley, often referred to as the father of Nigerian nationalism. He aroused political awareness through his newspaper, the Lagos Daily News. He also led the Nigerian National Democratic Party (NNDP), which dominated elections in Lagos from its founding in 1922 until the ascendancy of the National Youth Movement (NYM) in 1938. His political platform called for economic and educational development, Africanization of the civil service, and self - government for Lagos. Significantly, Macauley 's NNDP remained almost entirely a Lagos party, popular only in the area whose people already had experience in elective politics.
The National Youth Movement (NYM) used nationalist rhetoric to agitate for improvements in education. The movement brought to public notice a long list of future leaders, including H.O. Davies and Nnamdi Azikiwe. Although Azikiwe later came to be recognized as the leading spokesman for national unity, when he first returned from university training in the United States, his outlook was pan-African rather than nationalist, and emphasized the common African struggle against European colonialism. (This was also reflective of growing pan-Africanism among American activists of the time.) Azikiwe had less interest in purely Nigerian goals than did Davies, a student of Harold Laski at the London School of Economics, whose political orientation was considered left - wing.
By 1938 the NYM was agitating for dominion status within the British Commonwealth of Nations, so that Nigeria would have the same status as Canada and Australia. In elections that year, the NYM ended the domination of the NNDP in the Legislative Council and worked to establish a national network of affiliates. Three years later internal divisions arose that were dominated by major ethnic loyalties. The departure of Azikiwe and other Igbo members of the NYM left the organization in Yoruba hands. During World War II, Awolowo reorganized it as a predominantly Yoruba political party, the Action Group. Yoruba - Igbo rivalry became increasingly important in Nigerian politics (see Ethnic Relations, ch. 2).
During World War II, three battalions of the Nigeria Regiment fought in the Ethiopian campaign. Nigerian units also contributed to two divisions serving with British forces in Palestine, Morocco, Sicily, and Burma, where they won many honors. Wartime experiences provided a new frame of reference for many soldiers, who interacted across ethnic boundaries in ways that were unusual in Nigeria. The war also made the British reappraise Nigeria 's political future. The war years, brought a polarization between the older, more parochial leaders inclined toward gradualism and the younger intellectuals, who thought in more immediate terms.
The rapid growth of organized labour in the 1940s also brought new political forces into play. During the war, union membership increased sixfold to 30,000. The proliferation of labor organizations fragmented the movement, and potential leaders lacked the experience and skill to draw workers together.
The Action Group was largely the creation of Awolowo, general secretary of Egbe Omo Oduduwa and leader of the Nigerian Produce Traders ' Association. The Action Group was thus the heir of a generation of flourishing cultural consciousness among the Yoruba and also had valuable connections with commercial interests that were representative of the comparative economic advancement of the Western Region. Awolowo had little difficulty in appealing to broad segments of the Yoruba population, but he worked to avoid the Action Group from being stigmatized as a "tribal '' group. Despite his somewhat successful efforts to enlist non-Yoruba support, the regionalist sentiment that had stimulated the party initially continued.
Segments of the Yoruba community had their own animosities and new rivalries arose. For example, many people in Ibadan opposed Awolowo on personal grounds because of his identification with the Ijebu Yoruba. Despite these difficulties, the Action Group rapidly built an effective organization. Its program reflected greater planning and was more ideologically oriented than that of the NCNC. Although lacking Azikiwe 's compelling personality, Awolowo was a formidable debater as well as a vigorous and tenacious political campaigner. He used for the first time in Nigeria modern, sometimes flamboyant, electioneering techniques. Among his leading lieutenants were Samuel Akintola of Ibadan and the Oni of Ife.
The Action Group consistently supported minority - group demands for autonomous states within a federal structure, as well as the severance of a midwest state from the Western Region. It assumed that comparable alterations would be made elsewhere, an attitude that won the party minority voting support in the other regions. It backed Yoruba irredentism in the Fulani - ruled emirate of Ilorin in the Northern Region, and separatist movements among non-Igbo in the Eastern Region.
The Northern People 's Congress (NPC) was organized in the late 1940s by a small group of Western - educated Northern Nigerians. They had obtained the assent of the emirs to form a political party to counterbalance the activities of the southern - based parties. It represented a substantial element of reformism in the North. The most powerful figure in the party was Ahmadu Bello, the sardauna (war leader) of Sokoto.
Bello wanted to protect northern social and political institutions from southern influence. He insisted on maintaining the territorial integrity of the Northern Region. He was prepared to introduce educational and economic changes to strengthen the north. Although his own ambitions were limited to the Northern Region, Bello backed the NPC 's successful efforts to mobilize the north 's large voting strength so as to win control of the national government.
The NPC platform emphasized the integrity of the north, its traditions, religion, and social order. Support for broad Nigerian concerns occupied a clear second place. A lack of interest in extending the NPC beyond the Northern Region corresponded to this strictly regional orientation. Its activist membership was drawn from local government and emirate officials who had access to means of communication and to repressive traditional authority that could keep the opposition in line.
The small contingent of northerners who had been educated abroad -- a group that included Abubakar Tafawa Balewa and Aminu Kano -- was allied with British - backed efforts to introduce gradual change to the emirates. The emirs gave support to limited modernization largely from fears of the unsettling presence of southerners in the north, and by observing the improvements in living conditions in the South. Northern leaders committed to modernization were also firmly connected to the traditional power structure. Most internal problems were concealed, and open opposition to the domination of the Muslim aristocracy was not tolerated. Critics, including representatives of the middle belt who resented Muslim domination, were relegated to small, peripheral parties or to inconsequential separatist movements.
In 1950 Aminu Kano, who had been instrumental in founding the NPC, broke away to form the Northern Elements Progressive Union (NEPU), in protest against the NPC 's limited objectives and what he regarded as a vain hope that traditional rulers would accept modernization. NEPU formed a parliamentary alliance with the NCNC.
The NPC continued to represent the interests of the traditional order in the pre-independence deliberations. After the defection of Kano, the only significant disagreement within the NPC was related to moderates. Men such as Balewa believed that only by overcoming political and economic backwardness could the NPC protect the foundations of traditional northern authority against the influence of the more advanced south.
In all three regions, minority parties represented the special interests of ethnic groups, especially as they were affected by the majority. They never were able to elect sizeable legislative delegations, but they served as a means of public expression for minority concerns. They received attention from major parties before elections, at which time either a dominant party from another region or the opposition party in their region sought their alliance.
The political parties jockeyed for positions of power in anticipation of the independence of Nigeria. Three constitutions were enacted from 1946 to 1954. While each generated considerable political controversy, they moved the country toward greater internal autonomy, with an increasing role for the political parties. The trend was toward the establishment of a parliamentary system of government, with regional assemblies and a federal House of Representatives.
In 1946 a new constitution was approved by the British Parliament at Westminster and promulgated in Nigeria. Although it reserved effective power in the hands of the Governor - General and his appointed Executive Council, the so - called Richards Constitution (after Governor - General Sir Arthur Richards, who was responsible for its formulation) provided for an expanded Legislative Council empowered to deliberate on matters affecting the whole country. Separate legislative bodies, the houses of assembly, were established in each of the three regions to consider local questions and to advise the lieutenant governors. The introduction of the federal principle, with deliberative authority devolved on the regions, signaled recognition of the country 's diversity. Although realistic in its assessment of the situation in Nigeria, the Richards Constitution undoubtedly intensified regionalism as an alternative to political unification.
The pace of constitutional change accelerated after the promulgation of the Richards Constitution. It was suspended in 1950 against a call for greater autonomy, which resulted in an inter-parliamentary conference at Ibadan in 1950. The conference drafted the terms of a new constitution. The so - called Macpherson Constitution, after the incumbent governor - general, went into effect the following year.
The most important innovations in the new charter reinforced the dual course of constitutional evolution, allowing for both regional autonomy and federal union. By extending the elective principle and by providing for a central government with a Council of Ministers, the Macpherson Constitution gave renewed impetus to party activity and to political participation at the national level. But by providing for comparable regional governments exercising broad legislative powers, which could not be overridden by the newly established 185 - seat federal House of Representatives, the Macpherson Constitution also gave a significant boost to regionalism. Subsequent revisions contained in the Lyttleton Constitution, enacted in 1954, firmly established the federal principle and paved the way for independence.
In 1957 the Western and the Eastern regions became formally self - governing under the parliamentary system. Similar status was acquired by the Northern Region two years later. There were numerous differences of detail among the regional systems, but all adhered to parliamentary forms and were equally autonomous in relation to the federal government at Lagos. The federal government retained specified powers, including responsibility for banking, currency, external affairs, defense, shipping and navigation, and communications, but real political power was centered in the regions. Significantly, the regional governments controlled public expenditures derived from revenues raised within each region.
Ethnic cleavages intensified in the 1950s. Political activists in the southern areas spoke of self - government in terms of educational opportunities and economic development. Because of the spread of mission schools and wealth derived from export crops, the southern parties were committed to policies that would benefit the south of the country. In the north, the emirs intended to maintain firm control on economic and political change.
Any activity in the north that might include participation by the federal government (and consequently by southern civil servants) was regarded as a challenge to the primacy of the emirates. Broadening political participation and expanding educational opportunities and other social services also were viewed as threats to the status quo. An extensive immigrant population of southerners, especially Igbo, already were living in the north; they dominated clerical positions and were active in many trades.
The cleavage between the Yoruba and the Igbo was accentuated by their competition for control of the political machinery. The receding British presence enabled local officials and politicians to gain access to patronage over government jobs, funds for local development, market permits, trade licenses, government contracts, and even scholarships for higher education. In an economy with many qualified applicants for every post, great resentment was generated by any favoritism that authorities showed to members of their own ethnic group.
In the immediate post-World War II period, Nigeria benefited from a favourable trade balance. Although per capita income in the country as a whole remained low by international standards, rising incomes among salaried personnel and burgeoning urbanization expanded consumer demand for imported goods.
In the meantime, public sector spending increased even more dramatically than export earnings. It was supported not only by the income from huge agricultural surpluses but also by a new range of direct and indirect taxes imposed during the 1950s. The transfer of responsibility for budgetary management from the central to the regional governments in 1954 accelerated the pace of public spending on services and on development projects. Total revenues of central and regional governments nearly doubled in relation to the gross domestic product (GDP -- see Glossary) during the decade.
The most dramatic event having a long - term effect on Nigeria 's economic development, was the discovery and exploitation of petroleum deposits. The search for oil, begun in 1908 and abandoned a few years later, was revived in 1937 by Shell and British Petroleum. Exploration was intensified in 1946, but the first commercial discovery did not occur until 1956, at Olobiri in the Niger Delta. In 1958 exportation of Nigerian oil was initiated at facilities constructed at Port Harcourt. Oil income was still marginal, but the prospects for continued economic expansion appeared bright and accentuated political rivalries on the eve of independence.
The election of the House of Representatives after the adoption of the 1954 constitution gave the NPC a total of seventy - nine seats, all from the Northern Region. Among the other major parties, the NCNC took fifty - six seats, winning a majority in both the Eastern and the Western regions, while the Action Group captured only twenty - seven seats. The NPC was called on to form a government, but the NCNC received six of the ten ministerial posts. Three of these posts were assigned to representatives from each region, and one was reserved for a delegate from the Northern Cameroons.
As a further step toward independence, the governor 's Executive Council was merged with the Council of Ministers in 1957 to form the all - Nigerian Federal Executive Council. The NPC federal parliamentary leader, Balewa, was appointed prime minister. Balewa formed a coalition government that included the Action Group as well as the NCNC to prepare the country for the final British withdrawal. His government guided the country for the next three years, operating with almost complete autonomy in internal affairs.
The preparation of a new federal constitution for an independent Nigeria was carried out at conferences held at Lancaster House in London in 1957 and 1958, which were presided over by The Rt. Hon. Alan Lennox - Boyd, M.P., the British Secretary of State for the Colonies. Nigerian delegates were selected to represent each region and to reflect various shades of opinion. The delegation was led by Balewa of the NPC and included party leaders Awolowo of the Action Group, Azikiwe of the NCNC, and Bello of the NPC; they were also the premiers of the Western, Eastern, and Northern regions, respectively. Independence was achieved on October 1, 1960.
Elections were held for a new and greatly enlarged House of Representatives in December 1959; 174 of the 312 seats were allocated to the Northern Region on the basis of its larger population. The NPC, entering candidates only in the Northern Region, confined campaigning largely to local issues but opposed the addition of new regimes. The NCNC backed creation of a midwest state and proposed federal control of education and health services.
The Action Group, which staged a lively campaign, favored stronger government and the establishment of three new states, while advocating creation of a West Africa Federation that would unite Nigeria with Ghana and Sierra Leone. The NPC captured 142 seats in the new legislature. Balewa was called on to head a NPC - NCNC coalition government, and Awolowo became official leader of the opposition.
By a British Act of Parliament, Nigeria became an independent country (as a Commonwealth realm) within the Commonwealth on October 1, 1960. Azikiwe was installed as governor - general of the federation and Balewa continued to serve as head of a democratically elected parliamentary, but now completely sovereign, government. The governor - general represented the British monarch as head of state and was appointed by the Crown on the advice of the Nigerian prime minister in consultation with the regional premiers. The governor - general, in turn, was responsible for appointing the prime minister and for choosing a candidate from among contending leaders when there was no parliamentary majority. Otherwise, the governor - general 's office was essentially ceremonial.
The government was responsible to a Parliament composed of the popularly elected 312 - member House of Representatives and the 44 - member Senate, chosen by the regional legislatures.
In general, the regional constitutions followed the federal model, both structurally and functionally. The most striking departure was in the Northern Region, where special provisions brought the regional constitution into consonance with Islamic law and custom. The similarity between the federal and regional constitutions was deceptive, however, and the conduct of public affairs reflected wide differences among the regions.
In February 1961, a plebiscite was conducted to determine the disposition of the Southern Cameroons and Northern Cameroons, which were administered by Britain as United Nations Trust Territories. By an overwhelming majority, voters in the Southern Cameroons opted to join formerly French - administered Cameroon over integration with Nigeria as a separate federated region. In the Northern Cameroons, however, the largely Muslim electorate chose to merge with Nigeria 's Northern Region.
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who played the bass in the jackson 5 | List of the Jackson 5 band members - wikipedia
The band member history of American R&B and pop group the Jackson 5 shows how the band has had different members of the Jackson family during its chronology, releasing music under the names the Jackson Brothers (1964 -- 1965), the Jackson 5 (1965 -- 1975, with Motown) and the Jacksons (1975 -- 1989, with CBS).
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how are twins created mono zygotic and dizygotic | Twin - wikipedia
Twins are two offspring produced by the same pregnancy. Twins can be either monozygotic ("identical ''), meaning that they develop from one zygote, which splits and forms two embryos, or dizygotic ("fraternal ''), meaning that they develop from two different eggs. In fraternal twins, each twin is fertilized by its own sperm cell.
In contrast, a fetus that develops alone in the womb is called a singleton, and the general term for one offspring of a multiple birth is multiple. Non-related look - alikes whose resemblance parallels that of twins are referred to as doppelgangers.
The human twin birth rate in the United States, rose 76 % from 1980 through 2009, from 18.9 to 33.3 per 1,000 births (about 80 %) The Yoruba have the highest rate of twinning in the world, at 45 -- 50 twin sets (or 90 -- 100 twins) per 1,000 live births, possibly because of high consumption of a specific type of yam containing a natural phytoestrogen which may stimulate the ovaries to release an egg from each side.
In Central Africa there are 18 -- 30 twin sets (or 36 -- 60 twins) per 1,000 live births. In Latin America, South Asia, and Southeast Asia, the lowest rates are found; only 6 to 9 twin sets per 1,000 live births. North America and Europe have intermediate rates of 9 to 16 twin sets per 1,000 live births.
Multiple pregnancies are much less likely to carry to full term than single births, with twin pregnancies lasting on average 37 weeks, three weeks less than full term.
Women who have a family history of fraternal twins have a higher chance of producing fraternal twins themselves, as there is a genetically linked tendency to hyper - ovulate. There is no known genetic link for identical twinning. Other factors that increase the odds of having fraternal twins include maternal age, fertility drugs and other fertility treatments, nutrition, and prior births.
The vast majority of twins are either dizygotic (fraternal) or monozygotic (identical). Less common variants are discussed further down the article.
Twins can be:
Among non-twin births, male singletons are slightly (about five percent) more common than female singletons. The rates for singletons vary slightly by country. For example, the sex ratio of birth in the US is 1.05 males / female, while it is 1.07 males / female in Italy. However, males are also more susceptible than females to die in utero, and since the death rate in utero is higher for twins, it leads to female twins being more common than male twins.
Zygosity is the degree of identity in the genome of twins.
Dizygotic (DZ) or fraternal twins (also referred to as "non-identical twins '', "dissimilar twins '', "biovular twins '', and, informally in the case of females, "sororal twins '') usually occur when two fertilized eggs are implanted in the uterus wall at the same time. When two eggs are independently fertilized by two different sperm cells, fraternal twins result. The two eggs, or ova, form two zygotes, hence the terms dizygotic and biovular. Fraternal twins are, essentially, two ordinary siblings who happen to be born at the same time, since they arise from two separate eggs fertilized by two separate sperm, just like ordinary siblings.
This is the most common type of twin.
Dizygotic twins, like any other siblings, have an extremely small chance of having the same chromosome profile. Even if they happen to have the same chromosome profile, they will always have different genetic material on each chromosome, due to chromosomal crossover during meiosis. Like any other siblings, dizygotic twins may look similar, particularly given that they are the same age. However, dizygotic twins may also look very different from each other.
Studies show that there is a genetic proclivity for dizygotic twinning. However, it is only the mother who has any effect on the chances of having such twins; there is no known mechanism for a father to cause the release of more than one ovum. Dizygotic twinning ranges from six per thousand births in Japan (similar to the rate of monozygotic twins) to 14 and more per thousand in some African countries.
Dizygotic twins are also more common for older mothers, with twinning rates doubling in mothers over the age of 35. With the advent of technologies and techniques to assist women in getting pregnant, the rate of fraternals has increased markedly.
Monozygotic (MZ) or identical twins occur when a single egg is fertilized to form one zygote (hence, "monozygotic '') which then divides into two separate embryos.
Regarding spontaneous or natural monozygotic twinning, a recent theory proposes that monozygotic twins are formed after a blastocyst essentially collapses, splitting the progenitor cells (those that contain the body 's fundamental genetic material) in half, leaving the same genetic material divided in two on opposite sides of the embryo. Eventually, two separate fetuses develop. Spontaneous division of the zygote into two embryos is not considered to be a hereditary trait, but rather a spontaneous and random event.
Monozygotic twins may also be created artificially by embryo splitting. It can be used as an expansion of in vitro fertilization (IVF) to increase the number of available embryos for embryo transfer.
Monozygotic twinning occurs in birthing at a rate of about 3 in every 1000 deliveries worldwide. (about 0.3 % of the world population).
The likelihood of a single fertilization resulting in monozygotic twins is uniformly distributed in all populations around the world. This is in marked contrast to dizygotic twinning, which ranges from about six per thousand births in Japan (almost similar to the rate of identical twins, which is around 4 -- 5) to 15 and more per thousand in some parts of India and up to over 20 in some Central African countries. The exact cause for the splitting of a zygote or embryo is unknown.
IVF techniques are more likely to create dizygotic twins. For IVF deliveries, there are nearly 21 pairs of twins for every 1,000.
Monozygotic twins are genetically nearly identical and they are always the same sex unless there has been a mutation during development. The children of monozygotic twins test genetically as half - siblings (or full siblings, if a pair of monozygotic twins reproduces with another pair or with the same person), rather than first cousins. Identical twins do not have the same fingerprints, because even in the confines of the womb, the fetuses touch different parts of this environment, which gives small variations in the same fingerprint, making them unique.
Monozygotic twins always have different phenotypes. Normally due to an environmental factor or the deactivation of different X chromosomes in female monozygotic twins, and in some extremely rare cases, due to aneuploidy, twins may express different sexual phenotypes, normally from an XXY Klinefelter syndrome zygote splitting unevenly.
Monozygotic twins, although genetically very similar, are not genetically exactly the same. The DNA in white blood cells of 66 pairs of monozygotic twins was analyzed for 506,786 single nucleotide polymorphisms known to occur in human populations. Polymorphisms appeared in 2 of the 33 million comparisons, leading the researchers to extrapolate that the blood cells of monozygotic twins may have on the order of one DNA - sequence difference for every 1.2 x 10 nucleotides, which would imply hundreds of differences across the entire genome. The mutations producing the differences detected in this study would have occurred during embryonic cell - division (after the point of fertilization). If they occur early in fetal development, they will be present in a very large proportion of body cells.
Another cause of difference between monozygotic twins is epigenetic modification, caused by differing environmental influences throughout their lives. Epigenetics refers to the level of activity of any particular gene. A gene may become switched on, switched off, or could become partially switched on or off in an individual. This epigenetic modification is triggered by environmental events. Monozygotic twins can have markedly different epigenetic profiles. A study of 80 pairs of monozygotic twins ranging in age from three to 74 showed that the youngest twins have relatively few epigenetic differences. The number of epigenetic differences increases with age. Fifty - year - old twins had over three times the epigenetic difference of three - year - old twins. Twins who had spent their lives apart (such as those adopted by two different sets of parents at birth) had the greatest difference. However, certain characteristics become more alike as twins age, such as IQ and personality.
A 1981 study of a deceased triploid XXX twin fetus without a heart showed that although its fetal development suggested that it was an identical twin, as it shared a placenta with its healthy twin, tests revealed that it was probably a polar body twin. The authors were unable to predict whether a healthy fetus could result from a polar body twinning.
In 2003, a study argued that many cases of triploidity arise from semi-identical twinning.
In 2007, a study reported a case of a pair of living twins, one intersex and one a phenotypical male. The twins were both found to be chimeras and to share all of their maternal DNA but only half of their father 's DNA. The exact mechanism of fertilization could not be determined but the study stated that it was unlikely to be a case of polar body twinning.
The degree of separation of the twins in utero depends on if and when they split into two zygotes. Dizygotic twins were always two zygotes. Monozygotic twins split into two zygotes at some time very early in the pregnancy. The timing of this separation determines the chorionicity (the number of placentae) and amniocity (the number of sacs) of the pregnancy. Dichorionic twins either never divided (i.e.: were dizygotic) or they divided within the first 4 days. Monoamnionic twins divide after the first week.
In very rare cases, twins become conjoined twins. Non-conjoined monozygotic twins form up to day 14 of embryonic development, but when twinning occurs after 14 days, the twins will likely be conjoined. Furthermore, there can be various degrees of shared environment of twins in the womb, potentially leading to pregnancy complications.
It is a common misconception that two placentas means twins are dizygotic. But if monozygotic twins separate early enough, the arrangement of sacs and placentas in utero is indistinguishable from dizygotic twins.
DiDi twins have the lowest mortality risk at about 9 percent, although that is still significantly higher than that of singletons.
Monochorionic twins generally have two amniotic sacs (called Monochorionic - Diamniotic "MoDi ''), which occurs in 60 -- 70 % of the pregnancies with monozygotic twins, and in 0.3 % of all pregnancies. Monochorionic - Diamniotic twins are almost always monozygotic, with a few exceptions where the blastocysts have fused.
Monochorionic twins share the same placenta, and thus have a risk of twin - to - twin transfusion syndrome.
Monoamniotic twins are always monozygotic.
The survival rate for monoamniotic twins is somewhere between 50 % to 60 %.
Monoamniotic twins, as with diamniotic monochorionic twins, have a risk of twin - to - twin transfusion syndrome. Also, the two umbilical cords have an increased chance of being tangled around the babies. Because of this, there is an increased chance that the newborns may be miscarried or suffer from cerebral palsy due to lack of oxygen.
When the division of the developing zygote into 2 embryos occurs, 99 % of the time it is within 8 days of fertilization.
Mortality is highest for conjoined twins due to the many complications resulting from shared organs.
Dichorionic - diamniotic twins at 8 weeks and 5 days since co-incubation as part of IVF. The twin at left in the image is shown in the sagittal plane with the head pointing towards upper left. The twin at right in the image is shown in the coronal plane with the head pointing rightwards.
Abdominal ultrasonography of monoamniotic twins at a gestational age of 15 weeks. There is no sign of any membrane between the fetuses. A coronal plane is shown of the twin at left, and a sagittal plane of parts of the upper thorax and head is shown of the twin at right.
A 2006 study has found that insulin - like growth factor present in dairy products may increase the chance of dizygotic twinning. Specifically, the study found that vegan mothers (who exclude dairy from their diets) are one - fifth as likely to have twins as vegetarian or omnivore mothers, and concluded that "Genotypes favoring elevated IGF and diets including dairy products, especially in areas where growth hormone is given to cattle, appear to enhance the chances of multiple pregnancies due to ovarian stimulation. ''
From 1980 to 1997, the number of twin births in the United States rose 52 %. This rise can at least partly be attributed to the increasing popularity of fertility drugs and procedures such as IVF, which result in multiple births more frequently than unassisted fertilizations do. It may also be linked to the increase of growth hormones in food.
About 1 in 90 human births (1.1 %) results from a twin pregnancy. The rate of dizygotic twinning varies greatly among ethnic groups, ranging as high as about 45 per 1000 births (4.5 %) for the Yoruba to 10 % for Linha São Pedro, a tiny Brazilian settlement which belongs to the city of Cândido Godói. In Cândido Godói, one in five pregnancies has resulted in twins. The Argentine historian Jorge Camarasa has put forward a theory that experiments of the Nazi doctor Josef Mengele could be responsible for the high ratio of twins in the area. His theory was rejected by Brazilian scientists who had studied twins living in Linha São Pedro; they suggested genetic factors within that community as a more likely explanation. A high twinning rate has also been observed in other places of the world, including:
The widespread use of fertility drugs causing hyperovulation (stimulated release of multiple eggs by the mother) has caused what some call an "epidemic of multiple births ''. In 2001, for the first time ever in the US, the twinning rate exceeded 3 % of all births. Nevertheless, the rate of monozygotic twins remains at about 1 in 333 across the globe.
In a study on the maternity records of 5750 Hausa women living in the Savannah zone of Nigeria, there were 40 twins and 2 triplets per 1000 births. Twenty - six percent of twins were monozygotic. The incidence of multiple births, which was about five times higher than that observed in any western population, was significantly lower than that of other ethnic groups, who live in the hot and humid climate of the southern part of the country. The incidence of multiple births was related to maternal age but did not bear any association to the climate or prevalence of malaria.
The predisposing factors of monozygotic twinning are unknown.
Dizygotic twin pregnancies are slightly more likely when the following factors are present in the woman:
Women undergoing certain fertility treatments may have a greater chance of dizygotic multiple births. In the United States it has been estimated that by 2011 36 % of twin births resulted from conception by assisted reproductive technology.
The risk of twin birth can vary depending on what types of fertility treatments are used. With in vitro fertilisation (IVF), this is primarily due to the insertion of multiple embryos into the uterus. Ovarian hyperstimulation without IVF has a very high risk of multiple birth. Reversal of anovulation with clomifene (trade names including Clomid) has a relatively less but yet significant risk of multiple pregnancy.
A 15 - year German study of 8,220 vaginally delivered twins (that is, 4,110 pregnancies) in Hesse yielded a mean delivery time interval of 13.5 minutes. The delivery interval between the twins was measured as follows:
The study stated that the occurrence of complications "was found to be more likely with increasing twin - to - twin delivery time interval '' and suggested that the interval be kept short, though it noted that the study did not examine causes of complications and did not control for factors such as the level of experience of the obstetrician, the wish of the women giving birth, or the "management strategies '' of the procedure of delivering the second twin.
Researchers suspect that as many as 1 in 8 pregnancies start out as multiples, but only a single fetus is brought to full term, because the other fetus has died very early in the pregnancy and has not been detected or recorded. Early obstetric ultrasonography exams sometimes reveal an "extra '' fetus, which fails to develop and instead disintegrates and vanishes in the uterus. There are several reasons for the "vanishing '' fetus, including it being embodied or absorbed by the other fetus, placenta or the mother. This is known as vanishing twin syndrome. Also, in an unknown proportion of cases, two zygotes may fuse soon after fertilization, resulting in a single chimeric embryo, and, later, fetus.
Conjoined twins (or the once - commonly used term "siamese '') are monozygotic twins whose bodies are joined together during pregnancy. This occurs when the zygote starts to split after day 12 following fertilization and fails to separate completely. This condition occurs in about 1 in 50,000 human pregnancies. Most conjoined twins are now evaluated for surgery to attempt to separate them into separate functional bodies. The degree of difficulty rises if a vital organ or structure is shared between twins, such as the brain, heart or liver.
A chimera is an ordinary person or animal except that some of their parts actually came from their twin or from the mother. A chimera may arise either from monozygotic twin fetuses (where it would be impossible to detect), or from dizygotic fetuses, which can be identified by chromosomal comparisons from various parts of the body. The number of cells derived from each fetus can vary from one part of the body to another, and often leads to characteristic mosaicism skin coloration in human chimeras. A chimera may be intersex, composed of cells from a male twin and a female twin. In one case DNA tests determined that a woman, mystifyingly, was not the mother of two of her three children; she was found to be a chimera, and the two children were conceived from eggs derived from cells of their mother 's twin.
Sometimes one twin fetus will fail to develop completely and continue to cause problems for its surviving twin. One fetus acts as a parasite towards the other. Sometimes the parasitic twin becomes an almost indistinguishable part of the other, and sometimes this needs to be treated medically.
A very rare type of parasitic twinning is one where a single viable twin is endangered when the other zygote becomes cancerous, or molar. This means that the molar zygote 's cellular division continues unchecked, resulting in a cancerous growth that overtakes the viable fetus. Typically, this results when one twin has either triploidy or complete paternal uniparental disomy, resulting in little or no fetus and a cancerous, overgrown placenta, resembling a bunch of grapes.
Occasionally, a woman will suffer a miscarriage early in pregnancy, yet the pregnancy will continue; one twin was miscarried but the other was able to be carried to term. This occurrence is similar to the vanishing twin syndrome, but typically occurs later, as the twin is not reabsorbed.
It is very common for twins to be born at a low birth weight. More than half of twins are born weighing less than 5.5 pounds (2.5 kg), while the average birth weight of a healthy baby should be around 6 -- 8 pounds (3 -- 4 kg). This is largely due to the fact that twins are typically born premature. Premature birth and low birth weights, especially when under 3.5 pounds (1.6 kg), can increase the risk of several health - related issues, such as vision and hearing loss, mental disabilities, and cerebral palsy. There is an increased possibility of potential complications as the birth weight of the baby decreases.
Monozygotic twins who share a placenta can develop twin - to - twin transfusion syndrome. This condition means that blood from one twin is being diverted into the other twin. One twin, the ' donor ' twin, is small and anemic, the other, the ' recipient ' twin, is large and polycythemic. The lives of both twins are endangered by this condition.
Stillbirths occurs when a fetus dies after 20 weeks of gestation. There are two types of stillbirth, including intrauterine death and intrapartum death. Intrauterine death occurs when a baby dies during late pregnancy. Intrapartum death, which is more common, occurs when a baby dies while the mother is giving birth. The cause of stillbirth is often unknown, but the rate of babies who are stillborn is higher in twins and multiple births. Caesareans or inductions are advised after 38 weeks of pregnancy for twins, because the risk of stillbirth increases after this time.
For otherwise healthy twin pregnancies where both twins are head down a trial of vaginal delivery is recommended at between 37 and 38 weeks. Vaginal delivery in this case does not worsen the outcome for the infant as compared with Caesarean section. There is controversy on the best method of delivery where the first twin is head first and the second is not. When the first twin is not head down a caesarean section is often recommended. It is estimated that 75 % of twin pregnancies in the United States were delivered by caesarean section in 2008. In comparison, the rate of caesarean section for all pregnancies in the general population varies between 14 % and 40 %. In twins that share the same placenta delivery may be considered at 36 weeks.
Twin studies are utilized in an attempt to determine how much of a particular trait is attributable to either genetics or environmental influence. These studies compare monozygotic and dizygotic twins for medical, genetic, or psychological characteristics to try to isolate genetic influence from epigenetic and environmental influence. Twins that have been separated early in life and raised in separate households are especially sought - after for these studies, which have been used widely in the exploration of human nature. Classical twin studies are now being supplemented with molecular genetic studies which identify individual genes.
Among dizygotic twins, in rare cases, the eggs are fertilized at different times with two or more acts of sexual intercourse, either within one menstrual cycle (superfecundation) or, even more rarely, later on in the pregnancy (superfetation). This can lead to the possibility of a woman carrying fraternal twins with different fathers (that is, half - siblings). This phenomenon is known as heteropaternal superfecundation. One 1992 study estimates that the frequency of heteropaternal superfecundation among dizygotic twins, whose parents were involved in paternity suits, was approximately 2.4 %; see the references section, below, for more details.
Dizygotic twins from biracial couples can sometimes be mixed twins, which exhibit differing ethnic and racial features. One such pairing was born in Germany in 2008 to a white father from Germany and a black mother from Ghana.
Heterotopic pregnancy is an exceedingly rare type of dizygotic twinning in which one twin implants in the uterus as normal and the other remains in the fallopian tube as an ectopic pregnancy. Ectopic pregnancies must be resolved because they can be life - threatening to the mother. However, in most cases, the intrauterine pregnancy can be salvaged.
Among monozygotic twins, in extremely rare cases, twins have been born with different sexes (one male, one female). When monozygotic twins are born with different sexes it is because of chromosomal defects. There can be monozygotic boy / girl twins if the sex gene of the embryo has an extra x chromosome (the fertilized egg would be an xxy) then when the egg splits, one can have xx (girl) genes and one can have xy (boy) genes. This is rare, but possible. Records show there are only 10 known cases of these type twins. The probability of this is so small that multiples having different sexes is universally accepted as a sound basis for in utero clinical determination that the multiples are not monozygotic. Another abnormality that can result in monozygotic twins of different genders is if the egg is fertilized by a male sperm but during cell division only the X chromosome is duplicated. This results in one normal male (XY) and one female with Turner syndrome (45, X). In these cases, although the twins did form from the same fertilized egg, it is incorrect to refer to them as genetically identical, since they have different karyotypes.
Monozygotic twins can develop differently, due to different genes being activated. More unusual are "semi-identical twins ''. These "half - identical twins '' are hypothesized to occur when an unfertilized egg cleaves into two identical attached ova and which are viable for fertilization. Both cloned ova are then fertilized by different sperm and the coalesced eggs undergo further cell duplications developing as a chimeric blastomere. If this blastomere then undergoes a twinning event, two embryos will be formed, each of which have different paternal genes and identical maternal genes.
This results in a set of twins with identical genes from the mother 's side, but different genes from the father 's side. Cells in each fetus carry genes from either sperm, resulting in chimeras. This form had been speculated until only recently being recorded in western medicine.
Mirror image twins result when a fertilized egg splits later in the embryonic stage than normal timing, around day 9 -- 12. This type of twinning could exhibit characteristics with reversed asymmetry, such as opposite dominant handedness, dental structure, or even organs (situs inversus). If the split occurs later than this time period, the twins risk being conjoined. There is no DNA - based zygosity test that can determine if twins are indeed mirror image.
There have been many studies highlighting the development of language in twins compared to single - born children. These studies have converged on the notion that there is a greater rate of delay in language development in twins compared to their single - born counterparts. The reasons for this phenomenon are still in question; however, cryptophasia was thought to be the major cause. Idioglossia is defined as a private language that is usually invented by young children, specifically twins. Another term to describe what some people call "twin talk '' is cryptophasia where a language is developed by twins that only they can understand. The increased focused communication between two twins may isolate them from the social environment surrounding them. Idioglossia has been found to be a rare occurrence and the attention of scientists has shifted away from this idea. However, there are researchers and scientists that say cryptophasia or idioglossia is not a rare phenomenon. Current research is looking into the impacts of a richer social environment for these twins to stimulate their development of language.
Twins are common in many animal species, including cats, sheep, ferrets, giant pandas, dogs, deer, marmosets, and tamarins. The incidence of twinning among cattle is about 1 -- 4 %, and research is under way to improve the odds of twinning, which can be more profitable for the breeder if complications can be sidestepped or managed. A female calf that is the twin of a bull becomes partially masculinized and is known as a freemartin.
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what do you say when someone sneezes in german | Responses to sneezing - wikipedia
In English - speaking countries, the common verbal response to another person 's sneeze is "God bless you '', or, less commonly in the United States and Canada, "Gesundheit '', the German word for health (and the response to sneezing in German - speaking countries). There are several proposed bless - you origins for use in the context of sneezing.
In non-English - speaking cultures, words referencing good health or a long life are often used instead of "bless you, '' though some also use references to God.
In some Asian cultures such as Chinese, Korean, Vietnamese and Japanese cultures, the practice of responding to another person 's sneeze does not exist.
Rude Way: فرج (Faraj), صحة (Sahha).
Relief! ", "Health! ''
(India) Jibah Jibah (জীবঃ জীবঃ)
(India) May you live long ``
More rarely there is the expression 多 保重 (duōbǎozhòng)
"Take care ''
Archaic: à tes / vos amours after the second sneeze, and qu'elles durent toujours after the third. More archaically, one can say Que dieu te / vous bénisse.
2) Helf Gott! / Helfgott! (Southern Germany / Austria / Transylvanian - Saxon; archaic / mostly used by more or less religious elderly)
3) Großwachsen! (Transylvanian - Saxon; from Romanian "Să creşti mare! ''; used solely for children, usually after the usual "Gesundheit '' for the first and / or second response)
2) "May God help you! ''
3) "You shall grow tall! ''
or Háíshį́į́ naa ntsékees / naa yáłti '
2) Să creşti mare! (for children; usually "Noroc '' comes first, then "Sănătate '' and, as a third option, "Să creşti mare! '')
2) "May you grow up! ''
правду говорю (pravdu govor'u) if someone sneezes while talking.
"I 'm telling the truth. ''
2) Pis Maco mostly used with children
2) "go away kitten '' as sound of sneezing often sounds like cat 's cough
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episodes of star trek the next generation with q | Q (Star Trek) - wikipedia
Q is a fictional Deus ex machina character in Star Trek appearing in the Next Generation, Deep Space Nine, and Voyager series, as well as in related media. In all of these programs, he is portrayed by John de Lancie. He is a being of unknown origin who is unconstrained by, and possesses immeasurable power over, normal human notions of time, space, the laws of physics, and even reality itself, being capable of violating or altering any or all of them in creatively unpredictable ways with a casual thought or hand gesture, limited only by his imagination. Despite his vast knowledge and experience spanning untold eons (and much to the exasperation of the object (s) of his obsession), he is not above practical jokes for his own personal amusement, for some otherwise unfathomably Machiavellian and manipulative purpose, or simply to prove a point. He is said to be nigh - omnipotent, and he is continually evasive regarding his true motivations.
The name "Q '' applies not only to the names of the individuals portrayed (all "male '' and "female '' characters refer to each other as "Q ''), it also applies to the name of their race and to the Q Continuum itself -- an alternate dimension accessible to only the Q and their "invited '' guests. The true nature of the realm is said to be beyond the comprehension of "lesser beings '' such as humans, therefore it is shown to humans only in ways they can understand.
Beginning with the pilot episode "Encounter at Farpoint '' of The Next Generation, Q became a recurring character, with pronounced comedic and dramatic chemistry between Jean - Luc Picard and himself. He serves as a major antagonist throughout The Next Generation, playing a pivotal role in both the first and final episodes. Q is initially presented as a cosmic force judging humanity to see if it is becoming a brutal threat to the universe, but as the series progresses, his role morphs more into one of a teacher to Picard and the human race generally -- albeit often in seemingly destructive or disruptive ways, subject to his own amusement. Other times, notably during "Deja Q '' and Voyager, Q appears to the crew seeking assistance.
The late Gene Roddenberry chose the letter "Q '' in honor of his friend, Janet Quarton. Q later inspired the My Little Pony: Friendship is Magic former antagonist Discord, whom de Lancie also portrays.
In Q 's debut "Encounter at Farpoint '', he puts Picard and the Enterprise crew on trial, arguing that humanity is a dangerous race and should be destroyed. When they later save the life of a kidnapped alien, Q agrees to defer judgement, though he hints that it will not be the last time the crew sees him.
Q 's next appearance was later in the first season, in the episode "Hide and Q '', when he decides to admit a human into the Continuum. Q believes that humanity has the potential to one day evolve beyond the Q, and he wants to understand how. He settles on Picard 's first officer, Commander Riker, but Q fails to trigger the evolution and Riker remains human. Thereby losing a wager with Picard, Q is bound by the terms of the wager to stay out of humanity 's path forever. Q instantly vanishes, but continues to appear in later episodes as if the wager never occurred.
In "Q Who '', he offers to divest himself of his powers and guide humanity through uncharted regions and prepare it for unknown threats. Picard argues that Q 's services are unneeded (and unwanted), and Q rebuts him by teleporting the USS Enterprise to a distant system for their first encounter with the Borg. Unable to resist the Borg, Picard must ask Q to save the ship. Q returns the Enterprise home and tells Picard that other men would rather have died than ask for help. The ' Star Trek: The Next Generation ' Companion states that the Borg already knew about Earth and were already en route (having previously attacked Federation and Romulan outposts in the first - season episode, "The Neutral Zone ''), and that Q 's actions were intended as an early warning. The Star Trek: Enterprise episode, "Regeneration '', explains that the encounter in system J - 25 intensified the Borg 's interest in humanity, prompting them to escalate their plans to capture Earth. Using time travel, the Borg alter the course of events depicted in Star Trek: First Contact, where they encounter the crew of the NX - 01 Enterprise and inform their 24th - century predecessors of the existence of Earth. Q 's actions stabilized the time stream by creating a different cause for the Borg 's awareness of the Federation. This anomaly is expanded upon in the Star Trek novels as being a partial indirect cause of the Mirror Universe, whose reality diverged from the original time stream when Zefram Cochrane attempted to warn Earth and the other worlds that would form the Federation about the Borg after the events of First Contact. In the original reality, Cochrane 's warnings go unheeded.
In "Déjà Q '', Q is punished by the Q Continuum by being made mortal; his committing of an uncharacteristically selfless act (sacrificing his life so that a race attacking him will not destroy the Enterprise) garners the return of his powers. In the same episode, Q says that Picard is "the closest thing in this universe that I have to a friend. '' Toward the end of The Next Generation, Q is less antagonistic toward Picard, even, in "Tapestry '', apparently saving Picard and helping the captain better understand himself (although whether Q actually appeared in this episode or was merely a hallucination Picard experienced during surgery is deliberately left ambiguous). In the series finale, "All Good Things... '', Q gives Picard a "helping hand '' in saving humanity by helping him figure out what is causing "antitime '' to flow into the universe which will inevitably stop humanity from ever being born.
In the DS9 episode "Q-Less '', Q at one point goads Commander Benjamin Sisko into a bare - knuckle boxing match, all the while belittling and insulting him. When Sisko loses his temper and knocks Q down, an astonished Q says, "You hit me! Picard never hit me! '' Sisko counters frankly that "I 'm not Picard. '' Q responds with a smile, saying, "Indeed not, you 're much easier to provoke. ''. While on the station, Q gives hints to help the crew keep their station from being destroyed by an artifact that has been brought aboard it.
In the Star Trek: Voyager episode "Death Wish '', Q pursues a rogue member of the Continuum, named Quinn, who has been inadvertently released from his asteroid prison by the crew of that ship, and who seeks asylum on the Voyager. He demands that Q make him human, as he does not wish to be a member of the Continuum any more, but Q refuses, because Quinn intends to commit suicide if he becomes human. The two parties agree to allow Captain Janeway to mediate their dispute, and after Janeway eventually finds in favor of Quinn, Q makes Quinn human, after which Quinn commits suicide.
Later, in the Voyager episode "The Q and the Grey '', Q reappears on the Voyager, asking Janeway to bear his child. He eventually reveals that the uncertainty and instability caused by Quinn 's suicide divided the Continuum, causing a civil war between Quinn 's progressive followers and the conservative traditionalists of the Continuum. Q believes that the birth of a new member of the Continuum could revitalize the Q by giving them something new to focus on after millennia of stagnation and boredom. Janeway refuses, and after she and her crew bring about a ceasefire in the Continuum, Q eventually mates with the female Q with whom he had been involved (referred to in Star Trek novels as ' Lady Q '), producing a son. Q makes Janeway his godmother.
Their progeny is born conscious and with all the power of any other Q, although lacking adult maturity.
In the episode "Q2 '', which is the last televised appearance of Q, he appears on Voyager with his immature, rebellious son, who appears as a human teenager (played by John de Lancie 's real - life son Keegan de Lancie, and referred to in the novels as "Little Q '' or "q ''). Q asks Janeway to mentor his son, and the two adults agree that the boy will remain on Voyager, without his powers, and either learn how to be a responsible, accountable, and productive inhabitant of the cosmos, or spend eternity as an amoeba. Eventually, the young Q comes around, but the Continuum is not entirely convinced, so in negotiation with Q, they come to an agreement. Q must eternally guard, observe, and accompany the boy to ensure his proper behavior.
The similarity between Q and Trelane, the alien encountered in the Star Trek episode "The Squire of Gothos '', inspired writer Peter David to establish in his 1994 novel Q - Squared that Trelane is a member of the Continuum, and that Q is his godfather.
Q 's past is expanded on in the trilogy The Q Continuum, which has Q and Picard travel through Q 's past, witnessing Q 's first encounter with the being that inspired his interest in testing other races. This being, known as 0, is similar to Q in power and abilities, but whereas Q has been shown to be more of a "merry prankster '' throughout Star Trek canon, 0 is utterly malevolent in his desires. Q ends up bringing him into the Milky Way galaxy through the Guardian of Forever, and 0 assembles other seemingly omnipotent beings from the original Star Trek, including The One, the being who impersonated God in Star Trek V: The Final Frontier. This group was later defeated in a battle with the Q Continuum, though the dinosaurs were left extinct as a result. Q was thus put in charge of watching over Earth and its inhabitants. 0 later returned from his banishment beyond the galaxy and sought revenge on Q, but was defeated.
In the Voyager novel The Eternal Tide, Q 's son sacrifices himself to save the universe, inspired by the example of the resurrected Kathryn Janeway, prompting Q to declare himself her enemy.
In the Star Trek comic series based on the alternate timeline established in the 2009 film Star Trek, Q visits that reality to take the crew of the Enterprise into their future, allowing them to interact with characters from the original timeline in the new history created by Spock 's trip to the past, as well as to help Q deal with a threat to the Continuum in the form of the Pah - Wraiths, which have all but destroyed the Bajoran Prophets in this timeline.
Television episodes and novels featuring Q often have titles that play on the letter "Q ''.
No audiobook version available.
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characters in the story the little red hen | The Little Red Hen - wikipedia
The Little Red Hen is an old folk tale of the fable type, most likely of Russian origin. The best - known version in the United States is that popularized by Little Golden Books, a series of children 's books published for the mass market since the 1940s. The story is applied in teaching children the virtues of work ethic and personal initiative.
During the 1880s, reading instruction in the United States continued to evolve to include primers that became known as literature readers. Prior to this time highly moralistic and religious texts were used to teach literacy. The Little Red Hen offers a moralistic tale of the importance of hard work and the shame as well as consequences of laziness. During this time, consideration of the interest of the young reader became more central to the teaching of reading. In considering the young reader, the authors of this genre made their texts appealing visually both through illustrations and text formatting. "Margaret Free and Harriette Taylor Treadwell were the first authors to prepare beginning readers with a content consisting wholly of adaptations from the old folktales. '' (Smith, 1965 / 2002, p. 141). The genre of the folktale lent itself to repetitive vocabulary -- an early reading strategy still in use today.
In the tale, the little red hen finds a grain of wheat and asks for help from the other farmyard animals (most adaptations feature three animals, a pig, a cat, and a rat, duck, goose, dog, or goat) to plant it, but they all disagree.
At each later stage (harvest, threshing, milling the wheat into flour, and baking the flour into bread), the hen again asks for help from the other animals, but again she does n't receive any help.
Finally, the hen has completed her task and asks who will help her eat the bread. This time, all the previous non-participants eagerly volunteer, but she disagrees with them, stating that no one helped her with her work. Thus, the hen eats it with her chicks leaving none for anyone else.
The moral of this story is that those who say no to contribution to a product do not deserve to enjoy the product: "if any would not work, neither should he eat. ''
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what is the top of the skull called | Skull - wikipedia
The skull is a bony structure that forms the head in most vertebrates. It supports the structures of the face and provides a protective cavity for the brain. The skull is composed of two parts: the cranium and the mandible. In the human these two parts are the neurocranium and the viscerocranium or facial skeleton that includes the mandible as its largest bone. The skull forms the anterior most portion of the skeleton and is a product of cephalisation -- housing the brain, and several sensory structures such as the eyes, ears, nose, and mouth. In humans these sensory structures are part of the facial skeleton.
Functions of the skull include protection of the brain, fixing the distance between the eyes to allow stereoscopic vision, and fixing the position of the ears to enable sound localisation of the direction and distance of sounds. In some animals such as horned ungulates, the skull also has a defensive function by providing the mount (on the frontal bone) for the horns.
The English word "skull '' is probably derived from Old Norse "skulle '', while the Latin word cranium comes from the Greek root κρανίον (kranion).
The skull is made up of a number of fused flat bones, and contains many foramina, fossae, processes, and several cavities or sinuses. In zoology there are openings in the skull called fenestrae.
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The human skull is the bony structure that forms the head in the human skeleton. It supports the structures of the face and forms a cavity for the brain. Like the skulls of other vertebrates, it protects the brain from injury.
The skull consists of two parts, of different embryological origin -- the neurocranium and the facial skeleton (also called the membraneous viscerocranium). The neurocranium (or braincase) forms the protective cranial cavity that surrounds and houses the brain and brainstem. The upper areas of the cranial bones form the calvaria (skullcap). The neurocranium includes the mandible.
The facial skeleton is formed by the bones supporting the face.
Except for the mandible, all of the bones of the skull are joined together by sutures -- synarthrodial (immovable) joints formed by bony ossification, with Sharpey 's fibres permitting some flexibility. Sometimes there can be extra bone pieces within the suture known as wormian bones or sutural bones.
The human skull is generally considered to consist of twenty - two bones -- eight cranial bones and fourteen facial skeleton bones. In the neurocranium these are the occipital bone, two temporal bones, two parietal bones, the sphenoid, ethmoid and frontal bones.
The bones of the facial skeleton (14) are the vomer, two nasal conchae, two nasal bones, two maxilla, the mandible, two palatine bones, two zygomatic bones, and two lacrimal bones. Some sources count a paired bone as one, or the maxilla as having two bones (as its parts); some sources include the hyoid bone or the three ossicles of the middle ear but the overall general consensus of the number of bones in the human skull is the stated twenty - two.
Some of these bones -- the occipital, parietal, frontal, in the neurocranium, and the nasal, lacrimal, and vomer, in the facial skeleton are flat bones.
The skull also contains sinus cavities and numerous foramina. The sinuses are lined with respiratory epithelium. Their known functions are the lessening of the weight of the skull, the aiding of resonance to the voice and the warming and moistening of the air drawn through the nasal cavity.
The foramina are openings in the skull. The largest of these is the foramen magnum that allows the passage of the spinal cord as well as nerves and blood vessels.
The many processes of the skull include the mastoid process and the zygomatic process.
The skull is a complex structure; its bones are formed both by intramembranous and endochondral ossification. The skull roof bones, comprising the bones of the facial skeleton and the sides and roof of the neurocranium, are dermal bones formed by intramembranous ossification, though the temporal bones are formed by endochondral ossification. The endocranium, the bones supporting the brain (the occipital, sphenoid, and ethmoid) are largely formed by endochondral ossification. Thus frontal and parietal bones are purely membranous. The geometry of the skull base and its fossae, the anterior, middle and posterior cranial fossae changes rapidly. The anterior cranial fossa changes especially during the first trimester of pregnancy and skull defects can often develop during this time.
At birth, the human skull is made up of 44 separate bony elements. During development, many of these bony elements gradually fuse together into solid bone (for example, the frontal bone). The bones of the roof of the skull are initially separated by regions of dense connective tissue called fontanelles. There are six fontanelles: one anterior (or frontal), one posterior (or occipital), two sphenoid (or anterolateral), and two mastoid (or posterolateral). At birth these regions are fibrous and moveable, necessary for birth and later growth. This growth can put a large amount of tension on the "obstetrical hinge '', which is where the squamous and lateral parts of the occipital bone meet. A possible complication of this tension is rupture of the great cerebral vein. As growth and ossification progress, the connective tissue of the fontanelles is invaded and replaced by bone creating sutures. The five sutures are the two squamous sutures, one coronal, one lambdoid, and one sagittal suture. The posterior fontanelle usually closes by eight weeks, but the anterior fontanel can remain open up to eighteen months. The anterior fontanelle is located at the junction of the frontal and parietal bones; it is a "soft spot '' on a baby 's forehead. Careful observation will show that you can count a baby 's heart rate by observing the pulse pulsing softly through the anterior fontanelle.
The skull in the neonate is large in proportion to other parts of the body. The facial skeleton is one seventh of the size of the calvaria. (In the adult it is half the size). The base of the skull is short and narrow, though the inner ear is almost adult size.
Craniosynostosis is a condition in which one or more of the fibrous sutures in an infant skull prematurely fuses, and changes the growth pattern of the skull. Because the skull can not expand perpendicular to the fused suture, it grows more in the parallel direction. Sometimes the resulting growth pattern provides the necessary space for the growing brain, but results in an abnormal head shape and abnormal facial features. In cases in which the compensation does not effectively provide enough space for the growing brain, craniosynostosis results in increased intracranial pressure leading possibly to visual impairment, sleeping impairment, eating difficulties, or an impairment of mental development.
A copper beaten skull is a phenomenon wherein intense intracranial pressure disfigures the internal surface of the skull. The name comes from the fact that the inner skull has the appearance of having been beaten with a ball - peen hammer, such as is often used by coppersmiths. The condition is most common in children.
Injuries to the brain can be life - threatening. Normally the skull protects the brain from damage through its hard unyieldingness; the skull is one of the least deformable structures found in nature with it needing the force of about 1 ton to reduce the diameter of the skull by 1 cm. In some cases, however, of head injury, there can be raised intracranial pressure through mechanisms such as a subdural haematoma. In these cases the raised intracranial pressure can cause herniation of the brain out of the foramen magnum ("coning '') because there is no space for the brain to expand; this can result in significant brain damage or death unless an urgent operation is performed to relieve the pressure. This is why patients with concussion must be watched extremely carefully.
Dating back to Neolithic times, a skull operation called trepanning was sometimes performed. This involved drilling a burr hole in the cranium. Examination of skulls from this period reveals that the patients sometimes survived for many years afterward. It seems likely that trepanning was also performed purely for ritualistic or religious reasons. Nowadays this procedure is still used but is normally called a craniectomy.
In March 2013, for the first time in the U.S., researchers replaced a large percentage of a patient 's skull with a precision, 3D - printed polymer implant. About 9 months later the first complete cranium replacement with a 3D - printed plastic insert was performed on a Dutch woman. She had been suffering from hyperostosis, which increased the thickness of her skull and compressed her brain.
Surgical alteration of sexually dimorphic skull features may be carried out as a part of facial feminization surgery, a set of reconstructive surgical procedures that can alter male facial features to bring them closer in shape and size to typical female facial features. These procedures can be an important part of the treatment of transgender people for gender dysphoria.
Artificial cranial deformation is a largely historical practice of some cultures. Cords and wooden boards would be used to apply pressure to an infant 's skull and alter its shape, sometimes quite significantly. This procedure would begin just after birth and would be carried on for several years.
Like the face, the skull and teeth can also indicate a person 's life history and origin. Forensic scientists and archaeologists use metric and nonmetric traits to estimate what the bearer of the skull looked like. When a significant amount of bones are found, such as at Spitalfields in the UK and Jōmon shell mounds in Japan, osteologists can use traits, such as the proportions of length, height and width, to know the relationships of the population of the study with other living or extinct populations.
The German physician Franz Joseph Gall in around 1800 formulated the theory of phrenology, which attempted to show that specific features of the skull are associated with certain personality traits or intellectual capabilities of its owner. His theory is now considered to be pseudoscientific.
In the mid-nineteenth century, anthropologists found it crucial to distinguish between male and female skulls. An anthropologist of the time, James McGrigor Allan, argued that the female brain was similar to that of an animal. This allowed anthropologists to declare that women were in fact more emotional and less rational than men. McGrigor then concluded that women 's brains were more analogous to infants, thus deeming them inferior at the time. To further these claims of female inferiority and silence the feminists of the time, other anthropologists joined in on the studies of the female skull. These cranial measurements are the basis of what is known as craniology. These cranial measurements were also used to draw a connection between women and black people.
Research has shown that while in early life there is little difference between male and female skulls, in adulthood male skulls tend to be larger and more robust than female skulls, which are lighter and smaller, with a cranial capacity about 10 percent less than that of the male. However, later studies show that women 's skulls are slightly thicker and thus men may be more susceptible to head injury than women.
Male skulls can have more prominent supraorbital ridges, a more prominent glabella, and more prominent temporal lines. Female skulls generally have rounder orbits, and narrower jaws. Male skulls on average have larger, broader palates, squarer orbits, larger mastoid processes, larger sinuses, and larger occipital condyles than those of females. Male mandibles typically have squarer chins and thicker, rougher muscle attachments than female mandibles.
The cephalic index is the ratio of the width of the head, multiplied by 100 and divided by its length (front to back). The index is also used to categorize animals, especially dogs and cats. The width is usually measured just below the parietal eminence, and the length from the glabella to the occipital point.
Humans may be:
The skull of fishes is formed from a series of only loosely connected bones. Lampreys and sharks only possess a cartilaginous endocranium, with both the upper and lower jaws being separate elements. Bony fishes have additional dermal bone, forming a more or less coherent skull roof in lungfish and holost fish. The lower jaw defines a chin.
The simpler structure is found in jawless fish, in which the cranium is normally represented by a trough - like basket of cartilaginous elements only partially enclosing the brain, and associated with the capsules for the inner ears and the single nostril. Distinctively, these fish have no jaws.
Cartilaginous fish, such as sharks and rays, have also simple, and presumably primitive, skull structures. The cranium is a single structure forming a case around the brain, enclosing the lower surface and the sides, but always at least partially open at the top as a large fontanelle. The most anterior part of the cranium includes a forward plate of cartilage, the rostrum, and capsules to enclose the olfactory organs. Behind these are the orbits, and then an additional pair of capsules enclosing the structure of the inner ear. Finally, the skull tapers towards the rear, where the foramen magnum lies immediately above a single condyle, articulating with the first vertebra. There are, in addition, at various points throughout the cranium, smaller foramina for the cranial nerves. The jaws consist of separate hoops of cartilage, almost always distinct from the cranium proper.
In ray - finned fishes, there has also been considerable modification from the primitive pattern. The roof of the skull is generally well formed, and although the exact relationship of its bones to those of tetrapods is unclear, they are usually given similar names for convenience. Other elements of the skull, however, may be reduced; there is little cheek region behind the enlarged orbits, and little, if any bone in between them. The upper jaw is often formed largely from the premaxilla, with the maxilla itself located further back, and an additional bone, the symplectic, linking the jaw to the rest of the cranium.
Although the skulls of fossil lobe - finned fish resemble those of the early tetrapods, the same can not be said of those of the living lungfishes. The skull roof is not fully formed, and consists of multiple, somewhat irregularly shaped bones with no direct relationship to those of tetrapods. The upper jaw is formed from the pterygoids and vomers alone, all of which bear teeth. Much of the skull is formed from cartilage, and its overall structure is reduced.
The skulls of the earliest tetrapods closely resembled those of their ancestors amongst the lobe - finned fishes. The skull roof is formed of a series of plate - like bones, including the maxilla, frontals, parietals, and lacrimals, among others. It is overlaying the endocranium, corresponding to the cartilaginous skull in sharks and rays. The various separate bones that compose the temporal bone of humans are also part of the skull roof series. A further plate composed of four pairs of bones forms the roof of the mouth; these include the vomer and palatine bones. The base of the cranium is formed from a ring of bones surrounding the foramen magnum and a median bone lying further forward; these are homologous with the occipital bone and parts of the sphenoid in mammals. Finally, the lower jaw is composed of multiple bones, only the most anterior of which (the dentary) is homologous with the mammalian mandible.
In living tetrapods, a great many of the original bones have either disappeared or fused into one another in various arrangements.
Birds have a diapsid skull, as in reptiles, with a pre-lacrymal fossa (present in some reptiles). The skull has a single occipital condyle. The skull consists of five major bones: the frontal (top of head), parietal (back of head), premaxillary and nasal (top beak), and the mandible (bottom beak). The skull of a normal bird usually weighs about 1 % of the bird 's total bodyweight. The eye occupies a considerable amount of the skull and is surrounded by a sclerotic eye - ring, a ring of tiny bones. This characteristic is also seen in reptiles.
Living amphibians typically have greatly reduced skulls, with many of the bones either absent or wholly or partly replaced by cartilage. In mammals and birds, in particular, modifications of the skull occurred to allow for the expansion of the brain. The fusion between the various bones is especially notable in birds, in which the individual structures may be difficult to identify.
The fenestrae (from Latin, meaning windows) are openings in the skull.
The temporal fenestrae are anatomical features of the skulls of several types of amniotes, characterised by bilaterally symmetrical holes (fenestrae) in the temporal bone. Depending on the lineage of a given animal, two, one, or no pairs of temporal fenestrae may be present, above or below the postorbital and squamosal bones. The upper temporal fenestrae are also known as the supratemporal fenestrae, and the lower temporal fenestrae are also known as the infratemporal fenestrae. The presence and morphology of the temporal fenestra are critical for taxonomic classification of the synapsids, of which mammals are part.
Physiological speculation associates it with a rise in metabolic rates and an increase in jaw musculature. The earlier amniotes of the Carboniferous did not have temporal fenestrae but two more advanced lines did: the synapsids (mammal - like reptiles) and the diapsids (most reptiles and later birds). As time progressed, diapsids ' and synapsids ' temporal fenestrae became more modified and larger to make stronger bites and more jaw muscles. Dinosaurs, which are diapsids, have large advanced openings, and their descendants, the birds, have temporal fenestrae which have been modified. Mammals, which are synapsids, possess no fenestral openings in the skull, as the trait has been modified. They do, though, still have the temporal orbit (which resembles an opening) and the temporal muscles. It is a hole in the head and is situated to the rear of the orbit behind the eye.
There are four types of amniote skull, classified by the number and location of their temporal fenestrae. These are:
Evolutionarily, they are related as follows:
The jugal is a skull bone found in most reptiles, amphibians, and birds. In mammals, the jugal is often called the zygomatic bone or malar bone.
The prefrontal bone is a bone separating the lacrimal and frontal bones in many tetrapod skulls.
This article incorporates text in the public domain from the 20th edition of Gray 's Anatomy (1918)
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who was the first president to live in the white house | White House - Wikipedia
The White House is the official residence and workplace of the President of the United States. It is located at 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue NW in Washington, D.C. and has been the residence of every U.S. President since John Adams in 1800. The term, "White House '', is often used as a metonym for the president and his advisers.
The residence was designed by Irish - born architect James Hoban in the neoclassical style. Construction took place between 1792 and 1800 using Aquia Creek sandstone painted white. When Thomas Jefferson moved into the house in 1801, he (with architect Benjamin Henry Latrobe) added low colonnades on each wing that concealed stables and storage. In 1814, during the War of 1812, the mansion was set ablaze by the British Army in the Burning of Washington, destroying the interior and charring much of the exterior. Reconstruction began almost immediately, and President James Monroe moved into the partially reconstructed Executive Residence in October 1817. Exterior construction continued with the addition of the semi-circular South portico in 1824 and the North portico in 1829.
Because of crowding within the executive mansion itself, President Theodore Roosevelt had all work offices relocated to the newly constructed West Wing in 1901. Eight years later in 1909, President William Howard Taft expanded the West Wing and created the first Oval Office, which was eventually moved as the section was expanded. In the main mansion, the third - floor attic was converted to living quarters in 1927 by augmenting the existing hip roof with long shed dormers. A newly constructed East Wing was used as a reception area for social events; Jefferson 's colonnades connected the new wings. East Wing alterations were completed in 1946, creating additional office space. By 1948, the residence 's load - bearing exterior walls and internal wood beams were found to be close to failure. Under Harry S. Truman, the interior rooms were completely dismantled and a new internal load - bearing steel frame constructed inside the walls. Once this work was completed, the interior rooms were rebuilt.
The modern - day White House complex includes the Executive Residence, West Wing, East Wing, the Eisenhower Executive Office Building -- the former State Department, which now houses offices for the President 's staff and the Vice President -- and Blair House, a guest residence. The Executive Residence is made up of six stories -- the Ground Floor, State Floor, Second Floor, and Third Floor, as well as a two - story basement. The property is a National Heritage Site owned by the National Park Service and is part of the President 's Park. In 2007, it was ranked second on the American Institute of Architects list of "America 's Favorite Architecture ''.
Following his April 1789 inauguration, President George Washington occupied two executive mansions in New York City: the Samuel Osgood House at 3 Cherry Street (April 1789 -- February 1790), and the Alexander Macomb House at 39 -- 41 Broadway (February -- August 1790). In May 1790, New York began construction of Government House for his official residence, but he never occupied it. The national capital moved to Philadelphia in December 1790.
The July 1790 Residence Act named Philadelphia, Pennsylvania the temporary national capital for a 10 - year period while the Federal City was under construction. The City of Philadelphia rented Robert Morris 's city house at 190 High Street (now 524 -- 30 Market Street) for Washington 's presidential residence.
The first U.S. President occupied the Market Street mansion from November 1790 to March 1797 and altered it in ways that may have influenced the design of the White House. As part of a futile effort to have Philadelphia named the permanent national capital, Pennsylvania built a much grander presidential mansion several blocks away, but Washington declined to occupy it.
President John Adams also occupied the Market Street mansion from March 1797 to May 1800. On Saturday, November 1, 1800, he became the first president to occupy the White House. The President 's House in Philadelphia became a hotel and was demolished in 1832, while the unused presidential mansion became home to the University of Pennsylvania.
The President 's House was a major feature of Pierre (Peter) Charles L'Enfant's ' plan for the newly established federal city, Washington, D.C. (see: L'Enfant Plan). The architect of the White House was chosen in a design competition which received nine proposals, including one submitted anonymously by Thomas Jefferson.
President Washington visited Charleston, South Carolina in May 1791 on his "Southern Tour '', and saw the under - construction Charleston County Courthouse designed by Irish architect James Hoban. He is reputed to have met with Hoban then. The following year, he summoned the architect to Philadelphia and met with him in June 1792.
On July 16, 1792, the President met with the commissioners of the federal city to make his judgment in the architectural competition. His review is recorded as being brief, and he quickly selected Hoban 's submission.
The building has classical inspiration sources, that could be found directly or indirectly in the Roman architect Vitruvius or in Andrea Palladio styles; Palladio being an Italian architect of the Renaissance which had a considerable influence on the Western architecture (Palladian architecture). The building Hoban designed is verifiably influenced by the upper floors of Leinster House, in Dublin, which later became the seat of the Oireachtas (the Irish parliament). Several other Georgian - era Irish country houses have been suggested as sources of inspiration for the overall floor plan, details like the bow - fronted south front, and interior details like the former niches in the present Blue Room. These influences, though undocumented, are cited in the official White House guide, and in White House Historical Association publications. The first official White House guide, published in 1962, suggested a link between Hoban 's design for the South Portico and Château de Rastignac, a neoclassical country house located in La Bachellerie in the Dordogne region of France and designed by Mathurin Salat. Construction on the French house was initially started before 1789, interrupted by the French Revolution for twenty years and then finally built 1812 -- 1817 (based on Salat 's pre-1789 design). The theoretical link between the two houses has been criticized because Hoban did not visit France. Supporters of a connection posit that Thomas Jefferson, during his tour of Bordeaux in 1789, viewed Salat 's architectural drawings (which were on - file at the College) at the École Spéciale d'Architecture (Bordeaux Architectural College). On his return to the U.S. he then shared the influence with Washington, Hoban, Monroe, and Benjamin Henry Latrobe.
Construction of the White House began with the laying of the cornerstone on October 13, 1792, although there was no formal ceremony. The main residence, as well as foundations of the house, were built largely by enslaved and free African - American laborers, as well as employed Europeans. Much of the other work on the house was performed by immigrants, many not yet with citizenship. The sandstone walls were erected by Scottish immigrants, employed by Hoban, as were the high - relief rose and garland decorations above the north entrance and the "fish scale '' pattern beneath the pediments of the window hoods. There are conflicting claims as to where the sandstone used in the construction of the White House originated. Some reports suggest sandstone from the Croatian island of Brač (specifically the Pučišća querry whose stone was used to build the ancient Roman palace of Emperor Diocletian) was used in the original construction of the building, contrarily researchers believe limestone from the island was used in the 1902 renovations and not the original construction. Others suggest the original sandstone simply came from Aquia Creek in Stafford County, Virginia, as importing the stone would be too costly. The initial construction took place over a period of eight years, at a reported cost of $232,371.83 (equal to $3,350,711 today). Although not yet completed, the White House was ready for occupancy circa November 1, 1800.
Shortages, including material and labor, forced alterations to the earlier plan developed by French engineer Pierre Charles L'Enfant for a "palace '' that was five times larger than the house that was eventually built. The finished structure contained only two main floors instead of the planned three, and a less costly brick served as a lining for the stone façades. When construction was finished, the porous sandstone walls were whitewashed with a mixture of lime, rice glue, casein, and lead, giving the house its familiar color and name.
As it is a famed structure in America, several replicas of the White House have been constructed.
The north front is the principal façade of the White House and consists of three floors and eleven bays. The ground floor is hidden by a raised carriage ramp and parapet, thus the façade appears to be of two floors. The central three bays are behind a prostyle portico (this was a later addition to the house, built circa 1830) serving, thanks to the carriage ramp, as a porte cochere. The windows of the four bays flanking the portico, at first - floor level, have alternating pointed and segmented pediments, while at second - floor level the pediments are flat. The principal entrance at the center of the portico is surmounted by a lunette fanlight. Above the entrance is a sculpted floral festoon. The roofline is hidden by a balustraded parapet.
The mansion 's southern façade is a combination of the Palladian and neoclassical styles of architecture. It is of three floors, all visible. The ground floor is rusticated in the Palladian fashion. At the center of the façade is a neoclassical projecting bow of three bays. The bow is flanked by five bays, the windows of which, as on the north façade, have alternating segmented and pointed pediments at first - floor level. The bow has a ground floor double staircase leading to an Ionic colonnaded loggia (with the Truman Balcony at second - floor level), known as the south portico. The more modern third floor is hidden by a balustraded parapet and plays no part in the composition of the façade.
The building was originally variously referred to as the "President 's Palace '', "Presidential Mansion '', or "President 's House ''. The earliest evidence of the public calling it the "White House '' was recorded in 1811. A myth emerged that during the rebuilding of the structure after the Burning of Washington, white paint was applied to mask the burn damage it had suffered, giving the building its namesake hue. The name "Executive Mansion '' was used in official contexts until President Theodore Roosevelt established the formal name by having "White House -- Washington '' engraved on the stationery in 1901. The current letterhead wording and arrangement "The White House '' with the word "Washington '' centered beneath goes back to the administration of Franklin D. Roosevelt.
Although the structure was not completed until some years after the presidency of George Washington, there is speculation that the name of the traditional residence of the President of the United States may have derived from Martha Washington 's home, White House Plantation in Virginia, where the nation 's first President had courted the First Lady in the mid-18th century.
On Saturday, November 1, 1800, John Adams became the first president to take residence in the building. During Adams ' second day in the house, he wrote a letter to his wife Abigail, containing a prayer for the house. Adams wrote:
I pray Heaven to bestow the best of blessings on this House, and all that shall hereafter inhabit it. May none but honest and wise men ever rule under this roof.
Franklin D. Roosevelt had Adams 's blessing carved into the mantel in the State Dining Room.
Adams lived in the house only briefly before Thomas Jefferson moved into the "pleasant country residence '' in 1801. Despite his complaints that the house was too big ("big enough for two emperors, one pope, and the grand lama in the bargain ''), Jefferson considered how the White House might be added to. With Benjamin Henry Latrobe, he helped lay out the design for the East and West Colonnades, small wings that help conceal the domestic operations of laundry, a stable and storage. Today, Jefferson 's colonnades link the residence with the East and West Wings.
In 1814, during the War of 1812, the White House was set ablaze by British troops during the Burning of Washington, in retaliation for burning Upper Canada 's Parliament Buildings in the Battle of York; much of Washington was affected by these fires as well. Only the exterior walls remained, and they had to be torn down and mostly reconstructed because of weakening from the fire and subsequent exposure to the elements, except for portions of the south wall. Of the numerous objects taken from the White House when it was ransacked by British troops, only two have been recovered. Employees and slaves rescued a painting of George Washington, and in 1939, a Canadian man returned a jewelry box to President Franklin D. Roosevelt, claiming that his grandfather had taken it from Washington. Some observers allege that most of these spoils were lost when a convoy of British ships led by HMS Fantome sank en route to Halifax off Prospect during a storm on the night of November 24, 1814, even though Fantome had no involvement in that action.
After the fire, President James Madison resided in The Octagon House from 1814 to 1815, and then the Seven Buildings from 1815 to the end of his term. Meanwhile, both architect Benjamin Henry Latrobe and Hoban contributed to the design and oversight of the reconstruction, which lasted from 1815 until 1817. The south portico was constructed in 1824 during the James Monroe administration; the north portico was built six years later. Though Latrobe proposed similar porticos before the fire in 1814, both porticos were built as designed by Hoban. An elliptical portico at Château de Rastignac in La Bachellerie, France with nearly identical curved stairs is speculated as the source of inspiration due to its similarity with the South Portico, although this matter is one of great debate. Italian artisans, brought to Washington to help in constructing the U.S. Capitol, carved the decorative stonework on both porticos. Contrary to speculation, the North Portico was not modeled on a similar portico on another Dublin building, the Viceregal Lodge (now Áras an Uachtaráin, residence of the President of Ireland), for its portico postdates the White House porticos ' design. For the North Portico, a variation on the Ionic Order was devised incorporating a swag of roses between the volutes. This was done to link the new portico with the earlier carved roses above the entrance.
The White House as it looked following the conflagration of August 24, 1814
Jefferson and Latrobe 's West Wing Colonnade, in this nineteenth - century engraved view, is now the James S. Brady Press Briefing Room.
Principal story plan for the white house by Benjamin Henry Latrobe, 1807.
Earliest known photograph of the White House, taken c. 1846 by John Plumbe during the administration of James K. Polk.
By the time of the American Civil War, the White House had become overcrowded. The location of the White House was questioned, just north of a canal and swampy lands, which provided conditions ripe for malaria and other unhealthy conditions. Brigadier General Nathaniel Michler was tasked to propose solutions to address these concerns. He proposed abandoning the use of the White House as a residence and designed a new estate for the first family at Meridian Hill in Washington, D.C., but Congress rejected the plan.
When Chester Arthur took office in 1881, he ordered renovations to the White House to take place as soon as the recently widowed Lucretia Garfield moved out. Arthur inspected the work almost nightly and made several suggestions. Louis Comfort Tiffany was asked to send selected designers to assist. Over twenty wagonloads of furniture and household items were removed from the building and sold at a public auction. All that was saved were bust portraits of John Adams and Martin Van Buren. A proposal was made to build a new residence south of the White House, but it failed to gain support.
In the fall of 1882 work was done on the main corridor, including tinting the walls pale olive and adding squares of gold leaf, and decorating the ceiling in gold and silver, and colorful traceries woven to spell "USA ''. The Red Room was painted a dull Pomeranian red, and its ceiling was decorated with gold, silver, and copper stars and stripes of red, white, and blue. A fifty - foot jeweled Tiffany glass screen, supported by imitation marble columns, replaced the glass doors that separated the main corridor from the north vestibule.
In 1891, First Lady Caroline Harrison proposed major extensions to the White House, including a National Wing on the east for a historical art gallery, and a wing on the west for official functions. A plan was devised by Colonel Theodore A. Bingham, which reflected the Harrison proposal. These plans were ultimately rejected.
However, in 1902 Theodore Roosevelt hired McKim, Mead & White to carry out expansions and renovations in a neoclassical style suited to the building 's architecture, removing the Tiffany screen and all Victorian additions. Charles McKim himself designed and managed the project, which gave more living space to the President 's large family by removing a staircase in the West Hall and moving executive office staff from the second floor of the residence into the new West Wing.
President William Howard Taft enlisted the help of architect Nathan C. Wyeth to add additional space to the West Wing, which included the addition of the Oval Office. In 1925, Congress enacted legislation allowing the White House to accept gifts of furniture and art for the first time. The West Wing was damaged by fire in 1929, but rebuilt during the remaining years of the Herbert Hoover presidency. In the 1930s, a second story was added, as well as a larger basement for White House staff, and President Franklin Roosevelt had the Oval Office moved to its present location: adjacent to the Rose Garden.
Decades of poor maintenance, the construction of a fourth story attic during the Coolidge administration, and the addition of a second - floor balcony over the south portico for Harry S. Truman took a great toll on the brick and sandstone structure built around a timber frame. By 1948, the house was declared to be in imminent danger of collapse, forcing President Truman to commission a reconstruction and to live across the street at Blair House from 1949 to 1951. The work, done by the firm of Philadelphia contractor John McShain, required the complete dismantling of the interior spaces, construction of a new load - bearing internal steel frame and the reconstruction of the original rooms within the new structure. The total cost of the renovations was about $5.7 million (US $54 million in 2018). Some modifications to the floor plan were made, the largest being the repositioning of the grand staircase to open into the Entrance Hall, rather than the Cross Hall. Central air conditioning was added, as well as two additional sub-basements providing space for workrooms, storage, and a bomb shelter. The Trumans moved back into the White House on March 27, 1952. While the house 's structure was kept intact by the Truman reconstruction, much of the new interior finishes were generic, and of little historic value. Much of the original plasterwork, some dating back to the 1814 -- 1816 rebuilding, was too damaged to reinstall, as was the original robust Beaux Arts paneling in the East Room. President Truman had the original timber frame sawed into paneling; the walls of the Vermeil Room, Library, China Room, and Map Room on the ground floor of the main residence were paneled in wood from the timbers.
Jacqueline Kennedy, wife of President John F. Kennedy (1961 -- 63), directed a very extensive and historic redecoration of the house. She enlisted the help of Henry Francis du Pont of the Winterthur Museum to assist in collecting artifacts for the mansion, many of which had once been housed there. Other antiques, fine paintings, and improvements of the Kennedy period were donated to the White House by wealthy philanthropists, including the Crowninshield family, Jane Engelhard, Jayne Wrightsman, and the Oppenheimer family.
Stéphane Boudin of the House of Jansen, a Paris interior - design firm that had been recognized worldwide, was employed by Jacqueline Kennedy to assist with the decoration. Different periods of the early republic and world history were selected as a theme for each room: the Federal style for the Green Room, French Empire for the Blue Room, American Empire for the Red Room, Louis XVI for the Yellow Oval Room, and Victorian for the President 's study, renamed the Treaty Room. Antique furniture was acquired, and decorative fabric and trim based on period documents was produced and installed. The Kennedy restoration resulted in a more authentic White House of grander stature, which recalled the French taste of Madison and Monroe. In the Diplomatic Reception Room, Mrs. Kennedy installed an antique "Vue de l'Amérique Nord '' wallpaper which Zuber & Cie had designed in 1834. The wallpaper had hung previously on the walls of another mansion until 1961 when that house was demolished for a grocery store. Just before the demolition, the wallpaper was salvaged and sold to the White House.
The first White House guidebook was produced under the direction of curator Lorraine Waxman Pearce with direct supervision from Mrs. Kennedy. Sale of the guidebook helped finance the restoration.
Kennedy showed her restoration of the White House to the public in a televised tour of the house on Valentine 's Day in 1962.
Congress enacted legislation in September 1961 declaring the White House a museum. Furniture, fixtures, and decorative arts could now be declared either historic or of artistic interest by the President. This prevented them from being sold (as many objects in the executive mansion had been in the past 150 years). When not in use or display at the White House, these items were to be turned over to the Smithsonian Institution for preservation, study, storage, or exhibition. The White House retains the right to have these items returned.
Out of respect for the historic character of the White House, no substantive architectural changes have been made to the house since the Truman renovation. Since the Kennedy restoration, every presidential family has made some changes to the private quarters of the White House, but the Committee for the Preservation of the White House must approve any modifications to the State Rooms. Charged with maintaining the historical integrity of the White House, the congressionally authorized committee works with each First Family -- usually represented by the First Lady, the White House Curator, and the Chief Usher -- to implement the family 's proposals for altering the house.
During the Nixon Administration (1969 -- 1974), First Lady Pat Nixon refurbished the Green Room, Blue Room, and Red Room, working with Clement Conger, the curator appointed by President Richard Nixon. Mrs. Nixon 's efforts brought more than 600 artifacts to the house, the largest acquisition by any administration. Her husband created the modern press briefing room over Franklin Roosevelt 's old swimming pool. Nixon also added a single - lane bowling alley to the White House basement.
Computers and the first laser printer were added during the Carter administration, and the use of computer technology was expanded during the Reagan administration. A Carter - era innovation, a set of solar water heating panels that were mounted on the roof of the White House, was removed during Reagan 's presidency. Redecorations were made to the private family quarters and maintenance was made to public areas during the Reagan years. The house was accredited as a museum in 1988.
In the 1990s, Bill and Hillary Clinton refurbished some rooms with the assistance of Arkansas decorator Kaki Hockersmith, including the Oval Office, the East Room, Blue Room, State Dining Room, Lincoln Bedroom, and Lincoln Sitting Room. During the administration of George W. Bush, First Lady Laura Bush refurbished the Lincoln Bedroom in a style contemporary with the Lincoln era; the Green Room, Cabinet Room, and theater were also refurbished.
The White House became one of the first wheelchair - accessible government buildings in Washington when modifications were made during the presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt, who used a wheelchair because of his paralytic illness. In the 1990s, Hillary Clinton, at the suggestion of Visitors Office Director Melinda N. Bates, approved the addition of a ramp in the East Wing corridor. It allowed easy wheelchair access for the public tours and special events that enter through the secure entrance building on the east side.
In 2003, the Bush administration reinstalled solar thermal heaters. These units are used to heat water for landscape maintenance personnel and for the presidential pool and spa. 167 solar photovoltaic grid - tied panels were installed at the same time on the roof of the maintenance facility. The changes were not publicized as a White House spokeswoman said the changes were an internal matter. The story was picked up by industry trade journals. In 2013, President Barack Obama had a set of solar panels installed on the roof of the White House, making it the first time solar power would be used for the president 's living quarters.
The president usually travels to and from the White House grounds via official motorcade or helicopter. The journey by helicopter was inaugurated in the 1950s when President Dwight D. Eisenhower began traveling on Marine One to and from his official residence.
Today the group of buildings housing the presidency is known as the White House Complex. It includes the central Executive Residence flanked by the East Wing and West Wing. The Chief Usher coordinates day to day household operations. The White House includes: six stories and 55,000 ft (5,100 m) of floor space, 132 rooms and 35 bathrooms, 412 doors, 147 windows, twenty - eight fireplaces, eight staircases, three elevators, five full - time chefs, a tennis court, a (single - lane) bowling alley, a movie theater (officially called the White House Family Theater), a jogging track, a swimming pool, and a putting green. It receives up to 30,000 visitors each week.
The original residence is in the center. Two colonnades -- one on the east and one on the west -- designed by Jefferson, now serve to connect the East and West Wings added later. The Executive Residence houses the president 's dwelling, as well as rooms for ceremonies and official entertaining. The State Floor of the residence building includes the East Room, Green Room, Blue Room, Red Room, State Dining Room, Family Dining Room, Cross Hall, Entrance Hall, and Grand Staircase. The Ground Floor is made up of the Diplomatic Reception Room, Map Room, China Room, Vermeil Room, Library, the main kitchen, and other offices. The second floor family residence includes the Yellow Oval Room, East and West Sitting Halls, the White House Master Bedroom, President 's Dining Room, the Treaty Room, Lincoln Bedroom and Queens ' Bedroom, as well as two additional bedrooms, a smaller kitchen, and a private dressing room. The third floor consists of the White House Solarium, Game Room, Linen Room, a Diet Kitchen, and another sitting room (previously used as President George W. Bush 's workout room).
The West Wing houses the President 's office (the Oval Office) and offices of his senior staff, with room for about 50 employees. It also includes the Cabinet Room, where the president conducts business meetings and where the Cabinet meets, as well as the White House Situation Room, James S. Brady Press Briefing Room, and Roosevelt Room. In 2007, work was completed on renovations of the press briefing room, adding fiber optic cables and LCD screens for the display of charts and graphs. The makeover took 11 months and cost of $8 million, out of which news outlets paid $2 million. In September 2010, a two - year project began on the West Wing, creating a multistory underground structure; this will be followed with additional renovation of the wing.
The Oval Office, Roosevelt Room, and other portions of the West Wing were partially replicated on a sound stage and used as the setting for the popular television show The West Wing.
The East Wing, which contains additional office space, was added to the White House in 1942. Among its uses, the East Wing has intermittently housed the offices and staff of the First Lady, and the White House Social Office. Rosalynn Carter, in 1977, was the first to place her personal office in the East Wing and to formally call it the "Office of the First Lady ''. The East Wing was built during World War II in order to hide the construction of an underground bunker to be used in emergencies. The bunker has come to be known as the Presidential Emergency Operations Center.
The White House and grounds cover just over 18 acres (about 7.3 hectares). Before the construction of the North Portico, most public events were entered from the South Lawn, which was graded and planted by Thomas Jefferson. Jefferson also drafted a planting plan for the North Lawn that included large trees that would have mostly obscured the house from Pennsylvania Avenue. During the mid-to - late 19th century a series of ever larger greenhouses were built on the west side of the house, where the current West Wing is located. During this period, the North Lawn was planted with ornate carpet - style flowerbeds. The general layout of the White House grounds today is based on the 1935 design by Frederick Law Olmsted Jr. of the Olmsted Brothers firm, commissioned by President Franklin D. Roosevelt. During the Kennedy administration, the White House Rose Garden was redesigned by Rachel Lambert Mellon. The Rose Garden borders the West Colonnade. Bordering the East Colonnade is the Jacqueline Kennedy Garden, which was begun by Jacqueline Kennedy but completed after her husband 's assassination. On the weekend of June 23, 2006, a century - old American Elm (Ulmus americana L.) tree on the north side of the building, came down during one of the many storms amid intense flooding. Among the oldest trees on the grounds are several magnolias (Magnolia grandiflora) planted by Andrew Jackson, including the Jackson Magnolia, reportedly grown from a sprout taken from the favorite tree of Jackson 's recently deceased wife, the sprout planted after Jackson moved into the White House. The tree stood for over 200 years; but in 2017, having become too weak to stand on its own, it was decided it should be removed and replaced with one of its offspring. Michelle Obama planted the White House 's first organic garden and installed beehives on the South Lawn of the White House, which will supply organic produce and honey to the First Family and for state dinners and other official gatherings.
The Cross Hall, connecting the State Dining Room and the East Room on the State Floor
Marine One prepares for landing on the South Lawn where State Arrival Ceremonies for visiting heads of state take place.
The White House and surrounding grounds
The White House with fountain and grounds
White House from the north
Like the English and Irish country houses it was modeled on, the White House was, from the start, open to the public until the early part of the 20th century. President Thomas Jefferson held an open house for his second inaugural in 1805, and many of the people at his swearing - in ceremony at the Capitol followed him home, where he greeted them in the Blue Room. Those open houses sometimes became rowdy: in 1829, President Andrew Jackson had to leave for a hotel when roughly 20,000 citizens celebrated his inauguration inside the White House. His aides ultimately had to lure the mob outside with washtubs filled with a potent cocktail of orange juice and whiskey. Even so, the practice continued until 1885, when newly elected Grover Cleveland arranged for a presidential review of the troops from a grandstand in front of the White House instead of the traditional open house. Jefferson also permitted public tours of his house, which have continued ever since, except during wartime, and began the tradition of annual receptions on New Year 's Day and on the Fourth of July. Those receptions ended in the early 1930s, although President Bill Clinton briefly revived the New Year 's Day open house in his first term.
The White House remained accessible in other ways; President Abraham Lincoln complained that he was constantly beleaguered by job seekers waiting to ask him for political appointments or other favors, or eccentric dispensers of advice like "General '' Daniel Pratt, as he began the business day. Lincoln put up with the annoyance rather than risk alienating some associate or friend of a powerful politician or opinion maker.
In February 1974, a stolen army helicopter landed without authorization on the White House 's grounds. Twenty years later, in 1994, a light plane flown by Frank Eugene Corder crashed on the White House grounds, and he died instantly.
As a result of increased security regarding air traffic in the capital, the White House was evacuated in May 2005 before an unauthorized aircraft could approach the grounds.
On May 20, 1995, primarily as a response to the Oklahoma City bombing of April 19, 1995, the United States Secret Service closed off Pennsylvania Avenue to vehicular traffic in front of the White House from the eastern edge of Lafayette Park to 17th Street. Later, the closure was extended an additional block to the east to 15th Street, and East Executive Avenue, a small street between the White House and the Treasury Building.
After September 11, 2001, this was made permanent in addition to closing E Street between the South Portico of the White House and the Ellipse. In response to the Boston Marathon bombing, the road was closed to the public in its entirety for a period of two days.
The Pennsylvania Avenue closing has been opposed by organized civic groups in Washington, D.C. They argue that the closing impedes traffic flow unnecessarily and is inconsistent with the well - conceived historic plan for the city. As for security considerations, they note that the White House is set much farther back from the street than numerous other sensitive federal buildings are.
Prior to its inclusion within the fenced compound that now includes the Old Executive Office Building to the west and the Treasury Building to the east, this sidewalk served as a queuing area for the daily public tours of the White House. These tours were suspended in the wake of the September 11 attacks. In September 2003, they resumed on a limited basis for groups making prior arrangements through their Congressional representatives or embassies in Washington for foreign nationals and submitting to background checks, but the White House remained closed to the public. White House tours were suspended for most of 2013 due to budget constraints after sequestration. The White House reopened to the public in November 2013.
The White House Complex is protected by the United States Secret Service and the United States Park Police.
NASAMS (Norwegian Advanced Surface to Air Missile System) were used to guard air space over Washington, D.C. during the 2005 presidential inauguration. The same NASAMS units have since been used to protect the president and all airspace around the White House, which is strictly prohibited to aircraft.
For security reasons, the section of Pennsylvania Avenue on the north side of the White House is closed to all vehicular traffic, except government officials.
White House at night
North front of the White House on the reverse (back) of the U.S. $20 bill.
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does my ge gas range have a pilot light | Gas stove - wikipedia
In cooking, a gas stove is a cooker / stove which uses natural gas, propane, butane, liquefied petroleum gas or other flammable gas as a fuel source. Prior to the advent of gas, cooking stoves relied on solid fuel such as coal or wood. The first gas stoves were developed in the 1820s, and a gas stove factory was established in England in 1836. This new cooking technology had the advantage that it was easily adjustable and could be turned off when not in use. However the gas stove did not become a commercial success until the 1880s, by which time a supply of piped gas was available in large towns in Britain. The stoves became widespread on the European Continent and in the United States in the early 20th century.
Gas stoves became less unwieldy when the oven was integrated into the base and the size was reduced to fit in better with the rest of the kitchen furniture. By the 1910s, producers started to enamel their gas stoves for easier cleaning. Ignition of the gas was originally by match and this was followed by the more convenient pilot light. This had the disadvantage of a continual consumption of gas. The oven still needed to be lit by match, and accidentally turning on the gas without igniting it could lead to an explosion. To prevent these types of accidents, oven manufacturers developed and installed a safety valve called a flame failure device for gas hobs (cooktops) and ovens. Most modern gas stoves have electronic ignition, automatic timers for the oven and extractor hoods to remove fumes.
The first gas stove was developed in 1802 by Zachaus Winzler (de), but this along with other attempts remained isolated experiments. James Sharp patented a gas stove in Northampton, England in 1826 and opened a gas stove factory in 1836. His invention was marketed by the firm Smith & Philips from 1828. An important figure in the early acceptance of this new technology, was Alexis Soyer, the renowned chef at the Reform Club in London. From 1841, he converted his kitchen to consume piped gas, arguing that gas was cheaper overall because the supply could be turned off when the stove was not in use.
A gas stove was shown at the World Fair in London in 1851, but it was only in the 1880s that the technology became a commercial success in England. By that stage a large and reliable network for gas pipeline transport had spread over much of the country, making gas relatively cheap and efficient for domestic use. Gas stoves only became widespread on the European Continent and in the United States in the early 20th century.
Early gas stoves were rather unwieldy, but soon the oven was integrated into the base and the size was reduced to fit in better with the rest of the kitchen furniture. In the 1910s, producers started to enamel their gas stoves for easier cleaning.
Gas stoves today use two basic types of ignition sources, standing pilot and electric. A stove with a standing pilot has a small, continuously burning gas flame (called a pilot light) under the cooktop. The flame is between the front and back burners. When the stove is turned on, this flame lights the gas flowing out of the burners. The advantage of the standing pilot system is that it is simple and completely independent of any outside power source. A minor drawback is that the flames continuously consume fuel even when the stove is not in use. Early gas ovens did not have a pilot. One had to light these manually with a match. If one accidentally left the gas on, gas would fill the oven and eventually the room. A small spark, such as an arc from a light switch being turned on, could ignite the gas, triggering a violent explosion. To prevent these types of accidents, oven manufacturers developed and installed a safety valve called a flame failure device for gas hobs (cooktops) and ovens. The safety valve depends on a thermocouple that sends a signal to the valve to stay open. Although most modern gas stoves have electronic ignition, many households have gas cooking ranges and ovens that need to be lit with a flame. Electric ignition stoves use electric sparks to ignite the surface burners. This is the "clicking sound '' audible just before the burner actually lights. The sparks are initiated by turning the gas burner knob to a position typically labeled "LITE '' or by pressing the ' ignition ' button. Once the burner lights, the knob is turned further to modulate the flame size. Auto reignition is an elegant refinement: the user need not know or understand the wait - then - turn sequence. They simply turn the burner knob to the desired flame size and the sparking is turned off automatically when the flame lights. Auto reignition also provides a safety feature: the flame will be automatically reignited if the flame goes out while the gas is still on -- for example by a gust of wind. If the power fails, surface burners must be manually match - lit.
Electric ignition for ovens uses a "hot surface '' or "glow bar '' ignitor. Basically it is a heating element that heats up to gas 's ignition temperature. A sensor detects when the glow bar is hot enough and opens the gas valve.
Also stoves with electric ignition must be connected with gas protection mechanisms such as gas control breaker. Because of this many manufactureres supply stoves without electricity plug.
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when did beuty and the beast come out | Beauty and the Beast (2017 film) - wikipedia
Beauty and the Beast is a 2017 American musical romantic fantasy film directed by Bill Condon from a screenplay written by Stephen Chbosky and Evan Spiliotopoulos, and co-produced by Walt Disney Pictures and Mandeville Films. The film is a remake of Disney 's 1991 animated film of the same name, itself an adaptation of Jeanne - Marie Leprince de Beaumont 's eighteenth - century fairy tale. The film features an ensemble cast that includes Emma Watson and Dan Stevens as the eponymous characters with Luke Evans, Kevin Kline, Josh Gad, Ewan McGregor, Stanley Tucci, Audra McDonald, Gugu Mbatha - Raw, Ian McKellen, and Emma Thompson in supporting roles.
Principal photography began at Shepperton Studios in Surrey, United Kingdom on May 18, 2015, and ended on August 21. Beauty and the Beast premiered at Spencer House in London on February 23, 2017, and was released in the United States in standard, Disney Digital 3 - D, RealD 3D, IMAX and IMAX 3D formats, along with Dolby Cinema on March 17, 2017. The film received generally favorable reviews from critics, with many praising Watson and Stevens 's acting performances as well as the ensemble cast, faithfulness to the original animated film alongside elements from the Broadway musical, visual style, production merits, and musical score, though it received criticism for some of the character designs, inconsistent vocal performances, and its excessive similarity to the original. The film grossed over $1.2 billion worldwide, becoming the highest - grossing live - action musical film, and making it the second highest - grossing film of 2017, the 10th - highest - ever grossing film in North America and the 12th - highest - grossing film of all time. The film received four nominations at the 23rd Critics ' Choice Awards and two nominations at the 71st British Academy Film Awards. It also received Academy Award nominations for Best Production Design and Best Costume Design at the 90th Academy Awards.
In Rococo - era France, a beautiful enchantress disguised as an old beggar woman arrives at a castle during a ball and offers the host, a cruel and selfish prince, a rose in return for shelter from a storm. When he refuses, she reveals her identity. To punish the prince for his selfishness, the enchantress transforms him into a beast and his servants into household objects, then erases the castle, the prince and his servants from the memories of their loved ones. She casts a spell on the rose and warns the prince that the curse will only be broken if he learns to love another, and earn their love in return, before the last petal falls.
Some years later, in the small town of Villeneuve, Belle, the book - loving daughter of a music box maker and artist Maurice, dreams of adventure and brushes off advances from Gaston, an arrogant former soldier. On his way to a convention and lost in the forest, Maurice seeks refuge in the Beast 's castle, but the Beast imprisons him for stealing a rose from his garden as a gift to Belle. When Maurice 's horse returns without him, Belle ventures out in search for him, and finds him locked in the castle dungeon. The Beast agrees to let her take Maurice 's place.
Belle befriends the castle 's servants, who invite her to a spectacular dinner. When she wanders into the forbidden west wing and finds the rose, the Beast scares her into the woods. She is ambushed by a pack of wolves, but the Beast rescues her, and is injured in the process. As Belle nurses his wounds, a friendship develops between them. The Beast shows Belle a gift from the enchantress, a book that transports readers wherever they want. Belle uses the book to visit her childhood home in Paris, where she discovers a plague doctor mask and realizes that she and her father were forced to leave when her mother succumbed to the plague.
In Villeneuve, Gaston sees rescuing Belle as an opportunity to win her hand in marriage, and agrees to help Maurice. When Maurice learns of his ulterior motive and rejects him, Gaston abandons him to be eaten by the wolves. Maurice is rescued by the hermit Agathe, but when he tells the townsfolk of Gaston 's crime but is unable to provide solid evidence, Gaston convinces them to send Maurice to an insane asylum.
After sharing a romantic dance with the Beast, Belle discovers her father 's predicament using a magic mirror. The Beast releases her to save Maurice, giving her the mirror to remember him with. At Villeneuve, Belle reveals the Beast in the mirror to the townsfolk, proving her father 's sanity. Realizing that Belle loves the Beast, a jealous Gaston claims she has been charmed by dark magic, and has her thrown into the asylum carriage with her father. He rallies the villagers to follow him to the castle to slay the Beast before he curses the whole village. Maurice and Belle escape, and Belle rushes back to the castle.
During the battle, Gaston abandons his companion LeFou, who then sides with the servants to fend off the villagers. Gaston attacks the Beast in his tower, who is too depressed to fight back, but regains his spirit upon seeing Belle return. He overpowers Gaston, but spares his life before reuniting with Belle. However, Gaston fatally shoots the Beast from a bridge, but it collapses when the castle crumbles, and he falls to his death. The Beast dies as the last petal falls, and the servants become inanimate. As Belle tearfully professes her love to the Beast, Agathe reveals herself as the enchantress and undoes the curse, repairing the crumbling castle, and restoring the Beast 's and servants ' human forms and the villagers ' memories. The Prince and Belle host a ball for the kingdom, where they dance happily.
^ In the initial theatrical release, Mitchell was miscredited as Rudi Gooman in the cast, but listed under his real name in the soundtrack credits.
^ In the initial theatrical release, Turner is miscredited as Henry Garrett in the cast.
Stephen Merchant also appeared in the film as Monsieur Toilette, a servant who was turned into a toilet. This character was cut from the film, but is featured in the deleted scenes.
Previously, Disney had begun work on a film adaptation of the 1994 Broadway musical. However, in a 2011 interview, composer Alan Menken stated the planned film version of the Beauty and the Beast stage musical "was canned ''.
By April 2014, Walt Disney Pictures had already begun developing a new live - action version and remake of Beauty and the Beast after making other live - action fantasy films such as Alice in Wonderland, Maleficent, Cinderella and The Jungle Book. In June 2014, Bill Condon was signed to direct the film from a script by Evan Spiliotopoulos. Later in September of that same year, Stephen Chbosky (who had previously directed Watson in The Perks of Being a Wallflower) was hired to re-write the script.
Before Condon was hired to direct the film, Disney approached him with a proposal to remake the film in a more radical way as Universal Studios had remade Snow White and the Huntsman (2012). Condon later explained that "after Frozen opened, the studio saw that there was this big international audience for an old - school - musical approach. But initially, they said, ' We 're interested in a musical to a degree, but only half full of songs. ' My interest was taking that film and doing it in this new medium -- live - action -- as a full - on musical movie. So I backed out for a minute, and they came back and said, ' No, no, no, we get it, let 's pursue it that way. ' '' Walt Disney Pictures president of production Sean Bailey credited Walt Disney Studios chairman Alan F. Horn with the decision to make the film as a musical: "We worked on this for five or six years, and for 18 months to two years, Beauty was a serious dramatic project, and the scripts were written to reflect that. It was n't a musical at that time. But we just could n't get it to click and it was Alan Horn who championed the idea of owning the Disney of it all. We realized there was a competitive advantage in the songs. What is wrong with making adults feel like kids again? ''
In January 2015, Emma Watson announced that she would be starring as Belle, the female lead. She was the first choice of Walt Disney Studios chairman Alan F. Horn, as he had previously overseen Warner Bros. which released the eight Harry Potter films that co-starred Watson as Hermione Granger. Two months later, Luke Evans and Dan Stevens were revealed to be in talks to play Gaston and the Beast respectively, and Watson confirmed their casting the following day through tweets. The rest of the principal cast, including Josh Gad, Emma Thompson, Kevin Kline, Audra McDonald, Ian McKellen, Gugu Mbatha - Raw, Ewan McGregor and Stanley Tucci were announced between March and April to play LeFou, Mrs. Potts, Maurice, Madame de Garderobe, Cogsworth, Plumette, Lumière and Cadenza, respectively.
Susan Egan, who originated the role of Belle on Broadway, commented on the casting of Watson as "perfect ''. Paige O'Hara, who voiced Belle in the original animated film and its sequels, offered to help Watson with her singing lessons.
According to The Hollywood Reporter, Emma Watson was reportedly paid $3 million upfront, together with an agreement that her final take - home pay could rise as high as $15 million if the film generated gross box office income similar to Maleficent 's $759 million worldwide gross.
Principal photography on the film began at Shepperton Studios in Surrey, United Kingdom, on May 18, 2015. Filming with the principal actors concluded on August 21. Six days later, co-producer Jack Morrissey confirmed that the film had officially wrapped production.
The Beast was portrayed with a "more traditional motion capture puppeteering for the body and the physical orientation '', where actor Dan Stevens was "in a forty - pound gray suit on stilts for much of the film ''. The facial capture for the Beast was done separately in order to "communicate the subtleties of the human face '' and "(capture the) thought that occurs to him '' which gets "through (to) the eyes, which are the last human element in the Beast. '' The castle servants who are transformed into household objects were created with CGI animation.
Before the release of the film, Bill Condon refilmed one certain sequence in the "Days of the Sun '' number, due to confusion among test audiences caused by actress Harriet Jones, who looked similar to Hattie Morahan, who portrayed Agathe. In the original version of the scene, it was Jones 's character, the Prince 's mother, who sings the first verse of the song, with Rudi Goodman playing the young Prince and Henry Garrett playing his father; but in the reshot version of the scene, the singing part is given to the Prince (now played by Adam Mitchell). The King was also recast to Tom Turner, although Harriet Jones was still the Queen, albeit with dark hair. Both Goodman and Garrett 's names were mistakenly featured in the original theatrical release 's credits, but was later corrected in home releases.
When released in 1991, Beauty and the Beast, marked a turning point for Walt Disney Pictures by appealing to millions of fans with its Oscar - winning musical score by lyricist Howard Ashman and composer Alan Menken. In Bill Condon 's opinion, that original score was the key reason he agreed to direct a live - action version of the movie. "That score had more to reveal '', he says, "You look at the songs and there 's not a clunker in the group. In fact, Frank Rich described it as the best Broadway musical of 1991. The animated version was already darker and more modern than the previous Disney fairytales. Take that vision, put it into a new medium, make it a radical reinvention, something not just for the stage because it 's not just being literal, now other elements come into play. It 's not just having real actors do it ''.
Condon initially prepared on only drawing inspiration from the original film, but he also planned to include most of the songs composed by Alan Menken, Howard Ashman and Tim Rice from the Broadway musical, with the intention of making the film as a "straight - forward, live - action, large - budget movie musical ''. Menken returned to score the film 's music, which features songs from the original film by him and Howard Ashman, plus new material written by Menken and Tim Rice. Menken said the film will not include songs that were written for the Broadway musical and instead, created four new songs. However, an instrumental version of the song "Home '', which was written for the musical, is used during the scene where Belle first enters her room in the castle.
On January 19, 2017, it was confirmed by both Disney and Céline Dion -- singer of the original 1991 "Beauty and the Beast '' duet song, with singer Peabo Bryson -- that Dion would be performing one of the new original songs "How Does a Moment Last Forever '' to play over the end titles. She originally had doubts about whether or not to record the song due to the recent death of her husband and manager René Angélil, who had previously helped her secure the 1991 pop duet. While ultimately accepting the opportunity, she said: "(The) first Beauty and the Beast decision was made with my husband. Now I 'm making decisions on my own. It 's a little bit harder. I could n't say yes right away, because I felt like I was kind of cheating in a way ''. She eventually felt compelled to record the song because of the impact Beauty and the Beast has had on her career. According to Dion, "I was at the beginning of my career, it put me on the map, it put me where I am today ''. Also, Josh Groban was announced to be performing the new original song "Evermore '' on January 26, 2017.
The 2017 film features a remake of the 1991 original song recorded as a duet by Ariana Grande and John Legend. Grande and Legend 's updated version of the title song is faithful to the original, Grammy - winning duet, performed by Céline Dion and Peabo Bryson for the 1991 Disney film. Disney debuted the music video for Ariana Grande and John Legend 's interpretation of the title song on Freeform television network on March 5, 2017, and it has since been viewed over 100 million views on the Vevo video - hosting service.
Emma Thompson also performed a rendition of the title song, which was performed by Angela Lansbury in the original 1991 animated film.
On March 16, 2015, Disney announced the film would be released in 3D on March 17, 2017. The first official presentation of the film took place at Disney 's three - day D23 Expo in August 2015.
The world premiere of Beauty and the Beast took place at Spencer House in London, United Kingdom on February 23, 2017; and the film later premiered at the El Capitan Theatre in Hollywood, California, on March 2, 2017. The stream was broadcast onto YouTube.
A sing along version of the film released in over 1,200 US theaters nationwide on April 7, 2017. The United Kingdom received the same version on April 21, 2017.
The film was re-released in New York and Los Angeles for a one - week engagement starting December 1, 2017. The move is an awards push as awards season heats up.
Disney spent around $140 million to market the film worldwide. Following an announcement on May 22, 2016, Disney premiered the first official teaser trailer on Good Morning America the next day. In its first 24 hours, the teaser trailer reached 91.8 million views, which was the largest number ever seen for a trailer in that amount of time. This record has since been broken by Thor: Ragnarok, It and Avengers: Infinity War. The first official teaser poster was released on July 7, 2016. On November 2, 2016, Entertainment Weekly debuted the first official image on the cover of their magazine, along with nine new photos. One week later, Emma Watson and Disney debuted a new poster. On November 14, 2016, the first theatrical trailer was released, again on Good Morning America. This reached 127.6 million views in its first 24 hours, setting a new record for the most views in one day, beating Fifty Shades Darker; this record has since been broken by The Fate of the Furious. A TV spot with Watson singing was shown during the 74th Golden Globe Awards. Disney released the final trailer on January 30, 2017.
Beauty and the Beast was released on Blu - ray, DVD and Digital HD on June 6, 2017. The film debuted at No. 1 on the NPD VideoScan overall disc sales chart, with all other titles in the top 20, collectively, selling only 40 % as many units as Beauty and the Beast. The movie regained the top spot on the national home video sales charts during its third week of release. The movie became available on Netflix on September 19, 2017.
Beauty and the Beast grossed $504 million in the United States and Canada and $759.5 million in other countries for a worldwide gross of $1.263 billion. With a production budget of $160 million, it is the most expensive musical ever made, or the second-most expensive musical ever made if accounting for inflation; only Hello, Dolly! (1969) with a budget of $25 million ($165 million in 2016 dollars) cost more. In just ten days, it became the highest - grossing live - action musical of all time, beating the nine - year - old record held by Mamma Mia!. It is currently the second - biggest musical ever overall, behind Disney 's Frozen (2013). Worldwide, the film proved to be a global phenomenon, earning a total of $357 million over its four - day opening weekend from 56 markets. Critics said the film was playing like superhero movies amongst women. It was the second biggest March global opening, behind only Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice, the thirteenth - biggest worldwide opening ever and the seventh - biggest for Disney. This includes $21 million from IMAX plays on 1,026 screens, a new record for an IMAX PG title. It surpassed the entire lifetime total of the original film in just six days.
Beauty and the Beast was the 300th digitally remastered release in IMAX company 's history, which began with the re-release of Apollo 13 in 2002. Its robust global debut helped push the company past $6 billion for the first time, and led to analysts believing that the film had a shot of passing $1 billion worldwide from theatrical earnings. On April 12, it passed the $1 billion threshold, becoming the first film of 2017, the fourteenth Disney film, and the twenty - ninth film overall to pass the mark. It became the first film since Rogue One (also a Disney property) in December 2016 to make over a billion dollars, and did so on its twenty - ninth day of release. It is currently the 2nd highest - grossing film of 2017 (behind Star Wars: The Last Jedi), the highest - grossing March release, the highest - grossing remake of all - time, and the sixth - biggest Disney film. Even after inflation adjusted, it is still ahead of the $425 million gross ($760 million in 2017 dollars) of the original film. Deadline Hollywood calculated the net profit of the film to be $414.7 million, when factoring together all expenses and revenues, making it the second most profitable release of 2017.
In the United States and Canada, Beauty and the Beast topped Fandango 's pre-sales and became the fastest - selling family film in the company 's history, topping the studio 's own animated film Finding Dory released the previous year. Early tracking had the film grossing around $100 million in its opening weekend, with some publications predicting it could reach $130 million. By the time the film 's release was 10 days away, analysts raised projections to as high as $150 million. It earned $16.3 million from Thursday previews night, marking the biggest of 2017 (breaking Logan 's record), the biggest ever for a Disney live - action film (breaking Maleficent 's record), the second biggest ever for both a G or PG - rated film (behind the sixth Harry Potter film Harry Potter and the Half - Blood Prince which also starred Watson), and the third biggest ever in the month of March (behind Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice and The Hunger Games). An estimated 41 % of the gross came from IMAX, 3D and premium large format screenings which began at 6 pm, while the rest -- 59 % -- came from regular 2D shows which began at 7 p.m. The numbers were considered more impressive given that the film played during a school week.
On its opening day, the film made $63.8 million from 4,210 theaters across 9,200 screens, marking the third biggest in the month of March, trailing behind Batman v Superman ($81.5 million) and The Hunger Games ($67 million). It was also the biggest opening day ever for a film that was n't PG - 13, displacing the $58 million opening Wednesday of Harry Potter and the Half - Blood Prince. Its opening day alone (which includes Thursday 's previews) almost matched the entire opening weekend of previous Disney live - action films, Maleficent ($69.4 million) and Cinderella ($67.9 million). Unlike all previous four Disney live - action films witnessing a hike on their second day, Saturday, Beauty and the Beast actually fell 2 %, but nevertheless, the dip was paltry, and the grosses are so much bigger compared to the other titles. Earning a total of $174.8 million on its opening weekend, it defied all expectations and went on to set numerous notable records. This includes the biggest opening of the year as well as the biggest for the month of March and pre-summer / spring opening, beating Batman v Superman, the biggest start ever for a PG title (also for a family film), surpassing Finding Dory, the biggest debut of all time for a female - fueled film, ahead of The Hunger Games: Catching Fire, the biggest for a Disney live - action adaptation, ahead of Alice in Wonderland and the biggest musical debut ever, supplanting Pitch Perfect 2. Furthermore, it is also Watson 's highest - opening, beating Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows -- Part 2 same with Emma Thompson, director Bill Condon 's biggest debut ever ahead of The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn -- Part 2 and the biggest outside of summer, save for Star Wars: The Force Awakens, not accounting for inflation.
It became the forty - third film to debut with over $100 million and the fifteenth film to open above $150 million. Its three - day opening alone surpassed the entire original North American run of the first film ($146 million; before the 3D re-release), instantly becoming the second - biggest film of the year, behind Logan ($184 million), and also the second - highest - grossing musical, behind Grease 's $188 million cumulative gross in 1978. Seventy percent of the total ticket sales came from 2D showings signifying that people who do n't go to theaters frequently came out in bulk to watch the film. About 26 % of the remaining tickets were for 3D. IMAX accounted for 7 % ($12.5 million) of the total weekend 's gross, setting a new record for a PG title, ahead of Alice in Wonderland ($12.1 million) while PLF repped 11 % of the box office. Seventy percent of the film 's opening day demographic was female, dropping to 60 % through the weekend. According polling service PostTrak, about 84 percent of American parents who saw the film on its opening day said they would "definitely '' recommend it for families. The film 's opening was credited to positive word of mouth from audiences, good reviews from critics, effective marketing which sold the title not just as a family film but also as a romantic drama, the cast 's star power (especially Emma Watson), lack of competition, being the first family film since The Lego Batman Movie a month earlier, nostalgia, and the success and ubiquity of the first film and Disney 's brand.
On Monday, its fourth day of release, the film fell precipitously by 72 % earning $13.5 million. The steep fall was due to a limited marketplace where only 11 % K - 12 and 15 % colleges were off per ComScore. Nevertheless, it is the second - biggest March Monday, behind Batman v Superman ($15 million). This was followed by the biggest March and pre-summer Tuesday with $17.8 million, a 32 % increase from its previous day. The same day, the film passed $200 million in ticket sales. It earned $228.6 million in the first week of release, the sixth - biggest seven - day gross of all time. In its second weekend, the film continued to maintain the top positioning and fell gradually by 48 % earning another $90.4 million to register the fourth - biggest second weekend of all time, and the third - biggest for Disney. In terms of percentage drop, its 48 % decline is the third - smallest drop for any film opening above $125 million (behind Finding Dory and The Force Awakens). The hold was notable considering how the film was able to fend off three new wide releases: Power Rangers, Life, and CHiPs. As a result, it passed the $300 million threshold becoming the first film of 2017 the pass said mark. The film grossed $45.4 million in its third weekend, finally being overtaken for the top spot by newcomer The Boss Baby ($50.2 million). On April 4, 2017, its nineteenth day of release, it passed the $400 million threshold becoming the first film of 2017 to do so. By its fourth weekend, the film began was playing in 3,969 cinemas, a fall of 241 theaters from its previous weekend. Of those, approximately 1,200 cinemas were sing - along versions. It earned $26.3 million (- 48 %) and retained second place. By comparison, previous Disney films Moana (− 8 %) and Frozen (− 2 %) both witnessed mild percentage declines the weekend their sing - alone versions were released. Its seventh weekend of release was in contemporaneous with another Emma Watson - starring new film The Circle. That weekend, The Circle was number four, while Beauty and the Beast was at number six. By May 28, the film had earned over $500 million in ticket sales becoming the first film of 2017 (until it was later surpassed by The Last Jedi), the third female - fueled film (after The Force Awakens and Rogue One: A Star Wars Story followed by Wonder Woman and The Last Jedi) and the eighth overall film in cinematic history to pass the mark.
It has already become the biggest March release, dethroning The Hunger Games (2012), the biggest musical film (both animated and live - action), as well as the biggest film of 2017 (alongside The Last Jedi).
Outside the US and Canada, the film began playing on Thursday, March 16, 2017. Through Sunday, March 19, it had a total international opening of $182.3 million from 55 markets, 44 of which were major territories, far exceeding initial estimations of $100 million and opened at No. 1 in virtually all markets except Vietnam, Turkey, and India. Its launch is the second - biggest for the month of March, behind Batman v Superman ($256.5 million). In IMAX, it recorded the biggest debut for a PG title (although it carried varying certificate amongst different markets) with $8.5 million from 649 screens, the second - biggest for a PG title behind The Jungle Book. In its second weekend, it fell just by 35 % earning another $120.6 million and maintaining its first position hold. It added major markets like France and Australia. It topped the international box office for three consecutive weekends before finally being dethroned by Ghost in the Shell and The Boss Baby in its fourth weekend. Despite the fall, the film helped Disney push past the $1 billion thresold internationally for the first time in 2017.
It scored the biggest opening day of the year in Hong Kong and the Philippines, the biggest March Thursday in Italy ($1 million, also the biggest Disney Thursday debut), the biggest March opening day in Austria, and the second - biggest in Germany ($1.1 million), Disney 's biggest March in Denmark, the biggest Disney live - action debut in China ($12.6 million), the UK ($6.2 million), Mexico ($2.4 million) and Brazil ($1.8 million) and the third - biggest in South Korea with $1.2 million, behind only Pirates of the Caribbean: At World 's End and Pirates of the Caribbean: On Stranger Tides. In terms of opening weekend, the largest debut came from China ($44.8 million), followed by the UK ($24.3 million), Korea ($11.8 million), Mexico ($11.8 million), Australia ($11.1 million), Brazil ($11 million), Germany ($10.7 million), France ($8.4 million), Italy ($7.6 million), Philippines ($6.3 million), Russia ($6 million) and Spain ($5.8 million).
In the United Kingdom and Ireland, the film recorded the biggest opening ever for a PG - rated film, the biggest Disney live - action opening of all time, the biggest March opening weekend, the biggest opening for a musical (ahead of 2012 's Les Misérables), the number one opening of 2017 to date and the fifth - biggest - ever overall with £ 19.7 million ($24.5 million) from 639 theatres and almost twice that of The Jungle Book (£ 9.9 million). This included the second - biggest Saturday ever (£ 7.9 million), only behind Star Wars: The Force Awakens. It witnessed a decline in its second weekend, earning £ 12.33 million ($15.4 million). Though the film was falling at a faster rate than The Jungle Book, it had already surpassed the said film and its second weekend is the third - biggest ever (behind the two James Bond films Skyfall (2012) and Spectre). In India, despite facing heavy competitions from four new Hindi releases, two Tamils films and a Malayalam and a Punjabi release, the film managed to take an occupancy of 15 % on its opening day, an impressive feat despite tremendous competitions. It earned around ₹ 1.5 crore (US $230,000) nett on its opening day from an estimated 600 screens which is more than the three Hindi releases -- Machine, Trapped, and Aa Gaya Hero -- combined. Disney reported a total of ₹ 9.26 crore (US $1.4 million) gross for its opening weekend there. It was ahead of all new releases and second overall behind Bollywood film Badrinath Ki Dulhania. In Russia, despite receiving a restrictive 16 rating, the film managed to deliver a very successful opening with $6 million.
In China, expectations were high for the film. The release date was announced on January 24, giving Disney and local distributor China Film Group Corporation ample time -- around two months -- to market the film nationwide. The release date was strategically chosen to coincide with White Day. Preliminary reports suggested that it could open to $40 -- 60 million in its opening weekend. Largely driven by young women, its opening day pre-sales outpaced that of The Jungle Book. The original film was, however, never widely popular in the country. Although China has occasionally blocked gay - themed content from streaming video services, in this case, Chinese censors decided to leave the gay scene intact. According to local box office tracker Ent Group, the film grossed an estimated $12.1 million on its opening day (Friday), representing 70 % of the total receipts. Including previews, it made a total of $14.5 million from 100,000 screenings, which is 43 % of all screenings in the country. It climbed to $18.5 million on Saturday (102,700 showings) for a three - day total of $42.6 million, securing 60 % of the total marketplace. Disney on the other hand reported a different figure of $44.8 million. Either ways, it recorded the second - biggest opening for a Disney live - action film, with $3.4 million coming from 386 IMAX screens. Japan -- a huge Disney market -- served as the film 's final market and opened there on April 21. It debuted with a better - than - expected $12.5 million on its opening weekend helping the film push past the $1.1 billion threshold. An estimated $1.1 million came from IMAX screenings, the fourth - biggest ever in the country. The two - day gross was $9.7 million, outstripping Frozen 's previous record of $9.5 million. Due to positive reviews, good word - of - mouth and benefitting from the Golden Week, the film saw a 9 % increase on its second weekend. The hold was strong enough to fend off newcomer The Fate of the Furious from securing the top spot. The total there is now over $98 million after seven weekends and is the biggest film release of the year and, overall, the eleventh - biggest of all time. It topped the box office there for eight consecutive weekends.
The only markets where the film did not top the weekend charts were Vietnam (behind Kong: Skull Island), Turkey (with two local movies and Logan ahead) and India (where Badrinath Ki Dulhania retained No. 1). It topped the box office for four straight weekends in Germany, Korea, Austria, Finland, Poland, Portugal, Brazil, Venezuela, Bolivia, Switzerland and the UK (exclusive of previews). In the Philippines, it emerged as the most successful commercial film of all time -- both local and foreign -- with over $13.5 million. In just five weeks, the film became one of the top 10 highest - grossing film of all time in the United Kingdom and Ireland, ahead of all but one Harry Potter film (Deathly Hallows -- Part 2) and all three The Lord of the Rings movies (which also starred Ian McKellen). It is currently the eighth - biggest grosser with £ 70.1 million ($90 million), overtaking Mamma Mia! to become the biggest musical production ever there. The biggest international earning markets following the UK are Japan ($108 million), China ($85.8 million), Brazil ($41.5 million), Korea ($37.5 million), and Australia ($35 million). In Europe alone, the cumulative total is $267 million to become the second - highest - grossing film in the past year (behind Rogue One: A Star Wars Story).
Beauty and the Beast received generally positive reviews, with praise for its ensemble cast, visuals, production merits, musical score, songs, and faithfulness to the original film with a few elements of the Broadway musical version, while the designs of the Beast and the servants ' household object forms received mixed reviews. On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 71 % based on 318 reviews, with an average rating of 6.7 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "With an enchanting cast, beautifully crafted songs, and a painterly eye for detail, Beauty and the Beast offers a faithful yet fresh retelling that honors its beloved source material. '' On Metacritic, the film has a score of 65 out of 100, based on 47 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. In CinemaScore polls, audiences gave the film an average grade of "A '' on an A+ to F scale.
Leslie Felperin of The Hollywood Reporter wrote: "It 's a Michelin - triple - starred master class in patisserie skills that transforms the cinematic equivalent of a sugar rush into a kind of crystal - meth - like narcotic high that lasts about two hours. '' Felperin also praised the performances of Watson and Kline as well the special effects, costume designs and the sets while commended the inclusion of Gad 's character of LeFou as the first LGBT character in Disney. Owen Gleiberman of Variety, in his positive review of the film, wrote: "It 's a lovingly crafted movie, and in many ways a good one, but before that it 's an enraptured piece of old - is - new nostalgia. '' Gleiberman compared Steven 's character of the Beast to a royal version of the titular character in The Elephant Man and the 1946 version of the Beast in Jean Cocteau 's original adaptation. A.O. Scott of The New York Times praised the performances of both Watson and Stevens, and wrote: "It looks good, moves gracefully and leaves a clean and invigorating aftertaste. I almost did n't recognize the flavor: I think the name for it is joy. ''
Likewise, The Washington Post 's Ann Hornaday complimented Watson 's performance, describing it as "alert and solemn '' while noting her singing ability as "serviceable enough to get the job done ''. Richard Roeper of Chicago Sun - Times awarded the film three and a half stars, lauded the performances of Watson and Thompson which he drew a comparison to Paige O'Hara 's and Angela Lansbury 's performances in the 1991 animated version while appreciating the performances of the other cast and also pointing out on its usage of the combination of motion capture and CGI technology as a big advantage which he stated: "Almost overwhelmingly lavish, beautifully staged and performed with exquisite timing and grace by the outstanding cast ''. Mike Ryan of Uproxx praised the cast, production design and the new songs while noting the film does n't try anything different, saying: "There 's certainly nothing that new about this version of Beauty and the Beast (well, except it is n't a cartoon anymore), but it 's a good recreation of a classic animated film that should leave most die - hards satisfied. '' In her A - review, Nancy Churnin of The Dallas Morning News praised the film 's emotional and thematic depth, remarking: "There 's an emotional authenticity in director Bill Condon 's live - action Beauty and the Beast film that helps you rediscover Disney 's beloved 1991 animated film and 1994 stage show in fresh, stirring ways. '' James Berardinelli of ReelViews described the 2017 version as "enthralling ''.
Brian Truitt of USA Today commended the performances of Evans, Gad, McGregor and Thompson alongside Condon 's affinity with musicals, the production design, visual effects featured in some of the song numbers including new songs made by the composers Alan Menken and Tim Rice, particularly Evermore which he described the new song with a potential for an Academy Award for Best Original Song. Peter Travers of Rolling Stone rated the film three out of four stars which he deemed it as an "exhilarating gift '' while he remarked that "Beauty and the Beast does justice to Disney 's animated classic, even if some of the magic is M.I.A (Missing in Action) ''. Stephanie Zacharek of Time magazine gave a positive review with a description as "Wild, Vivid and Crazy - Beautiful '' as she wrote "Nearly everything about Beauty and the Beast is larger than life, to the point that watching it can be a little overwhelming. '' and added that "it 's loaded with feeling, almost like a brash interpretive dance expressing the passion and elation little girls (and some boys, too) must have felt upon seeing the earlier version. '' The San Francisco Chronicle 's Mick LaSalle struck an affirmative tone, calling it one of the joys of 2017, stating that "Beauty and the Beast creates an air of enchantment from its first moments, one that lingers and builds and takes on qualities of warmth and generosity as it goes along '' while referring the film as "beautiful '' and also praised the film for its emotional and psychological tone as well Steven 's motion capture performance.
Tim Robey of The Daily Telegraph gave the film four stars out of five and wrote that "It dazzles on this chocolate box of a picture that feels almost greedy yet to make this film work, down to a sugar - rush finale to grasp the nettle and make an out - an - out, bells - and - whistles musical '' while he praised the performances of Watson, McKellen, Thompson, McGregor, Evans and Gad. Mark Hughes of Forbes also similarly praised the film which he wrote that "it could revive the story in a faithful but entirely new and unique way elevating the material beyond expectations, establishing itself as a cinematic equal to the original '' and also complimented the importance of undertaking a renowned yet problematic masterpiece as well addressing changes in the elements of the story while acknowledging the film 's effectiveness in resonating to the audiences. Stephen Whitty of the New York Daily News called it "this year 's best new old musical '' and "the most magical thing of all '' while describing Watson 's performance of Belle as "breakthrough ''.
Several critics regarded the film as inferior to its 1991 animated predecessor. David Sims of The Atlantic wrote that the 2017 film "feels particularly egregious, in part, because it 's so slavishly devoted to the original; every time it falls short of its predecessor (which is quite often), it 's hard not to notice ''. Michael Phillips of the Chicago Tribune said that the 2017 film "takes our knowledge and our interest in the material for granted. It zips from one number to another, throwing a ton of frenetically edited eye candy at the screen, charmlessly. '' Phillips wrote that the film featured some "less conspicuously talented '' performers who are "stuck doing karaoke, or motion - capture work of middling quality '', though he praised Kline 's performance as the "best, sweetest thing in the movie; he brings a sense of calm, droll authority ''. Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian praised Watson 's performance and wrote that the film was "lit in that fascinatingly artificial honey - glow light, and it runs smoothly on rails -- the kind of rails that bring in and out the stage sets for the lucrative Broadway touring version. '' In the same newspaper, Wendy Ide criticized the film as "ornate to the point of desperation '' in its attempt to emulate the animated film.
Chris Nashawaty of Entertainment Weekly gave the film a B -, writing that while the film looks "exceptionally great '', he said the new songs were "not transporting ''. He felt the film needed more life and depth, but praised Watson 's and Steven 's performances as the "film 's stronger elements ''. Dana Schwartz of The New York Observer felt that some of the characters, such as Gaston and the Beast, had been watered down from the 1991 film, and that the additional backstory elements failed to "advance the plot or theme in any meaningful way '' while adding considerable bloat. Schwartz considered the singing of the cast to be adequate but felt that their voices should have been dubbed over, especially for the complex songs.
Controversy erupted after director Bill Condon said there was a "gay moment '' in the film, when LeFou briefly waltzes with Stanley, one of Gaston 's friends. Afterwards in an interview with Vulture.com, Condon stated, "Can I just say, I 'm sort of sick of this. Because you 've seen the movie -- it 's such a tiny thing, and it 's been overblown. '' Condon also added that Beauty and the Beast features much more diversity than just the highly talked - about LeFou: "That was so important. We have interracial couples -- this is a celebration of everybody 's individuality, and that 's what 's exciting about it. '' GLAAD president and CEO Sarah Kate Ellis praised the move stating, "It is a small moment in the film, but it is a huge leap forward for the film industry. ''
In Russia, Vitaly Milonov agitated the culture minister for banning the film, but instead it was given a 16 + rating (children under the age of 16 can only be admitted to see it in theaters with accompanying adults). Additionally, a theater in Henagar, Alabama did not screen the film because of the subplot. In Malaysia, the Film Censorship Board insisted the "gay moment '' scene be cut, prompting an indefinite postponement of its release by Disney, followed by their decision to withdraw it completely if it could not be released uncensored. The studio moved the release date to March 30, to allow more time for Malaysia 's censor board to make a decision on whether or not to release the film without changes. The distributors and producers then submitted an appeal to the Film Appeal Committee of Malaysia, which allowed the film to be released without any cuts and a P13 rating on the grounds that the "gay element '' was minor and did not affect the positive elements featured in the film. In Kuwait, the movie was withdrawn from cinemas by National Cinema Company which owns most of the cinemas in the country. A board member of the company stated that the Ministry of Information 's censorship department had requested it to stop its screening and edit it for things deemed offensive by it.
The film also received criticism over its portrayal of LeFou, as many felt that it relied on stereotypes and was used as a way of teasing LGBT+ viewers without providing adequate representation. LeFou 's status as a sidekick to the main villain brought about criticism over Disney 's queercoding of villains in the past, and his infatuation with Gaston was seen as relying on a stereotype of gay men being predatory towards straight men. Furthermore, the only gay interaction LeFou has is a three - second clip of him dancing with another man at the end of the film. Many saw this as Disney cheating its LGBT+ audiences.
Disney has sought to portray Belle as an empowered young woman, but a debate questioning whether it is possible for a captor to fall in love with their prisoner, and whether this is a problematic theme, has resulted. As was the case with the original animated film, one argument is that Belle suffers from Stockholm syndrome (a condition that causes hostages to develop a psychological alliance with their captors as a survival strategy during captivity). Emma Watson studied whether Belle is trapped in an abusive relationship with the Beast before signing on and concluded that she does not think the criticism fits this version of the folk tale. Watson described Stockholm Syndrome as "where a prisoner will take on the characteristics of and fall in love with the captor. Belle actively argues and disagrees with (Beast) constantly. She has none of the characteristics of someone with Stockholm Syndrome because she keeps her independence, she keeps that freedom of thought '', also adding that Belle defiantly "gives as good as she gets '' before forming a friendship and romance with the Beast.
Psychiatrist Frank Ochberg, who coined the term "Stockholm syndrome '', said he does not think Belle exhibits the trauma symptoms of prisoners suffering from the syndrome because she does not go through a period of feeling that she is going to die. Some therapists, while acknowledging that the pairing 's relationship does not meet the clinical definition of Stockholm syndrome, argue that the relationship depicted is dysfunctional and abusive and does not model healthy romantic relationships for young viewers. Constance Grady of Vox writes that Jeanne - Marie Leprince de Beaumont 's Beauty and the Beast was a fairy tale originally written to prepare young girls in 18th - century France for arranged marriages, and that the power disparity is amplified in the Disney version. Anna Menta of Elite Daily argued that the Beast does not apologize to Belle for imprisoning, hurting, or manipulating her, and his treatment of Belle is not painted as wrong.
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when did the north and south korea war start | Korean War - Wikipedia
Military stalemate
United Nations:
Total: 178,405 dead and 32,925 missing Total wounded: 566,434
Total: 398,000 -- 750,000 + dead and 145,000 + missing Total wounded: 686,500 -- 789,000
The Korean War (in South Korean Hangul: 한국 전쟁; Hanja: 韓國 戰爭; RR: Hanguk Jeonjaeng, "Korean War ''; in North Korean Chosŏn'gŭl: 조국 해방 전쟁; Hancha: 祖國 解放 戰爭; MR: Choguk haebang chǒnjaeng, "Fatherland: Liberation War ''; 25 June 1950 -- 27 July 1953) was a war between North Korea (with the support of China and the Soviet Union) and South Korea (with the principal support of the United States). The war began on 25 June 1950 when North Korea invaded South Korea following a series of clashes along the border. The United Nations, with the United States as the principal force, came to the aid of South Korea. China came to the aid of North Korea, and the Soviet Union also gave some assistance to the North.
As a product of the Cold War between the Soviet Union and the United States, Korea was split into two regions with separate governments. Both claimed to be the legitimate government of all of Korea, and neither accepted the border as permanent. The conflict escalated into open warfare when North Korean forces -- supported by the Soviet Union and China -- moved into the south on 25 June 1950. The United Nations Security Council authorized the formation and dispatch of UN forces to Korea to repel what was recognized as a North Korean invasion. Twenty - one countries of the United Nations eventually contributed to the UN force, with the United States providing around 90 % of the military personnel.
After the first two months of war, South Korean and U.S. forces rapidly dispatched to Korea were on the point of defeat, forced back to a small area in the south known as the Pusan Perimeter. In September 1950, an amphibious UN counter-offensive was launched at Incheon, and cut off many North Korean troops. Those who escaped envelopment and capture were forced back north. UN forces rapidly approached the Yalu River -- the border with China -- but in October 1950, mass Chinese forces crossed the Yalu and entered the war. The surprise Chinese intervention triggered a retreat of UN forces which continued until mid-1951.
After these reversals of fortune, which saw Seoul change hands four times, the last two years of fighting became a war of attrition, with the front line close to the 38th parallel. The war in the air, however, was never a stalemate. North Korea was subject to a massive bombing campaign. Jet fighters confronted each other in air - to - air combat for the first time in history, and Soviet pilots covertly flew in defense of their communist allies.
The fighting ended on 27 July 1953, when an armistice was signed. The agreement created the Korean Demilitarized Zone to separate North and South Korea, and allowed the return of prisoners. However, no peace treaty has been signed, and according to some sources the two Koreas are technically still at war, engaged in a frozen conflict. In April 2018, the leaders of North and South Korea met at the demilitarized zone and agreed to sign a treaty by the end of the year to formally end the Korean War.
As a war undeclared by all participants, the conflict helped bring the term "police action '' into common use. It also led to the permanent alteration of the balance of power within the United Nations, where Resolution 377 -- passed in 1950 to allow a bypassing of the Security Council if that body could not reach an agreement -- led to the General Assembly displacing the Security Council as the primary organ of the UN.
In South Korea, the war is usually referred to as "625 '' or the "6 -- 2 -- 5 Upheaval '' (6.25 동란 (動亂), yook - i-o dongnan), reflecting the date of its commencement on 25 June.
In North Korea, the war is officially referred to as the "Fatherland Liberation War '' (Choguk haebang chǒnjaeng) or alternatively the "Chosǒn (Korean) War '' (조선 전쟁, Chosǒn chǒnjaeng).
In China, the war is officially called the "War to Resist America and Aid Korea '' (simplified Chinese: 抗美援朝 战争; traditional Chinese: 抗美援朝 戰爭; pinyin: Kàngměi Yuáncháo Zhànzhēng), although the term "Chaoxian (Korean) War '' (simplified Chinese: 朝鲜 战争; traditional Chinese: 朝鮮 戰爭; pinyin: Cháoxiǎn Zhànzhēng) is also used in unofficial contexts, along with the term "Han (Korean) War '' (simplified Chinese: 韩 战; traditional Chinese: 韓 戰; pinyin: Hán Zhàn) more commonly used in regions such as Hong Kong and Macau.
In the U.S., the war was initially described by President Harry S. Truman as a "police action '' as the United States never formally declared war on its opponents and the operation was conducted under the auspices of the United Nations. It has been referred to in the English - speaking world as "The Forgotten War '' or "The Unknown War '' because of the lack of public attention it received both during and after the war, and in relation to the global scale of World War II, which preceded it, and the subsequent angst of the Vietnam War, which succeeded it.
Imperial Japan destroyed the influence of China over Korea in the First Sino - Japanese War (1894 -- 95), ushering in the short - lived Korean Empire. A decade later, after defeating Imperial Russia in the Russo - Japanese War (1904 -- 05), Japan made Korea its protectorate with the Eulsa Treaty in 1905, then annexed it with the Japan -- Korea Annexation Treaty in 1910.
Many Korean nationalists fled the country. A Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea was founded in 1919 in Nationalist China. It failed to achieve international recognition, failed to unite nationalist groups, and had a fractious relationship with its U.S. - based founding president, Syngman Rhee. From 1919 to 1925 and beyond, Korean communists led internal and external warfare against the Japanese.
In China, the Nationalist National Revolutionary Army and the communist People 's Liberation Army helped organize Korean refugees against the Japanese military, which had also occupied parts of China. The Nationalist - backed Koreans, led by Yi Pom - Sok, fought in the Burma Campaign (December 1941 -- August 1945). The communists, led by Kim Il - sung among others, fought the Japanese in Korea and Manchuria.
At the Cairo Conference in November 1943, China, the United Kingdom, and the United States all decided that "in due course Korea shall become free and independent ''.
At the Tehran Conference in November 1943 and the Yalta Conference in February 1945, the Soviet Union promised to join its allies in the Pacific War within three months of the victory in Europe. Accordingly, it declared war on Japan on 9 August 1945, three days after the USA dropped the bomb on Hiroshima. By 10 August, the Red Army had begun to occupy the northern part of the Korean peninsula.
On the night of 10 August in Washington, U.S. colonels Dean Rusk and Charles H. Bonesteel III were tasked with dividing the Korean Peninsula into Soviet and U.S. occupation zones and proposed the 38th parallel. This was incorporated into the U.S. General Order No. 1 which responded to the Japanese surrender on 15 August. Explaining the choice of the 38th parallel, Rusk observed, "even though it was further north than could be realistically reached by U.S. forces, in the event of Soviet disagreement... we felt it important to include the capital of Korea in the area of responsibility of American troops ''. He noted that he was "faced with the scarcity of US forces immediately available, and time and space factors, which would make it difficult to reach very far north, before Soviet troops could enter the area ''. As Rusk 's comments indicate, the U.S. doubted whether the Soviet government would agree to this. Stalin, however, maintained his wartime policy of co-operation, and on 16 August the Red Army halted at the 38th parallel for three weeks to await the arrival of U.S. forces in the south.
On 8 September 1945, U.S. Lieutenant General John R. Hodge arrived in Incheon to accept the Japanese surrender south of the 38th parallel. Appointed as military governor, Hodge directly controlled South Korea as head of the United States Army Military Government in Korea (USAMGIK 1945 -- 48). He attempted to establish control by restoring Japanese colonial administrators to power, but in the face of Korean protests quickly reversed this decision. The USAMGIK refused to recognize the provisional government of the short - lived People 's Republic of Korea (PRK) due to its suspected Communist sympathies.
In December 1945, Korea was administered by a U.S. - Soviet Union Joint Commission, as agreed at the Moscow Conference, with the aim of granting independence after a five - year trusteeship. The idea was not popular among Koreans and riots broke out. To contain them, the USAMGIK banned strikes on 8 December 1945 and outlawed the PRK Revolutionary Government and the PRK People 's Committees on 12 December 1945. Following further large - scale civilian unrest, the USAMGIK declared martial law.
Citing the inability of the Joint Commission to make progress, the U.S. government decided to hold an election under United Nations auspices with the aim of creating an independent Korea. The Soviet authorities and the Korean Communists refused to co-operate on the grounds it would not be fair, and many South Korean politicians boycotted it. A general election was held in the South on 10 May 1948. North Korea held parliamentary elections three months later on 25 August.
The resultant South Korean government promulgated a national political constitution on 17 July 1948, and elected Syngman Rhee as president on 20 July 1948. The Republic of Korea (South Korea) was established on 15 August 1948. In the Soviet Korean Zone of Occupation, the Soviet Union established a communist government led by Kim Il - sung.
The Soviet Union withdrew as agreed from Korea in 1948, and U.S. troops withdrew in 1949.
With the end of the war with Japan, the Chinese Civil War resumed in earnest between the Communists and Nationalists. While the Communists were struggling for supremacy in Manchuria, they were supported by the North Korean government with matériel and manpower. According to Chinese sources, the North Koreans donated 2,000 railway cars worth of supplies while thousands of Koreans served in the Chinese People 's Liberation Army (PLA) during the war. North Korea also provided the Chinese Communists in Manchuria with a safe refuge for non-combatants and communications with the rest of China.
The North Korean contributions to the Chinese Communist victory were not forgotten after the creation of the People 's Republic of China in 1949. As a token of gratitude, between 50,000 and 70,000 Korean veterans that served in the PLA were sent back along with their weapons, and they later played a significant role in the initial invasion of South Korea. China promised to support the North Koreans in the event of a war against South Korea.
After the formation of the People 's Republic of China in 1949, the Chinese government named the Western nations, led by the United States, as the biggest threat to its national security. Basing this judgment on China 's century of humiliation beginning in the early 19th century, U.S. support for the Nationalists during the Chinese Civil War, and the ideological struggles between revolutionaries and reactionaries, the Chinese leadership believed that China would become a critical battleground in the United States ' crusade against Communism. As a countermeasure and to elevate China 's standing among the worldwide Communist movements, the Chinese leadership adopted a foreign policy that actively promoted Communist revolutions throughout territories on China 's periphery.
By 1949, South Korean forces had reduced the active number of communist guerrillas in the South from 5,000 to 1,000. However, Kim Il - sung believed that the guerrillas weakened the South Korean military and that a North Korean invasion would be welcomed by much of the South Korean population. Kim began seeking Stalin 's support for an invasion in March 1949, traveling to Moscow to attempt to persuade him.
Serious border clashes between South and North occurred on 4 August 1949, when thousands of North Korean troops attacked South Korean troops occupying territory north of the 38th parallel. The 2nd and 18th infantry regiments of ROKA repulsed initial attacks in Kuksa - bong (above the 38th parallel) and Ch'ungmu, and at the end of the clashes ROKA troops were "completely routed ''.
Stalin initially did not think the time was right for a war in Korea. Chinese Communist forces were still embroiled in the Chinese Civil War, while U.S. forces remained stationed in South Korea. By spring 1950, he believed that the strategic situation had changed: Mao 's Communist forces had secured final victory in China, U.S. forces had withdrawn from Korea, and the Soviets detonated their first nuclear bomb, breaking the U.S. atomic monopoly. As the U.S. had not directly intervened to stop the communist victory in China, Stalin calculated that they would be even less willing to fight in Korea, which had much less strategic significance. The Soviets had also cracked the codes used by the U.S. to communicate with their embassy in Moscow, and reading these dispatches convinced Stalin that Korea did not have the importance to the US that would warrant a nuclear confrontation. Stalin began a more aggressive strategy in Asia based on these developments, including promising economic and military aid to China through the Sino - Soviet Treaty of Friendship, Alliance, and Mutual Assistance.
In April 1950, Stalin gave Kim permission to invade the South under the condition that Mao would agree to send reinforcements if needed. Stalin made it clear that Soviet forces would not openly engage in combat, to avoid a direct war with the United States. Kim met with Mao in May 1950. Mao was concerned the U.S. would intervene but agreed to support the North Korean invasion. China desperately needed the economic and military aid promised by the Soviets. However, Mao sent more ethnic Korean PLA veterans to Korea and promised to move an army closer to the Korean border. Once Mao 's commitment was secured, preparations for war accelerated.
Soviet generals with extensive combat experience from the Second World War were sent to North Korea as the Soviet Advisory Group. These generals completed the plans for the attack by May. The original plans called for a skirmish to be initiated in the Ongjin Peninsula on the west coast of Korea. The North Koreans would then launch a counterattack that would capture Seoul and encircle and destroy the South Korean army. The final stage would involve destroying South Korean government remnants, capturing the rest of South Korea, including the ports.
On 7 June 1950, Kim Il - sung called for a Korea - wide election on 5 -- 8 August 1950 and a consultative conference in Haeju on 15 -- 17 June 1950. On 11 June, the North sent three diplomats to the South as a peace overture that Rhee rejected outright. On 21 June, Kim Il - Sung revised his war plan to involve a general attack across the 38th parallel, rather than a limited operation in the Ongjin peninsula. Kim was concerned that South Korean agents learned about the plans and South Korean forces were strengthening their defenses. Stalin agreed to this change of plan.
While these preparations were underway in the North, there were frequent clashes along the 38th parallel, especially at Kaesong and Ongjin, many initiated by the South. The Republic of Korea Army (ROK Army) was being trained by the U.S. Korean Military Advisory Group (KMAG). On the eve of war, KMAG 's commander General William Lynn Roberts voiced utmost confidence in the ROK Army and boasted that any North Korean invasion would merely provide "target practice ''. For his part, Syngman Rhee repeatedly expressed his desire to conquer the North, including when U.S. diplomat John Foster Dulles visited Korea on 18 June.
Although some South Korean and U.S. intelligence officers predicted an attack from the North, similar predictions were made before and nothing happened. The Central Intelligence Agency noted the southward movement by the Korean People 's Army (KPA), but assessed this as a "defensive measure '' and concluded an invasion was "unlikely ''. On 23 June, UN observers inspected the border and did not detect that war was imminent.
Throughout 1949 and 1950, the Soviets continued arming North Korea. After the Communist victory in the Chinese Civil War, ethnic Korean units in the Chinese People 's Liberation Army (PLA) were released to North Korea. The combat veterans from China, the tanks, artillery and aircraft supplied by the Soviets, and rigorous training increased North Korea 's military superiority over the South, armed by the US military with mostly small arms and given no heavy weaponry such as tanks.
According to the first official census in 1949 the population of North Korea numbered 9,620,000, and by mid-1950 North Korean forces numbered between 150,000 and 200,000 troops, organized into 10 infantry divisions, one tank division, and one air force division, with 210 fighter planes and 280 tanks, who captured scheduled objectives and territory, among them Kaesong, Chuncheon, Uijeongbu, and Ongjin. Their forces included 274 T - 34 - 85 tanks, 200 artillery pieces, 110 attack bombers, and some 150 Yak fighter planes, and 35 reconnaissance aircraft. In addition to the invasion force, the North KPA had 114 fighters, 78 bombers, 105 T - 34 - 85 tanks, and some 30,000 soldiers stationed in reserve in North Korea. Although each navy consisted of only several small warships, the North and South Korean navies fought in the war as sea - borne artillery for their armies.
In contrast, the Republic of Korea population totaled 20,188,641, and its army was unprepared and ill - equipped. As of 25 June 1950 the ROK Army had 98,000 soldiers (65,000 combat, 33,000 support), no tanks (they had been requested from the U.S. military, but requests were denied), and a 22 - piece air force comprising 12 liaison - type and 10 AT6 advanced - trainer airplanes. Large U.S. garrisons and air forces were in Japan, but only 200 -- 300 American troops were in Korea.
At dawn on Sunday, 25 June 1950, the Korean People 's Army crossed the 38th parallel behind artillery fire. The KPA justified its assault with the claim that ROK troops attacked first and that the KPA were aiming to arrest and execute the "bandit traitor Syngman Rhee ''. Fighting began on the strategic Ongjin peninsula in the west. There were initial South Korean claims that they captured the city of Haeju, and this sequence of events has led some scholars to argue that the South Koreans fired first.
Whoever fired the first shots in Ongjin, within an hour, North Korean forces attacked all along the 38th parallel. The North Koreans had a combined arms force including tanks supported by heavy artillery. The South Koreans had no tanks, anti-tank weapons or heavy artillery to stop such an attack. In addition, South Koreans committed their forces in a piecemeal fashion and these were routed in a few days.
On 27 June, Rhee evacuated from Seoul with some of the government. On 28 June, at 2 am, the South Korean Army blew up the Hangang Bridge across the Han River in an attempt to stop the North Korean army. The bridge was detonated while 4,000 refugees were crossing it and hundreds were killed. Destroying the bridge also trapped many South Korean military units north of the Han River. In spite of such desperate measures, Seoul fell that same day. A number of South Korean National Assemblymen remained in Seoul when it fell, and forty - eight subsequently pledged allegiance to the North.
On 28 June, Rhee ordered the massacre of suspected political opponents in his own country.
In five days, the South Korean forces, which had 95,000 men on 25 June, was down to less than 22,000 men. In early July, when U.S. forces arrived, what was left of the South Korean forces were placed under U.S. operational command of the United Nations Command.
The Truman administration was unprepared for the invasion. Korea was not included in the strategic Asian Defense Perimeter outlined by Secretary of State Dean Acheson. Truman himself was at his home in Independence, Missouri. Military strategists were more concerned with the security of Europe against the Soviet Union than East Asia. At the same time, the administration was worried that a war in Korea could quickly widen into another world war should the Chinese or Soviets decide to get involved.
One facet of the changing attitude toward Korea and whether to get involved was Japan. Especially after the fall of China to the Communists, U.S. experts on East Asia saw Japan as the critical counterweight to the Soviet Union and China in the region. While there was no United States policy dealing with South Korea directly as a national interest, its proximity to Japan increased the importance of South Korea. Said Kim: "The recognition that the security of Japan required a non-hostile Korea led directly to President Truman 's decision to intervene... The essential point... is that the American response to the North Korean attack stemmed from considerations of U.S. policy toward Japan. ''
Another major consideration was the possible Soviet reaction in the event that the U.S. intervened. The Truman administration was fearful that a war in Korea was a diversionary assault that would escalate to a general war in Europe once the United States committed in Korea. At the same time, "(t) here was no suggestion from anyone that the United Nations or the United States could back away from (the conflict) ''. Yugoslavia -- a possible Soviet target because of the Tito - Stalin Split -- was vital to the defense of Italy and Greece, and the country was first on the list of the National Security Council 's post-North Korea invasion list of "chief danger spots ''. Truman believed if aggression went unchecked, a chain reaction would be initiated that would marginalize the United Nations and encourage Communist aggression elsewhere. The UN Security Council approved the use of force to help the South Koreans and the U.S. immediately began using what air and naval forces that were in the area to that end. The Truman administration still refrained from committing on the ground because some advisers believed the North Koreans could be stopped by air and naval power alone.
The Truman administration was still uncertain if the attack was a ploy by the Soviet Union or just a test of U.S. resolve. The decision to commit ground troops became viable when a communiqué was received on 27 June indicating the Soviet Union would not move against U.S. forces in Korea. The Truman administration now believed it could intervene in Korea without undermining its commitments elsewhere.
On 25 June 1950, the United Nations Security Council unanimously condemned the North Korean invasion of the Republic of Korea, with UN Security Council Resolution 82. The Soviet Union, a veto - wielding power, had boycotted the Council meetings since January 1950, protesting that the Taiwanese "Republic of China '' and not the mainland "People 's Republic of China '' held a permanent seat in the UN Security Council. After debating the matter, the Security Council, on 27 June 1950, published Resolution 83 recommending member states provide military assistance to the Republic of Korea. On 27 June President Truman ordered U.S. air and sea forces to help the South Korean regime. On 4 July the Soviet Deputy Foreign Minister accused the United States of starting armed intervention on behalf of South Korea.
The Soviet Union challenged the legitimacy of the war for several reasons. The ROK Army intelligence upon which Resolution 83 was based came from U.S. Intelligence; North Korea was not invited as a sitting temporary member of the UN, which violated UN Charter Article 32; and the fighting was beyond the UN Charter 's scope, because the initial north - south border fighting was classed as a civil war. Because the Soviet Union was boycotting the Security Council at the time, legal scholars posited that deciding upon an action of this type required the unanimous vote of all the five permanent members including the Soviet Union.
Within days of the invasion, masses of ROK Army soldiers -- of dubious loyalty to the Syngman Rhee regime -- were retreating southwards or defecting en masse to the northern side, the KPA.
As soon as word of the attack was received, U.S. Secretary of State Dean Acheson informed President Truman that the North Koreans had invaded South Korea. Truman and Acheson discussed a U.S. invasion response and agreed that the United States was obligated to act, paralleling the North Korean invasion with Adolf Hitler 's aggressions in the 1930s, with the conclusion being that the mistake of appeasement must not be repeated. Several U.S. industries were mobilized to supply materials, labor, capital, production facilities, and other services necessary to support the military objectives of the Korean War. However, President Truman later acknowledged that he believed fighting the invasion was essential to the U.S. goal of the global containment of communism as outlined in the National Security Council Report 68 (NSC 68) (declassified in 1975):
Communism was acting in Korea, just as Hitler, Mussolini and the Japanese had ten, fifteen, and twenty years earlier. I felt certain that if South Korea was allowed to fall, Communist leaders would be emboldened to override nations closer to our own shores. If the Communists were permitted to force their way into the Republic of Korea without opposition from the free world, no small nation would have the courage to resist threat and aggression by stronger Communist neighbors.
In August 1950, the President and the Secretary of State obtained the consent of Congress to appropriate $12 billion for military action in Korea.
Because of the extensive defense cuts and the emphasis placed on building a nuclear bomber force, none of the services were in a position to make a robust response with conventional military strength. General Omar Bradley, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, was faced with re-organizing and deploying a U.S. military force that was a shadow of its World War II counterpart.
Acting on Secretary of State Acheson 's recommendation, President Truman ordered General MacArthur to transfer matériel to the South Korean military while giving air cover to the evacuation of U.S. nationals. The President disagreed with advisers who recommended unilateral U.S. bombing of the North Korean forces, and ordered the U.S. Seventh Fleet to protect the Republic of China (Taiwan), whose government asked to fight in Korea. The United States denied ROC 's request for combat, lest it provoke a communist Chinese retaliation. Because the United States had sent the Seventh Fleet to "neutralize '' the Taiwan Strait, Chinese premier Zhou Enlai criticized both the UN and U.S. initiatives as "armed aggression on Chinese territory ''.
The Battle of Osan, the first significant U.S. engagement of the Korean War, involved the 540 - soldier Task Force Smith, which was a small forward element of the 24th Infantry Division which had been flown in from Japan. On 5 July 1950, Task Force Smith attacked the North Koreans at Osan but without weapons capable of destroying the North Koreans ' tanks. They were unsuccessful; the result was 180 dead, wounded, or taken prisoner. The KPA progressed southwards, pushing back the U.S. force at Pyongtaek, Chonan, and Chochiwon, forcing the 24th Division 's retreat to Taejeon, which the KPA captured in the Battle of Taejon; the 24th Division suffered 3,602 dead and wounded and 2,962 captured, including its commander, Major General William F. Dean.
By August, the KPA steadily pushed back the ROK Army and the Eighth United States Army southwards. The impact of the Truman administration 's defense budget cutbacks were now keenly felt, as U.S. troops fought a series of costly rearguard actions. Lacking sufficient anti-tank weapons, artillery or armor, they were driven down the Korean peninsula. During their advance, the KPA purged the Republic of Korea 's intelligentsia by killing civil servants and intellectuals. On 20 August, General MacArthur warned North Korean leader Kim Il - sung he was responsible for the KPA 's atrocities. By September, UN forces were hemmed into a small corner of southeast Korea, near Pusan. This 140 - mile perimeter enclosed about 10 % of Korea, in a line partially defined by the Nakdong River.
Although Kim 's early successes led him to predict he would end the war by the end of August, Chinese leaders were more pessimistic. To counter a possible U.S. deployment, Zhou Enlai secured a Soviet commitment to have the Soviet Union support Chinese forces with air cover, and deployed 260,000 soldiers along the Korean border, under the command of Gao Gang. Zhou commanded Chai Chengwen to conduct a topographical survey of Korea, and directed Lei Yingfu, Zhou 's military advisor in Korea, to analyze the military situation in Korea. Lei concluded that MacArthur would most likely attempt a landing at Incheon. After conferring with Mao that this would be MacArthur 's most likely strategy, Zhou briefed Soviet and North Korean advisers of Lei 's findings, and issued orders to Chinese army commanders deployed on the Korean border to prepare for U.S. naval activity in the Korea Strait.
In the resulting Battle of Pusan Perimeter (August -- September 1950), the U.S. Army withstood KPA attacks meant to capture the city at the Naktong Bulge, P'ohang - dong, and Taegu. The United States Air Force (USAF) interrupted KPA logistics with 40 daily ground support sorties that destroyed 32 bridges, halting most daytime road and rail traffic. KPA forces were forced to hide in tunnels by day and move only at night. To deny matériel to the KPA, the USAF destroyed logistics depots, petroleum refineries, and harbors, while the U.S. Navy air forces attacked transport hubs. Consequently, the over-extended KPA could not be supplied throughout the south. On 27 August, 67th Fighter Squadron aircraft mistakenly attacked facilities in Chinese territory and the Soviet Union called the UN Security Council 's attention to China 's complaint about the incident. The U.S. proposed that a commission of India and Sweden determine what the U.S. should pay in compensation but the Soviets vetoed the U.S. proposal.
Meanwhile, U.S. garrisons in Japan continually dispatched soldiers and matériel to reinforce defenders in the Pusan Perimeter. Tank battalions deployed to Korea directly from the U.S. mainland from the port of San Francisco to the port of Pusan, the largest Korean port. By late August, the Pusan Perimeter had some 500 medium tanks battle - ready. In early September 1950, ROK Army and UN Command forces outnumbered the KPA 180,000 to 100,000 soldiers.
Against the rested and re-armed Pusan Perimeter defenders and their reinforcements, the KPA were undermanned and poorly supplied; unlike the UN Command, they lacked naval and air support. To relieve the Pusan Perimeter, General MacArthur recommended an amphibious landing at Incheon, near Seoul and well over 160 km (100 mi) behind the KPA lines. On 6 July, he ordered Major General Hobart R. Gay, commander of the 1st Cavalry Division, to plan the division 's amphibious landing at Incheon; on 12 -- 14 July, the 1st Cavalry Division embarked from Yokohama, Japan, to reinforce the 24th Infantry Division inside the Pusan Perimeter.
Soon after the war began, General MacArthur began planning a landing at Incheon, but the Pentagon opposed him. When authorized, he activated a combined U.S. Army and Marine Corps, and ROK Army force. The X Corps, led by Major General Edward Almond, consisted of 40,000 men of the 1st Marine Division, the 7th Infantry Division and around 8,600 ROK Army soldiers. By 15 September, the amphibious assault force faced few KPA defenders at Incheon: military intelligence, psychological warfare, guerrilla reconnaissance, and protracted bombardment facilitated a relatively light battle. However, the bombardment destroyed most of the city of Incheon.
After the Incheon landing, the 1st Cavalry Division began its northward advance from the Pusan Perimeter. "Task Force Lynch '' (after Lieutenant Colonel James H. Lynch), 3rd Battalion, 7th Cavalry Regiment, and two 70th Tank Battalion units (Charlie Company and the Intelligence -- Reconnaissance Platoon) effected the "Pusan Perimeter Breakout '' through 171.2 km (106.4 mi) of enemy territory to join the 7th Infantry Division at Osan. The X Corps rapidly defeated the KPA defenders around Seoul, thus threatening to trap the main KPA force in Southern Korea. On 18 September, Stalin dispatched General H.M. Zakharov to Korea to advise Kim Il - sung to halt his offensive around the Pusan perimeter and to redeploy his forces to defend Seoul. Chinese commanders were not briefed on North Korean troop numbers or operational plans. As the overall commander of Chinese forces, Zhou Enlai suggested that the North Koreans should attempt to eliminate the enemy forces at Incheon only if they had reserves of at least 100,000 men; otherwise, he advised the North Koreans to withdraw their forces north.
On 25 September, Seoul was recaptured by South Korean forces. U.S. air raids caused heavy damage to the KPA, destroying most of its tanks and much of its artillery. North Korean troops in the south, instead of effectively withdrawing north, rapidly disintegrated, leaving Pyongyang vulnerable. During the general retreat only 25,000 to 30,000 North Korean soldiers managed to reach the KPA lines. On 27 September, Stalin convened an emergency session of the Politburo, in which he condemned the incompetence of the KPA command and held Soviet military advisers responsible for the defeat.
On 27 September, MacArthur received the top secret National Security Council Memorandum 81 / 1 from Truman reminding him that operations north of the 38th parallel were authorized only if "at the time of such operation there was no entry into North Korea by major Soviet or Chinese Communist forces, no announcements of intended entry, nor a threat to counter our operations militarily ''. On 29 September MacArthur restored the government of the Republic of Korea under Syngman Rhee. On 30 September, Defense Secretary George Marshall sent an eyes - only message to MacArthur: "We want you to feel unhampered tactically and strategically to proceed north of the 38th parallel. '' During October, the ROK police executed people who were suspected to be sympathetic to North Korea, and similar massacres were carried out until early 1951.
On 30 September, Zhou Enlai warned the United States that China was prepared to intervene in Korea if the United States crossed the 38th parallel. Zhou attempted to advise North Korean commanders on how to conduct a general withdrawal by using the same tactics which allowed Chinese communist forces to successfully escape Chiang Kai - shek 's Encirclement Campaigns in the 1930s, but by some accounts North Korean commanders did not use these tactics effectively. Historian Bruce Cumings argues, however, the KPA 's rapid withdrawal was strategic, with troops melting into the mountains from where they could launch guerrilla raids on the UN forces spread out on the coasts.
By 1 October 1950, the UN Command repelled the KPA northwards past the 38th parallel; the ROK Army crossed after them, into North Korea. MacArthur made a statement demanding the KPA 's unconditional surrender. Six days later, on 7 October, with UN authorization, the UN Command forces followed the ROK forces northwards. The X Corps landed at Wonsan (in southeastern North Korea) and Riwon (in northeastern North Korea), already captured by ROK forces. The Eighth U.S. Army and the ROK Army drove up western Korea and captured Pyongyang city, the North Korean capital, on 19 October 1950. The 187th Airborne Regimental Combat Team made their first of two combat jumps during the Korean War on 20 October 1950 at Sunchon and Sukchon. The missions of the 187th were to cut the road north going to China, preventing North Korean leaders from escaping from Pyongyang; and to rescue U.S. prisoners of war. At month 's end, UN forces held 135,000 KPA prisoners of war. As they neared the Sino - Korean border, the UN forces in the west were divided from those in the east by 50 -- 100 miles of mountainous terrain.
Taking advantage of the UN Command 's strategic momentum against the communists, General MacArthur believed it necessary to extend the Korean War into China to destroy depots supplying the North Korean war effort. President Truman disagreed, and ordered caution at the Sino - Korean border.
On 20 August 1950, Premier Zhou Enlai informed the UN that "Korea is China 's neighbor... The Chinese people can not but be concerned about a solution of the Korean question ''. Thus, through neutral - country diplomats, China warned that in safeguarding Chinese national security, they would intervene against the UN Command in Korea. President Truman interpreted the communication as "a bald attempt to blackmail the UN '', and dismissed it.
On 1 October 1950, the day that UN troops crossed the 38th parallel, the Soviet ambassador forwarded a telegram from Stalin to Mao and Zhou requesting that China send five to six divisions into Korea, and Kim Il - sung sent frantic appeals to Mao for Chinese military intervention. At the same time, Stalin made it clear that Soviet forces themselves would not directly intervene.
In a series of emergency meetings that lasted from 2 to 5 October, Chinese leaders debated whether to send Chinese troops into Korea. There was considerable resistance among many leaders, including senior military leaders, to confronting the U.S. in Korea. Mao strongly supported intervention, and Zhou was one of the few Chinese leaders who firmly supported him. After Lin Biao politely refused Mao 's offer to command Chinese forces in Korea (citing his upcoming medical treatment), Mao decided that Peng Dehuai would be the commander of the Chinese forces in Korea after Peng agreed to support Mao 's position. Mao then asked Peng to speak in favor of intervention to the rest of the Chinese leaders. After Peng made the case that if U.S. troops conquered Korea and reached the Yalu they might cross it and invade China the Politburo agreed to intervene in Korea. On 4 August 1950, with a planned invasion of Taiwan aborted due to the heavy U.S. naval presence, Mao Zedong reported to the Politburo that he would intervene in Korea when the People 's Liberation Army 's (PLA) Taiwan invasion force was reorganized into the PLA North East Frontier Force. On 8 October 1950, Mao Zedong redesignated the PLA North East Frontier Force as the Chinese People 's Volunteer Army (PVA).
To enlist Stalin 's support, Zhou and a Chinese delegation arrived in Moscow on 10 October, at which point they flew to Stalin 's home at the Black Sea. There they conferred with the top Soviet leadership which included Joseph Stalin as well as Vyacheslav Molotov, Lavrentiy Beria and Georgi Malenkov. Stalin initially agreed to send military equipment and ammunition, but warned Zhou that the Soviet Union 's air force would need two or three months to prepare any operations. In a subsequent meeting, Stalin told Zhou that he would only provide China with equipment on a credit basis, and that the Soviet air force would only operate over Chinese airspace, and only after an undisclosed period of time. Stalin did not agree to send either military equipment or air support until March 1951. Mao did not find Soviet air support especially useful, as the fighting was going to take place on the south side of the Yalu. Soviet shipments of matériel, when they did arrive, were limited to small quantities of trucks, grenades, machine guns, and the like.
Immediately on his return to Beijing on 18 October 1950, Zhou met with Mao Zedong, Peng Dehuai, and Gao Gang, and the group ordered two hundred thousand Chinese troops to enter North Korea, which they did on 25 October. UN aerial reconnaissance had difficulty sighting PVA units in daytime, because their march and bivouac discipline minimized aerial detection. The PVA marched "dark - to - dark '' (19: 00 -- 03: 00), and aerial camouflage (concealing soldiers, pack animals, and equipment) was deployed by 05: 30. Meanwhile, daylight advance parties scouted for the next bivouac site. During daylight activity or marching, soldiers were to remain motionless if an aircraft appeared, until it flew away; PVA officers were under order to shoot security violators. Such battlefield discipline allowed a three - division army to march the 460 km (286 mi) from An - tung, Manchuria, to the combat zone in some 19 days. Another division night - marched a circuitous mountain route, averaging 29 km (18 mi) daily for 18 days.
Meanwhile, on 15 October 1950, President Truman and General MacArthur met at Wake Island in the mid-Pacific Ocean. This meeting was much publicized because of the General 's discourteous refusal to meet the President on the continental United States. To President Truman, MacArthur speculated there was little risk of Chinese intervention in Korea, and that the PRC 's opportunity for aiding the KPA had lapsed. He believed the PRC had some 300,000 soldiers in Manchuria, and some 100,000 -- 125,000 soldiers at the Yalu River. He further concluded that, although half of those forces might cross south, "if the Chinese tried to get down to Pyongyang, there would be the greatest slaughter '' without air force protection.
After secretly crossing the Yalu River on 19 October, the PVA 13th Army Group launched the First Phase Offensive on 25 October, attacking the advancing UN forces near the Sino - Korean border. This military decision made solely by China changed the attitude of the Soviet Union. Twelve days after Chinese troops entered the war, Stalin allowed the Soviet Air Force to provide air cover, and supported more aid to China. After inflicting heavy losses on the ROK II Corps at the Battle of Onjong, the first confrontation between Chinese and U.S. military occurred on 1 November 1950; deep in North Korea, thousands of soldiers from the PVA 39th Army encircled and attacked the U.S. 8th Cavalry Regiment with three - prong assaults -- from the north, northwest, and west -- and overran the defensive position flanks in the Battle of Unsan. The surprise assault resulted in the UN forces retreating back to the Ch'ongch'on River, while the Chinese unexpectedly disappeared into mountain hideouts following victory. It is unclear why the Chinese did not press the attack and follow up their victory.
The UN Command, however, were unconvinced that the Chinese had openly intervened because of the sudden Chinese withdrawal. On 24 November, the Home - by - Christmas Offensive was launched with the U.S. Eighth Army advancing in northwest Korea, while the US X Corps attacked along the Korean east coast. But the PVA were waiting in ambush with their Second Phase Offensive which they executed at two sectors: the Eastern one at the Chosin Reservoir and the Western sector at Ch'ongch'on River.
After consulting with Stalin, on 13 November, Mao appointed Zhou Enlai the overall commander and coordinator of the war effort, with Peng as field commander. On 25 November at the Korean western front, the PVA 13th Army Group attacked and overran the ROK II Corps at the Battle of the Ch'ongch'on River, and then inflicted heavy losses on the US 2nd Infantry Division on the UN forces ' right flank. The UN Command retreated; the U.S. Eighth Army 's retreat (the longest in US Army history) was made possible because of the Turkish Brigade 's successful, but very costly, rear - guard delaying action near Kunuri that slowed the PVA attack for two days (27 -- 29 November). By 30 November, the PVA 13th Army Group managed to expel the U.S. Eighth Army from northwest Korea. Retreating from the north faster than they had counter-invaded, the Eighth Army crossed the 38th parallel border in mid December. UN morale hit rock bottom when Lieutenant General Walton Walker, commander of the U.S. Eighth Army, was killed on 23 December 1950 in an automobile accident.
Concurrent to the Battle of the Ch'ongch'on River was the Battle of Chosin Reservoir which the PVA 9th Army Group initiated on 27 November. Here the UNC forces fared comparatively better: like the Eighth Army the surprise attack forced X Corps to also retreat from northeast Korea but were in the process able to breakout from the attempted encirclement by the PVA and execute a successful tactical withdrawal. X Corps managed to establish a defensive perimeter at the port city of Hungnam on 11 December and were able to evacuate by 24 December in order to reinforce the badly depleted U.S. Eighth Army to the south. During the Hungnam evacuation, about 193 shiploads of UN Command forces and matériel (approximately 105,000 soldiers, 98,000 civilians, 17,500 vehicles, and 350,000 tons of supplies) were evacuated to Pusan. The SS Meredith Victory was noted for evacuating 14,000 refugees, the largest rescue operation by a single ship, even though it was designed to hold 12 passengers. Before escaping, the UN Command forces razed most of Hungnam city, especially the port facilities; and on 16 December 1950, President Truman declared a national emergency with Presidential Proclamation No. 2914, 3 C.F.R. 99 (1953), which remained in force until 14 September 1978. The next day (17 December 1950) Kim Il - sung was deprived of the right of command of KPA by China.
China justified its entry into the war as a response to "American aggression in the guise of the UN ''. Later, the Chinese claimed that U.S. bombers had violated PRC national airspace on three separate occasions and attacked Chinese targets before China intervened.
With Lieutenant General Matthew Ridgway assuming the command of the U.S. Eighth Army on 26 December, the PVA and the KPA launched their Third Phase Offensive (also known as the "Chinese New Year 's Offensive '') on New Year 's Eve of 1950. Utilizing night attacks in which UN Command fighting positions were encircled and then assaulted by numerically superior troops who had the element of surprise, the attacks were accompanied by loud trumpets and gongs, which fulfilled the double purpose of facilitating tactical communication and mentally disorienting the enemy. UN forces initially had no familiarity with this tactic, and as a result some soldiers panicked, abandoning their weapons and retreating to the south. The Chinese New Year 's Offensive overwhelmed UN forces, allowing the PVA and KPA to conquer Seoul for the second time on 4 January 1951.
These setbacks prompted General MacArthur to consider using nuclear weapons against the Chinese or North Korean interiors, with the intention that radioactive fallout zones would interrupt the Chinese supply chains. However, upon the arrival of the charismatic General Ridgway, the esprit de corps of the bloodied Eighth Army immediately began to revive.
UN forces retreated to Suwon in the west, Wonju in the center, and the territory north of Samcheok in the east, where the battlefront stabilized and held. The PVA had outrun its logistics capability and thus were unable to press on beyond Seoul as food, ammunition, and matériel were carried nightly, on foot and bicycle, from the border at the Yalu River to the three battle lines. In late January, upon finding that the PVA had abandoned their battle lines, General Ridgway ordered a reconnaissance - in - force, which became Operation Roundup (5 February 1951). A full - scale X Corps advance proceeded, which fully exploited the UN Command 's air superiority, concluding with the UN reaching the Han River and recapturing Wonju.
Following the failure of ceasefire negotiations in January, the United Nations General Assembly passed Resolution 498 on 1 February, condemning PRC as an aggressor, and called upon its forces to withdraw from Korea.
In early February, the South Korean 11th Division ran the operation to destroy the guerrillas and their sympathizer citizens in Southern Korea. During the operation, the division and police conducted the Geochang massacre and Sancheong - Hamyang massacre. In mid-February, the PVA counterattacked with the Fourth Phase Offensive and achieved initial victory at Hoengseong. But the offensive was soon blunted by the IX Corps positions at Chipyong - ni in the center. The U.S. 2nd Infantry "Warrior '' Division 's 23rd Regimental Combat Team and the French Battalion fought a short but desperate battle that broke the attack 's momentum. The battle is sometimes known as the "Gettysburg of the Korean War ''. 5,600 South Korean, U.S., and French troops were surrounded on all sides by 25,000 Chinese. United Nations forces had previously retreated in the face of large Communist forces instead of getting cut off, but this time they stood and fought, and won.
In the last two weeks of February 1951, Operation Roundup was followed by Operation Killer, carried out by the revitalized Eighth Army. It was a full - scale, battlefront - length attack staged for maximum exploitation of firepower to kill as many KPA and PVA troops as possible. Operation Killer concluded with I Corps re-occupying the territory south of the Han River, and IX Corps capturing Hoengseong. On 7 March 1951, the Eighth Army attacked with Operation Ripper, expelling the PVA and the KPA from Seoul on 14 March 1951. This was the city 's fourth conquest in a year 's time, leaving it a ruin; the 1.5 million pre-war population was down to 200,000, and people were suffering from severe food shortages.
On 1 March 1951, Mao sent a cable to Stalin, in which he emphasized the difficulties faced by Chinese forces and the need for air cover, especially over supply lines. Apparently impressed by the Chinese war effort, Stalin agreed to supply two air force divisions, three anti-aircraft divisions, and six thousand trucks. PVA troops in Korea continued to suffer severe logistical problems throughout the war. In late April Peng Dehuai sent his deputy, Hong Xuezhi, to brief Zhou Enlai in Beijing. What Chinese soldiers feared, Hong said, was not the enemy, but having no food, bullets, or trucks to transport them to the rear when they were wounded. Zhou attempted to respond to the PVA 's logistical concerns by increasing Chinese production and improving supply methods, but these efforts were never sufficient. At the same time, large - scale air defense training programs were carried out, and the Chinese Air Force began participating in the war from September 1951 onward.
On 11 April 1951, Commander - in - Chief Truman relieved the controversial General MacArthur, the Supreme Commander in Korea. There were several reasons for the dismissal. MacArthur crossed the 38th parallel in the mistaken belief that the Chinese would not enter the war, leading to major allied losses. He believed that whether to use nuclear weapons should be his decision, not the president 's. MacArthur threatened to destroy China unless it surrendered. While MacArthur felt total victory was the only honorable outcome, Truman was more pessimistic about his chances once involved in a land war in Asia, and felt a truce and orderly withdrawal from Korea could be a valid solution. MacArthur was the subject of congressional hearings in May and June 1951, which determined that he had defied the orders of the president and thus had violated the U.S. Constitution. A popular criticism of MacArthur was that he never spent a night in Korea, and directed the war from the safety of Tokyo.
MacArthur was relieved primarily due to his determination to expand the war into China, which other officials believed would needlessly escalate a limited war and consume too many already overstretched resources. Despite MacArthur 's claims that he was restricted to fighting a limited war when China was fighting all - out, congressional testimony revealed China was using restraint as much as the U.S. was, as they were not using air power against front - line troops, communication lines, ports, naval air forces, or staging bases in Japan, which had been crucial to the survival of UN forces in Korea. Simply fighting on the peninsula had already tied down significant portions of U.S. airpower; as Air Force chief of staff Hoyt Vandenberg said, 80 -- 85 % the tactical capacity, one - fourth of the strategic portion, and 20 % of air defense forces of the United States were engaged in a single country. There was also fear that crossing into China would provoke the Soviet Union into entering the war; General Omar Bradley testified that there were 35 Russian divisions totaling some 500,000 troops in the Far East, which if sent into action with the approximately 85 Russian submarines in the vicinity of Korea, could overwhelm U.S. forces and cut supply lines, as well as potentially assist China in taking over territory in Southeast Asia.
General Ridgway was appointed Supreme Commander, Korea; he regrouped the UN forces for successful counterattacks, while General James Van Fleet assumed command of the U.S. Eighth Army. Further attacks slowly depleted the PVA and KPA forces; Operations Courageous (23 -- 28 March 1951) and Tomahawk (23 March 1951) were a joint ground and airborne infilltration meant to trap Chinese forces between Kaesong and Seoul. UN forces advanced to "Line Kansas '', north of the 38th parallel. The 187th Airborne Regimental Combat Team 's ("Rakkasans '') second of two combat jumps was on Easter Sunday, 1951, at Munsan - ni, South Korea, codenamed Operation Tomahawk. The mission was to get behind Chinese forces and block their movement north. The 60th Indian Parachute Field Ambulance provided the medical cover for the operations, dropping an ADS and a surgical team and treating over 400 battle casualties apart from the civilian casualties that formed the core of their objective as the unit was on a humanitarian mission.
The Chinese counterattacked in April 1951, with the Fifth Phase Offensive, also known as the Chinese Spring Offensive, with three field armies (approximately 700,000 men). The offensive 's first thrust fell upon I Corps, which fiercely resisted in the Battle of the Imjin River (22 -- 25 April 1951) and the Battle of Kapyong (22 -- 25 April 1951), blunting the impetus of the offensive, which was halted at the "No - name Line '' north of Seoul. On 15 May 1951, the Chinese commenced the second impulse of the Spring Offensive and attacked the ROK Army and the U.S. X Corps in the east at the Soyang River. After initial success, they were halted by 20 May. At month 's end, the U.S. Eighth Army counterattacked and regained "Line Kansas '', just north of the 38th parallel. The UN 's "Line Kansas '' halt and subsequent offensive action stand - down began the stalemate that lasted until the armistice of 1953.
For the remainder of the Korean War the UN Command and the PVA fought, but exchanged little territory; the stalemate held. Large - scale bombing of North Korea continued, and protracted armistice negotiations began 10 July 1951 at Kaesong. On the Chinese side, Zhou Enlai directed peace talks, and Li Kenong and Qiao Guanghua headed the negotiation team. Combat continued while the belligerents negotiated; the UN Command forces ' goal was to recapture all of South Korea and to avoid losing territory. The PVA and the KPA attempted similar operations, and later effected military and psychological operations in order to test the UN Command 's resolve to continue the war.
The principal battles of the stalemate include the Battle of Bloody Ridge (18 August -- 15 September 1951), the Battle of the Punchbowl (31 August - 21 September 1951), the Battle of Heartbreak Ridge (13 September -- 15 October 1951), the Battle of Old Baldy (26 June -- 4 August 1952), the Battle of White Horse (6 -- 15 October 1952), the Battle of Triangle Hill (14 October -- 25 November 1952), the Battle of Hill Eerie (21 March -- 21 June 1952), the sieges of Outpost Harry (10 -- 18 June 1953), the Battle of the Hook (28 -- 29 May 1953), the Battle of Pork Chop Hill (23 March -- 16 July 1953), and the Battle of Kumsong (13 -- 27 July 1953).
Chinese troops suffered from deficient military equipment, serious logistical problems, overextended communication and supply lines, and the constant threat of UN bombers. All of these factors generally led to a rate of Chinese casualties that was far greater than the casualties suffered by UN troops. The situation became so serious that, in November 1951, Zhou Enlai called a conference in Shenyang to discuss the PVA 's logistical problems. At the meeting it was decided to accelerate the construction of railways and airfields in the area, to increase the number of trucks available to the army, and to improve air defense by any means possible. These commitments did little to directly address the problems confronting PVA troops.
In the months after the Shenyang conference Peng Dehuai went to Beijing several times to brief Mao and Zhou about the heavy casualties suffered by Chinese troops and the increasing difficulty of keeping the front lines supplied with basic necessities. Peng was convinced that the war would be protracted, and that neither side would be able to achieve victory in the near future. On 24 February 1952, the Military Commission, presided over by Zhou, discussed the PVA 's logistical problems with members of various government agencies involved in the war effort. After the government representatives emphasized their inability to meet the demands of the war, Peng, in an angry outburst, shouted: "You have this and that problem... You should go to the front and see with your own eyes what food and clothing the soldiers have! Not to speak of the casualties! For what are they giving their lives? We have no aircraft. We have only a few guns. Transports are not protected. More and more soldiers are dying of starvation. Ca n't you overcome some of your difficulties? '' The atmosphere became so tense that Zhou was forced to adjourn the conference. Zhou subsequently called a series of meetings, where it was agreed that the PVA would be divided into three groups, to be dispatched to Korea in shifts; to accelerate the training of Chinese pilots; to provide more anti-aircraft guns to the front lines; to purchase more military equipment and ammunition from the Soviet Union; to provide the army with more food and clothing; and, to transfer the responsibility of logistics to the central government.
The on - again, off - again armistice negotiations continued for two years, first at Kaesong, on the border between North and South Korea, and then at the neighboring village of Panmunjom. A major, problematic negotiation point was prisoner of war (POW) repatriation. The PVA, KPA, and UN Command could not agree on a system of repatriation because many PVA and KPA soldiers refused to be repatriated back to the north, which was unacceptable to the Chinese and North Koreans. In the final armistice agreement, signed on 27 July 1953, a Neutral Nations Repatriation Commission, under the chairman Indian General K.S. Thimayya, was set up to handle the matter.
In 1952, the United States elected a new president, and on 29 November 1952, the president - elect, Dwight D. Eisenhower, went to Korea to learn what might end the Korean War. With the United Nations ' acceptance of India 's proposed Korean War armistice, the KPA, the PVA, and the UN Command ceased fire with the battle line approximately at the 38th parallel. Upon agreeing to the armistice, the belligerents established the Korean Demilitarized Zone (DMZ), which has since been patrolled by the KPA and ROKA, United States, and Joint UN Commands.
The Demilitarized Zone runs northeast of the 38th parallel; to the south, it travels west. The old Korean capital city of Kaesong, site of the armistice negotiations, originally was in pre-war South Korea, but now is part of North Korea. The United Nations Command, supported by the United States, the North Korean People 's Army, and the Chinese People 's Volunteers, signed the Armistice Agreement on 27 July 1953 to end the fighting. The Armistice also called upon the governments of South Korea, North Korea, China and the United States to participate in continued peace talks. The war is considered to have ended at this point, even though there was no peace treaty. North Korea nevertheless claims that it won the Korean War.
After the war, Operation Glory was conducted from July to November 1954, to allow combatant countries to exchange their dead. The remains of 4,167 U.S. Army and U.S. Marine Corps dead were exchanged for 13,528 KPA and PVA dead, and 546 civilians dead in UN prisoner - of - war camps were delivered to the South Korean government. After Operation Glory, 416 Korean War unknown soldiers were buried in the National Memorial Cemetery of the Pacific (The Punchbowl), on the island of Oahu, Hawaii. Defense Prisoner of War / Missing Personnel Office (DPMO) records indicate that the PRC and the DPRK transmitted 1,394 names, of which 858 were correct. From 4,167 containers of returned remains, forensic examination identified 4,219 individuals. Of these, 2,944 were identified as from the U.S., and all but 416 were identified by name. From 1996 to 2006, the DPRK recovered 220 remains near the Sino - Korean border.
The Korean Armistice Agreement provided for monitoring by an international commission. Since 1953, the Neutral Nations Supervisory Commission (NNSC), composed of members from the Swiss and Swedish Armed Forces, has been stationed near the DMZ.
In April 1975, South Vietnam 's capital was captured by the North Vietnamese army. Encouraged by the success of Communist revolution in Indochina, Kim Il - sung saw it as an opportunity to invade the South. Kim visited China in April of that year, and met with Mao Zedong and Zhou Enlai to ask for military aid. Despite Pyongyang 's expectations, however, Beijing refused to help North Korea for another war in Korea.
Since the armistice, there have been numerous incursions and acts of aggression by North Korea. In 1976, the axe murder incident was widely publicized. Since 1974, four incursion tunnels leading to Seoul have been uncovered. In 2010, a North Korean submarine torpedoed and sank the South Korean corvette ROKS Cheonan, resulting in the deaths of 46 sailors. Again in 2010, North Korea fired artillery shells on Yeonpyeong island, killing two military personnel and two civilians.
After a new wave of UN sanctions, on 11 March 2013, North Korea claimed that the armistice had become invalid. On 13 March 2013, North Korea confirmed it ended the 1953 Armistice and declared North Korea "is not restrained by the North - South declaration on non-aggression ''. On 30 March 2013, North Korea stated that it entered a "state of war '' with South Korea and declared that "The long - standing situation of the Korean peninsula being neither at peace nor at war is finally over ''. Speaking on 4 April 2013, the U.S. Secretary of Defense, Chuck Hagel, informed the press that Pyongyang "formally informed '' the Pentagon that it "ratified '' the potential use of a nuclear weapon against South Korea, Japan and the United States of America, including Guam and Hawaii. Hagel also stated the United States would deploy the Terminal High Altitude Area Defense anti-ballistic missile system to Guam, because of a credible and realistic nuclear threat from North Korea.
In 2016, it was revealed that North Korea approached the United States about conducting formal peace talks to formally end the war. While the White House agreed to secret peace talks, the plan was rejected due to North Korea 's refusal to discuss nuclear disarmament as part of the terms of the treaty.
On 27 April 2018, it was announced that North Korea and South Korea agreed to talks to end the ongoing 65 year conflict. They committed themselves to the complete denuclearization of the Korean Peninsula. However, on 15 May 2018, North Korea cancelled a high - level meeting due to military drills South Korea and the US conducted.
According to the data from the U.S. Department of Defense, the United States suffered 33,686 battle deaths, along with 2,830 non-battle deaths, during the Korean War. U.S. battle deaths were 8,516 up to their first engagement with the Chinese on 1 November 1950. South Korea reported some 373,599 civilian and 137,899 military deaths. Western sources estimate the PVA suffered about 400,000 killed and 486,000 wounded, while the KPA suffered 215,000 killed and 303,000 wounded.
Data from official Chinese sources, on the other hand, reported that the Chinese PVA had suffered 114,000 battle deaths, 34,000 non-battle deaths, 340,000 wounded, 7,600 missing and during the war. 7,110 Chinese POWs were repatriated to China. Chinese sources also reported that North Korea had suffered 290,000 casualties, 90,000 captured and a large number of civilian deaths.
CNN reported, citing Encyclopædia Britannica that North Korean civilian casualties were 600,000, while South Korean civilian casualties reached one million.
The Chinese and North Koreans estimated that about 390,000 soldiers from the United States, 660,000 soldiers from South Korea and 29,000 other UN soldiers were "eliminated '' from the battlefield.
Recent scholarship puts the full battle death toll on all sides at just over 1.2 million.
In a postwar analysis of the unpreparedness of U.S. Army forces deployed to Korea during the summer and fall of 1950, Army Major General Floyd L. Parks stated that "Many who never lived to tell the tale had to fight the full range of ground warfare from offensive to delaying action, unit by unit, man by man... (T) hat we were able to snatch victory from the jaws of defeat... does not relieve us from the blame of having placed our own flesh and blood in such a predicament. ''
By 1950, U.S. Secretary of Defense Louis A. Johnson had established a policy of faithfully following President Truman 's defense economization plans, and had aggressively attempted to implement it even in the face of steadily increasing external threats. He consequently received much of the blame for the initial setbacks in Korea and the widespread reports of ill - equipped and inadequately trained U.S. military forces in the war 's early stages.
As an initial response to the invasion, Truman called for a naval blockade of North Korea, and was shocked to learn that such a blockade could be imposed only "on paper '', since the U.S. Navy no longer had the warships with which to carry out his request. Army officials, desperate for weaponry, recovered Sherman tanks from World War II Pacific battlefields and reconditioned them for shipment to Korea. Army Ordnance officials at Fort Knox pulled down M26 Pershing tanks from display pedestals around Fort Knox in order to equip the third company of the Army 's hastily formed 70th Tank Battalion. Without adequate numbers of tactical fighter - bomber aircraft, the Air Force took F - 51 (P - 51) propeller - driven aircraft out of storage or from existing Air National Guard squadrons, and rushed them into front - line service. A shortage of spare parts and qualified maintenance personnel resulted in improvised repairs and overhauls. A Navy helicopter pilot aboard an active duty warship recalled fixing damaged rotor blades with masking tape in the absence of spares.
Army Reserve and Army National Guard infantry soldiers and new inductees called to duty to fill out understrength infantry divisions found themselves short of nearly everything needed to repel the North Korean forces: artillery, ammunition, heavy tanks, ground - support aircraft, even effective anti-tank weapons such as the M20 3.5 - inch (89 mm) Super Bazooka. Some Army combat units sent to Korea were supplied with worn out, ' red - lined ' M - 1 rifles or carbines in immediate need of ordnance depot overhaul or repair. Only the Marine Corps, whose commanders had stored and maintained their World War II surplus inventories of equipment and weapons, proved ready for deployment, though they still were woefully under - strength, as well as in need of suitable landing craft to practice amphibious operations (Johnson had transferred most of the remaining craft to the Navy and reserved them for use in training Army units).
Due to public criticism of his handling of the Korean War, Truman decided to ask for Johnson 's resignation. On 19 September 1950, Johnson resigned as Secretary of Defense, and the president quickly replaced him with General of the Army George C. Marshall.
The initial assault by North Korean KPA forces was aided by the use of Soviet T - 34 - 85 tanks. A North Korean tank corps equipped with about 120 T - 34s spearheaded the invasion. These drove against a ROK Army with few anti-tank weapons adequate to deal with the Soviet T - 34s. Additional Soviet armor was added as the offensive progressed. The North Korean tanks had a good deal of early successes against South Korean infantry, elements of the 24th Infantry Division, and the United States built M24 Chaffee light tanks that they encountered. Interdiction by ground attack aircraft was the only means of slowing the advancing Korean armor. The tide turned in favour of the United Nations forces in August 1950 when the North Koreans suffered major tank losses during a series of battles in which the UN forces brought heavier equipment to bear, including M4A3 Sherman medium tanks backed by U.S. M26 heavy tanks, along with British Centurion, Churchill, and Cromwell tanks.
The U.S. landings at Inchon on 15 September cut off the North Korean supply lines, causing their armored forces and infantry to run out of fuel, ammunition, and other supplies. As a result, the North Koreans had to retreat, and many of the T - 34s and heavy weapons had to be abandoned. By the time the North Koreans withdrew from the South, a total of 239 T - 34s and 74 SU - 76s were lost. After November 1950, North Korean armor was rarely encountered.
Following the initial assault by the north, the Korean War saw limited use of tanks and featured no large - scale tank battles. The mountainous, forested terrain, especially in the Eastern Central Zone, was poor tank country, limiting their mobility. Through the last two years of the war in Korea, UN tanks served largely as infantry support and mobile artillery pieces.
Because neither Korea had a significant navy, the Korean War featured few naval battles. A skirmish between North Korea and the UN Command occurred on 2 July 1950; the U.S. Navy cruiser USS Juneau, the Royal Navy cruiser HMS Jamaica, and the frigate HMS Black Swan fought four North Korean torpedo boats and two mortar gunboats, and sank them. USS Juneau later sank several ammunition ships that had been present. The last sea battle of the Korean War occurred at Inchon, days before the Battle of Inchon; the ROK ship PC - 703 sank a North Korean mine layer in the Battle of Haeju Island, near Inchon. Three other supply ships were sunk by PC - 703 two days later in the Yellow Sea. Thereafter, vessels from the UN nations held undisputed control of the sea about Korea. The gun ships were used in shore bombardment, while the aircraft carriers provided air support to the ground forces.
During most of the war, the UN navies patrolled the west and east coasts of North Korea, sinking supply and ammunition ships and denying the North Koreans the ability to resupply from the sea. Aside from very occasional gunfire from North Korean shore batteries, the main threat to United States and UN navy ships was from magnetic mine s. During the war, five U.S. Navy ships were lost to mines: two minesweepers, two minesweeper escorts, and one ocean tug. Mines and gunfire from North Korean coastal artillery damaged another 87 U.S. warships, resulting in slight to moderate damage.
The Korean War was the first war in which jet aircraft played the central role in air combat. Once - formidable fighters such as the P - 51 Mustang, F4U Corsair, and Hawker Sea Fury -- all piston - engined, propeller - driven, and designed during World War II -- relinquished their air - superiority roles to a new generation of faster, jet - powered fighters arriving in the theater. For the initial months of the war, the P - 80 Shooting Star, F9F Panther, Gloster Meteor and other jets under the UN flag dominated North Korea 's prop - driven air force of Soviet Yakovlev Yak - 9 and Lavochkin La - 9s.
The Chinese intervention in late October 1950 bolstered the Korean People 's Air Force (KPAF) of North Korea with the MiG - 15, one of the world 's most advanced jet fighters. The heavily armed MiGs were faster than first - generation UN jets and so could reach and destroy U.S. B - 29 Superfortress bomber flights despite their fighter escorts. With increasing B - 29 losses, the Air Force was forced to switch from a daylight bombing campaign to a safer but less accurate nighttime bombing of targets.
The USAF countered the MiG - 15 by sending over three squadrons of its most capable fighter, the F - 86 Sabre. These arrived in December 1950. The MiG was designed as a bomber interceptor. It had a very high service ceiling -- 15,000 m (50,000 ft) and carried very heavy weaponry: one 37 mm cannon and two 23 mm cannons. The F - 86 had a ceiling of 13,000 m (42,000 ft) and were armed with six. 50 caliber (12.7 mm) machine guns, which were range adjusted by radar gunsights. If coming in at higher altitude the advantage of engaging or not went to the MiG. Once in a level flight dogfight, both swept - wing designs attained comparable maximum speeds of around 1,100 km / h (660 mph). The MiG climbed faster, but the Sabre turned and dived better.
In summer and autumn 1951, the outnumbered Sabres of the USAF 's 4th Fighter Interceptor Wing -- only 44 at one point -- continued seeking battle in MiG Alley, where the Yalu River marks the Chinese border, against Chinese and North Korean air forces capable of deploying some 500 aircraft. Following Colonel Harrison Thyng 's communication with the Pentagon, the 51st Fighter - Interceptor Wing finally reinforced the beleaguered 4th Wing in December 1951; for the next year - and - a-half stretch of the war, aerial warfare continued.
Unlike the Vietnam War, in which the Soviet Union only officially sent "advisers '', in the Korean aerial war Soviet forces participated via the 64th Fighter Aviation Corps. Fearful of confronting the United States directly, the Soviet Union denied involvement of their personnel in anything other than an advisory role, but air combat quickly resulted in Soviet pilots dropping their code signals and speaking over the wireless in Russian. This known direct Soviet participation was a casus belli that the UN Command deliberately overlooked, lest the war for the Korean peninsula expand to include the Soviet Union, and potentially escalate into atomic warfare.
After the war, and to the present day, the USAF reports an F - 86 Sabre kill ratio in excess of 10: 1, with 792 MiG - 15s and 108 other aircraft shot down by Sabres, and 78 Sabres lost to enemy fire. The Soviet Air Force reported some 1,100 air - to - air victories and 335 MiG combat losses, while China 's People 's Liberation Army Air Force (PLAAF) reported 231 combat losses, mostly MiG - 15s, and 168 other aircraft lost. The KPAF reported no data, but the UN Command estimates some 200 KPAF aircraft lost in the war 's first stage, and 70 additional aircraft after the Chinese intervention. The USAF disputes Soviet and Chinese claims of 650 and 211 downed F - 86s, respectively. However, one source claims that the U.S. Air Force has more recently cited 224 losses (c. 100 to air combat) out of 674 F - 86s deployed to Korea.
The Korean War marked a major milestone not only for fixed - wing aircraft, but also for rotorcraft, featuring the first large - scale deployment of helicopters for medical evacuation (medevac). In 1944 -- 1945, during the Second World War, the YR - 4 helicopter saw limited ambulance duty, but in Korea, where rough terrain trumped the jeep as a speedy medevac vehicle, helicopters like the Sikorsky H - 19 helped reduce fatal casualties to a dramatic degree when combined with complementary medical innovations such as Mobile Army Surgical Hospitals. The limitations of jet aircraft for close air support highlighted the helicopter 's potential in the role, leading to development of the AH - 1 Cobra and other helicopter gunships used in the Vietnam War (1965 -- 75).
The initial bombing attack on North Korea was approved on the fourth day of the war, 29 June 1950, by General Douglas MacArthur immediately upon request by the commanding general of the Far East Air Forces, George E. Stratemeyer. Major bombing began in late July. On 12 August 1950, the U.S. Air Force dropped 625 tons of bombs on North Korea; two weeks later, the daily tonnage increased to some 800 tons.
From June through October, official U.S. policy was to pursue precision bombing aimed at communication centers (railroad stations, marshaling yards, main yards, and railways) and industrial facilities deemed vital to war making capacity. The policy was the result of debates after World War II, in which U.S. policy rejected the mass civilian bombings that had been conducted in the later stages of World War II as unproductive and immoral. In early July, General Emmett "Rosie '' O'Donnell requested permission to burn five North Korean cities. He proposed that MacArthur announce that the UN would employ the firebombing methods that "brought Japan to its knees. '' The announcement would warn the leaders of North Korea "to get women and children and other noncombatants the hell out. ''
According to O'Donnell, MacArthur responded, "No, Rosy, I 'm not prepared to go that far yet. My instructions are very explicit; however, I want you to know that I have no compunction whatever to your bombing bona fide military objectives, with high explosives, in those five industrial centers. If you miss your target and kill people or destroy other parts of the city, I accept that as a part of war. ''
In September 1950, MacArthur said in his public report the United Nations, "The problem of avoiding the killing of innocent civilians and damages to the civilian economy is continually present and given my personal attention. ''
In October 1950, FEAF commander General Stratemeyer requested permission to attack the city of Sinuiju, a provincial capital with an estimated population of 60,000, "over the widest area of the city, without warning, by burning and high explosive. '' MacArthur 's headquarters responded the following day: "The general policy enunciated from Washington negates such an attack unless the military situation clearly requires it. Under present circumstances this is not the case. ''
Following the intervention of the Chinese in November, General MacArthur ordered increased bombing on North Korea which included incendiary attacks against the country 's arsenals and communications centers and especially against the "Korean end '' of all the bridges across the Yalu River. As with the aerial bombing campaigns over Germany and Japan in World War II, the nominal objective of the U.S. Air Force was to destroy North Korea 's war infrastructure and shatter the country 's morale.
On 3 November 1950, General Stratemeyer forwarded to MacArthur the request of Fifth Air Force commander General Earle E. Partridge for clearance to "burn Sinuiju. '' As he had done previously in July and October, MacArthur again denied the request, explaining that he planned to use the town 's facilities after seizing it. However, at the same meeting, MacArthur agreed for the first time to a firebombing campaign, agreeing to Stratemeyer 's request to burn the city of Kanggye and several other towns: "Burn it if you so desire. Not only that, Strat, but burn and destroy as a lesson any other of those towns that you consider of military value to the enemy. '' The same evening, MacArthur 's chief of staff told Stratemeyer that the firebombing of Sinuiju had also been approved. In his diary, Stratemeyer summarized the instructions as follows: "Every installation, facility, and village in North Korea now becomes a military and tactical target. '' Stratemeyer sent orders to the Fifth Air Force and Bomber Command to "destroy every means of communications and every installation, factory, city, and village. ''
On 5 November 1950, General Stratemeyer gave the following order to the commanding general of the Fifth Air Force: "Aircraft under Fifth Air Force control will destroy all other targets including all buildings capable of affording shelter. '' The same day, twenty - two B - 29s attacked Kanggye, destroying 75 % of the city.
After MacArthur was removed as Supreme Commander in Korea in April 1951, his successors continued this policy and ultimately extended it to all of North Korea. The U.S. dropped a total of 635,000 tons of bombs, including 32,557 tons of napalm, on Korea, more than during the whole Pacific campaign of World War II.
Almost every substantial building in North Korea was destroyed as a result. The war 's highest - ranking U.S. POW, U.S. Major General William F. Dean, reported that the majority of North Korean cities and villages he saw were either rubble or snow - covered wasteland. North Korean factories, schools, hospitals, and government offices were forced to move underground, and air defenses were "non-existent. '' In November 1950, the North Korean leadership instructed their population to build dugouts and mud huts and to dig underground tunnels, in order to solve the acute housing problem. U.S. Air Force General Curtis LeMay commented, "we went over there and fought the war and eventually burned down every town in North Korea anyway, some way or another, and some in South Korea, too. '' Pyongyang, which saw 75 percent of its area destroyed, was so devastated that bombing was halted as there were no longer any worthy targets. On 28 November, Bomber Command reported on the campaign 's progress: 95 percent of Manpojin was destroyed, along with 90 percent of Hoeryong, Namsi and Koindong, 85 percent of Chosan, 75 percent of both Sakchu and Huichon, and 20 percent of Uiju. According to USAF damage assessments, "eighteen of twenty - two major cities in North Korea had been at least half obliterated. '' By the end of the campaign, US bombers had difficulty in finding targets and were reduced to bombing footbridges or jettisoning their bombs into the sea.
As well as conventional bombing, the Communist side claimed that the U.S. used biological weapons. These claims have been disputed; Conrad Crane asserts that while the U.S. worked towards developing chemical and biological weapons, the U.S. military "possessed neither the ability, nor the will '', to use them in combat.
On 5 November 1950, the Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS) issued orders for the retaliatory atomic bombing of Manchurian PRC military bases, if either their armies crossed into Korea or if PRC or KPA bombers attacked Korea from there. The President ordered the transfer of nine Mark 4 nuclear bombs "to the Air Force 's Ninth Bomb Group, the designated carrier of the weapons... (and) signed an order to use them against Chinese and Korean targets '', which he never transmitted.
Many U.S. officials viewed the deployment of nuclear - capable (but not nuclear - armed) B - 29 bombers to Britain as helping to resolve the Berlin Blockade of 1948 -- 1949. Truman and Eisenhower both had military experience and viewed nuclear weapons as potentially usable components of their military. During Truman 's first meeting to discuss the war on 25 June 1950, he ordered plans be prepared for attacking Soviet forces if they entered the war. By July, Truman approved another B - 29 deployment to Britain, this time with bombs (but without their cores), to remind the Soviets of U.S. offensive ability. Deployment of a similar fleet to Guam was leaked to The New York Times. As United Nations forces retreated to Pusan, and the CIA reported that mainland China was building up forces for a possible invasion of Taiwan, the Pentagon believed that Congress and the public would demand using nuclear weapons if the situation in Korea required them.
As Chinese forces pushed back the United States forces from the Yalu River, Truman stated during a 30 November 1950 press conference that using nuclear weapons was "always (under) active consideration '', with control under the local military commander. The Indian ambassador, K. Madhava Panikkar, reports "that Truman announced he was thinking of using the atom bomb in Korea. But the Chinese seemed unmoved by this threat... The PRC 's propaganda against the U.S. was stepped up. The "Aid Korea to resist America '' campaign was made the slogan for increased production, greater national integration, and more rigid control over anti-national activities. One could not help feeling that Truman 's threat came in useful to the leaders of the Revolution, to enable them to keep up the tempo of their activities. ''
After his statement caused concern in Europe, Truman met on 4 December 1950 with UK prime minister and Commonwealth spokesman Clement Attlee, French Premier René Pleven, and Foreign Minister Robert Schuman to discuss their worries about atomic warfare and its likely continental expansion. The United States ' forgoing atomic warfare was not because of "a disinclination by the Soviet Union and People 's Republic of China to escalate '' the Korean War, but because UN allies -- notably from the UK, the Commonwealth, and France -- were concerned about a geopolitical imbalance rendering NATO defenseless while the United States fought China, who then might persuade the Soviet Union to conquer Western Europe. The Joint Chiefs of Staff advised Truman to tell Attlee that the United States would use nuclear weapons only if necessary to protect an evacuation of UN troops, or to prevent a "major military disaster ''.
On 6 December 1950, after the Chinese intervention repelled the UN Command armies from northern North Korea, General J. Lawton Collins (Army Chief of Staff), General MacArthur, Admiral C. Turner Joy, General George E. Stratemeyer, and staff officers Major General Doyle Hickey, Major General Charles A. Willoughby, and Major General Edwin K. Wright met in Tokyo to plan strategy countering the Chinese intervention; they considered three potential atomic warfare scenarios encompassing the next weeks and months of warfare.
Both the Pentagon and the State Department were cautious about using nuclear weapons because of the risk of general war with China and the diplomatic ramifications. Truman and his senior advisors agreed, and never seriously considered using them in early December 1950 despite the poor military situation in Korea.
In 1951, the U.S. escalated closest to atomic warfare in Korea. Because China deployed new armies to the Sino - Korean frontier, pit crews at the Kadena Air Base, Okinawa, assembled atomic bombs for Korean warfare, "lacking only the essential pit nuclear cores ''. In October 1951, the United States effected Operation Hudson Harbor to establish a nuclear weapons capability. USAF B - 29 bombers practised individual bombing runs from Okinawa to North Korea (using dummy nuclear or conventional bombs), coordinated from Yokota Air Base in east - central Japan. Hudson Harbor tested "actual functioning of all activities which would be involved in an atomic strike, including weapons assembly and testing, leading, ground control of bomb aiming ''. The bombing run data indicated that atomic bombs would be tactically ineffective against massed infantry, because the "timely identification of large masses of enemy troops was extremely rare. ''
Ridgway was authorized to use nuclear weapons if a major air attack originated from outside Korea. An envoy was sent to Hong Kong to deliver a warning to China. The message likely caused Chinese leaders to be more cautious about potential U.S. use of nuclear weapons, but whether they learned about the B - 29 deployment is unclear and the failure of the two major Chinese offensives that month likely was what caused them to shift to a defensive strategy in Korea. The B - 29s returned to the United States in June.
Despite the greater destructive power deploying atomic weapons would bring to the war, their effects on determining the war 's outcome would have likely been minimal. Tactically, given the dispersed nature of Chinese and North Korean forces, the relatively primitive infrastructure for staging and logistics centers, and the small number of bombs available (most would have been conserved for use against the Soviets), atomic attacks would have limited effects against the ability of China to mobilize and move forces. Strategically, attacking Chinese cities to destroy civilian industry and infrastructure would cause the immediate dispersion of the leadership away from such areas and give propaganda value for the communists to galvanize the support of Chinese civilians. Since the Soviets were not expected to intervene with their few primitive atomic weapons on China or North Korea 's behalf if the U.S. used theirs first, factors such as little operational value and the lowering of the "threshold '' for using atomic weapons against non-nuclear states in future conflicts played more of a role in not employing them than the threat of a possible nuclear exchange.
When Eisenhower succeeded Truman in early 1953 he was similarly cautious about using nuclear weapons in Korea, including for diplomatic purposes to encourage progress in ongoing truce discussions. The administration prepared contingency plans to use them against China, but like Truman, the new president feared doing so would result in Soviet attacks on Japan. The war ended as it began, without U.S. nuclear weapons deployed near battle.
There were numerous atrocities and massacres of civilians throughout the Korean war committed by both the North and South Koreans. Many started on the first days of the war. South Korean President Syngman Rhee ordered the Bodo League massacre on 28 June, beginning killings of more than 100,000 suspected leftist sympathizers and their families by South Korean officials and right - wing groups. During the massacre, the British protested to their allies and saved some citizens.
In occupied areas, North Korean Army political officers purged South Korean society of its intelligentsia by executing every educated person -- academic, governmental, religious -- who might lead resistance against the North; the purges continued during the NPA retreat. When the North Koreans retreated north in September 1950, they abducted tens of thousands of South Korean men. The reasons are not clear, but the intention might have been to acquire skilled professionals to the North.
In addition to conventional military operations, North Korean soldiers fought the UN forces by infiltrating guerrillas among refugees. These soldiers disguised as refugees would approach UN forces asking for food and help, then open fire and attack. U.S. troops acted under a "shoot - first - ask - questions - later '' policy against any civilian refugee approaching U.S. battlefield positions, a policy that led U.S. soldiers to kill an estimated 400 civilians at No Gun Ri (26 -- 29 July 1950) in central Korea because they believed some of the refugees to be North Korean soldiers in disguise. The South Korean Truth and Reconciliation Commission defended this policy as a "military necessity ''.
Beginning in 2005, the South Korean Truth and Reconciliation Commission has investigated numerous atrocities committed by the Japanese colonial government, North Korean military, U.S. military, and the authoritarian South Korean government. It has investigated atrocities before, during and after the Korean War.
The Commission verified over 14,000 civilians were killed in the Jeju uprising (1948 -- 49) that involved South Korean military and paramilitary units against pro-North Korean guerrillas. Although most of the fighting subsided by 1949, it continued until 1950. The Commission estimates 86 % of the civilians were killed by South Korean forces. The Americans on the island documented the events, but never intervened.
At Geoje prison camp on Geoje Island, Chinese POWs experienced anti-communist lecturing and missionary work from secret agents from the U.S. and Taiwan in No. 71, 72 and 86 camps. Pro-Communist POWs experienced torture, cutting off of limbs, or were executed in public. Being forced to write confession letters and receiving tattoos of an anti-Communism slogan and Flag of the Republic of China were also commonly seen, in case any wanted to go back to mainland China.
Pro-Communist POWs who could not endure the torture formed an underground group to fight the pro-Nationalist POWs secretly by assassination which led to the Geoje Uprising. The rebellion captured Francis Dodd, and was cracked down by the 187th Infantry Regiment.
In the end, 14,235 Chinese POWs went to Nationalist China (Taiwan) and less than 6,000 POWs went back to mainland China. Those who went to Taiwan are called "righteous men '' and experienced brainwashing again and were sent to the army or were arrested; while the survivors who went back to mainland China were welcomed as a "hero '' first, but experienced anti-brainwashing, strict interrogation, and house arrest eventually, after the tattoos were discovered. After 1988, the Taiwanese government allowed POWs to go back to mainland China, and helped remove anti-communist tattoos; while the mainland Chinese government started to accept old POWs to return from Taiwan.
During the first days of the war North Korean soldiers committed the Seoul National University Hospital massacre.
The United States reported that North Korea mistreated prisoners of war: soldiers were beaten, starved, put to forced labor, marched to death, and summarily executed.
The KPA killed POWs at the battles for Hill 312, Hill 303, the Pusan Perimeter, and Daejeon; these massacres were discovered afterwards by the UN forces. Later, a U.S. Congress war crimes investigation, the United States Senate Subcommittee on Korean War Atrocities of the Permanent Subcommittee of the Investigations of the Committee on Government Operations, reported that "two - thirds of all American prisoners of war in Korea died as a result of war crimes ''.
Although the Chinese rarely executed prisoners like their North Korean counterparts, mass starvation and diseases swept through the Chinese - run POW camps during the winter of 1950 -- 51. About 43 percent of U.S. POWs died during this period. The Chinese defended their actions by stating that all Chinese soldiers during this period were suffering mass starvation and diseases due to logistical difficulties. The UN POWs said that most of the Chinese camps were located near the easily supplied Sino - Korean border, and that the Chinese withheld food to force the prisoners to accept the communism indoctrination programs. According to Chinese reports, over a thousand U.S. POWs died by the end of June 1951, while a dozen British POWs died, and all Turkish POW survived. According to Hastings, wounded U.S. POWs died for lack of medical attention and were fed a diet of corn and millet "devoid of vegetables, almost barren of proteins, minerals, or vitamins '' with only 1 / 3 the calories of their usual diet. Especially in early 1951, thousands of prisoners lost the will to live and "declined to eat the mess of sorghum and rice they were provided. ''
The unpreparedness of U.S. POWs to resist heavy communist indoctrination during the Korean War led to the Code of the United States Fighting Force which governs how U.S. military personnel in combat should act when they must "evade capture, resist while a prisoner or escape from the enemy ''.
North Korea may have detained up to 50,000 South Korean POWs after the ceasefire. Over 88,000 South Korean soldiers were missing and the Communists ' claimed they captured 70,000 South Koreans. However, when ceasefire negotiations began in 1951, the Communists reported they held only 8,000 South Koreans. The UN Command protested the discrepancies and alleged that the Communists were forcing South Korean POWs to join the KPA.
The Communist side denied such allegations. They claimed their POW rosters were small because many POWs were killed in UN air raids and that they had released ROK soldiers at the front. They insisted only volunteers were allowed to serve in the KPA. By early 1952, UN negotiators gave up trying to get back the missing South Koreans. The POW exchange proceeded without access to South Korean POWs not on the Communist rosters.
North Korea continued to claim that any South Korean POW who stayed in the North did so voluntarily. However, since 1994, South Korean POWs have been escaping North Korea on their own after decades of captivity. As of 2010, the South Korean Ministry of Unification reported that 79 ROK POWs escaped the North. The South Korean government estimates 500 South Korean POWs continue to be detained in North Korea.
The escaped POWs have testified about their treatment and written memoirs about their lives in North Korea. They report they were not told about the POW exchange procedures, and were assigned to work in mines in the remote northeastern regions near the Chinese and Russian border. Declassified Soviet Foreign Ministry documents corroborate such testimony.
In 1997, the Geoje POW Camp in South Korea was turned into a memorial.
In December 1950, National Defense Corps was founded; the soldiers were 406,000 drafted citizens. In the winter of 1951, 50,000 to 90,000 South Korean National Defense Corps soldiers starved to death while marching southward under the Chinese offensive when their commanding officers embezzled funds earmarked for their food. This event is called the National Defense Corps Incident. There is no evidence that Syngman Rhee was personally involved in or benefited from the corruption.
In 1950, Secretary of Defense George C. Marshall and Secretary of the Navy Francis P. Matthews called on the USO which was disbanded by 1947 to provide support for U.S. servicemen. By the end of the war, more than 113,000 USO volunteers from the U.S. were working at home front and abroad. Many stars came to Korea to give their performances. Throughout the Korean War, UN Comfort Stations were operated by South Korean officials for UN soldiers.
Postwar recovery was different in the two Koreas. South Korea stagnated in the first postwar decade. In 1953, South Korea and the United States signed a Mutual Defense Treaty. In 1960, the April Revolution occurred and students joined an anti-Syngman Rhee demonstration; 142 were killed by police; in consequence Syngman Rhee resigned and left for exile in the United States. Park Chung - hee 's May 16 coup enabled social stability. In the 1960s, prostitution and related services represented 25 percent of South Korean GNP. From 1965 to 1973, South Korea dispatched troops to Vietnam and received $235,560,000 in allowance and military procurement from the United States. GNP increased fivefold during the Vietnam War. South Korea industrialized and modernized. Contemporary North Korea remains underdeveloped. South Korea had one of the world 's fastest - growing economies from the early 1960s to the late 1990s. In 1957 South Korea had a lower per capita GDP than Ghana, and by 2010 it was ranked thirteenth in the world (Ghana was 86th).
Following extensive USAF bombing, North Korea "had been virtually destroyed as an industrial society. '' After the armistice, Kim Il - Sung requested Soviet economic and industrial assistance. In September 1953, the Soviet government agreed to "cancel or postpone repayment for all... outstanding debts '', and promised to grant North Korea one billion rubles in monetary aid, industrial equipment and consumer goods. Eastern European members of the Soviet Bloc also contributed with "logistical support, technical aid, (and) medical supplies. '' China canceled North Korea 's war debts, provided 800 million yuan, promised trade cooperation, and sent in thousands of troops to rebuild damaged infrastructure.
Postwar, about 100,000 North Koreans were executed in purges. According to Rummel, forced labor and concentration camps were responsible for over one million deaths in North Korea from 1945 to 1987; others have estimated 400,000 deaths in concentration camps alone. Estimates based on the most recent North Korean census suggest that 240,000 to 420,000 people died as a result of the 1990s North Korean famine and that there were 600,000 to 850,000 unnatural deaths in North Korea from 1993 to 2008. A study by South Korean anthropologists of North Korean children who had defected to China found that 18 - year - old males were 13 centimetres (5 in) shorter than South Koreans their age because of malnutrition.
South Korean anti-Americanism after the war was fueled by the presence and behavior of U.S. military personnel (USFK) and U.S. support for the authoritarian regime, a fact still evident during the country 's democratic transition in the 1980s. However, anti-Americanism has declined significantly in South Korea in recent years, from 46 % favorable in 2003 to 74 % favorable in 2011, making South Korea one of the most pro-U.S. countries in the world.
In addition, a large number of mixed - race "G.I. babies '' (offspring of U.S. and other UN soldiers and Korean women) were filling up the country 's orphanages. Because Korean traditional society places significant weight on paternal family ties, bloodlines, and purity of race, children of mixed race or those without fathers are not easily accepted in South Korean society. International adoption of Korean children began in 1954. The U.S. Immigration Act of 1952 legalized the naturalization of non-blacks and non-whites as U.S. citizens, and made possible the entry of military spouses and children from South Korea after the Korean War. With the passage of the Immigration Act of 1965, which substantially changed U.S. immigration policy toward non-Europeans, Koreans became one of the fastest - growing Asian groups in the United States.
Mao Zedong 's decision to take on the United States in the Korean War was a direct attempt to confront what the Communist bloc viewed as the strongest anti-Communist power in the world, undertaken at a time when the Chinese Communist regime was still consolidating its own power after winning the Chinese Civil War. Mao supported intervention not to save North Korea, but because he believed that a military conflict with the United States was inevitable after the United States entered the Korean War, and to appease the Soviet Union to secure military dispensation and achieve Mao 's goal of making China a major world military power. Mao was equally ambitious in improving his own prestige inside the communist international community by demonstrating that his Marxist concerns were international. In his later years Mao believed that Stalin only gained a positive opinion of him after China 's entrance into the Korean War. Inside mainland China, the war improved the long - term prestige of Mao, Zhou, and Peng, allowing the Chinese Communist Party to increase its legitimacy while weakening anti-Communist dissent.
The Chinese government have encouraged the point of view that the war was initiated by the United States and South Korea, though ComIntern documents have shown that Mao sought approval from Joseph Stalin to enter the war. In Chinese media, the Chinese war effort is considered as an example of China 's engaging the strongest power in the world with an under - equipped army, forcing it to retreat, and fighting it to a military stalemate. These successes were contrasted with China 's historical humiliations by Japan and by Western powers over the previous hundred years, highlighting the abilities of the People 's Liberation Army and the Chinese Communist Party. The most significant negative long - term consequence of the war for China was that it led the United States to guarantee the safety of Chiang Kai - shek 's regime in Taiwan, effectively ensuring that Taiwan would remain outside of PRC control through the present day. Mao had also discovered the usefulness of large - scale mass movements in the war while implementing them among most of his ruling measures over PRC. Finally, anti-U.S. sentiments, which were already a significant factor during the Chinese Civil War, was ingrained into Chinese culture during the Communist propaganda campaigns of the Korean War.
The Korean War affected other participant combatants. Turkey, for example, entered NATO in 1952, and the foundation was laid for bilateral diplomatic and trade relations with South Korea.
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who killed the da in daredevil season 2 | Daredevil (season 2) - wikipedia
The second season of the American web television series Daredevil, which is based on the Marvel Comics character of the same name, follows Matt Murdock / Daredevil, a blind lawyer - by - day who fights crime at night, crossing paths with the deadly Frank Castle / Punisher along with the return of an old girlfriend -- Elektra Natchios. It is set in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU), sharing continuity with the films and other television series of the franchise. The season is produced by Marvel Television in association with ABC Studios, with Doug Petrie and Marco Ramirez serving as showrunners, and series creator Drew Goddard acting as consultant.
Charlie Cox stars as Murdock, while Jon Bernthal and Élodie Yung are introduced as Castle and Natchios. Deborah Ann Woll, Elden Henson, Rosario Dawson, and Vincent D'Onofrio also return from the first season, with Stephen Rider joining them. The season was ordered in April 2015 after the successful release of the first, with Petrie and Ramirez replacing the season one showrunner Steven S. DeKnight. Production on the season began in July 2015 and continued through December, with the season focusing on the nature of heroism through comparison of Murdock to Castle and Natchios, and showing how the latter two affect Murdock 's life.
The first two episodes of the season premiered in Paris on March 7, 2016, with the full season of 13 episodes released on Netflix on March 18. Critics praised the introduction of Castle and Natchios, as well as Bernthal 's performance in particular, the season 's action, and storylines. However, many missed the presence of Vondie Curtis - Hall 's Ben Urich from season one, and D'Onofrio's Wilson Fisk during the first half of season two. The series was renewed for a third season in July 2016.
When asked about the future of the series following the first season, showrunner Steven S. DeKnight said that Daredevil "is one part of the bigger plan -- Jessica Jones, Luke Cage, Iron Fist, and then The Defenders. How that all fits together, and whether or not there will be a second season of this show -- or if it will fold into the others -- are questions nobody really has answers to yet. '' In November 2014, DeKnight said that there "probably will be more '' seasons of Daredevil following the first. In January 2015, Netflix COO Ted Sarandos stated the series was "eligible to go into multiple seasons for sure '' and Netflix would look at "how well (they) are addressing both the Marvel fanbase but also the broader fanbase '' to determine if additional seasons would be appropriate.
On April 21, 2015, Marvel and Netflix announced that the series had been renewed for a second season, with Doug Petrie and Marco Ramirez replacing DeKnight as showrunners as well as acting as executive producers; both served as writers in the first season and worked closely with DeKnight and series creator Drew Goddard. The season introduces the Punisher, whom DeKnight and the writers had wanted to introduce in a post-credits scene during the first - season finale but were unable due to the way that Netflix begins the next episode during the credits of the current one. DeKnight felt that this "was the right decision. I think there 's a better, more organic way to introduce him to the world. '' Ramirez referred to the second season internally as "Daredevil vs. the Punisher ''. In September 2015, Goddard explained that he was still involved with the season as an executive producer, consulting with Petrie and Ramirez when asked to. The season consists of 13 hour - long episodes.
Ramirez talked about how the second season would be different from the first, saying that the writers had spent the first season wondering "if there was a place for dark and gritty content in superheroes '' and because of the positive fan reaction to that ("we got a loud answer of ' yes ' ''), approached the second season with the mindset, "you wanted grounded and wanted dark, here 's Elektra and Punisher. You asked for it. '' Petrie, talking about the potential use of flashbacks in the season, said that sometimes it is best to "peel back the layer of the onion through flashback, or two people in a room talking can have all the power in the world. That 's something we get to pick and choose. ''
On including the Punisher specifically in the season, where he is introduced to the Marvel Cinematic Universe, Goddard felt television was the best fit for the character, as the writers are "able to do things on the small screen that fit that character better than if we had to water him down for the movies. '' Goddard stated that the season 's approach to the characters and their actions would be to do what makes sense for the characters rather than "pushing the boundary '' or looking to shock the audience, though he noted that this could still go in a more "adult... darker, dirtier '' way due to the freedom of Netflix and the presence of characters such as the Punisher. Petrie stated that the writers hoped to "stir the pot '' and "get people to think '' with the inclusion of the Punisher and his lethal methods, adding, "Taking lethal justice into your own hands in America in 2015 is tricky shit. We have not shied away from the rich complicated reality of Now. If you 've got a gun and you 're not the police you 're going to incite strong feelings. '' Ramirez added that Castle was not referred to as "Punisher '' in the writer 's room, similarly to Wilson Fisk not being called "Kingpin '' for season one, as it allowed the writers to think "about (Castle) as a man with a vendetta, who made an oath to his dead family. The more specific it got, the less it became about issues outside of Hell 's Kitchen or other things. '' In the series, the moniker of "The Punisher '' is given to Castle by the media due to his aggressive actions.
For the timing of introducing the new characters, the showrunners decided to introduce the Punisher immediately and hold back on Elektra briefly, with Ramirez explaining that "one of the pitfalls when we have this many great characters to play with is wanting to throw them at the wall '', but it was important to take the time to introduce the new characters properly to the audience, particularly to the people who were n't already familiar with them. Elaborating on the aim to keep the story focused on Murdock, Petrie revealed that the writers would often come up with "amazing stuff '' for the season, but then realize that they had forgotten about Murdock and had to "completely turn it over and look at how this affects Matt and filter it through that prism. '' Ramirez added,
It could easily become The Punisher story or the Elektra story that Matt cameos in, and not vice versa. So, we built it like a Matt story, in terms of what we wanted to put him through, where we wanted to get him, by the end of the season, and what we wanted to have him learn about himself, and we used an Elektra and Frank story throughout, to get him there... we talked about when we watch shows in 13 episode stretches, how do we watch them? What is an exciting structure that we would like to think about here? Do we divide it right down the middle? Do we do a three - act structure?... If you were to sit and watch 13 episodes, you would absolutely feel a structure, much like in the comics. That 's what we did this season.
Charlie Cox explained that with Wilson Fisk imprisoned following the first season, season two picks up with "the crime rate (having) plummeted. Things have returned to normal, if not better than normal '', which is when Punisher is introduced, who makes Matt Murdock "question everything. Matt has to reevaluate who is (sic) and what he does ''. Jeph Loeb, head of Marvel Television, said that "if season one was really about Matt 's decision to become a hero, then season two really became about what is it to be a hero. '' By introducing the Punisher and Elektra, the writers were able to "push and pull '' on Murdock, contrasting their three ideologies -- the Punisher seeing "justice in a very black - and - white kind of way '', and Elektra living "more in the gray ''. On Elektra in particular, Loeb said that she has a very clear, self - motivated agenda, and she challenges Murdock 's own agenda and "quest for justice. Who are you doing this for? Why are you doing this? What 's the end goal that you 're trying to achieve? ''
Charlie Cox, Deborah Ann Woll, Elden Henson, Rosario Dawson, and Vincent D'Onofrio return from the first season as Matt Murdock / Daredevil, Karen Page, Franklin "Foggy '' Nelson, Claire Temple, and Wilson Fisk / Kingpin, respectively. In June 2015, Jon Bernthal was cast as Frank Castle / Punisher, and Élodie Yung was cast as Elektra a month later. In September, Stephen Rider joined the cast as Blake Tower.
Also returning from season one are Royce Johnson as Brett Mahoney, Susan Varon as Josie, Geoffrey Cantor as Mitchell Ellison, Scott Glenn as Stick, Peter Shinkoda as Nobu Yoshioka, Rob Morgan as Turk Barrett, Matt Gerald as Melvin Potter, Peter McRobbie as Lantom, Amy Rutberg as Marci Stahl, Kevin Nagle as Roscoe Sweeney, Wai Ching Ho as Gao, and Suzanne H. Smart as Shirley Benson. Ron Nakahara, John Pirkis, and Marilyn Torres have recurring roles as Hirochi, Stan Gibson, and Louisa Delgado, respectively, while Michelle Hurd and Carrie - Anne Moss reprise their Jessica Jones roles of Samantha Reyes and Jeri Hogarth.
Joshua Shaw designed costumes for characters in the season. Petrie stated that more layers were added to the series ' atmosphere to keep the season dark but provide more clarity to the viewer, an issue that occurred in the first season. Petrie also talked about the costumes for characters such as Elektra, noting that they had to not only look at the comics and "what looks cool '', but also "what would you really fight in? What would protect you?... will people be wearing kick ass costumes in this show? At some point, everybody does. We promise. But, that said, we want to make them feel as organic and grounded as possible.
Lorraine Calvert joined the series as costume designer for the season. On adapting Elektra 's costume for the season, which in the comics usually consists of impractically "strappy '' red cloth, Calvert decided to make it utilitarian and appealing, while still being faithful to the comics. Originally starting out opposite of the eventual sleek design for both her fighting and daytime attire, Calvert said, "Ideas were tossed around about how she was possibly bohemian, (because) she was a free spirit who traveled all over the world with as much money as she possibly could. '' This eventually led to the final, sleeker design, because Elektra "really needs a very simple, elegant line because too much cloth is overwhelming. '' The costume consisted of "black moto pants, a one - piece zippered body suit, a sleeveless vest, and red cloth to provide the highlights and the hood covering Elektra 's face. '' The shade of the red used for Elektra throughout the season was chosen so it would not clash with the red in Daredevil 's costume, as well as to match the darker tone of the series.
Daredevil 's costume was also upgraded in the season, with Calvert calling it "a much more fluid suit and much more tactical in a way. '' The costume department "streamlined '' the suit to make it simpler, using less material on the gauntlets and boots. Cox described it as a "delicate area '' that required some "tweaks '' after the brief use of it at the end of the first season. He noted that the changes are weaved into the storyline of the season, including the need for a new, redesigned mask, and a lower - half of the suit that is closer to the original cargo pants that the character wore earlier in the previous season. These baggier pants gave Cox and his stunt double much more maneuverability.
Production on the season began in July 2015 in East Harlem, with the working title Ringside, and a nine - day - per - episode schedule. Filming locations included the Metro Theater; Roosevelt Island; Greenpoint, Brooklyn; Long Island City; SoHo for exterior shots of Murdock 's apartment; Newtown Creek; the Forest Park Carousel; Bayside, Queens for Castle 's old home; Green - Wood Cemetery and Catacombs; East Village; the Bronx County Courthouse; Tribeca; Hell 's Kitchen; the Brooklyn Navy Yard; Fort Totten and tunnels inside Bayley Seton Hospital for when Murdock confronts the Hand; and Calvary Cemetery. Filming ended in December 2015.
Martin Ahlgren joined the series as director of photography for the season, deciding to "go in a slightly different direction '' than the first season, but retaining "the yellowish street light color that gave season one a very distinct style ''. Ahlgren filmed season two in 4K resolution on RED Dragon cameras, and tried to use in - shot lighting such as lamps and car headlights, as well as "4 × 4 Light Blankets -- flexible sheets of LED that was small enough to fit into tight locations and light enough that it could be taped to a wall, yet outputs a very nice soft light that can be adjusted from daylight to tungsten color ''. Ahlgren highlighted the car chase at the beginning of "Guilty as Sin '' as a challenge, noting the many ninjas chasing the car, and the one that "jumps up on the car and travels on the roof for a block '', with all the stunts filmed on location. An Ultimate Arm, "a motorized crane mounted on a Porsche Cayenne '', was used for the sequence, a break from the series ' usual handheld and steadicam operations. The chase was shot over two nights in Greenpoint, Brooklyn, with the interior of the car then filmed on a green screen stage, a rarity for the series, "to give the actors a better environment to act in ''.
On the season 's fight sequences and choreography, Bernthal said, "The fights are all character - driven and the fights tell a story. '' Cox added that "there is absolutely an attempt to make sure every punch or kick that is thrown is like a line of dialogue; there is motive behind it, there is reason behind it, it means something. '' Cox 's stunt double, Chris Brewster, explained how the series ' fight choreography has evolved, with the first season having shown Murdock just starting out as a vigilante -- "he fought with all heart and soul, but was n't a polished fighter... he was more raw and gritty '' -- while the second season sees the character having learned from previous mistakes -- "his style is more defined and thought out now, but he will always fight with the Daredevil flair ''. As for the fighting styles of Punisher and Elektra, Brewster said that because of the Punisher 's military background he uses a lot of weapons, and his "hand to hand style is more of a close quarter combat nature '', while Elektra was trained by Stick and the Hand, so she has similar movement to Daredevil who was also trained by Stick. "However, '' Brewster continued, "The Hand are trained assassins who are all about stealth takeouts and quick kills. Her style shows elements of '' that as well. The season uses multiple different martial art styles, including kali, Chinese kung fu, wing chun, kenjutsu, and boxing.
The one - take fight in "New York 's Finest '' in which Daredevil fights gang members down a staircase was described by Cox as "kind of like an homage '' to the first season 's well received one - take hallway fight scene, and "almost like that scene on crack ''. Silvera noted that it is a metaphorical "descent into Hell '' rather than a "test of will '' like the first season 's scene. The stunt team had three days to prepare the fight, and the final sequence was filmed in a day and a half. Unlike the first season 's scene, which was shot on a set and used a camera mounted on a ceiling track, the stairwell sequence was filmed on location, and required the camera to be passed around multiple people to get the final shot. The season includes another homage to the hallway scene in "Seven Minutes in Heaven '', where the Punisher has his own hallway fight. Silvera noted that this "full - blown '', murdering Punisher was "a strong contrast to Daredevil ''. For all the season 's fights, the stunt team filmed a previsualization version using stunt doubles, with the actors, such as Cox, then shown this in sections on the day of filming, and allowed to make adjustments where necessary. Though the actors completed the majority of the fights, doubles were used for flips and major stunts.
Shade VFX returns from the first season to work on the visual effects for the series.
By September 2015, John Paesano had begun composing music for the season. He felt that the season 's new showrunners "were true to what we were trying to do in season one. There were just elements in season two that we had to acknowledge '' such as the Punisher and Elektra. He jokingly said that "it 's not like we all of the sudden went into John Williams territory, you know? It 's definitely still dark, still gritty... but it definitely jumps up a couple levels. '' When approaching the characters of Punisher and Elektra, with whom Paesano was familiar from the comics and previous adaptations, he "took all those preconceived notions I had with a grain of salt '' and waited to see what the season 's interpretation of the characters would be. Paesano worked closely with the series ' sound design team, spotting episodes with them to coordinate where "we were going to hit what '' and "maintain that definable aspect of New York '' and its sound. A soundtrack album for the season was released digitally by Hollywood Records on July 15, 2016.
All music composed by John Paesano, unless otherwise noted.
On references to the larger MCU, Ramirez said "those little Easter eggs that come along the way are fun '', but there were times when the writers did not take opportunities to reference the rest of the universe because they felt like distractions from the series ' narrative and characters. Petrie stated that the writers wanted to "keep it in Hell 's Kitchen '' and focus on issues such as "the air conditioner does n't work at Nelson and Murdock. That 's really what we 're interested in. '' He explained that the real life New York City "has a larger than life presence '' with celebrities that live there -- "If you see Derek Jeter walking down the street, that 's great, but then you turn the corner and you get into an argument with the guy who overcharged you for a pretzel. We want our guys to be real New Yorkers. ''
The season features the motorcycle gang Dogs of Hell, who were first introduced through their Nevada chapter in the Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. episode "Yes Men '', and Roxxon Energy Corporation, a company featured throughout the MCU. It also mentions the vigilantes Jessica Jones and Luke Cage, the death of Oscar Clemons, and the law firm Hogarth, Chao, and Benowitz, which are all references to the first season of Jessica Jones. When Claire Temple first appears in the season, she has "a cut in her eyebrow '', which Cox was told would be explained in Luke Cage, saying, "the timeline had been thought through and worked out so that whatever 's going on in Luke Cage... somehow at some point during that show, the next day she 's in the hospital talking to me. ''
The second season of Daredevil was released on March 18, 2016 on the streaming service Netflix worldwide, in Ultra HD 4K. Preparing for the release, Netflix created eight different images to use as cover art for the season on its site. The images were randomly distributed among select subscribers, with Netflix tracking to see which one was the best - performing to eventually use for all subscribers. Netflix also debuted a countdown timer to a percentage of its users worldwide, allowing them to see how long it was until the season would debut. The season was enhanced to be available in high dynamic range after its initial release by post-production vendor Deluxe.
Footage from the season was shown at New York Comic Con in October 2015, and at Comic Con Experience that December. On February 15, 2016, the first part of the season trailer was released focusing on the Punisher, while the second part focusing on Elektra was released 10 days later, on February 25. Scott Mendelson of Forbes felt the first part is "clearly going for a vibe similar to that first full - length Dark Knight teaser back in December of 2007, with Castle being framed as a natural byproduct of / reaction to Daredevil 's own vigilantism ''. He also appreciated that it appeared Castle would be presented as a villain, as the previous film adaptions of the character always had Castle "still a hero at the end. '' Mendelson 's one drawback to the trailer was when Castle starts "monologue - ing '' in the last third, feeling Bernthal "casts such an imposing and grim shadow as a near - silent angel of death that the (haunting and mythological) mood is almost broken ''. Joanna Robinson at Vanity Fair felt that the premise of the trailer, with Daredevil facing the Punisher, is "right in line with the big superhero trend this spring '', comparing it to Captain America: Civil War and Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice, which feature Captain America fighting Iron Man and Batman fighting Superman, respectively. Robinson wondered if, like those films, the season also has a separate, "bigger bad waiting in the wings to unite our vigilantes '' that the trailer is hiding.
On March 7, 2016, the first two episodes of the season premiered in Paris, with a premiere in New York City on March 10. Also in early March, billboards were erected in Toronto featuring character posters for Daredevil, Punisher and Elektra. The series ' Twitter account encouraged users to vote for which character was their favorite, with the other two receiving blood and bruises added to their billboards.
As Netflix does not reveal subscriber viewership numbers for any of their original series, Symphony Technology Group compiled data for the season based on people using software on their phones that measures television viewing by detecting a program 's sound. According to Symphony, the second season of Daredevil had 5.94 % of viewers age 18 - 49 watching in an average minute in the first 32 days following its release. Symphony also estimated that 3.201 million viewers age 18 - 49 were watching an episode of Daredevil ' second season over the average minute in its first weekend of release. The marketing analytics firm Jumpshot determined the season was the most viewed Netflix season in the first 30 days after it premiered. Jumpshot, which "analyzes click - stream data from an online panel of more than 100 million consumers '', looked at the viewing behavior and activity of the company 's U.S. members, factoring in the relative number of U.S. Netflix viewers who watched at least one episode of the season.
The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 76 % approval rating with an average rating of 7.1 / 10 based on 33 reviews. The website 's critical consensus reads, "Bolstered by some impressive action, Daredevil keeps its footing in season two, even if the additions of Punisher and Elektra ca n't quite fill the void left by Wilson Fisk. '' Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned a score of 68 out of 100, based on 12 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''.
Reviewing the first seven episodes, Brian Lowry of Variety said, the season begins "on an uneven note '', comparing some of the early moments to the works of Sam Peckinpah, "complete with slow - motion bullets and blood sprays. Stick with it, though, and the show blossoms, featuring a few terrific action sequences while introducing into this grim world seminal characters the Punisher and Elektra. '' Kevin Fitzpatrick of Screen Crush felt the first seven episodes of the season seemed "to have learned the best of both '' from season one and Jessica Jones, "placing its most compelling imagery front and center straightaway, but still taking time to pick apart the characters beneath them, rather than shout platitudes about saving the city. '' He also praised the castings of Bernthal and Yung as Punisher and Elektra, respectively, and enjoyed "the improved spotlight '' for Foggy and Karen, given the reduction of Dawson saying, "So many superhero series struggle to draw its supporting characters as compellingly as the action, and Daredevil 's particular blend of set piece and legal thriller feels inescapably original. '' However, Fitzpatrick did note the series lacked the presence Vondie Curtis - Hall brought as Ben Urich in the first season. He concluded that the season 's progression "feels much cleaner '' than the first 's, "moving almost in acts more than back and forth victories... Even the aim feels that much more cohesive, to start in a place of Matt, Foggy and Karen all confident in their new roles, but wrestling with the consequence of their choice to always help the helpless. '' Merrill Barr of Forbes said, "Daredevil season two is very much the same excellent show Daredevil season one was... but in the places it is n't, it 's also very much improved ''. Barr praised Bernthal as the Punisher, and noted the reduction in the amount of "thick blacks '' in the cinematography that the first season was criticized for.
Collider.com 's Chris Cabin also praised the first seven episodes of the season, giving it four stars, and saying that the series "finds overwhelmingly sincere and effective traces of humanity in a genre that has been hard - pressed to feel overtly pre-conceived in its political, societal, and philosophical ideas. '' He said Daredevil, like Jessica Jones, "feels like a show that is constantly evolving, and consistently searching for challenges. '' Cabin also felt that "the show 's use of sound and image to infer or suggest as much as any line of dialogue... continues to set this series apart from its half - measured kin. '' He added that the season "goes to great lengths to make the stakes of '' the moral and ethical issues, as seen by pitting Daredevil 's methods against the Punisher, "intensely involving and thrilling, '' while also praising the action sequences of the season and the "streamlined focus on character in the writing '', claiming that "none of the (MCU) films have even an iota of the seductive intimacy and heart of this show. '' Dennis Perkins writing for The A.V. Club awarded the season a "B + '', missing D'Onofrio's "towering menace as Wilson Fisk '', but feeling that Bernthal and Yung "make Castle and Elektra an effective season - long two - pronged assault on Matt Murdock 's heroic identity, which gives Daredevil 's supporting characters a clearer purpose as well. '' IGN reviewer Matt Fowler, after reviewing all the episodes of season two individually, gave the season a 9.3 out of 10, saying that it "excelled at both action and story while giving us a more complex and layered season than the first... Gone was a notable ' main villain ', but instead we were given fantastic performances by not only the main cast but by newcomers Jon Bernthal and Elodie Yung. ''
Jack Shepherd of The Independent was slightly more critical of the early episodes of the season, saying the ideological battle between Murdock and Castle "is the crux of these first few episodes and also highlights the main problem with Daredevil '' pointing out that "there is no real bad guy here '' and there "is only so many times you can watch an episode end with Daredevil and Punisher beating each other up before you start thinking there is a glitch in the Matrix. '' He also agreed with Fitzpatick regarding Curtis - Hall 's presence as Ben Urich not being filled in the season. Despite this, Shepherd added that the season began to pick up by the fourth episode, with the introduction of Elektra, capping with episodes six and seven, which he called "by far the season 's best, laying the foundation for an exciting story ahead '', while also praising Cox, Henson, Woll, Bernthal and Yung for their performances. Daniel Fienberg, reviewing the first seven episodes for The Hollywood Reporter, expressed similar sentiments as Shepherd, feeling the episodes missed what Vincent D'Onofrio brought as Wilson Fisk in the first season, or at least "the through - line threat that he presented... Fortunately, the (Punisher and Elektra) are vividly realized and the action is still visceral and brutal and maybe the big picture will emerge in the season 's second half. Because of the portrayals of those two characters, he felt "that there 's a challenge to remain wholly invested in plotlines that do n't involve them ''. Despite being "right on the edge of desensitization '' regarding the fight scenes, Fienberg still praised them, highlighting the different styles Elektra and the Punisher used "vary (ing) the dynamic enough ''.
Entertainment Weekly 's Jeff Jensen award the season a "C '', calling it "a straight - up disappointment. '' Calling the early episodes with Daredevil 's face - off with the Punisher "skimpy and sluggish from the get - go '', Jensen also added that they were "a flatline of inert drama, with long scenes of windy exposition or dull skulking interrupted by the occasional well - staged if ridiculously gory fight sequence. '' Jensen added that "hope for improvement '' came with the introduction of Elektra, and that the sixth episode should be a template for the rest of the season, which ultimately, he felt was "stiff and silly. '' Daniel D'Addario for Time was also disappointed with the season, saying, "it 's hard not to feel that one is being taken for a long, and not particularly enjoyable, ride... Daredevil just wants to dole out fun doses of extreme gore on the path to an endpoint on a business plan. Any viewer committed to story is left searching in the dark. '' Vulture 's Abraham Riesman joined the criticism, calling the seven episodes reviewed "a dour parade of one cliché after another, recycling themes, images, and rhetoric that audiences have seen countless times before. '' Though he would n't call it "bad '', he felt that with all the other superhero content released in the same year, "it feels woefully unnecessary. '' However, he did praise Bernthal 's performance, saying it was "another excitingly sympathetic antagonist '' after D'Onofrio's "standout performance '' as Fisk in the first season, but was "nowhere near as fun ''. In contrast to the first season of Jessica Jones, which Riseman called Marvel 's "first attempt to depict sex in any kind of realistic way '', he called the second season of Daredevil "astoundingly un-sexy. ''
Got Your 6, which "champions positive portrayals of military veterans in Hollywood '', deemed "Semper Fidelis '' to be "6 Certified '' for "responsibly and accurately portray (ing) veterans via the character of Frank Castle, The Punisher, who insists that his legal representation not perpetuate veteran stereotypes of PTSD in order to defend his actions ''. Daredevil was included on Hidden Remote 's Best TV Series of 2016 list, ranking 4th. Comic Book Resources named "Seven Minutes in Hell '' and "Penny and Dime '' as the 12th and 2nd best episodes in 2016 among comic book - related television series, respectively.
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when is the final episode of the middle going to air | List of the Middle episodes - wikipedia
The Middle is a primetime American comedy series created by DeAnn Heline and Eileen Heisler for the ABC network. The Middle stars Patricia Heaton and Neil Flynn as Frankie and Mike Heck, a used - car saleswoman and the manager of a small mining firm respectively, who struggle to raise their children in the fictional middle - class town of Orson, Indiana. Their three children include the athletic but underachieving, slow - witted Axl (Charlie McDermott), cluelessly unpopular daughter Sue (Eden Sher), and frustrated, odd child - genius Brick (Atticus Shaffer). The Hecks find themselves embroiled in somewhat unusual events as they attempt to navigate their day - to - day lives. The series was met with a positive reception from television critics when it premiered on September 30, 2009, with a score of 70 on the aggregated reviews website Metacritic. On March 3, 2016, ABC renewed the series for an eighth season. On January 25, 2017, ABC renewed the series for a ninth season, later announced to be the show 's last.
As of April 10, 2018, 210 episodes of The Middle have aired.
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the national government failed to act quickly after hurricane katrina devastated new orleans | Criticism of government response to Hurricane Katrina - wikipedia
Criticism of the government response to Hurricane Katrina consisted primarily of condemnations of mismanagement and lack of preparation in the relief effort in response to Hurricane Katrina and its aftermath. Specifically, there was a delayed response to the flooding of New Orleans, Louisiana. (See Hurricane preparedness for New Orleans for criticism of the failure of Federal flood protection.)
Within days of Katrina 's August 29, 2005 landfall, public debate arose about the local, state and federal governments ' role in the preparations for and response to the storm. Criticism was prompted largely by televised images of visibly shaken and frustrated political leaders, and of residents who remained in New Orleans without water, food or shelter and the deaths of several citizens by thirst, exhaustion, and violence days after the storm itself had passed. The treatment of people who had evacuated to registered facilities such as the Superdome was also criticized.
Criticism from politicians, activists, pundits, and journalists of all stripes has been directed at the local, state and federal governments.
New Orleans Mayor Ray Nagin was also criticized for failing to implement his food plan and for ordering residents to a shelter of last resort without any provisions for food, water, security, or sanitary conditions. Perhaps the most important criticism of Nagin is that he delayed his emergency evacuation order until less than a day before landfall, which led to hundreds of deaths of people who (by that time) could not find any way out of the city. Adding to the criticism was the broadcast of school bus parking lots full of yellow school buses, which Mayor Nagin refused to be used in evacuation. When asked why the buses were not used to assist evacuations instead of holing up in the Superdome, Nagin cited the lack of insurance liability and shortage of bus drivers.
New Orleans has been classified as a non-regime city. Regimes involve governmental and non-governmental cooperation, a specific agenda, a recognized problem and resources to deal with the problem. New Orleans only had a temporary coalition to deal with Hurricane Katrina, which led to ineffective, temporary and inefficient evacuation and provision of resources. Organizations such as the Red Cross attempted to form coalitions, but the various actors could not agree on a specific solution, and this failure to cooperate led to instability and misunderstanding between governmental and non-governmental actors.
New Orleans was already one of the poorest metropolitan areas in the United States in 2005, with the eighth - lowest median income ($30,771). At 24.5 percent, Orleans Parish had the sixth - highest poverty rate among U.S. counties or county equivalents. The 2000 U.S. census revealed that 27 % of New Orleans households, amounting to approximately 120,000 people, were without private mobility. Despite these factors preventing many people from being able to evacuate on their own, the mandatory evacuation called on August 28 made no provisions to evacuate homeless, low - income, or sick individuals, nor the city 's elderly or infirm residents. Consequently, most of those stranded in the city were the poor, the elderly, and the sick.
It has been stated in the evacuation order that, beginning at noon on August 28 and running for several hours, all city buses were redeployed to shuttle local residents to, "refuges of last resort, '' designated in advance, including the Louisiana Superdome. They also said that the state had prepositioned enough food and water to supply 15,000 citizens with supplies for three days, the anticipated waiting period before FEMA would arrive in force and provide supplies for those still in the city. Later, it was found that FEMA had provided these supplies, but that FEMA Director Michael D. Brown was greatly surprised by the much larger numbers of people who turned up seeking refuge and that the first wave of supplies were quickly depleted. The large number of deaths were a result of the insufficient response and evacuation before Katrina 's arrival, primarily due to city and state resistance to issuing an evacuation order and risking "crying wolf '' and losing face should the hurricane have left the path of model prediction. Had contra - flow on highways been initiated sooner and more buses begun evacuating families (including the idle school buses that were not used at all) the numbers of stranded New Orleans occupants would have been significantly less making the initial wave of FEMA supplies adequate and even excessive.
= = Federal government response to the state of emergency = = stop President Bush signed a $ 10.5 billion relief package within four days of the hurricane, and ordered 7,200 active - duty troops to assist with relief efforts. However, some members of the United States Congress charged that the relief efforts were slow because most of the affected areas were poor. There was also concern that many National Guard units were short staffed in surrounding states because some units were deployed overseas and local recruiting efforts in schools and the community had been hampered making reserves less than ideal.
Due to the slow response to the hurricane, New Orleans 's top emergency management official called the effort a "national disgrace '' and questioned when reinforcements would actually reach the increasingly desperate city. New Orleans 's emergency operations chief Terry Ebbert blamed the inadequate response on the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA). "This is not a FEMA operation. I have n't seen a single FEMA guy '', he said. "FEMA has been here three days, yet there is no command and control. We can send massive amounts of aid to tsunami victims, but we ca n't bail out the city of New Orleans. ''
In the early morning of September 2 mayor Ray Nagin expressed his frustration at what he claimed were insufficient reinforcements provided by the President and federal authorities.
However, many police, fire and EMS organizations from outside the affected areas were reportedly hindered or otherwise slowed in their efforts to send help and assistance to the area. FEMA sent hundreds of firefighters who had volunteered to help rescue victims to Atlanta for 2 days of training classes on topics including sexual harassment and the history of FEMA. Official requests for help through the proper chains of command were not forthcoming due to local and state delays in engaging FEMA for federal assistance, even after approached by such authorities. Local police and other EMS workers found the situation traumatic; at least two officers committed suicide, and over 300 deserted the city after gang violence and "turf wars '' erupted around the city. A report by the Appleseed Foundation, a public policy network, found that local entities (nonprofit and local government agencies) were far more flexible and responsive than the federal government or national organizations. The federal response was often constrained by lack of legal authority or by ill - suited eligibility and application requirements. In many instances, federal staff and national organizations did not seem to have the flexibility, training, and resources to meet demands on the ground. ''
Early Tuesday morning, August 30, a day after the hurricane struck, President Bush attended a V-J Day commemoration ceremony at Coronado, California, while looking over the situation with his aides and cabinet officials. 24 hours before the ceremony, storm surges began overwhelming levees and floodwalls protecting the city of New Orleans, greatly exacerbating the minimal damage from rainfall and wind when the hurricane itself veered to the East and avoided a direct hit on New Orleans. Initial reports of leaked video footage of top - level briefings held before the storm claimed that this video contradicted Bush 's earlier statements that no one anticipated the breach of the levees. Transcripts revealed that Bush was warned that the levees may overflow, as were Governor Blanco and Mayor Nagin. The warning to Bush only addressed the levees being overrun by water, however, not breaking or developing holes, which is the Army Corps of Engineers ' definition of a breach.
Bush was criticized for not returning to Washington, D.C. from his vacation in Texas until after Wednesday afternoon, more than a day after the hurricane hit on Monday. On the morning of August 28, the president telephoned Mayor Nagin to "plead '' for a mandatory evacuation of New Orleans, and Nagin and Gov. Blanco decided to evacuate the city in response to that request. Blanco told reporters the President had called and spoken with her (but not Nagin) before the press conference.
Bush overflew the devastated area from Air Force One as he traveled from Texas back to Washington, D.C., and subsequently visited the Gulf Coast on Friday and was briefed on Hurricane Katrina. Turning to his aides during the flyover, Bush remarked, "It 's totally wiped out. It 's devastating, it 's got to be doubly devastating on the ground. '' Later, in a televised address from the White House, he said, "We 're dealing with one of the worst national disasters in our nation 's history. ''
Vice President Dick Cheney was also criticized in his role in the aftermath. On the night of August 30, and again the next morning, he personally called the manager of the Southern Pines Electric Power Association and ordered him to divert power crews to electrical substations in nearby Collins, Mississippi, that were essential to the operation of the Colonial Pipeline, which carries gasoline and diesel fuel from Texas to the Northeast. The power crews were reportedly upset when told what the purpose of the redirection was, since they were in the process of restoring power to two local hospitals, but did so anyway.
In January 2006, the President gave his 2006 State of the Union Address:
As we renew the promise of our institutions, let us also show the character of America in our compassion and care for one another...
A hopeful society comes to the aid of fellow citizens in times of suffering and emergency -- and stays at it until they 're back on their feet. So far the federal government has committed $85 billion to the people of the Gulf Coast and New Orleans. We 're removing debris and repairing highways and rebuilding stronger levees. We 're providing business loans and housing assistance. Yet as we meet these immediate needs, we must also address deeper challenges that existed before the storm arrived.
In New Orleans and in other places, many of our fellow citizens have felt excluded from the promise of our country. The answer is not only temporary relief, but schools that teach every child, and job skills that bring upward mobility, and more opportunities to own a home and start a business. As we recover from a disaster, let us also work for the day when all Americans are protected by justice, equal in hope, and rich in opportunity.
In January 2007, the fired FEMA director Michael D. Brown charged that partisan politics had played a role in the White House 's decision to federalize emergency response to the disaster in Louisiana only, rather than along the entire affected Gulf Coast region, which Brown said he had advocated. "Unbeknownst to me, certain people in the White House were thinking, ' We had to federalize Louisiana because she 's a white, female Democratic governor, and we have a chance to rub her nose in it, ' '' Brown said, speaking before a group of graduate students at the Metropolitan College of New York on January 19, 2007. "' We ca n't do it to Haley (Mississippi governor Haley Barbour) because Haley 's a white male Republican governor. And we ca n't do a thing to him. So we 're just gon na federalize Louisiana. ' '' The White House fervently denied Brown 's charges through a spokeswoman.
Discussion of the recovery efforts for Hurricane Katrina took a back seat to terrorism and Iraq in his 2006 State of the Union Address. In that speech, Bush did not mention any human suffering caused by the storm or its aftermath, and did not acknowledge any shortcomings in his administration 's response. Many people criticized Bush for failing to mention hurricane recovery in his 2007 State of the Union Address.
In a September 26, 2005 hearing, former FEMA chief Michael Brown testified before a U.S. House subcommittee about FEMA 's response. During that hearing, Representative Stephen Buyer (R - IN) inquired as to why President Bush 's declaration of state of emergency of August 27 had not included the coastal parishes of Orleans, Jefferson, and Plaquemines. (In fact, the declaration did not include any of Louisiana 's coastal parishes; rather, they were included in the declaration dated August 29.) Brown testified that this was because Louisiana Governor Blanco had not included those parishes in her initial request for aid, a decision that he found "shocking. '' After the hearing, Blanco released a copy of a letter dated August 28 which showed her requesting assistance for "all the southeastern parishes including the City of New Orleans '' as well specifically naming 14 parishes including Jefferson, Orleans and Plaquemines.
The recent Katrina hurricane was arguably the first major test of the Department of Homeland Security after September 11. There have been questions on who was in charge of the disaster and who had jurisdictional authority. According to many media outlets, as well as many politicians, the response to the disaster was inadequate in terms of leadership and response.
On September 4, 2005, Michael Chertoff, the Secretary of Homeland Security, held a press conference stating:
Chertoff 's remarks were heavily criticized as the scenario of a levee breach had been previously envisioned by the Army Corps of Engineers and the storm had closely followed the National Weather Service predictions.
On September 13, 2005, a memo was leaked that indicated that Chertoff issued 36 hours after the hurricane 's landfall which read, in part, "As you know, the President has established the ' White House Task Force on Hurricane Katrina Response. ' He will meet with us tomorrow to launch this effort. The Department of Homeland Security, along with other Departments, will be part of the task force and will assist the Administration with its response to Hurricane Katrina. '' The memo activated the National Response Plan and made Michael D. Brown responsible for federal action. The article found:
Chertoff 's hesitation and Bush 's creation of a task force both appear to contradict the National Response Plan and previous presidential directives that specify what the secretary of homeland security is assigned to do without further presidential orders. The goal of the National Response Plan is to provide a streamlined framework for swiftly delivering federal assistance when a disaster -- caused by terrorists or Mother Nature -- is too big for local officials to handle.
The Federal Emergency Management Agency was heavily criticized in the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina, primarily for its slow response and inability to coordinate its efforts with other federal agencies relief organizations. Chicago Mayor Richard Daley (D) said of the slow Federal response, "I was shocked. We are ready to provide considerably more help than they have requested. We are just waiting for the call. I do n't want to sit here and all of a sudden we are all going to be political. Just get it done. ''
FEMA was accused of deliberately slowing things down, in an effort to ensure that all assistance and relief workers were coordinated properly. For example, Michael D. Brown, the head of FEMA, on August 29, urged all fire and emergency services departments not to respond to counties and states affected by Hurricane Katrina without being requested and lawfully dispatched by state and local authorities under mutual aid agreements and the Emergency Management Assistance Compact.
FEMA also interfered in the Astor Hotel 's ' plans to hire 10 buses to carry approximately 500 guests to higher ground. Federal officials commandeered the buses, and told the guests to join thousands of other evacuees at the Ernest N. Morial Convention Center. In other instances of FEMA asserting its authority to only ultimately make things worse, FEMA officials turned away three Wal - Mart trailer trucks loaded with water, prevented the Coast Guard from delivering 1,000 gallons of diesel fuel, and on Saturday they cut the Jefferson Parish emergency communications line, leading the sheriff to restore it and post armed guards to protect it from FEMA. The Wal - Mart delivery had actually been turned away a week earlier, on Sunday, August 28, before the hurricane struck. A caravan of 13 Wal - Mart tractor trailers was reported in New Orleans by September 1. Additionally, more than 50 civilian aircraft responding to separate requests for evacuations from hospitals and other agencies swarmed to the area a day after Katrina hit, but FEMA blocked their efforts. Aircraft operators complained that FEMA waved off a number of evacuation attempts, saying the rescuers were not authorized. "Many planes and helicopters simply sat idle, '' said Thomas Judge, president of the Assn. of Air Medical Services.
It was also reported that FEMA replaced the hospital identification bracelets on some patients being evacuated or transferred with FEMA ID bracelets, causing hospital personnel to lose track of their patients. One hospital CEO stated that three months after the storm, the hospital staff still could not locate some of their patients who had been evacuated.
Senator Mary Landrieu (D - Louisiana), was particularly critical of FEMA 's efforts in a statement: "(T) he U.S. Forest Service had water - tanker aircraft available to help douse the fires raging on our riverfront, but FEMA has yet to accept the aid. When Amtrak offered trains to evacuate significant numbers of victims -- far more efficiently than buses -- FEMA again dragged its feet. Offers of medicine, communications equipment and other desperately needed items continue to flow in, only to be ignored by the agency. But perhaps the greatest disappointment stands at the breached 17th Street levee. Touring this critical site yesterday with the President, I saw what I believed to be a real and significant effort to get a handle on a major cause of this catastrophe. Flying over this critical spot again this morning, less than 24 hours later, it became apparent that yesterday we witnessed a hastily prepared stage set for a Presidential photo opportunity; and the desperately needed resources we saw were this morning reduced to a single, lonely piece of equipment. The good and decent people of southeast Louisiana and the Gulf Coast -- black and white, rich and poor, young and old -- deserve far better from their national government. '' However, Landrieu 's overflight was of the end of the single - lane roadway being built toward the breach. The "single, lonely piece of equipment '' was one power shovel, a bulldozer, and two dump trucks. Video did not show the work area a few hundred feet away at the start of the roadway. USACE photos show a variety of equipment at that site the following day.
The New York Times reported that 91,000 tons of ice ordered by FEMA at a cost of over $100 million and intended for hospitals and food storage for relief efforts never made it to the disaster area. Federally contracted truck drivers instead received orders from FEMA to deliver the ice to government rented storage facilities around the country, as far north as Maine. In testimony to a House panel, FEMA director Michael D. Brown stated that "I do n't think that 's a federal government responsibility to provide ice to keep my hamburger meat in my freezer or refrigerator fresh. ''
In a September 15, 2005 New York Times opinion column about the privately owned Methodist Hospital in New Orleans, Bob Herbert wrote, "Incredibly, when the out - of - state corporate owners of the hospital responded to the flooding by sending emergency relief supplies, they were confiscated at the airport by FEMA. ''
A September 16, 2005 CNN article about Chalmette Medical Center stated, "Doctors eager to help sick and injured evacuees were handed mops by federal officials who expressed concern about legal liability... And so they mopped, while people died around them. ''
FEMA Director, Michael Brown, was criticized when he stated that he was not aware there were refugees in the Convention Center until September 1, three days after Hurricane Katrina hit, when Brian Williams, of NBC Nightly News, asked Mr. Brown a question about them live on the Nightly News.
On September 2, CNN 's Soledad O'Brien asked FEMA Director Mike Brown, "How is it possible that we 're getting better info than you were getting... we were showing live pictures of the people outside the Convention Center... also we 'd been reporting that officials had been telling people to go to the Convention Center... I do n't understand how FEMA can not have this information. '' When pressed, Brown reluctantly admitted he had learned about the starving crowds at the Convention Center from news media reports. O'Brien then said to Brown, "FEMA 's been on the ground four days, going into the fifth day, why no massive air drop of food and water... in Banda Aceh, Indonesia, they got food drops two days after the tsunami. ''
Once officials became aware of the conditions at the Convention Center a small amount of basic food supplies were diverted there by helicopter, but there were no large - scale deliveries until a truck convoy arrived at midday September 2 -- the damage to infrastructure by the still present floodwaters and mob attacks delayed relief workers. Federal officials also underestimated the number of people converging on the convention center. Even as refugees were evacuated, more kept arriving every hour.
Later, members of the press suggested that Michael Brown was not experienced in emergency management when he was appointed to the position by President Bush two years prior to Katrina. Mr. Brown continues to deny these charges. And, in fact he had limited authority to order federal agencies into action until about 36 hours after the storm hit, when Chertoff designated him as the "principal federal official '' in charge of the storm. Chertoff was the one with the authority. "'' President Bush recognized this and commended Michael Brown and gave him credit for the good work he had done, "Brownie, you 're doing a heck of a job. The FEMA Director is working 24 -- they 're working 24 hours a day. ''
On September 9, Chertoff recalled Brown to Washington and removed him from the immediate supervision of the Hurricane Katrina relief effort, and replaced him with Vice Admiral Thad W. Allen, chief of staff of the United States Coast Guard. Three days later, on September 12, Brown resigned his position, stating, "As I told the president, it is important that I leave now to avoid further distraction from the ongoing mission of FEMA. ''
On September 6, citing a Defense Department policy banning the photographing of flag - draped coffins of American troops, FEMA representatives stated that they did not want journalists to accompany rescue boats as they went out searching for victims, because, "the recovery of the victims is being treated with dignity and the utmost respect. '' The agency also asked that no photographs of the dead be published by the media. This policy was met with much criticism by the media, and compared to censorship. On September 9, Army Lt. Gen. Russel L. Honoré, who oversaw the federal relief effort in New Orleans, and Terry Ebbert, Louisiana 's homeland security director, said that reporters would have, "zero access, '' to body recovery operations, a statement which was actually misinterpreted. What was meant by that was that reporters would not be embedded with recovery teams, but would still have free access to any public area in the city. CNN filed a lawsuit regarding the situation, and U.S. District Judge Keith Ellison issued an order preventing officials from blocking media coverage.
On September 7, FEMA hired a private disaster relief management company, Kenyon International, to collect bodies. Based in Houston, Texas, Kenyon International specializes in disaster relief and had provided services in previous major disasters worldwide. Kenyon was the only disaster management company capable of handling this kind of large scale event. Shortly after being hired by FEMA, the State of Louisiana requested Kenyon to work directly for them to complete the work. In 2005, Kenyon International was still a subsidiary of Service Corporation International (SCI). Kenyon received the government contract due to the nature of the incident and their extensive knowledge and previous experience of working mass fatality events. The federal government has been highly criticized for the hiring of Kenyon for several reasons, including the availability of volunteer morticians from in and around New Orleans, the questionable usage of federal funding, the ineffectiveness of the organization in carrying out is duties leaving bodies to be found up to a year after Katrina made landfall, an extensively checkered past that the Bush Administration was aware of and accused of covering - up, and the length of time it took to identify victims once their bodies were recovered.
FEMA was criticized for giving undue prominence to Operation Blessing International, placing it as # 2 on their list of recommended charities right after the American Red Cross. Operation Blessing is a charity founded, and still chaired by, Pat Robertson, the television evangelist.
When FEMA called for firefighters for "community service and outreach, '' 2000 highly trained firefighters showed up in a staging area in an Atlanta hotel, believing that their skills would be used, or would better be used, for search and rescue operations. The firefighters, who were all paid by FEMA for their time, found themselves undergoing training on community relations, watching videos, and attending seminars on sexual harassment in a hotel, waiting days, in some cases, to be deployed in a secretarial or public relations position. Some firefighters called it a misallocation of resources, others were simply frustrated at the delay. FEMA defended itself by saying that there was no urgency for the firefighters to arrive because they were primarily going to be involved in community relations work, not search and rescue, and their call for help stated this.
Testifying before the Senate Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs, Chertoff said that FEMA was, "overwhelmed, '' by the scope of the disaster, and acknowledged, "many lapses, '' in his agency 's response to Katrina. Chertoff also disagreed with Michael Brown 's earlier testimony that state and local officials were responsible for the slow response to the hurricane, saying that he had experienced no problems in dealing with state and local officials and that Brown had never informed him of any problems.
Barbara Bush, wife of former president George H.W. Bush and mother of George W. Bush, generated criticism after comments on hurricane evacuees and a donation. While visiting a Houston relief center for people displaced by Hurricane Katrina, Bush told the radio program Marketplace,
The remarks generated controversy. Later, Barbara Bush also donated money to the Bush - Clinton Katrina Fund, with some of that money being earmarked by her to go to a software company owned by her son, Neil Bush "Mrs. Bush wanted to do something specifically for education and specifically for the thousands of students flooding into the Houston schools, '' said Jean Becker, former President Bush 's chief of staff. "She knew that HISD was using this software program, and she 's very excited about this program, so she wanted to make it possible for them to expand the use of this program. ''
Since then, the Ignite Learning program has been given to eight area schools that took in substantial numbers of Hurricane Katrina evacuees. ''.
Governor Kathleen Blanco (D) requested, via a letter to the U.S. National Guard Bureau on the 30th of August, additional National Guard troops from other states to supplement the Louisiana National Guard, but approval did not occur until September 1. New Mexico Governor Bill Richardson had offered assistance to Blanco two days before the storm hit, but could not send his troops until approval came from the National Guard Bureau. Blanco later acknowledged that she should have called for more troops sooner, and that she should have activated a compact with other states that would have allowed her to bypass the requirement to route the request through the National Guard Bureau.
Some 40 % of Louisiana 's National Guard was deployed to Iraq at the time, and critics claim that use of the National Guard to boost troop numbers in Iraq left them unready to handle disasters at home.
Chief among those criticisms is that state National Guard troops, under the command of Governor Blanco, were responsible for quelling civil unrest in advance of humanitarian relief efforts, yet they failed to do so in the first few days after the hurricane.
Notably, federal troops are generally prohibited from directly enforcing state laws (e.g., controlling looting or riots) by the Posse Comitatus Act, with some exceptions. The President can assume command of state troops under the Stafford Act, but in this "federalized '', or "Title 10 '' status, the federalized National Guard troops become unable to enforce laws directly, just like other federal troops. However, the Posse Comitatus Act does not apply to National Guard troops under the command of a state governor.
Shortly before midnight on Friday, September 2, the Bush administration sent Governor Blanco a request to take over command of law enforcement under the Insurrection Act (one of the exceptions to the Posse Comitatus Act), but this request was rejected by Blanco. Governor Haley Barbour of Mississippi also rejected a similar request.
Governor Blanco did make a request to the Federal government for additional National Guard troops (to be under her command) to supplement the 5,700 Louisiana National Guard troops available in Louisiana at the time. However, the necessary formal request through the federal National Guard Bureau was not made until Wednesday, a full two days after the hurricane hit and when much of the city was already under water; Blanco explained that she did n't understand specific types and numbers of troops needed to be requested. By comparison, on September 2, when Louisiana had only a few hundred National Guardsmen from other states, Mississippi 's National Guard reports having "almost division strength (about 10,000 troops) '' from other states ' National Guards. Blanco also failed to activate a compact with other states that would have allowed her to bypass the National Guard Bureau in a request for additional troops.
Within the United States and as delineated in the National Response Plan, response and planning is first and foremost a local government responsibility. When local government exhausts its resources, it then requests specific additional resources from the county level. The request process proceeds similarly from the county to the state to the federal government as additional resource needs are identified. Many of the problems that arose developed from inadequate planning and back - up communications systems at various levels. One example of this is that the City of New Orleans attempted to manage the disaster from a hotel ballroom with inadequate back - up communications plans instead of a properly staffed Emergency Operations Center. When phone service failed, they had difficulty communicating their specific needs to the state EOC in Baton Rouge.
Press reports indicate that there were other failures at the state and local level in expediting aid and social services to the stricken area. Referring again to the federalisation of the National Guard, New Orleans Mayor Ray Nagin accused the governor of delaying federal rescue efforts, "I was ready to move today. The governor said she needed 24 hours to make a decision. It would have been great if we could have (...) told the world that we had this all worked out. It did n't happen, and more people died. '' A FEMA official has claimed that Gov. Blanco failed to submit a request for help in a timely manner, saying that she did send President Bush a request asking for shelter and provisions, but did n't specifically ask for help with evacuations. The nonpartisan Congressional Research Service has concluded, that Blanco did submit requests for shelter, counseling and provisions in a timely manner, but there is no mention that she requested assistance with evacuation. One aide to the governor said that Blanco thought city officials were taking care of the evacuation in accord with the city 's emergency plan.
There were reports that Governor Blanco was reluctant to issue a mandatory evacuation order until President Bush called to personally ask that she give the order. However, the mandatory evacuation order was issued by Mayor Nagin and, as the White House reconfirmed the timeline, it is unlikely the Bush call was decisive in the making of the order. At the August 28 press conference in which Nagin and Blanco ordered the evacuation of New Orleans, Blanco actually said that Bush had called, "just before we walked into this room '' to share his concerns and urge that the city be evacuated.
William J. Jefferson (D - Louisiana) a Representative for Louisiana from the New Orleans area, was criticized when he had misused National Guard resources to check on his personal belongings and property on September 2, during the height of the rescue efforts. He used his political position to bypass military barricades and delay two heavy trucks, a helicopter, and several National Guard troops for over an hour to stop at his home and retrieve, "a laptop computer, three suitcases, and a box about the size of a small refrigerator ''.
Many have also criticized the local and state governments, who have primary responsibility for local disasters, including both Governor Blanco and Mayor Nagin. Mayor Nagin was criticized for allegedly failing to execute the New Orleans disaster plan, which called for the use of the city 's school buses in evacuating residents unable to leave on their own. The city never deployed the buses, which were subsequently destroyed in the flooding.
On Saturday August 27, several hours after the last regularly scheduled train left New Orleans, Amtrak ran a special train to move equipment out of the city. The train had room for several hundred passengers, and Amtrak offered these spaces to the city, but the city declined them, so the train left New Orleans at 8: 30 p.m., with no passengers on board.
Governor Blanco has said that, following the storm 's landfall, FEMA asked that school buses not to be used for post-storm evacuation as they were not air - conditioned, and a potential risk of causing heat stroke, and that FEMA had informed them of more suitable buses that they would be providing. Concerned over the slow reaction, Blanco sent in the state 's fleet of 500 buses to aid in the evacuation process. It was not until late on August 31 that Blanco learned the FEMA buses were being sent from outside the state, and could not arrive in time.
Conditions amidst the aftermath of the storm worsened, and included violent crimes, shootings, and lootings. One New Orleans police officer likened the conditions in the aftermath to Somalia, saying, "It 's a war zone, and they 're not treating it like one. '' Officers had been giving up after working days straight with little or no support. President Bush said that saving lives should come first, but he and the local New Orleans Government also stated that they will have zero tolerance for looters. White House Press Secretary Scott McClellan affirmed that looters should not be allowed to take food, water or shoes, that they should get those things through some other way. Gov. Blanco warned that troops had orders to shoot to kill, saying, "These troops are fresh back from Iraq, well trained, experienced, battle tested and under my orders to restore order in the streets... They have M - 16s and they are locked and loaded. These troops know how to shoot and kill and they are more than willing to do so if necessary and I expect they will. ''
The convention center conditions were described as appalling, having become surrounded by refuse, human feces and even corpses. The downtown Charity Hospital had a number of critically ill patients die as a result of delays in evacuations. The flooding of New Orleans occurred after the worst of Hurricane Katrina 's fury had been spent and the storm itself moved further north. The destruction wrought by Katrina, and the flooding thereafter, severely damaged the roads and other infrastructure needed to deliver relief.
Officers from the Jefferson Parish Sheriff 's Office, the Gretna City Police Department, and the Crescent City Connection Police blocked the Crescent City Connection to block evacuees crossing the Mississippi River from New Orleans into their area. Gretna Police Chief Arthur Lawson told UPI, "There was no food, water or shelter in Gretna City. We did not have the wherewithal to deal with these people. If we had opened the bridge, our city would have looked like New Orleans does now - looted, burned and pillaged. ''
Later, an independent investigation of the pre-Katrina levees that protect New Orleans, alleged that the Levee Board had mismanaged funds and also, "paid more attention to marinas, gambling and business than to maintaining the levees.
Controversy arose over a September 8 city - wide order by New Orleans Police Superintendent Eddie Compass to local police, U.S. Army National Guard soldiers, and Deputy U.S. Marshals to confiscate all civilian - held firearms. "No one will be able to be armed, '' Compass said. "Guns will be taken. Only law enforcement will be allowed to have guns. '' Seizures were carried out without warrant, and in some cases with excessive force; one instance captured on film involved 58 ‐ year ‐ old New Orleans resident Patricia Konie. Konie stayed behind, in her well provisioned home, and had an old revolver for protection. A group of police entered the house, and when she refused to surrender her revolver, she was tackled and it was removed by force. Konie 's shoulder was fractured, and she was taken into police custody for failing to surrender her firearm.
Angered citizens, backed by the National Rifle Association and other organizations, filed protests over the constitutionality of such an order and the difficulty in tracking seizures, as paperwork was rarely filed during the searches. Wayne LaPierre, CEO of the National Rifle Association, defended the right of affected citizens to retain firearms, saying that, "What we 've seen in Louisiana - the breakdown of law and order in the aftermath of disaster - is exactly the kind of situation where the Second Amendment was intended to allow citizens to protect themselves. '' The searches received little news coverage, though reaction from groups such as the NRA, the Second Amendment Foundation, and Gun Owners of America was immediate and heated, and a lawsuit was filed September 22 by the NRA and SAF on behalf of two firearm owners whose firearms were seized. On September 23, the U.S. District Court for the Eastern District of Louisiana issued a restraining order to bar further firearms confiscations.
After refusing to admit that it had any seized firearms, the city revealed in mid-March that it did have a cache of some 1000 firearms seized after the hurricane; this disclosure came after the NRA filed a motion in court to hold the city in contempt for failure to comply with the U.S. District Court 's earlier order to return all seized firearms. On April 14, 2006, it was announced that the city will begin to return seized firearms, however as of early 2008, many firearms were still in police possession, and the matter was still in court. The matter was finally settled in favor of the NRA in October 2008. Per the agreement, the city was required to relax the strict proof of ownership requirements previously used, and was to release firearms to their owners with an affidavit claiming ownership and a background check to verify that the owner is legally able to possess a firearm.
Louisiana legislator Steve Scalise introduced Louisiana House Bill 760, which would prohibit confiscation of firearms in a state of emergency, unless the seizure is pursuant to the investigation of a crime, or if the seizure is necessary to prevent immediate harm to the officer or another individual. On June 8, 2006, HB 760 was signed into law. 21 other states joined Louisiana in enacting similar laws. A federal law prohibiting seizure of lawfully held firearms during an emergency, the Disaster Recovery Personal Protection Act of 2006, passed in the House with a vote of 322 to 99, and in the Senate by 84 - 16. The bill was signed into law by President Bush on October 9, 2006.
Several foreign leaders have expressed frustration that they could n't get a go - ahead from the Bush administration to administer help. Bush said on the ABC News program Good Morning America that the United States could fend for itself, "I do expect a lot of sympathy and perhaps some will send cash dollars, '' Bush said of foreign governments.
The immediate response from many nations was to ask to be allowed to send in self - sustaining search and rescue teams to assist in evacuating those remaining in the city. This first to respond was Venezuela, offering tons of food, water, and a million barrels of extra petroleum. France had a range of aircraft, two naval ships and a hospital ship standing ready in the Caribbean. Russia offered four jets with rescuers, equipment, food and medicine, but their help was first declined before later being accepted. Germany had offered airlifting, vaccination, water purification, medical supplies including German air force hospital planes, emergency electrical power and pumping services; their offer was noted and they received a formal request three days later. Similarly, Sweden had been waiting for a formal request to send a military cargo plane with three complete GSM systems, water sanitation equipment, and experts. The Netherlands offered help out of the island Aruba in the Caribbean Sea. Cuba offered to send 1,586 doctors and 26 tons of medicine but this offer was rejected.
British Deputy Prime Minister John Prescott linked the global warming issue to Katrina, criticizing the United States ' lack of support for the Kyoto Protocol, "The horrific flood of New Orleans brings home to us the concern of leaders of countries like the Maldives, whose nations are at risk of disappearing completely. There has been resistance by the US government to Kyoto - which I believe is wrong. '' Ted Sluijter, press spokesman for Neeltje Jans, the public park where the Delta Works are located, said, "I do n't want to sound overly critical, but it 's hard to imagine that (the damage caused by Katrina) could happen in a Western country, It seemed like plans for protection and evacuation were n't really in place, and once it happened, the coordination was poor. ''
In China, the Communist Party newspaper, the People 's Daily, criticized President Bush 's handling of the crisis, calling the slow response time to the unfolding events a, "negligence of duty ''.
An article in the April 29, 2007 Washington Post claimed that of the $854 million offered by foreign countries, whom the article dubs "allies, '' to the US Government, only $40 million of the funds had been spent "for disaster victims or reconstruction '' as of the date of publication (less than 5 %).
Additionally, a large portion of the $854 million in aid offered went uncollected, including over $400 million in oil (almost 50 %).
The U.S. House of Representatives created the Select Bipartisan Committee to Investigate the Preparation for and Response to Hurricane Katrina. On February 15, 2006 they released their final report.
The Executive Summary states (among other things) the following:
African - American leaders and others have expressed outrage at what they see as the apparent neglect of the poor and / or black residents of the affected region. Two - thirds of the residents of New Orleans are black, primarily attributed to decades of white flight. In addition, New Orleans is one of America 's poorest cities, with more than 25 % of residents and 40 % of children living at or below the poverty line. Within the city itself, the poorest, who are mostly African - American, tended to live in the lowest parts that are most vulnerable to flooding.
98 % of residents in the Lower Ninth Ward, which was flooded by a catastrophic breach in the nearby Industrial Canal, are black, and more than a third live in poverty. Many of the poor depend on welfare, Social Security, or other public assistance checks, which they receive on the first of each month, meaning that Hurricane Katrina made landfall just when many of the poor had exhausted their resources. Thus, many of the city 's poor simply could n't afford to flee the city before the hurricane struck.
Speaking at a press conference from a relief center in Lafayette, First Lady Laura Bush explained that the poor are always the main victims of natural disasters. "This is what happens when there 's a natural disaster of this scope, '' Mrs. Bush said. "The poorer people are usually in the neighborhoods that are the lowest or the most exposed or the most vulnerable. Their housing is the most vulnerable to natural disaster. And that is just always what happens. ''
Reverend Jesse Jackson criticized the President and asked why he has not named African - Americans to top positions in the federal response to the disaster, particularly when the majority of victims remaining stranded in New Orleans were black: "How can blacks be locked out of the leadership, and trapped in the suffering? It is that lack of sensitivity and compassion that represents a kind of incompetence. ''
Fifty - one percent of Louisiana residents who were killed by Hurricane Katrina were black; 49 % of victims were 75 years old or older. However, for some demographic groups in Orleans Parish (New Orleans), the death rate for African - Americans was 1.7 - 4 times higher than for whites; as a whole in Orleans parish, 68 % of deaths (459 out of 680 total) were black people, almost exactly the same percentage of the population there as that found in the 2000 U.S. Census (which recorded 67 %). Areas of the city where the largest number of dead were found were low - lying, flood - prone areas with predominantly black populations.
In a survey conducted of 680 evacuees taken to various shelters in the Houston area, a vast number of respondents, a full 70 %, faulted President George W. Bush and the Federal Government for their handling of the problem, while 58 % and 53 % blamed Governor Blanco and Mayor Nagin respectively. Sixty eight percent felt the response would have been quicker if those trapped had been white and wealthier and 61 % indicated that they felt the government did not care about them. Ninety - three percent of the respondents were African - Americans.
Reverend Jesse Jackson claimed that racism was a factor in the slow government response, stating that "many black people feel that their race, their property conditions and their voting patterns have been a factor in the response. ''
Commentator Lou Dobbs of CNN has claimed that local officials should bear some responsibility, saying that "the city of New Orleans is 70 % black, its mayor is black, its principal power structure is black, and if there is a failure to the black Americans, who live in poverty and in the city of New Orleans, those officials have to bear much of the responsibility. ''
Former Mayor of Atlanta and UN Ambassador Andrew Young, who was born in New Orleans, had a more nuanced reaction to the disaster: "I was surprised and not surprised. It 's not just a lack of preparedness. I think the easy answer is to say that these are poor people and black people and so the government does n't give a damn... there might be some truth to that. But I think we 've got to see this as a serious problem of the long - term neglect of an environmental system on which our nation depends. ''
People began taking advantage of the abandoned stores. Some claim that the media referred to African Americans as "looters '' while white victims were labeled "survivors '' and "victims ''.
On September 2, 2005, during a benefit concert for Hurricane Katrina relief on NBC, A Concert for Hurricane Relief, rapper Kanye West was a featured speaker. Controversy arose when West was presenting, as he deviated from the prepared script, criticizing the slow federal response. Actor Mike Myers, with whom West was paired to present, spoke next and continued to read the script. Once it was West 's turn to speak again, he said "George Bush does n't care about black people. '' At this point, telethon producer Rick Kaplan cut off the microphone and then cut away to Chris Tucker, who was unaware of the cut for a few seconds. Still, West 's comment reached much of the United States. West also went on to say that America has been set to help the poor as slow as possible.
Some argue that authorities do not want the poor black community returning to the city in an act to make the city more white.
All around FEMA response was found to be slow and unfair. A study conducted by graduate students at The University of Connecticut 's Department of Public Policy found that FEMA trailers were offered 63 % in St. Bernard Parish, a predominantly white area, and 13 % in the Lower Ninth Ward, a predominantly black neighborhood.
Disaster planners were criticized for failing to take the needs of people with disabilities into consideration. Transportation, communication and shelters did not make provision for people with mobility, cognitive or communication disabilities. Cases were reported of wheelchair users being left behind, no provision being made for guide dogs, essential equipment and medication not being available or left behind. Disability advocacy organizations criticized local, state and federal emergency authorities for not including disabled people in their planning and consultation. The National Organization on Disability assessed the post-Katrina situation of evacuees with disabilities: the "Special Needs for Katrina Evacuees Project '' research results were submitted to Congress in two briefings.
Many media agencies in the U.S. and around the world were criticized for using the word "refugee '' to describe someone that was displaced by Hurricane Katrina. Many, particularly African - Americans, have argued that using the term "refugee '' implies a sort of "second class '' status, while others have argued that using terms such as "evacuees '' or "displaced '' is too clinical and not dramatic enough to portray the current situation. President Bush addressed this issue in the following statement: "The people we 're talking about are not refugees. They are Americans and they need the help and love and compassion of our fellow citizens. '' Accordingly, most of the major media outlets in the U.S. eliminated the usage of "refugees '', with a few exceptions.
There was some criticism by tourists that rescue crews were giving preferential treatment to American citizens first. For example, some British tourists trapped in a New Orleans hotel accused the authorities of preferential treatment for Americans during the evacuation as Katrina approached. Australian tourists reported a similar experience, compounded by the federal government 's refusal to admit consular officers to the New Orleans area and failure to notify the Australian embassy that one missing tourist was in a correctional facility on minor charges. South African tourists also reported that tourist buses were commandeered by federal officials, and the tourists told to walk back. Later on, they were driven back by warning shots after waiting near a bridge blocked by armed forces.
In the days before the storm, Mayor Nagin was particularly blunt in regards to foreign tourists, stating, "The only thing I can say to them is I hope they have a hotel room, and it 's a least on the third floor and up. Unfortunately, unless they can rent a car to get out of town, which I doubt they can at this point, they 're probably in the position of riding the storm out. '' Hotel managers also criticised the treatment of tourists, with one noting they were treated worse than the people in the Superdome.
However, there were also some reports that portrayed the overall generosity of the American people. Some Irish tourists were touched by the "infinite kindness '' shown to them by "complete strangers. ''
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2016 bts live the most beautiful moment in life on stage epilogue | The Most Beautiful Moment in Life: Young Forever - wikipedia
The Most Beautiful Moment in Life: Young Forever (Hangul: 화양연화 Young Forever; Hanja: 花樣 年華 Young Forever; MR: HwaYangYeonHwa Young Forever) is the third compilation album by South Korean boy band, BTS. The album was released on May 2, 2016. The album is available in two versions and contains twenty - three tracks including three new singles; "Epilogue: Young Forever '', "Fire '' and "Save Me '', compilation of The Most Beautiful Moment in Life, Part 1 and The Most Beautiful Moment in Life, Part 2, as well as several new remixes.
On March 21, 2016, Big Hit Entertainment announced BTS ' upcoming comeback and concert in May. BTS then released the concert 's images and teasers on April 7 on official Instagram account as Motion Posters. They later released the concept photos of the album on April 21 and 24, on official Instagram account and Facebook page indicating the album will be available in two versions of physical albums, Day and Night version. The video teaser for the concert was also released on Youtube on April 25. The track list was later released on April 27, on BTS official Twitter account revealing it will be a compilation album with a total of twenty - three tracks. They also released the design and details of the physical album which it will be accompanied with its photobook, polaroid, mini photocard and poster. On April 29, Big Hit Entertainment dropped a preview for BTS ' "Fire '' music video, which features the members dance moves. BTS also released the unplugged version of "Epilogue: Young Forever '' on official SoundCloud channel as celebration for their third debut anniversary.
"Epilogue: Young Forever '' music video was released on April 19, 2016 picturing the members running in a maze full of fences as well as flashing back on scenes which ties in with their music video for "I Need U '', "On Stage: Prologue '' and "Run '' video. This music video also featured the track penned by member Rap Monster. The music video was produced and directed by GDW. Music video "Fire '' was then released on May 2, 2016. It featured the members dancing and partying in an abandoned place in flames. The music video was produced and directed by Lumpens and GDW. Fuse stated that, "The cut feels like an upgraded version of "Dope, '' a standout single from The Most Beautiful Moment In Life, Part 1. The accompanying music video also sees the guys whipping out their most intense choreography to date ". On May 9, BTS released the dance version of "Fire '' ahead of their promotion on music programs. The dance was choreographed by Keone Madrid. Later, "Save Me '' music video was released on May 15 on YouTube showing a unique visual throughout the whole take which was filmed in one - shot. The dance was choreographed by The Quick Style Crew and the music video was also produced and directed by GDW.
On May 1, 2016, BTS held a comeback show preview on Naver V LIVE. Later they held a press conference for the concert on May 7. The 2016 BTS LIVE The Most Beautiful Moment in Life On Stage: Epilogue was held on May 7 and 8 at Olympic Gymnastics Arena as BTS performs new songs from the album. In total the tour was held in nine cities abroad and ended in Japan. BTS decided to promote only for a week on broadcasting network 's; Mnet, KBS, MBC and SBS, music programs as planned to allow for individual activities, performances and overseas schedules starting with M! Countdown on May 12.
Tickets for BTS ' first solo concert in 2016, BTS LIVE The Most Beautiful Moment in Life On Stage: Epilogue sold out immediately at once with errors in connection and downed due to high connection to the server. Search keywords related to concert also topped at portal sites as it was highly interested by both fans and the public. The Most Beautiful Moment in Life: Young Forever has been reported to have sold over 300,000 copies in pre-sales after less than a week. Their comeback preview show on V LIVE received over 100 millions likes during broadcast on the night of the release. "Fire '' music video received great reception from viewers; the fastest BTS music video to reach million views at the time, 10 million views in 75 hours, hitting the 1 million mark in 6 hours. Both "Fire '' and "Save Me '' music video ranked the first and second on Most Viewed K - Pop Videos in America, Around the World: May 2016 revealed by Billboard. It also peaked at number 15 on YouTube Music Global Top 100.
BTS topped Billboard World Digital Songs with lead single "Fire '' with the other two singles lining up the top 3 rank of the chart. In South Korea, it won a total of three number ones on music programs while performing on M! Countdown, Music Bank and Inkigayo. This is the result of it achieved all number one on local music charts; Melon, Genie, Mnet, Naver Music, Olleh Music, Bugs, Soribada, and Monkey3.
The Most Beautiful Moment in Life: Young Forever album became BTS ' second consecutive release to chart on Billboard 200, at number 107, becoming the second K - pop act to achieve this. It also debuted at number 2 on Billboard World Albums and number 10 on Billboard Top Heatseekers. According to the Hanteo Chart, on the first three days alone since its release, 100,000 copies were sold ascending to 164,868 sold copies on the first week of May. It results the album to topped Gaon Weekly Chart for two consecutive weeks, the highest for BTS at the time. It also topped May Gaon Monthly Chart and became the fourth best selling album of South Korea Gaon Album Chart in 2016. BTS received their first grand awards with this album, Album of The Year on 8th Melon Music Awards in 2016. Big Hit Entertainment also shared, the unofficial combined sales of all albums from The Most Beautiful Moment in Life series would soon reach its million mark as it has already sold a total of 930,000 copies at the time.
Loen Entertainment
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how many mosques are there in saudi arabia | List of mosques in Saudi Arabia - wikipedia
This is a list of mosques in Saudi Arabia.
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who has the most championships in the wnba | WNBA Finals - wikipedia
The WNBA Finals are the championship series of the Women 's National Basketball Association (WNBA) and the conclusion of the league 's postseason each fall. The series was named the WNBA Championship until 2002. Starting 2016 Verizon is the official sponsor.
The series is played between the winners of the playoff semifinals. At the conclusion of the championship round, the winner of the WNBA Finals is presented the championship trophy. The WNBA Finals has been played at the conclusion of every WNBA season in history, the first being held in 1997.
Since 2005, the winner of the WNBA Finals has been determined through a 2 -- 2 -- 1 format. The first, second, and fifth games of the series are played at the arena of the team who earned home court advantage by having the better record during the regular season.
The WNBA Finals were originally a single championship game to decide the WNBA champion. However, in 1998, after the addition of two teams, the WNBA Finals were turned into a best - of - three games series. In 2005, the WNBA Finals adopted a best - of - five format. This finale series was known as the WNBA Championship from 1997 to 2001, before changing to reflect its NBA counterpart. In 2016, the WNBA changed to its current playoff format seeding teams # 1 thru # 8 regardless of conference making it possible for two Eastern Conference or two Western Conference teams to meet in the Finals.
Statistics below refer to series wins and losses, not individual game wins and losses. Teams in red have folded and can no longer reach the WNBA Finals.
This table shows a list of records through the history of the WNBA Finals.
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can't take my eyes off you lyrics meaning | Ca n't Take My Eyes Off You - wikipedia
"Ca n't Take My Eyes Off You '' is a 1967 single credited to Frankie Valli. The song was among his biggest hits, earning a gold record and reaching No. 2 on the Billboard Hot 100 for a week, stuck behind "Windy '' by The Association. It was co-written by Bob Gaudio, a bandmate of Valli 's in The Four Seasons. It was Valli 's biggest solo hit until he hit # 1 in 1974 with "My Eyes Adored You ''.
"Ca n't Take My Eyes Off You '' has had hundreds of cover versions, many of which have been on the charts in different countries. The song is a staple of television and film soundtracks, even being featured as part of the plot of some films, such as when the lead characters sing or arrange their own version of the song. Its chorus has also become a popular football chant, with supporters of various teams inserting their club 's name or a popular player 's name into the beat (for instance, A.S. Roma fans sing "Francesco Totti, la la, la la la la! ''). The Valli version was also used by NASA as a wake - up song for a mission of the Space Shuttle, on the anniversary of astronaut Christopher Ferguson.
The song was written by Bob Crewe and Bob Gaudio. Arrangement was done by Artie Schroeck and Gaudio. The original recording was made at A&R Recording Studios at 799 7th Avenue, with Bob Crewe producing and Phil Ramone as the engineer.
The song has been covered by some 200 artists over the years, in many countries, under both versions of the title. A few notable examples of cover versions that appeared on the charts:
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where is the starry night over the rhone located | Starry night Over the Rhône - wikipedia
Starry Night Over the Rhône (September 1888, French: Nuit étoilée sur le Rhône) is one of Vincent van Gogh 's paintings of Arles at nighttime. It was painted at a spot on the bank of the Rhône that was only a one or two - minute walk from the Yellow House on the Place Lamartine which Van Gogh was renting at the time. The night sky and the effects of light at night provided the subject for some of his more famous paintings, including Cafe Terrace at Night (painted earlier the same month) and the later canvas from Saint - Rémy, The Starry Night.
A sketch of the painting is included in a letter van Gogh sent to his friend Eugène Boch on October 2, 1888.
Starry Night Over the Rhône, which is now in the Musée d'Orsay in Paris, was first exhibited in 1889 at Paris ' annual exhibition of the Société des Artistes Indépendants. It was shown together with van Gogh 's Irises, which was added by Vincent 's brother, Theo, although Vincent had proposed including one of his paintings from the public gardens in Arles.
The view is from the quay (a waterside street) on the east side of the Rhône, into the knee of the river towards the western shore: coming down from the north, the Rhône turns to the right at this point to surround the rocks on which Arles is built. From the towers of Saint - Julien and Saint - Trophime at the left, the spectator follows the east bank up to the iron bridge connecting Arles to the suburb of Trinquetaille on the right, western bank. This implies a view from Place Lamartine towards the southwest. 43 ° 40 ′ 57 '' N 4 ° 37 ′ 49 '' E / 43.682367 ° N 4.630287 ° E / 43.682367; 4.630287
Van Gogh announced and described this composition in a letter to his brother Theo:
Included a small sketch of a 30 square canvas - in short the starry sky painted by night, actually under a gas jet. The sky is aquamarine, the water is royal blue, the ground is mauve. The town is blue and purple. The gas is yellow and the reflections are russet gold descending down to green - bronze. On the aquamarine field of the sky the Great Bear is a sparkling green and pink, whose discreet paleness contrasts with the brutal gold of the gas. Two colorful figurines of lovers in the foreground.
In reality, the view depicted in the painting faces away from Ursa Major, which is to the north. The foreground indicates heavy rework, wet - in - wet, as soon as the first state was finished. The letter sketches executed at this time probably are based on the original composition.
The challenge of painting at night intrigued van Gogh. The vantage point he chose for Starry Night Over the Rhône allowed him to capture the reflections of the gas lighting in Arles across the glimmering blue water of the Rhône. In the foreground, two lovers stroll by the banks of the river.
Depicting colour was of great importance to Vincent; in letters to his brother, Theo, he often described objects in his paintings in terms of color. His night paintings, including Starry Night Over the Rhône, emphasize the importance he placed on capturing the sparkling colors of the night sky and of the artificial lighting that was new to the era.
The painting is referenced in Brian Eno and John Cale 's song "Spinning Away '' from the 1990 album Wrong Way Up. In the second verse, the singer 's view is described as "like the night sky at Arles ''.
A fictionalised version of the painting appears in the Hearts of Stone expansion pack of the 2015 video game The Witcher 3: Wild Hunt.
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who plays kelly on the drew carey show | List of the Drew Carey show characters - wikipedia
This is a list of characters who have appeared on The Drew Carey Show.
Much of the show 's humor revolved around Drew 's single life (in real life, Drew was engaged for the first time in 2007, shortly after becoming a game show host). However, Drew was married a number of times during the show 's run. His spouses during the series were:
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who plays cora's mother on downton abbey | List of Downton Abbey characters - wikipedia
This is a list of characters from Downton Abbey, a British period drama television series created by Julian Fellowes and co-produced by Carnival Films and Masterpiece for ITV and PBS, respectively.
Robert Crawley, The 7th Earl of Grantham (also known as Lord Grantham) (played by Hugh Bonneville) was born in 1866 at Downton Abbey. His parents are the late 6th Earl of Grantham and the Dowager Countess of Grantham, Violet Crawley. He has a sister named Rosamund. Despite the family 's financial situation, Robert 's education was privileged and he was tutored from ages 7 to 13, before attending Eton and then Christ Church, Oxford, where he studied philosophy.
To ensure the survival of the estate, Robert 's father knew that his son needed to marry a wealthy heiress who would bring a large dowry to the estate. Robert married Cora Levinson, the only daughter of Isidore and Martha Levinson. Isidore was an American millionaire, and when Cora married Robert, Robert 's father insisted that she sign an entailment which legally combined the estate with Cora 's fortune. Robert was forced into the marriage by his father and Cora by hers. Robert 's father wanted Robert to marry a rich girl; Isidore wanted Cora to marry into the British aristocracy. He later said that he was ashamed of his motives for pursuing Cora. After about a year of marriage, however, Robert truly fell in love with Cora and they eventually had three daughters: Mary, Edith, and Sybil. Because of the entail, as they had no sons, Robert 's heir was the closest male relative, his cousin James. However, when James and his only son Patrick died in the sinking of the Titanic, Robert 's heir became his third cousin once removed, Matthew Crawley, a young middle - class solicitor from Manchester, setting the stage for him to inherit not only the Abbey and its estate, but also Cora 's fortune. While Violet, Cora and Mary wish to contest the entail so that Cora 's money, at least, will remain in the immediate family, Robert refuses even to countenance this possibility. He sees it as his responsibility to preserve his heritage and ensure that Downton Abbey and the estate remain intact, even if the property and title will go into the hands of a stranger. He knows that it would be impossible to maintain Downton Abbey if Cora 's fortune were separated from the estate.
The earl served in the Second Boer War from 1899 -- 1902 where John Bates, later to be his valet, was his batman. He is the Lord Lieutenant for the North Riding of Yorkshire and even though he wants to serve at the front during the Great War, he is made a Colonel of the (fictional) North Riding Volunteers. He is immensely proud of Downton as the place he grew up and takes his responsibility for the estate very seriously. Robert considers Downton 's nurturing of him, and his nurture of the estate, to be like having a third parent and a fourth child. There are references in the series to Robert sitting as a Conservative member in the House of Lords, although this is only implied.
He loves his daughters very much, but always longed for a son who would be a true heir to the estate. His wish almost became reality with Cora 's surprise fourth pregnancy, but it ended in a miscarriage. For a short time, feeling ignored by Cora, he became infatuated with a housemaid, Jane Moorsum (whose husband had been killed in the First World War), and they seemed on the verge of an affair, but came to their senses after a timely interruption by an oblivious Mr Bates. To avoid further incidents, Jane decided to leave Downton. Out of kindness, Robert pulled some strings so that Jane 's highly intelligent son Freddie could go to Ripon Grammar School, and he gave Jane the name and address of his man of business, to give Freddie a start in life.
Although in some ways his character embodies the traditional values of the aristocracy, Robert does not shun all progress as he allows telephones and electricity to be installed at Downton, much to the horror of his mother Violet, the Dowager Countess. After initial dismay and anger, he gives his blessing to his daughter Sybil 's marriage to family chauffeur Tom Branson and goes along with Tom and Matthew 's plan to modernise Downton in Series 3. Tom, despite his republican beliefs and disdain for the aristocracy, once described his father - in - law as "a good man and a decent employer ''.
When Matthew and his mother Isobel arrive at Downton, the family are initially wary of them, because they are of the emerging upper middle and professional class, and the family resents that the estate is to pass to Matthew. Robert is the only one who welcomes them without reservation, and he becomes friends with Isobel and later becomes a surrogate father to Matthew. Robert is enthusiastic about the idea of Mary marrying Matthew, thus keeping the estate and fortune in his immediate family, and can not understand when they fall out with each other at the end of Series 1. He dislikes Sir Richard Carlisle because of his rude and selfish behaviour, and is pleased when Mary decides to end her engagement to him. Robert also forgives Mary when he learns of her indiscretion with Kemal Pamuk, telling her cryptically that she is "not the only Crawley to have made a mistake '' and acknowledges that he would rather she be happy than enter an unhappy marriage with a wealthy man.
He is very protective of his family and servants, and in many cases treats the servants almost like family members. He is loyal, going to great lengths to retain the slightly disabled John Bates as his valet. He is respectful to Mr Lang, who serves as his valet during the First World War, although Lang is suffering from shell - shock and proves unfit to work. When William Mason, a footman, is given a white feather of cowardice by some women from the village during the First World War, Robert angrily throws them out of his house. When William is called up to fight, Robert does his best to keep him out of danger by getting him appointed as Matthew 's batman in hopes that they could look out for one another. He also pays for Mrs Patmore 's cataract surgery in London. When Thomas, then his valet, is caught kissing Jimmy, the new footman, and is subsequently pressured to leave Downton, Robert asserts his authority over the staff politics and promotes him to under - butler, reasoning that everyone makes mistakes and deserves a second chance. In addition, after Alfred reports Thomas 's "indecent assault '' to the police and they come round to investigate, Robert convinces Alfred to recant his story, thus protecting Thomas from an almost certain prison sentence and public disgrace.
Despite these virtues, Robert 's adherence to tradition has let him down in other ways. Although he eventually comes to accept Branson as part of the family, their initial exchanges after Sybil 's revelation are fraught with thinly veiled insults and disdain; Branson accuses his former employer of believing his kind "have the monopoly of honour ''. Robert has little patience for Sybil 's aspirations to participate in politics. His attitudes also occasionally clash with that of the more progressive and pragmatic Cora; while she becomes highly active during the period in which Downton acts as a convalescent home for injured First World War veterans, Robert is largely reduced to a figurehead.
In Series 3, it is revealed that he lost the lion 's share of Cora 's fortune through poor investments during the war, and has financially crippled Downton to the point of bankruptcy; it is only through the timely intervention of Matthew that the Crawley family is allowed to remain on the estate. Despite this, Matthew becomes concerned that Robert is mismanaging the property, which leads to tension between them; Matthew and Tom 's ideas for radical sweeping changes cause Robert to oppose many decisions. He suggests that any changes begin slowly and they instead use investment to raise their capital. Matthew abhors this prospect, as Robert 's interest in investment nearly brought Downton to ruin, and any profits raised would merely be used to prop up the old system until the money ran out again. However, with Robert 's exchanges with Matthew becoming increasingly bitter, particularly as most of the family acknowledge that Matthew is probably right, it is Tom, being the more eloquent of his sons - in - law, who manages to persuade Robert to think differently. By the end of the series, Robert accepts the vision for the future, combining his knowledge of the estate and tenants, Matthew 's background in law and business, and Tom 's practical experience in agriculture. He realised just how crucial Matthew was to the survival of Downton after "Shrimpie '' (Lord Flintshire) admits to him privately that he would have to sell the ancestral home Duneagle Castle due to debts incurred when he failed to modernise the estate.
The future of Downton is once again thrown into turmoil in Series 4 with the death of Matthew at the end of the second Christmas Special. Although the birth of his son George means there is now a direct heir, Matthew 's death and the apparent lack of a legal will mean that death duties will have to be paid on the half of the estate that Matthew owned, and Lady Mary now owns only a small portion of the estate, meaning she has very little control over how Downton is run. Mary herself has done nothing but grieve since Matthew died, and Robert is against her doing anything other than recover. This once again causes tension between himself and Branson (though he has accepted Branson as part of the family), who thinks that Mary should have a say in the running of the estate. Branson also disagrees with Robert about how the death duties should be paid off. After Mary partially recovers from her grief, a letter is discovered that can be interpreted to be Matthew 's will after all, in which he leaves his entire half of the estate to Mary. Mary now prepares to take a hand in the running of the estate, something that is shown to irritate Robert, particularly as she is learning about the estate from Branson, and has been persuaded to see his side of the argument.
Different sources have identified Robert as either the 7th or 5th Earl of Grantham. Robert has been inflicted with an ulcer that flares to emergency surgery and bed rest in the 6th series.
Cora Crawley (née Levinson) (played by Elizabeth McGovern), called The Countess of Grantham or Lady Grantham, was born in 1868 to Isidore Levinson, a Jewish millionaire dry goods merchant, and his wife Martha Levinson. Cora married Robert in 1890 at the age of 22 and is mother of Mary, Edith and Sybil. She was pressured into the marriage by her mother, who was "eager '' for her daughter to marry a member of the British aristocracy (as did many Americans at the time), though the relationship seems relatively loving in spite of this. The marriage settlement (contract) folded her dowry into the Grantham estates, to be controlled by the head of the family, the Earl of Grantham. When she did not have a son, this meant that the bulk of her money would not pass to her daughters, but to the cousin who was the heir. The heir, Robert 's cousin James, had a son, Patrick. Patrick and Lady Mary were persuaded by their parents to become engaged, so that their son would be the eventual heir, keeping the money and the title in the immediate family.
When both James and Patrick drown on the Titanic, Matthew Crawley becomes heir to the title, the estate and Cora 's dowry. At first, Cora and Violet try to persuade Robert to break the entail but they learn that this will require a private Bill in Parliament which can only be passed if the estate is in danger and with Matthew 's acquiescence. After that, she and Violet try to get Mary to marry Matthew. In the summer of 1914, Cora is surprised to find that she has become pregnant. However, when her maid O'Brien mistakenly believes that Cora intends to replace her, O'Brien seeks vengeance by deliberately leaving a bar of wet soap beside the bathtub. Cora slips on it, falls, and suffers a miscarriage, and it is later revealed that the baby had been a boy.
During the First World War, Cora is reluctantly convinced by Isobel Crawley to open up Downton as a convalescent home for soldiers returning from the field. Although she comes to enjoy her volunteering work as a co-liaison nursing officer, Cora finds that maintaining the household takes up so much of her time that she begins to neglect Robert, who briefly considers an affair with one of the housemaids. It also puts her in conflict with Isobel, whose intentions for the convalescent home were more self - serving than she would admit. However, they reconcile and combine forces to give aid to refugees after the war ends. Shortly after the war, Cora is bedridden with Spanish influenza and nearly dies before making a full recovery.
In the first series, Cora is often shown as in conflict with her mother - in - law Violet, which is attributed to the underlying difference in their cultural origins and social class: Cora is an American and daughter of nouveau riche parents, while the dowager countess is descended from English nobility. While Cora has adopted her husband 's lifestyle, her character is portrayed as more forward - thinking and open - minded than that of her mother - in - law, a trait her husband and daughters attribute to her "American - ness ''. While historically, members of the aristocracy rarely had occupations during the time period portrayed in the series, Cora defends Matthew 's decision to continue working after being named heir and later supports Sybil 's choice to take up nursing.
When Sybil dies in childbirth in the third series, Cora becomes estranged from Robert due to his favouring a renowned obstetrician over Dr Clarkson; their conflicting views on how to handle the birth presumably causes a misdiagnosis of Sybil 's condition. After Violet pressures Clarkson to admit that Sybil would probably have died regardless of their efforts, Cora forgives Robert.
In Series 6, Cora 's efforts are focused on being a member of the hospital board as the local hospital merges with a larger intercity hospital. Following the merger, Cora is promoted to president of the hospital board, receiving much more responsibility. Robert is reluctant to have Cora assume so much responsibility, but relents after seeing how effective she is in the position.
Gillian Anderson was offered this role, but she turned it down.
Violet Crawley (The Dowager Countess of Grantham) (played by Maggie Smith) is Robert 's mother and widow of the previous earl. Violet was born in 1842 to a baronet. Violet also has a sister, the mother of her niece Susan, who is married to The Marquess of Flintshire, known as Shrimpy. In the 1860s, Violet was pursued by The Lord Hepworth of Hatton Park.
Violet symbolises the "old world '' and order of the pre -- First World War days and sometimes has difficulty accepting change. When Robert has electricity and telephones installed, she complains to him about the amount of light in the house and the "loud noises '' the phone makes; she is even confused by a swivel chair. Initially she is opposed to Matthew 's position as heir as he is from the upper middle / professional class and not the aristocracy. She is also shocked at their more modern attitudes but comes to accept Matthew and later his mother, Isobel, into the family. Violet sees that a marriage between Mary and Matthew could be the answer to the family 's problems, and discusses the possibility with her daughter - in - law Cora. Following Matthew 's proposal, and the unexpected pregnancy of Cora, Violet believes it is still in Mary 's best interests to accept Matthew 's proposal, as Matthew is unlikely to accept her if he inherits everything, if Mary does not want him if he ends up with nothing. The interference of Violet 's daughter Rosamund, as well as the unfortunate incident involving Mr Pamuk, makes Mary hesitant to accept the proposal, causing Matthew to withdraw it. When Isobel, who was also in favour of the engagement, confronts Violet about the business, Violet reacts with her typical acid tongue in blaming Rosamund for the way things turned out. When Matthew announces his engagement to Lavinia, who is from a similar background to Matthew, she broods over Lavinia 's lower social standing.
Violet is portrayed as a matriarchal figure and quick of wit despite her age. She is immensely proud of her son and loves her granddaughters very much. At heart, Violet is a kind woman who has less trouble in accepting people for their worth than she cares to admit. Despite her "old fashioned '' way of thinking and motives, she has demonstrated time and time again that she is willing to put aside her own misgivings to preserve the family reputation and maintain harmony in the household, even if her logic is sometimes flawed. When her nephew, James, the heir to Downton, and his son, Patrick, die in the sinking of the Titanic and Matthew appears on the scene, she disapproves of him and favours Mary, preferring that the entail be broken so that Mary can inherit the estate. Although initially appalled when she hears of Lady Mary 's affair with Mr Pamuk, and Cora 's hand in carrying the man back to his room, she eventually tells Cora that she hopes she would have done the same to help a child. She also quickly puts a stop to Lady Susan spreading rumours of the incident for Mary 's sake. When her youngest granddaughter, Sybil, insists on marrying Tom Branson, the family chauffeur, Violet assures Robert that she will "minimise the damage '' by making up details about Branson 's family to make the marriage more acceptable to their social class. She is also quick to defend Mary when she is threatened by Sir Richard Carlisle after Mary calls off their engagement. In Series 3, she reveals it was she who sent money over to Sybil and Branson so they could travel to England to attend Mary 's wedding. After Sybil 's death, Violet suggests Branson take over managing the estate when Jarvis resigns, taking advantage of his practical experience, his ability to work with Matthew, and the fact it will ensure her great - granddaughter will remain at Downton.
Although Violet has been accused of being unable to communicate across the class divide, she is kind and compassionate to the servants. When it becomes apparent that one of their footmen, William, has been fatally wounded, Violet, backed by Lady Edith and William 's father, uses her personal connections to ensure that William is brought back to Downton so he can die in familiar surroundings with friends and family. She also insists that the local vicar wed William and Daisy, the scullery maid / kitchen maid, and attends the ceremony. Later, Daisy feels guilty about it and is discovered crying while cleaning the fireplace. Violet goes against social norm to hear Daisy out and comfort her.
Throughout the Great War, Violet remains a strong influence at Downton Abbey but finds her influence under threat from as social norms change and particularly from Isobel Crawley and her daughter - in - law Cora, both of whom are more forward - thinking and strong - minded women. She has a tendency to quarrel with Isobel, Matthew 's outspoken mother, which has occasionally put him and Mary in an awkward position. As president of the Downton Hospital, Violet had complete control over the hospital and its lead doctor, Richard Clarkson. A trained nurse and physician 's widow, Mrs Crawley begins to push the doctor into pursuing more modern medical practices, much to Violet 's horror. Violet is also frequently shown at odds with Cora due to their conflicting cultural backgrounds: for example, she reacts with horror when Cora decides to take a more hands - on approach in managing the convalescence home during the war.
Lady Mary Josephine Talbot (née Crawley) (played by Michelle Dockery) (b. 1891), the eldest daughter of Lord and Lady Grantham and arguably the main character and protagonist of the series, is twenty - one in April 1912, when the series begins. Early on, she is portrayed as a petulant and cold young woman; as the series progresses, however, she shows more vulnerability and compassion. One of her most constant traits is her unfailing devotion to Downton as her home and, eventually, the estate which she will preside over.
In the first episode, news of the deaths of her two cousins, James and Patrick, is a shock because it disrupts the family 's strategy for dealing with the entail that requires the estate, incorporating her mother 's large marriage settlement, as well as the title to pass to male heirs. The family had arranged that Mary would marry Patrick, second in line to the title after James, but Mary did not have strong feelings for him and questions whether she must even wear mourning clothes. Early on in the series, she is seduced by a visitor to the house, Ottoman attaché Kemal Pamuk, who suddenly dies in her bed. Her outraged mother and the Chief Housemaid, Anna, help her carry his body out of her room and back to his own to try to prevent a public scandal that would ruin her marriage prospects.
Mary 's relationship with the new heir, distant cousin, Matthew Crawley, begins coldly as she overhears him complaining to his mother that he expects the family will "push '' the daughters on him. She refuses to acknowledge him as the new heir, declaring that he was "not one of us ''. Over time, however, the pair grow closer and a romance develops. In 1914, Matthew asks Mary to marry him, but she is hesitant. However her mother becomes pregnant, and if the baby is a boy, he will inherit the title instead of Matthew, so Mary delays her acceptance of his proposal on the advice of her aunt, Lady Rosamund. Another reason for her hesitancy was that she feels she would have to tell Matthew about the incident with Mr Pamuk. Heartbroken and angered by her hesitancy, Matthew withdraws his proposal and decides to leave Downton. When the First World War is declared, Matthew joins the British Army and becomes engaged to Lavinia Swire.
As Matthew fights in Europe, Mary gets engaged to Sir Richard Carlisle, a newspaper magnate who -- after Mary 's confession and request for his assistance -- promises to help keep the Pamuk affair under wraps. They plan to marry in July 1919, after the marriage of Matthew and Lavinia, and to move to a neighbouring, stately home that Sir Richard plans to buy and completely renovate. After Lavinia 's death, it becomes clear that Matthew and Mary still have feelings for each other. Her relationship with Sir Richard deteriorates, and Lord Grantham in particular, becomes concerned that she would not be happy with the marriage even if it meant wealth and status. In 1920 Lord Grantham 's distress finally prompts Lady Grantham to tell him the truth regarding Mr Pamuk. Although initially disappointed, he makes up his mind almost at once; he tells Mary to break off the engagement to Sir Richard and spend time with her mother 's family in America to wait out the furore that will follow. Overjoyed that her father has not abandoned her, Mary finally manages to tell Matthew the truth; although initially shocked, he also agrees that she must be rid of Sir Richard. As soon as Sir Richard returns, she ends their engagement; he angrily vows to break the story, and then insults Matthew with cruel remarks about Lavinia. Matthew attacks Sir Richard, who leaves Downton shortly afterwards, never to return. Just as the Servant 's Ball ends, Matthew reveals that he does not feel the need to forgive Mary for her affair with Pamuk as there was nothing to forgive, and proposes to her again, and the two become engaged.
In series 3 the couple happily plan and prepare for their wedding, but a shadow is cast when Lord Grantham reveals Downton 's finances are in ruins. Matthew then learns that Lavinia 's father Reginald, who died in the Christmas Special, has made him one of his potential heirs, and he now stands to inherit an unexpected fortune if the others can not be found. Unwilling to take the money on false pretenses, given his conflicted feelings regarding Lavinia, Matthew vows not to keep it. Mary is initially distraught by his decision and threatens to call the wedding off. The words of Branson and Anna, as well as a short conversation and a kiss, persuade them to put aside any conflict, and they happily marry the next day.
After her youngest sister Sybil dies, Mary supports her brother - in - law Tom Branson 's decision to raise her niece and goddaughter, Sybil "Sybbie '' Branson, a Catholic. While she and Matthew are intent on having children, it is hinted throughout the series that they could be having trouble conceiving. Matthew believes he might not be able to have children as a result of the severe back injury he suffered at Amiens in 1918 during the Great War, which temporarily paralysed him from the waist down. In the penultimate episode of Series 3, Mary and Matthew meet by coincidence at a reproductive health clinic in London, where Mary reveals to Matthew that she underwent a small and successful operation in order to strengthen their chances of conceiving (the nature of the problem is not disclosed). Despite previous tension between them, the series ends with them happily reaffirming their love for each other as they celebrate the birth of their son, George. Unfortunately, Matthew is killed in a car accident after leaving the maternity hospital on his drive back to Downton. Due to Matthew 's death, Mary will never become Countess of Grantham as her son is now the heir presumptive.
For months she remains in mourning, until the combined efforts of Carson, Tom, and Violet bring her out of it. Robert tries to keep full control over Downton now that Matthew is dead and the heir, George, is still a baby, but a letter is found from Matthew stating he intended to name Mary his sole heiress. Though he never actually wrote a will, it is determined that the letter was meant to serve as such until he could finalise a proper one. Mary as a result owns half the estate and she immediately begins working with Tom in the management. She also urges Tom to speak to her when she sees something is wrong (namely Edna Braithwaite 's scheming) but he feels she would despise him and says nothing, however she urges him to find someone that he can talk to. Tom eventually confides in Mrs Hughes, and she quickly puts an end to Edna 's blackmail. Later, when Tom presents the family with the idea of leaving, perhaps for America, she is the only one who speaks out against it.
She eventually has two suitors. First is Anthony -- or Tony -- Foyle, Lord Gillingham, an old childhood acquaintance whom she turns down as she has not moved on from Matthew. He becomes engaged to another woman, but calls it off as he still has feelings for Mary. Later, Evelyn Napier returns with his boss, Charles Blake. Mary and Blake do not hit it off to start, until both dirty themselves in order to help out some pigs that the family had begun to invest in and they warm up to one another. When Mary learns from Anna that she was raped by Lord Gillingham 's valet Green, she goes to Gillingham and urges him to sack Green without telling him why. In the 2013 Christmas special, Mrs Hughes hands Mary evidence potentially implicating Mr Bates in Green 's subsequent death. Although Mary suffers initially from a crisis of conscience, when Bates proves instrumental in averting a royal scandal caused in part by Rose, she decides to destroy the evidence. It is later revealed that the ticket in fact proved his innocence.
After Rose declares to Mary her intentions to marry African American jazz singer Jack Ross, Mary goes and speaks to him, citing that she feels Rose 's primary reason is to shock her mother, whom she hates. Jack tells her he does not want Rose to suffer and has already decided to break off their relationship. When he tells her he would not do it if they lived in a better world, Mary replies that if they were in a better world, she would not want him to.
Although Blake and Gillingham initially vie for Mary 's affections, Blake decides to back down, and Tony offers to have a sexual relationship with Mary to persuade her of his love, but the encounter leaves Mary even more unsure of her feelings. Mary later decides to turn Gillingham down, but he refuses to break up with her, as he believes they are to be married. Soon his previous fiancée Mabel Lane Fox reappears, with the help of Blake, and divides his attention. Blake then intervenes again, and kisses Mary in front of Gillingham at a theater to persuade Tony that their "understanding '' is over. Tony then tells Mary that he is re-engaged with Mabel, although it is clear that he loves Mary more, and is just settling with Mabel. Blake then tells Mary he is departing for Poland for several months. While at a shooting party at a rented castle of cousin Rose 's in - laws, Mary meets Henry Talbot (played by Matthew Goode). Mary is at first cold to him, but then warms up to him when she sees what a good shooter he is. Talbot believes Mary is a war widow, but Mary is about to tell him that her husband actually died in a car accident. She learns that Talbot is a race car driver, and they dance at a party. The next morning Talbot abruptly leaves. After the Carson wedding, Mary reunites with him at a family dinner party. They then get married at the end of Series 6.
Lady Edith Pelham (née Crawley), Marchioness of Hexham (played by Laura Carmichael) (b. 1892), the middle child and second daughter of Lord and Lady Grantham. During the first series, Edith is often the "forgotten '' one as she is not considered as pretty and smooth - talking as her older sister, Mary, or as daring and passionate as her younger sister, Sybil. Her bitter rivalry with Mary is further fuelled by the fact that Edith genuinely loved the dead heir, Patrick, but no one took her feelings seriously and instead Mary, who had no feelings for Patrick, was engaged to him.
After initially trying to woo Matthew Crawley, she begins a relationship with Sir Anthony Strallan. Towards the end of Series 1 he is on the verge of asking for her hand, but changes his mind when Mary tricks him into thinking that Edith was simply leading him on for her own amusement. Anthony Strallan was Edith 's last chance at making a successful marriage, and Mary intentionally intervened in revenge, because Edith had written a letter to the Turkish Embassy in London informing them about the exact nature of their attaché 's death in Mary 's bed, which was one of the most important factors in her hesitance to accept Matthew 's proposal, which results in Matthew withdrawing it.
During Series 2, Edith steps out of her comfort zone. She was the first of the Crawley family to learn how to drive a car, taking lessons from the chauffeur, Branson. Upon the outbreak of the First World War, Edith uses her driving skills to work on a local farm driving tractors, much to the bemusement and gratitude of the farmer. She is exposed to the horrors of war firsthand while helping Sybil and the nurses care for the wounded soldiers. As a result, she becomes more sympathetic and is commended by a general Matthew brought back to Downton while on leave. After the war ends, she tries to resume a relationship with Sir Anthony Strallan, but he refuses as he sustained a severe injury that rendered one of his arms useless, and does not want to tie her down to a disabled veteran.
In Series 3, Sir Anthony Strallan eventually proposes and they get engaged. Some of the family quietly disapprove but keep quiet to make Edith happy. They are set to marry, but Anthony has second thoughts and jilts her at the altar, leaving Edith devastated and believing she is destined to be a spinster. In Episode 6, she receives a very interesting proposition, to write for a newspaper, after writing a letter about women 's suffrage. The prospect excites her, and most of the family -- with the exception of Violet and Robert -- encourage her.
When Lady Edith notices that her editor, Michael Gregson, seems to have romantic feelings for her, she makes inquiries about him. Finding out that he is married, he tells Edith that his wife is mentally incapacitated and can no longer recognise him, so he is unable to move on with his life. Despite having fallen in love with Edith, he decides to step away when her family disapprove of his intentions toward her. The final straw is thought to have come when Matthew, who Edith hoped would understand, agrees with the other Crawleys and advises Gregson to bid Edith goodbye. However, Edith is in love with Gregson and decides to pursue a relationship with him despite the fact that it can not lead to marriage.
In Series 4, Gregson begins searching for ways to divorce his wife, and learns that by becoming a German citizen, he could achieve this and marry Edith. Gregson soon disappears and Edith finds out she is pregnant, increasing her worry. Much as she loves Michael and wants his child, she is afraid of becoming an outcast for having a child out of wedlock. Having heard of a clinic where abortions are performed, she reluctantly decides to go there. After her aunt Rosamund learns the truth, she offers her support and her worries for Edith doing this. Nevertheless, she goes with her, but when Edith sees another woman in tears, she can not go through with it.
Edith considers having a local farmer raise the child, but Rosamund proposes going abroad and giving the child away there, so Edith 's reputation will be safe. Eventually Violet finds out and agrees with Rosamund, but Edith does not like the thought of giving her child away. Nevertheless, she goes to Geneva and gives her daughter away. However, she soon decides she can not live with this arrangement and returns to Geneva to reclaim her. She chooses to go with her original plan and has a local farmer, Mr Drewe, take her in. However, tensions rise between Edith and Mrs Drewe over her attachment to the girl, named Marigold. Rosamund suggests sending Marigold abroad again.
Finally, when Edith and the family receive word that Michael is indeed dead, Edith tells Mrs Drewe the truth and reclaims Marigold before leaving for London. However, Mrs Drewe reveals the truth to Cora, who finds Edith and persuades her to come home, inventing a story that the Drewes are unable to support the extra child, so Marigold becomes part of the Crawley household. Lord Grantham eventually suspects the child 's true connection to the family, but is persuaded by Lady Grantham not to reveal the truth while the family become used to Marigold. Eventually Robert does confront Edith and she admits the truth and is shocked when her brother - in - law, Tom, tells her about a cousin of his that was in the same situation. She then realises that everyone has guessed the truth about Marigold being her illegitimate child, except for Mary.
In Series 6, she begins a warm friendship and later becomes engaged to Bertie Pelham, the former agent and heir to Brancaster Castle, although he is only known as the agent when they meet him in the Season 5 finale, "A Moorland Holiday ''. Their engagement is threatened when Mary, who has recently found out about Marigold 's parentage and illegitimacy, spitefully hints at Marigold being Edith 's daughter, forcing Edith to tell her fiancé the truth. Because she had not told him initially, he feels as if he can not trust her and breaks off the engagement. After a heated argument with Mary, Edith leaves for London, where she sees Bertie again. Their engagement resumes and they are married at the end of the series.
Lady Sybil Cora Branson (née Crawley) (played by Jessica Brown Findlay) (1895 -- 1920) is the third daughter of Lord and Lady Grantham, born in 1895. She is fiercely political (devoted to the cause of votes for women) which fuels her desire to break free from the social restrictions of the times. During one episode, she dons a pair of trousers, which was daring for women at the time, and somewhat shocks the family, especially the Dowager Countess. During another episode, against the will of her father, she attends the reading of the results of a by - election in the local town, where there is a disturbance and she is injured. At one point, she requests cooking lessons from Mrs Patmore and Daisy to help prepare herself for nursing college in York. During the First World War, Sybil is distressed when she learns that her friend Tom Bellasis was killed in action, deciding to become an auxiliary nurse with the encouragement of Mrs Crawley and the Dowager Countess. Now called "Nurse Crawley '', she tends to the sick and wounded soldiers both at Downton and in the nearby village.
After developing a brief crush on her cousin Matthew, she develops stronger feelings for Tom Branson, the family 's chauffeur and a staunch Irish nationalist. For several years, the couple carry out a secretive courtship, knowing that their relationship would not be accepted by her family. Throughout the series, Sybil seems detached from the family quarrels about inheritance; this is most evident when Sybil reveals their love to her family and declares she does n't want any money from the estate if it means they have to be apart. By the end of the second series, the couple leave for Dublin, having gained Lord Grantham 's blessing and the offer of a small dowry. The pair marry in a small ceremony, attended by Sybil 's sisters.
By December 1919, Sybil is pregnant and writes to her mother to inform her that she is to become a grandmother. Cora is excited by the prospect while Robert is still resentful, declaring that he will not visit her. Cora, however, warns Robert that she will not let him keep her from her grandchild and says that he should accept Sybil 's new family with as much grace as possible.
In the third series, Sybil and Tom briefly visit Downton for Mary and Matthew 's wedding. When Tom witnesses fellow Irish Republicans burning down the home of a wealthy nobleman, he fears he will be implicated and flees to Downton alone, leaving pregnant Sybil to follow on her own. Despite mutual distrust, Lord Grantham defends Tom with the Home Secretary, eventually securing his freedom on condition that he not return to Ireland. Not long after, Sybil goes into labour. Dr Clarkson and Lady Grantham believe that Sybil is suffering from eclampsia and must be sent to hospital, while Lord Grantham and his hired physician, Sir Philip Tapsell, believe she is fine and should remain at Downton. The night after giving birth to a baby daughter, Sybil dies surrounded by her loved ones at the age of 24. Her death leads to a temporary estrangement between Lord Grantham and his wife, but they reconcile when Dr Clarkson (under pressure from the Dowager Countess) assures them that the chances of Sybil 's survival from a Caesarean section were negligible. Sybil 's daughter is later named after her, and is nicknamed "Sybbie ''. Her husband and child now permanently live at Downton.
Matthew Reginald Crawley (played by Dan Stevens) (1885 -- 1921) is the son of the late Dr Reginald Crawley, a physician, and Mrs Isobel Crawley, a trained nurse. He is Lord Grantham 's third cousin once removed -- his great - great - grandfather was a younger son of the third Earl -- and works as a qualified solicitor in Manchester. After Robert 's heirs perish on the Titanic, the family lawyer discovers that Matthew is the next closest relative and Lord Grantham invites him to move to Downton and become part of the local community. Matthew eventually agrees, on the condition that he continue to work. His arrival is initially met with skepticism from the rest of the family and servants, especially Violet, as he was a "middle class lawyer ''. As the new heir presumptive he finds it difficult at first to adjust to the change in lifestyle. He refuses to adopt their traditionalist views, but is eventually accepted into the family and becomes something of a surrogate son to Lord Grantham.
After a lukewarm introduction, he and Mary begin to fall in love. It is thought the two will marry, though when Cora becomes pregnant and there is a chance that Matthew will not inherit after all, Mary 's aunt Rosamund persuades her to refuse his proposal. Unfortunately, Cora miscarries and so there is no longer any doubt about Matthew being the heir to the earldom. Matthew withdraws his proposal after she hesitates to accept him, as he is unsure of her motives. He later becomes engaged to Miss Lavinia Swire, daughter of a London businessman.
Following the outbreak of the First World War, he joins the British Army and is commissioned as a lieutenant, later promoted to captain. He is injured whilst serving alongside the family 's footman William Mason, who was assigned as Matthew 's batman, in Amiens, France but saved from death by William, who shielded him from an explosion and succumbs to his own injuries. Matthew is diagnosed as being paralysed from the waist down, and despite being told that he will never walk again and can not have children, Lavinia continues to care for him and insists on staying with Matthew. Following a miraculous and happy recovery, he and Mary realise that they are still in love but he insists that Lavinia 's efforts to care for him even when it was thought that he could not have children mean that he can not break up their relationship, for he is indebted to her. When Lavinia dies of Spanish influenza at Downton, he is plunged into grief and vows that neither he nor Mary deserve to be together, because it would be an insult to Lavinia 's memory. He tells Mary, "You and I are cursed. '' He is later persuaded to think differently and proposes to Mary in January 1920. This time, she accepts.
Matthew finally marries Lady Mary in the spring of 1920. It is discovered that his father - in - law, Lord Grantham, made a disastrous financial investment in the Canadian Grand Trunk Railway, which is now bankrupt, and has lost most of his and his wife 's fortune. He has also been mismanaging the running of the estate for many years, leaving it on the verge of bankruptcy. However, after his death in December 1919, it is discovered that Reggie Swire, Lavinia 's father, has left an enormous fortune to one of three prospective heirs, the third of whom is Matthew. After the first heir dies in the flu pandemic and the second dies in India, Matthew inherits the fortune. After much debate, he uses the money to save Downton. With the help of brother - in - law Tom Branson as his land agent, he puts his legal background in company and industrial law to good use in managing Downton while Branson oversaw the daily operations of the estate due to his having some knowledge of farming from his grandfather. Lord Grantham, who agreed to make Matthew joint owner of Downton, is very slow to accept that Matthew and Branson make a brilliant team. Although Mary and Matthew sometimes disagree on various issues, they have a very happy marriage. Mary tells Matthew in bed, "we must never take us for granted; we do n't know what 's coming '', Matthew responds, "I will love you forever until the last breath leaves my body. ''
Although only a few months have passed since their marriage, Mary is not pregnant and both fear that they have fertility problems. A year later, Mary gives birth to their son George in September 1921. Prior to the baby 's birth, the family goes to Duneagle Castle, home of Hugh MacClare "Shrimpie '', Marquess of Flintshire, for the holidays and Robert finally realises that Matthew 's instincts were accurate when Shrimpie tells Robert that he would be selling Duneagle, due to crippling debts incurred from the failure to modernise. While Lord Grantham is telling his family how thankful he is for Matthew and the new baby, Matthew is driving home to tell the waiting family about the baby. Matthew is gloriously happy (telling Mary after meeting his newborn son, "I feel like I 've just swallowed a box of fireworks ''). While still awash in the glow of his love for Mary and his baby son, he looks at the trees as his open top car speeds up the narrow road to Downton Abbey. Not paying attention, he swerves to avoid another vehicle and tumbles down an embankment (not shown, except for tire tracks in the soil). The car flips over on top of Matthew, crushing him and killing him almost instantly. Following his death, his son George is now the heir to the earldom but Mary will never be Countess. Later on, a letter is found that serves as a will for Mary to inherit Matthew 's share of Downton.
Isobel Grey (formerly Crawley, née Turnbull), Baroness Merton (played by Penelope Wilton) is Matthew 's widowed mother. Originally from Manchester, she is the daughter of a doctor: Sir John Turnbull. Her first husband Reginald Crawley studied under her father and her brother is also a doctor. Isobel was a nurse during the Boer War and initially helps Dr Clarkson at the village hospital, much to his chagrin (as she constantly undermines his decisions). Upon moving to Downton she and Matthew live in a relatively modest dwelling with a butler, Molesley, and a cook, Mrs Bird. Isobel embodies a different set of values to those of the Crawleys. When she and Matthew first arrive at Downton she tells him that she will not alter her lifestyle, and neither will she succumb to their stereotypes and expectations. A recurring theme during the first two series is the clash between her more modern and liberal values with the traditionalist ideas of Lord Grantham and his family. Despite their disagreements, she and the rest of the Crawleys tolerate each other, largely for Matthew 's sake.
In the second series, Isobel returns to nursing when she takes up a position of authority at Downton when, at her suggestion, it is turned into a convalescent home for injured soldiers. At first expecting to be in charge of the day - to - day operations, she engages in a rather petty power struggle with Cora, much to the amusement of their children, and eventually leaves Downton for France to work with the Red Cross. She returns to Downton after learning that Matthew, who had been serving in France, was seriously injured, and stays for the remainder of the war. Although initially opposed to Matthew 's relationship with Lady Mary after the death of his fiancée Lavinia, she tries to talk him out of his grief and to propose to Mary again. Towards the end of the second series she leaves to work for a war refugee organisation, encouraged by Cora (whose ulterior motive was to avoid her).
In the third series, with the end of the Great War, Isobel turns her attention to helping prostitutes and other down - on - their - luck women change their way of life. She equally gives a hand to Ethel (a maid at Downton Abbey who fell in love with an injured soldier and became an unwed mother) by employing her as a cook, to the consternation of her current cook Mrs Bird. Although she had a contentious working relationship with Dr Clarkson in Series one and two, while helping out at his village hospital, she and Clarkson quickly form a friendly relationship. Dr Clarkson is ready to propose marriage, but Isobel tells him she is happy to have his friendship.
Following Matthew 's death at the end of the second Christmas special (series 3), Isobel is completely grief - stricken like Mary. Matthew was her only child and she feels as if she has nothing to live for, although the Dowager Countess, Lady Edith and Mrs Hughes all try to console her. When Mrs Hughes discovers Mr Carson has ignored requests for help from Charlie Grigg, an old friend from Carson 's performing days who unsuccessfully attempted to blackmail him in Series 1, and is now in a workhouse, she decides to arrange for him to stay with Isobel. Although Isobel is reluctant at first, she relents, nurses Mr Grigg back to health, and arranges a job for him in Ireland. Though she is saddened at the idea of Mary continuing to live her life as best she can without Matthew, she recognises that it is not Mary 's fault, and finds some comfort in the form of consoling words from her once bitter rival, the Dowager Countess.
In Series 4, Isobel and Violet become closer following Matthew 's shocking and tragic death. Violet gets ill, and Isobel nurses her back to health. They seem to finally form a bond when Isobel re-introduces card games to her while she is still in bed. In Series 5, the two women, once rivals, are very close now. They share cars and do several activities together including lunches, dinners, and picnics. In episode 6 of Series 4, Isobel tells Violet that she wants to accept Lord Merton 's marriage proposal. Although Violet approves of Lord Merton (Mary 's Godfather), she is devastated that her companion will be moving away. However, Isobel is badly shaken when she meets Lord Merton 's sons; the elder son Larry insults the Crawley family 's choice of in - laws (he had previously doped Branson 's drink during Matthew and Lady Mary 's pre-wedding dinner out of spite, much to his father 's embarrassment, before being exposed by Sir Anthony Strallan), but is most scathing in attacking Isobel 's engagement. She asks Lord Merton to give her time to consider whether their engagement will go ahead. After seeing the treatment from his children after a diagnosis and the support of Violet, she decided to marry him in the final series.
Lady Rosamund Painswick (née Crawley) (played by Samantha Bond) is Robert 's sister. Rosamund lives on her own in a house on Eaton Square in Belgravia, London, which was purchased by her late husband, Mr Marmaduke Painswick, directly after their wedding. They had no children. Her mother looks down on Marmaduke, a wealthy banker and member of the nouveau riche, for the humble origins of the Painswick family. Rosamund is first mentioned when she writes a letter to Matthew Crawley, welcoming him into the family. She often writes to her family from London and is occasionally mentioned in their conversations.
Rosamund is one of the more headstrong and outspoken members of the family. She is devoted to Robert and his family and thus feels it is her duty to speak her mind on every possible occasion, though her interference in her nieces ' decisions has disastrous results. During the first series, when Matthew 's position as heir is in doubt due to Cora 's surprise pregnancy, Rosamund convinces Mary not to answer Matthew 's marriage proposal. Although Mary 's other reason for her silence was the Pamuk affair, Matthew begins to doubt her sincerity and withdraws the proposal, much to the chagrin of Violet. When Matthew brings home his new fiancée Lavinia, Rosamund digs up her past and tries to get Mary to tell Matthew; Mary, who intensely dislikes her aunt 's meddling, refuses to blackmail Lavinia. In the Christmas episode she brings her lover Lord Hepworth, a family friend of Violet 's, to Downton but Violet discovers that despite his title he is, in effect, on the brink of bankruptcy. In the end they break when it is revealed that he was having an affair with her maid, and Rosamund fumes to Mary about how she hates it whenever "Mama is proved right ''. She is also upset in 1920 when her mother tricks her into revealing that their relative Rose was caught in a secret relationship with a married man.
Rosamund is the first to learn about Edith 's pregnancy, sometime after learning from one of her maids that Edith sneaked back into the house after spending the night with Gregson. Rosamund accompanies Edith to an illegal abortion clinic, though she does not approve of this plan. After Edith rejects this path, Rosamund devises a plan to take Edith abroad to Switzerland, officially to "improve our French '' but instead for Edith to give birth and have her child adopted without the family knowing and preserving Edith 's reputation. Only Violet sees through this charade, noting Rosamund has no interest in French; when she wants to be understood by a foreigner, "she shouts ''.
Edith is devastated by not being a part of her child 's life. Rosamund insists Edith should move on and says there will be future "other loves. '' Edith, however, returns to Switzerland and reclaims her daughter, Marigold, bringing her back to England. After Edith has conflicts with Marigold 's foster family who will not allow her to see the girl (proving Rosamund 's point that it was better to give Marigold up for adoption), Rosamund and Violet try and persuade her to send Marigold abroad again. But after the Crawleys hear Michael Gregson is dead, Edith takes Marigold and leaves for London. Violet decides they must tell Cora the truth, though Rosamund considers it a betrayal of Edith 's trust. But Cora learns the truth instead from Mrs Drewe, and Cora is furious with both Rosamund and Violet for never involving her or telling her the truth in the first place. Rosamund accompanies Cora in persuading Edith to come home with Marigold, but Cora warns her in - laws that she will never trust them again. Although Rosamund brushes over the warning, Violet is neither surprised by nor unsympathetic to Cora 's opinion.
In 1925, Rosamund continues to support Edith as Edith begins to manage the magazine she inherited from Michael Gregson. Rosamund also advises that Edith should use the flat that Gregson left to her. Rosamund becomes a board member of the Hillcroft College for Women and invites the patrons, John and Gwen Harding, to Downton to discuss the college. It is then that the family realizes that Mrs Harding was a maid at Downton Abbey and that Sybil was the one who helped her to get a start at a better life. Rosamund hosts the family when they all go to Brooklands to attend a car race in which Mary 's suitor Henry Talbot participates. She is devastated when Henry 's friend Charlie Rogers dies during the race in an accident. Rosamund later visits Downton and is happy to learn about Edith 's possible engagement to Bertie Pelham, but constantly bickers with Robert because she thinks that Edith should tell Bertie about Marigold 's parentage. Rosamund is furious with Mary when she forces Edith to reveal her secret to Bertie, who ends up leaving Edith. Rosamund later suggests the idea to have tea at Mrs Patmore 's Bed & Breakfast in order to help her after the business was involved in a scandal. Rosamund attends Mary and Henry Talbot 's wedding.
Thomas "Tom '' Branson (played by Allen Leech) was initially the family chauffeur, employed in Series 1. He aspires to a career in politics and is a socialist Irish nationalist and republican. It becomes clear that he is political and very determined, much like Lady Sybil. Once in conversation with Sybil he makes no secret of his distaste for the aristocracy and the ruling class, but is quick to add that he respects Lord Grantham and his family for their fairness towards their employees and only disapproves of him as a "representative of the oppressive class ''. Sybil forces him to take her to the announcement of the by - election results but a group of thugs stir up trouble and they barely escape the chaos, assisted by Matthew. He forms a strong friendship with Lady Sybil, which develops into romantic feelings, but both are afraid to act due to the difference in social class and the potential loss of his job. He refuses to fight for Britain in the First World War but the conflict shows him and Sybil that the class boundaries are breaking down. After sharing a kiss, the pair decide to elope to Gretna Green, but are persuaded to return by Mary and Edith. After breaking the news of their love to the Grantham family and being fired by Lord Grantham, Branson finally gets a muted blessing for their wedding and the promise of a dowry. They move to Dublin where Tom has found a job as a journalist and are married in a small ceremony which Sybil 's sisters attend. However, Cora, Robert and Violet do not go. In December 1919, Sybil writes a letter to her family telling them that she is pregnant.
Tom and Sybil return to Downton Abbey for Mary and Matthew 's wedding in 1920, Violet having sent them the money to cover their travel expenses, feeling that their attendance will be less of a topic of conversation in the county than if they were excluded. The older generation upstairs, except Cora and Isobel, and many of the servants, except Mrs Hughes and Anna, find it hard to accept Tom in his new role as a member of the Crawley family, while Mary, Edith and Matthew readily welcome him as their brother - in - law. The pre-wedding dinner is nearly ruined when he falls victim to a prank by one of the Crawleys ' aristocratic guests. At the dinner table Matthew stuns everyone when he asks Tom to be his best man, quipping that "We 're brothers - in - law with high - minded wives. We 'd better stick together. ''
Due to his anti-aristocrat feelings and illegal political activities, Tom is a witness and co-conspirator as fellow Irish Republicans burn the house of a wealthy Anglo - Irish nobleman. Now a fugitive, he escapes with Sybil and finds refuge at Downton. He admits that he was involved in the planning of the attack and present at its execution but felt sorry for the wealthy nobleman 's family. Robert, though outraged, pleads his case with the Home Secretary and manages to obtain Tom 's freedom; however, Tom is barred from returning to Ireland and is forced to remain at Downton. When Sybil dies in childbirth, Tom becomes a widower and insists that his daughter have a Catholic christening, despite Robert 's objections. Mary and the rest of the family defend Tom 's decision because Sybil did not object. At the end of the series, as suggested by Violet and strongly supported by Cora, Tom becomes the land agent for the estate, who will help Matthew transform Downton into a modern, profitable estate. He asks Cora if he and his daughter can stay at Downton and Cora happily agrees. The final image of the series shows Tom, Robert, and Matthew happily enjoying a cricket match together, showing that Tom has finally been accepted by Robert into the family.
In the Christmas Special, set a year later, he is shown as the object of affection for the new maid, Edna Braithwaite, who tries to make him feel ashamed of his new position and life in the house. After Edna kisses him and is fired because of it, Tom is shown breaking down in grief over Sybil before Mrs Hughes. Mrs Hughes touchingly tells him that he should not be ashamed of his achievements in his new station of life and that he is no longer a "downstairs person. '' Sybil, she believes, would be proud of his accomplishments "above stairs '' (being the manager of Downton Abbey) and as a member of the family.
Edna later returns to Downton to be Lady Grantham 's new lady 's maid in 1922, following the sudden departure of Miss O'Brien, using the glowing reference that Mrs Hughes wrote at Tom 's request. Tom consults Carson and Mrs Hughes when he learns of her imminent return. Carson, reasoning that there is no way they can refuse her the job without explaining why she was fired, which he feels would almost certainly break the hearts of the Crawley household, decides to allow Edna to take the role and advises Tom to keep his distance. Tom tries to do so, but following a party where many of the Crawleys ' old friends make him feel hopelessly out of place, is seduced by Edna after she gives him a large whiskey. Edna then attempts to blackmail Tom into forcing him to marry her if she is carrying his child, trying to make him feel guilty when she is the guilty party. Tom confides in Mrs Hughes (after Mary urges him to confide in someone, knowing something is wrong though he refuses to talk to her), who finds a book in Edna 's room regarding contraception and uses it to call Edna 's bluff: she intended to get pregnant once she was married and he would not have been the father. This results in Edna leaving Downton Abbey again after Mrs Hughes threatens to have her examined by a doctor and not give her a reference if she does not tell the truth.
Though he has come to love his in - laws, Tom feels more than ever that he could never fit in at Downton. He now feels he can not go back to Ireland and does not even know what his beliefs are any more. He considers emigrating to America, feeling it would be better for his daughter to have a clean start, rather than having to live with the idea that her father is an "uppity chauffeur ''. Isobel tries to rekindle his interest in politics and send him to a political rally, where he meets school teacher Sarah Bunting (played by Daisy Lewis). Their friendship is a source of tension in Downton, as she has several altercations with Lord Grantham over politics and the Great War. When she leaves, Branson is reminded of his choice to stay in Downton or go to America with Sybbie. Finally, at the end of series 5, he decides to join his cousin in a venture to invest in farming machinery in Boston, Massachusetts, resolving to leave Downton after spending one last Christmas there. Months later, in 1925, Tom and Sybbie surprise the family by appearing at Mr. Carson and Mrs. Hughes 's wedding and reveal that they are moving back to Downton permanently, much to the family 's delight. Later in series 6, Branson is instrumental in setting up Lady Mary with Henry Talbot, and in the series finale, goes in with Talbot on an automobile dealership.
Tom Branson was supposed to appear in only three episodes of the first series, and Branson was originally Yorkshire - born. Moreover, actor Leech wanted to audition for Thomas Barrow, but chose Branson. Leech 's audition for the role convinced Julian Fellowes to expand his role and to transform Branson to an Irishman. Leech at first tried to develop a Yorkshire accent in an effort to prevent his character from becoming an Irish stereotype, but when he was persuaded that Tom would not become such, he used his native Irish accent.
Martha Levinson (played by Shirley MacLaine) is Cora 's brash, outspoken American mother, a wealthy widow with homes in New York City and Newport, Rhode Island. She visits Downton with great fanfare in Series 3 for Mary and Matthew 's wedding and then returns to the United States. Unlike Violet, Martha wears up - to - date clothing. Martha has a slightly strained relationship with her daughter Cora, making her rarely visit the house. She is mentioned once in series one when Cora was pregnant with her miscarriage as being very anxious but Violet wrote to her to come admire the baby. Martha arrives in Downton for Mary 's wedding to Matthew, and remains there for a short time afterwards. Violet and Mary scheme to have her give the Crawleys more money to save Downton from ruin by putting on a lavish banquet, but the evening nearly ends in disaster when the oven fails. It is Martha who saves the feast, instead arranging an indoor picnic for the guests. Martha reveals to Violet and Mary that even if she wanted to sink more money into Downton, her late husband 's will ties up the Levinson fortune up too tightly. Martha leaves Downton shortly afterwards, telling Robert she is "homesick for America ''.
She decides to return in 1923 with her son Harold for Rose 's coming out ball, wanting to see another London season in her life. She leads on Lord Aysgarth for her own amusement, before bluntly turning down his proposal by telling him she finds his kind "narrow and pompous and boring ''. She then offers Aysgarth the chance to visit her home in Newport, where she promises to find him plenty of wealthy widows who would like to marry into nobility. Martha and Violet frequently trade barbed insults, but Martha is unperturbed, telling Violet that her world is slipping away, whilst Martha 's is growing nearer all the time.
Harold Levinson (played by Paul Giamatti) is Cora 's younger brother. His peripheral involvement in the Teapot Dome scandal leads Martha to request that Lord Grantham appear before Congress to vouch for Harold 's character late in Series 4 -- he escapes with only a reprimand. Harold then accompanies his mother to England in July 1923. While in England he makes the acquaintance of the Hon. Madeleine Allsopp, the daughter of Lord Aysgarth, who after finding out about Harold 's wealth tells his daughter to get better acquainted with him. Harold sees through her tactics almost at once, but is more attracted to Madeleine than any who have tried to seduce him before, and tells she is a far better person than her father. The two part on good terms, with Madeleine promising to write to Harold frequently. Harold, not known for enjoying British cooking, found he enjoyed the cooking and had his valet, Ethan Slade, to try to have Daisy Mason, whom Ethan had a crush on, move from England to America to work for him as his new cook. Daisy, although flattered that her cooking was well - received enough for her to be offered a new job (and by an American no less), would decline the offer, because she did not want to leave her "family '' (Mrs. Patmore and her father in - law). She would graciously suggest Ivy, the kitchen maid, to take the position in her stead, which Harold would agree to.
Sybil "Sybbie '' Branson, (b. Late May 1920) is the daughter and only child of Tom Branson and the late Lady Sybil Branson (née Crawley) whom she is named after. She is the first grandchild and eldest granddaughter of Robert and Cora. She is the great - granddaughter of Violet. She is the niece of Lady Mary, Lady Edith, and the late Matthew Crawley. George Crawley and Marigold Crawley are her first cousins.
Her father named her after her mother, who died of eclampsia shortly after her birth. Her father felt it was right even if it would be painful, stating he wanted to remember her mother whenever he looked at her. After her father and grandfather argued over which church she would be christened into, she was baptised Catholic per her father 's wishes. Her father named his brother Kieran and Lady Mary as her godparents. Tom decided he and she would live at Downton until she was older.
In the beginning of Series 4, Sybbie and her cousin George have a nanny, Nanny West, who favours George and is fired after Lady Grantham overhears her blaming Sybbie for waking up baby George and calling her "that chauffeur 's daughter '' and a "wicked little cross-breed ''. A new nanny later comes in. She calls her maternal grandfather "Donk '' -- a reference to the game Pin the tail on the donkey -- to Robert 's chagrin and the family 's amusement. She is four years old in the fifth series. It was Cora who would be the one who would call her by her nickname, Sybbie.
In Series Six, she and her father return in the third episode after a brief stint in America. She and George would be the ones who grow up in the abbey, while their cousin, Marigold, would move to Brancaster Castle after her mother married.
As she was named after her late mother, she is considered Sybil the Second.
George Crawley (born September 1921) is the son and only child, and heir of the late Matthew Crawley and Lady Mary Crawley. He is the second grandchild and first grandson of Robert and Cora Crawley, The Earl and Countess of Grantham; the first and only grandson of Isobel Crawley; great - grandson of Violet Crawley, The Dowager Countess of Grantham; nephew of Lady Edith, the late Lady Sybil, and Tom Branson, and the cousin of Sybil Branson, the daughter of the late Lady Sybil and Tom Branson and Marigold Gregson, the daughter of Lady Edith from the Crawley side as of 1921.
George was born a month early, shortly before his father was killed in a car crash. Following his father 's premature death, George becomes heir presumptive to his grandfather and the Downton estate. Initially his mother largely ignores him as she mourned the loss of her husband and George was cared for by the nanny and the rest of the family.
As he grew, he would bond with under - butler Thomas Barrow, much like his mother had done with Carson, when she was his age. Thomas would always find time to give George piggy - back rides or fly him around like an airplane.
Miss Marigold Crawley (born c. late December 1922 or mid January 1923) is the illegitimate child and only daughter of the late Michael Gregson and Lady Edith Crawley, as a result of their hidden love affair. She is the third grandchild and youngest granddaughter of Robert and Cora Crawley, the Earl and Countess of Grantham; second great - granddaughter of Violet Crawley, The Dowager Countess of Grantham; niece of Lady Mary, the late Lady Sybil, Tom Branson, and the late Matthew Crawley and the first cousin of Sybbie Branson, the only daughter of the late Lady Sybil and Tom Branson, and George Crawley, the only son of Lady Mary and the late Matthew Crawley, both from the maternal side of her family as of 1923.
She was born in, either, late December 1922 or early January 1923 in Geneva, Switzerland and given up for adoption to Mr and Mrs Schroeder after her mother suckled her.
The year before she was born, her mother had first considered having an abortion (because she feared becoming an outcast for having bore an illegitimate child, Michael Gregson having mysteriously vanished without a trace) but backed out at the last minute. She then considered giving her to a local farmer, Timothy Drewe after she was born, so that she could be near her child without giving her away. But Edith 's aunt Rosamund Painswick decided it best to take her abroad to keep Edith 's reputation safe. Violet quickly saw through the story and learnt the truth before the two left England.
But after returning, Edith was troubled at having to give up her child. Rosamund insisted that the child was no longer hers, and Violet hurt Edith more by calling the child "it '' instead of "she '' and joking about Edith 's "French '' -- the cover story of her travels being to improve her French. But Edith, fearing even more that she would never see Michael again, and knowing he gave her power of attorney, felt obliged to give at least half to her daughter should Michael indeed be proven dead.
Ultimately, Edith decided to go back and reclaim her daughter, and have her grow up on Drewe 's farm. Drewe himself discovered her secret, but sympathetic to Lady Edith, agreed to keep it for her and raise her two - year - old daughter for the time being. Unfortunately her repeated visits began to arouse the suspicion and anger of Drewe 's wife Margie. When news reaches the Crawleys confirming Michael Gregson 's tragic death, and with Rosamund and Violet considered taking Marigold abroad again, Edith told a terribly distraught Mrs Drewe the truth, reclaimed her daughter, and fled to London. Edith was quickly found by her mother, who had learned the truth, and suggested Edith bring Marigold back to Downton on the pretense that Edith was adopting her because the Drewes could no longer afford to raise her. Robert figures out Marigold 's true identity when he realises her close resemblance to her deceased father, but is persuaded by Cora not to reveal he 's guessed the truth. He also says, much to his surprise, he believes he will love her, as well. During the family 's visit to Brancaster Castle, Robert tells Edith that he figured out Marigold 's identity as her daughter and his youngest granddaughter, and accepts her into the family. In April 1925, at the toddling age of two or three, Marigold remains at Downton with her cousin George until her five - year - old cousin Sybbie returns.
When Mr. Carson and Mrs. Hughes get married, she hugs her returning cousin, Sybbie, when she and her father, Tom, come back from America. When her mother marries Bertie Pelham, the Marquess of Hexham, she moves with them to their new home at Brancaster Castle, along with a new nanny, to live out her childhood with her stepfather and stepgrandmother, Mrs. Pelham.
Hugh MacClare (The Marquess of Flintshire) (played by Peter Egan) is a Scottish nobleman nicknamed "Shrimpie '' and married to Susan, the niece of Violet, the Dowager Countess of Grantham. They have three children, the youngest being Rose. Lord Flintshire is mentioned offscreen in series two as being a minister in the First World War; Violet and Edith successfully contact him so he can pull strings to allow William Mason, who was seriously wounded in France, to be sent to a hospital in Leeds, and return to Downton to die in familiar surroundings. His nickname, "Shrimpie '' is derived from his being the smallest of three children. In 1921, as Laird of Duneagle, he hosts the Crawleys at Duneagle Castle, his family 's Scottish estate with Susan and Rose, who has returned home after living at Downton for a time. It becomes clear he is deeply unhappy about his marriage to Susan, who seems determined to argue with him, and trample on Rose 's ambitions, at every opportunity. Full of regret, Shrimpie later privately confesses to Robert that he has to sell his estate to pay off debts -- 1921 was the last year the Crawleys holidayed there -- and says that he admires Robert for thinking ahead and modernising Downton. He is appointed Governor of Bombay that year, and he and his wife travel to India, after agreeing to allow Rose to return to Downton. However, the two fail to resolve their marital problems, and agree to separate upon returning to England for Rose 's wedding. Despite no longer having direct ties to the family, Shrimpie continues to be useful, providing assistance to Lady Violet in locating the long - lost wife of Violet 's old flame Prince Kuragin. Unlike Susan, he has no objection to his daughter 's marriage to Atticus Aldridge, who is Jewish. Shrimpie is loved by the Crawleys and he is invited to the give the wedding speech at Edith 's wedding where he identifies himself as family. "I am a cousin of Edith 's father '' He says before reading a letter from Martha 's. He is seen with the rest of the family on the last scene of the show.
Lady Rose Aldridge (née MacClare) (portrayed by Lily James) is the daughter and youngest child of Hugh and Susan MacClare (Lord and Lady Flintshire). During her visit to Violet in 1920, she unexpectedly joins Edith and Matthew on a trip to London, claiming that she is planning a surprise for her mother. When Violet tricks Rosamund into telling the truth -- that Rose is meeting a married lover -- she has Rose sent to Duneagle early as punishment with her paternal aunt Agatha, whom she despises.
In 1921, Rose 's relationship with her mother has soured, though her relationship with her father is better. Susan disapproves of Rose 's choices and tastes, while Rose hates her mother. While her parents are posted to India, Rose stays at Downton, where she is living by 1922. Rose becomes restless, and persuades Anna into accompanying her to a dance hall in York, where Anna attracts the attention of some young men but barely escapes when a fight ensues. Rose later becomes attracted to Sir John Bullock, a guest at a Downton house party with whom she later meets up in London along with some of her relatives. They go to the Lotus night club, but Bullock gets drunk and leaves Rose on the dance floor. She is rescued (to her relatives ' dismay) by African - American singer Jack Ross. Rose secretly invites Ross and his band members to perform at Downton for Robert 's birthday, by which times she has entered into a secret relationship with Jack. Though Jack loves her, he fears the repercussions of an inter-racial romance. Rose wants to marry Jack, though Mary sees that Rose 's primary motivation is to upset her mother. Jack breaks off the relationship to protect Rose.
Rose 's society debut is in 1923, when Cora presents her before the king, queen, and Prince of Wales. Rose befriends the prince 's mistress, Freda Dudley Ward, who comes to her when a letter from the prince is stolen by Terence Sampson, a greedy acquaintance from Robert 's club. The Crawleys and Rose succeed in retrieving the letter, after which the grateful prince unexpectedly arrives and opens a ball at their house, dancing with Rose.
Rose matures and become less self - centred. She volunteers with a charity in Leeds to help Russian refugees who have resettled in England. In 1924, she meets, falls in love with, and marries Atticus Aldridge, the Jewish son of Lord and Lady Sinderby. Between Series 5 and Series 6 they move to New York, and are later blessed with a daughter named Victoria.
The Honourable Ephraim Atticus Aldridge, more commonly known by his middle name, is the son and heir of Lord and Lady Sinderby. He meets Lady Rose MacClare one stormy day in York in the spring of 1924, while she is leaving a pastry shop, and helps her with her packages. He goes with her to the church of St. Mary Magdalene, where Rose helps care for exiled Russians. He is initially reticent about his family, but mentions that his great - grandfather and his family were Russian Jews from Odessa who had emigrated to England during the 19th century and eventually anglicised their family name. After a confrontation with one of the Russian emigres, Count Rostov, which Rose witnesses, Atticus reveals his family had emigrated after being driven from Odessa in that city 's 1859 and 1871 pogroms. Lord Sinderby was said to have been opposed to his marriage to Rose while his wife accepts her because "her son 's happiness is more important ''.
Charles ' Charlie ' Carson (played by Jim Carter) is the butler at Downton Abbey. Mr Carson is in charge of the pantry, wine cellar, and dining room, as well as the male staff, who report to him. He has worked at Downton since he was a young man, when his grandfather was its Head Groom, beginning as a junior footman. He tends towards nostalgia and fears change (such as the installation of telephones in the house and electricity in the kitchen). He has a fatherly disposition over the servants. He also has a special place in his heart for Lady Mary, given she was the first child born at Downton during his tenure as butler. He is one of the few people who is prepared to speak frankly to her, and is prepared to leave Downton Abbey to join her at Haxby when she is engaged to Sir Richard Carlisle. He only changes his mind when he learns more of Sir Richard 's questionable moral character, and is clearly distressed by Lady Mary 's reaction to his decision. It is he who eventually talks Lady Mary out of her listless grief over Matthew 's death. She reacts callously at first, reminding him of his place, but soon comes to apologise, and finally breaks down and cries. Carson quickly steps forward to comfort her, and assures her she will always find a source of support in him.
For a brief time before entering into household service, Mr Carson was a music hall performer in the vaudeville duo the "Cheerful Charlies '' alongside former friend Charlie Grigg. When this secret becomes known in Downton, Carson offers his resignation to Lord Grantham. Amused instead of scandalised at the revelation, Grantham gently declines Carson 's offer, ending the matter as a non-issue.
In the second series, with most of the male staff depicted as serving in the First World War, Mr Carson finds himself under mostly self - imposed pressure to ensure household duties are carried out to his exacting standards. Carson is mortified when he suffers severe chest pains while serving the family dinner and as a consequence is forced to accept help from the female staff. After the war, with male staff able to be hired, the full household staff are brought up to the pre-war levels and Mr Carson is able to return to solely undertaking the duties of butler. It is revealed in series 4 that Carson almost married a young woman during his time as a performer but the woman chose the other half of the duo - Mr Grigg. At the end of the series five Christmas special, Carson has purchased a house and added both his and Mrs Hughes 's names to the registry. Following this, he asked Mrs Hughes to marry him and she has accepted.
Series 6 deals with Carson and Hughes ' marriage and life as a married couple. Still a man of high standards, his reactions to Hughes ' cooking lead to a comic incident where he is forced to cook dinner and fail at his own high standards. The final series also deals with Carson downsizing staff to adjust for the current times. In the series finale, Carson begins to suffer from palsy that ultimately forces him into retirement.
Elsie May Carson (née Hughes) (played by Phyllis Logan) is the housekeeper at Downton Abbey. Elsie was born in the year 1862. Though unmarried, she is referred to as Mrs Hughes according to traditional titles for servants during the time period. She is originally from Argyll, Scotland, where her father was a farmer. Elsie worked as a maid at Duneagle Castle for an unknown period of time. She has one sibling, a sister who lives in Lytham St Annes. Before she came to Downton in 1895 as head housemaid, she was courted by a farmer, Joe Burns. But she refused him and he married a woman named Ivy and had a son, Peter. In 1913, three years after Ivy dies and his son joins the army, Joe comes to Downton and asks Elsie to marry him, but once again she refuses him, even though she has previously expressed doubts about choosing a life of service over having a husband and family.
Outwardly prim and somewhat strict in her manner as housekeeper, Mrs Hughes is essentially kindly and generous, as shown when she assists Ethel after she leaves her position and has a baby out of wedlock. In series 3, she has a breast cancer scare; the lump is eventually diagnosed as benign. She is best friends with Mrs Patmore. Although she is usually supportive of Mr Carson when it comes to matters of discipline, she is seldom afraid of speaking her mind when he makes decisions; Carson in turn dislikes proceeding with any choice without her approval. She also speaks frankly about her employers when she and Mr Carson are alone; she enjoys seeing the Dowager Countess (whom she calls "the old bat '') getting her comeuppance with the arrival of Isobel Crawley. Unlike Carson, she privately views Lady Mary as a silly girl whose misfortune comes mostly from her own mistakes; her attitudes have likely softened over the years. She is one of Anna 's closest allies, being the first person who helps her in the aftermath of Mr Green 's attack. She also refused to hand the police the ticket regarding Mr Bates 's trip to London on the day Mr Green died, telling Lady Mary she could never condemn a man for defending his wife 's honour against such a crime. At the end of the series five Christmas special Mrs Hughes has accepted Mr Carson 's marriage proposal.
John Bates (played by Brendan Coyle), who is mainly known as Mr Bates or just Bates, is Lord Grantham 's valet. He previously served in the Army alongside the earl as his batman during the Boer Wars and suffered an injury to his right leg. He arrives at Downton in the first episode to replace Lord Grantham 's previous valet. When the staff see that he uses a cane, they are at best surprised and at worst angry feeling that they will have to pick up the slack for him, due to his disability slowing him down in the large house. Most of the staff give him the cold shoulder, while Thomas and O'Brien try to get rid of him to further their own ends. Only the housemaid Anna offers him any sympathy and friendship. O'Brien, Cora 's lady 's maid, schemes to get Cora to talk to Lord Grantham about Bates 's unsuitability. And while the household is lined up to receive a duke, O'Brien discreetly kicks Bates 's cane on which he was leaning, knocking him on his face in the gravel, in order to cause a scene and bring attention to his disability. Lord Grantham, after being pressured by Cora and Carson to see how Bates is not fulfilling his job properly, regretfully tells Bates that it is not working out. Carson 's main complaint is that a valet should perform extra duties outside of just seeing to Lord Grantham, including carrying trays and acting as a third footman if necessary. Bates nearly begs to stay, pointing out that he is unlikely to find another position (because of his disability), but Lord Grantham is unmoved. However, when he sees the departing Bates leaving, Lord Grantham is overcome with feelings of guilt. He runs after the car and orders Bates to get out, telling him to get back inside and that nothing more would be said about him leaving.
Throughout much of the series Bates is at odds with Thomas, who tries to get rid of him so that he can take his place as valet. Bates tries to ignore him at first. Still being ignored by the rest of the staff save Anna, he gains an ally in William when he observes Thomas bullying the younger man, who is suffering with severe homesickness. An overconfident Thomas makes a snide remark that Mr Bates can do nothing to stop him only for Bates to violently grab him and shove him against the wall, proving that despite his disability he is not to be underestimated.
He and Anna fall in love, but he explains he has yet to divorce his estranged wife, Vera. She comes to Downton only to inform Bates that if he does not come away with her, she will sell the scandalous story of the death of Kemal Pamuk in Mary 's bed to the newspapers, which could ruin the reputation of Downton Abbey. Bates goes with her, and it is thought that his romance with Anna is over. He returns to Downton, having apparently settled affairs with his wife, but Miss O'Brien contacts Vera and once again, she returns to cause more trouble. She manages to stop the divorce that Mr Bates thought was a foregone conclusion, and he goes to London to confront her. After his return, he receives a telegram informing him of her death. It is revealed that she was poisoned by eating rat poison cooked in a pie, and Bates is put under suspicion. Anna insists that they marry so that she will have legal rights if the worst happens. Bates is subsequently charged with murder. He is arrested in front of the entire Downton staff after Lavinia 's funeral and is put on trial, during which some other staff members at Downton and Robert are called to testify. The evidence does not portray Bates in a good light; the jury finds him guilty of the murder of his wife, and he is sentenced to be hanged. Determined to prove him innocent, Anna and Robert try to appeal the decision and are successful in reducing Bates 's sentence from execution to life imprisonment.
After visiting Bates in prison, Anna declares that she will not rest until Bates had been proven completely innocent and is free. She searches for anyone Vera may have been in contact with, and finds a neighbour who saw her the day of her death. The neighbour mentions she saw Vera cleaning crust from under her nails, confirming she made the pie herself. Although the neighbour at first recants her story, she eventually gives a statement that clears Bates, who is freed from prison, returns to Downton, and moves into a nearby cottage with Anna. Surprisingly, it is Bates who intervenes to save Thomas 's prospects after he attempts to seduce Jimmy, as he is unwilling to see another man lose his livelihood due to the schemes of others. Deducing that Miss O'Brien is pressuring Jimmy to have Mr Carson demand Thomas leave Downton with no reference, he informs Lord Grantham of the details, and asks Thomas to give him a weapon to use against his former ally. Bates then invite O'Brien to his cottage, and whispers the words "her ladyship 's soap '' in her ear, before warning her that unless she calls Jimmy off, he will not keep her secret. Bates remains ignorant of the true meaning of the words, but he soon has other concerns when Lord Grantham decides to appoint Thomas as under - butler to take advantage of his skills at cricket; Bates had only hoped to allow Thomas to leave with a good reference.
In Series 4, Anna is violently raped and Bates is confused and hurt at her attempts to push him away, as he is unaware of Anna 's distress. He threatens Mrs Hughes with leaving Downton in order to find out what is wrong with his wife. She reveals the story of Anna 's attack but states that the attacker was a stranger who broke into the house. He tells Anna he knows what has happened, and reassures her that he still loves her. The two attempt to move past the attack, but both find it very difficult. Bates is suspicious that the attacker could be Mr Green, valet of Lord Gillingham. When Green returns to the Abbey, Bates is further convinced of his guilt. Bates goes to York for the day but does not reveal the reason for going and Mr Green dies in Piccadilly after "falling into the road ''. Mrs Hughes discovers a round - trip ticket stub from York to London in an article of Bates 's clothing that Anna donates to charity. She gives it to Lady Mary, who destroys it after Bates uses his skills as forger and pickpocket in suppressing a royal scandal.
When a witness comes forward to claim Mr Green was murdered and the investigation reaches Downton, police question Bates and Anna on several occasions. This puts strain on the couple, as Anna is too frightened to ask John the truth of his trip to York. Matters become worse when Anna assists Lady Mary in procuring contraception for a sexual relationship with Lord Gillingham, and Bates finds the evidence and mistakenly believes his wife is using it so she does not become pregnant with a murderer 's child. Bates finally confronts Anna and reveals the truth; he realised Green was the attacker as soon as he returned to Downton, and he did intend to murder the valet the day he was killed. However, having bought the train ticket to London in York, he decided not to go through with the plan at the last minute, as he considered his actions would do far more harm than good, since he would certainly have been hanged for the crime if convicted; his love for his wife proved greater than his desire to defend her honour. Bates reveals that he kept the untorn ticket in his coat as a talisman for a time. Anna 's attempts to locate the ticket prove fruitless, due to Lady Mary 's prior actions. Bates is angered when Miss Baxter informs the police that he could have made it to London the day Green was killed, despite her making clear she could not swear on the evidence. Miss Baxter refuses to inform Bates that, as a convicted criminal herself, she had to speak honestly to avoid another prison sentence. However, the investigation into Green 's death begins to wind down, as the police have failed to find anything more than circumstantial evidence to link Bates to the crime. At the end of the series, Bates is livid as Inspector Vyner calls Anna into Scotland Yard as part of an identity parade. Although convinced that there is no evidence for anything to happen, Anna is later arrested for Green 's murder. A distraught Bates along with Lady Mary is adamant that Anna will not be convicted or even go to trial. During the Christmas episode, Bates visits Anna in prison where she reveals that a secret from her past could compromise any character witness statement the Crawleys make in her favour. Matters are made much worse when Murray confirms that her history, of which the police are now aware, would look convincingly to the police like Anna was capable of violence. Anna is then given a trial date and Bates is forced into taking action. He leaves Downton, telling Carson in a letter that he has confessed to murdering Green in order to have Anna freed. He tells Robert in another letter how to contact him. Bates then disappears and is now on the run. Molesley gains access to the Bateses cottage and finds a picture of Bates; he and Baxter use it as they travel around York 's pubs to find out which pub Bates had been to the day Green died. A pub owner confirms that Bates was indeed in York and would swear to it, which clears him. However, it would endanger Anna once again, who is released on bail. As Anna returns to Downton, Bates is still missing, leaving her miserable. At Christmas there is still no sign of him. At the Christmas carol service Bates manages to sneak in; he sneaks up on Anna, surprising her, and pulls her away from the crowd. When she asks how it 's possible he silences her, insisting they speak later about it but for the moment, enjoy their Christmas. They kiss and the enjoy a reunion
In Series 6, Bates and Anna must deal with the shadow of Green 's murder; however, the case is resolved quickly when a confession is made by another of Green 's victims and Anna is freed from bail. However, problems between the two are not over as Bates realises something has upset Anna. She tells him that she believed she was pregnant, but that she had miscarried, and that it had potentially happened twice before. Despite being upset that she kept it from him, he comforts her when she tells him she thinks she 's let him down. In episode 2, Bates discovers Anna yet again upset, after having told Lady Mary about her pregnancy problems. He asks her if she had ever considered adoption, but she tells him that the idea would never work for him nor her as they would want their own child. Bates believes they must be content as they are, but Anna continues to believe that she can not give him what he needs. Bates does not accept this, and insists that she alone is enough for him. In episode 2, without his knowledge, Anna visits Dr Ryder in London, who offers to perform a cervical stitch to rectify the problem with her carrying a child to term, but she must become pregnant again first. Anna returns to Downton in a lighter mood, which does not go unnoticed by Bates. He continues to notice the change in her mood after Anna tells Mary that she believes she 's pregnant again. Still in the dark about her pregnancy, Anna begins to experience pains in episode 4, for which Lady Mary rushes her down to London, claiming to Bates that the emergency is hers, not Anna 's. However, Bates is not fooled, and when she returns to Downton, tells her he believes he knows what took them to London, believing the worst has happened. Anna, however, tells him that the news is nothing sad and that actually, she 's pregnant and expecting their child. Bates is overjoyed by the news. In episode 5, Bates is insistent that nothing will go wrong with the pregnancy, when Anna begins to worry. In episode 6 he insists on paying for Anna to have an appointment with Dr Ryder when she begins to experience lingering pains again, and asks that she stop keeping him in the dark. Despite the pains, Anna is fine, as her body is adjusting to pregnancy. Bates becomes protective over Anna at the car racing at Brooklands, when she insists in running after Lady Mary after a fatal crash on the track. His protectiveness leads Baxter to discover Anna 's pregnancy. Whilst Anna is pregnant, Bates continues to attempt selling his mother 's house in London as well as purchasing a house in the north.
Bates does not say much about his family or childhood, though he does mention that his late mother was Irish and he has a Scottish grandmother.
Anna May Bates (née Smith) (played by Joanne Froggatt) is lady 's maid to Lady Mary at Downton Abbey; previously she was first parlour maid and head housemaid. She is 26 at the beginning of the series. She is very trustworthy, polite, and loyal to the Crawley family and her "downstairs '' co-workers. Anna was the member of staff who helped Lady Mary and her mother Cora carry the corpse of Kemal Pamuk out of Lady Mary 's bedroom and was the only one who openly welcomed Mr Bates to the household, despite everyone else 's initial prejudice against him on account of his limp. After a long and somewhat secretive courtship she married valet John Bates in the end of the second series in a private ceremony at a registrar 's office. Lady Mary prepares a room for Anna and her husband in the main house so they can spend their wedding night together. Shortly after their wedding night, Bates is arrested for murdering his previous wife, although Anna and the rest of the residents at Downton are convinced that he is innocent. When Bates is deemed guilty and is sentenced to be hanged, Anna breaks down and briefly prepares to leave Downton Abbey with Lady Mary, whom she is very close to, offering to accompany her mistress on an extended holiday to America, much to Mary 's delight. When the Crawleys manage to reduce Bates 's sentence to life imprisonment, she decides to stay at Downton, although she vows that she will not rest until Bates is free. Anna is promoted from head housemaid to Lady 's Maid to Mary during Bates 's incarceration. During the time apart from Bates, Anna refuses to fall into hopelessness or despair, though there is a brief period where this wavers, when letters and visits with her husband are stopped for a time. Her efforts to prove her husband 's innocence become a success when a neighbour of Vera 's inadvertently tells Anna details of their last meeting which prove that Vera committed suicide in order to have her husband convicted and hanged for the crime. Bates is freed, and the reunited married couple move into a cottage on the grounds shortly thereafter.
In the third episode of the fourth series, Anna is violently assaulted and raped by Lord Gillingham 's valet while the rest of family members and staff are attending a concert above stairs in the house. Anna only tells Mrs Hughes of the crime, fearing her husband would commit murder if he discovered the truth. She becomes distant from everyone, and is unable to even bear Mr Bates 's touch, as she confesses to Mrs Hughes that she feels she no longer deserves him, and feels unclean. She decides to move back into Downton Abbey, leaving Mr Bates hurt and confused. Soon, however, Mrs Hughes tells Mr Bates what happened to Anna, although she refuses to disclose who was the culprit. Mr Bates reassures Anna that nothing will change between them, and that he will always support her. The two try to continue their lives; however, both find it difficult to look past what has happened. Mr Green briefly returns to Downton, and Lady Mary persuades Lord Gillingham to dismiss him, although she does not give him a reason. Anna worries that Mr Bates will have his revenge if her attacker 's identity is ever revealed. Bates one day sets off to York alone, and returns the same day, and the family soon learn that Mr Green died in London that day, after falling under a bus. Anna is frightened that Bates discovered the truth and took his revenge.
When a witness comes forward to claim Mr Green was murdered, the investigation causes Anna to fear Bates was responsible, but she is too frightened to confront him, as it will confirm the identity of her attacker. Anna then assists Lady Mary with procuring contraception for a sexual relationship with Lord Gillingham, but Bates finds the evidence and mistakenly believes Anna has been using it so she does not become pregnant with a murderer 's child. Bates finally confronts his wife and reveals the truth; he realised Green was the attacker as soon as he returned to Downton, and he did intend to murder the valet the day he was killed. However, having bought the train ticket to London in York, he decided not to go through with the plan at the last minute, as he considered his actions would do far more harm than good, since he would certainly have been executed had he been convicted. Overjoyed that her husband is once again innocent, Anna then attempts to locate the untorn ticket to London, as Bates kept it in his coat as a talisman for a time, and its existence would prove Bates could not have been in London when Green was killed. She is forced to accept defeat in this, not knowing that Lady Mary had already destroyed the ticket, as she wrongly believed it proved Bates 's guilt. However, the investigation into Green 's death begins to wind down, as the police have failed to find anything more than circumstantial evidence to link Bates to the crime. The overjoyed couple once again begin to discuss and plan their future.
Inspector Vyner of Scotland Yard returns to Downton and informs Anna and Bates that they have discovered that Green attacked several women. They had been too scared to come forward before but had now stepped forward and informed the police of his actions. He also reveals that Bates is no longer a suspect, as the person seen talking to Green appeared to be shorter than him. Vyner then asks that Anna visit Scotland Yard for further questions during the Crawleys ' stay in London. Anna and Bates both visit Scotland Yard where Anna is forced to be part of an identity parade to which Bates is outraged. Later, having returned to Grantham House, Mrs Hughes interrupts Anna and Lady Mary and informs them that Vyner has returned and has come to arrest her. Vyner tells Mary and Anna that the witness has confirmed that they had seen Anna on the pavement near Green in Picaddilly when the incident occurred. Shocked, Anna is cuffed as Mary, Robert and Bates attempt to plead her case but to no use. As Bates is left helpless, Anna is escorted away to the police station having been arrested on suspicion of Green 's murder. Later, at the memorial, Mary speaks to Bates, certain that Anna will not be convicted, and feels there will not even be a trial, as the police have nothing to go on. Bates is less sure, but agrees that Anna will not be convicted.
During the 2014 Christmas special, Anna awaits trial in prison as Mary and Bates visit her. More is revealed about Anna 's past. During a conversation with Bates, Anna tells him that something in her history could stack against her in a court case. She reveals that her father died when she was about six years old and that her mother remarried, of which Bates already knew, however Anna had not told him the whole story. It is implied that her stepfather was a drunkard and abusive, touching her in inappropriate ways whilst she was young. When she feared what he might do next and knew what was about to happen, Anna hid in the dark, waiting for him with a knife. She struck him; however, she did not kill him, merely wounded him. Anna 's mother managed to convince police that it was an accident and he had slipped, but Anna is now terrified that either the police have found a file on the incident or her stepfather had heard of her arrest and tipped them off and it would be used to disprove the Crawleys ' character reference of her and portray her as violent. Matters are not made better when the Crawleys ' lawyer, Murray, confirms that things do not look good for Anna and Bates is forced into action when a trial date for Anna is set. Bates then leaves Downton, writing in a letter to Carson that he is going to confess to murdering Green in order for Anna to be freed. He writes to Robert also with an address attached so he can be contacted. However both Molesley and Baxter investigate Bates 's confession and find the pub he claims he was at in York the day Green died, and a witness confirms Bates was indeed in York. They then take this to Robert who ensures that the witness makes a statement, then tries to contact Bates. Anna is freed but on bail whilst her husband is classified as being on the run. She returns to work as Mary 's lady 's maid but is alone until Christmas. During the Crawleys ' Christmas celebrations, Anna is seen alone and concerned about her husband. However at the very end, Mrs Patmore notices a familiar face has snuck into the room. Bates sneaks up behind Anna, surprising her, then pulls her aside. A shocked Anna begins to ask how the case is sorted out but Bates silences her, saying they will speak of it later. The episode ends with Anna and Bates sharing a Happy Christmas alone.
At the beginning of Series 6 Anna is in a dark place as the case of Green 's death lingers over her and Bates as she 's still out on bail. However, relatively quickly, the mystery is solved as another of Green 's victims comes forward and confesses to his murder. Problems for Anna, however, continue. After discussing Edith 's child, Marigold, at the servants dinner, Bates notices she has become subdued. Anna reveals to him that she believed she was pregnant, but that morning had realised that she had miscarried their child, and that it was n't the first time it had happened, but the third. Distraught in believing that it is impossible for her to carry a child to term, Anna becomes upset, believing she had let Bates down. He tries to convince her that despite wanting children, she alone is enough for him, which she has trouble accepting.
Anna later tells Mary of her troubles. Mary offers to take Anna to London, paying for her to visit Dr Ryder, the doctor that had treated Mary for problems when she had trouble conceiving a child with Matthew. Ryder informs Anna that he has identified the problem and that she has a common issue of having cervical incompetence, a condition which results in a baby becoming too heavy for the womb to support after about three months, but also tells her that the condition is easily treatable with cervical cerclage, a stitch inserted into the womb after a woman has been pregnant for about 12 weeks; however, it does not always work. Anna returns to Downton but chooses not to inform Bates of the news until she becomes pregnant again and the stitch has worked, so as not to get his hopes up. In episode 3, Mary asks if Anna has considered Dr Ryder 's advice. Anna reveals that she 's already pregnant again. However, in episode 4 she begins to suffer severe cramps and fears she is suffering another miscarriage. Mary, claiming the emergency to be for herself, rushes Anna to London to see Ryder and manages to get there in time to save the baby. When they return, Bates knows that it was she, not Mary that had the medical emergency; however, this time she tells him that the news is happy and that she is in fact pregnant, to which Bates is overjoyed. Whilst Anna is pregnant, she still fears that as there are months to wait, the baby is still in danger of being lost, despite her husband 's insistence that nothing will go wrong. In episode 6 Anna begins to experience uncomfortable pains again and Bates insists he pay for her to see Ryder again. However, the pains are nothing to worry about, as it 's just her body adjusting to the pregnancy. In episode 7, after the accident at the car racing in Brooklands, Anna rushes after Mary, Bates warns her not to do so "in her condition '' and he asks Baxter to go after her. That leads Baxter to guess that Anna is pregnant. Anna and Bates also continue the plan to sell Bates 's mother 's London house in order to purchase a house up north and hire it out.
The rest of Anna 's pregnancy goes seemingly without a hitch. In "The Finale '', the final episode of the series and of the show, Anna is shown to be pregnant and still working as a ladies maid, much to the dislike and discomfort of Carson, who feels a woman in "her condition '' should not be working. Time skips to 29 December 1925, and Anna is shown to be close to giving birth. When Lady Rose returns to Downton, having had a child of her own, and asks when the baby is due, Anna reveals that she is about ten days away from her due date. Despite the concern of her husband and of Lady Mary, Anna does keep working, although some of her duties are undertaken by other members of staff. Whilst Anna is in Lady Mary 's bedroom after the wedding of Lady Edith and Bertie Pelham, her waters unexpectedly break. Mary insists that Anna should n't return to her and Bates 's cottage and instead allows Anna to stay in her room to have her baby. Anna gives birth to a healthy baby boy on New Year 's Eve, much to her and her husband 's delight. Mary tells the Bateses that their newborn son is welcome to stay at Downton 's nursery during the day, as Anna wants to continue working at Downton, and that soon their son will be joined by a child of her own, as Mary is now pregnant. During the New Year celebrations, the Bateses welcome the new year away from the others, together with their newborn son.
Thomas Barrow (played by Robert James - Collier) is under - butler at Downton Abbey and arguably the main antagonist of the show, having started his employment there as first footman. Thomas tells O'Brien that his father was a clockmaker. He constantly hatches schemes with O'Brien, intending to have Bates removed from service at Downton. When Bates catches him stealing some wine, Thomas attempts to frame him for the theft. Bates, however, manages to prove his innocence.
Thomas is also gay. In series one, he tries to blackmail his former lover, The Duke of Crowborough. Later, when Kemal Pamuk visits Downton, Thomas is rebuffed when he attempts to kiss the Ottoman diplomat. Pamuk later uses this incident to blackmail Thomas, threatening to inform Lord Grantham about his past unless Thomas agrees to guide Pamuk to the room of Lady Mary later that same evening. Thomas also leads the kitchen maid Daisy along, partly for his amusement as the second footman William Mason has feelings for her, but also manipulates her for his plans to have Mr Bates removed from Downton. At the end of the series, he is punched by William for his cruel remarks regarding Lady Grantham 's miscarriage and the death of William 's mother. Shortly beforehand, Thomas signs up to the Royal Army Medical Corps in an effort to avoid being sent to the frontline for the war that is soon coming.
In series two, in the First World War, Thomas has ended up on the battlefield in spite of his attempts to avoid it, and he has become terrified by the conflict. He purposefully puts his hand in the line of fire in order to gain a blighty wound and be sent home. Upon his return to Britain, he gets permission to work at Downton in a military capacity when the residence is made into a hospital for injured officers.
When the war ends, Thomas tries to make a profit by taking advantage of the nationwide rationing by selling goods on the black market. This scheme fails, however, when he is sold worthless goods and is rendered penniless. He returns to Downton as first footman although, as always, he plans to move up to a higher position in the house staff. During Bates 's murder trial, Thomas applies for Bates 's old job, but is rejected by Lord Grantham. He steals the Crawley family dog, Isis, whom he hopes to "find '' to falsely curry Lord Grantham 's favour. However, when he goes to reclaim the dog, he discovers her missing, and in his panic trying to find her in the woods, trips on several fallen branches and becomes muddied. On returning home, relieved to find that Isis is safe, he learns from Grantham that some children had found and returned the dog, seemingly ruining Thomas ' plan. However, his physical dishevelment deceives Grantham into thinking that Thomas has more concern for the family than Grantham believed, and Grantham later tells Carson that he is willing to give Thomas a try as valet.
In the third series, Thomas and O'Brien's alliance begins to fall apart with the appointment of her nephew Alfred as footman. When O'Brien seeks to assist Alfred by enlisting Thomas ' support, he refuses to help tutor him, irritated that someone else should progress rapidly when he spent years trying to reach his position. Thomas is then attracted to the handsome new footman Jimmy and walks into his room, trying to kiss the sleeping Jimmy. He is caught by Alfred, who walks in on this scene and eventually tells Mr Carson at O'Brien's insistence. O'Brien then preys on Jimmy 's discomfort and embarrassment to have him blackmail Mr Carson into sacking Thomas without a reference, otherwise Jimmy will go to the police. Mr Bates, to Thomas 's surprise, intervenes, by informing Lord Grantham of the details and then offering to force O'Brien to call Jimmy off. Thomas provides Bates with words that lead her to believe Bates knows of her hand in Lady Grantham 's miscarriage, and she quickly backs down. Although Bates had hoped Thomas would leave with a good reference, Lord Grantham decides to let him stay on so Thomas can lend his skills to the upcoming cricket match between the village and the house. Thomas excels in the match and a new job is created for him as he is made under - butler, to Mr Bates 's consternation.
In the second Christmas special, Thomas, now known mostly as Mr Barrow, participates in the Tug - of - War match for the Downton side. When they win, Barrow follows Jimmy who, having won a large bet, has too much to drink. Barrow finds Jimmy just as he is cornered by two members of the opposing team, and puts himself in the way so Jimmy can avoid being beaten and mugged. Barrow is badly beaten instead. While he is recuperating, Jimmy comes to speak with him. Barrow accepts that Jimmy can never give him what he wants, so they instead agree to be friends.
In Series 4, Barrow is as shocked as anyone when his old ally Miss O'Brien leaves Downton in the middle of the night. He comes to dislike the new nanny for the two young children of Downton, and refuses to pass on her instructions to other members of staff. He informs Lady Grantham that he suspects the new nanny may be mistreating the children in some way. This suspicion leads to Lady Grantham 's discovering the nanny 's cruelty to Sybbie Branson, resulting in her immediate sacking. Barrow then attempts to gain an ally in the form of Lady Grantham 's new maid Edna, a maid fired from Downton following her attempt to seduce Tom Branson, by claiming that Edna 's accidental damage to one of Lady Grantham 's favourite garments was in fact due to Anna Bates. However, this alliance does not last very long, as Edna is fired after she successfully seduces Tom Branson but is foiled in her effort to blackmail him into marrying her. She insults Barrow 's arrogance and manner, though he responds in kind, and she leaves Downton once again.
Thomas was originally meant to be written out of the show at the end of the first series once he had had his "comeuppance ''. However, after James - Collier had filmed the first two episodes of the show the producers contacted his agent and asked if he would like to be optioned for the second and third series.
Sarah O'Brien (played by Siobhan Finneran), who is mainly known as Miss O'Brien by the other servants or just O'Brien by the family, was Lady Grantham 's personal maid. She is especially bitter and resentful towards most of the other servants, perhaps due to her family circumstances; the animosity is common knowledge, even for the Crawleys. She had one favourite brother who had shell shock and later died during the Great War. She uses her position to curry favour with Lady Grantham to consolidate her influence, although her actions usually benefit them both. Although scheming in nature and always looking to manipulate circumstances to her and Thomas 's benefit, she has a conscience and softens up over the second series. She is one of the few servants who smoke on a regular basis. This is at a time when most women did not smoke and it was very rare for a woman to be seen smoking in public.
O'Brien and Thomas were the only servants who never did like Bates and the duo constantly try to find faults and uncover his past in an attempt to force Mr Carson to sack him. She tells Bates 's vengeful estranged wife Vera about the family 's dirty secrets in an attempt to force Bates out and Vera uses that to blackmail Bates. In the last episode of series one, O'Brien comes to believe that Cora is going to replace her. Out of spite, she leaves a bar of soap on the bathroom floor while Cora is taking a bath. When Cora gets out, she slips on the soap, causing her to miscarry. O'Brien is racked with guilt, and following the incident she becomes even more loyal and devoted to Cora. When Thomas decides to buy extra food and supplies on the black market to sell to Downton 's kitchen staff, she refuses to get involved in his business, but she sympathises with Thomas after he realises he has been swindled. After Lady Grantham is struck by a severe case of Spanish flu, O'Brien maintains a bedside vigil, attempting to atone for the miscarriage. Towards the end of the second series she becomes guilt - ridden when she finds out her meddling in Bates 's private life has started a chain reaction which led to Vera 's threatening to expose the family secrets and bring the Crawley family into disrepute. O'Brien is one of several servants asked to testify at Bates 's trial and is genuinely relieved when they learn that Bates had been reprieved. She also has a nephew, Alfred Nugent, who later becomes a footman at Downton. When it is revealed the new valet, Henry Lang, had shell shock, she was uncharacteristically sympathetic towards him and it was revealed that her own brother suffered from it due to the War.
In the second Christmas special, she accompanies Lady Grantham to Scotland to visit Duneagle Castle. While there, she apparently comes to like Lady Flintshire, and manages to arrange to become her lady 's maid. She leaves Downton at the very beginning of the fourth series in the middle of the night to take her new position, leaving only a letter to explain her actions.
Daisy Mason (née Robinson) (played by Sophie McShera) is the kitchen maid, later assistant cook, at Downton. Timid by nature, other characters frequently took advantage of her naivete or would pull rank by tricking her or handing her the more undesirable and menial tasks. She is one of eleven children and her parents are deceased.
In the first series, she is shown to have feelings for first footman Thomas, something that Mrs Patmore tries to discourage as she can see that Thomas is "not a ladies ' man ''. After being caught stealing a bottle of wine, Thomas takes advantage of her feelings for him to persuade her to tell Mr Carson and Mrs Hughes that she saw Mr Bates take the wine. She later retracts the statement as she feels guilty and over time, her feelings for Thomas diminish and she notices that Downton 's other footman, William, likes her. She is unsure how to handle the situation, especially when he enlists during the First World War and convinces himself that she is his sweetheart. She decides, with some encouragement from Mrs Patmore, to allow William his fantasy to boost his morale in battle and gives him a photo. After William is severely injured saving Matthew Crawley during the Battle of Amiens, Daisy agrees to marry him to give him some happiness in his life but is widowed six hours later. She resists claiming her widow 's pension as she thinks it wrong to claim money for marrying a man that she liked but would have not married under normal circumstances. William 's father reaches out to her and Daisy tries to tell him about her guilt but he refuses to listen. The older Mr Mason later explains to Daisy that William was his only surviving child and he had realised that William married Daisy not just because he cared for her but so his father would have someone to keep company. Upon learning that her parents are dead, he offers to take her under his wing as a surrogate daughter, which she accepts, though reluctantly at the outset. Eventually she does grow close to him and learns he wishes to name her his sole heir.
Daisy has a close relationship with Mrs Patmore, the cook, which is frequently more mother - daughter than two servants working together. At other times, Mrs Patmore becomes flustered and takes her frustration out on Daisy. She is also entrusted with teaching Lady Sybil how to cook, something which the pair enjoy. In 1919, she asks Mrs Patmore if, after many years in service, she can be promoted from kitchen maid to assistant cook and Mrs Patmore agrees to ask Mrs Hughes if the budget can support a promotion for Daisy.
In the third series, she grows to like Alfred but resents Ivy, the new kitchen maid, who steals Alfred 's attention. By series 4 the love triangle is getting nowhere, until Alfred decides to leave after catching Ivy kissing Jimmy. Daisy is devastated and blames Ivy. She decides to avoid seeing him when he comes to say final goodbyes, but her father - in - law, whom she goes to see, convinces her she must say goodbye to him. When she does, Alfred apologises to her, regretting being blinded by his infatuation for Ivy and failing to see how good and true Daisy had been to him. Daisy admits she loved Alfred, but that is gone and they need to go their separate ways. They agree to be friends forever. In 1923 Harold Levinson apparently takes a liking to Daisy 's cooking, and his valet Ethan Slade offers Daisy a position so she can come to America and work for him. She declines.
In Series six, she gets irate when her father in - law loses his tenancy on a nearby estate. For her explosion of anger, she almost loses her job, but Cora, who understood her frustration and anger, reprieved her, and talked Carson into letting her stay. She works unstintingly and unflaggingly to remedy what happened. Her efforts were rewarded when her father in - law was offered the tenancy of Yew Tree Farm, located in the Downton estate. At first, she was afraid of losing both Mrs. Patmore and her father in - law, when they begin to see one another, but she would later drop any objections when they tell her that no matter what happens, they would always love her.
In the final episode, she falls for Andy Parker, the new footman who would also become a new farmhand at Mr. Mason 's farm. She would get a new hairstyle (after Anna helped her) and she would also announce that she would leave the Abbey and move into Yew Tree Farm with Mr. Mason.
Beryl Patmore (played by Lesley Nicol) is the cook at Downton. Mrs Patmore is in charge of the kitchen and kitchen staff. She takes great pride in her cooking and is a perfectionist in the kitchen. When the food does not meet her exacting standards, she takes her frustration out on the maids, especially Daisy. Throughout the first series she is often seen bossing around and shouting at Daisy while working but cares for her like a daughter and often offers her advice. She also seems to have protective feelings towards Daisy when she suspects that some of the other staff such as Thomas or Miss O'Brien are trying to make a fool or take advantage of her. Occasionally her caring attitude may become even counterproductive, as when she advises that Daisy should not sacrifice that much of her spare time to try to self - educate herself, as she sees that hopes for that kind of lifestyle which would justify such efforts are set too high considering Daisy 's chances to move in the social hierarchy of that era.
Mrs Patmore tries to hide her deteriorating eyesight but Lord Grantham decides to send her to Moorfields in London for treatment when she accidentally puts salt on the pudding instead of sugar. This eyesight problem is declared to be cataracts, the surgery for which is new and daunting to Mrs Patmore, but the operation is successful and she regains the full use of her eyesight. During the Great War she learns that her nephew Archibald "Archie '' Philpotts deserted and was shot for cowardice at the front. Hence, she becomes sensitive and upset when confronted with the topic of war.
She would receive some money from a deceased family member and purchases a cottage in the nearby community of Haughton - le - Skerne and opens a Bed and Breakfast, hiring her niece, Lucy to help her. At first, it was considered to be a "house of ill repute '' but with the aid of her employers, they have their tea there and that image is dispelled once and for all. She also begins to see Albert Mason, Daisy 's father in law, and between the two of them, help Daisy to realize that no matter what happens with them, they would always be there for Daisy and that they love her very much. This helps Daisy drop any objections she has about their pairing.
William Mason (played by Thomas Howes) (d. 1918) was the second footman at Downton. His father was a local farmer and William used to help with the horses. William had three brothers and a sister but all died at or shortly after birth, leaving him as the only child. His mother died of illness towards the end of the first series. Affable and good - natured, he was also a competent pianist (actor Thomas Howes is a pianist) and would entertain other servants during their free time. During the first series he had strong feelings for Daisy.
In the second series, William wanted to enlist in the Army but was forbidden by his father, as he was the only other surviving member of the family. The Dowager Countess learns of his situation and tells the doctor that William had an embarrassing skin condition in order to keep him from being drafted. He was further humiliated after being handed a white feather at a benefit concert held in the Crawley mansion. After being informed that this story was untrue by Isobel Crawley, the doctor corrected the report to the War Department, and William is drafted shortly thereafter. William asked Daisy if she would give him a photo that he could carry with him. Daisy was worried about being William 's sweetheart but Mrs Patmore urged her not to send him to the front with a broken heart, saying that if she refused, he would never return.
Fearing for his safety, Lord Grantham had him assigned to Matthew Crawley 's battalion to be his batman. During the Battle of Amiens, he threw himself in front of Matthew to shield him from a shell explosion and both men were seriously wounded. He was hospitalised in Leeds as Downton, then used as a convalescent home, was only for officers, but William 's father could not afford to leave his farm or repeatedly travel to and fro to visit. After failing to persuade Dr Clarkson to "bend the rules '', a furious Violet manages to pull some strings to have William sent back to Downton, where he was cared for by Lady Edith. After being told he would not make it, William proposes to Daisy and tells her that he wants to marry her, not just out of love, but also to secure her a widow 's pension so that she would be taken care of. Violet convinces the local parish vicar to officiate the bedside wedding ceremony and attends along with Lady Edith and the entire staff present. He dies hours later.
Alfred Nugent (played by Matt Milne) was the new footman brought on to replace William Mason and is introduced in Series Three. His aunt is Sarah O'Brien, who brings him forward as a candidate for the empty post based on his previous experience as a waiter at a hotel. He is extremely tall, which Carson comments is almost too much, even though height is a desirable aspect for a footman. Almost immediately, Daisy Mason falls head - over-heels in love with Alfred, but is impeded by the new kitchen maid, Ivy Stuart, who Alfred is quick to develop a crush on. He often helps Ivy when she fumbles in the kitchen with his culinary skills, much to Daisy 's ire.
Alfred 's largest rival is fellow footman Jimmy Kent, who is shorter than Alfred, but quite handsome. They are both in competition for the top position of first footman, which Jimmy is constantly sabotaging Alfred for. But because Ivy has a crush on Jimmy, Alfred decides to confront Jimmy about the fact that he 's not interested in her. When he pushes into Jimmy 's room, he catches Thomas Barrow in the act of trying to kiss Jimmy. Horrified, Alfred is pressured by his aunt, O'Brien, to report the incident to Carson, as homosexuality is considered a crime at this time. Poor Alfred is used as a pawn in his aunt 's scheming, which eventually comes to nothing. In the Series Three Christmas Special, he tries to call Jimmy off his aggressive streak towards Thomas, and then spends the rest of the episode talking about his interest in cooking. In Series Four, Alfred pursues that interest and leaves Downton to become a chef at the Ritz.
Also in Series Four, Alfred is still caught up in the downstairs "love square ''. He is in love with Ivy, who is in love with Jimmy, while Daisy is in love with Alfred and determined to break them up. It takes Alfred too long to realize that Daisy was the better match, and only tries to approach her when he comes back to the Abbey after leaving for his cooking course. Daisy initially tried to avoid seeing Alfred at all, but eventually speaks to him and wishes him well as a friend. In the Christmas Special, she receives a letter from Alfred, implying that they keep in touch.
Jimmy Kent (played by Ed Speleers) was one of two new footmen introduced in Series Three, after the end of World War I. Before the war, he worked for Lady Anstruther and was her favorite footman. He first appears onscreen after Lord Grantham has given Carson permission to hire another footman in addition to Alfred Nugent. Turning up in the servants ' hall unannounced, his good looks and charm quickly impress a number of the maids -- as well as Thomas Barrow, currently valet to Lord Grantham. Thomas is quickly drawn to Jimmy, whose flirty and vague behavior leads him to believe that Jimmy might be interested in sharing a homosexual relationship. Sarah O'Brien, who is angry with Thomas for the way he has treated her nephew, Alfred, quickly latches on to this dynamic and uses it to her own ends. Through careful manipulation of both Thomas and Jimmy, O'Brien crafts a situation in which Thomas is caught publicly making a move on Jimmy, who reacts in fear and anger, as homosexuality was still illegal in the 1920s. Jimmy continues to be manipulated against Thomas by O'Brien, while John Bates and Elsie Hughes work to protect Thomas from the fallout. At the end of Series Three, Jimmy is promoted to first footman, but he holds a grudge against Thomas into the Christmas Special. At that time, it 's implicated that Jimmy has kept up appearances by teasing Thomas and giving him a very clear cold shoulder that even Alfred notices is extreme. Alfred also notes that Thomas always defends Jimmy no matter how unkindly Jimmy behaves, and suggests that perhaps he take it easy. Jimmy ignores this advice and continues to behave recklessly, winning a large bet at the village fair only to spend most of it on alcohol. The toughs who lost the bet follow drunk Jimmy underneath a quiet bridge and jump him. Jimmy is only rescued by Thomas, who had been following him to keep an eye out. Thomas tells Jimmy to run, while Thomas is left to take the beating in Jimmy 's place. When Jimmy returns with Dr. Clarkson and the other fair - goers, they find Thomas beaten and bloody. Thomas does not admit to the others why he was attacked, and only sends a significant stare to Jimmy, who is guilt - stricken with the truth. Later, he confronts Thomas about what happened, and though he is hesitant, eventually agrees to be friends. After that, the two of them are often seen in one another 's company. Their increased companionship is suggested by showing Jimmy often with a cigarette.
In Series Four, Jimmy is something of an antagonist, stirring the pot for amusement and to get at Alfred, his professional rival. Because Alfred quickly becomes enamored with the new kitchen maid, Ivy Stuart, Jimmy also takes an interest. Daisy Mason, who is interested in Alfred, repeatedly tries to sabotage Ivy, Jimmy and Alfred in hopes that Alfred will realize that Ivy is no good for him. In the end, Alfred realizes too late that he was chasing the wrong girl, while Ivy comes to a similar realization about Jimmy, who was clearly out for sport. He crosses the final line when he takes Ivy out and gets a bit too familiar with her. Angry, she casts Jimmy off, and Jimmy laments to Thomas that the whole venture was a waste of time and money. In the Series Four Christmas Special, Jimmy travels with the Crawley family to London for the Season. At the end, he is seen playing football on the beach, while Thomas watches from a nearby chair.
By the time Series Five begins, Thomas and Jimmy have grown much closer in their friendship, though it is clear Thomas is still in love with him. When the Valentine he sent to his former employer, Lady Anstruther as a joke, comes back to bite him. Lady Anstruther, returned from France, orchestrates a plan to turn up at Downton Abbey in pursuit of Jimmy. Through a series of notes and letters, all of which Jimmy desperately begs Thomas for advice on, the audience learns that Jimmy 's former position with Lady Anstruther included a sexual aspect. Eventually, Jimmy decides that the only thing to do is to satisfy her and hope it 'll get her out of his hair. Thomas escorts Jimmy to the guest corridor upstairs and plans to watch the door while Jimmy goes through with it. They share a moment in which Jimmy exhibits some doubt about the plan, wondering if perhaps Lady Anstruther just wants to talk. Thomas watches forlornly as Jimmy enters Lady Anstruther 's room, silently wishing Jimmy was coming to him instead. Unluckily, while the tryst is occurring, Lady Edith accidentally starts a fire in a nearby bedroom, which pulls Thomas away from his post. Lord Grantham sends Thomas after Lady Edith, and Thomas can only watch in horror, unable to protect Jimmy this one last time. Lord Grantham bursts into Lady Anstruther 's room, discovers her with Jimmy, and then decides after the fire that Jimmy should be sacked. Thomas and Jimmy share a heartfelt goodbye in which Jimmy tearfully tells Thomas that though he never thought he 'd get on with a man like him, they truly had been great friends. Thomas tries to remain calm, quietly asking if Jimmy might try writing. Jimmy says he would try, though he 's not very good at it, and then leaves the estate a broken man. Thomas later tells Anna Bates that he 's upset because he was n't special to Jimmy, which Anna very adamantly disagrees with. He also later mentions Jimmy to Phyllis Baxter in a bout of sadness and annoyance that he 's gone. Jimmy 's whereabouts post-Downton are never revealed.
Jimmy is mentioned by Thomas during the Series Five Text Santa short while the servants are playing strip poker.
Ethel Parks (played by Amy Nuttall) was the new maid introduced in the second series as Gwen 's replacement. Outspoken, Ethel does not like being told what to do by anyone, which often has her in conflict with Anna or Mrs Hughes. She says that she does not want to be in service for the rest of her life and often complains about her surroundings.
She begins an affair with Major Charles Bryant (played by Daniel Pirrie) when he is being treated at Downton while it is a temporary convalescent home. Mrs Hughes dismisses her after discovering the two of them in bed together, but Ethel shortly returns having nowhere else to go when she finds out she is pregnant with his child. She names her son Charlie after his father, before moving away from Downton to start a new life. She is replaced in her position by Jane, a war widow.
In the Great War, Ethel has trouble supporting herself and her son and Mrs Hughes helps her, acting as her friend and bringing her food. Ethel tells Mrs Hughes that her neighbours think she is a war widow but admits that Major Bryant refuses to acknowledge that he is Charlie 's father, despite Ethel and Mrs Hughes 's best efforts to get him to admit paternity. However, he is killed during the Battle of Vittorio Veneto. When Lady Cora learns that Mrs Hughes is supporting Ethel, she is persuaded to invite Major Bryant 's parents to Downton Abbey. Ethel bursts into the meeting with her son, proclaiming that Charlie is their grandchild, but Mr Bryant accuses Ethel of only being after their money and insists that his son was a good man. He also insists that Ethel can not prove that Charlie is Major Bryant 's child. Eventually, his wife persuades him to accept the child as his grandson, and Mr Bryant offers to adopt Charlie. Ethel, however, would not allowed contact, learning that Charlie will be told that his father died during the war and his mother died of Spanish flu. They insist that they can give Charlie a far better future than Ethel ever could. Horrified by Major Bryant 's refusal to acknowledge Charlie and his father 's bullying, Ethel refuses the offer.
In the third series, Ethel returns, having entered into a life of prostitution. Considering Charlie 's future, she gives him to Mr and Mrs Bryant. She is employed in Crawley house by Isobel and Mrs Patmore teaches her to cook, despite Mrs Bird leaving her post. After Ethel attracts considerable gossip, the Dowager Countess intervenes, having Lady Edith place an advertisement for Ethel, so she may find a position elsewhere and have a fresh start. Despite misgivings, Mrs Crawley agrees with the plan, although Ethel seems unwilling to accept any position aside from one close to Charlie 's new home. In response to this, the Dowager Countess decides to ask Mrs Bryant in person if Ethel could have contact with Charlie. Mrs Bryant, who had been unhappy abandoning Ethel from the start, agrees and Ethel leaves Mrs Crawley 's employment.
Joseph Molesley (played by Kevin Doyle) was the butler of Crawley House, in the village of Downton, and valet for Matthew Crawley. He is the son of Bill Molesley, the winner of the best bloom at the Downton Flower Show in 1913. With Matthew off at war and Mrs Crawley working with the Red Cross in France he and Mrs Bird, the family cook, find themselves in an empty house with no one to serve. A loyal servant, he volunteers his service at the earl 's mansion. He has feelings for Anna, but they are unrequited and she later marries Mr Bates. After the war ends he covers for Carson when he falls ill with Spanish influenza, only to accidentally become drunk while tasting the wine for dinner. He returns to Crawley House immediately upon Mr Carson 's recovery, though he goes to the great house with Matthew Crawley to be his full - time valet after his marriage to Lady Mary. After Matthew dies in a car accident Molesley loses his job, moves in with his father and struggles to find work as a servant, forced to be a road construction worker and delivery boy.
With the possibility of Alfred leaving to pursue his dreams of being a chef, Mr Carson offers Molesley a job as second footman if Alfred leaves. Molesley is not happy with the prospect, thinking it degrading to become a footman when he has been trained as a valet and butler. In the end, when Alfred does leave, Molesley seeks the job but Carson refuses, citing his great reluctance. But Mrs Hughes and Mrs Patmore intervene and Carson eventually gives in and takes Molesley on as a second footman. Even so, the family still call him by his last name. He finds himself mutually attracted to Lady Grantham 's new maid, Baxter.
Phyllis Baxter (played by Raquel Cassidy), is hired as Cora 's maid following the departure of Edna Braithwaite. Baxter is hired on Barrow 's recommendation, and Cora is pleased with Baxter. However, it becomes clear that Barrow knows a secret about her, which he uses to his advantage to make her spy on the servants and family, something Baxter is very uncomfortable with.
While Barrow is away in America with Lord Grantham (as John Bates asked to be excused from the trip to remain with his wife), Baxter grows closer to Joseph Molesley, who treats her with respect. He continues to do so after Barrow returns, telling her that he does not care to know what Barrow has over her, but urges her to stand up to him and not let him make her do things she does not wish to do. She, in turn thanks him, describing him as strong and lucky -- neither of which he considered himself to be.
Eventually, after Barrow threatens to reveal her secret to Lady Grantham, Baxter is encouraged by Molesley to do so first. She reveals that she had stolen jewelry from a previous employer who treated her nicely, and she went to prison but was released early for good behaviour. Cora is surprised but confused. Baxter is not telling the whole story, something Molesley is convinced of when he hears the same story from Barrow. He believes she must have been lured into doing it, because it is not in her nature. Baxter later tells Cora the rest of the story: she was tricked into stealing the jewelry by another servant who made her think he loved her, but he ran and left her to take the blame. While Baxter expected to be fired, Cora forgives her and lets her stay on, with the condition that she wo n't rob her. Mrs Hughes also learns the truth but says no more when she learns that Cora knows.
When Barrow begins treating himself to cure his homosexuality and is suffering, Baxter convinces him to see Dr Clarkson, after which Barrow treats her with more respect. At Brancaster Castle, she helps him embarrass Lord Sinderby 's butler at Mary 's behest (because the butler was being rude to Tom), and helps Molesley find evidence exonerating Bates of the murder of Mr Green.
Gwen Harding (née Dawson) (played by Rose Leslie) was a housemaid at Downton. She is the daughter of a farm - hand. Ambitious, she decides that she no longer wants to work in service and saves up her money to buy a typewriter to take a correspondence course in typing and shorthand. When her typewriter is discovered by Miss O'Brien, she informs the whole staff and Gwen 's plan to leave service to become a secretary is the cause of much discussion above and below stairs. Lady Sybil quickly befriends Gwen and tries to help her get a job as a secretary. In August 1914 they are successful and Gwen wins a position at a telephone firm. She does not return in the second series and is replaced by Ethel. In series four, the staff at Downton Abbey receive a letter from Gwen where she tells them she is married.
In Series 6, Gwen returns, eleven years later, to Downton as a successful married woman, although she visits the mansion only in the fourth episode. Some of the family do not recognize her at first, but when they do they are surprised at her elevated status. Gwen endears herself to the family by recalling the everlasting selflessness and generosity of the late Lady Sybil.
May Bird (played by Christine Lohr) was the cook for Isobel and Matthew Crawley at Crawley House. Before 1912, she lived in Manchester with the Crawleys as their cook, but when they moved, she went with them. In the first series, she is asked to stand - in for Mrs Patmore as cook at the Abbey while she is away having an eye operation. When Mrs Patmore returns, they run the Garden Party for the hospital fund together. During the Great War, she opened a soup kitchen at Crawley House, in secret, and was helped by Mrs Patmore and Daisy to run it from the money given by the government for the hospital. This all occurs when Matthew and his mother were away in France, in the trenches and field hospitals respectively. In the third series, Isobel wants to hire Ethel to work alongside Mrs Bird. When Mrs Bird refuses to work with a former prostitute, she chooses to leave.
Henry Lang (played by Cal MacAninch) was Lord Grantham 's valet in the absence of Mr Bates. He is a recent war veteran and suffers from severe Combat Stress Reaction (CSR, or shell shock) that causes him to be very nervous and somewhat disconnected to his surroundings. On one notable occasion he wakes the staff in the middle of the night by horrifically screaming during a nightmare. O'Brien, whose brother suffered from shell shock and eventually died in combat, is uncharacteristically sympathetic and kind to him. He later leaves Downton as he feels he is unfit for service.
Jane Moorsum (played by Clare Calbraith) was a maid at Downton Abbey and Ethel 's replacement. She is a widow as her husband died during the First World War. From the start it is clear that Lord Grantham finds Jane attractive and he takes a great interest in the education of her twelve - year - old son, Freddie. At one point Grantham kisses Jane, but they are interrupted by an oblivious Mr Bates and they decide not to have an affair. Shortly after this, of her free will, Jane leaves service at Downton. Lord Grantham insists on using his influence to get Freddie into Ripon Grammar School and to pay the fees in the future.
Andrew "Andy '' Parker (played by Michael C. Fox) is a footman who starts working at Downton Abbey in 1924. When he was at school he fooled around and never learned how to read or how to write anything but his own name.
Andrew is hired by the Butler, Mr Carson, to work the week of Lady Rose MacClare 's wedding at Grantham House in London. He formerly worked as a hall boy, but wants to become a footman. The Dowager Countness 's Lady 's Maid Gladys Denker takes advantage of him to go out drinking, but Thomas Barrow comes to his rescue, teaching Denker a lesson in the process.
Mr Carson overhears the news of Lord Grantham 's della Francesca painting selling "amazingly well '' and takes advantage of this news to hire a new footman at Downton Abbey. Thomas Barrow asks Mr Carson to hire Andrew for the job. Carson had expressed his concerns about Andrew 's suitability to fill the new footman 's post (because of the gambling club incident), but head housekeeper Mrs Hughes, Mr Barrow, and Daisy Mason urge him to give Andrew a second chance.
Andrew serves drinks before a fox hunt. He appears to have been warned off Thomas by Mr Carson, Mrs Hughes, and Mrs Patmore. During an informal ball in the servant 's hall, he dances with Daisy. Andy tries to break ties with Thomas, on account of Mr Carson, Mrs Hughes, and Mrs Patmore informing him that Thomas is a homosexual.
Andy helps Mr Mason move into Yew Tree Farm with Mrs Patmore and Daisy. He volunteers to help Mr Mason take care of Downton 's pigs and shows an interest in farming. Mr Mason gave some books to Andy, and he reveals to Thomas that he can write no more than his own name; Thomas offers to teach him to read and write. Andy later apologizes to Thomas about his treatment towards him.
In series 6 and the 2015 Christmas Special, Andy and Daisy share some special moments with each other, and it looks as if they might live at Yew Tree farm with Mr Mason and possibly get married.
Evelyn Napier (played by Brendan Patricks) is the son and heir of Viscount Branksome and a suitor for Lady Mary, but later becomes engaged to "one of the Semphill girls ''. This engagement is broken off and during the war he is injured.
He returns to Downton in 1922, clearly still interested in the recently widowed Mary. He is accompanied by his boss Charles Blake as they are working on a government project studying estates and their progress.
The Duke of Crowborough (played by Charlie Cox) was one of many potential suitors for Lady Mary, but he was seeking a wealthy wife to cure his financial problems. He is a past lover of Thomas, at the time first footman, but this affair ends in autumn 1912, after the duke visits Downton under the pretext of courting Mary, then tricks her into leading him into the servants ' quarters, where he retrieves a packet of love letters to prevent Thomas from blackmailing him over the affair.
He is never referred to by name on the show, but the published scripts reveal his first name to be Philip. His last name remains unknown.
Patrick Gordon (played by Trevor White) is a major in the Princess Patricia 's Canadian Light Infantry who made a request to stay at the convalescent home at Downton Abbey because he claims he is related to the Crawley family. Major Gordon then claims to be Patrick Crawley, the first cousin once removed of the Earl who perished with his father James Crawley in the sinking of the Titanic (neither of their bodies were recovered). Gordon says he was rescued from the freezing ocean by Fifth Officer Harold Lowe but developed amnesia and was sent to Montreal after being mistaken for a Canadian. He took his new surname from a bottle of gin. It is impossible to recognise Major Gordon as Patrick Crawley because his face was severely burned during the Battle of Passchendaele. Gordon convinces Lady Edith by relating experiences in Downton. For example, he recalls that he and the sisters disliked their governess, which Edith identifies specifically as Fräulein Kelder. Gordon decides to leave, rather than commit to his claim, after learning the earl 's agents will be investigating Peter Gordon 's history after his emigration to Canada. It is suggested by the earl 's solicitor, George Murray, that Major Gordon might actually be Peter Gordon, who worked with the real Patrick Crawley at the Foreign Office, which would explain how he knew some of the private details of the Earl 's family.
Lavinia Catherine Swire (played by Zoe Boyle) (1895 -- 1919) was the sweetheart and fiancée of Matthew Crawley. She is the daughter of London solicitor Reggie Swire whom she has been very close to ever since her mother 's death during her early childhood. In 1912, she brings private papers of her uncle Jonathan Swire, a Liberal minister, to Sir Richard Carlisle since Sir Richard was about to financially ruin her father. The papers Lavinia stole inadvertently helped create the Marconi scandal. She first met Matthew when he was back in England on leave from the Army and they later become engaged. When Matthew returns from the First World War injured she refuses to leave him despite being told that he will never walk again and is impotent. Lavinia dies at Downton of Spanish influenza after Matthew regains use of his legs and shortly before their wedding. Just before her death she confesses to Matthew that she had seen the kiss between him and Mary and tells him that her death is the best for all of them. Her father dies shortly after and Matthew honours his deathbed wish for his ashes to be placed in Lavinia 's grave. Matthew is left a considerable sum by Mr Swire, and Matthew is initially consumed with guilt and refuses to accept it. Matthew eventually relents, and uses the money to save Downton Abbey from bankruptcy, following Lord Grantham 's bad investments resulting in his wife 's fortune being lost.
Richard Carlisle (played by Iain Glen) was the fiancé of Lady Mary Crawley. The brusque, domineering and nouveau riche Carlisle is a self - made, extremely wealthy newspaper magnate from Edinburgh whose paper, with the help of Lavinia Swire, was instrumental in breaking the Marconi scandal story. It is to Carlisle, as a man of influence, that Lady Mary turns to when she concludes that marrying Matthew is not an option. However, Violet and the family remain suspicious of him as he is "new money '' and is described by Lord Grantham as "a hawker of newspaper scandal ''. Although he says his feelings for her are sincere, and he offers to buy a stately home near Downton where they can live together and start a family, he demands near - total control and threatens that if she leaves him he will expose her liaison with Ottoman attaché Kemal Pamuk, which he has covered up from exposure. He also helps cover up the scandal that the murder trial of Downton valet Bates would cause. In the second series Christmas episode, it is apparent that Carlisle 's pragmatism does not sit well with the Crawleys and he and Mary begin to argue more frequently, much to the consternation of Matthew and her grandmother. Eventually Mary breaks off the engagement to him after the pair argue with increased frequency, and after Lord Grantham discovers the truth from Lady Grantham and advises Mary not to be unhappy with someone she does not love. Carlisle leaves the morning before the Servants ' Ball, but not before revealing that he did genuinely love her. It is not known whether he went ahead and published the story. Ultimately, his actions do not matter, as she confesses to Matthew about Pamuk and Matthew proposes to her despite this.
Richard Clarkson (played by David Robb) is the Crawley family doctor. During the second series, he becomes an army surgeon after the outbreak of the Great War, and as a major becomes the military commander at Downton when the estate becomes a convalescent hospital. When Matthew is injured, he thinks his spine may have been broken, but is proven wrong when Matthew walks again (he was just suffering from spinal shock, which did n't permanently disable his legs).
In the third series, when Lady Sybil goes into labour, he sees signs that she is suffering from eclampsia and is in danger of dying from the intense seizures and distress. However, because of his misdiagnosis of Matthew, Robert hires a well - known doctor who strongly disagrees with Clarkson. At first Sybil seems fine after the birth, but late in the night is found having fits and dies. Cora blames Robert for Sybil 's death because he did not listen to Clarkson. Violet has Clarkson lie to mend their marriage. In a journey to the highlands it is revealed that Dr Clarkson has developed romantic feelings for Isobel Crawley. However, after she explains her feelings on marriage he does n't act.
Albert Travis (played by Michael Cochrane) is the Rector of St Mary 's Downton whose living is under the patronage of the Earl of Grantham. During the Great War, after William is brought back to Downton mortally wounded, the Dowager Countess summons him to wed William and Daisy before William dies. Despite his questions, he does so. Later he arranges Lavinia Swire 's funeral and then the wedding for Matthew and Mary, even though the Archbishop of York performs it. He also nearly weds Edith to Anthony Strallan before he jilts her at the altar (Travis and the Dowager discussed Strallan 's first wife beforehand). Robert then asks him to dinner after Tom Branson expresses his wish to baptise his daughter Catholic like himself, a decision Robert opposes. Travis insults the Catholic faith and believes the Anglican Church is superior. But Edith, Mary, Matthew and Isobel defend Tom, and Mary settles the matter once and for all by revealing Sybil did not object to her child being a Catholic. Cora then silences Robert.
Kemal Pamuk (played by Theo James) (d. 1913) was an attaché at the Turkish Embassy in London and the son of one of the Ottoman Sultan 's ministers. While participating in the "Albanian talks '' he visits Downton as a guest, accompanying Evelyn Napier. His good looks are widely commented on and attract both Mary and Thomas. In the course of a sexual encounter with Mary, Pamuk dies in her bed of a heart attack. The story was inspired by true events. In 1996, Julian Fellowes learned that, according to a friend 's great aunt 's diary, around 1890 a diplomat did die in the bed of a single woman; the woman and a matron carried the diplomat 's corpse to his guest bed, where a valet later found him; the secret was kept for a century.
John Drake (played by Fergus O'Donnell) is a tenant farmer on the estate of the Earl of Grantham. He is married and has several young children. In March 1913, he is diagnosed as suffering from dropsy of the heart and is certain to die. Isobel Crawley knows of a cure, but as a modern medical technique it is unfamiliar to Dr Clarkson, who is reluctant to try it. Her determination to treat the man piques the ire of Violet, Dowager Countess of Grantham, and preparing for a showdown, Violet shows up at Mr Drake 's bedside only to witness the procedure and its unmitigated success.
During the First World War with the men away fighting, Mr Drake needs help on his farm. Lady Edith has recently learned to drive and she volunteers to drive their tractor. Over the next few weeks she continues to help while Drake has taken a liking to her. One evening Drake kisses her and Lady Edith is pleased. Mrs Drake secretly witnesses the kiss and soon after, the Drakes hire a man to replace Edith.
Anthony Strallan (played by Robert Bathurst) was Edith 's much older suitor. He has been widowed since the death of his wife Maud. His love of automobiles was a common interest that he shared with Edith and as well as bringing them close together inspired Edith to learn to drive. He was planning to propose to Edith before Mary tricked him into thinking Edith would reject him and he leaves without an explanation. In the Christmas special he is invited by Lord Grantham to the traditional Christmas shoot but repeatedly turns it down. Edith learns that he suffered a debilitating injury to his arm serving in the First World War, hence his refusal. She is convinced that he may take her back and they can get married, but he gently tells her that he is too old for her and that he does n't want her to waste away her life caring for him. In series 3, Edith and Anthony reconnect and are soon engaged. However, Anthony jilts Edith at the altar, devastating her.
He has a sister, Mrs Chetwood, who writes to Cora with the recipe for his favourite dessert, apple charlotte.
Michael Gregson (played by Charles Edwards) (d. around 8 November 1923) is a London editor for the society magazine The Sketch. After Lady Edith has a letter published in a newspaper proclaiming support for women 's rights, Michael writes to her at least twice offering her a column in his magazine. Encouraged by her family (excepting her father, who thought Gregson just wanted to take advantage of her title and wealth) she went to see him in London and accepted his offer.
Michael encouraged Edith to never be afraid to speak her mind and to write about whatever she wanted, even if it was not expected of a woman. He began flirting with her, later admitting he is attracted to her. But when she reveals she knows he is married, he explains that his wife, Lizzy, whom he loved very much, has been in an insane asylum for some years with no hope of recovery. Under British law, her status as a lunatic can not be used as grounds for divorce because she is neither the guilty nor innocent party. Edith stays on (she had intended to resign because she was repulsed that a married man was flirting with her) after Michael expresses his hope that she will, citing how much it cheers him to meet her when they do and to read her column.
Michael follows Edith and her family to Scotland in 1921, where he meets her family. Cora instantly takes a liking to him, whereas Mary and Robert do not. Matthew defends Michael against his wife and goes stalking and fishing with him. But when learning of his status, Matthew (as the heir to Downton Abbey) instructs him to put an end to his relationship with Edith. Though he tries, Edith tells him she does n't care that he is married, and agrees to be his secret mistress in the future. Matthew dies suddenly in a car crash only days later, and he never informed his wife Mary or her parents of his discussion with Gregson while fishing.
Determined to find any way to legally marry Edith, he learns if he becomes a German citizen he can divorce Lizzy. He cares not for what others will think of him for changing his citizenship (particularly when England only beat Germany in the Great War a few years previously), only of Edith 's love. She visits him in London, and he has a cocktail party that important artists and literary figures like Virginia Woolf attend. Edith then invites him to a party at Downton, where he begins to earn her father 's respect. Before going to Munich to begin his path to obtain German citizenship, he and Edith spend their last night together, making love for the first and last time. She loses her virginity to him. Gregson then has Edith sign legal papers; should anything happen to him, she will inherit his modern London apartment and the newspaper. Gregson arrives in Munich, then vanishes with no word. Edith does not hear from him, which worries her, especially when she receives a shocking letter from a London doctor informing her that she is pregnant. Despite not hearing from him, her intense romantic affections for him never falter. Edith is very worried, and decides to get an abortion. Her Aunt Rosamund finds out, and accompanies her to get the abortion. Edith changes her mind at the very last second, and she and Rosamund concoct a ridiculous story that they would like to stay in Switzerland for six months to "learn French. '' Edith 's grandmother (and Rosamund 's mother) is highly suspicious of this plan, and discovers later that Edith left when she was around 3 -- 4 months pregnant to give birth there.
By 1923, he still has not been found, but pieces of what happened to him are coming to light. At first Edith was told he disappeared after going out once he checked into his Munich hotel. Then she learns he got into a fight with some men in Munich after taking exception to what they were saying. "They 're quite well known apparently. They wear brown shirts and go around preaching the most horrible things, '' as Edith later tells her aunt. Her child by him, a daughter named Marigold, was at first given to a family in Switzerland, where she gave birth. Edith decides she wants the child back and plans to reclaim her, then places her in the care of a local pig farmer and his wife. She also feels, knowing Michael granted her power of attorney and she might inherit all he has if he is confirmed dead, that she must give something to their daughter, whom she then decides to reclaim.
In 1924, news arrives that Michael was probably killed during the Beer Hall Putsch, leaving Edith devastated as she never lost hope that he might be alive in prison perhaps. Her father Robert tells his wife Cora that there is no identifiable body, and "what was left of him '' was supposedly buried somewhere. Edith inherits his publishing company, and reclaims their daughter, Marigold. This greatly upsets the farmer 's wife, who was led to believe that the child was the orphaned daughter of her husband 's friends she never met. The wife tells Cora that Marigold is Edith 's illegitimate child, which shocks her. She now realizes the six - month trip to Switzerland was a farce. Cora agrees, though, that Marigold should be brought up at Downton. Cora and Edith make up a story to tell her father Robert, that the pig farmer can not financially care for this child along with his own children, and Edith asks Robert if Marigold can become her "ward. '' Robert very reluctantly agrees, and feels sorry that Edith is a "spinster '' with no boyfriend or prospects in site. Robert later realizes Marigold bears a strong resemblance to Gregson, and then tells Cora that he thinks Marigold is Edith 's daughter. Months later, while on vacation, he tells Edith he knows about Marigold, and he believes Michael was an honourable man, with which she agrees, stating Michael would have married her as soon as he could. Robert says they will do their best for Marigold for both Michael 's and Edith 's sakes, while still keeping the truth confined to the family. Her sister Mary is the last in the family to discover, in late 1925, that Marigold is Edith 's daughter, and that she is Marigold 's aunt.
Richard "Dickie '' Grey, Baron Merton (played by Douglas Reith) is Mary 's godfather and a widower with at least two sons, Larry and Tim Grey. He was interested in studying medicine once in his life, but his father did not think it suitable for someone of his position. Nevertheless, he maintains a fascination with medicine.
Lord Merton is invited to dinner at Downton Abbey along with his family before Mary and Matthew 's wedding. His son Larry, who was once keen on Sybil, treats her husband Tom with rudeness and disrespect. He drugs Tom 's drink so that he appears drunk. When Anthony Strallan reveals what Larry had done, Lord Merton asks his son if it was true. After Larry unremorsefully calls Tom "only a grubby little chauffeur chappie '', Lord Merton angrily tells him to be silent, and apologises very sincerely to Tom for what Larry did, adding his hope that Tom would recover before the wedding.
In 1922 he joins Violet and Isobel for lunch, later taking a walk with Isobel. By 1923 he has taken a keen interest in Isobel, whom he meets again at a ball at Grantham House. In 1924 they announce they are getting married, but Violet is n't so happy (because she does not want to lose her friend and companion in Isobel). Isobel becomes disheartened after Larry and his brother Tim treat her disrespectfully. Lord Merton remarks that both his sons are very much like his late wife, to whom he was not happily married. Though Isobel is concerned about marrying Lord Merton when his sons do not approve of her, Violet insists she should not let them ruin her future. With Violet 's help, Isobel proposes to Lord Merton, who accepts, to the horror of his son and daughter in - law, and they are married in the series finale.
Anthony Foyle, Viscount Gillingham, also known as Tony Gillingham (played by Tom Cullen), is a love interest of Lady Mary in series four and five. During the War, he served with Charles Blake in the Royal Navy and fought at the Battle of Jutland. He knew Mary since they were young children, but they did not become reacquainted as adults until after Matthew 's death at the end of series three. At this time, he had only recently succeeded to the viscountcy. He announces he is in love with Mary and proposes to her surprise, but she says they barely know each other, and she is not ready to marry again so soon after being widowed. Tony instead becomes engaged to the Hon. Mabel Lane Fox, whom Mary refers to as "the greatest heiress of the season. '' Nevertheless, Tony remains lukewarm about Mabel and seems keen on Mary. When he returns to Downton to attend a house party, his valet, Mr. Green, rapes Anna. When Mary discovers that it was Green who assaulted Anna, she asks Tony to dismiss him, but says she can not tell him why. Shortly after this, Green is killed in front of Tony 's house in Piccadilly Circus, and Tony travels to Downton to tell Mary the shocking news.
Tony later calls off his engagement to Mabel, because of his interest in Mary. She begins to feel he is a sensible match for her. He convinces her to go away with him to a hotel in Liverpool to be lovers, and she agrees, wanting to be sure he is the right man for her. After spending the weekend together, he talks of their engagement, but she realises he is not the man for her. She says they do not have enough in common, and Violet later says it is because Tony was not clever enough for her. She calls it off with him but he becomes angry and refuses to break it off with her. Mabel Lane Fox returns and begins pursuing him again, but he is still convinced that it would be dishonorable not to marry Mary after their affair. Charles Blake stages a scene where Mabel and Tony come across Charles and Mary supposedly in a passionate kiss, and finally Tony gives up on Mary and decides to marry Mabel.
Prince Igor Kuragin (Russian: Князь Игорь Курагин; played by Rade Sherbedgia) is a former Russian nobleman forced into exile as a result of the 1917 Revolution. As a powerful and extremely wealthy noble with palaces and thousands of acres of land, he and Violet met in Saint Petersburg in 1874 while she and her husband, the then Earl of Grantham, were in the retinue of Prince Alfred, Duke of Edinburgh. Though both Prince Kuragin and Violet were married, they fell in love and attempted to run away together, but did not succeed. During the Revolution many years later, Prince Kuragin and his wife, Princess Irina Kuragina, were arrested by the Bolsheviks and separated. Though Prince Kuragin was subsequently released, he learned that his wife had been exiled a year before. Left virtually penniless, he makes his way to England and settles in York, where he receives aid from a charity for Russian refugees. Through Lady Rose MacClare, who is one of the helpers, he learns of her relationship to Violet and that the Dowager Countess still lives at Downton. He joins his fellow former nobles on an outing to Downton in the spring of 1924. At Downton Abbey, he meets Violet again, who is shocked by his reappearance and what has happened to him. Violet attempts to find the whereabouts of Princess Irina through Lord Flintshire, who is her nephew - in - law, and eventually receives a letter from Lord Flintshire saying the Princess may have fled to Wan Chai, Hong Kong, where she might be working as a nurse.
Unlike many Russian aristocrats after the Revolution, Prince Kuragin does not appear to be an anti-Semite; when he meets Atticus Aldridge and realises his family fled Odessa due to the Tsar 's anti-Jewish pogroms, he tells Atticus that he is "not proud of why they chose to go. ''
Vera Bates (played by Maria Doyle Kennedy) (d. 1918) was the estranged wife of John Bates. Having known each other since childhood, they marry young and had a very unhappy marriage. In between serving in the Anglo - Boer War and joining the staff at Downton Abbey, John Bates went to prison for a theft that Vera had committed.
Using her husband 's name, she obtains a service post in the household of the Marquess of Flintshire since the Marchioness of Flintshire is the Earl of Grantham 's cousin. The Marchioness 's lady 's maid tells Vera about Lady Mary 's liaison with Kemal Pamuk. When Vera learns that her husband has a larger than expected inheritance after his mother 's death, she arrives at Downton Abbey. She asks for large amounts of money, refusing a divorce so he can not marry fellow servant Anna, and blackmails him, threatening to expose Lady Mary 's secret. She also wants her husband back since she has tried living on her own and does not like it. Bates returns to London with her to live in his mother 's home but soon separates after learning that she has been unfaithful to him. Eventually he returns to his post as Robert 's valet, and he and Anna rekindle their romance. O'Brien, always against Bates, writes to Vera to tell her where he is and about his and Anna 's blossoming romance.
Irate, she goes to Sir Richard Carlisle and sells him the story of Lady Mary, unaware that Sir Richard is engaged to Lady Mary and has no intention of publishing the story. Furious over this, she tells the judge in her divorce case that Bates paid her off to consent to it. The judge voids the divorce decree, with the result that Vera and John are still legally married. Mr Bates goes to London to confront her and returns to Downton with a large scratch on his face, telling Anna that their meeting went terribly. The next day, Vera is found dead from ingestion of rat poison. The police are convinced that Bates murdered her and he is convicted and sentenced to death, before the sentence is commuted to life in prison. While John is in prison, Anna is able to track down a neighbour of Vera 's who saw her on the day of her death. She tells Anna that she remembers Vera had dried food under her fingernails, meaning that Vera made the pie herself knowing that her husband would be implicated for murder. The neighbour also stated that she had seen Vera walking down the street when the gas lights had come on (she said they made a sort of "halo '' around Vera 's head), which would have been when Bates was already on his way back home. Bates is then released from prison due to the neighbour 's statement.
Mr. Albert Mason (played by Paul Copley) is the father of William, the Downton footman who died of injuries received in the Great War. In 1913, Mason 's wife dies of a heart attack leaving him on his own on their farm. Mr Mason becomes father - in - law to Daisy when she marries his son on his deathbed. After William 's death in 1918, Mr Mason sometimes calls at Downton to speak to Daisy, believing that she loved William as much as he did. Although Daisy finds this awkward at first, after he tells Daisy that William thought she was special and that his father would have no children left after his own death, their relationship changes and becomes akin to that of father and daughter.
In 1920, he expresses his wish to name Daisy his sole heir, and asks her to come live at the farm so he may teach her how to run it. When Daisy visits him again in 1922, she is trying to avoid Alfred, who is saying his final goodbyes at the house. But Mr Mason insists to Daisy she has to say goodbye to him properly, and offers to help her find the right words to say.
In the final season, after losing his tenancy at a neighboring estate, he is offered the tenancy of Yew Tree Farm in Downton, thanks to the unflagging efforts of Daisy. He would take on Andy Parker as a farmhand, and at series end, would be pleased when Daisy would finally move to Yew Tree Farm with him at long last.
He would also gain the companionship of Mrs. Patmore. With them together, it was clear that Daisy would have her "family '' (she would drop any objections she had about her father in - law and her superior at Downton Abbey being together).
Joe Burns (played by Bill Fellows) is a former suitor to Mrs Hughes. When Elsie turns his proposal down he later married Ivy (died 1910) and had one son Peter, who joined the army. He meets Mrs Hughes at a fair in Downton after the death of Ivy and asked her a second time to marry him, giving her a parting gift of a small doll. Later, however, he is turned down as Mrs Hughes does not wish to leave Downton, but the two part on good terms.
Lieutenant - General Sir Herbert Strutt KCB, DSO (played by Julian Wadham) is a senior British Army general known as the "Hero of the Somme ''. He visits Downton Abbey in 1917 as part of a tour of England to drum up support for the war effort. During a dinner in his honour, Branson, the Irish nationalist and socialist chauffeur, attempts to avenge himself on the Army by pouring a soup tureen of slop over the general, but he is stopped in time by Carson the butler (who after reading Branson 's apology note to Lady Sybil, found by Anna, thought Branson meant to assassinate the general). Sir Herbert leaves Downton the next morning with no knowledge of the incident.
The Archbishop of York and future Archbishop of Canterbury, Dr Cosmo Gordon Lang (played by Michael Culkin), is one of the few historical characters in the series. He marries Lady Mary Crawley and Matthew Crawley in the spring of 1920. He also comes to Downton Abbey for dinner later that year.
As the Minister for Health, the future Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain is persuaded to dine at Downton Abbey by Violet in May 1925 (his wife Anne is her goddaughter). Violet hopes to persuade him to allow the Downton village hospital to remain under the control of the Crawley family, instead of having it merge with a major hospital in York. The intended dinner conversation quickly becomes a heated argument in front of the bemused minister, and the Earl of Grantham collapses from a perforated ulcer, ending the gathering while he is rushed to hospital. Chamberlain later reveals to Tom that he had been blackmailed into attending by Violet, who knew of his role in one of the notorious pranks performed by his brother - in - law, Horace de Vere Cole (in their youth, de Vere Cole, Chamberlain and some others had disguised themselves as workmen and had dug a trench across Piccadilly Circus, causing a massive traffic jam "from the East End to Belgrave Square. '')
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a tiger of malgudi by rk narayan summary | A tiger for Malgudi - Wikipedia
A Tiger for Malgudi is a 1983 novel by R.K. Narayan told by a tiger in the first person. Deeply moving is the attachment of the tiger to the monk and the monk 's care for the tiger. R.K. Narayan consulted with noted tiger expert K. Ullas Karanth on the writing of this novel.
The tiger recounts his story of capture by a (circus) owner, but he never tried to escape. He lived freely in the wild jungles of India in his youth. He mates and has a litter with a tigress, and raises a litter until one day he finds that hunters have captured and killed his entire family. He exacts revenge by attacking and eating the cattle and livestock of nearby villages, but is captured by poachers. He is sent to a circus in Malgudi, where a harsh animal trainer known only as "the Captain '' starves him and forces him to do tricks in the circus. He lives in captivity successfully for some time, but eventually his wild instincts overcome him and he mauls and kills the Captain. After an extended rampage though town, he is recaptured, but this time voluntarily by a monk / renunciant with whom he befriends and finds peace on the hills. The monk, called the Master, later realizing his own days are coming to an end, donates the elderly tiger to the local zoo, where he is cared for, admired by onlookers, and passes his days.
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chief guest of india on republic day 2018 | Republic Day (India) - Wikipedia
Republic Day honours the date on which the Constitution of India came into effect on 26 January 1950 replacing the Government of India Act (1935) as the governing document of India.
The Constitution was adopted by the Indian Constituent Assembly on 26 November 1949, and came into effect on 26 January 1950 with a democratic government system, completing the country 's transition towards becoming an independent republic. 26 January was chosen as the Republic day because it was on this day in 1930 when Declaration of Indian Independence (Purna Swaraj) was proclaimed by the Indian National Congress as opposed to the Dominion status offered by British Regime.
India achieved independence from British Raj on 15 August 1947 following the Indian independence movement noted for largely peaceful non-violent resistance and civil disobedience led by Mahatma Gandhi. The independence came through the Indian Independence Act 1947 (10 & 11 Geo 6 c 30), an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom that partitioned British India into the two new independent Dominions of the British Commonwealth (later Commonwealth of Nations). India obtained its independence on 15 August 1947 as a constitutional monarchy with George VI as head of state and the Earl Mountbatten as governor - general. The country, though, did not yet have a permanent constitution; instead its laws were based on the modified colonial Government of India Act 1935. On 28 August 1947, the Drafting Committee was appointed to draft a permanent constitution, with Dr BR Ambedkar as chairman. While India 's Independence Day celebrates its freedom from British Rule, the Republic Day celebrates the coming into force of its constitution. A draft constitution was prepared by the committee and submitted to the Constituent Assembly on 4 November 1947. The Assembly met, in sessions open to public, for 166 days, spread over a period of two years, 11 months and 18 days before adopting the Constitution. After many deliberations and some modifications, the 308 members of the Assembly signed two hand - written copies of the document (one each in Hindi and English) on 24 January 1950. Two days later which was on 26 January 1950, it came into effect throughout the whole nation. On that day began Dr. Rajendra Prasad 's first term of office as President of the Indian Union. The Constituent Assembly became the Parliament of India under the transitional provisions of the new Constitution. This date is celebrated in India as the Republic Day.
The main Republic Day celebration is held in the national capital, New Delhi, at the Rajpath before the President of India. On this day, ceremonious parades take place at the Rajpath, which are performed as a tribute to India; its unity in diversity and rich cultural heritage.
Delhi Republic Day parade is held in the capital, New Delhi organised by the Ministry of Defence. Commencing from the gates of the Rashtrapati Bhavan (the President 's residence), Raisina Hill on Rajpath past the India Gate, this event is the main attraction of India 's Republic Day Celebrations lasting three days. The parade showcases India 's Defence Capability, Cultural and Social Heritage.
Nine to twelve different regiments of the Indian Army in addition to the Navy, and Air Force with their bands march past in all their finery and official decorations. The President of India who is the Commander - in - Chief of the Indian Armed Forces, takes the salute. Twelve contingents of various para-military forces of India and other civil forces also take part in this parade.
The Beating Retreat ceremony is held after officially denoting the end of Republic Day festivities. It is conducted on the evening of 29 January, the third day after the Republic Day. It is performed by the bands of the three wings of the military, the Indian Army, Indian Navy and Indian Air Force. The venue is Raisina Hill and an adjacent square, Vijay Chowk, flanked by the North and South block of the Rashtrapati Bhavan (President 's Palace) towards the end of Rajpath.
The Chief Guest of the function is the President of India who arrives escorted by the (PBG), a cavalry unit. When the President arrives, the PBG commander asks the unit to give the National Salute, which is followed by the playing of the Indian National Anthem, Jana Gana Mana, by the Army. The Army develops the ceremony of display by the massed bands in which Military Bands, Pipe and Drum Bands, Buglers and Trumpeters from various Army Regiments besides bands from the Navy and Air Force take part which play popular tunes like Abide With Me, Mahatma Gandhi 's favourite hymn, and Saare Jahan Se Achcha at the end.
Buildings on Raisina Hill including Rashtrapati Bhavan, lit up during Republic Day 2008.
Surya Kiran Aerobatics Team displaying tricolor.
Border Security Force personnel on Republic Day.
Since 1950, India has been hosting head of state or government of another country as the state guest of honour for Republic Day celebrations in New Delhi. During 1950 -- 1954, Republic Day celebrations were organised at different venues (like Irwin Stadium, Kingsway, Red Fort and Ramlila Grounds). It was only starting 1955 when the parade in its present form was organised at Rajpath. The guest country is chosen after a deliberation of strategic, economic and political interests. During 1950s -- 1970s, a number of NAM and Eastern Bloc countries were hosted by India. In 1968 and 1974, India played host to two countries on the same Republic Day.
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who sings the country song don't close your eyes | Do n't Close Your Eyes (Keith Whitley song) - wikipedia
"Do n't Close Your Eyes '' is a song written by Bob McDill, and recorded by American country music artist Keith Whitley. It was released in March 1988 as third single from his album of the same name. It peaked at number - one in the United States, and number 2 in Canada. Additionally, it was Billboard 's number - one country single of the year 1988.
The music video was directed by Michael McClary and premiered in mid-1988.
The song was covered by Alan Jackson for Keith Whitley 's 1995 tribute album, by Kellie Pickler for the deluxe edition of her 2008 self - titled second album, and by The Voice Season 6 contestant Jake Worthington for his audition song and fan - chosen final performance. Garth Brooks performed the song at the 50th CMA Awards whilst Whitley 's widow Lorrie Morgan looked emotional in the audience.
The song has sold 404,000 digital copies in the United States as of November 2016.
On July 1, 2015 Billboard Magazine announced the release of "Do n't Close Your Eyes (Ashamed) '' a tribute to Keith Whitley on his 60th birthday. The song is performed by Shady Records recording artist Kxng Crooked fka Crooked I (from Slaughterhouse), Truth Ali, Jonathan Hay and Morgan McRae. "I feel the rap verses really capture the emotional torment of the original, '' producer Jonathan Hay tells Billboard. "As you may or may not know, Keith Whitley died from alcoholism -- Kxng Crooked talks about his own chilling battle with alcoholism in his verse, '' he adds of the evocative tribute. "One of the main reasons I wanted to do this tribute is because I was raised in Kentucky, just like Keith Whitley, '' Hay continues. "Being all over the United States, it seems Whitley is more iconic back home in the ' Bluegrass State ' than he is everywhere else. We want to change that. '' "Do n't Close Your Eyes (The Ashamed Remix) '' is part of The Urban Hitchcock LP.
The music video premiered on MTV News on August 27.
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mirza (2016) telugu film dubbed into hindi full movie | Baahubali: the Beginning - Wikipedia
Baahubali: The Beginning, also known as BB1, a 2015 Indian historical fiction fantasy film directed by S.S. Rajamouli. The film was produced by Shobu Yarlagadda and Prasad Devineni and was shot in Telugu. The film stars Prabhas, Rana Daggubati, Anushka Shetty, and Tamannaah in the lead roles, with Ramya Krishnan, Sathyaraj, and Nassar in supporting roles. The first of two cinematic parts, the film follows Shivudu, an adventurous young man who helps his love, a rebellious warrior intending to rescue the former queen of Mahishmati. In the process, he learns of his true identity as the heir to the throne of Mahishmati, the son of Amarendra Baahubali, whose tale is narrated to him by Kattappa, a loyal slave. When asked about Amarendra 's whereabouts, the slave reveals that he was the one who killed him. The reason behind this is explained in the follow - up Baahubali 2: The Conclusion. It is the first epic film to be produced at such a high budget in Telugu cinema.
The film was conceived by Rajamouli 's father K.V. Vijayendra Prasad, who randomly told him a story about Sivagami, a woman who carries a baby in her hand while crossing a river, and a few years later about Kattappa, which intrigued Rajamouli. His fascination with mythology and the tales of Amar Chitra Katha comics further fuelled his interest in the story. However, it took the writers three months to finalise the final draft. The soundtrack and background score were composed by M.M. Keeravani while the cinematography, production design, and VFX were handled by K.K. Senthil Kumar, Sabu Cyril and V. Srinivas Mohan respectively.
The film was made on a budget of ₹ 180 crore (US $27 million), making it the most expensive Indian film at its time of release. The film opened worldwide on 10 July 2015, garnering critical acclaim and record breaking box office success. With a worldwide box office gross of ₹ 650 crore (US $97 million), it became the highest - grossing film in India, third highest - grossing Indian film worldwide, and highest - grossing South Indian film, at the time of its release. Its Hindi dubbed version also broke several records by becoming the highest grossing dubbed film in India. Both budget and box office records since has been surpassed by The Conclusion. The Beginning is the highest grossing Indian film of 2015 and the fourth highest grossing Indian film of all time.
It received several accolades. It won the National Film Award for Best Special Effects and Best Feature Film, becoming the first Telugu film to win the award. At the 63rd Filmfare Awards South, the Telugu version won five awards from ten nominations, including Best Film, Best Director for Rajamouli and Best Supporting Actress for Krishnan. The Beginning became the first Indian film to be nominated for Saturn Awards, receiving five nominations at the 42nd ceremony, including Best Fantasy Film and Best Supporting Actress for Tamannaah. The film 's second and final cinematic part was released on 28 April 2017.
In the ancient kingdom of Mahishmati, a woman carrying a baby falls into a waterfall and breathes her last, but before dying, she holds the baby in one hand above her head. The baby is rescued by local villagers and adopted by Sanga (Rohini) and her husband. Named Shivudu, (Prabhas) he grows up to be a strong, adventurous young man who is curious about the waterfall and the land beyond. After finding a wooden mask on the ground, he is driven to find the owner of the mask and succeeds in climbing the waterfall. The mask belongs to Avanthika (Tamannaah), a rebellious warrior of a group led by Devasena 's brother engaged in guerrilla warfare against Emperor Bhallaladeva (Rana Daggubati) of Mahishmati to rescue their former queen Devasena (Anushka Shetty). Avantika is given the opportunity to rescue the queen. She falls in love with Shivudu after finding out that he climbed the waterfall for her. Shivudu pledges to help her in her mission and sneaks into Mahishmati to rescue Devasena.
Sivudu manages to flee with Devasena, but is chased down by Bhallaladeva 's son, Bhadrudu (Adivi Sesh) and the slave - soldier Kattappa (Sathyaraj). After Shivudu beheads Bhadrudu, Kattappa drops his weapon, realising that Shivudu is Mahendra Baahubali, the son of late king Amarendra Baahubali. He narrates the story of Amarendra 's past. Amarendra 's father had died long ago, while his mother died giving birth to him. His uncle Bijjaladeva (Nassar) was deemed unfit to rule due to his crooked nature, however he believes he was denied the throne due to the fact that one of his arms is disabled. Bijjaladeva 's wife Sivagami assumed control of the kingdom with Kattappa 's assistance until a new king could be selected. Amarendra was brought up together with Bijjaladeva and Sivagami 's son Bhallaladeva. Both young men were trained in arts, science, disguise, politics, and warfare, but they had different approaches towards kingship. While Amarendra was gracious and loved his countrymen, Bhallaladeva was violent and achieved his goals by any means possible.
It was then discovered that Mahishmati was about to be attacked by an army of savages called Kalakeyas. Bijjaladeva proposed that the prince who killed the Kalakeya king Inkoshi would be the future king of Mahishmati to which Sivagami and the chief minister agrees. Inkoshi rejected Sivagami 's offer of peace and insulted her by saying he will have children with her. An enraged Sivagami ordered that his limbs be chopped off and body fed to the vultures. While Bhallaladeva used sophiscated weapons given by Bijjaladeva, Amarendra used simple yet effective tactics. As Amarendra was about to slay the king, Bhallaladeva swung his weapon from a distance and killed him. Sivagami announced Amarendra as the new emperor despite Bhallaladeva killing the king because of the fact that he shielded and protected his own countrymen throughout the war.
When asked about Amarendra 's current whereabouts, a tearful Kattappa reveals that Amarendra is dead, and that he is the one who killed him.
-- Rajamouli, on the inspiration for making Baahubali.
The following is the credited cast:
Baahubali: The Beginning was produced in Tollywood, the centre of Telugu language films in India. As of July 2015, the film series was considered the most expensive in India.
K.V. Vijayendra Prasad, father of S.S. Rajamouli and the storywriter of Baahubali: The Beginning had revealed that he was inspired by the hero introduction sequence of the 1967 Kannnada film, Immadi Pulikeshi, based on the life of the Chalukya king, Pulakeshin II and hence incorporated a similar sequence. He had further revealed that the core storyline -- where one brother is not given the throne because of his disability leading to animosity between blood relatives -- was also partly inspired by this movie. In February 2011, S.S. Rajamouli announced that Prabhas will star in his upcoming movie. In January 2013, he announced that the working title as Baahubali and the actual film production started at Rock Gardens in Kurnool on 6 July 2013. The waterfall scenes in the film were shot at Athirappilly Falls in Kerala, huge sets for the Mahishmati kingdom were constructed at Ramoji Film City in Hyderabad and the snow episodes in the film were shot in Bulgaria. The screen writer, K.V. Vijayendra Prasad who wrote stories for most of Rajamouli 's films once again penned the story for Baahubali. The film boasts of one year pre production work where in 15,000 - story board sketches for the film were created which is highest for any Indian Film till date. More than 90 percent of the film had visually enhanced shots and according to the producer, more than 600 VFX artists worked for the film from 18 facilities around the world led by Makuta VFX and Firefly in Hyderabad, Prasad Studios in Hyderabad and Chennai, Annapurna Studios in Hyderabad, Tau Films in Malaysia, and Dancing Digital Animation and Macrograph in South Korea. Makuta VFX which had prior experience of working with S.S. Rajamouli was chosen as principal visual effects studio. The cinematography of the movie was done by KK Senthil Kumar for 380 days using Arri Alexa XT camera with Master Prime lens marking Rajamouli 's first film using digital camera.
Most of the film was shot in ArriRaw format in 4: 3 aspect ratio while ArriRaw 16.9 was used for slow motion shots at 120 fps. Open Gate format, which can use the full 3.4 K sensor in the camera to produce frames larger than the standard ArriRaw format was tapped in to get the maximum image quality in VFX shots. For the first time in Indian movies, 4K movie print was rendered with an aspect ratio of 1: 1.88 as compared to Cinemascope at 1: 2.35 to get the best cinematic experience in screens that support the 4K projection claimed the Producer. Sabu Cyril, production designer for the film created 10,000 different kinds of weaponry ranging from swords, helmets and armours required for the soldiers. To make the swords light weight Carbon - fibre was used instead of steel, the same material used in manufacture of Helicopter blades claimed the art director. 3D printing technology was used to create the head of 100 - foot Bhallaladeva 's character in the movie and flexi foam was used to create amours to make them light weight and to have the look of leather. V. Srinivas Mohan was chosen as visual effects supervisor and Kotagiri Venkateswara Rao was the Editor. PM Satheesh was the sound designer and Peter Hein was responsible for the action sequences. The costume designers were Rama Rajamouli and Prasanthi Tipirneni. The line producer was M.M. Srivalli.
National Award Winner V. Srinivas Mohan was roped in as Visual effects supervisor for Baahubali. The film boasts of 90 % CGI work which accounts for 2500 VFX shots. Makuta VFX which is based out of Hyderabad was chosen as principal visual effects studio and was responsible for more than 50 % of the computer - generated imagery in the film. The majority of work done by Makuta involved bringing the 1500 foot mystical waterfall to life, creating enormous mountains and huge landscapes including the kingdom of Mahishmati, with its massive temples and courtyards. Creating the mammoth waterfall took nearly 2 years as Makuta has to deal with a lot of complexity in fluid dynamics and simulations. Each frame involving the water fall sequence was treated as creating a new set and employed a different set of methodology claims Makuta.
Firefly Creative Studio which is also based out of Hyderabad worked primarily on the avalanche and the war sequences which accounts for nearly 25 minutes of the film. Firefly Creative was also involved in creating underwater VFX shots and in establishing backstories for Kalakeya characters. Tau Films from Malaysia was responsible for creating the CGI bison, while Prasad EFX from Hyderabad was responsible for some shots in pre and post battle episodes involving digital multiplication. Prasad was also responsible for creating a 3D image of Kattappa and mapping his head on to a duplicate actor in one of the scenes.
Srushti VFX from Hyderabad was involved in digitally creating some of the shots in the war sequence along with Firefly studios. Annapurna Studios from Hyderabad was chosen as digital intermediate partner for the film which is responsible for generating the digital feed with the best colour and audio for editing. For the first time in Indian movies, Academy Color Encoding System workflows were implemented along with Infinitely Scalable Information Storage keeping in mind the mammoth scale of digitally enhanced shots in the film. Arka Media Works, production company of Baahubali, teamed up with AMD to use the state of the art FirePro GPUs W9100 and W8100 during the post production of the film which are capable of rendering 4K content in real time and are considered the best in Industry to date.
Reacting to media reports on the same VFX team for Baahubali and Jurassic World, producer Shobu Yarlagadda denied outright any such collaboration, calling such claims an internet rumour. In an interview with Quartz, the co-founder of Makuta VFX stated, "Most of Baahubali was developed in Hyderabad, home to Tollywood, and used local talent. It was principally a homegrown feature produced by homegrown talent. ''
The fictional language Kilikili (also referred to as Kiliki) used as the language of the Kalakeyas -- a ferocious warrior tribe, was created by Madhan Karky for the film. It is said to be the first fictitious language to be created for an Indian film character.
While Karky was pursuing PhD in Australia, he took up a part - time job of teaching and baby - sitting children. During one such interaction, he thought it would be fun to create a new language that could be easily grasped. Basic words were first made up and opposites were represented by word reversals -- me was min and you was nim. The language which introduced 100 new words was called "Click '' to highlight its simplicity. This formed the foundation for Kiliki.
Rajamouli 's cousin M.M. Keeravani composed the music for this film and the sound supervision is done by Kalyan Koduri.
The release of The Beginning was postponed many times due to different reasons.
The film released on 10 July 2015 in 4,000 screens worldwide in Telugu, Tamil, Hindi and Malayalam languages. A record number of 1600 screens in Telugu, 1500 screens in Hindi, 350 in Tamil and 225 screens in Malayalam were booked for the release. The film was released in USA a day earlier by BlueSky Cinemas in 135 screens. A premier show was also held on 9 July at Prasads IMAX Hyderabad. The film 's release in Kerala was hindered amidst a close down by a section of theatres over the piracy issue of Malayalm film Premam and released only in few theatres. International version of the film which is 20 mins shorter than the original one, done by Vincent Tabaillon was screened at Busan International Film Festival. Producers of the film have planned to release the film in China in over 5000 screens in November 2015 by E Stars Films. Baahubali will be the biggest release in China for an Indian film, beating PK which was released on 22 May 2015. The film is also set to release in Japan. The producer Shobu Yarlagadda who struck the deal at Busan Asian Film Market also revealed his plans to release the movie in Latin America, Germany and European countries. Arka International, which is the sales arm for International release has made arrangements to release the movie in Germany and 70 other territories.
As the sequel Baahubali: The Conclusion was released on 28 April 2017, the producers and distributors re-released the first part (Hindi) again on 7 April 2017. The film was screened at various film festivals like Open Cinema Strand of Busan International Film Festival, Indian Film Festival The Hague, Sitges Film Festival in Spain, Utopiales Film Festival in France, Golden Horse Film Festival in Taipei, Taiwan, Tallinn Black Nights Film Festival in Estonia, L'Etrange International Film Festival in Paris, Five Flavours Film Festival in Poland, Hawaii International Film Festival in Honolulu, Brussels International Fantastic Film Festival in Brussels, Belgium, Cannes Film Festival in France, Transilvania International Film Festival in Romania, Le Grand Rex in Paris, Kurja Polt Horror Film Festival, Festival de Lacamo, 8th BRICS summit, and the 2016 Indian Panorama section of the International Film Festival of India, Goa. The international version of the film was released in China, Japan, Korea, Taiwan, Indonesia, Thailand, Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, Myanmar, Philippines, Timor - Leste along with some European and Latin American countries.
Marketing of the film started 2 years before the shoot by S.S. Rajamouli with the audition campaign in Facebook and YouTube. A number of short promotional Making - of videos were released on ArkaMediaworks YouTube channel and the team unveiled first look posters and videos featuring the film 's lead stars on the occasions of their birthdays. The film used an augmented reality application to play the trailer on smart phones and tablets. The crown used by the character of Baahubali in the film was exhibited at Comic Con, Hyderabad as a part of the film 's promotion. A cosplay event was held in which chosen winners were given a chance to visit the sets of the film. The film 's unit also launched a WhatsApp messenger to give regular updates about the film to the subscribers. On 22 July 2015, Guinness World Records approved the poster created during the audio launch of Baahubali in Kochi on 27 June 2015 as the world 's largest poster. The poster has an area of 4,793.65 m2 (51,598.21 ft2) and it was achieved by Global United Media Company Pvt Ltd. This record has since been broken with a 5,969.61 m2 poster for the film MSG - 2 The Messenger.
A special skit was performed by the Baahubali team for the event named Memu Saitham to help the victims affected by Cyclone Hudhud. After the film 's release, an interactive quiz was conducted by marketing team on storygag allowing users to find out which Baahubali movie character they were. Producers are also has planning to create a film museum at Ramoji Film City in Hyderabad which will showcase the weapons, armours and costumes used by actors in the film which is first of its kind for any Indian movie till date. Museum is expected to be ready before or right after the release of Baahubali: The Conclusion. The film 's website hosts merchandise which includes apparels, accessories and film 's collectibles.
In early July 2014, the film first part 's Karnataka and Ceded (Rayalaseema) region distribution rights were sold to a prominent distributor for ₹ 230 million (US $3.4 million) out of which the Ceded region, which included Kadapa, Kurnool, Anantapur, Chittoor and Bellary areas, the rights alone fetched ₹ 140 million (US $2.1 million) At the same time, the film 's Nizam region theatrical distribution rights were purchased by Dil Raju for an amount of ₹ 250 million (US $3.7 million). only for the first part. Though he did not confirm the price, Dil Raju said in an interview to Deccan Chronicle that he purchased the first part 's Nizam region rights and added that he would acquire the rights of the second part also for this region. BlueSky Cinemas, Inc. acquired the theatrical screening and distribution rights in United States and Canada.
The Telugu version of the film was presented by K. Raghavendra Rao, Tamil version by K.E. Gnanavel Raja, Sri Thenandal Films and UV Creations, Karan Johar presented the Hindi version and Global United Media presented the Malayalam theatrical version. Twin Co which is a leading distributor for international films in Japan has acquired the rights for screening of the film. MVP Entertainment is set to release the movie in Thailand, Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, Myanmar, and Timor - Leste countries. Sun Distribution acquired the distribution rights of the movie in Latin American countries while Creative Century Entertainment got the rights for Taiwan. In Korea, the movie is scheduled to be released via Entermode Corp.
The Tamil version of the film faced a controversy relating to a word used in the film. On 22 July 2015, activists of Dalit group Puratchi Pulikal Iyakkam hurled petrol bombs outside the ' Tamil, Jaya ' multiplex in Madurai screening the Tamil version of the film. Dalit group Puratchi Pulikal Iyakkam protested against the movie featuring a line Pagadaikku Pirandhavan, words considered derogatory against dalits as they are contemptuous terms used by caste Hindus to address members of the Arunthathiyar Dalit sub-caste. Dialogue Writer of Tamil version, Madhan Karky issued an apology for offending Dalits.
Baahubali: The Beginning on the first day of its release collected ₹ 75 crore (US $11 million) worldwide which was the highest opening ever for an Indian film until Kabali surpassed it in 2016 by earning ₹ 875 million (US $13 million). The film collected ₹ 150 million (US $2.2 million) alone from United States on its first day. First weekend collections stood around ₹ 1.62 billion (US $24 million) worldwide from all its versions, the third biggest ever for an Indian film. The film grossed around ₹ 2.55 billion (US $38 million) worldwide in the first week of its release. It became the first South Indian film to gross ₹ 3 billion (US $45 million) worldwide, reaching there in 9 days, and subsequently grossed ₹ 4.01 billion (US $60 million) worldwide in 15 days. And has successfully crossed ₹ 5 billion (US $75 million) mark in 24 days. By the end of 50 days, International Business Times estimated that the film grossed an approximate ₹ 5.95 billion (US $89 million) crore worldwide. International Business Times later reported that overall collections of the film stood at over ₹ 6 billion (US $89 million) worldwide as of May 2017. Firstpost later reported that the total collections stood at 6.50 billion as of August 2017. Baahubali: The Beginning grossed ₹ 518.94 crore (US $77 million) in all languages in India alone, and became the highest - grossing movie in India, surpassing PK 's gross of ₹ 4.4 billion (US $66 million) from India.
The Beginning opened to 100 percent occupancy in Andhra Pradesh and Telangana and close to 70 percent occupancy in Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Karnataka. It grossed around ₹ 500 million (US $7.5 million) on its first day of release in India from all four versions (Telugu, Tamil, Malayalam and Hindi). The Hindi version earned around ₹ 50 million (US $750,000) nett which was the highest opening for any film dubbed into Hindi. Baahubali grossed ₹ 495 million (US $7.4 million) on the first day in India. The Hindi version grossed around ₹ 195 million (US $2.9 million) nett in the first weekend.
The Telugu version alone earned around ₹ 650 million (US $9.7 million) nett in first weekend in India. The film, from all its versions, earned almost ₹ 1 billion (US $15 million) nett in its first weekend. It had the fourth biggest opening weekend ever in India. The Hindi version collected around ₹ 400 million (US $6.0 million) nett in its first week. Baahubali: The Beginning grossed more than ₹ 178 crore (US $27 million) nett from all its versions in India in the first week. It added a further ₹ 450 million (US $6.7 million) nett in its second weekend to take its total to around ₹ 2.24 billion (US $33 million) nett in ten days. The Hindi version grossed over ₹ 400 million (US $6.0 million) nett in the Mumbai circuit.
The film collected around ₹ 200 million (US $3.0 million) in its first day from the international markets. The film opened on the ninth spot for its weekend, collecting around US $3.5 million with a per - screen average of $15,148. The film debuted in the ninth position for the US and Canadian box office collecting $4,630,000 for three days and $3,250,000 for the weekend of 10 -- 12 July 2015 Baahubali: The Beginning grossed £ 66,659 from its Telugu version in United Kingdom and Ireland and A $194,405 from its Tamil version in Australia in till its second weekend (17 -- 19 July 2015). The film also grossed MYR 663,869 in Malaysia from its Tamil version. The film grossed US $540,000 on its opening weekend in China. It has grossed a total of CN ¥ 7.49 million (₹ 77.8 million) in the country. The film totally earned $10.94 million at the overseas box office.
Deepanjana Pal of Firstpost called it "Rajamouli 's tour de force, '' terming it as "elaborate, well - choreographed and (having) some breathtaking moments. '' Prabhas and Dagubatti are both in their elements as the warriors who approach warfare in two distinctive styles. The outcome of the battle is no surprise, but there are enough clever tactics and twists to keep the audience hooked. The biggest surprise, however, lies in the film 's final shot, which gives you a glimpse into the sequel that will come out next year. '' Saibal Chatterjee of NDTV India rated the film with three stars out of five and stated, "The spectacular universe that the film conjures up is filled with magic, but the larger - than - life characters that populate its extraordinary expanse do not belong to any known mythic landscape. To that extent, Baahubali, driven by the titular superhero who pulls off mind - boggling feats both in love and in war, throws up many a surprise that is n't altogether meaningless. ''
Shubhra Gupta of The Indian Express praised the film: "Right from its opening frames, ' Baahubali ' holds out many promises: of adventure and romance, love and betrayal, valour and weakness. And it delivers magnificently on each of them. This is full - tilt, fully - assured filmmaking of a very high order. ' Baahubali ' is simply spectacular. '' In her review for The Hindu, Sangeetha Devi Dundoo wrote, "The war formations that form a chunk of the latter portions of the film are the best we 've seen in Indian cinema so far. These portions are spectacular and show the technical finesse of the cinematographer (K.K. Senthil Kumar) and the visual effects teams. The waterfall, the mystical forests and water bodies above the cliffs and the lead pair escaping an avalanche all add to the spectacle. Give into its magic, without drawing comparisons to Hollywood flicks. ''
Sukanya Varma of Rediff gave the film four out of five stars, calling it ' mega, ingenious and envelope pushing! '. Critic Archita Kashyap based at Koimoi also gave the same ratings, "Be it the war sequences, or sword fighting; or a visual spectacle, or pure entertainment it is worth a watch. Kudos to the dedication of SS Rajamouli and his leading men, Prabhas and Rana, for spending years putting this film together. Actually, in its imagination and Indianness, Baahubali might just be a whole new start. '' Rachit Gupta of Filmfare gave the film four stars (out of 5) and summarised, "Baahubali is truly an epic experience. Had the story not been so jaded, this would 've gone into the history books as an all - time classic. But that 's not the case. It has its set of storytelling flaws, but even those are overshadowed by Rajamouli 's ideas and execution. This is definitely worthy of being India 's most expensive film. It 's a definite movie watching experience. ''
Suparna Sharma of Deccan Chronicle praised the second half of the film, writing, "Rajamouli has reserved all the grander and grandstanding for later, after interval. That 's when the film stands up and begins to strut like an epic. '' Suhani Singh of India Today pointed out that the film is best enjoyed keeping logic at bay. She added, "SS Rajamouli and his team put up a fascinating wild, wild east adventure. It takes pluck to conceive a world like the one seen in Baahubali and to pull it off on a level which is on par with the international standards. The almost 45 - minute - long battle sequence at the end is not just one of the biggest climaxes, but also the action spectacle rarely seen in Indian cinema. And if Rajamouli can present another one like that in part 2, then he is on course to register his name in cinema 's history books. We ca n't wait to revisit Mahishmati kingdom. ''
Critical reception penned by Shubha Shetty Saha for Mid Day rates the film with four stars out of film, exclaiming, "While watching Baahubali, you might have to periodically pick up your jaw off the floor. Because this is not merely a movie, it is an unbelievably thrilling fantasy ride. '' The review extends praising the aspects, "It is to the director 's credit that every aspect of the film -- action, mind - boggling set design and choreography -- lives up to this epic film of gigantic scale. The choreography in the song that has Shiva disrobing Avantika to get her in touch with her feminine side, is an absolute gem. ''
Critics praised the film for its direction, technical values, and the actors ' performances. Lisa Tsering based on The Hollywood Reporter wrote, "The story has been told many times before -- a child is born destined for greatness and as a man vanquishes the forces of evil -- but in the confident hands of accomplished South Indian director S.S. Rajamouli the tale gets potent new life in Baahubali: The Beginning. '' Allan Hunter, writing for Screen Daily noted that "The broad brushstrokes storytelling and the director 's over-fondness for slow - motion sequences are among the film 's failings but this is still a rousing film, easily accessible epic. There 's rarely a dull moment in Baahubali: The Beginning, part one of a gung - ho, crowd - pleasing Telugu - language epic that has been shattering box - office records throughout India. ''
Mike McCahill of The Guardian rated the film four stars out of five, praising the film, "Rajamouli defers on the latter for now, but his skilful choreography of these elements shucks off any cynicism one might carry into Screen 1: wide - eyed and wondrous, his film could be a blockbuster reboot, or the first blockbuster ever made, a reinvigoration of archetypes that is always entertaining, and often thrilling, to behold. '' Suprateek Chatterjee of The Huffington Post wrote, "However, all said and done, Baahubali: The Beginning is a remarkable achievement. What Rajamouli has pulled off here, despite its flaws, is nothing short of a miracle, especially when you take into account India 's notoriously risk - averse filmmaking environment and when the film ends on a tantalising cliffhanger (paving the way for Baahubali: The Conclusion, due to release next year), one ca n't help but applaud his singularly brave vision. As the cliché goes, a journey of a thousand miles must begin with a single step, but it does n't really matter if that first step is shaky as long as it lands firmly and confidently. ''
At the 63rd National Film Awards, The Beginning won the Best Feature Film, becoming the first Telugu film to win the award, and Best Special Effects. At the 63rd Filmfare Awards South, the Telugu version won five awards from ten nominations, including Best Film, Best Director for Rajamouli and Best Supporting Actress for Krishnan. Both the Tamil and Telugu versions won several awards in their respective categories, including Best Film, Best Director for Rajamouli, and Best Supporting Actress for Krishnan at the 1st IIFA Utsavam. The Beginning became the first Indian film to be nominated for Saturn Awards, receiving five nominations at the 42nd ceremony, including Best Fantasy Film and Best Supporting Actress for Tamannaah.
The Beginning is one of the films featured in BBC 's documentary on 100 Years of Indian Cinema directed by Sanjeev Bhaskar. The second part, entitled Baahubali 2: The Conclusion was released worldwide on 28 April 2017.
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where did the confederacy place their capital city during the civil war | Richmond in the American Civil War - wikipedia
Richmond, Virginia, served as the capital of the Confederate States of America for almost the whole of the American Civil War. Not only was Richmond the seat of political power for the Confederacy, it served as a vital source of munitions, armament, weapons, supplies, and manpower for the Confederate States Army and Confederate States Navy, and as such would have been defended at all costs regardless of its political status. The city was less than 100 miles (160 km) from the Union capital in Washington, D.C..
Due to its symbolic and strategic importance to the Confederate war effort, it was the target of numerous attempts by the Union Army to seize possession of the capital, most notably during the Peninsula Campaign of 1862 and the Overland Campaign of 1864. Its proximity to the fighting would lead to it becoming a center of hospitals and military prisons. The city finally fell to Union forces on April 3, 1865, with large portions of the city destroyed by fires set during the evacuation.
In the aftermath of the war, numerous monuments, memorials, and museums were erected in the city.
In the 1860 United States Census, Richmond was the 25th largest urban area in the United States, with a population of 37,910. The city had been the capital of Virginia since 1780.
The Confederate States of America was formed in early 1861 from the first states to secede from the Union. Montgomery, Alabama, was selected as the Confederate capital.
After the Confederate Army fired on Fort Sumter in Charleston, South Carolina, on April 12, 1861, beginning the Civil War, additional states seceded. Virginia voted to secede from the Union on April 17, 1861, and existed briefly thereafter as an independent republic before joining the Confederacy on June 19, 1861. However, on May 8, 1861, in the Confederate Capital City of Montgomery, Alabama, the decision was made to name the City of Richmond, Virginia as the new Capital of the Confederacy. Shortly thereafter, in recognition of Virginia 's strategic importance, the Confederate capital was moved to Richmond.
The Great Seal of the Confederate States of America, adopted April 30, 1863, features a depiction of George Washington based on the Virginia Washington Monument adjacent to the Confederate Capitol building.
Richmond remained the capital of the Confederacy until April 2, 1865, at which point the government evacuated and was re-established, albeit briefly, in Danville, Virginia.
Positioned on the Fall Line along the James River, the city had ready access to an ample supply of hydropower to run mills and factories.
The Tredegar Iron Works, sprawling along the James River, supplied high - quality munitions to Confederacy during the war. The company also manufactured railroad steam locomotives in the same period. Tredegar is also credited with the production of approximately 10,000 artillery pieces during the war which was about half of the South 's total domestic production of artillery between the war years of 1861 -- 1865. The foundry made the 723 tons of armor plating that covered the CSS Virginia (the former USS Merrimack), which fought the first battle between ironclad warships in March 1862. The Tredegar works were adjacent to the Richmond Arsenal, which was recommissioned in the lead - up to the war. On Brown 's Island, the Confederate States Laboratory was established to consolidate explosives production to an isolated setting in the eventuality of an accidental explosion.
Numerous smaller factories in Richmond produced tents, uniforms, harnesses and leather goods, swords and bayonets, and other war material. As the war progressed, the city 's warehouses became the supply and logistical center for much of the Confederate forces within the Eastern Theater.
Richmond was also a transportation hub. It was the terminus of five railroads: the Richmond, Fredericksburg, and Potomac Railroad, the Virginia Central Railroad, the Richmond and York River Railroad, the Richmond and Petersburg Railroad, and the Richmond and Danville Railroad, as well as the James River and Kanawha Canal, together with a seaport with access to the Chesapeake Bay and the Atlantic Ocean. At the fall of Richmond in April 1865, all but the Richmond and Danville Railroad and the canal had effectively been cut off by Union forces.
In the late spring of 1862, a large Federal army under Major General George B. McClellan landed on the Virginia Peninsula. McClellan, who had enjoyed early publicity from a series of successes in western Virginia, was assigned the task of seizing and occupying Richmond. His military maneuvers and the resulting battles and engagements became collectively known as the Peninsula Campaign, culminating in the Seven Days Battles.
McClellan 's starting base was the Union - held Fort Monroe at the eastern tip of the Peninsula. Efforts to take Richmond by the James River were successfully blocked by Confederate defenses at the Battle of Drewry 's Bluff on May 15, about eight miles downstream from Richmond. The Union Army advance was halted shortly outside of the city at the Battle of Seven Pines on May 31 and June 1, 1862 (near the site of what is now Richmond International Airport).
Over a period of seven days from June 25 to July 1, 1862, Richmond 's defensive line of batteries and fortifications set up under General Robert E. Lee, a daring ride around the Union Army by Confederate cavalry under General J.E.B. Stuart, and an unexpected appearance of General Stonewall Jackson 's famous "foot cavalry '' combined to unnerve the ever - cautious McClellan, and he initiated a Union retreat before Richmond.
Even as other portions of the South were already falling, the failure of the Peninsula Campaign to take Richmond led to almost three more years of warfare between the states.
As a result of its proximity to the battlefields of the Eastern Theater and its high level of defense, the city processed many casualties of both sides: as home to numerous hospitals (the largest such being Chimborazo Hospital), prisons (notably Libby Prison, Castle Thunder, and Belle Isle), and various cemeteries.
On March 13, 1863, the Confederate Laboratory on Brown 's Island was rocked by an explosion that killed dozens of workers.
On April 2, 1863, the city was beset by a large bread riot as housewives could no longer afford very high food prices and broke into stores. The riot was organized by Mary Jackson, a huckster and the mother of a soldier. The militia was called out to end the riot.
The Confederacy hit its high - water mark at the Battle of Gettysburg in July 1863. Subsequent campaigning in the balance of the year failed to bring about a decisive battle, and Richmond residents settled down to the winter of 1863 -- 64 mostly still optimistic about the Confederacy 's fortunes.
One of the Civil War 's most daring prison breaks, the Libby Prison Escape, took place in February 1864 when more than 100 Federal captives escaped and fled into the night. Fewer than half were recaptured, with the majority reaching Union lines and safety. The city was shaken shortly thereafter by the March 2, 1864 Dahlgren Affair, a failed Union raid on the city.
Ulysses S. Grant 's 1864 Overland Campaign resulted in Robert E. Lee 's Confederate army retiring to the vicinity of Richmond and Petersburg, where they checked Grant 's progress.
After a long siege, Grant captured Petersburg and Richmond in early April 1865. As the fall of Petersburg became imminent, on Evacuation Sunday (April 2), President Davis, his Cabinet, and the Confederate defenders abandoned Richmond and fled south on the last open railroad line, the Richmond and Danville.
The retreating soldiers were under orders to set fire to bridges, the armory, and warehouses with supplies as they left. The fire in the largely abandoned city spread out of control, and large parts of Richmond were destroyed, reaching to the very edge of Capitol Square mostly unchecked. The conflagration was not completely extinguished until the mayor and other civilians went to the Union lines east of Richmond on New Market Road (now State Route 5) and surrendered the city the next day. Union troops put out the raging fires in the city. The event became known as the Evacuation Fire. The occupation was overseen by General Godfrey Weitzel and later General Edward Ord.
President Lincoln, who had been visiting General Grant and staying nearby at City Point, toured the fallen city (April 4 -- 7) by foot and carriage with his young son Tad, and visited the former White House of the Confederacy and the Virginia State Capitol.
About one week after the evacuation of Richmond, General Robert E. Lee surrendered to Grant on April 9 ending the Battle of Appomattox Courthouse. Within the same week, on the evening of April 14, President Lincoln was assassinated in Washington D.C. by the Confederate sympathizer John Wilkes Booth.
Richmond 's Hollywood Cemetery is the final burial place of many Civil War notables, including Jefferson Davis, Stuart, former U.S. President and Confederate Congressman John Tyler, Virginia Governors and Confederate Generals Henry A. Wise and William "Extra Billy '' Smith, Tredegar Iron Works owner and Confederate Brigadier General Joseph Reid Anderson, and Major Generals George Pickett, Fitzhugh Lee, Henry Heth, and John Imboden. A large, stone pyramid dominates the Confederate Soldiers ' section, where over 18,000 (many of whom are unknown) Confederates are buried.
War dead were also buried at Oakwood Cemetery, Shockoe Hill Cemetery, and the Cemetery for Hebrew Confederate Soldiers section of the Hebrew Cemetery. Numerous Union dead who were buried at these sites were re-interred after the war to several national cemeteries outside of the city.
The city has a number of markers and monuments commemorating the Civil War and the city 's role in the Confederacy. Monument Avenue was laid out in 1887, with a series of monuments at various intersections honoring the city 's Confederate heroes. Included (east to west) were J.E.B. Stuart, Robert E. Lee, Jefferson Davis, Stonewall Jackson, and Matthew F. Maury.
The Richmond National Battlefield Park, a unit of the National Park Service, maintains several battlefields from the Peninsula Campaign and subsequent actions. A driving tour through Civil War sites in Richmond and its surrounding counties is maintained by Virginia Civil War Trails. The White House of the Confederacy (part of the private, non-profit Museum of the Confederacy) has been fully restored to its wartime appearance and is open for daily tours. Immediately next door to the White House, the internationally renowned Museum of the Confederacy houses the largest comprehensive collection of artifacts and personal effects relating to the Confederacy. Other museums include the Virginia Historical Society. A statue of Lincoln, commemorating his visit to the former Confederate capitol, was unveiled in 2003, causing controversy.
The Charlie Daniels Band song, "Trudy '', compares the taking of Richmond by Grant with the narrator saying that he was "raking in chips like Grant took Richmond '' in a poker game.
Robbie Robertson / The Band wrote ' The night they drove old Dixie down '. One lyric refers to, '... by May the 10th (1865) Richmond had fell, it was a time I remember oh so well '. On May 10, 1865, Confederate President Jefferson Davis, fleeing Richmond and having dissolved the Confederate government, was captured by Union forces in Irwinville, Georgia.
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3 main branches of the government of the philippines | Government of the Philippines - wikipedia
The Government of the Philippines (Filipino: Pamahalaan ng Pilipinas) is the national government of the Philippines. It is governed as unitary state under a presidential representative and democratic and a constitutional republic where the President function as both the head of state and the head of government of the country within a pluriform multi-party system.
The government has three interdependent branches: the legislative branch, the executive branch, and the judicial branch. The powers of the branches are vested by the Constitution of the Philippines in the following: Legislative power is vested in the two - chamber Congress of the Philippines -- the Senate is the upper chamber and the House of Representatives is the lower chamber.
Executive power is exercised by the government under the leadership of the President. Judicial power is vested in the courts with the Supreme Court of the Philippines as the highest judicial body.
The legislative power is vested in the Congress of the Philippines which consists of the Senate and House of Representatives. The upper house is located in Pasay City, while the lower house is located in Quezon City. Both are in Metro Manila. The district and sectoral representatives are elected for a term of three years. They can be re-elected but they may not run for a fourth consecutive term.
Senators are elected to a term of six years. They can be re-elected but may not run for a third consecutive term. The House of Representatives may opt to pass for a vacancy of a legislative seat, which leads to a special election. The winner of the special election will serve the unfinished term of the previous district representative, and will be considered as one elective term. The same rule also applies in the Senate, however it only applies if the seat was vacated before a regular legislative election.
The current President of the Senate is Aquilino Pimentel III, while the current Speaker of the House of Representatives is Pantaleon Alvarez.
Legislative branch:
National Government
Local Government
The executive power is vested in the President of the Philippines. The President is elected by popular vote. The principal workplace of the President is the Malacañang Palace in San Miguel, Manila. The executive branch is currently headed by President Rodrigo Duterte. The President is also the Commander - in - Chief of the Armed Forces of the Philippines, The second highest official is elected separately from the President by popular vote. The Vice President is first in line to succession if the President resigns, is impeached or dies. The Vice President is usually, though not always, a member of the president 's cabinet. If there is a vacancy in the position of vice-president, the President will appoint any member of Congress (usually a party member) as the new Vice President. The appointment must then be validated by a three - fourths vote of the Congress.
Executive leadership:
National government
Local government
The judicial power is vested in the Supreme Court of the Philippines and lower courts established by law. The Supreme Court, which has a Chief Justice as its head and 14 Associate Justices, occupies the highest tier of the judiciary. The justices serve until the age of 70. The justices are appointed by the president on the recommendation of the Judicial and Bar Council of the Philippines. The sitting Chief Justice is Maria Lourdes Sereno, the 24th to serve in that position...
Other court types of courts, of varying jurisdiction around the archipelago, are the: Lower Collegiate Courts:
Regular Courts:
Muslim Courts
Article 9 of the Constitution of the Philippines establishes three constitutional commissions: the Civil Service Commission, the Commission on Elections, and the Commission on Audit.
The government and all three of its branches are independently monitored by the office of the Ombudsman (Filipino: Tanodbayan). The Ombudsman is given the mandate to investigate and prosecute any government official allegedly guilty of crimes, especially Graft and Corruption. The Ombudsman is assisted by six deputies: the Overall Deputy, the Deputy for Luzon, the Deputy for Visayas, the Deputy for Mindanao, the Deputy for the Armed Forces, and the Special Prosecutor.
The Philippines has four main classes of elected administrative divisions, often lumped together as local government units (LGUs). They are, from the highest to the lowest division:
Beyond these, the national government groups provinces and independent cities into regions, e.g. Metro Manila or Region VI. The President has the prerogative to create, abolish and determine the composition of regions, which is done so most often in consultation with the local government units affected, with the exception of autonomous regions, where the residents of the local government units have to ratify in a plebiscite their inclusion in such a setup.
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what is the standard rate of tax in ireland | Taxation in the Republic of Ireland - wikipedia
In Ireland there is an income tax, a value added tax (VAT), and various other taxes. Employees pay pay - as - you - earn (PAYE) taxes based on their income, less certain allowances. The taxation of earnings is progressive, with little or no income tax paid by low earners and a high rate applied to middle to top earners, the top marginal rate of tax (including USC and PRSI) is 52 %. However a large proportion of central government tax revenue is also derived from VAT, excise duties and other taxes on consumption. The standard rate of corporation tax is among the lowest in the world at 12.5 %.
Income tax is charged in respect of all property, profits, or gains. Since 2002, Ireland has operated a tax year coinciding with the calendar year (1 January to 31 December). The change coincided with the introduction of the euro in Ireland. For administrative purposes, taxable income is expressed under four schedules:
Since 1 January 2015, the tax rates apply as follows:
There are 2 tax brackets, 20 % (the standard rate) and the balance of income at 40 % (the higher rate). The brackets depend upon the individual 's category.
The € 42,800 amount may, for married couples, be increased by the lesser of: € 24,800 or the income of the second spouse. This brings the total maximum standard rate band for a married couple to € 67,600, twice the single person 's band. The increase is not transferable between spouses.
A taxpayer 's tax liability is reduced by the amount of his tax credits, which replaced tax - free allowances in 2001. Tax credits are not refundable in the event that they exceed the amount of tax due, but may be carried forward within a year.
A wide range of tax credits are available. A few are awarded automatically, while others must be claimed by taxpayers.
The principal tax credit is the personal tax credit, which is currently € 1,650 per year for a single person and € 3,300 per year for a married couple. A widowed person in the year of bereavement, or for as long as she has dependent children, may claim the € 3,300 credit as well; a higher credit is available to widowed parents during the five tax years following the bereavement.
The PAYE tax credit, which is also € 1,650, is awarded to employees and others who pay tax under the Pay as you earn system (further details below), to compensate them for the time value of money effect; their tax is deducted from their incomes during the year, whereas the self - employed pay near the end of the year. The credit may not exceed 20 % of the recipient 's income during the year and it is not transferable between spouses.
A person resident and domiciled in Ireland is liable to Irish income tax on his total income from all sources worldwide. In this sense, a person who spends:
is considered to be resident. Presence in Ireland of not more than 30 days in a tax year is ignored for the purposes of the two year test. Since 1 January 2009, a person is treated as present in Ireland for a day if present at any time during the day; before this, a person was only treated as present if he or she was present at midnight, a rule which was nicknamed the "Cinderella clause ''. A person may also elect to be resident in Ireland in a year in which he arrives in Ireland, once he can satisfy Revenue that he intends to remain there for the next tax year.
A person who is resident in Ireland for three consecutive years becomes ordinarily resident, and ceases to be ordinarily resident after he has been non-resident in Ireland for three consecutive years.
A person is domiciled in Ireland if born in Ireland; a person who has "demonstrated a positive intention of permanent residence in (a) new country '' ceases to be domiciled in Ireland.
A person who is not an Irish resident but is ordinarily resident in Ireland is liable to tax on all Irish and foreign - sourced income in full, except for income from a trade, profession, office, or employment, the duties of which are entirely exercised outside Ireland, and on foreign income under € 3,810 per year.
A person who is resident in Ireland, and is either ordinarily resident or domiciled in Ireland, but not both, is liable to tax on all Irish income in full, and on such foreign income as is remitted to Ireland.
A person who is neither resident, ordinarily resident, nor domiciled in Ireland is taxable on all Irish sourced income in full, and on foreign sourced income in respect of a trade, profession, or employment exercised in Ireland.
A person aged 65 or over during the tax year is exempt from income tax if his or her income is under € 18,000 per year. A married couple with income under € 36,000 per year is also exempt if either spouse is aged 65 or over or reaches 65 during the year; the exemption amount is increased by € 575 for each of the couple 's first two dependent children and by € 830 for each subsequent child.
A person or couple earning slightly over the limit may claim what is known as marginal relief. In this case, income over the exemption limit is charged to tax at a flat rate of 40 %. A person or couple may choose to be taxed under marginal relief or the regular tax system, and will be granted whichever system is more beneficial, including retroactively.
Some items of expenditure can be deducted from a person 's income for tax purposes, generally referred to as getting tax relief. In some cases the tax must be claimed retrospectively; in others it is processed as an increase to tax credits. The vast majority are only allowed at the standard tax rate of 20 %.
A person purchasing private medical insurance is entitled to tax relief at 20 %, which is usually given at source -- the person pays 80 % of the cost, and the government pays the rest directly to the insurance company. Persons aged over 50 are entitled to a further tax credit, which is normally paid in full to the insurance company to offset the considerably higher cost incurred by insurers in respect of members over 50.
Tax relief is available on medical expenses. With the exception of fees paid to approved nursing homes, the relief is only available retrospectively (i.e. by completing a tax return at the end of the year), and the relief is awarded at 20 % since 2009. It can be claimed for a person 's own expenses, or expenses which they pay on behalf of a relative, dependant, or, since 2007, anyone at all.
Medical expenses are construed widely, and include:
The relief can be claimed in the year when the cost was incurred or in the year when the payment was made.
A person may deduct from his income for the purposes of tax calculation up to 10 % of that income which is spent on permanent health insurance. Relief is therefore given at 40 % if the person is paying the higher rate of tax. If the payment is made by salary deduction the payment is treated as a benefit in kind (BIK) and as such is subject to the Universal Social Charge (USC) and PRSI.
Tax relief is allowed on service charges paid to a local council for domestic sewage disposal, as well as all payments for domestic water supply or domestic refuse collection or disposal. The relief is allowed in arrears -- credit for payments made in 2007 is given in 2008 -- and is given at 20 %, to a maximum of € 80 (where € 400 or more was paid for service charges). It will cease from 2011.
Tax relief at 20 % is allowed in respect of tuition fees paid for third - level courses, excluding the first € 2,500 for a full - time course and € 1,250 for a part - time course, of the course fees). The maximum relief available is € 1,400 per year (20 % of € 7,000). Courses must be of at least two years duration, except for postgraduate courses which must be of at least one - year duration. The course must also be approved by Revenue and delivered in a college approved by Revenue.
As with medical expenses, since 2007 the relief could be claimed in respect of payments made by any person, irrespective of the relationship between payer and payee. It can not be claimed in respect of administration, registration, or examination fees.
Relief is also allowed in respect of fees of over € 315 for foreign - language or information technology courses approved by FÁS, of less than two years duration, which results in the award of a certificate of competence. The relief is for 20 % of the amount paid, to a maximum of € 254 (20 % of € 1,270) per course. It is not available for courses in the Irish or English languages.
Contributions to a pension scheme can be deducted from gross income before calculation of tax; tax relief is therefore allowed on them at 40 % if the contributor is paying tax at that rate. Contributions (including AVCs) are subject to the Universal Service Charge currently at 7 %.
Taxpayers pay either on a "pay as you earn '' system or a "pay and file '' system.
Employees, pensioners, and directors generally have tax deducted from their income by their employers as it is paid. Under this system, tax is calculated by the employer on each pay day, withheld, and paid over to Revenue Employers receive notification of the tax credit and standard rate band applicable to the employee from Revenue. A PAYE employee need only file a tax return on form 12. if requested to do so by an inspector of taxes, if she has other undeclared income, or if she wishes to claim reliefs which are not available on another form.
The self - assessment system applies to persons who are self - employed or who receive non-PAYE income. Under the self - assessment system, a taxpayer must:
by the deadline each year. The deadline is 31 October for paper filings. It has historically been extended to mid-November for returns filed online, but it is not clear whether this will continue.
Preliminary tax must be at least equal to the least of:
Revenue will calculate the tax payable for a person who files a return of income more than two months prior to the filing deadline.
Underpaid tax attracts an interest penalty charge of 0.0219 % per day, and underpayments may result in a surcharge, prosecution, or publication of their name in a defaulters ' list.
The Universal Social Charge (USC) is a tax on income that replaced both the income levy and the health levy (also known as the health contribution) since 1 January 2011. It is charged on your gross income before any pension contributions or PRSI.
If your income is less than € 13,000 you pay no Universal Social Charge (USC). (This limit was € 4,004 in 2011, € 10,036 from 2012 to 2014 and € 12,012 in 2015.) Once your income is over this limit, you pay the relevant rate of USC on all of your income. For example, if you have income of € 13,000 you will pay no USC. If you have income of € 13,001 you will pay 1 % on income up to € 12,012 and 3 % on income between € 12,012 and € 13,001.
Aggregate income for USC purposes does not include payments from the Department of Social Protection.
Reduced rates of USC apply to:
PRSI is paid by employees, employers, and the self - employed as a percentage of wages after pension contributions. It includes social insurance and a health contribution. Social insurance payments are used to help pay for social welfare payments and pensions. Each week 's payment earns the employee a "credit '' or "contribution '', which credits are used to establish entitlements to non-means - tested welfare payments such as Jobseeker 's Benefit and the State Pension (contributory). The health contribution is used to help fund the health services, although paying it does not confer any entitlement to treatment or anything else. For the most part, the two amounts are combined together and stated as one deduction on payslips. There was a ceiling of € 75,036 per year on the employee social insurance element of the payment but this ceiling was abolished from 2011 onwards.
Class A workers are employees aged under 66 in industrial, commercial, and service - type employment who are paid more than € 38 a week from all employments, as well as to public servants recruited from 6 April 1995. Class A employees earning under € 352 per week are placed in subclass AO, and pay no PRSI / Class A employees earning between € 352 and € 356 are in subclass AX; those earning over € 356 but less than or equal to € 500 are in subclass AL. Both subclasses pay 4 % PRSI, and the first € 127 of earnings are no longer disregarded for this calculation, so therefore PRSI is 4 % on all earnings / Class A employees earning over € 500 per week are in subclass A1 and pay 4 % on all their weekly earnings.
Employers of employees in the above classes pay 8.5 % PRSI for employees earning under € 356 per week and 10.75 % PRSI for employees earning over that amount. The applicable rate applies on the entire wage, with no ceiling. Classes A4, A5, A6, A7, A8, and A9 relate to community employment schemes and employer 's PRSI exemption schemes. Class A8 is for income under € 352 per week and has no employee PRSI liability; class A9 is for income over that amount and is liable at a flat rate of 4 %. Both classes have an employer 's PRSI rate of 0.5 %.
Class B workers are permanent and pensionable civil servants recruited before 6 April 1995, doctors and dentists employed in the civil service, and gardaí recruited before 6 April 1995. Class B workers earning under € 352 per week are placed in subclass BO, and pay no PRSI. Class B workers earning between € 352 and € 500 per week are placed in subclass BX, and class B workers earning over € 500 per week but exempt from the health contribution are placed in subclass B2. Both these subclasses pay 0.9 % PRSI on all earnings except the first € 26 per week. Class B workers earning over € 500 per week and not exempt from the health contribution are placed in subclass B1. They pay 4 % PRSI on the first € 26 of their weekly earnings, 4.9 % on the next € 1,417, and 5.9 % on the balance.
Class C workers are commissioned officers of the defence forces, and members of the army nursing service, recruited before 6 April 1995. Class D workers are all permanent and pensionable employees in the public service not caught in classes B or C, recruited before 6 April 1995. Workers in classes C and D pay PRSI at the same rates as class B.
Employers of class B employees pay a flat rate of 2.01 % PRSI on all their employees ' earnings; for class C, the rate is 1.85 %, and for class D it is 2.35 %, although this is effectively a transfer of money from one government account to another.
Class H workers are non-commissioned officers and enlisted personnel of the Defence Forces. Class H workers earning under € 352 per week are placed in subclass HO, and pay no PRSI. Class H workers earning from € 352 to € 500 per week are placed in subclass HX. Class H workers earning over € 500 and exempt from the health contribution are placed in subclass H2. Workers in each of these classes pay 3.9 % PRSI on their earnings except for the first € 127 per week. Other class H workers are placed in subclass H1. They pay 4 % PRSI on the first € 127 of their weekly earnings, 7.9 % on the next € 1,316, and 8.9 % on the balance. Employers of class H workers pay 10.05 % PRSI on all their employees ' earnings.
Class J workers are employees aged 66 or over, those earning under € 38 per week, or those in subsidiary employment. They pay only the health contribution of 4 % if their earnings exceed € 500 per week, or 5 % on the amount that exceeds € 1,443 per week. The employer 's contribution is 0.5 %. Subsidiary employment includes the employment of a person subject to class B, C, D, or H in his main employment.
Classes K and M apply to income which is subject to the health contribution but not to social insurance, including occupational pensions. It also applies to judges, state solicitors, and income of self - employed persons aged 66 or over.
Class K income is subject to the health contribution of 4 % if earnings exceed € 500 per week, or 5 % on the amount that exceeds € 1,443 per week. There is no employer contribution.
Class M relates to persons under 16, who are exempt from PRSI entirely, and to income which would fall under class K paid to persons exempt from the health contribution. It has a zero rate.
Self - employed people, including certain company directors, pay class S PRSI; the class also applies to certain investment and rental income.
Where income is less than € 500 per week, subclass S0 applies. Where income is above € 500 per week, subclass S1 applies, except to persons exempt from the health contribution, to whom subclass S2 applies. The rate for subclasses S0 and S2 is 3 %, and the rate for subclass S1 is 7 % up to € 1,443 per week and 8 % on that portion of income above that amount.
The health contribution was replaced by the USC from 2011 onwards
Taxpayers paying class S PRSI pay it, and the health contribution, along with their tax. For other taxpayers, it is withheld from their net income.
Capital gains tax is payable where a person makes a gain on the sale of assets, called chargeable assets. The standard CGT rate is 33 % in respect of disposals made from midnight on 7 December 2013. The rate of tax for disposals made in previous years is less: details can be obtained from the Revenue Commissioners.
Any person (including a company) resident or ordinarily resident in Ireland is liable to CGT on all chargeable gains accruing on all disposals of chargeable assets. A person resident or ordinarily resident, but not domiciled, in Ireland is only liable to CGT on disposals of assets outside of Ireland where the gains are remitted to Ireland.
A person neither resident nor ordinarily resident in Ireland is only liable to CGT on gains from:
The gain or loss is calculated as the sale price less the purchase price. From the sale price can be deducted the cost of acquisition of the asset, including incidental costs such as conveyancing costs, the cost of the disposal, and costs of improving the asset.
Where the asset was acquired prior to 6 April 1974, its value on that date is used instead of the purchase price.
The purchase price, cost of acquisition, and costs of improvement can be adjusted for inflation from 6 April 1974 up to 31 December 2002, and a table is published by Revenue for the purpose of calculating this adjustment. The inflation adjustment can only operate to reduce a gain; it can not increase a loss or turn a gain into a loss.
Capital losses can be offset against capital gains arising in the same or later tax year. Non-chargeable losses (see below) can not be offset against chargeable gains. In each tax year losses carried forward must be used before exemptions are applied.
Transfers between spouses do not give rise to a charge for capital gains tax; the acquiring spouse is considered to have acquired the property on the same date and at the same price as the disposing spouse.
CGT is a self - assessment tax for all taxpayers. Tax on gains realised in the first eleven months of the year is payable by 15 December that year, and tax on gains realised in December payable by 31 January the next year. A return must be made by 31 October in the following year with full details of the gain.
A person purchasing a chargeable asset for over € 500,000 must withhold 15 % of the price and pay it to Revenue unless the Revenue has issued a CG50A certificate to the vendor prior to the purchase. The certificate CG50A is issued by the Revenue on application, provided that either the vendor is resident in Ireland, no CGT is payable on the disposal, or the CGT has already been paid.
Ireland 's value added tax (VAT) is part of the European Union Value Added Tax system. It is collected by VAT - registered traders on almost all goods and services they supply. Each trader in the chain of supply, from manufacturer to retailer, charges VAT on his sales and pays it to Revenue, deducting from the payment the VAT paid on his purchases.
A trader whose turnover exceeds the registration thresholds, or is likely to exceed them in the next 12 months, must register for VAT.
The registration thresholds are as follows:
A person below these limits may register voluntarily. It is often beneficial for persons who mainly trade with other businesses to register for VAT even when their turnover is below the relevant limits.
VAT rates range from 0 % on books, children 's clothing and educational services and items, to 23 % on the majority of goods. The 13.5 % rate applies to many labour - intensive services as well as to restaurant meals, hot takeaway food, and bakery products. A 4.8 % rate applies to supply of livestock and greyhounds. A 5.2 % "flat rate addition '' applies to the agricultural sector, although this is not strictly VAT -- it is charged by farmers not registered for VAT to compensate them for VAT which they must pay to their suppliers. The flat rate addition is not paid away to the Revenue.
Traders collecting VAT can deduct the VAT incurred on their purchases from their VAT liability, and where the VAT paid exceeds VAT received, can claim a refund. The VAT period is normally two calendar months (other filing periodicity, such as four - monthly, and semi-annual also apply in certain circumstances).
A VAT return is made on the 19th day of the following the end of the period. However, if you submit the return on the website, i.e. ROS ("Revenue Online Service ''), and also perform payment via ROS, then the due date is extended to the 23rd day following the end of the period.
Once a year a detailed breakdown of VAT returns must be prepared by traders and submitted to the government -- traders may choose their own date for this. Traders with low VAT liabilities may opt for six - monthly or four - monthly payments instead of the standard bi-monthly one, and traders who are generally in the position of claiming repayments of VAT rather than making payments may make monthly returns.
Deposit Interest Retention Tax (abbreviated as DIRT), is a retention tax charged on interest earned on bank accounts, as well as some other investments. It was first introduced in Ireland in the 1980s to reduce tax evasion on unearned income.
DIRT is deducted at source by financial institutions From 1 January 2014, DIRT is charged at 41 % (was 33 % in 2013) for payments made annually or more frequently. The tax is deducted by the bank or other deposit - taker before the interest is paid to you. DIRT will be charged at 36 % (in 2013, lower rates in previous years) for payments made less frequently. This higher D.I.R.T. rate has been abolished, as and from the 1st January 2014, and the D.I.R.T. rate of 41 % applies to any interest paid or credited on these deposits on or after the 1st January 2014.
Persons aged over 65 or incapacitated, whose income is less than the exemption limit (currently € 20,000), may claim a refund of DIRT, or may submit an appropriate form to their banks or financial institutions to have interest paid free of DIRT.
DIRT does not apply to:
Stamp duty is charged on the conveyance of residential property, non-residential property, and long leases, and also on company share transfers, bank cheques and cards (i.e. ATM cards and credit cards), and insurance policies.
Stamp duty is charged as a percentage of the consideration paid for immovable property, including goodwill attached to a business. A stamp duty return must be completed online for all such conveyances; physical stamps are no longer attached to documents.
First time buyers (i.e. those who have not purchased a house before in Ireland or in any other jurisdiction) are exempt. One may also qualify as a first - time buyer if newly divorced or separated. New owner - occupied houses or apartments with a floor area of less than 125 m may also be exempt, and new owner - occupied houses with a floor area larger than this are assessed based on the greater of the cost of the site or quarter of the total cost of the house and site. In all cases, the rates exclude VAT.
For deeds executed on or after 8 December 2010 the rates of stamp duty are:.
Since 14 October 2008, conveyances of non-residential property are charged at an increasing rate starting at 0 % for a property under the value of € 10,000 rising to 6 % for transactions over € 80,000.
Transfers between spouses are exempt from stamp duty, as are property transfers as a result of a court order in relation to a divorce. The stamp duty rate is halved for transfers between other blood relatives. Intragroup transactions, company reconstructions and amalgamations, and demutualisations, as well as certain transactions involving charities, approved sports bodies, young farmers, woodlands, or intellectual property also attract relief.
There is a 1 % stamp duty on transfers of stock or marketable securities of any company incorporated in Ireland, except paper - based transfers where the consideration is € 1,000 or less.
Credit card and charge card accounts are subject to a € 30 annual duty. Automated teller machine and debit cards are subject to € 2.50 each annually. Cards which perform both functions are subject to the tax twice, i.e. € 5 total. Cards that are unused in the entire year are not chargeable. The credit card tax is applied per account, but the ATM and debit card charge is per card. In each case, where an account is closed during the year, there is an exemption from double taxation.
Cheques (technically, all bills of exchange) incur a € 0.50 tax, generally collected by the bank on issue of each chequebook. Non-life Insurance policies are subject to a 3 % levy and Life assurance policies are subject to a 1 % levy on premiums from 1 June 2009.
Capital acquisitions tax is charged to the recipient of gifts or inheritances, at the rate of 33 % above a tax - free threshold. Gifts and inheritances are gratuitous benefits; the difference is that an inheritance is taken on death and a gift is taken other than on death.
The person providing the property is called the donor or disponer, or testator or deceased in the case of inheritance; the person receiving the property is called the beneficiary, donee or disponee, or the successor in the case of inheritance.
A gift is taken when a donee becomes beneficially entitled in possession to some property without paying full consideration for it. Tax is payable within four months of the date of the gift; an interest charge applies to late payments.
Tax is generally charged on the property 's taxable value, which is computed as:
Market value
less liabilities costs and expenses payable out of the gift or inheritance
= incumbrance free value
less consideration paid by acquirer in money or money 's worth
= taxable value
A disposition is taxable in Ireland if it is of property in Ireland, or if either the disponer or the beneficiary was resident or ordinarily resident in Ireland at the date of the disposition. Special rules apply for discretionary trusts.
CAT can be reduced or eliminated altogether under a number of headings.
Historically group thresholds were indexed by reference to the Consumer Price Index. The indexation of the tax - free group thresholds is abolished for gifts and inheritances taken on or after 7 December 2011. The thresholds on or after 14 October 2015 are:
For gifts and inheritances taken on or after 5 December 2001, only prior benefits received since 5 December 1991 from the same beneficiary within the same group threshold are aggregated with the current benefit in computing tax payable on the current benefit.
An inheritance, but not a gift, taken by a parent from his or her child is treated as group A, where it is an immediate interest (but not a life interest) in property. In certain circumstances, the beneficiary may take the place of his / her deceased spouse for the purpose of determining the applicable group where that spouse died before the disponer and was a nearer relative to the disponer.
The other main exemptions from capital acquisitions tax are:
The other main reliefs from capital acquisitions tax are:
When a person receives a gift or inheritance that, either by itself, or aggregated with prior benefits taken by the donee, would place him in a position of having used up more than 80 % of any group threshold, he must complete form IT38 and return it to Revenue within four months, along with any tax due.
Assets placed in discretionary trusts are subject to:
The charges must be paid within three months of the "valuation date '', which may be the date the trust was set up, the date of death of the settlor, the earliest date on which the trustees could retain the trust property, the date on which the trustees retained the trust property, or the date of delivery of the trust property to the trustees.
Corporation tax is charged on the profits of companies which includes both normal income and chargeable gains. Certain expenses such as interest repayments can be offset against profits. The current rate of corporation tax in Ireland ranges from 10 % to 25 %, depending on the nature of the business.
The main rate, which is 12.5 %, applies to trading income of companies. It is low compared to international standards.
The higher rate, 25 %, applies to non-trading income such as interest gains, foreign sourced income and profits and rental income, and to profits from so - called "exempted trades '', including land - dealing, income from working minerals, and petroleum activities.
The 10 % rate, introduced in 1981, continues to apply to a limited number of manufacturing firms, IFSC finance enterprises and businesses located in the Shannon Free Zone; all typically large multi-nationals. It is used as a marketing incentive to attract foreign direct investment (FDI) into Ireland. Despite being credited with helping the IDA secure millions of euro worth of FDI and thousands of jobs, it is currently being phased out with the last year of the 10 % rate likely to be 2010.
Certain shipping companies may elect to pay tonnage tax rather than Corporation Tax.
Several charges described as taxes are not, in the literal sense, actual taxes, but withholdings from certain payments made. In each case, the payer withholds the relevant percentage and pays it to Revenue. The recipient is still liable for tax on the full amount, but can set the withholding against his overall tax liability. If the amount withheld is less than the tax payable, the recipient is still liable for the difference, and if the amount withheld exceeds the tax payable, the recipient can set it off against other tax due, or obtain a refund. This contrasts with DIRT, which, while a withholding tax, discharges the entire tax liability of the recipient.
Relevant Contracts Tax (RCT) is a withholding regime applied to contractors in the forestry, construction, and meat processing sectors where tax non-compliance levels have historically been high.
On 13 December 2011, the Minister for Finance signed the Commencement Order for the new electronic RCT system which was introduced on 1 January 2012. All principal contractors in the construction, forestry and meat processing sectors are obliged to engage electronically with Revenue. Under the new RCT system, a principal contractor must provide Revenue with details of the contract and the subcontractor. It must also notify Revenue of all relevant payments online before payment is made. Revenue will respond to the payment notification with a deduction authorisation setting out how much tax, if any, must be withheld. The rates are currently set at 0 %, 20 % or 35 %. This deduction authorisation is sent electronically to the principal contractor. The principal must provide a copy or details of the deduction authorisation to the subcontractor if tax has been deducted. The subcontractor can set off the amount deducted against any tax he is liable to pay, or reclaim the difference where the deduction exceeds the amount of tax.
Since September 2008, the subcontractor no longer charges or accounts for VAT on supplies of construction services to which RCT applies. Instead, the principal contractor must account for the VAT to Revenue (although he will generally be entitled to an input credit for the same amount). This system is referred to as the VAT reverse charge.
Dividend Withholding Tax is deducted at the rate of 20 % from dividends paid by Irish companies. It can be set off against income tax due, or reclaimed where the recipient of the dividend is not liable to tax.
Professional Services Withholding Tax (PSWT) is deducted at the rate of 20 % from payments made by government bodies, health boards, state bodies, local authorities, and the like, from payments made for professional services. Professional services include medical, dental, pharmaceutical, optical, aural, veterinary, architectural, engineering, quantity surveying, accounting, auditing, finance, marketing, advertising, legal, and geological services, as well as training services supplied to FÁS It can be deducted from the tax ultimately payable by the service provider, or where the provider is non-resident or exempt from tax, reclaimed.
Excise tax is charged on mineral oil, tobacco, and alcohol.
An assortment of other taxes are charged in Ireland, which do not fit under any other heading.
This was introduced in the Finance Act of 2013, this Tax is levied for most properties at 0.18 % of the self - assessed market value. The value assessed is the value in May 2013 initially. This initial valuation will be used until the next assessment date in November 2016. A higher rate of 0.25 % of market value -- the so - called Mansion Tax applies to properties valued at greater than € 1,000,000.
Since March 2002, a levy, called the Environmental Levy, has applied to the supply of plastic shopping bags by retailers. The levy is currently 22 cents per plastic bag. s The levy does not apply to:
A small bag is one smaller than 225mm wide, 345mm deep, and 450mm long (including handles). The law requires that the levy be passed on to customers.
Vehicle Registration Tax or VRT is chargeable on registration of a motor vehicle in Ireland, and every motor vehicle brought into the country, other than temporarily by a visitor, must be registered with Revenue and must have VRT paid for it by the end of the working day after it arrives in the country.
Vehicles are assessed under five categories for VRT, depending on the type of vehicle.
Motorcycles and motor scooters are chargeable for VRT by reference to the engine displacement, at a rate of € 2 per cc for the first 350cc and € 1 per cc thereafter. There is a reduction depending on the age of the vehicle, from 10 % after three months to 100 % (completely remitted) for vehicles over 30 years old.
Electric vehicles and hybrid vehicles can have a remission or repayment of VRT of up to € 2,500 until the end of 2010.
VAT is chargeable (on the VRT - inclusive price) on new vehicles (but not tractors) imported unregistered or within six months of registration outside Ireland, or on vehicles with an odometer reading under 6,000 kilometres at import.
A vehicle on which VRT should have been paid but was not is liable to be seized.
The owner of a house other than a principal private residence must pay a charge, as of 2010 € 200, per year. The charge for 2009 was payable in September, but in subsequent years, it is payable in March.
The charge applies to "residential properties '', which includes a house, maisonette, flat, or apartment, but excludes:
Additionally, the following persons are exempt from paying the charge in respect of the building or buildings in question:
If the charge is unpaid, it has the effect of a charge in favour of the local council against the property.
A person who moves house is not liable to the charge in respect of either of the houses that year.
Motor tax, payable to the local council where the owner lives, arises when a car or other motor vehicle is used on a public road. A circular receipt, known colloquially as a tax disc, is issued on payment and must be displayed in the front of the vehicle. Certain vehicles, including state - owned vehicles, fire engines, and vehicles for disabled drivers are exempt from motor tax.
Motor tax may be paid for three, six, or 12 months, although paying annually is cheaper. It can be paid online; verification of insurance details is required to get a tax disc.
The tax for private cars first registered from July 2008 is calculated on the basis of carbon dioxide emissions; for cars registered before that, the rate depends on engine displacement. Goods vehicle tax rates are determined based on gross vehicle weight, the tax for buses is based on the number of seats, and flat rates apply to other types of vehicles.
Tax evasion in Ireland, while a common problem historically, is now not as widespread. The reasons are twofold -- most people pay at source (PAYE) and the penalties for evasion are high. The Irish Revenue target specific industries every year. Industries have included fast food take away restaurants, banks and farmers. Tax avoidance is a legal process where one 's financial affairs are arranged so as to legitimately pay less tax. In some cases the Revenue will pursue individuals or companies who avail of tax avoidance; however their success here is limited because tax avoidance is entirely legal.
The areas where tax evasion can still be found are businesses that deal in a lot of cash. The trades, small businesses, etc., will sell goods and perform services while accepting cash for the good / service. The buyer will avoid paying VAT at 21 % and the seller does not declare the monies for Income Tax. Revenue perform random audits on businesses to discourage and punish this. Businesses are regularly taken to court for tax evasion. Revenue claim a business will be audited roughly every seven years.
Other methods have also been employed by government to combat tax evasion. For example, the introduction of a Taxi Regulator and subsequent regulations for the taxi industry has meant that the opportunities for taxi drivers to avoid declaring cash income have dwindled. By law, taxi drivers must now issue an electronic receipt for each fare, effectively recording their income.
Prior to 1977, all property owners in Ireland had to pay "rates '' -- based on the "rateable valuation '' of the property -- to the local council. Rates were used by local authorities to provide services such as mains water and refuse collection. Rates for private residences were abolished in 1977, with local authorities instead receiving funding from central government. They continue in operation for commercial property.
In recent years, the government has introduced new local taxes. A charge for water will be introduced by 2014. A bin tax, for domestic refuse collection, was introduced in the last 15 years. Opponents claim that this is double - taxation -- that in the aftermath of the abolition of domestic rates in 1977, their taxes were increased to fund local authorities. However, with the ever - rising cost of providing these services, council funding is no longer sufficient to cover costs and user charges would free up council budgets for more worthwhile projects.
Motor tax is paid into the Local Government Fund and is distributed among local authorities.
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when did central warm air systems for residential and commercial applications became well defined | Central heating - wikipedia
A central heating system provides warmth to the whole interior of a building (or portion of a building) from one point to multiple rooms. When combined with other systems in order to control the building climate, the whole system may be an HVAC (heating, ventilation and air conditioning) system.
Central heating differs from space heating in that the heat generation occurs in one place, such as a furnace room or basement in a house or a mechanical room in a large building (though not necessarily at the geometrically "central '' point). The heat is distributed throughout the building, typically by forced - air through ductwork, by water circulating through pipes, or by steam fed through pipes. The most common method of heat generation involves the combustion of fossil fuel in a furnace or boiler.
In much of the temperate climate zone, most detached housing has had central heating installed since before the Second World War. Where coal was readily available (i.e. the Anthracite coal region in northeast Pennsylvania) coal - fired steam or hot water systems were common. In more recent times, these have been updated to use fuel oil or gas as the source of combustion, eliminating the need for a large coal storage bin near the boiler and the need to remove and discard ashes after the coal is burned. Coal - fired systems are now mostly reserved for larger buildings.
A cheaper alternative to hot water or steam heat is forced hot air. A furnace burns fuel oil, which heats air in a heat exchanger, and blower fans circulate the warmed air through a network of ducts to the rooms in the building. This system is cheaper because the air moves through a series of ducts instead of pipes, and does not require a pipe fitter to install. The space between floor joists can be boxed in and used as some of the ductwork, further lowering costs.
Electrical heating systems occur less commonly and are practical only with low - cost electricity or when ground source heat pumps are used. Considering the combined system of thermal power station and electric resistance heating, the overall efficiency will be less than for direct use of fossil fuel for space heating.
More and more buildings utilize solar - powered heat sources, in which case the distribution system normally uses water circulation.
Alternatives to such systems are gas heaters and district heating. District heating uses the waste heat from an industrial process or electrical generating plant to provide heat for neighboring buildings. Similar to cogeneration, this requires underground piping to circulate hot water or steam.
The ancient Greeks originally developed central heating. The temple of Ephesus was heated by flues planted in the ground and circulating the heat which was generated by fire. Some buildings in the Roman Empire used central heating systems, conducting air heated by furnaces through empty spaces under the floors and out of pipes (called caliducts) in the walls -- a system known as a hypocaust.
The Roman hypocaust continued to be used on a smaller scale during late Antiquity and by the Umayyad caliphate, while later Muslim builders employed a simpler system of underfloor pipes.
After the collapse of the Roman Empire, overwhelmingly across Europe, heating reverted to more primitive fireplaces for almost a thousand years.
In the early medieval Alpine upland, a simpler central heating system where heat travelled through underfloor channels from the furnace room replaced the Roman hypocaust at some places. In Reichenau Abbey a network of interconnected underfloor channels heated the 300 m2 large assembly room of the monks during the winter months. The degree of efficiency of the system has been calculated at 90 %.
In the 13th century, the Cistercian monks revived central heating in Christian Europe using river diversions combined with indoor wood - fired furnaces. The well - preserved Royal Monastery of Our Lady of the Wheel (founded 1202) on the Ebro River in the Aragon region of Spain provides an excellent example of such an application.
The three main methods of central heating were developed in the late 18th to mid-19th centuries.
William Strutt designed a new mill building in Derby with a central hot air furnace in 1793, although the idea had been already proposed by John Evelyn almost a hundred years earlier. Strutt 's design consisted of a large stove that heated air brought from the outside by a large underground passage. The air was ventilated through the building by large central ducts.
In 1807, he collaborated with another eminent engineer, Charles Sylvester, on the construction of a new building to house Derby 's Royal Infirmary. Sylvester was instrumental in applying Strutt 's novel heating system for the new hospital. He published his ideas in The Philosophy of Domestic Economy; as exemplified in the mode of Warming, Ventilating, Washing, Drying, & Cooking,... in the Derbyshire General Infirmary in 1819. Sylvester documented the new ways of heating hospitals that were included in the design, and the healthier features such as self - cleaning and air - refreshing toilets. The infirmary 's novel heating system allowed the patients to breathe fresh heated air whilst old air was channeled up to a glass and iron dome at the centre.
Their designs proved very influential. They were widely copied in the new mills of the Midlands and were constantly improved, reaching maturity with the work of de Chabannes on the ventilation of the House of Commons in the 1810s. This system remained the standard for heating small buildings for the rest of the century.
The English writer Hugh Plat proposed a steam - based central heating system for a greenhouse in 1594, although this was an isolated occurrence and was not followed up until the 18th century. Colonel Coke devised a system of pipes that would carry steam around the house from a central boiler, but it was James Watt the Scottish inventor who was the first to build a working system in his house.
A central boiler supplied high - pressure steam that then distributed the heat within the building through a system of pipes embedded in the columns. He implemented the system on a much larger scale at a textile factory in Manchester. Robertson Buchanan wrote the definitive description of these installations in his treatises published in 1807 and 1815. Thomas Tredgold 's work Principles of Warming and Ventilating Public Buildings, delineated the method of the application of hot steam heating to smaller, non-industrial buildings. This method had superseded the hot air systems by the late 19th century.
Early hot water systems were used in Russia for central heating of the Summer Palace (1710 -- 1714) of Peter the Great in Saint Petersburg. Slightly later, in 1716, came the first use of water in Sweden to distribute heating in buildings. Mårten Triewald, a Swedish engineer, used this method for a greenhouse at Newcastle upon Tyne. Jean Simon Bonnemain (1743 -- 1830), a French architect, introduced the technique to industry on a cooperative, at Château du Pêcq, near Paris.
However, these scattered attempts were isolated and mainly confined in their application to greenhouses. Tredgold originally dismissed its use as impractical, but changed his mind in 1836, when the technology went into a phase of rapid development.
Early systems had used low pressure water systems, which required very large pipes. One of the first modern hot water central heating systems to remedy this deficiency were installed by Angier March Perkins in London in the 1830s. At that time central heating was coming into fashion in Britain, with steam or hot air systems generally being used.
Perkins ' 1832 apparatus distributed water at 200 degrees Celsius (392 ° F) through small diameter pipes at high pressure. A crucial invention to make the system viable was the thread screwed joint, that allowed the joint between the pipes to bear a similar pressure to the pipe itself. He also separated the boiler from the heat source to reduce the risk of explosion. The first unit was installed in the home of Governor of the Bank of England John Horsley Palmer so that he could grow grapes in England 's cold climate.
His systems were installed in factories and churches across the country, many of them remaining in usable condition for over 150 years. His system was also adapted for use by bakers in the heating of their ovens and in the making of paper from wood pulp.
Franz San Galli, a Prussian - born Russian businessman living in St. Petersburg, invented the radiator between 1855 and 1857, which was a major step in the final shaping of modern central heating. The Victorian cast iron radiator became widespread by the end of the 19th century as companies, such as the American Radiator Company, expanded the market for low cost radiators in the US and Europe.
The energy source selected for a central heating system varies by region. The primary energy source is selected on the basis of cost, convenience, efficiency and reliability. The energy cost of heating is one of the main costs of operating a building in a cold climate. Some central heating plants can switch fuels for reasons of economy and convenience; for example, a home owner may install a wood - fired furnace with electrical backup for occasional unattended operation.
Solid fuels such as wood, peat or coal can be stockpiled at the point of use, but are inconvenient to handle and difficult to automatically control. Wood fuel is still used where the supply is plentiful and the occupants of the building do n't mind the work involved in hauling in fuel, removing ashes, and tending the fire. Pellet fuel systems can automatically stoke the fire, but still need manual removal of ash. Coal was once an important residential heating fuel but today is rarely found.
Liquid fuels are petroleum products such as heating oil and kerosene. These are still widely applied where other heat sources are unavailable. Fuel oil can be automatically fired in a central heating system and requires no ash removal and little maintenance of the combustion system. However, the variable price of oil on world markets leads to erratic and high prices compared to some other energy sources. Institutional heating systems (office buildings or schools, for example) can use low - grade, inexpensive bunker fuel to run their heating plants, but capital cost is high compared to more easily managed liquid fuels.
Natural gas is a widespread heating fuel in North America and northern Europe. Gas burners are automatically controlled and require no ash removal and little maintenance. However, not all areas have access to a natural gas distribution system. Liquified petroleum gas or propane can be stored at the point of use and periodically replenished by a truck - mounted mobile tank.
Some areas have low cost electric power, making electric heating economically practical. Electric heating can either be purely resistance - type heating or make use of a heat pump system to take advantage of low - grade heat in the air or ground.
A district heating system uses centrally located boilers or water heaters and circulates heat energy to individual customers by circulating hot water or steam. This has the advantage of a central highly efficient energy converter than can use the best available pollution controls, and that is professionally operated. The district heating system can use heat sources impractical to deploy to individual homes, such as heavy oil, wood byproducts, or (hypothetically) nuclear fission. The distribution network is more costly to build than for gas or electric heating, and so is only found in densely populated areas or compact communities.
Not all central heating systems require purchased energy. A few buildings are served by local geothermal heat, using hot water or steam from a local well to provide building heat. Such areas are uncommon. A passive solar system requires no purchased fuel but needs to be carefully designed for the site.
Heater outputs are measured in kilowatts or BTU per hour. For placement in a house, the heater, and the level of output required for the house, needs to be calculated. This calculation is achieved by recording a variety of factors - namely, what is above and below the room you wish to heat, how many windows there are, the type of external walls in the property and a variety of other factors that will determine the level of heat output that is required to adequately heat the space. This calculation is called a heat loss calculation and can be done with a BTU Calculator. Depending on the outcome of this calculation, the heater can be exactly matched to the house.
Circulating hot water can be used for central heating. Sometimes these systems are called hydronic heating systems.
Common components of a central heating system using water - circulation include:
The circulating water systems use a closed loop; the same water is heated and then reheated. A sealed system provides a form of central heating in which the water used for heating circulates independently of the building 's normal water supply.
An expansion tank contains compressed gas, separated from the sealed - system water by a diaphragm. This allows for normal variations of pressure in the system. A safety valve allows water to escape from the system when pressure becomes too high, and a valve can open to replenish water from the normal water supply if the pressure drops too low. Sealed systems offer an alternative to open - vent systems, in which steam can escape from the system, and gets replaced from the building 's water supply via a feed and central storage system.
Heating systems in the United Kingdom and in other parts of Europe commonly combine the needs of space heating with domestic hot - water heating. These systems occur less commonly in the USA. In this case, the heated water in a sealed system flows through a heat exchanger in a hot - water tank or hot - water cylinder where it heats water from the regular potable water supply for use at hot - water taps or appliances such as washing machines or dishwashers.
Hydronic radiant floor heating systems use a boiler or district heating to heat water and a pump to circulate the hot water in plastic pipes installed in a concrete slab. The pipes, embedded in the floor, carry heated water that conducts warmth to the surface of the floor, where it broadcasts heat energy to the room above. Hydronic heating systems are also used with antifreeze solutions in ice and snow melt systems for walkways, parking lots and streets. They are more commonly used in commercial and whole house radiant floor heat projects, whereas electric radiant heat systems are more commonly used in smaller "spot warming '' applications.
A steam heating system takes advantage of the high latent heat which is given off when steam condenses to liquid water. In a steam heating system, each room is equipped with a radiator which is connected to a source of low - pressure steam (a boiler). Steam entering the radiator condenses and gives up its latent heat, returning to liquid water. The radiator in turn heats the air of the room, and provides some direct radiant heat. The condensate water returns to the boiler either by gravity or with the assistance of a pump. Some systems use only a single pipe for combined steam and condensate return. Since trapped air prevents proper circulation, such systems have vent valves to allow air to be purged. In domestic and small commercial buildings, the steam is generated at relatively low pressure, less than 15 psig (200 kPa).
Steam heating systems are rarely installed in new single - family residential construction owing to the cost of the piping installation. Pipes must be carefully sloped to prevent trapped condensate blockage. Compared to other methods of heating, it is more difficult to control the output of a steam system. However, steam can be sent, for example, between buildings on a campus to allow use of an efficient central boiler and low cost fuel. Tall buildings take advantage of the low density of steam to avoid the excessive pressure required to circulate hot water from a basement - mounted boiler. In industrial systems, process steam used for power generation or other purposes can also be tapped for space heating. Steam for heating systems may also be obtained from heat recovery boilers using otherwise wasted heat from industrial processes.
Electric heating or resistance heating converts electricity directly to heat. Electric heat is often more expensive than heat produced by combustion appliances like natural gas, propane, and oil. Electric resistance heat can be provided by baseboard heaters, space heaters, radiant heaters, furnaces, wall heaters, or thermal storage systems.
Electric heaters are usually part of a fan coil which is part of a central air conditioner. They circulate heat by blowing air across the heating element which is supplied to the furnace through return air ducts. Blowers in electric furnaces move air over one to five resistance coils or elements which are usually rated at five kilowatts. The heating elements activate one at a time to avoid overloading the electrical system. Overheating is prevented by a safety switch called a limit controller or limit switch. This limit controller may shut the furnace off if the blower fails or if something is blocking the air flow. The heated air is then sent back through the home through supply ducts.
In larger commercial applications, central heating is provided through an air handler which incorporates similar components as a furnace but on a larger scale.
A data furnace uses computers to convert electricity into heat while simultaneously processing data.
In mild climates an air source heat pump can be used to air condition the building during hot weather, and to warm the building using heat extracted from outdoor air in cold weather. Air - source heat pumps are generally uneconomic for outdoor temperatures much below freezing. In colder climates, geothermal heat pumps can be used to extract heat from the ground. For economy, these systems are designed for average low winter temperatures and use supplemental heating for extreme low temperature conditions. The advantage of the heat pump is that it reduces the purchased energy required for building heating; often geothermal source systems also supply domestic hot water. Even in places where fossil fuels provide most electricity, a geothermal system may offset greenhouse gas production since most of the heat is supplied from the surrounding environment, with only 15 -- 30 % as electrical consumption.
From an energy - efficiency standpoint considerable heat gets lost or goes to waste if only a single room needs heating, since central heating has distribution losses and (in the case of forced - air systems particularly) may heat some unoccupied rooms without need. In such buildings which require isolated heating, one may wish to consider non-central systems such as individual room heaters, fireplaces or other devices. Alternatively, architects can design new buildings which can virtually eliminate the need for heating, such as those built to the Passive House standard.
However, if a building does need full heating, combustion central heating may offer a more environmentally friendly solution than electric resistance heating. This applies when electricity originates from a fossil fuel power station, with up to 60 % of the energy in the fuel lost (unless utilized for district heating) and about 6 % in transmission losses. In Sweden proposals exist to phase out direct electric heating for this reason (see oil phase - out in Sweden). Nuclear, wind, solar and hydroelectric sources reduce this factor.
In contrast, hot - water central heating systems can use water heated in or close to the building using high - efficiency condensing boilers, biofuels, or district heating. Wet underfloor heating has proven ideal. This offers the option of relatively easy conversion in the future to use developing technologies such as heat pumps and solar combisystems, thereby also providing future - proofing.
Typical efficiencies for central heating (measured at the customer 's purchase of energy) are: 65 -- 97 % for gas fired heating; 80 - 89 % for oil - fired, and 45 - 60 % for coal - fired heating.
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who is the all-time leading scorer in the nba history | List of National Basketball Association career scoring leaders - wikipedia
This article provides two lists:
The following is a list of National Basketball Association players by total career regular season points scored.
This is a progressive list of scoring leaders showing how the record increased through the years.
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when did latvia became part of the soviet union | History of Latvia - wikipedia
The History of Latvia began around 9000 BC with the end of the last glacial period in northern Europe. Ancient Baltic peoples arrived in the area during the second millennium BC, and four distinct tribal realms in Latvia 's territory were identifiable towards the end of the first millennium AD. Latvia 's principal river Daugava, was at the head of an important trade route from the Baltic region through Russia into southern Europe and the Middle East that was used by the Vikings and later Nordic and German traders.
In the early medieval period, the region 's peoples resisted Christianisation and became subject to attack in the Northern Crusades. Latvia 's capital city Riga, founded in 1201 by Germans at the mouth of the Daugava, became a strategic base in a papally - sanctioned conquest of the area by the Livonian Brothers of the Sword. It was to be the first major city of the southern Baltic and, after 1282, a principal trading centre in the Hanseatic League.
By the 16th century, Baltic German dominance in Terra Mariana was increasingly challenged by other powers. Due to Latvia 's strategic location and prosperous trading city of Riga, its territories were a frequent focal point for conflict and conquest between at least four major powers: the State of the Teutonic Order, the Polish -- Lithuanian Commonwealth, Sweden and Russian Empire. The last period of external hegemony began in 1710, when control over Riga and parts of modern - day Latvia switched from Sweden to Russia during the Great Northern War. Under Russian control, Latvia was in the vanguard of industrialisation and the abolition of serfdom, so that by the end of the 19th century, it had become one of the most developed parts of the Russian Empire. The increasing social problems and rising discontent that this brought meant that Riga also played a leading role in the 1905 Russian Revolution.
The First Latvian National Awakening began in the 1850s and continued to bear fruit after World War I when, after two years of struggle in the Latvian War of Independence, Latvia finally won sovereign independence, as recognised by Soviet Russia in 1920 and by the international community in 1921. The Constitution of Latvia was adopted in 1922. Political instability and effects of the Great Depression led to the May 15, 1934 coup d'état by Prime Minister Kārlis Ulmanis. Latvia 's independence was interrupted in June -- July 1940, when the country was occupied and incorporated into the Soviet Union. In 1941 it was invaded and occupied by Nazi Germany, then reconquered by the Soviets in 1944 -- 45.
From the mid-1940s Latvian Soviet Socialist Republic was subject to Soviet economic control and saw considerable Russification of its peoples. However, Latvian culture and infrastructures survived and, during the period of Soviet liberalisation under Mikhail Gorbachev, Latvia once again took a path towards independence, eventually succeeding in August 1991 to be recognised by Russia the following month. Since then, under restored independence, Latvia has become a member of the United Nations, entered NATO and joined the European Union.
Latvia 's economy suffered greatly during the Great Recession which caused the 2008 Latvian financial crisis. Worsening economic conditions and better job opportunities in Western Europe have caused a massive Latvian emigration.
The Ice Age in Latvia ended 14,000 -- 12,000 years ago. The first human settlers arrived here during the Paleolithic Age 11,000 -- 12,000 years ago. They were hunters, who following the reindeer herds camped along the rivers and shore of the Baltic Ice Lake. As geology of the Baltic Sea indicates, the coastline then reached further inland. The earliest tools found near Salaspils date to the late Paleolithic age, circa 12,000 years ago, and belong to the Swiderian culture.
During the Mesolithic Age (9000 -- 5400 BC) permanent settlements of hunter - gatherers were established. They hunted and fished, establishing camps near rivers and lakes; 25 settlements have been found near Lake Lubāns. These people from the Kunda culture made weapons and tools from flint, antler, bone and wood.
The early Neolithic (5400 -- 1800 BC) was marked by beginnings of pottery - making, animal husbandry and agriculture. A local Narva culture developed in the region during the Middle Neolithic (4100 -- 2900 BC). Inhabitants of this age were Finno - Ugric peoples, forefathers of Livonians who are closely related to Estonians and Finns and belonged to Pit -- Comb Ware culture.
At the beginning of the Late Neolithic (2900 -- 1800 BC), arrived people belonging to the Corded Ware culture. They were Balts, forefathers of Latvians, who have inhabited most of Latvian territory since the third millennium BCE. Baltic languages are ones of the oldest in Europe, retaining many connections to the Proto - Indo - European language.
With introduction of iron tools during the early Iron Age (500 BC -- 1st cent. BC) agriculture was greatly improved and emerged as the dominant economic activity. Bronze, which was traded from foreigners because Latvia has no copper or tin, was used for making a wide variety of decorative ornaments.
Starting from the Middle Iron Age (400 -- 800 AD) the local inhabitants began to form distinct ethnic and regional identities. Baltic tribesmen eventually became Curonians, Semigallians, Latgalians and Selonians, while Finno - Ugric people became Livonians, Estonians and Vends; local chiefdoms emerged.
At the beginning of current era, the territory known today as Latvia became famous as a trading crossroads. The renowned trade route from the Varangians to the Greeks mentioned in ancient chronicles stretched from Scandinavia through Latvian territory via Daugava to the ancient Kievan Rus ' and Byzantine Empire. The ancient Balts actively participated in this trading network. Across the Europe Latvia 's coast was known as a place for obtaining amber and Latvia sometimes is still called Dzintarzeme (Amberland). Up to and into the Middle Ages, amber was more valuable than gold in many places. Latvian amber was known in places as far away as Ancient Greece and the Roman Empire, and the Amber Road was intensively used for the transfer of amber to the south of Europe.
During the Vendel Period near the town of Grobiņa a Scandianvian settlement was established, most likely, by people from Gotland. This colony which numbered a few hundred people existed sometime from 650 - 850 AD. Multiple chronicles mention that Curonians paid a tribute to Swedish kings.
During the Late Iron Age (800 - 1200 AD) the three - field system was introduced, rye cultivation began, quality of local craftsmanship improved with introduction of potter 's wheel and better metal working techniques. Arab, Western European and Anglo - Saxon coins dating from this era have been found. A network of wooden hill - forts was built, which provided control and security over the land.
In the 10th century, the various ancient Baltic tribal chiefdoms started forming early realms. Regional tribal cultures developed in the territory of modern - day Latvia and northern Lithuania, including the Curonians, Latgalians, Selonians, Semigallians (Latvian: kurši, latgaļi, sēļi, zemgaļi) and Livonians, who united under their local chiefs.
The largest tribe was the Latgalians who also were the most advanced in their socio - political development. The main Latgalian principality, Jersika, was ruled by Greek Orthodox princes from the Latgalian - Polotsk branch of the Rurik dynasty. The last ruler of Jersika, mentioned in the Chronicle of Henry of Livonia (a document that describes events of the late 12th and early 13th centuries) was King Visvaldis (Vissewalde, rex de Gercike). When he divided his realm in 1211, part of the country was called "Lettia '' (terra, quae Lettia dicitur), probably the first time this name is mentioned in written sources.
In contrast, the Couronians, whose territories extended into today 's Lithuania and Curonian Spit, maintained a lifestyle of sea invasions that included looting and pillaging. On the west coast of the Baltic Sea they became known as the "Baltic Vikings. ''
Selonians and Semgallians, closely related to Aukštaitians and Samogitians, were known as prosperous farmers and resisted Germans the longest under such chiefs as Viestards. Livonians lived along the shores of the Gulf of Riga and were fishers and traders, and they gave the first German name to this territory - Livland.
Before the German invasions started in late 12th century, Latvia was inhabited by about 135,000 Baltic people and 20,000 Livonians.
By the end of the 12th century Latvia was increasingly often visited by traders from Western Europe who set out on trading journeys along Latvia 's longest river, the Daugava, to Kievan Rus '. Among them were German traders who came with Christian preachers who attempted to convert the pagan Baltic and Finno - Ugric tribes to the Christian faith.
In early 1180s Saint Meinhard began his mission among Daugava Livonians. They did not willingly convert to the new beliefs and practices, they particularly opposed the ritual of baptism. News of this reached Pope Celestine III in Rome, and it was decided in 1195 that Livonian Crusade would be undertaken to convert pagans by force. Meinhard was followed by Berthold of Hanover, who was killed in 1198 near the present - day Riga by Livonians.
The real founder of the German power in Latvia was Berthold 's successor, Bishop Albert of Riga who spent almost 30 years conquering local rulers. Much of this period is described in the Livonian Chronicle of Henry. Bishop Albert of Riga founded Riga in 1201, and gradually it became the largest city in the southern part of the Baltic Sea.
A state known as Terra Mariana, later Livonian Confederation, was established in 1207. It consisted of various territories that belonged to the Church and Order in what is now Latvia and Estonia and was under the direct authority of the Pope of Rome. In 1228 the Livonian Confederation was established.
The Order of the Livonian Brothers of the Sword was founded in 1202 to subjugate the local population. The Livonians were conquered by 1207 and most of the Latgalians by 1214. When Brothers of the Sword were decimated at the Battle of Saule in 1236, they asked for incorporation into the Teutonic Order as the Livonian Order. In 1260, the Battle of Durbe destroyed Teuton hopes for a wide land bridge between their territories in Prussia and Courland.
By the end of the 13th century, the Curonians and Semigallians were subjugated (in 1290 the majority of Semigallians left German - conquered areas and moved to Lithuania), and the development of the separate tribal realms of the ancient Latvians came to an end as Germans introduced direct rule over subjected peoples.
In 1282, Riga (and later Cēsis, Limbaži, Koknese and Valmiera) were included in the Northern German Trading Organisation, better known as the Hanseatic League (Hansa). From this time, Riga became an important point in west - east trading, and it formed closer cultural contacts with Western Europe.
Between 1297 and 1330 the Livonian Civil War raged, which started as a conflict between the Bishop of Riga and the Livonian Order.
Native people initially retained much of their personal freedoms as the number of Germans was too small to implement a total control beyond the requirements to follow Christian rites, pay the required taxes and participate as soldier in wars. In case of Curonian Kings the former tribal nobility retained a privileged status until the proclamation of independent Latvia. During the 14th century peasants had to pay 10 % to the Church and work 4 days of socage per year.
In the 15th -- 16th centuries, the hereditary landed class of Baltic nobility gradually evolved from the German vassals of the Order and bishops. In time, their descendants came to own vast estates over which they exercised absolute rights. At the end of the Middle Ages this Baltic German minority had established themselves as the governing elite, partly as an urban trading population in the cities, and partly as rural landowners, via a vast manorial network of estates in Latvia. The titled landowners wielded economic and political power; they had a duty to care for the peasants dependent on them, however in practice the latter were forced into serfdom.
By 16th century sockage had increased to 4 -- 6 days per week and various taxes to 25 %. Peasants increasingly tried to escape to freedom, either by moving to Riga (they could gain freedom if they lived there for one year and one day) or another manor. In 1494 a law was passed which forbade peasants to leave their land, virtually enslaving them.
The Reformation reached Livonia in 1521 with Luther 's follower Andreas Knöpken. During the Protestant riot of 1524 Catholic churches were attacked and in 1525 freedom of religion was allowed. First Latvian parishes were established and services held in Latvian. Protestants gained support in the cities, and by the middle of the 16th century the majority of the population had converted to Lutheranism.
Livonian Confederation ceased to exist during the long Livonian War of 1558 -- 82. The Livonian Order was dissolved by the Treaty of Vilnius in 1561. The following year, the Livonian Landtag decided to ask protection from King Sigismund II of Poland and Grand Duchy of Lithuania. With the end of government by the last Archbishop of Riga, William of Brandenburg, Riga became a Free Imperial City and the rest of the territory was divided into Polish - Lithuanian vassal states - Duchy of Courland and Semigallia (Polish vassal) and the Duchy of Livonia (Lithuanian vassal).
The seal of Livonian order
Conquest of the Baltic lands
Lands of the Teutonic Order in 1410
Cēsis Castle ruins
Bauska Castle ruins
Turaida Castle
Riga Dom construction began under Archbishop Albert
Hansa trading routes
Livonian lady by Albrecht Dürer, 1521
Livonian ladies by Albrecht Dürer, 1521
Livonia in 1534
Livonian war put an end to the Livonian Confederacy. Despite the very real threat of Muscovite rule over the whole Livonia, Western Christian countries managed to establish their control over this area for the next 150 -- 200 years.
In September 1557 the Livonian Confederation and the Polish -- Lithuanian union signed the Treaty of Pozvol, which created a mutual defensive and offensive alliance. Tsar Ivan the Terrible of Muscovy regarded this as a provocation, and in January 1558 he reacted with the invasion of Livonia that began the Livonian War of 1558 - 83. On 2 August 1560 the forces of Ivan the Terrible destroyed the last few hundred soldiers of the Livonian Order and the Archibishop of Riga at the Battle of Ērģeme.
In 1561 the weakened Livonian Order was dissolved by the Treaty of Vilnius. Very much following the earlier model of Prussian Homage its lands were secularised as the Duchy of Livonia (Lithuanian vassal) and the Duchy of Courland and Semigallia (Polish vassal) were created. The last Master of the Order Gotthard Kettler became the first Duke of Courland and converted to Lutheranism.
In 1560 Johannes IV von Münchhausen, the prince - bishop of Ösel - Wiek and Courland, sold his lands to king Frederick II of Denmark for 30,000 thalers. To avoid partition of his lands, King Frederick II gave these territories to his younger brother Magnus, Duke of Holstein on condition that he renounce his rights to succession in the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein. Magnus was recognised as sovereign by the Bishop of Ösel - Wiek and Courland and as the prospective ruler of his lands by the authorities of The Bishopric of Dorpat. The Bishopric of Reval with the Harrien - Wierland gentry took his side. Gotthard Kettler, the last Master of the Livonian Order, gave Magnus the portions of Livonia he had taken possession of, along with Archbishop Wilhelm von Brandenburg of the Archbishopric of Riga and his coadjutor Christoph von Mecklenburg.
On June 10, 1570 Duke Magnus of Holstein arrived in Moscow, where he was crowned King of Livonia. Magnus took an oath of allegiance to Ivan the Terrible as his overlord and received from him the corresponding charter for the vassal kingdom of Livonia in what Ivan termed his patrimony. The armies of Ivan the Terrible were initially successful, taking Polotsk in 1563 and Pärnu in 1575 and overrunning much of Grand Duchy of Lithuania up to Vilnius.
In the next phase of the conflict, in 1577 Ivan IV took opportunity of the Polish - Lithuanian Commonwealth 's internal strife (called the war against Gdańsk in Polish historiography), and during the reign of Stefan Batory invaded Livonia, quickly taking almost the entire territory, with the exception of Riga and Revel.
In 1578 Magnus of Livonia recognized the sovereignty of Polish -- Lithuanian Commonwealth (not ratified by the Sejm of Poland - Lithuania, or recognized by Denmark). In 1578 Magnus retired to The Bishopric of Courland where he lived in Piltene Castle and accepted Polish pension. After he died in 1583, Poland annexed his territories to the Duchy of Courland and Semigallia and Frederick II decided to sell his rights of inheritance. Except for the island of Œsel, Denmark was out of the Baltic by 1585.
German publication about the horrors of Livonian war
Gotthard Kettler
Livonia, as shown in the map of 1573 of Joann Portantius
Jan Hieronimowicz Chodkiewicz became the first Governor of the Duchy (1566 -- 1578) with the seat in Sigulda Castle. It was a province of Grand Duchy of Lithuania until 1569. After the Union of Lublin in 1569, it became a joint domain of the Polish Crown and the Grand Duchy. Muscovy recognized Polish -- Lithuanian control of Ducatus Ultradunensis in 1582.
In 1598 Duchy of Livonia was divided onto:
The larger part of the Duchy was conquered by Swedish Kingdom during the Polish -- Swedish War (1626 -- 29), and was recognized as Swedish territory in the Truce of Altmark. The Commonwealth retained southeastern parts of the Wenden Voivodeship, renamed to Inflanty Voivodeship with the capital in Daugavpils (Dyneburg). Catholicism became the dominant religion in this territory, known as Inflanty or Latgale, as a result of Counter-Reformation. During the first Partition of Poland in 1772, when it was annexed by Catherine the Great 's Russian Empire and title "Grand Duke of Livonia '' was added to the grand title of Russian Emperors.
During the Polish -- Swedish War (1600 -- 1629) Riga and the largest part of Duchy of Livonia came under Swedish rule in 1621. During the Swedish rule this region was known as the "Swedish Bread Basket '' because it supplied the larger part of the Swedish Kingdom with wheat.
Riga was the second largest city in the Swedish Empire at the time. Together with other Baltic Sea dominions, Livonia served to secure the Swedish Dominium maris baltici. In contrast to Swedish Estonia, which had submitted to Swedish rule voluntarily in 1561 and where traditional local laws remained largely untouched, the uniformity policy was applied in Swedish Livonia under Karl XI of Sweden: serfdom was abolished in the estates owned by the Swedish crown, peasants were offered education and military, administrative or ecclesiastical careers, and nobles had to transfer domains to the king in the Great Reduction. These reforms were subsequently reversed by Peter I of Russia when he conquered Livonia.
In 1632 the Swedish king Gustavus Adolphus founded Dorpat University which became the intellectual focus for population of Livonia. The translation of the whole Bible into Latvian in 1685 by Johann Ernst Glück was subsidized by the Swedish government. Schools for Latvian speaking peasantry were set up in the country parishes. In Latvian history this period is generally praised as the "good Swedish times ''.
After Gotthard Kettler became the first duke, other members of the Order became the nobility, with their fiefdoms becoming their estates. Kettler received nearly one - third of the land in the new duchy. Mitau (Jelgava) was designated as the capital and a Landtag was to meet there twice a year.
When Gotthard Kettler died in 1587, his sons Friedrich and Wilhelm became the dukes of Courland. They divided the Duchy into two parts in 1596. Friedrich controlled the eastern part, Semigalia (Zemgale), with his residence in Mitau (Jelgava). Wilhelm owned the western part, Courland (Kurzeme), with his residence in Goldingen (Kuldīga). Wilhelm regained the Grobiņa district when he married the daughter of the Duke of Prussia. Here he developed metalworking, shipyards, and the new ships delivered the goods of Courland to other countries. Wilhelm 's conflict with local nobles ended with his removal from the duke 's seat in 1616 and Friedrich became the only duke of Courland after 1616.
Under the next duke, Jacob Kettler, the Duchy reached the peak of its prosperity. During his travels in Western Europe, Jacob became the eager proponent of mercantilist ideas. Metalworking and ship building became much more developed, and powder mills began producing gunpowder. Trading relations developed not only with nearby countries, but also with Britain, France, the Netherlands and Portugal. Jacob established the merchant fleet of the Duchy of Courland, with its main harbours in Windau and Libau. In Windau 120 ships were built, of which over 40 were warships. The duchy owned large fleet and established two colonies -- St. Andrews Island in the estuary of Gambia River (in Africa) and Tobago Island (in the Caribbean Sea). Courland related place names from this period still survive today in these places.
The last duke, Peter von Biron who ruled under heavy Russian influence founded Academia Petrina in 1775. In April 1786 he purchased the Duchy of Sagan from the Bohemian Lobkovic family, from then additionally using the title of Duke of Żagań. In 1795, Russia determined the further fate of Courland when with its allies it began the third division of Poland. Given a "nice recommendation '' by Russia, Duke gave up his rights in return of large payment, signing of the final document on 28 March 1795.
Enlightenment ideas influenced local Baltic Germans, two of whom played great role in the creation of Latvian nation. Gotthard Friedrich Stender wrote the first Latvian - German and German - Latvian dictionaries. He also wrote the first encyclopedia "The book of high wisdom of the world and nature '' (1774) and the first illustrated Latvian alphabet book (1787).
Garlieb Merkel in 1796 published his book "The Latvians '' in which exposed the horrible conditions of serfdom under which Latvians were forced to live because of cruelty of their German masters.
Riga in 1612
Siege of Riga in 1656
Postal stamp in memory of Duke Jacob
Livonia and Courland in 1705
Rundāle Palace, summer residence of Duke von Biron
Jelgava Palace, the main residence of Duke von Biron
In 1700 the Great Northern War between Sweden and Russia started largely because Peter the Great wanted to secure and enlarge Russian access to the Baltic ports. In 1710 Russians conquered Riga and Estonia and Livonia capitulated. Losses from the military actions were multiplied by the Great Northern War plague outbreak which killed up to 75 % of people in some areas.
In 1713 Peter established the Riga Governorate, and after various administrative and territorial reforms, Governorate of Livonia was finally established in 1796. Latvians call it Vidzeme Governorate (Vidzemes guberņa). Sweden officially gave up its claims to Swedish Livonia with the 1721 Treaty of Nystad. The Treaty enshrined the existing privileges and freedoms of the German Baltic nobility. They were allowed to maintain their financial system, existing customs border, self - governing provincial Landtags and city councils, Lutheran religion and German language. This special position in the Russian Empire was reconfirmed by all Russian Emperors from Peter the Great (reigned 1682 - 1725) to Alexander II (reigned 1855 - 1881). Only the 1889 judicial reform imposed Russian laws and a program of Russification enforced school education in Russian.
After the First Partition of Poland in 1772 Russia gained Inflanty Voivodeship which was first included in the Mogilev Governorate and after 1802 in Vitebsk Governorate. This led to increased cultural and linguistic separation of Latgalians from the rest of ethnic Latvians. A large Daugavpils fortress was built here.
After the Third Partition of Poland and financial settlement with the last Duke of Courland and Semigallia in 1795 the Courland Governorate was created in which the Germans retained their privileges and autonomy for another century. Russian empire now possessed all the territories inhabited by Latvians.
In 1812 Napoleon 's troops invaded Russia and the Prussian units under the leadership of the field marshal Yorck occupied Courland and approached Riga and the Battle of Mesoten was fought. Napoleon proclaimed restoration of Duchy of Courland and Semigallia under French and Polish protectorate. The Russian governor - general of Riga Ivan Essen was expecting attack, and set the wooden houses of Riga suburbs on fire to deflect the invaders leaving thousands of city residents homeless. However York did not attack Riga and in December the Napoleon 's army retreated.
After the October 1802 Kauguri rebellion, czarist authorities reacted with the law of February 20, 1804 which was aimed at improving peasant condition in Livonian Governorate. Peasants no longer were tied to the land - owner, but to the land, so they could be sold only together with the land. Peasants were divided in two classes - people of manors and plowmen. Plowmen were divided into farm - owners and free people. Farms from now on could be inherited within the family. Amount and length of socage now was regulated and limited. This law was opposed by the nobles, who in 1809 secured changes in the law which again gave them more power over peasants and socage.
In 1816 Governorate of Estonia proposed a law for emancipation of serfs which was based on the model of the Prussian reforms. Czarist authorities ordered Courland Landtag to come up with a similar proposal, which was accepted on August 25, 1817 and proclaimed in Jelgava on August 30, 1818 in presence of Czar Alexander I. Emancipation came into force in 1819 and continued until 1832 as only selected number of peasants was emancipated each year. Emancipation gave peasants personal freedom, but no land, which they had to lease from land - owners. Peasants were not completely free, as they still could not move to another governorate or city without land - lord 's permit.
After Emancipation in Estonia and Courland, the situation in Livonia was resolved by the law of March 26, 1819, which was very similar to the Emancipation law of Courland. It was proclaimed on early 1820 and was in force until 1832.
As Latgale was part of the Russian Vitebsk Governorate, serfdom here lasted until 1861, when the Emancipation reform of 1861 was proclaimed in the Russian Empire. Initially peasants kept their land, but had to continue performing socage and rent payments. This was ended by the new law of March 1, 1863.
After 1832 peasants were allowed freedom of settlement within the governorate, but only in 1848 Courland peasants were allowed to settle in towns and cities, many of which until then had mostly German and Jewish populations.
The provisional Livonian agrarian law of July 9, 1849 which came int force on November 20, 1850 maintained German nobility 's property rights, but allowed peasants to rent or buy the land. By 1856 only 23 % of farmers were paying land rent, while the rest were still performing socage. In 1860 this law became permanent and allowed increasing number of farmers to purchase their homes. A 1864 law permitted creation of credit unions, and this improved access to capital for farmers wanting to buy their homes from German land - lords. Just before the start of World War I about 99 % of houses in Courland were bought and 90 % in Livonia. This created a land - owning Latvian farmer class which increased in prosperity and sent its sons to schools of higher education.
In 1870 - 80 's many peasants who were unable or unwilling to purchase their land, used the opportunity to emigrate to Siberia, where land was given for free. By the start of World War I approximately 200,000 Latvian farmers had moved to farming colonies in Siberia.
While there are records of Latvian last names going as far back as 15th century, almost all of them were inhabitants of large cities and often adopted Germanic family names. Some peasants had family names in the 17th century, but majority had only first name until the emancipation. Most people were identified by the name of their house or manor. Emancipation created the need for identity papers and with this, for family names. Livonian peasants had to choose family names by 1826, in Courland majority names were selected in the campaign that lasted from October 1834 until July 1835. Peasants were prohibited from choosing family names of German nobility and majority chose names related to animals, plants and trees, especially popular were diminutive forms - Bērzs (birch), Bērziņš (small birch), Kalns (hill), Kalniņš (small hill).
Latvia was predominantly Lutheran and Catholic, but in 1729 Herrnhuter Brethren started their mission in Livonia, with center in Valmiera, their missionaries made significant headway despite the opposition of the German landlords who controlled the Lutheran clergy. The Imperial government proscribed the Moravians 1743 -- 1764. This was the first Christian movement where Latvians become involved voluntarily. Brethren operated independently from the hated Germans and their meeting houses were run by Latvians, giving them a chance to create their own communities. Brethren reached the peak of their popularity around 1820, a few years after serfdom was abolished in Livonia Governorate. 30 parishes had almost 100 meeting houses and 20,000 members.
The Imperial government sponsored the Russian Orthodox Church, as part of its program of russification, but Lutheranism remained the dominant religion, except Latgale where Catholicism was dominant. Other Protestant missions had some success including the Baptists, Methodists and Seventh Day Adventists.
In 1571 the first Jews were invited to settle in Piltene and a Courland Jewish community was formed. After incorporation into Russian Empire more Jews from the former Polish - Lithuanian Commonwealth settled here.
Latvian national awakening could start after the emancipation of serfs and growth in literacy and education rates. Educated Latvians no longer wanted to be Germanized.
In 1822 Latviešu avīzes the first weekly in Latvian began publishing. In 1832 weekly Tas Latviešu Ļaužu Draugs began publishing. The first Latvian writers who wrote in Latvian appeared - Ansis Liventāls (1803 -- 77), Jānis Ruģēns (1817 -- 76) and others. In 1839 institute for the elementary school teachers led by Jānis Cimze opened in Valmiera.
By the middle of 19th century, the First Latvian National Awakening began among ethnic Latvian intellectuals, a movement that partly reflected similar nationalist trends elsewhere in Europe. This revival was led by the "Young Latvians '' (in Latvian: jaunlatvieši) from the 1850s to the 1880s. Primarily a literary and cultural movement with significant political implications, the Young Latvians soon came into severe conflict with the Baltic Germans. During this time the notion of a united Latvian nation was born. Young Latvians also began to research Latvian folklore (See: Latvian dainas) and ancient beliefs.
In the 1880s and 1890s the russification policy was begun by Alexander III aimed at reducing German autonomy in the Baltic provinces. Introduction of the Russian language in administration, court and education was meant to reduce predominance of German language. At the same time these policies banned Latvian language from public sphere, especially schools, which was a heavy blow to the new Latvian culture.
With increasing poverty in many rural areas and growing urbanization and industrialization (especially of Riga), a loose but broad leftist movement called the "New Current '' arose in the late 1880s. It was led by the future National poet Rainis and his brother - in - law Pēteris Stučka, editors of the newspaper Dienas Lapa. This movement was soon influenced by Marxism and led to the creation of the Latvian Social Democratic Labour Party. While Rainis remained a social democrat until his death, Stučka become allied with Lenin, established the first Bolshevik state in Latvia and died in Moscow.
Latvia welcomed the 20th century with an explosion of popular discontent during the 1905 Revolution. It started with the shooting of demonstrators in Riga on January 13, progressed to mass strikes in October and armed uprising in December. The revolution was aimed not only against the czarist authorities, but against the hated German barons. As such, it involved not only left wing social democrats and industrial workers, but also more conservative peasants and Latvian intelligentsia.
Following the shooting of demonstrators in St. Petersburg on January 9, 1905 a wide - scale general strike began in Riga. On January 13 Russian army troops opened fire on demonstrators in Riga killing 73 and injuring 200 people.
During the summer of 1905 the main revolutionary events moved to the countryside. 470 new parish administrative bodies were elected in 94 % of the parishes in Latvia. The Congress of Parish Representatives was held in Riga in November. Mass meetings and demonstrations took place including violent attacks against Baltic German nobles, burning estate buildings and seizure of estate property, including weapons. In total 449 German manor houses were burned.
In the autumn of 1905 armed conflict between the German nobility and the Latvian peasants began in the rural areas of Vidzeme and Courland. In Courland, the peasants seized or surrounded several towns where they established revolutionary councils. In Vidzeme the fighters controlled the Rūjiena - Pärnu railway line. Altogether, a thousand armed clashes were registered in Latvia in 1905.
Martial law was declared in Courland in August 1905 and in Vidzeme in late November. Special punitive expeditions by Cossack cavalry units and Baltic Germans were dispatched in mid-December to suppress the movement. They executed over 2000 people without trial or investigation and burned 300 houses and public buildings. The executed often were local teachers or peasant activists who had shown disrespect to German nobles, not necessarily hardened revolutionaries. 427 people were court martialed and executed. 2652 people were exiled to Siberia, over 5000 went into exile to Western Europe or the USA. In 1906 the revolutionary movement gradually subsided but some local protests and actions of forest guerrillas continued until 1907. They executed some daring raids - freeing their imprisoned comrades from Riga police HQ on January 17, 1906, February 26, 1906 Helsinki bank robbery and the 1910 Siege of Sidney Street in London.
Among the exiles were activists from the left and right who in just 10 years would fight against each other over the future of Latvia, such as the future Prime Minister Kārlis Ulmanis, National poet Jānis Rainis and early Cheka leader Jēkabs Peterss.
Jānis Rainis, ca. 1900
Latvian workers against a Cossack, Freedom Monument
Monument to the victims of January 13, 1905
The burned Allaži manor house
On August 1, 1914 Germany declared war on Russia. Since Courland Governorate had a direct border with Germany it was immediately involved in warfare. On August 2 German warships SMS Augsburg and SMS Magdeburg shelled port city Liepāja, causing it light damage. On August 19 German navy tried to capture Užava Lighthouse but were repelled, after which German artillery destroyed it. In October British submarines HMS E1 and HMS E9 from the British submarine flotilla in the Baltic arrived in Liepāja. On November 17 German navy again shelled Liepāja and military installations of Karosta damaging some 100 buildings.
Many Latvians served in the Russian units stationed at German border and took part in Russian invasion of East Prussia. They participated in the early battles of First Battle of the Masurian Lakes, Second Battle of the Masurian Lakes and Battle of Augustow; total Latvian losses during these battles might have reached 25,000 dead.
By May 1915 the war reached most of Latvia. On April 30 Russian Commander - in - Chief ordered evacuation of all Jews from Courland within 24. hours. On May 2, 1915 German attack against Jelgava was repelled. On May 7 the Germans captured Liepāja and Kuldīga.
On June 29 the Russian Supreme Command ordered the whole population of Courland evacuated, and around 500,000 refugees fled to the east. Much of the crops and housing was destroyed by the army to prevent it from falling in the German hands. Some of refugees settled in Vidzeme but most continued their way to Russia where they had to settle in primitive conditions, suffering from the hunger and diseases. In August 1915 the Latvian Refugee Aid Central Committee was established in Petrograd, it was run by future politicians Vilis Olavs, Jānis Čakste and Arveds Bergs. Committee organized refugee housing, organized 54 schools, 25 hospitals and distributed aid. Many refugees returned to Latvia only after 1920, when a peace treaty was signed between Latvia and Soviet Russia. Many Latvians stayed in the new Bolshevik state, achieving high army and party offices, only to be purged and executed by Stalin during 1937 - 38.
On July 19, 1915 the Russian War Minister ordered the factories of Riga evacuated together with their workers. In the summer of 1915, 30,000 railway wagons loaded with machines and equipment from factories were taken away reducing the population of Riga by some 50 %. This action effectively destroyed Riga as a great industrial center until the later industrialization under the Soviet regime.
On August 1, Germans captured the capital of Courland, Jelgava. A week later Battle of the Gulf of Riga started and eventually was lost by Germany. By October 23, Germans captured Ilūkste and were within the striking distance of Daugavpils with its fortress.
After on July 17 and 18, 1915 Germans captured Dobele, Talsi, Tukums and Ventspils, a public proclamation by State Duma members, written by Kārlis Skalbe, called for the formation of volunteer Latvian Riflemen units. In August the formation of Latvian battalions started. From 1915 to 1917, the Riflemen fought in the Russian army against the Germans in defensive positions along the Daugava River, notably the Nāves sala (Island of Death) bridgehead position. In December 1916 and January 1917, they suffered heavy casualties in month - long Christmas Battles. Many of them were buried in the newly created Riga Brothers ' Cemetery.
After the great offensive of 1915, the front line stabilized along the Daugava river until the Russian army started to collapse in early 1917. In February 1917 Revolution broke out in Russia and in the summer the Russian army collapsed. The following German offensive was successful and on 3 September 1917 they entered Riga.
In November 1917, the Communist Bolsheviks took power in Russia. The Bolshevik government tried to end the war and in March 1918, the Treaty of Brest - Litovsk was signed which gave Courland and Livonian Governorate to the Germans, who quickly established occupational regime which lasted until November 11, 1918. During this time Germans tried to create the United Baltic Duchy in perpetual union with the Crown of Prussia.
A survey in 1920 established that 56, 7 % of parishes had war damages. Population had decreased from 2, 55 million to 1, 59 million. The number of ethnic Latvians has never again reached the 1914 levels. 87,700 buildings were destroyed. 27 % of the arable land laid in waste. Much of the industry was evacuated to Russia and lost forever. Ports were damaged by sunken ships, bridges blown up and railways damaged. 25,000 farms were destroyed, 70,000 horses, 170,000 cattle lost.
SMS Augsburg on August 4, 1914
Volunteer riflemen, 1915
Ilūkste before destruction in 1915
Riga Brother 's Cemetery
German troops in Liepāja, May 1915
German parade in Riga, 1917
German troops on Riga railway bridge
The course of World War I, which directly involved Latvians and Latvian territory, led to the idea of Latvian statehood. During the summer of 1915 German army conquered Kurzeme and Zemgale, which caused a virtual exodus of Latvians from these two provinces. Local politicians gained experience organizing refugee relief and Latvian refugee cultural life. Caught between the attacking Germans and incompetent Russians, Latvian riflemen (latviešu strēlnieki) bravely fought on the Russian side during this war and became increasingly radicalized after repeated setbacks under czarist generals. During the Russian Civil War a significant group (known as Red riflemen) fought for Bolsheviks. Meanwhile, German Empire and local Baltic Germans were planning to annex the ancient Livonian and Estonian lands to their Empire. During the chaotic period of Russian and German empire collapses, February Revolution and Bolshevik revolution, Soviet westward offensive and onset of the Russian Civil War there were various efforts to establish a state in Latvia. Not all of them were aimed at establishing an independent state or even a Latvian state.
After the February Revolution in Russian Empire majority of Latvians were not expecting more that a federated status in a Russian state. "Free Latvia in Free Russia '' was the slogan of the day. During March 12 -- 13, 1917 in Valmiera the Vidzeme Land Congress was held which created the Provisional Land Council of Vidzeme. Courland was occupied by Germans, who increasingly supported idea of creating a puppet Duchy of Courland and Semigallia in order to annex it to Germany. Latgalian inhabited counties of the Vitebsk Governorate were demanding unity with other Latvian provinces (unification of Latgalian Latvians and Baltic Latvians), which came only after the Bolshevik revolution.
On July 5, 1917 the Russian Provisional Government recognized the elected Land councils of Vidzeme and Kurzeme. Encouraged by the liberalism of the Provisional government, Latvians put forward proposals which envisioned a broad local autonomy. On August 12, 1917 Latvian organizations jointly asked the Provisional government for autonomy and self - determination. During this Congress from August 11 -- 12 (July 29 -- 30, Old Style) in Riga, the left wing Social Democrats, heavily influenced by the Bolsheviks, established Iskolat government.
After Riga was occupied by Germans on September 3, 1917 Iskolat retreated to Vidzeme, where it assumed executive powers. The so - called Iskolat Republic existed from November 21, 1917 until March 3, 1918. Under German attacks it evacuated to Cēsis, then Valka and was disbanded on March 1918 after the Brest - Litovsk treaty left Latvian lands (except Latgale) to Germany.
After the preliminary meeting on September 14, on September 23, 1917 in the German occupied Riga the Latvian Social Democratic party together with Latvian Farmers ' Union and some smaller republican and socialist parties created the Democratic bloc which petitioned Ober Ost for the restoration of elected Riga City Council, re-opening of schools and press freedoms. Democratic Bloc was not a formal organization, but a coalition of politicians, who shared similar political goals.
Latvian Social Democrats used their old contacts with the German Social Democrat Party, to directly lobby politicians in Berlin. On October 19, 1918 Democratic bloc representatives delivered a petition to the German Imperial chancellor Prince Maximilian of Baden, in which they asked for the removal of occupational forces, release of POW 's and recognition of independent Latvian state.
In October 1917 centrist politicians met in Petrograd and agreed to create a united Council of all Latvian parties, refugee support organizations and soldiers committees. On November 29, 1917 the Latvian Provisional National Council was established in Valka. On December 2, 1917 it proclaimed creation of Latvia 's autonomy in Latvian inhabited lands and proclaimed itself to be the only representative organ of Latvians. Council announced three main goals -- convening of a Constitutional Assembly, creation of political autonomy and uniting of all ethnic Latvian inhabited lands.
The National Council, which was led by Voldemārs Zāmuēls sent a delegation, led by the future Minister of Foreign Affairs Zigfrīds Anna Meierovics to Allied countries, to get their support for independent Latvia.
Provisional National Council existed in the same place and time as the Bolshevik controlled Iskolat -- the small city of Valka, which is situated on the border between ethnic Estonian and ethnic Latvian lands and for a couple of months was the virtual capital of Latvians. Iskolat moved to ban the Provisional Council in December, 1917.
On January 5, 1918, during the only meeting of democratically elected Constituent Assembly of Russia, which was abolished by Bolsheviks, Latvian deputy Jānis Goldmanis, the initiator in 1915 of creation of Latvian Riflemen units, read a declaration of separation of Latvia from Russia.
On its second meeting, which was held in Petrograd, the Latvian National Council on January 30, 1918 declared that Latvia should be an independent, democratic republic, uniting Latvian regions Kurzeme (which includes Zemgale), Vidzeme and Latgale.
On March 3, 1918 Soviet Russia signed treaty of Brest - Litovsk with German Empire, by which Russia gave up Kurzeme and Vidzeme (but not Latgale). National Council protested against the splitting of Latvian lands and annexation of Kurzeme by Germany.
On November 11, 1918 British Empire recognized Latvian National Council as de facto government, confirming a prior verbal communication of 23 October to Zigfrīds Anna Meierovics by the British Minister for Foreign Affairs, A.J. Balfour.
Despite these successes, National Council had a major problem, the Social Democrats and the Democratic Bloc refused to join it. This prevented creation of a truly national consensus for proclaiming Independence. This was overcome only on November 17, 1918, when the People 's Council (Tautas padome) was created.
On September 22, 1918 German Emperor Wilhelm II proclaimed Baltic provinces to be free and on November 5 Germans proclaimed United Baltic Duchy headed by the Duke Adolf Friedrich of Mecklenburg, however, this project (just like the similar Kingdom of Lithuania) collapsed together with the German Empire on November 9 and the Armistice of November 11.
On November 26, 1918 the new General Plenipotentiary of Germany August Winnig recognized the Latvian Provisional Government which was established by the People 's Council. On November 28 the Regency Council of the United Baltic Duchy disbanded itself.
After the German collapse on November 9, the National Council and Democratic bloc began unity talks. Social Democrats insisted that the new Latvia should be a socialistic state, which was not acceptable to other parties. They also refused to join the National Council, instead insisting on creating a new unity organization. The unity talks were led by Farmers ' Union leaders Kārlis Ulmanis and Miķelis Valters, while National Council leaders Voldemārs Zāmuēls, Arveds Bergs and Ādolfs Klīve were sidelined.
On November 17, 1918 competing Latvian factions finally united in the Latvia 's Peoples Council (Tautas padome), which on November 18, 1918 proclaimed the Independence of Republic of Latvia and created the Latvian Provisional Government.
A few days later Soviet Russia started Soviet westward offensive aimed at regaining its western provinces and the War of Independence began.
Social Democrats at this point decided to leave People 's Council and rejoined it only in April 1918.
The left wing of Latvian Social Democrats had become allied with Bolsheviks and during its conference of November 18 -- 19, 1918 proclaimed that Latvian commune is a part of Russian Soviet Federation.
On December 1, Soviet army from Pskov and Daugavpils began their attack. Much of the Soviet army in Latvia consisted of Red Latvian Riflemen, which made it easier to establish Soviet order. On December 17, 1918 the Provisional government of Workers and Peasants, led by the veteran left - wing politician Pēteris Stučka proclaimed the Soviet rule. On December 18 Lenin officially recognized the new Soviet Latvia.
Soviet offensive met little resistance coming just a few weeks after the collapse of German Empire and proclamation of independent Latvia, very soon Provisional Government and remaining German units had retreated all the way to Liepāja, but then the Red offensive stalled along the Venta river.
Red army entered Riga without a battle on January 3, 1919 and the Latvian Socialist Soviet Republic was officially proclaimed on January 13. Stučka established a radical communist regime of nationalizations, expropriations and executions of class enemies. Revolutionary tribunals were established, condemning to death German nobles, priests, wealthy traders as well as peasants, who refused to surrender their grain, in total some 1000 people were executed. Due to food supply disruptions 8590 people starved to death in Riga.
In March Germans and Provisional army units began their counteroffensive. On May 22, 1919 Riga was captured by German Freikorps, who started White terror against any suspected Soviet sympathizers. Soviet rule then was reduced to Latgale for a few months and the Republic was finally disestablished on January 13, 1920 after the defeat in the Battle of Daugavpils and liberation of Rēzekne.
Military conflicts within the territory of Latvia during 1918 -- 1920 is commonly known as the Latvian War of Independence. It involved conflicts between Germans, Baltic Germans, Latvians, Red Latvians, White Russians, Red Russians as well as Estonians and Poles. At one point authority of the Latvian Provisional Government covered only one ship in Liepāja port. The war can be divided in few stages: Soviet offensive, German - Latvian liberation of Kurzeme and Riga, Estonian - Latvian liberation of Vidzeme, Bermontian offensive, Latvian - Polish liberation of Latgale.
On December 1, 1918 Soviet Russia invaded Latvia and rapidly conquered almost all the territory of Latvia, with the exception of a small territory near Liepāja, Riga was captured by the Soviet Army on January 3, 1919. The Latvian Socialist Soviet Republic was proclaimed on 17 December 1918 with the political, economic, and military backing of the Bolshevik government of Soviet Russia.
On March 3, 1919 German and Latvian forces commenced a counterattack against the forces of Soviet Latvia. On 22 May 1919 Riga was recaptured by Freikorps and White Terror began. In June 1919 collisions started between the Baltische Landeswehr on one side and the Estonian 3rd division, including the 2nd Cēsis regiment of North Latvian brigade on the other. The 3rd division defeated the German forces in the Battle of Wenden on June 23. An armistice was signed at Strazdumuiža, under the terms of which the Germans had to leave Latvia.
Instead of leaving the German forces were incorporated into the West Russian Volunteer Army. On October 5 it commenced an offensive on Riga taking the west bank of the Daugava River with front line splitting Riga in half. On November 11 the Latvian counteroffensive began and by the end of the month they were driven from Latvia. During battles in Riga, Latvian forces were supported by British naval artillery.
On January 3, 1920 the united Latvian and Polish forces launched an attack on the Soviet army in Latgale and after the Battle of Daugavpils liberated Daugavpils. By the end of January they reached the ethnographic border of Latvia and peace negotiations with Soviets soon began.
During the 1919 Paris Peace conference Latvia had unsuccessfully lobbied for international de jure recognition of its independence by the Allied countries. Allies still hoped for a quick end of the Bolshevik regime and establishment of a democratic Russian state which will grant Latvia large degree of autonomy. The internal situation also was unstable, as during 1919 three different governments (Latvians, Germans - White Russians, Soviets) were fighting for the control.
According to Latvian diplomats, during that time the USA and France were against recognizing Latvia, Italy and Japan supported it while the United Kingdom gave limited support and waited for the events to play out.
On August 11, 1920 according to the Latvian -- Soviet Peace Treaty the Soviet Russia relinquished authority over the Latvian nation and claims to Latvian territory as "Russia recognizes without objection the independence and sovereignty of the Latvian State and forever renounces all sovereign rights held by Russia in relation to the Latvian nation and land on the basis of the previous State legal regime as well as any international agreements, all of which lose their force and effect for all future time as herein provided. The Latvian nation and land shall have no obligations arising from their previous possession by Russia. ''
In 1920 Latvia, together with Lithuania and Estonia, tried to join the League of Nations but was denied the membership.
As the Soviet victory in the Russian Civil War became clear and after heavy lobbying by the Foreign Minister Zigfrīds Anna Meierovics, the Allied Supreme War Council, which included United Kingdom, France, Belgium, Italy and Japan, recognized Latvia 's independence on January 26, 1921. Recognition from many other countries followed soon. Latvia also became a member of the League of Nations on September 22, 1921. The USA recognized Latvia only in July 1922. Before 1940 Latvia was recognized by 42 countries.
Soviet offensive, 1918 - 1919
Local counteroffensives, 1919 - 1920
British Navy ships in Liepāja port, December 1918
After Latgale was finally liberated from the Soviets in January 1920, on April 17 -- 18, 1920 elections to the Constitutional Assembly of Latvia were held. While the population of Latvia had fallen by almost a million, from 2,552,000 to 1,596,000 in 1920 (in Riga from 520,000 to 225,000), they were represented by 50 lists of parties and candidates that competed for 150 seats. Close to 85 % eligible voters participated in elections and 16 parties were elected. Social Democrats won 57, Farmers ' Union 26, Latgalian Peasant Party won 17 seats. This voting pattern marked all the future parliaments - high number of parties representing small interest groups required formation of unstable coalition governments, while the largest single party, Social Democrats, held the post of Speaker of the Saeima, they avoided participating in governments. Between 1922 and 1934 Latvia had 13 governments led by 9 Prime Ministers.
On February 15, 1922 the Constitution of Latvia and in June the new Law on Elections were passed, opening the way to electing the parliament - Saeima.
During the Parliamentary era, four elections were held which elected 1st Saeima (1922 -- 25), 2nd Saeima (1925 -- 28), 3rd Saeima (1928 -- 31), 4th Saeima (1931 - 34). Three State Presidents were elected - Jānis Čakste (1922 -- 27) who died in office, Gustavs Zemgals (1927 -- 30) who refused to be re-elected and Alberts Kviesis (1930 -- 36) who accepted the May 15 coup d'état.
The Latvian - Soviet peace treaty had set the eastern border between Latvia and Soviet Russia. After 1944 parts of Abrene District were annexed by Russia as Pytalovsky District. Latvia gave up all legal claims to these lands in 2007.
During 1919 Estonia had provided military assistance to Latvia on a condition that some of its territorial claims in Vidzeme will be met. This was refused by Latvians and Estonia withdrew its support. Estonian claims centered on Valka district as well as territories in Ape, Veclaicene, Ipiķi and Lode. On March 22, 1920 Estonia and Latvia agreed to a settlement commission led by British colonel Stephen Tallents. Latvia retained Ainaži parish, and most of other contested lands, but lost most of Valka city (now Valga, Estonia). Issue of the ethnic Swedish inhabited Ruhnu island in the Gulf of Riga was left for both countries to decide. Latvia finally renounced all claims on Ruhnu island after signing military alliance with Estonia on November 1, 1923.
Latvia proposed to retain the southern border or former Courland governorate with Lithuania unchanged, but Lithuanians wanted to gain access to the sea, as at this time they did not control German lands of Klaipėda. In September 1919, during attack against the Soviets, Lithuanian army occupied much of Ilūkste Municipality and threatened to take Daugavpils as well. Between late August and early September, 1920 Latvian army pushed Lithuanians out. Lithuanians were weakened by Żeligowski 's Mutiny and did not escalate this confrontation. On September 25, 1920 Latvia and Lithuania agreed to seek international arbitration committee led by James Young Simpson to settle this dispute. On March 1921, Lithuania was given port town Palanga, village of Šventoji, parts of Rucava Municipality and railroad junction of Mažeikiai on Rīga - Jelgava - Liepāja railroad line, which meant that Latvia had to build a new railway line. Latvia received town of Aknīste and some smaller territories in Aknīste Municipality, Ukri parish and Bauska Municipality. Latvia gave up 283, 3 square km, while receiving 290 km. About 16 - 20 000 ethnic Latvians thus became Lithuanian citizens.
As a result of Polish -- Soviet War, Poland secured a 105 km long border with Latvia. In July 1919 Poland announced annexation of all lands south of Daugavpils and their inclusion in Braslaw district. Latvia could not complain, as it still needed Polish military help for the decisive Battle of Daugavpils against the Soviets. The issue was solved by renewed Soviet attack against Poland, and later, by Polish - Lithuanian conflict over Vilnius. During the Soviet attack in July 1920, Polish forces retreated from this area which then was occupied by Latvian forces. After Żeligowski 's Mutiny Poland wanted to have good diplomatic relations with Latvia and did not raise any serious territorial claims. The issue was solved in February 1929, when Latvian - Polish trade treaty was signed, which included a secret agreement about compensations to Polish landowners over lost properties. By 1937 Latvia had paid the full amount of 5 million golden lats. Over some protests from Lithuania, Latvian - Polish border was demarcated between 1933 and 1938.
The earliest foreign policy goals were securing peace with Soviet Russia and Germany, gaining international recognition and joining the League of Nations. All this was achieved by efforts of Zigfrīds Anna Meierovics.
The hope of union of Baltic countries - Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Finland - faded after 1922. After that Latvia was the most energetic proponent of Baltic unity and Baltic Entente. On November 1, 1923 Latvia and Estonia signed a military alliance, followed by trade agreements. Latvia tried to maintain good relations with regional hegemons Russia and Germany and hoped for more support from the Great Britain. 21 foreign embassies and 45 consulates were opened in Latvia by 1928, some of these consulates were located in port cities Liepāja and Ventspils.
Latvia purchased embassy buildings in Berlin (1922), Tallinn, Warsaw (1923), London (1925), Paris (1927), Geneva (1938).
Social Democrats, as the largest party, held the position of the Speaker of the Saeima in all the interwar Saeimas. 1st Saeima was chaired by Frīdrihs Veismanis, Second, Third and Fourth Saeimas were chaired by Pauls Kalniņš. The refusal of Social Democrats to participate in governments (except twice in short - lived cabinets) meant that government was usually led by the center - right Farmers ' Union, or a coalition of smaller parties, as Saeima was split among many parties with just a few MPs.
Social Democrats were split between the main Latvian Social Democratic Workers ' Party led by Pauls Kalniņš, Ansis Rudevics and Fricis Menders (which first won 30 seats but had a tendency to lose votes in subsequent elections) and the splinter Social Democrat Minority Party, led by Marģers Skujenieks, who were more centrist and managed even to lead governments on two occasions. The mainstream Social Democrat party maintained strong policy of Socialist International ideals, criticized the existing capitalist system, avoided using State flag and singing National anthem, instead using the Red flag and singing the Internationale in their meetings. Their popularity increasingly fell and in the 4th Saeima they had only 21 seat.
The officially banned Communist Party of Latvia in 1928 elections managed to get 5 seats as the Left Trade Union which was banned in 1930. In 1931 elections Communists won 6 seats as the Trade Union Workers and Peasants Group, but were once again banned in 1933.
Latvian Farmers ' Union was the second largest parliamentary faction with 14 - 17 MPs and the largest of the conservative parties. It increasingly had to compete with some smaller farmer, catholic farmer and Latgale farmer parties which won more votes in each elections. Farmer 's Union was led by Kārlis Ulmanis, Zigfrīds Anna Meierovics and Hugo Celmiņš. The decreasing popularity of Ulmanis and Farmers ' Union might have been one of the reasons behind the May 15, 1934 Latvian coup d'état, as Ulmanis tried to prevent further loss of his political influence and power after the elections, scheduled for October 1934.
Democratic Centre Party, led by Gustavs Zemgals represented mostly urban, middle - class office workers and state employees.
National Union, led by Arveds Bergs was nationalistic, anti-Soviet, center - right party that attracted urban followers. The extreme nationalists were represented by anti-semitic Pērkonkrusts, led by Gustavs Celmiņš.
Most of the remaining small parties were either ethnic - German, Jewish, Polish or represented single - issue economic groups - small - holders, house owners, even railroad workers. The small parties usually formed larger coalitions (blocks) and then used their influence to join governing coalition. One of the most influential was coalition of Latgale parties.
During this time four referendums took place, all indicative of the issues facing the new state.
On July 19, 1922 a Concordat was signed with Vatican. This was motivated by the need to better integrate heavily Catholic Latgale in the Lutheran dominated state. In traditionally Lutheran Riga some buildings belonging to Russian Orthodox Church were given to Catholics and the Lutheran St. James 's Cathedral was transferred to Catholics as their new cathedral. On September 1 -- 2, 1923 the Church property referendum was held in order to prevent any further forcible transfer of churches and properties from one confession to another. About 200,000 or 20 % of voters participated, and it failed.
On June 2, 1927 Saeima once again changed the Citizenship law. In earlier version Latvian citizenship was granted to anyone who had lived in Latvia for 20 years before the August 1, 1914 (start of the WWI). Now this was shortened to 6 months before the August 1, 1914. This was mainly done to allow many Latvian farming colonists, who now were fleeing Soviet Russia, to receive citizenship. However, this also meant that many Soviet Jews now could claim Latvian citizenship. On December 17 -- 18, 1927 the Latvian citizenship referendum was held to prevent these new changes, but it failed, as only 250,000 or 20 % of voters participated.
The Concordate with Vatican caused another church property referendum in 1931. After the St. Jame 's Cathedral was given to Catholics, Latvian Lutherans had lost their bishop 's cathedral and were sharing the Riga Cathedral with Baltic German congregation, which belonged to the autonomous German Lutheran confession. The anti-German sentiment was widespread and initiative to give Riga Cathedral to Latvian Lutherans gained strength. On September 5 -- 6, 1931 almost 400,000 voters supported this idea, but referendum failed, as it did not gather over 50 % of votes. In any case, Saeima soon passed a law confiscating the church from Germans and giving it to Latvians.
On February 24 -- 25, 1934 the Insurance Law referendum was held in order to introduce a new old and unemployment benefit scheme which would be funded by taxing employers, higher wage earners and municipalities. The referendum was initiated by Social Democrats, who managed to get over 400,000 votes for this idea, but referendum failed.
The new state had to deal with two main issues: restoration of industrial plants, especially in Riga and implementation of Land reform that would transfer most of the land from German nobles to Latvian farmers.
Constituent Assembly passed the law of the Land reform, which expropriated the manor lands. Landowners were left with 50 hectares each and their land was distributed to the landless peasants without cost. In 1897, 61.2 % of the rural population had been landless; by 1936, that percentage had been reduced to 18 %. The extent of cultivated land surpassed the pre-war level already in 1923.
Before the World War I some 2 % of landowners owned 53 % of land in Kurzeme and Vidzeme, in Latgale it was 38 %. The Agrarian reform Law of September 16, 1920 created State Land Fund which took over 61 % of all land. The German nobles were left with no more than 50 ha of land. This destroyed their manor house system. Many of them sold their possessions and left for Germany. Former manor house buildings often were used as local schools, administrative buildings or hospitals. The land was distributed to a new class of small - holding farmers - over 54,000 Jaunsaimnieki (New farmers) with average farm size of 17, 1 ha, who usually had to create their farms from nothing, in process building new houses and clearing fields. Due to their small size and unfavorable grain prices, the new farmers rapidly developed dairy farming. Butter, bacon and eggs became new export industries. Flax and state owned forests were another export revenue source.
On March 27, 1919 the Latvian rublis was introduced with an exchange rate of 1 Latvian rublis equal to 1 ostruble, 2 German marks and 1, 5 czar rubles. On March 18, 1920 Latvian rublis was made the only legal currency. Due to high inflation, the new Latvian lats currency was introduced at a rate 1 lat to 50 rublis. In 1923 the Bank of Latvia was established and lats replaced rublis in 1925.
Between 1923 and 1930 state budget was with a surplus. On average 25, 5 % went to defense, 11, 2 % to education and 23, 4 % to capital investment projects. Around 15 % of income was generated by state spirits monopoly.
The restoration of industry was more complicated. Before World War I 80 % of industrial production was made for internal Russian Empire markets. Trade agreement with Soviet Union was signed in 1927 but did not result in high trade volumes. By the end of 1920s Latvia 's largest export markets were Germany (35, 6 %), United Kingdom (20, 8 %), France, Belgium, Netherlands (22, 9 %). Latvia had to import almost all of modern machinery and fuels.
In 1929 Latvia had 3 state owned banks, 19 private banks, 605 credit unions and many more mutual credit unions.
The Great Depression reached Latvia in the middle of 1930. Exports fell and imports were strictly limited, to save foreign exchange reserves. State monopolies of sugar and bacon were created. To prevent banks from collapse, between July 31, 1931 and September 1, 1933 a law was in force which prohibited withdrawal of more than 5 % of the total deposit per week. In 1932 the trade agreement with Soviet Union expired and industrial unemployment reached its peak in January 1932. The national income fell from 600 lats per capita in 1930 to 390 lats per capita in 1932.
In place of free international trade came interstate clearing agreements which set the volumes and types of goods that states then would trade. In 1932 clearing agreements were signed with France and Germany, in 1934 with the United Kingdom, in 1935 with Sweden, Estonia and Lithuania.
Economic recovery started in 1933 as production increased by some 30 %. The state budget deficit was reduced from the record 24, 2 million lats in 1931 / 32 to 7, 8 million lats in 1933 / 34 budget.
Constitutional Assembly commemorative stamp
1 rublis note
2 lats coin
The iconic design of 5 lats coin still used in Latvian euro coins
On the night from May 15 to May 16, 1934 the Prime Minister Kārlis Ulmanis and Minister of War Jānis Balodis, fathers of Latvian independence, took power by a bloodless coup d'état. Parliament and Constitution were suspended, State of War introduced, all political parties banned and press censorship established.
Just as in the politics, in economy the new Ulmanis regime was very active in increasing state control and planning mechanisms. In 1934 regime created Chamber of Trade and Industry was established, followed by the Chamber of Agriculture and the Chamber of Artisans in 1935 and the Chamber of Labour in 1936. The state helped bankrupt farmers by postponing bankruptcy auctions and refinanced their debt at a lower rate. On May 29, 1934 state took control over cooperative societies and associations. Dairy industry was placed under control of Central Union of Dairy Farmers.
On April 9, 1935 a state controlled Credit Bank of Latvia was created which reduced role of foreign capital by creating many state owned industry monopolies and joint stock companies. Buyouts and liquidations of foreign, Baltic German and Jewish owned companies become a norm. In place of many competing companies large state owned companies were created. In 1939 state owned 38 such companies. The new JSC Vairogs produced railway carriages and Ford - Vairogs automobiles under Ford licence. VEF made world 's smallest Minox cameras and such experimental aircraft as VEF JDA - 10M, VEF I - 12 and others. Between 1936 and 1939 the Ķegums Hydroelectric Power Station, with 70,000 kWh capacity largest in the Baltics, was built by Swedish companies.
After Western countries abandoned the gold standard, the Latvian lats was pegged to the British pound in September 1936. It was a devaluation that further strengthened Latvian exports.
However, the recovery from the Great Depression took almost ten years. National income was 444 lats per capita in 1933 and reached 637 lats per capita in 1938, thus finally overtaking the 1929 levels.
After the start of World War II Latvia declared complete neutrality, but it was now completely cut off from the market of United Kingdom, as Germany had sealed off the Baltic sea. Austerity was introduced on September 3, 1939. The politically disastrous October 5, 1939 Soviet -- Latvian Mutual Assistance Treaty provided new export and import opportunities. On October 18, 1939 a new trade agreement was signed with the Soviet Union. Latvia exported its food products in return receiving oil, fuel and chemicals. On December 15, 1939 a new trade agreement was also signed with the Nazi Germany.
Latvian farmers had traditionally relied on seasonal farm workers from Poland, this was now cut - off by the war, and in spring 1940 new regulations introduced compulsory work service for state employees, students and school pupils.
In October 1936 Latvia was elected as non-permanent member of the Council of the League of Nations and retained this place for three years. In 1935 embassy in Washington was re-opened, which later served as important center for Latvian Diplomatic Service during 50 years of Soviet occupation.
After the Munich Agreement demonstrated the failure of collective security system, Latvia on December 13, 1938 proclaimed absolute neutrality. On March 28, 1939 Soviet Union without any discussions announced that it is interested in maintaining and defending Latvia 's independence. On June 7, 1939 Latvia and Germany signed non-aggression treaty.
Minox camera, world 's smallest
Ford - Vairogs trucks
Ford - Vairogs V8
VEF I - 17
VEF I - 12
Baltic Entente meeting, 1937
Latvian, German and Estonian ministers sign non-aggression treaties, 1939
The Soviet Union guaranteed its interests in the Baltics with the signing of the Molotov -- Ribbentrop Pact between the Soviet Union and Nazi Germany on August 23, 1939. Under threat of invasion, Latvia (along with Estonia and Lithuania) signed the Soviet -- Latvian Mutual Assistance Treaty with Soviet Union, providing for the stationing of up to 25,000 Soviet troops on Latvian soil. Following the initiative from Nazi Germany, Latvia on October 30, 1939 concluded an agreement to "repatriate '' ethnic Germans, most of whom had lived in the region for generations, in the wake of the impending Soviet takeover.
Seven months later, the Soviet foreign minister Vyacheslav Molotov accused the Baltic states of conspiracy against the Soviet Union. On June 16, 1940, threatening an invasion, Soviet Union issued an ultimatum demanding that the government be replaced and that an unlimited number of Soviet troops be admitted. Knowing that the Red Army had entered Lithuania a day before, that its troops were massed along the eastern border and mindful of the Soviet military bases in Western Latvia, the government acceded to the demands, and Soviet troops occupied the country on June 17. Staged elections were held July 14 -- 15, 1940, whose results were announced in Moscow 12 hours before the polls closed; Soviet documents show the election results were forged. The newly elected "People 's Assembly '' declared Latvia a Socialist Soviet Republic and applied for admission into the Soviet Union on July 21. Latvia was incorporated into the Soviet Union on August 5, 1940. Latvian diplomatic service continued to function in exile while the republic was under the Soviet control.
In the spring of 1941, the Soviet central government began planning the mass deportation of anti-Soviet elements from the occupied Baltic states. In preparation, General Ivan Serov, Deputy People 's Commissar of Public Security of the Soviet Union, signed the Serov Instructions, "Regarding the Procedure for Carrying out the Deportation of Anti-Soviet Elements from Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia. '' During the night of 13 -- 14 June 1941, 15,424 inhabitants of Latvia -- including 1,771 Jews and 742 ethnic Russians -- were deported to camps and special settlements, mostly in Siberia. 35,000 people were deported in the first year of Soviet occupation (131,500 across the Baltics).
The Nazi invasion, launched a week later, cut short immediate plans to deport several hundred thousand more from the Baltics. Nazi troops occupied Riga on July 1, 1941. Immediately after the installment of German authority, a process of eliminating the Jewish and Gypsy population began, with many killings taking place in Rumbula. The killings were committed by the Einsatzgruppe A, the Wehrmacht and Marines (in Liepāja), as well as by Latvian collaborators, including the 500 - 1,500 members of the infamous Arajs Commando (which alone killed around 26,000 Jews) and the 2,000 or more Latvian members of the SD. By the end of 1941 almost the entire Jewish population was killed or placed in the concentration camps. In addition, some 25,000 Jews were brought from Germany, Austria and the present - day Czech Republic, of whom around 20,000 were killed. The Holocaust claimed approximately 85,000 lives in Latvia, the vast majority of whom were Jews.
A large number of Latvians resisted the German occupation. The resistance movement was divided between the pro-independence units under the Latvian Central Council and the pro-Soviet units under the Latvian Partisan Movement Headquarters (Латвийский штаб партизанского движения) in Moscow. Their Latvian commander was Arturs Sproģis. The Nazis planned to Germanise the Baltics after the war. In 1943 and 1944 two divisions of Waffen - SS were formed from Latvian conscripts and volunteers to help Germany against the Red Army.
Damaged Soviet tank in Riga
Women greeting German soldiers in Riga
Women cleaning team in Riga, July 11, 1941
Germans at Aiviekste railroad station
German tanks in action near Aiviekste railroad station
Hinrich Lohse in Riga
Reichminister Alfred Rosenberg during visit to occupied Latvia, 1942
Jewish prisoners in Salaspils concentration camp
Jewish prisoners in Salaspils concentration camp
Latvian Legion soldiers in Riga, 1943
Funeral of Voldemars Veiss in Riga, 1944
German postal stamp from the Courland Pocket, 1945
Last troops leaving Liepāja port, May 8, 1945
In 1944, when the Soviet military advances reached the area heavy fighting took place in Latvia between German and Soviet troops, which ended with another German defeat. Riga was re-captured by the Soviet Red Army on 13 October 1944 while the Courland Pocket held out until May 9, 1945. During the course of the war, both occupying forces conscripted Latvians into their armies, in this way increasing the loss of the nation 's "live resources ''. In 1944, part of the Latvian territory once more came under Soviet control and Latvian national partisans began their fight against another occupier -- the Soviet Union. 160,000 Latvian inhabitants took refuge from the Soviet army by fleeing to Germany and Sweden.
The first post-war years were marked by particularly dismal and sombre events in the fate of the Latvian nation. On March 25, 1949, 43,000 rural residents ("kulaks '') and Latvian patriots ("nationalists '') were deported to Siberia in a sweeping repressive Operation Priboi in all three Baltic States, which was carefully planned and approved in Moscow already on January 29, 1949. All together 120,000 Latvian inhabitants were imprisoned or deported to Soviet concentration camps (the Gulag). Some managed to escape arrest and joined the partisans.
In the post-war period, Latvia was forced to adopt Soviet farming methods and the economic infrastructure developed in the 1920s and 1930s was eradicated. Rural areas were forced into collectivisation. The massive influx of labourers, administrators, military personnel and their dependents from Russia and other Soviet republics started. By 1959 about 400,000 persons arrived from other Soviet republics and the ethnic Latvian population had fallen to 62 %. An extensive programme to impose bilingualism was initiated in Latvia, limiting the use of Latvian language in favor of Russian. All of the minority schools (Jewish, Polish, Belarusian, Estonian, Lithuanian) were closed down leaving only two languages of instructions in the schools - Latvian and Russian. The Russian language were taught notably, as well as Russian literature, music and history of Soviet Union (actually - history of Russia).
On 5 March 1953 Joseph Stalin died and his successor became Nikita Khrushchev. The period known as the Khrushchev Thaw began but attempts by the national communists led by Eduards Berklavs to gain a degree of autonomy for the republic and protect the rapidly deteriorating position of the Latvian language were not successful. In 1959 after Krushchev 's visit in Latvia national communists were stripped of their posts and Berklavs was deported to Russia.
Because Latvia had still maintained a well - developed infrastructure and educated specialists it was decided in Moscow that some of the Soviet Union 's most advanced manufacturing factories were to be based in Latvia. New industry was created in Latvia, including a major machinery factory RAF in Jelgava, electrotechnical factories in Riga, chemical factories in Daugavpils, Valmiera and Olaine, as well as food and oil processing plants. However, there were not enough people to operate the newly built factories. In order to expand industrial production, more immigrants from other Soviet republics were transferred into the country, noticeably decreasing the proportion of ethnic Latvians.
By 1989, the ethnic Latvians comprised about 52 % of the population (1,387,757), compared to a pre-war proportion of 77 % (1,467,035). In 2005 there were 1,357,099 ethnic Latvians, showing a real decrease in the titular population. Proportionately, however, the titular nation already comprises approximately 60 % of the total population of Latvia (2,375,000).
Portable radio built in RRR
Soviet stamp celebrating 40 years of Latvian SSR
Train built in RVR
The iconic RAF minibus
Monument to the Red Latvian Riflemen in Riga
Vanšu Bridge
Riga TV tower
The abandoned House of Press
Soviet nomenklatura sanatorium in Jūrmala
Liberalization in the communist regime began in the mid-1980s in the USSR with the perestroika and glasnost instituted by Mikhail Gorbachev. In Latvia, several mass political organizations were constituted that made use of this opportunity -- Popular Front of Latvia (Tautas Fronte), Latvian National Independence Movement (Latvijas Nacionālās Neatkarības Kustība) and Citizens ' Congress (Pilsoņu kongress). These groups began to agitate for the restoration of national independence.
On the 50th anniversary of the Molotov - Ribbentrop pact (August 23, 1989) to the fate of the Baltic nations, Latvians, Lithuanians and Estonians joined hands in a human chain, the Baltic Way, that stretched 600 kilometers from Tallinn, to Riga, to Vilnius. It symbolically represented the united wish of the Baltic States for independence.
Subsequent steps towards full independence were taken on May 4, 1990. The Latvian SSR Supreme Council, elected in the first democratic elections since the 1930s, adopted a declaration restoring independence that included a transition period between autonomy within the Soviet Union and full independence. In January 1991, however, pro-communist political forces attempted to restore Soviet power with the use of force. Latvian demonstrators managed to stop the Soviet troops from re-occupying strategic positions (January 1991 events in Latvia). On August 21, after unsuccessful attempt at a coup d'état in Moscow, parliament voted for an end to the transition period, thus restoring Latvia 's pre-war independence. On September 6, 1991 Latvian independence was once again recognized by the Soviet Union.
Soon after reinstating independence, Latvia, which had been a member of the League of Nations prior to World War II, became a member of the United Nations. In 1992, Latvia became eligible for the International Monetary Fund and in 1994 took part in the NATO Partnership for Peace program in addition to signing the free trade agreement with the European Union. Latvia became a member of the European Council as well as a candidate for the membership in the European Union and NATO. Latvia was the first of the three Baltic nations to be accepted into the World Trade Organization.
At the end of 1999 in Helsinki, the heads of the European Union governments invited Latvia to begin negotiations regarding accession to the European Union. In 2004, Latvia 's most important foreign policy goals, membership of the European Union and NATO, were fulfilled. On April 2, Latvia became a member of NATO and on May 1, Latvia, along with the other two Baltic States, became a member of the European Union. Around 67 % had voted in favor of EU membership in a September 2003 referendum with turnout at 72.5 percent.
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when was the last time the canadian dollar was worth more than the american | Canadian dollar - wikipedia
The Canadian dollar (symbol: $; code: CAD; French: dollar canadien) is the currency of Canada. It is abbreviated with the dollar sign $, or sometimes Can $ or C $ to distinguish it from other dollar - denominated currencies. It is divided into 100 cents.
Owing to the image of a loon on the one - dollar coin, the currency is sometimes referred to as the loonie by foreign exchange traders and analysts, as it is by Canadians in general, or huard in French.
Canada 's dollar is the fifth most held reserve currency in the world, accounting for approximately 2 % of all global reserves, behind only the U.S. dollar, the euro, the yen and the pound sterling. The Canadian dollar is popular with central banks because of Canada 's relative economic soundness, the Canadian government 's strong sovereign position, and the stability of the country 's legal and political systems.
In 1841, the Province of Canada adopted a new system based on the Halifax rating. The new Canadian pound was equal to four US dollars (92.88 grains gold), making one pound sterling equal to 1 pound, 4 shillings, and 4 pence Canadian. Thus, the new Canadian pound was worth 16 shillings and 5.3 pence sterling.
The 1850s was a decade of wrangling over whether to adopt a sterling monetary system or a decimal monetary system based on the US dollar. The local population, for reasons of practicality in relation to the increasing trade with the neighbouring United States, had a desire to assimilate their colonial currency with the American unit, but the imperial authorities in London still preferred sterling as the sole currency throughout the British Empire. In 1851, the Legislative Council and the Legislative Assembly passed an act for the purposes of introducing a pound sterling unit in conjunction with decimal fractional coinage. The idea was that the decimal coins would correspond to exact amounts in relation to the U.S. dollar fractional coinage.
As a compromise, in 1853 an act of the Legislative Council and Assembly of the Province of Canada introduced the gold standard into the colony, based on both the British gold sovereign and the American gold eagle coins. This gold standard was introduced with the gold sovereign being legal tender at £ 1 = US $ 4.86 ⁄. No coinage was provided for under the 1853 act. Sterling coinage was made legal tender and all other silver coins were demonetized. The British government in principle allowed for a decimal coinage but nevertheless held out the hope that a sterling unit would be chosen under the name of "royal ''. However, in 1857, the decision was made to introduce a decimal coinage into the Province of Canada in conjunction with the U.S. dollar unit. Hence, when the new decimal coins were introduced in 1858, the colony 's currency became aligned with the U.S. currency, although the British gold sovereign continued to remain legal tender at the rate of £ 1 = 4.86 ⁄ right up until the 1990s. In 1859, Canadian colonial postage stamps were issued with decimal denominations for the first time.
In 1860, the colonies of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia followed the colony of Canada in adopting a decimal system based on the U.S. dollar unit. In the following year, Canadian colonial postage stamps were issued with the denominations shown in dollars and cents.
Newfoundland went decimal in 1865, but unlike the Province of Canada, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia, it decided to adopt a unit based on the Spanish dollar rather than on the U.S. dollar, and there was a slight difference between these two units. The U.S. dollar was created in 1792 on the basis of the average weight of a selection of worn Spanish dollars. As such, the Spanish dollar was worth slightly more than the U.S. dollar, and likewise, the Newfoundland dollar, until 1895, was worth slightly more than the Canadian colonial dollar.
In 1867, the colonies of Canada, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia were united in a federation called the Dominion of Canada and the three currencies were merged into the Canadian dollar.
In 1871, Prince Edward Island went decimal within the U.S. dollar unit and introduced coins for 1 ¢. However, the currency of Prince Edward Island was absorbed into the Canadian system shortly afterwards, when Prince Edward island joined the Dominion of Canada in 1873.
The Canadian Parliament passed the Uniform Currency Act in April 1871, tying up loose ends as to the currencies of the various provinces and replacing them with a common Canadian dollar. The gold standard was temporarily abandoned during the First World War and definitively abolished on April 10, 1933. At the outbreak of the Second World War, the exchange rate to the U.S. dollar was fixed at C $1.10 = US $1.00. This was changed to parity in 1946. In 1949, sterling was devalued and Canada followed, returning to a peg of C $1.10 = US $1.00. However, Canada allowed its dollar to float in 1950, whereupon the currency rose to a slight premium over the U.S. dollar for the next decade. But the Canadian dollar fell sharply after 1960 before it was again pegged in 1962 at C $1.00 = US $0.925. This was sometimes pejoratively referred to as the "Diefenbuck '' or the "Diefendollar '', after the then Prime Minister, John Diefenbaker. This peg lasted until 1970, after which the currency 's value has floated.
Canadian English, like American English, used the slang term "buck '' for a former paper dollar. The Canadian origin of this term derives from a coin struck by the Hudson 's Bay Company during the 17th century with a value equal to the pelt of a male beaver -- a "buck ''. Because of the appearance of the common loon on the back of the $1 coin that replaced the dollar bill in 1987, the word "loonie '' was adopted in Canadian parlance to distinguish the Canadian dollar coin from the dollar bill. When the two - dollar coin was introduced in 1996, the derivative word "toonie '' ("two loonies '') became the common word for it in Canadian English slang.
In French, the currency is also called le dollar; Canadian French slang terms include piastre or piasse (the original word used in 18th - century French to translate "dollar '') and huard (equivalent to "loonie '', since huard is French for "loon, '' the bird appearing on the coin). The French pronunciation of cent (pronounced similarly to English as / sɛnt / or / sɛn /, not like the word for hundred, / sɑ̃ / or / sã /) is generally used for the subdivision; sou is another, informal, term for 1 ¢. 25 ¢ coins in Quebec French are often called trente sous ("thirty cents '') because of a series of changes in terminology, currencies, and exchange rates. After the British conquest of Canada in 1760, French coins gradually went out of use, and sou became a nickname for the halfpenny, which was similar in value to the French sou. Spanish dollars and U.S. dollars were also in use, and from 1841 to 1858, the exchange rate was fixed at $4 = £ 1 (or 400 ¢ = 240d). This made 25 ¢ equal to 15d, or 30 halfpence (trente sous). After decimalization and the withdrawal of halfpence coins, the nickname sou began to be used for the 1 ¢ coin, but the idiom trente sous for 25 ¢ endured.
Coins are produced by the Royal Canadian Mint in Winnipeg, Manitoba, and Ottawa, Ontario, in denominations of 5 ¢ (nickel), 10 ¢ (dime), 25 ¢ (quarter), 50 ¢ (50 ¢ piece) (though the 50 ¢ piece is no longer distributed to banks and is only available directly from the mint, therefore seeing very little circulation), $1 (loonie), and $2 (toonie). The last 1 ¢ (penny) to be minted in Canada was struck on Friday May 4, 2012, and ceased its distribution on February 4, 2013. Ever since, the price for a cash transaction may be rounded to the nearest five cents. The penny continues to be legal tender, although they are only accepted as payment, and not given back as change.
The standard set of designs has Canadian symbols, usually wildlife, on the reverse, and an effigy of Elizabeth II on the obverse. Some pennies, nickels, and dimes remain in circulation that bear the effigy of George VI. It is also common for American coins to be found among circulation due to the close proximity to the United States and the fact that the sizes of the coins are similar. Commemorative coins with differing reverses are also issued on an irregular basis, most often quarters. 50 ¢ coins are rarely found in circulation; they are often collected and not regularly used in day - to - day transactions in most provinces.
In 1858, bronze 1 ¢ and 0.925 silver 5 ¢, 10 ¢ and 20 ¢ coins were issued by the Province of Canada. Except for 1 ¢ coins struck in 1859, no more coins were issued until 1870, when production of the 5 ¢ and 10 ¢ was resumed and silver 25 ¢ and 50 ¢ were introduced. Between 1908 and 1919, sovereigns (legal tender in Canada for $ 4.86 ⁄) were struck in Ottawa with a "C '' mintmark.
Canada produced its first gold dollar coins in 1912 in the form of $5 and $10. These coins were produced from 1912 to 1914. The obverse carries an image of King George V and on the reverse is a shield with the arms of the Dominion of Canada. Gold from the Klondike River valley in the Yukon accounts for much of the gold in the coins.
Two years into the coin 's production World War I began and production of the coins stopped in favour of tighter control over Canadian gold reserves. Most of the 1914 coins produced never reached circulation at the time and some were stored for more than 75 years until being sold off in 2012. The high quality specimens were sold to the public and the visually unappealing ones were melted.
In 1920, the size of the 1 ¢ was reduced and the silver fineness of the 5 ¢, 10 ¢, 25 ¢ and 50 ¢ coins was reduced to 0.800 silver /. 200 copper. This composition was maintained for the 10 ¢, 25 ¢ and 50 ¢ piece through 1966, but the debasement of the 5 ¢ piece continued in 1922 with the silver 5 ¢ being entirely replaced by a larger nickel coin. In 1942, as a wartime measure, nickel was replaced by tombac in the 5 ¢ coin, which was changed in shape from round to dodecagonal. Chromium - plated steel was used for the 5 ¢ in 1944 and 1945 and between 1951 and 1954, after which nickel was readopted. The 5 ¢ returned to a round shape in 1963.
In 1935, the 0.800 silver voyageur dollar was introduced. Production was maintained through 1967 with the exception of the war years between 1939 and 1945.
In 1967 both 0.800 silver / 0.200 copper and, later that year, 0.500 silver /. 500 copper 10 ¢ and 25 ¢ coins were issued. 1968 saw further debasement: the 0.500 fine silver dimes and quarters were completely replaced by nickel ones mid-year. All 1968 50 ¢ and $1 coins were reduced in size and coined only in pure nickel. Thus, 1968 marked the last year in which any circulating silver coinage was issued in Canada.
In 1982, the 1 ¢ coin was changed to dodecagonal, and the 5 ¢ was further debased to a cupro - nickel alloy. In 1987, a $1 coin struck in aureate - plated nickel was introduced. A bimetallic $2 coin followed in 1996. In 1997, copper - plated zinc replaced bronze in the 1 ¢, and it returned to a round shape. This was followed, in 2000, by the introduction of even cheaper plated - steel 1 ¢, 5 ¢, 10 ¢, 25 ¢ and 50 ¢ coins, with the 1 ¢ plated in copper and the others plated in cupro - nickel. In 2012, the multi-ply plated - steel technology was introduced for $1 and $2 coins as well. Also in that year mintage of the 1 ¢ coin ceased and its withdrawal from circulation began in 2013.
The first paper money issued in Canada denominated in dollars were British Army bills, issued between 1813 and 1815. Canadian dollar bank notes were later issued by the chartered banks starting in the 1830s, by several pre-Confederation colonial governments (most notably the Province of Canada in 1866), and after confederation, by the Dominion of Canada starting in 1870. Some municipalities also issued notes, most notably depression scrip during the 1930s.
On July 3, 1934, with only 10 chartered banks still issuing notes, the Bank of Canada was founded. It took over the federal issuance of notes from the Dominion of Canada. It began issuing notes in denominations of $1, $2, $5, $10, $20, $25, $50, $100, $500 and $1000. In 1944, the chartered banks were prohibited from issuing their own currency, with the Royal Bank of Canada and the Bank of Montreal among the last to issue notes.
Significant design changes to the notes have occurred since 1935, with new series introduced in 1937, 1954, 1970, 1986, and 2001. In June 2011, newly designed notes printed on a polymer substrate, as opposed to cotton fibre, were announced; the first of these polymer notes, the $100 bill, began circulation on November 14, 2011, the $50 bill began circulation on March 26, 2012, the $20 denomination began circulation on November 7, 2012, and the $5 and $10 denominations began circulation on November 12, 2013.
All banknotes are currently printed by the Ottawa - based Canadian Bank Note Company under contract to the Bank of Canada. Previously, a second company, BA International (founded 1866 as British American Bank Note Company), shared printing duties. In 2011, BA International announced it would shutter its banknote printing business and cease printing banknotes at the end of 2012.
Canadian dollar banknotes issued by the Bank of Canada are legal tender in Canada. However, commercial transactions may legally be settled in any manner agreed by the parties involved.
Legal tender of Canadian coinage is governed by the Currency Act, which sets out limits of:
Retailers in Canada may refuse bank notes without breaking the law. According to legal guidelines, the method of payment has to be mutually agreed upon by the parties involved with the transactions. For example, stores may refuse $100 bank notes if they feel that would put them at risk of being counterfeit victims; however, official policy suggests that the retailers should evaluate the impact of that approach. In the case that no mutually acceptable form of payment can be found for the tender, the parties involved should seek legal advice.
Canadian dollars, especially coins, are accepted by some businesses in the northernmost cities of the United States and in many Canadian snowbird enclaves, just as U.S. dollars are accepted by some Canadian businesses.
In 2012, Iceland considered adopting the Canadian dollar as a stable alternative to the Icelandic króna. Canada was favoured due to its northern geography and similar resource based economy, in addition to its relative economic stability. The Canadian ambassador to Iceland said that Iceland could adopt the currency; although Iceland ultimately decided not to move on with the proposal.
Since 76.7 % of Canada 's exports go to the U.S., and 53.3 % of imports into Canada come from the U.S. Canadians are interested in the value of their currency mainly against the U.S. dollar. Although domestic concerns arise when the dollar trades much lower than its U.S. counterpart, there is also concern among exporters when the dollar appreciates quickly. A rise in the value of the dollar increases the price of Canadian exports to the U.S. On the other hand, there are advantages to a rising dollar, in that it is cheaper for Canadian industries to purchase foreign material and businesses.
The Bank of Canada currently has no specific target value for the Canadian dollar and has not intervened in foreign exchange markets since 1998. The Bank 's official position is that market conditions should determine the worth of the Canadian dollar, although the BoC occasionally makes minor attempts to influence its value.
On world markets, the Canadian dollar historically tended to move in tandem with the U.S. dollar. An apparently rising Canadian dollar (against the U.S. dollar) was decreasing against other international currencies; however, during the rise of the Canadian dollar since 2002, it has gained value against the U.S. dollar as well as other international currencies. In recent years, dramatic fluctuations in the value of the Canadian dollar have tended to correlate with shifts in oil prices, reflecting the Canadian dollar 's status as a petrocurrency owing to Canada 's significant oil exports.
The Canadian dollar 's highest ever exchange rate was US $2.78, reached on July 11, 1864 after the United States had temporarily abandoned the gold standard.
Unlike other currencies in the Bretton Woods system, whose values were fixed, the Canadian dollar was allowed to float from 1950 to 1962. Between 1952 and 1960, the Canadian dollar traded at a slight premium over the U.S. dollar, reaching a high of US $1.0614 on August 20, 1957.
The Canadian dollar fell considerably after 1960, and this contributed to Prime Minister John Diefenbaker 's defeat in the 1963 election. The Canadian dollar returned to a fixed exchange rate regime in 1962 when its value was set at US $0.925, where it remained until 1970.
As an inflation - fighting measure, the Canadian dollar was allowed to float in 1970. Its value appreciated and it was worth more than the U.S. dollar for part of the 1970s. The high point was on April 25, 1974, when it reached US $1.0443.
The Canadian dollar fell in value against its American counterpart during the technological boom of the 1990s that was centred in the United States, and was traded for as little as US $0.6179 US on January 21, 2002, which was an all - time low. Since then, its value against all major currencies rose until 2013, due in part to high prices for commodities (especially oil) that Canada exports.
The Canadian dollar 's value against the U.S. dollar rose sharply in 2007 because of the continued strength of the Canadian economy and the U.S. currency 's weakness on world markets. During trading on September 20, 2007 it met the U.S. dollar at parity for the first time since November 25, 1976.
Inflation in the value of the Canadian dollar has been fairly low since the 1990s. In 2007 the Canadian dollar rebounded, soaring 23 % in value.
On September 28, 2007, the Canadian dollar closed above the U.S. dollar for the first time in 30 years, at US $1.0052. On November 7, 2007, it hit US $1.1024 during trading, a modern - day high after China announced it would diversify its US $1.43 trillion foreign exchange reserve away from the U.S. dollar. By November 30, however, the Canadian dollar was once again at par with the U.S. dollar, and on December 4, the dollar had retreated back to US $0.98, through a cut in interest rates made by the Bank of Canada due to concerns about exports to the U.S.
Due to its soaring value and new record highs at the time, the Canadian dollar was named the Canadian Newsmaker of the Year for 2007 by the Canadian edition of Time magazine.
Since the late 2000s, the Canadian dollar has been valued at levels comparable to the years before the swift rise in 2007. A dollar in the mid 70 cent US range has been the usual rate for much of the 2010s.
A number of central banks (and commercial banks) keep Canadian dollars as a reserve currency. The Canadian dollar is considered to be a benchmark currency.
In the economy of the Americas, the Canadian dollar plays a similar role to that of the Australian dollar (AUD) in the Asia - Pacific region. The Canadian dollar (as a regional reserve currency for banking) has been an important part of the British, French and Dutch Caribbean states ' economies and finance systems since the 1950s. The Canadian dollar is held by many central banks in Central and South America as well.
By observing how the Canadian dollar behaves against the U.S. dollar, foreign exchange economists can indirectly observe internal behaviours and patterns in the U.S. economy that could not be seen by direct observation. The Canadian dollar fully evolved into a global reserve currency only since the 1970s, when it was floated against all other world currencies. Some economists have attributed the rise of importance of the Canadian dollar to the long - term effects of the Nixon Shock that effectively ended the Bretton Woods system of global finance.
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i survived a japanese game show season 1 | I Survived a Japanese game show (season 1) - wikipedia
I Survived a Japanese Game Show was an American reality show that followed a group of Americans who leave the United States for Japan, where they compete in a Japanese style game show. Season one premiered on ABC on June 24, 2008. The show was hosted by Tony Sano. On August 6, 2008, financial representative Justin Wood was pronounced the winner. He won a cash prize of US $250,000.
The first episode aired on June 24, 2008.
The second episode aired on July 1, 2008.
The third episode aired on July 8, 2008.
The fourth episode aired on July 15, 2008.
The fifth episode aired on July 23, 2008.
The sixth episode aired on July 30, 2008.
The seventh and final episode aired on August 6, 2008.
For the final episode, teams are abolished and the final four players face three elimination challenges as individuals.
Games with a pink background indicate elimination games.
-- Tied.
The show went against America 's Got Talent on NBC, Big Brother 10 on CBS, reruns of House on Fox, except on July 15 when the MLB All - Star Game was telecast, and repeats of Reaper on The CW.
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which statement describes the hebrews and their beliefs | Beliefs and practices of the church of Jesus Christ of Latter - day Saints - wikipedia
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter - day Saints (LDS Church) focuses its doctrine and teaching on Jesus Christ; that he was the Son of God, born of Mary, lived a perfect life, performed miracles, bled from every pore in the Garden of Gethsemane, died on the cross, rose on the third day, appeared again to his disciples, and now resides, authoritatively, on the right hand side of God. In brief, some beliefs are in common with Catholics, Orthodox and Protestant traditions. However, teachings of the LDS Church differ significantly in other ways and encompass a broad set of doctrines, so that the above - mentioned denominations usually place the LDS Church outside the bounds of orthodox Christian teaching as summarized in the Nicene Creed.
The church 's core beliefs, circa 1842, are summarized in the "Articles of Faith '', and its four primary principles are faith in Jesus Christ, repentance, baptism by immersion for the remission of sin, and the laying on of hands for the Gift of the Holy Ghost.
In common with other Restorationist churches, the LDS Church teaches that a Great Apostasy occurred. It teaches that after the death of Jesus and the Twelve Apostles, the priesthood authority was lost and some important doctrinal teachings, including the text of the Bible, were changed from their original form, thus necessitating a restoration prior to the Second Coming. That restoration, according to church doctrine, began during the life of Joseph Smith.
According to church theology, the restoration began through a series of visions and revelations, including Smith 's First Vision in 1820, visits by various angelic messengers including Moroni from whom he received "the everlasting gospel '', John the Baptist, Moses, Elijah, and the apostles Peter, James and John. Both Smith and Oliver Cowdery testified that these last messengers came to them while they were together and conferred upon them the priesthood authority with its various "keys '', so that mankind again possessed the "fullness of the Gospel '' with authority to administer in the ordinances thereof. The restoration also included the re-establishment of the Church of Christ on April 6, 1830. The LDS Church teaches that it is the successor of this Church of Christ and that the current President of the Church is Smith 's modern successor.
The church 's canon of sacred texts consists of the Holy Bible, the Book of Mormon, the Doctrine and Covenants, and the Pearl of Great Price. These are more commonly referred to as the church 's standard works. Though not canonical, many members of the church also accept the teachings and pronouncements of the church 's general authorities -- and in particular those of the President of the Church -- as doctrine, and complementing the standard works.
The church accepts the Holy Bible as the word of God as far as it is translated correctly. Joseph Smith wrote, "I believe the Bible as it read when it came from the pen of the original writers ''. The LDS Church uses the Authorized King James Version (KJV) for its English - speaking members and other translations to accommodate alternative languages. Smith did work on his own translation, but it is only used in conjunction with the KJV. Extract of his translation can be found in the Pearl of Great Price, called the Book of Moses and Joseph Smith -- Matthew. For English - language speakers, the church encourages the use of the King James Version, and the church publishes an edition of the KJV. The church regards parts of the Apocrypha, the writings of some Protestant Reformers and non-Christian religious leaders, and the non-religious writings of some philosophers to be inspired, though not canonical.
The church 's most distinctive scripture, the Book of Mormon, was published by founder Joseph Smith in 1830. It is believed to be "another testament of Jesus Christ '' and bears that subtitle as of 1982. Smith stated that, under divine direction, he translated the Book of Mormon from metal plates having "the appearance of gold '' found buried near his home. Eight men signed a statement as witnesses that Smith possessed the plates and that they had seen them. As of September 2007, the full text of the Book of Mormon had been translated and published in 77 languages, and selections in an additional 28 for a total of 105 languages. The introduction printed with the book says that it is a history of the ancestors of the "American Indian '' peoples.
The church 's Doctrine and Covenants is a collection of modern revelations, declarations, and teachings, primarily written by Smith. The Pearl of Great Price consists of five separate books, including two portions of Smith 's translation of the Bible. These five books are Selections from the Book of Moses (corresponding to a portion of the Old Testament), the Book of Abraham (Smith 's translation of an Egyptian papyrus, which includes an account of the creation), Joseph Smith -- Matthew (corresponding to a section of the New Testament), Joseph Smith -- History (an excerpt from Smith 's 1838 autobiographical writings), and the Articles of Faith (an excerpt of one of Smith 's 1842 letters describing church beliefs).
In LDS Church teachings, God the Father, Jesus Christ, and the Holy Spirit are referred to as the "Godhead ''. According to LDS scripture, the Godhead has the following attributes:
The church 's view of the Godhead breaks with Nicene Creed tradition and believes it returns to the teachings taught by Jesus. It does not accept the creed 's definition of Trinity that the three are "consubstantial '' nor the Athanasian Creed 's statement that they are "incomprehensible '', arguing that the LDS view is self - evident in the Bible that the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost are separate persons -- three divine beings as illustrated in Jesus ' farewell prayer, his baptism at the hands of John, his transfiguration, and the martyrdom of Stephen.
In addition to the Godhead, LDS theology recognizes at least the possibility of other divine entities; however, these other "gods '' and "goddesses '' are not considered to be objects of worship, and have no direct relevance to salvation. Official church materials refer to "Heavenly Parents '', implying to some the existence of a Heavenly Mother. Belief in such a figure is common among members, and she has been mentioned in meetings by church officials and alluded to in two of the hymns of the church. However, very little on the subject of a Heavenly Mother has been taught by the church.
God the Father is understood to be the literal Father of the spirits of all mankind. He is also understood to be the father of Jesus ' spirit body and his physical body. On the morning that Jesus was resurrected, Jesus said to Mary Magdalene, "Touch me not; for I am not yet ascended to my Father: but go to my brethren and say unto them, I ascend unto my Father, and your Father; and to my God, and your God. ''
LDS Church president Lorenzo Snow expressed the nature of the Father in his couplet, "As man now is, God once was: As God now is, man may be '', which differs significantly from the traditional Christian idea of theosis. Exaltation is a belief among members of the LDS Church that mankind, as spirit children of their Father in heaven, can become like him.
The church follows what it understands to be the teachings of Jesus, both in the Bible and in other scriptures, such as the Book of Mormon. According to that book, Jesus Christ is "the Son of God, the Father of heaven and earth, the Creator of all things from the beginning; and his mother shall be called Mary. '' As the Creator, he is at times referred to as the father of heaven and earth. This is one sense in which he shares the title "Father '' with God the Father. The church also teaches that Jesus is the LORD Jehovah of the Old Testament, and the Holy One of Israel. Because he has the "Divine Investiture of Authority '' from the Father, the church teaches that Jesus Christ often speaks in the scriptures as though he were God the Father, because in so doing he is representing the Father.
The church teaches that those who accept Christ and are baptized are symbolically born again and become the children of Christ. The church teaches that through the Atonement of Jesus Christ all mankind may be saved by obedience to the laws and ordinances of the gospel. Christ 's divinity enabled him to take upon himself the penalty for sin and to endure the consequential suffering in Gethsemane and on the cross that paid for the sins of humanity since the Fall of Adam and Eve. Thus, having satisfied the demands of justice, Christ offers mercy to mankind in two general forms: unconditional (all will be resurrected), and conditional (those who believe in Christ, repent of sin, and are baptized, "the same shall be saved; and they are they who shall inherit the kingdom of God '') This Atonement is also believed to cover not only sin, but all pain, suffering, heartache, or hardship experienced in this life. Latter - day Saints believe that Jesus ' status as the son of a mortal woman gave him the ability to suffer temptation (yet he did not succumb to it) and experience physical death; while his status as the Son of God gave him the power to lay down and take up his life again at will. The church also believes in the physical resurrection of Jesus ' body. Because of its emphasis on Jesus ' resurrection and his status as the living head of the church, the church does not use the symbol of the Christian cross except on the uniforms of military chaplains. Instead, the church tends to focus on the belief that Jesus overcame suffering and death and that he lives today.
The Holy Ghost is regarded as "a being endowed with the attributes and powers of Deity and not a mere force or essence. '' He testifies of the Father and the Son. "By the power of the Holy Ghost ye may know the truth of all things. '' The Holy Ghost can sanctify people enabling them "to put off the natural man and (become) a saint through the atonement of Christ the Lord ''. The Holy Ghost is the comforter that Jesus promised to send: "If ye love me, keep my commandments. And I will pray the Father, and he shall give you another Comforter, that he may abide with you forever. ''
The plan of salvation or gospel of Christ is a series of steps, a continuum, or means to come to God through the mediation of Jesus. It comprises those teachings of Christ which enable a mortal man or woman to overcome the fall of Adam and Eve in his or her life, and ultimately return to the presence of God, to enjoy the kind of life lived by God the Father, or, more succinctly, "exaltation '', also known as "eternal life ''. The specific teachings include the fact that Adam and Eve fell, becoming subject to the temptations of the devil, bringing upon themselves and their posterity both physical death and spiritual death, separating themselves from God. As a remedy for Adam and Eve 's predicament, consistent with God 's nature and objective to produce divine heirs, God gave Adam and his posterity the moral agency and choice to either (1) follow and serve Christ, or (2) follow and serve Satan (Mosiah 16). To overcome the lasting effects of the fall, Christ offered himself an infinite sacrifice for the sins of all those willing to repent and enter into a covenant with him, trusting in his righteousness or merits for salvation (Alma 22: 14; Moroni 6: 4), while all the rest must depend on their own good works for salvation, or answer the ends of the law themselves, falling short of the glory of God (2 Nephi 2: 22 - 26; Romans 10: 4). Furthermore, Christ brought about the universal resurrection of all men and women, as they were not responsible for the fall, leaving them to account only for their own deeds in the flesh (Articles of Faith 1: 2; Alma 11: 41 - 46).
Also, as the agent of the Father and judge of all, Christ is able to be both merciful and just (John 5: 22; Romans 2: 16). To obtain his mercy, or be saved from his wrath on the day of judgment, men and women must (1) have faith in Christ, (2) repent of their sins, (3) be baptized by one of his authorized agents in water in the likeness of his burial, to come forth born again of the Spirit, (4) receive the Holy Ghost by the laying on of hands, again by an authorized servant of God bearing his priesthood, and (5) endure with faith in Christ and repentance from sins to the end of their mortal lives. The LDS Church teaches that this is the only gospel ever taught by Jesus, and that it is imparted in the Bible, Doctrine and Covenants, and most plainly in the Book of Mormon. (See also 2 Nephi 25: 24 - 30; Articles of Faith 1: 1 - 4.)
Multiple scriptural names for this limited and oft - repeated body of teachings are: gospel of Jesus Christ (3 Nephi 27: 13 - 22), doctrine of Christ (3 Nephi 11: 31 - 41), plan of salvation, plan of redemption (Alma 11: 40 - 41), words of eternal life (John 6: 68), gospel of repentance, gospel of baptism, gospel of salvation, good tidings Isaiah 52: 7), our report (Isaiah 53: 1), gospel of the kingdom (Matthew 24: 14), good tidings of great joy (Luke 2: 10), gospel of the grace of God (Acts 2: 24), gospel of peace (Romans 10: 15), "good news, '' and other equivalent names. Once a man or woman has obeyed the first principles of the gospel, he or she must press forward, feasting on the words of Christ, going on to perfection through Christ (Hebrews 5: 12 - 14; Hebrews 6: 1 - 3).
The plan of salvation describes humanity 's place in the universe and the purpose of life. The church teaches that there was a pre-mortal existence, a place which existed prior to mortality in which all people and all life were created in spirit form. Central to this is the notion that humans existed as spirits before birth, were raised by Heavenly Parents and had essential human characteristics such as gender.
During the pre-earth life, God the Father presented a plan to have a Savior make it possible for mankind to be saved. The purpose of an earth life was to give men the opportunity to demonstrate obedience to the commandments of God while outside of his presence. This is the central test of the evolution or eternal progression of man to godhood. Jesus Christ stepped forward as the chosen Savior. However, Lucifer, one of the spirits, proposed a rival plan whereby every soul would be saved, he would receive God 's glory, and human agency would be eliminated. When God rejected that plan, the War in Heaven ensued, resulting in Lucifer and one - third part of the spirits being cast out and denied ever receiving physical bodies. Lucifer became Satan, or the devil.
The earth, according to church teachings in the temples, was created by Jehovah, which the church identifies as the pre-mortal Jesus, and Michael the archangel, who is identified as the pre-mortal Adam. The earth was "organized '' from pre-existing matter, as were other planets with their inhabitants. Michael 's spirit was placed into his body which was created by God the Father and Jehovah, and became a living soul known as Adam.
The church teaches that at birth, a pre-existing spirit enters a mortal body. Upon death, the spirit goes to a "spirit world '' to await the resurrection of the dead. There, a preliminary judgment, based in part on whether a person has had a baptism by the authority of the priesthood and received their confirmation, either in this life or after death by proxy, places the spirit in either a state of paradise (has completed all the saving ordinances) or spirit prison (those who have not had the saving ordinances). Those in "prison '' will be visited by spirits from paradise and given the chance to learn of the teachings of Jesus Christ and to accept the accompanying saving ordinances. The church teaches that all persons, wicked or righteous, will be resurrected and receive an immortal, physical body. The nature of that body, however, will depend on the result of the Last Judgment, at which Jesus will assign each soul to one of three degrees of glory (heavenly kingdoms): the celestial kingdom in the presence of the Father and the Son for those who accept Jesus Christ and receive all LDS saving ordinances, either as a mortal or by proxy; the terrestrial kingdom, a place of glory in the presence of Christ for righteous persons who refuse to receive the saving ordinances and for those who do not keep the covenants they commit to; and the telestial kingdom for the unrepentant wicked. A further destination, called outer darkness, is reserved for Satan, his devils, and those mortals who commit the unpardonable sin and thereby become the sons of perdition. Those who are ultimately destined for the telestial kingdom will be those who suffer for their sins in hell; however, these persons remain in hell only the 1000 years during the millennial reign of Christ, after which they will exit hell and be resurrected with an immortal body into a state of peace. The church also teaches that all animals have souls and, having been redeemed by the blood of Jesus Christ, will be resurrected, along with every human child who died before the age of accountability.
Those in the celestial kingdom will be allowed to continue to progress and become joint heirs with Jesus Christ; but only individuals that are in the highest degree of the celestial kingdom will eventually be enabled in eternity to become gods and goddesses and participate in the eternal creative process of having spirit children.
The church encourages all people to pray often "for the evil spirit teacheth not a man to pray, but teacheth him that he must not pray. '' In LDS scripture Jesus tells his disciples, "Ye shall call upon the Father in my name. '' Prayer is viewed a means of communication between man and God. It is LDS belief that God hears the sincere prayers of all people because they are his children, he is no respecter of persons, and because he knows all things.
God is to be approached in reverence. Except for certain ordinances the specific words of a prayer do not have a prescribed form. Generally, prayer is addressed to God the Father, in the name of Jesus Christ, and thanks or petitions are expressed as prompted by the Holy Ghost.
The Priest has a scriptural duty "to exhort members to pray vocally and in secret. '' LDS Children are taught to remove distractions while praying by doing such things as closing their eyes, and folding their arms, Reverence for deity can also be expressed while praying through folding arms, bowing the head, or kneeling. But prayer may be accomplished while standing or sitting. According to LDS theology, the First Vision came in answer to a prayer of faith.
The church teaches that revelation from God continues today. Accordingly, revelation to direct the entire church comes to the President of the Church; revelation to direct a stake comes to the stake president; for a ward, to the bishop of that ward; and so forth. Latter - day Saints also believe that individuals can receive personal revelation and divine guidance in raising their families and managing their personal affairs. Because of their belief in modern revelation, Latter - day Saints give significant weight to the teachings of their church leaders. They revere the words their prophets and general authorities speak when "moved upon by the Holy Ghost '' (Doctrine and Covenants 8: 3 - 4) as modern - day scripture, and members are encouraged to ponder and pray for revelation regarding the truthfulness of such statements.
The LDS Church has been characterized by its members as a family - centered religion. The church teaches that every being that lived upon the earth initially had a spirit body and that all were born to Heavenly Parents in a pre-mortal existence. The church teaches that on earth, families may be "sealed '' -- meaning that they are eternally bound as husband -- wife, parents -- child -- and that these bonds will continue after death. Sealings can also include deceased ancestors, providing much of the church 's rationale for its extensive family history activities. Members tend more often to be married, and have families with more children, than members of other Christian traditions.
In consequence of the atonement of Jesus Christ, a son or daughter of God the Father may overcome physical and spiritual death and return to live with God forever. Those individuals who receive this -- which is described as the "greatest gift of God '' -- are said to enter into a state of "exaltation '' after they are resurrected. Exaltation is also called "salvation '' or "eternal life ''.
Exaltation is "the kind of life God lives ''. In other words, exalted beings will live in great glory, be perfect, and possess all knowledge and wisdom. Exalted beings will live forever with God the Father and Jesus Christ, will become gods and goddesses, will live with their righteous earthly family members, and will receive the fulness of joy enjoyed by God and Christ. One of the key qualifications for exaltation is being united in a celestial marriage to an opposite - sex partner. Such a union can be created during mortality, or it can be created after death by proxy marriages; all such sealings, for the living or for the dead, are performed in temples.
Humans who fall short of exaltation still receive an immortal physical body. Most will be awarded one of three kingdoms of glory, whether it be the celestial, terrestrial, or telestial kingdoms. Those who are exalted are said to inhabit the "highest degree '' of the celestial kingdom. Satan, his spirit followers, and a select number of people who lived on the earth will receive no glory and will be called the sons of perdition.
The church also teaches that each person 's gender is eternal and that each gender has roles and duties in the family that are ordained by God. The church teaches that "By divine design, fathers are to preside over their families in love and righteousness and are responsible to provide the necessities of life and protection for their families. Mothers are primarily responsible for the nurture of their children. In these sacred responsibilities, fathers and mothers are obligated to help one another as equal partners. '' Some have characterized this view of the man - woman relationship as "equal but different ''. Nevertheless, LDS women in the United States work outside the home in about the same percentage as other American women.
The church teaches that gender is inherently linked to sex, but the church has no official policy on the status of intersex persons. Transgender persons are accepted in the church and may be baptized, but may not receive the priesthood or enter the temple if they are considering or have undergone elective gender reassignment surgery.
The church teaches what it calls the law of chastity, a moral code that its members must follow to be in good standing with the church. At its core, the law of chastity prohibits sexual relations between individuals who are not married, adultery, and sexual relations between gay and lesbian partners whether married or not. The law also prohibits other sexual behavior, such as bestiality and masturbation, as well as mental behavior such as lust, sexual fantasy, and viewing of pornography. The church 's teachings are ambiguous about the scope of allowable sexual behavior between legally married couples. Sex in marriage is seen as a means for expressing and building joy, unity, love, and oneness, as well as for producing children.
The church encourages members to enter into a celestial marriage, performed as a church ordinance in an LDS temple. This is the only form of marriage recognized by the church as a sacrament and "the only due and proper way of joining husband and wife ''. For purposes of the law of chastity, however, the church presently recognizes civil unions that are considered "legal and lawful '' by the government where the legal agreement takes place. In the church 's view, exceptions to the acceptance of civil unions include same - sex marriage, polygamous marriage, common law marriage, and other types of non-ceremonial marriages in non-common law countries. In countries where the celestial marriage ordinance is not recognized by the government, it must be preceded by a civil marriage.
The law of chastity has also been interpreted to include standards of modesty in dress and action. Sexual activity outside of marriage may result in church discipline, including excommunication, in which a member loses his or her church membership and privileges but may continue to attend meetings. In most instances, the church strongly discourages surgical sterilization as an elective form of birth control among married couples.
LGBT members of the church are expected to keep the law of chastity. If they do, they can "go forward as do all other members of the church. '' If they desire to enter into a heterosexual marriage, they should first learn to deal with their homosexual feelings; otherwise, they must remain celibate. Gay or lesbian sex, in any form, whether the participants are married or not, may be grounds for excommunication.
The church has supported a constitutional ban on same - sex marriage and polygamous marriage in the United States and has stated that it "favors measures that define marriage as the union of one man and one woman and that do not confer legal status on any other sexual relationship. '' The church 's position is that government recognition of such rights will "undermine the divinely created institution of the family ''. Support of an amendment to end same - sex marriage in California has caused then - California State Assemblyman Mark Leno to publicly question whether the church 's tax - exempt status should be revoked.
The emphasis on the law of chastity leads to a lower rate of pre-marital sex among LDS youth than among their peers.
Latter - day Saint sacraments are called ordinances, of which there are two types: saving ordinances and non-saving ordinances. All ordinances, whether saving or non-saving, must be performed by a man ordained to the appropriate priesthood office, with the exception of certain parts of the temple endowment and the initiatory or washings and anointings, in which men and women are separated, and women administer the ordinances for women, and men administer the ordinances for men. However, both men and women must be "set apart '', or authorized and "blessed by the laying on of hands '' by those who have proper authority before serving as temple ordinance workers.
Saving ordinances are those that are required for salvation or exaltation, and include baptism by immersion for the remission of sins; the laying on of hands for the gift of the Holy Ghost (confirmation of membership in the church of Jesus Christ); the "sacrament '' of the Lord 's supper, taken each Sunday, to keep in remembrance of the Atonement of Jesus Christ and to renew the covenants made at baptism; ordination to an office of the priesthood (for males); the initiatory or washings and anointings; the endowment; celestial marriage; and family sealings. Each saving ordinance is associated with one or more covenants that the person receiving the ordinance makes with God, and one or more blessing that God promises to the recipient.
Three primary covenants are administered by the LDS Church under the heading "new and everlasting covenant, '' called "new '' because they have been restored again and "everlasting '' because they are eternal with God. Specifically, they are the baptismal covenant; the priesthood covenant; and the marriage covenant. Each covenant, or "contract, '' between God and humans has one or more pre-requisites, offers one or more rewards, and specifies punishment for breaking it.
The first, the baptismal covenant, is entered into after the sincere communicant fulfills the pre-requisite of exercising faith in Christ, repents of his sins, is baptized by proper authority, receives the gift of the Holy Ghost, and promises to endure to the end of his mortal life continuing to exercise faith in Christ and repentance from his sins. He also agrees to stand as a witness for Christ at all times and in all places, and bear the burdens of his fellow servants Mosiah 18: 9. The scriptures are replete with references to all these gospel elements (3 Nephi 27: 13 - 22). The covenant maker receives the reward of the gift of the Holy Ghost, receives membership in the Church of Jesus Christ, receives forgiveness of sins, peace of conscience, a rebirth of the Spirit (Mosiah 4: 1 - 13; Alma 5: 49; Alma 7: 14), grace, a hope in Christ, salvation or eternal life, and the joy of the saints. The punishment for breaking the covenant is perdition (Hebrews 10: 25 - 31, 39). The sacrament of the Lord 's supper, or partaking of bread and wine instituted by Jesus, is in remembrance of this covenant, in remembrance of his blood, or atonement for sins, and the resurrection of his body.
Latter - day Saints believe the God of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob is a God of covenants. In return for Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob 's faith and obedience, God promised them (1) a numberless posterity, (2) a chosen land, and (3) the blessing of all nations through their posterity and the priesthood of their posterity, the "blessings of heaven. '' God promised Jacob 's son, Joseph, additional blessings, a special land and a righteous branch to be separated from the rest of the house of Israel (Genesis 48; Genesis 49: 22 - 26). Even later, promises and assurances were given through Moses and other prophets that, even though all Israel should be scattered and many persecuted, the earlier promises would not be forgotten, and a day of restoration and gathering would come in which all the tribes of Israel would be united in peace under the Lord. The Book of Mormon is said to be a witness to the truth of these promises, and it is an assurance that more of them will not be left unfulfilled.
The church teaches there are three rewards or degrees of glory in the heavenly world (1 Corinthians 15: 29 -, 40 - 42; D&C 76; D&C 131: 1 - 4), and that to obtain the highest degree of salvation (referred to as "exaltation '' in the celestial kingdom), all people who have lived to the age of eight must participate in each of the saving ordinances. However, the church teaches that they may be performed for a person either during their lifetime or by proxy after the person has died. Therefore, church members participate in the saving ordinances on behalf of dead relatives and others whose names have been extracted from historical records. The performance of these proxy ordinances are one of the functions of the church 's temples.
All the saving ordinances are currently open to all worthy church members of the appropriate age. Prior to 1978, black members were restricted from receiving the priesthood and from all ordinances performed in temples. Celestial marriage is open to one man and one woman at a time, but a man whose spouse has died may enter a second celestial marriage.
Apart from sealings to parents, the church does not perform saving ordinances for those younger than age eight or for those who have died before the age of eight (when children reach the "age of accountability ''), because young children are deemed "alive in Christ '' and not responsible for sin. Likewise, the church teaches that the saving ordinances are not required for persons age eight or older who are "mentally incapable of knowing right and wrong ''. These individuals are saved by the grace and mercy of Christ without baptism and will inherit the celestial kingdom of God.
Non-saving ordinances include the dedication of graves, the dedication of buildings, the prayer circle, the hosanna shout, shaking the dust from the feet, and various kinds of blessings, including the patriarchal blessing.
The leader of the church is the President of the Church, and church members regard him as a prophet, seer, and revelator. He is often referred to by members of the church as "the Prophet '' because the President is thought to hold the same divine calling as biblical prophets. The President 's responsibility is primarily over the church as a whole. Church members believe his stewardship also extends to all humanity as the Lord 's chosen mouthpiece. He is entitled to guide the church through revelation, acting as God 's spokesman. With the death of church president, Thomas S. Monson, on January 2, 2018, there is currently no First Presidency. Consistent with an established pattern, it is anticipated the First Presidency will be reconstituted soon after memorial services are held for Monson.
The First Presidency, the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles, the Presiding Bishopric and the First and Second Quorums of the Seventy are all referred to as general authorities because they direct the work of the entire church throughout the world. The members of the First Presidency and the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles are accepted by the church as prophets, seers, and revelators. All apostles serve in their positions until death; other general authorities are released from their service.
Other church authorities are referred to as "area authorities '' and "local authorities '' and include all other Quorums of the Seventy, mission presidents, temple presidents, stake presidents, bishops, and other priesthood quorum presidents.
The church has no salaried ministry; however, some general authorities receive stipends from the church, as needed, using income from church - owned investments. All local and area authorities are unpaid and continue in their normal occupations while serving in leadership positions.
Although the church had a paid local clergy in the 1800s, local and regional priesthood leaders currently serve as volunteers. Non-clerical church employees, general authorities (who serve life or five - year terms), and mission presidents are paid a stipend from church funds and provided other benefits. A general missionary fund covers the basic living expenses of single Mormon missionaries. Missionaries and their families are asked to contribute to this fund, and in the United States the missionary 's congregation of origin is ultimately responsible to satisfy the monthly obligation to the general fund. Members volunteer general custodial work for local church facilities.
The church has a hierarchical structure, with clearly defined stewardships or realms of responsibility for the various offices. Those who hold such offices do not elect to do so but are "called '' by someone of a higher authority in the church.
The status of women in church leadership has remained largely unchanged since the early 1900s. Although they are not ordained to the priesthood, preaching and instruction by women is an integral part of weekly Latter - day Saint worship. Certain leadership positions are filled only by women, and in some of the church 's auxiliary organizations women may preside over men. Since the 1840s, women have officiated in certain ordinances that take place inside temples.
The priesthood is offered to all male members ages 12 and older who follow the church 's code of ethics, morality and behavior. Men receive the priesthood by ordination, which consists of other priesthood holders laying their hands on their head. Ordination to the priesthood is a prerequisite to preside in the church.
The priesthood is structured in a hierarchical manner, emphasizing obedience. Members are encouraged to avoid public criticism of priesthood leaders; repeated public criticism by an individual may eventually result in excommunication.
There is one priesthood with two levels; within each are different offices. The first level is the Aaronic Priesthood given to young men ages 12 -- 17. The first office in this priesthood level is called a deacon; males aged 12 and 13 are ordained to this office. Their primary duty is to pass the sacrament to members on Sundays and collect fast offerings.
Teacher is the second office and is given to males ages 14 and 15. The primary duties of teachers are to prepare the sacrament, participate in home teaching, and assist members with their temporal needs if requested.
Priest is the third office in the Aaronic priesthood; this office given the males ages 16 and older. The primary duties of a priest is to bless the sacrament and participate in home teaching. Priests also have the authority to baptize individuals who choose to become members of the church. A priest can also confer the Aaronic priesthood or ordain others to the office of deacon, teacher, or priest.
Bishop is the highest office of the Aaronic Priesthood. A bishop must also be a high priest in the Melchizedek priesthood. A bishop 's responsibility is to preside over a local group of Aaronic priesthood members and to act as the presiding high priest over a church congregation.
The second level of the priesthood is the Melchizedek priesthood. All Melchizedek priesthood holders are 18 or older but the offices do not have set ages for progression.
The first office is elder. An elder may confer the gift of the Holy Ghost; give blessings by the laying on of hands; ordain other elders; and perform any duty given to priests of the Aaronic priesthood.
A second office is high priest. A high priest is responsible for the spiritual welfare of their congregation of saints; may serve in a bishopric, stake presidency, high council, or temple presidency and may serve as a mission president. Further, he may ordain other high priests and elders; and can perform all the duties of both elder and Aaronic priesthood holders. Bishops, stake presidents, members of a stake high council, mission presidents, temple presidents, and members of the First Presidency must be ordained high priests.
A third office is patriarch. A patriarch 's main responsibility is to provide patriarchal blessings for members of a stake or district (a geographic region of multiple congregations) and to declare an individual 's lineage.
A fourth office is seventy. Those who hold this office are especial witnesses of Christ who assist the apostles in the administration of the church worldwide and in the church 's areas. Each seventy is usually given a specific responsibility for a particular region.
The highest office of the Melchizedek priesthood is apostle. This office is reserved for members of the Quorum of the Twelves Apostles and members of the First Presidency. The main role of an apostle is to act as a special witness of Jesus Christ to the world at large and to oversee the spiritual and temporal administration of the church. The President of the Church is the person in the church who has been an ordained apostle for the longest period of time.
Under the leadership of the priesthood hierarchy are five auxiliary organizations that fill various roles in the church: Relief Society, Young Men organization, Young Women organization, Primary, and Sunday School.
The Relief Society is the church 's women 's organization. Founded in 1842 in Nauvoo, Illinois, and with the motto "Charity Never Faileth '', the organization today includes more than 5.5 million women in over 170 countries. Every Latter - day Saint woman age 18 or older is a member of the Relief Society.
The Young Men and Young Women organizations are composed of adolescents aged 12 to 18. Members often have an additional meeting during the week (referred to as Mutual), which can involve an activity, game, service project, or instruction. The young men and women may meet separately or take part in a combined activities. In the United States and Canada, the young men participate in Scouting, including efforts to earn the Boy Scouts religious award for church members, "On my Honor. '' Young men throughout the church also work toward earning the church 's "Duty to God '' award. Young women participate in a comparable program called Personal Progress. Both the young men and the young women are encouraged to live by the standards outlined in the church 's "For the Strength of Youth '' booklet.
The Primary is an organization for children up to age 12, founded in 1878. It provides classes, music, and activities for children during the second and third hours of the Sunday meeting schedule.
The LDS Sunday School organization provides classes for adolescents and adults during the second hour of the Sunday meeting schedule. It provides a variety of classes, including introductory classes for new members and nonmembers, and gospel doctrine classes for more experienced members. Adolescents are grouped into classes by age.
For members of the church, the greatest commandment is to love God with all their heart and the second is to love others as they love themselves. All other commandments are considered appendages to these great commandments (Matt 22: 37 - 40). Members are encouraged to pray several times a day, to perform good works, and to read scriptures daily.
Members are expected to donate their time, money, and talents to the church, and those who have participated in the endowment ceremony make an oath to donate all that they have, if required of them, to the Lord. To be in good standing and to enter the church 's temples, church members are asked to tithe their income to the church, which is officially interpreted as 10 per cent of annual income. In addition, members are invited to donate monthly charitable "fast offerings '' (at least the equivalent cost of two meals), which are used to help the poor and needy in the community; members are also encouraged to make other humanitarian donations through the church.
Members who have participated in the temple endowment ceremony are expected to wear a temple garment under their clothing at all times. Members are told that they should not partially or completely remove the garment to participate in activities that can "reasonably be done with the garment worn properly beneath the clothing ''. When necessary, the garment may be temporarily removed, but members are told that after the activity they should put it back on as soon as possible. Swimming is given as an example of an activity that would justify removal of the garment.
In addition to attending the weekly three - hour church services, members are usually given "callings '' or assignments in the church, and often attend various other meetings or activities throughout the week relating to that calling. Members in good standing are assigned to visit the homes of other members monthly as "home teachers '' (men) or "visiting teachers '' (women). Members are also expected to engage in missionary work, family history research, to conduct a Family Home Evening weekly with their family, and to attend the temple regularly. Church members are encouraged to live self - sufficiently and avoid unnecessary debt. All male members are expected to serve a two - year mission sometime during the ages of 18 -- 26 after they have finished high school or its equivalent, though there are high standards of worthiness and physical and mental health that prohibit many men from serving. Women may optionally serve an 18 - month mission if they are at least 19 years old. In addition to single men and women, retired married couples may also choose to serve a mission.
Good standing in the church requires that members follow the "Word of Wisdom '', a health code given by Joseph Smith which the church interprets as requiring abstinence from alcohol, tobacco, coffee, tea, and recreational drugs). Members must also obey the law of chastity and are strongly counseled against choosing an elective abortion, except in the cases of a pregnancy resulting from rape or incest, a pregnancy that seriously jeopardizes the life or health of the mother, or a pregnancy where a physician determines that the fetus has severe defects that will not allow the baby to survive beyond birth. In general, members are encouraged obey the law of the country in which they live, although there have been notable exceptions. The church discourages gambling in all forms, including lotteries.
Church members who commit what are considered serious violations of the standards of the church (defined as, without limitation, "attempted murder, rape, sexual abuse, spouse abuse, intentional serious physical injury of others, adultery, fornication, homosexual relations, deliberate abandonment of family responsibilities, robbery, burglary, theft, embezzlement, sale of illegal drugs, fraud, perjury, and false swearing '') may be subject to church disciplinary action, including disfellowshipment or excommunication. Such individuals are encouraged to continue attending church services, but are not permitted to hold church responsibilities or offer public prayer or sermons at any church meeting (although personal prayer is encouraged); excommunicated members are also prohibited from paying tithing or fast offerings. Such matters are generally kept private and other members are therefore frequently unaware of the status of such individuals. Everyone is welcome to attend the public meetings of the church, whether or not they adhere to the church 's lifestyle code.
Church members are permitted to think or believe freely on any issue, but are discouraged from publicly criticizing local leaders or general authorities; repeated public criticism of the church or its leaders may subject a person to church discipline for apostasy. The church maintains a Strengthening Church Members Committee which monitors members ' publications and refers critical material to local authorities for possible disciplinary action.
Church funds are used to construct and maintain buildings and other facilities; provide for the administrative needs of local church units; provide social welfare and relief; and to support missionary, educational, and other church - sponsored programs. The church has also invested in business and real estate ventures such as Bonneville International, Deseret Book Company, and cattle ranches in Utah, Florida, and Canada.
The church receives most of its money from tithes and fast offerings. About ten percent of its funding also comes from income on investments and real estate holdings.
The church has not released church - wide financial statements since 1959, but in 1997 Time called it one of the world 's wealthiest churches per capita. Its for - profit, non-profit, and educational subsidiary entities are audited by an independent accounting firm: as of 2007, Deloitte & Touche.
The church provides several kinds of services and gatherings for participation by members and non-members, including weekly services on Sunday, periodic conferences such as the bi-annual general conference, and ritual services at the church 's temples (for members only). All persons, regardless of their beliefs or standing in or out of the church, are welcome to attend non-temple church services and conferences. Women usually attend worship services wearing skirts or dresses, while men typically wear suits or dress shirts and ties. Children are also typically in their "Sunday best. ''
The church holds its normal worship services on Sunday during a three - hour block composed of three meetings: sacrament meeting, which features the church 's weekly sacrament ritual and sermons by various selected members; Sunday School, featuring a lesson on various scriptural topics; and finally, each participant is assigned a meeting based on their age and sex, which could include a meeting of priesthood holders for males aged 12 and up separated into age - specific quorums, Relief Society for adult women, and a meeting of the Young Women organization for adolescent females. During the second and third hours, children under age 12 participate in activities of the Primary. Periodically, members participate in local, regional, and general church - wide conferences in lieu of Sunday services. General conference is broadcast semi-annually (April and October) from Salt Lake City, Utah.
The church also provides ritual services at its temples, which are open only to members of the appropriate age who meet standards of orthodoxy and worthiness. Members are encouraged to attend the temples regularly, where they usually participate in the endowment, sealing, washing and anointing, and other ordinances, most often by proxy for the dead.
Young men between the ages of 18 and 25 who meet standards of worthiness and preparation are encouraged to serve a two - year, full - time proselytizing mission. Women who desire to serve a mission must be at least 19 and generally serve 18 - month missions. Retired married couples are encouraged to serve missions as well, and their length of service varies from three to 36 months.
As of December 2013 there were 405 missions and approximately 83,000 full - time proselytizing missionaries serving throughout the world. In addition, about 8,500 missionaries are on special assignment missions, serving as health care specialists, doctors, craftsmen, artisans, construction supervisors, agricultural experts and educators for developing countries and educators, family history researchers and leadership trainers.
In June 2007, the church marked the induction of its one millionth missionary since 1830.
Latter - day Saints believe in the value of education. Joseph Smith taught that "the glory of God is intelligence. '' Accordingly, the church maintains Brigham Young University, Brigham Young University -- Idaho, Brigham Young University -- Hawaii, and LDS Business College. The church also has religious education programs. Seminary is a program for secondary school students held daily in conjunction with the school year. The Institute of Religion and the LDS Student Association programs serve young adults between the ages of 18 and 30 and those enrolled in post-secondary education institutions with church - owned buildings near university and college campuses designated for the purpose of religious education and cultural socialization.
In addition, the church sponsors a low - interest educational loan program known as the Perpetual Education Fund. This fund is designed to benefit young men and women from developing countries who have served a mission, returned to their home, and need further education to become productive citizens in their respective countries. As they finish their education and enter the work force, they then are able to pay back the funds provided so that other individuals can attend both vocational technical schools and university.
Members of the church donate fast offerings on Fast Sunday and at other times for the purpose of helping those who are poor or financially struggling. The bishop will meet with a family, or the head (s) of a family to determine whether and how much help they need from the church. The church strongly encourages its members to be self - reliant, so these meetings will usually include a plan on how to get the family back on its own feet. This welfare program is not only available to members of the church, but to any needy members of the community. On a general church scale, the church engages in humanitarian efforts which provides money and supplies to assist victims of natural disasters. All of these services are paid for by charitable donations and are run by volunteer workers. $104.9 million of aid was given in 2007. As of April 2010 there are 8,500 welfare service missionaries serving in the church.
The church also publishes several official periodicals, including the Ensign (for English - speaking adults), the Liahona (non-English languages), the New Era (for youth), and the Friend (for children).
Some older, discontinued English - language publications produced or affiliated with the church included Evening and Morning Star (1833 -- 34), Messenger and Advocate (1834 -- 37), Elders ' Journal (1837), Times and Seasons (1839 -- 46), Millennial Star (1840 -- 1970), The Seer (1853 -- 54), Journal of Discourses (1854 -- 86), The Juvenile Instructor (1866 -- 1930), Woman 's Exponent (1872 -- 1914), The Contributor (1879 -- 96), Young Woman 's Journal (1889 -- 1929), Improvement Era (1897 -- 1970), The Children 's Friend (1902 -- 70), Relief Society Magazine (1915 -- 70), and The Instructor (1930 -- 70).
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where do they cook food in front of you | Teppanyaki - wikipedia
Teppanyaki (鉄板焼 き, teppan - yaki) is a style of Japanese cuisine that uses an iron griddle to cook food. The word teppanyaki is derived from teppan (鉄板), which means iron plate, and yaki (焼き), which means grilled, broiled, or pan-fried. In Japan, teppanyaki refers to dishes cooked using an iron plate, including steak, shrimp, okonomiyaki, yakisoba, and monjayaki.
Modern teppanyaki grills are typically propane - heated flat surface grills and are widely used to cook food in front of guests at restaurants. Teppanyaki grills are commonly confused with the hibachi barbecue grill, which has a charcoal or gas flame and is made with an open grate design. With a solid griddle type cook surface, the teppanyaki is more suitable for smaller ingredients, such as rice, egg, and finely chopped vegetables.
The originator of the teppanyaki - style steakhouse is believed to be Shigeji Fujioka of the Japanese restaurant chain Misono. The restaurant claims to be the first to introduce the concept of cooking Western - influenced food on a teppan in Japan, in 1945. They soon found the cuisine was less popular with the Japanese than it was with foreigners, who enjoyed both watching the skilled maneuvers of the chefs preparing the food as well as the cuisine itself, which is somewhat more familiar than more traditional Japanese dishes. As the restaurants became more popular with tourists, the chain increased the performance aspect of the chef 's preparation, such as stacking onion slices to produce a flaming onion volcano.
Another piece of equipment in the same family is a flattop grill, consisting of a flat piece of steel over circular burners and typically smaller and round, like a Mongolian barbecue.
Typical ingredients used for Western - style teppanyaki are beef, shrimp, scallops, lobster, chicken, and assorted vegetables. Soybean oil is typically used to cook the ingredients.
Japanese - style teppanyaki may also use noodles (yakisoba) or cabbage with sliced meat or seafood (okonomiyaki), which are cooked using vegetable oil, animal fat, or a mixture. In Japan, many teppanyaki restaurants feature Kobe beef.
Side dishes of mung bean sprouts, zucchini (courgettes) (even though this is not a popular vegetable in Japan and rarely found in that market), garlic chips (crisps), or fried rice usually accompany the meal. Some restaurants provide sauces in which to dip the food. In Japan, only soy sauce is typically offered.
Restaurants serving teppanyaki cuisine are often known as hibachi grills or "Japanese steakhouses ''.
In the United States, teppanyaki was made famous by the Benihana restaurant chain, which opened its first restaurant in New York in 1964. Benihana and other chains of teppanyaki steakhouses continue to place an emphasis on the chef performing a show for the diners, continuing to introduce new variations and tricks. The chef might juggle utensils, flip a shrimp tail into his shirt pocket, catch an egg in his hat, toss an egg up in the air and split it with a spatula, flip flattened shrimp pieces into diners ' mouths, or arrange onion rings into fire - shooting volcanoes.
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were is the hottest place in the world | List of Weather records - wikipedia
This is a list of weather records, a list of the most extreme occurrences of weather phenomena for various categories. Many weather records are measured under specific conditions -- such as surface temperature and wind speed -- to keep consistency among measurements around the Earth. Each of these records is understood to be the record value officially observed, as these records may have been exceeded before modern weather instrumentation was invented, or in remote areas without an official weather station. This list does not include remotely sensed observations such as satellite measurements, since those values are not considered official records.
The standard measuring conditions for temperature are in the air, 1.5 metres (4.9 ft) above the ground, and shielded from direct sunlight intensity (hence the term, x degrees "in the shade ''). The following lists include all officially confirmed claims measured by those methods.
Temperatures measured directly on the ground may exceed air temperatures by 30 to 50 ° C (54 to 90 ° F). A ground temperature of 84 ° C (183.2 ° F) has been recorded in Port Sudan, Sudan. A ground temperature of 93.9 ° C (201.0 ° F) was recorded in Furnace Creek, Death Valley, California, United States on 15 July 1972; this may be the highest natural ground surface temperature ever recorded. The theoretical maximum possible ground surface temperature has been estimated to be between 90 and 100 ° C (194 and 212 ° F) for dry, darkish soils of low thermal conductivity.
Satellite measurements of ground temperature taken between 2003 and 2009, taken with the MODIS infrared spectroradiometer on the Aqua satellite, found a maximum temperature of 70.7 ° C (159.3 ° F), which was recorded in 2005 in the Lut Desert, Iran. The Lut Desert was also found to have the highest maximum temperature in 5 of the 7 years measured (2004, 2005, 2006, 2007 and 2009). These measurements reflect averages over a large region and so are lower than the maximum point surface temperature.
Satellite measurements of the surface temperature of Antarctica, taken between 1982 and 2013, found a coldest temperature of − 93.2 ° C (− 135.8 ° F) on 10 August 2010, at 81 ° 48 ′ S 59 ° 18 ′ E / 81.8 ° S 59.3 ° E / - 81.8; 59.3. Although this is not comparable to an air temperature, it is believed that the air temperature at this location would have been lower than the official record lowest air temperature of − 89.2 ° C (− 128.6 ° F).
There are reports of temperatures higher than the listed world record of 56.7 ° C (134.1 ° F) during phenomena known as heat bursts, including a report of 87 ° C (189 ° F) in Abadan, Iran in June 1967. There are also reports made by satellite analysis, including one of 66.8 ° C (152.2 ° F) measured in the Flaming Mountains of China in 2008. These temperatures have never been confirmed, and are not recognized as world records. The former highest official temperature on Earth, held for 90 years by ' Aziziya, Libya, was de-certified by the WMO (World Meteorological Organization) in January 2012 as the record for the world 's highest surface temperature. (This temperature of 58 ° C (136 ° F), registered on 13 September 1922, is currently considered to have been a recorder 's error.)
Christopher C. Burt, the weather historian writing for Weather Underground who shepherded the Libya reading 's 2012 disqualification, believes that the 1913 Death Valley reading is "a myth '', and is at least 2.2 or 2.8 ° C (4 or 5 ° F) too high. Burt proposes that the highest reliably recorded temperature on Earth is still at Death Valley, but is instead 54.0 ° C (129.2 ° F) recorded on 30 June 2013. 53.9 ° C (129.0 ° F) was recorded another four times: 20 July 1960, 18 July 1998, 20 July 2005, and 7 July 2007. On 21 July 2016, Mitribah in Kuwait also recorded a maximum temperature of 54.0 ° C (129.2 ° F), tying Death Valley 's highest reliably recorded temperature on Earth, while Basra in Iraq reached 53.9 ° C (129.0 ° F) that day. On 29 June 2017, the air at the airport of Ahvaz in Iran reached 54.0 ° C (129.2 ° F) as well. In a second part to his analysis, he gave a list of 11 other occasions in which temperatures of 52.8 ° C (127.0 ° F) or more were reliably measured as well as the highest reliably measured temperatures on each continent.
* Temperature record considered unreliable by Christopher Burt.
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im a celebrity get me out of here extra camp | I 'm a Celebrity... Get Me Out of Here! (UK TV series) - wikipedia
I 'm a Celebrity... Get Me Out Of Here! (often shortened to I 'm a Celebrity or I 'm a Celeb) is a British survival reality television game show, first aired on 25 August 2002, in which celebrities live in jungle conditions with few creature comforts. The show has been hosted by Ant & Dec since its inception and served as the inspiration for a franchise of the same name. It is filmed in Murwillumbah, New South Wales, Australia and broadcast on ITV in the United Kingdom.
In the Republic of Ireland, TV3 began simulcasts at the beginning of series 3 in 2004. The series moved to their sister channel 3e for series 12, 13 and 14. The series moved to UTV Ireland in 2015 for series 15. The show has been contracted to air until at least 2019, taking it to at least 19 series.
On 9 August 2018, Anthony McPartlin confirmed that he will not be presenting the upcoming eighteenth series. On 29 August, it was confirmed that Holly Willoughby would host the eighteenth series with Donnelly whilst McPartlin takes a year long break from television following a stint in rehab.
In return for their appearance on I 'm a Celebrity... Get Me Out of Here!, the celebrities are asked to nominate a charity to which the producers, ITV Studios, make donations. The celebrities themselves are also paid a fee to compensate them for possible loss of earnings while they are in the jungle. The producers of the show keep the precise details of the celebrities ' contracts private, prompting much speculation from the media. The money is raised by allowing viewers to vote by phone, text message, or the "red button '' (a colloquialism popular in the UK for TV interactive services) for the celebrity they would like to complete a "Bushtucker Trial '' -- a physical task usually involving snakes, spiders or other creepy - crawlies found in the jungle -- and, later in each series, to vote for the celebrity they would like to see win the show. The last remaining celebrity after all others have been evicted is declared the winner of the show, and is branded "King / Queen of the Jungle ''.
Bushtucker trials are used in the show to allow the contestants to gain food and treats for camp. Bushtucker Trials take two formats: eating trials, or physical / mental tasks.
In the eating trials, contestants are required to eat a variety of different "jungle '' foods. Each dish successfully eaten will gain the contestants one star, which equals one meal for camp (although the number of meals per star can vary). These trials generate the most viewer responses according to the ITV website. The foods that are required to be eaten can include: crickets (in a variety of forms, such as cooked into biscuits, blended into drinks or eaten alive or dead), green ants, mealworms, witchetty grub, roasted spider or tarantulas, kangaroo testicles, kangaroo penis, kangaroo vaginal parts, crocodile penis, cockroach (prepared in various ways such as being cooked into biscuits, blended into drinks, eaten alive or dead). Other past foods include beach worms, bull 's tongues, the anus of various animals, vomit fruits, cooked pigs ' brains, various animal testicles, raw fish eyes, sheep eyes, blended rats or mice tails.
The second type of challenge is more of a physical or mental task that requires the contestants to perform activities to gain stars. These can include searching through dung, going through tunnels, negotiating obstacles on high wires, or performing other tasks.
One way of camp can earn treats is by doing extra tasks in Bushtucker trials or in general. Dingo Dimes can be used in the vending machine in Croc Creek. Dingo Dimes only featured in the 2015 series.
Another way camp can earn treats is to do what is known as the "Dingo Dollar Challenge ''. This involves two or more celebrities going into the jungle to perform a task that releases an item to open a container with an amount of dingo dollars. Once that has been completed and the dollars have been retrieved, it is taken to a small woodshack shop, with shopkeeper ' Kiosk Keith '. They can exchange the dollars for a necessity such as a hammock or a treat such as chocolate chip cookies. Kiosk Keith calls camp and the celebrities then have a question usually relating to a celebrity or a piece of trivia. The "Celebrity Chest '' was abandoned for the first time in the 2012 series, in favour of the Dingo Dollar Challenge, which involves the celebrities collecting ' dingo dollars ' and subsequently answering a question correctly in order to win a treat for the camp, if they win they will receive their prize however if the celebrities get it wrong, Kiosk Keith takes the dingo dollars and shuts up shop, leaving nothing for the camp.
Formerly, ' The Celebrity Chest ' had a question with a choice of answers, similar to the Dingo Dollar Challenge, the two celebrities who took part in the challenge would bring the chest back to camp and collaborate over the question with the other camp members. If correct, they would win a treat, if incorrect, they would be told what the treat was.
In Dingo Dollars if the camp members answer correctly they get a choice of two treats.
The first series of the show was filmed near Cairns, in Queensland, Australia. Since the second series, the programme has been filmed in Springbrook National Park, near Murwillumbah, New South Wales, Australia.
Inside the entrance to the filming location is an open area allocated to buildings which accommodate on - site medical facilities, containers for the storage of props, and other back - stage facilities. Families and friends of the celebrities are housed here each morning during evictions. From this area, a restricted access road climbs to the site of the studios. The road then heads down into a valley via four - wheel drive access to the set of the show.
Some of these areas are viewable from Google Earth, although it is difficult to view the suspension bridges and open - air studio that Ant & Dec broadcast from. While the roof of the main building is bright red, when filming is out of season, this whole area is covered with hessian to obscure the aerial view. The creeks and camp areas are situated directly below the main suspension bridges. As they are so close to the celebrities, the crew have to be careful during filming to keep voices and music down. Many of the Bushtucker Trials are not performed here; in fact, some are performed well away from the area.
Once out of the jungle, the contestants stay at the five - star hotel Palazzo Versace Australia. The health and well - being of the celebrities and crew are looked after by medic Bob McCarron and his team from EMS. McCarron is also responsible for all of the creatures and food in the challenges.
The finals of the second and third UK series were seen by 12.73 and 14.99 million people respectively -- in both cases well over half of all people watching television in the country at the time.
The site in which the celebrities stay appears to be open to the elements, but is largely covered by sheets above the view of the cameras. In one episode, a celebrity had to swim in a swamp apparently infested with crocodiles. Marksmen were shown ready to shoot the animals if they attacked. In actuality, the area where this was filmed does not have crocodiles because it is too far south.
In Series 9 it was revealed that Katie Price was being paid almost four times as much as the other contestants, which sparked some criticism. It was also reported that, as a result, cash - strapped ITV were unable to provide any more money for the series, and that the quality of the trials had gone down.
Winners are crowned King or Queen of their respective year. To date, there have been 10 Kings and 7 Queens of the Jungle.
Key:
Sponsors in the Republic of Ireland includes holiday firm MultiTrip.com, online fashion store M and M Direct and more recently car company, Kia.
The first three series of I 'm a Celebrity occurred at various different times during the years they were broadcast. From series 4 onwards, the show is broadcast from around mid November until late November / early December.
8 contestants, 25 August -- 8 September 2002:
10 contestants, 28 April -- 12 May 2003:
10 contestants, 26 January -- 9 February 2004:
11 contestants, 21 November -- 6 December 2004:
12 contestants, 20 November -- 5 December 2005:
12 contestants, 13 November -- 1 December 2006:
11 contestants, 12 -- 30 November 2007:
Series 8: Sunday 16 November -- 5 December 2008:
Series 9: 15 November -- 4 December 2009
I 'm a Celebrity... Get Me out of Here! returned on 14 November 2010 at 9pm on ITV and ITV1 HD for its tenth series, as confirmed by presenters Ant and Dec at the end of the "Coming Out '' show at the conclusion of series 9. This is the first series in HD. Series 10 is the only series to have 2 live trials.
Series 10: 14 November -- 4 December 2010
The eleventh series began on 13 November 2011. The official line - up was confirmed on 9 November 2011.
Series 11: 13 November -- 3 December 2011
The twelfth series began on 11 November and ended on 1 December 2012. The official line - up was revealed on 7 November 2012.
Series 12: 11 November -- 1 December 2012
The thirteenth series began airing on ITV on 17 November 2013. The first advert for the series aired on 21 October 2013. The line - up was confirmed on 13 November 2013.
Series 13: 17 November 2013 -- 8 December 2013
The show returned for its fourteenth series on 16 November 2014. On 15 October 2014, a teaser for the upcoming series was released on the official website. On 11 November, the full list of celebrities was confirmed by ITV. On 20 November, a further two campmates were confirmed to have joined the show.
Series 14: 16 November 2014 -- 7 December 2014
The show returned on 15 November 2015 under a new three - year contract, as confirmed by Ant & Dec at the end of the Coming Out show on 10 December 2014.
Series 15: 15 November 2015 -- 6 December 2015
The show returned in 2016, and is the second in a three - year contract, as confirmed by Ant & Dec at the end of the Coming Out show on 9 December 2015. It began airing on 13 November 2016.
Series 16: 13 November 2016 -- 4 December 2016
The show returned in 2017, and is the third in a three - year contract, as confirmed by Ant & Dec at the end of the Coming Out show on 7 December 2016. It began airing on 19 November 2017.
Series 17: 19 November 2017 -- 10 December 2017
Ant & Dec confirmed at the end of the Coming Out show on 15 December 2017 that the show will return in 2018. It is the first series in a new two - year contract. However, on 9 August 2018, Anthony McPartlin confirmed that he will not be presenting the eighteenth series as he continues to get treatment after being admitted to rehab in March.
On 29 August, it was confirmed that Holly Willoughby would host the eighteenth series with Declan Donnelly.
Note for "Average rating '': Since 2010 incl. HD viewers and since 2011 incl. "ITV + 1 '' consumers.
A companion show, I 'm a Celebrity: Extra Camp (previously I 'm a Celebrity... Get Me Out of Here! NOW! from 2002 -- 2015) is broadcast on ITV2 following every episode. It has been shown since the first series in 2002 and has featured a variety of presenters. The show is currently presented by Scarlett Moffatt, Joel Dommett and Joe Swash.
Coordinates: 28 ° 15 ′ 42.75 '' S 153 ° 21 ′ 1.79 '' E / 28.2618750 ° S 153.3504972 ° E / - 28.2618750; 153.3504972
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what do the lyrics to running up that hill mean | Running up That Hill - wikipedia
"Running Up That Hill '' is a song by the English singer - songwriter Kate Bush. It was the first single from her 1985 album, Hounds of Love, released in the United Kingdom on 5 August 1985. It was her first 12 '' single. It was the most successful of Bush 's 1980s releases, entering the UK chart at number 9 and eventually peaking at number 3, her second - highest single peak. The single also had an impact in the United States, providing Bush with her first chart hit there since 1978, where it reached the top 30 and featured prominently in the Dance Charts. Bush also performed the song with David Gilmour of Pink Floyd at the Secret Policeman 's Third Ball. The song 's title for Hounds of Love and all subsequent releases was "Running Up That Hill (A Deal with God) ''.
The B - side of the 7 '' single contains Bush 's song "Under the Ivy ''. The 12 - inch single contains an extended remix and an instrumental version of "Running Up That Hill '', as well as "Under the Ivy ''. A limited 7 '' single gatefold sleeve edition was also released.
The song has been critically acclaimed. In a retrospective review of the single, Allmusic journalist Amy Hanson wrote: "Always adept at emotion and beautifully able to manipulate even the most bitter of hearts, rarely has Bush penned such a brutally truthful, painfully sensual song. ''
The song was featured as the main theme tune for the 1986 BBC 1 gritty children 's drama serial Running Scared.
Representatives at EMI were hesitant to release the song with its original title of "A Deal with God '' owing to possible negative reception because of its use of the word "God ''. Bush relented and changed the title. However, the album version of the song is listed as "Running Up That Hill (A Deal with God) ''. The executives of EMI initially wanted to release another song, "Cloudbusting '', as the lead single from the album. Bush successfully persuaded them to release "Running Up That Hill '' first, claiming that it was the first song written for the album, and felt that it better represented the broader feel for Hounds of Love.
The song itself has often been misinterpreted. Bush herself has said,
I was trying to say that, really, a man and a woman ca n't understand each other because we are a man and a woman. And if we could actually swap each other 's roles, if we could actually be in each other 's place for a while, I think we 'd both be very surprised! (Laughs) And I think it would lead to a greater understanding. And really the only way I could think it could be done was either... you know, I thought a deal with the devil, you know. And I thought, ' well, no, why not a deal with God! ' You know, because in a way it 's so much more powerful the whole idea of asking God to make a deal with you. You see, for me it is still called "Deal With God '', that was its title. But we were told that if we kept this title that it would not be played in any of the religious countries, Italy would n't play it, France would n't play it, and Australia would n't play it! Ireland would n't play it, and that generally we might get it blacked purely because it had God in the title.
The music video featured Bush performing an interpretive dance with dancer Michael Hervieu. The video was directed by David Garfath while the dance routines were choreographed by Diane Grey. Bush and Hervieu are shown wearing grey Japanese hakamas. Bush wanted the dancing in "Running Up That Hill '' to be more of a classical performance. She stated that dance in music videos was "being used quite trivially, it was being exploited: haphazard images, busy, lots of dances, without really the serious expression, and wonderful expression, that dance can give. So we felt how interesting it would be to make a very simple routine between two people, almost classic, and very simply filmed. So that 's what we tried, really, to do a serious piece of dance. ''
The choreography draws upon contemporary dance with a repeated gesture suggestive of drawing a bow and arrow (the gesture was made literal on the cover for the single in which Bush poses with a real bow and arrow), intercut with surreal sequences of Bush and Hervieu searching through crowds of masked strangers. At the climax of the song, Bush 's partner withdraws from her and the two are then swept away from each other and down a long hall in opposite directions by an endless stream of anonymous figures wearing masks made from pictures of Bush and Hervieu 's faces. MTV chose not to show this video (at the time of its original release) and instead used a live performance of the song recorded at a promotional appearance on the BBC TV show Wogan. According to Paddy Bush, "MTV were n't particularly interested in broadcasting videos that did n't have synchronized lip movements in them. They liked the idea of people singing songs. ''
On 12 August 2012, Bush released a new version of the song "Running Up That Hill (A Deal With God) ''. Subtitled ' 2012 Remix ', it uses the backing track of the extended version on the 1985 12 '' single, over which new lead vocals were recorded. The track was transposed down a semitone to fit Bush 's current lower vocal range. The new version was premiered during the 2012 Summer Olympics closing ceremony. Bush did not appear herself, but the recording was featured in a crucial section of the closing ceremony, after the entry of athletes and prior to the presentation of the medals for the Marathon. The track set the theme to a dance performance, where a ' hill ' or pyramid was gradually assembled by the dancers from giant white blocks, representing each of the Olympic events. The performance was not shown in the United States NBC coverage due to time constraints and tape delay issues.
The track is included in the official soundtrack album of the 2012 Summer Olympics closing ceremony A Symphony of British Music: Music for the Closing Ceremony of the London 2012 Olympic Games.
On 19 August the remix entered the UK charts at number 6. It was Bush 's return to the top ten after nearly seven years, following "King of the Mountain '' in 2005.
All tracks written by Kate Bush.
All tracks written by Kate Bush.
"Running Up That Hill '' was covered by Dutch symphonic metal band Within Temptation in 2003. The song debuted at number 9 in the Dutch charts on 17 May 2003. It peaked at number 7 a week later.
Lead singer Sharon den Adel stated about covering Running Up That Hill: "Well, we tried another song of Kate Bush because we had two songs that we were just playing around with because people were comparing me always with her as a similar kind of voice, and we were just fooling around in the studio and "Running Up That Hill '' came by. And it was like, "We really sound like this, '' you know, and it turned out so well that we made a single out of it because we were between albums. ''
2003 release CD:
DVD:
2004 release CD:
DVD:
Alternative rock band Placebo covered "Running Up That Hill '', releasing it originally on the bonus disc of their 2003 album Sleeping with Ghosts, then featuring it on Covers and the US version of Meds in 2007. Placebo 's take on the song is more downbeat than the original. It has been described by Q magazine as ' sound (ing) more like a pact with the Devil ' than the original ' deal with God '. Their version of the song made an appearance on the debut episode of The Vampire Diaries, concluded an episode of CSI: Crime Scene Investigation entitled "A la Cart '', and was used on Bones, Stargate: Universe, Queer as Folk, The O.C., and NCIS: Los Angeles. It was also used in the promotional video for the Shawn Michaels vs The Undertaker rematch at Wrestlemania XXVI, and is featured in the trailer for the movie Daybreakers. It can be also heard in the movies From Paris with Love and The Heavy. It has also been used in British TV series Waterloo Road. A recording of Placebo 's version which features Bush 's vocals was used in promos for the History Channel 's 2011 special, Gettysburg. The song was used as the closing credit 's in the BBC Three film adaptation of Sophie Lancaster 's Murder titled Murdered for Being Different. Placebo also performed the song live in London for iTunes Festival in September 2014 The song was also performed at Pinkpop in Landgraaf, The Netherlands in June 2015.
Norwegian metal singer Jørn Lande released a hard rock version of "Running Up That Hill '' on his 2016 cover album "Heavy Rock Radio '', stating in an interview that he hoped to pay homage to the original artist, while creating a "strong alternative version to enjoy. ''
Electronic band Chromatics released a cover on their 2007 album Night Drive. This version was stripped back considerably and made heavy use of electronic drums, synthesizers and breathy vocals, effectively reimagining the song in the style of Italo Disco.
A dance remix by Levy 9 was released in the 1990s, Trance and house music acts, such as Elastic Band, Armin van Buuren and Markus Schulz have performed versions of the song. Australian electronic music trio Infusion remixed the song in 2003, and it was unofficially released on White label vinyl as "Kate Bush vs. Infusion -- Running Up That Hill ''. Dutch rap act Flinke Namen, sampled the chorus for their song "Wolken (Clouds) ''. This piano and string laced version reached no. 1 on the Dutch (nl: FunX) charts, with a remix version being available for download on the internet. The Very Best remixed the song on their 2011 mixtape "Super Mom ''.
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how many different versions of the bible is there | List of English Bible translations - Wikipedia
The Bible has been translated into many languages from the biblical languages of Hebrew, Aramaic and Greek. The Latin Vulgate translation was dominant in Western Christianity through the Middle Ages. Since then, the Bible has been translated into many more languages. English Bible translations also have a rich and varied history of more than a millennium.
Included when possible are dates and the source language (s) and, for incomplete translations, what portion of the text has been translated. Certain terms that occur in many entries are linked at the bottom of the page.
Because different groups of Jews and Christians differ on the true content of the Bible, the "incomplete translations '' section includes only translations seen by their translators as incomplete, such as Christian translations of the New Testament alone. Translations such as Jewish versions of the Tanakh are included in the "complete '' category, even though Christians traditionally have considered the Bible to consist properly of more than just the Tanakh.
1560 (complete Bible)
1960 (single volume complete Bible) 1984 (reference edition with footnotes) 2013 (revised)
1993 (NT, text only) 1999 (single volume complete Bible, text only) 2003 (single volume complete Bible w / footnotes)
NT: Novum Testamentum Graece (Nestle - Aland Greek New Testament, 26th edition)
1530 (Pentateuch)
1915 1935 (various volumes and editions of the WVSS were published from 1913 - 1935)
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where is the american conference basketball tournament being played | 2018 American Athletic conference Men 's Basketball tournament - wikipedia
The 2018 American Athletic Conference Men 's Basketball Tournament ended the 2017 -- 18 season of the American Athletic Conference. It was held from March 8 through March 11, 2018 at the Amway Center in Orlando, Florida. Regular - season champion Cincinnati won the tournament and with it the league 's automatic bid to the NCAA Tournament.
All 12 conference teams participated in the conference tournament. The top four teams received a bye into the quarterfinals. Teams were seeded by record within the conference, with a tiebreaker system to seed teams with identical conference records. Tiebreakers: win / loss record, head - to - head record, record against the highest ranked team outside of the tied teams, record against the second highest ranked team outside of the tied teams, etc.
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m o n u m e n t s | Monument - wikipedia
A monument is a type of -- usually three - dimensional -- structure that was explicitly created to commemorate a person or event, or which has become relevant to a social group as a part of their remembrance of historic times or cultural heritage, due to its artistic, historical, political, technical or architectural importance. Examples of monuments include statues, (war) memorials, historical buildings, archeological sites, and cultural assets. If there is a public interest in its preservation, a monument can for example be listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
The origin of the word "monument '' comes from the Greek mnemosynon and the Latin moneo, monere, which means ' to remind ', ' to advise ' or ' to warn ', suggesting a monument allows us to see the past thus helping us visualize what is to come in the future. In English the word "monumental '' is often used in reference to something of extraordinary size and power, as in monumental sculpture, but also to mean simply anything made to commemorate the dead, as a funerary monument or other example of funerary art.
Monuments have been created for thousands of years, and they are often the most durable and famous symbols of ancient civilizations. Prehistoric tumuli, dolmens, and similar structures have been created in a large number of prehistoric cultures across the world, and the many forms of monumental tombs of the more wealthy and powerful members of a society are often the source of much of our information and art from those cultures. As societies became organized on a larger scale, so monuments so large as to be difficult to destroy like the Egyptian Pyramids, the Greek Parthenon, the Great Wall of China, Indian Taj Mahal or the Moai of Easter Island have become symbols of their civilizations. In more recent times, monumental structures such as the Statue of Liberty and Eiffel Tower have become iconic emblems of modern nation - states. The term monumentality relates to the symbolic status and physical presence of a monument. In this context, German art historian Helmut Scharf states that "A monument exists in the form of an object and also as symbol thereof. As a language symbol, a monument usually refers to something concrete, in some rare cases it is also used metaphorically (...). A monument can be a language symbol for a unity of several monuments (...) or only for a single one, but in a broader sense it can also be used in nearly all knowable planes of being. (...) What is considered a monument always depends on the importance it attributes to the prevailing or traditional consciousness of a specific historical and social situation. ''
Basically, the definition framework of the term monument depends on the current historical frame conditions. Aspects of the Culture of Remembrance and cultural memory are also linked to it, as well as questions about the concepts of public sphere and durability (of the one memorized) and the form and content of the monument (work - like monument). From an art historical point of view, the dichotomy of content and form opens up the problem of the "linguistic ability '' of the monument. It becomes clear that language is an eminent part of a monument and it is often represented in "non-objective '' or "architectural monuments '', at least with a plaque. In this connection, the debate touches on the social mechanisms that combine with Remembrance. These are acceptance of the monument as an object, the conveyed contents and the impact of these contents.
Monuments are frequently used to improve the appearance of a city or location. Planned cities such as Washington D.C., New Delhi and Brasília are often built around monuments. For example, the Washington Monument 's location was conceived by L'Enfant to help organize public space in the city, before it was designed or constructed. Older cities have monuments placed at locations that are already important or are sometimes redesigned to focus on one. As Shelley suggested in his famous poem "Ozymandias '' ("Look on my works, ye Mighty, and despair! ''), the purpose of monuments is very often to impress or awe.
Structures created for others purposes that have been made notable by their age, size or historic significance may also be regarded as monuments. This can happen because of great age and size, as in the case of the Great Wall of China, or because an event of great importance occurred there such as the village of Oradour - sur - Glane in France. Many countries use Ancient monument or similar terms for the official designation of protected structures or archeological sites which may originally have been ordinary domestic houses or other buildings.
Monuments are also often designed to convey historical or political information, and they can thus develop an active socio - political potency. They can be used to reinforce the primacy of contemporary political power, such as the column of Trajan or the numerous statues of Lenin in the Soviet Union. They can be used to educate the populace about important events or figures from the past, such as in the renaming of the old General Post Office Building in New York City to the James A. Farley Building (James Farley Post Office), after former Postmaster General James Farley. To fulfill its informative and educative functions a monument needs to be open to the public, which means that its spatial dimension as well as its content can be experienced by the public, and be sustainable. The former may be achieved either by situating the monument in public space or by a public discussion about the it and its meaning, the latter by the materiality of the monument or if its content immediately becomes part of the collective or cultural memory.
The social meanings of monuments are rarely fixed and certain and are frequently ' contested ' by different social groups. As an example: whilst the former East German socialist state may have seen the Berlin Wall as a means of ' protection ' from the ideological impurity of the west, dissidents and others would often argue that it was symbolic of the inherent repression and paranoia of that state. This contention of meaning is a central theme of modern ' post processual ' archaeological discourse.
The term is often used to describe any structure that is a significant and legally protected historic work, and many countries have equivalents of what is called in United Kingdom legislation a Scheduled Monument, which often include relatively recent buildings constructed for residential or industrial purposes, with no thought at the time that they would come to be regarded as "monuments ''.
Until recently, it was customary for archaeologists to study large monuments and pay less attention to the everyday lives of the societies that created them. New ideas about what constitutes the archaeological record have revealed that certain legislative and theoretical approaches to the subject are too focused on earlier definitions of monuments. An example has been the United Kingdom 's Scheduled Ancient Monument laws.
Other than municipal or national government that protecting the monuments in their jurisdiction, there are institutions dedicated on the efforts to protect and preserve monuments that considered to possess special natural or cultural significance for the world, such as UNESCO 's World Heritage Site programme and World Monuments Fund.
Recently, more and more monuments are being preserved digitally (in 3D models) through organisations as CyArk.
Victoria monument in London, a memorial to Queen Victoria of the British Empire
Independence Monument in Kyiv commemorate the Independence of Ukraine
El Ángel national monument built to commemorate the independence of Mexico
The Statue of Liberty, the symbol of the United States ' freedom
The Cristo Redentor, a modern religious monument in Brazil
The Maqam Echahid, in Algiers, iconic concrete monument commemorating the Algerian war for independence
The Eiffel Tower, in Paris, a monument commemorating the French Revolution for its centenary
Monas in Jakarta, commemorates the Indonesian struggle for independence
The Juche Tower, a symbol of North Korea 's "self reliant '' Juche political stance
Bayterek in Astana, describes a folktale about a mythical tree of life and a magic bird of happiness
Azadi tower in Tehran, commemorates the 2,500 years of the Persian Empire and the history of Iran
Brandenburg Gate in Berlin, national symbol of Germany and its unity
Lenin mausoleum in Moscow, an enduring symbol of Soviet Union Communism and Cold War
The Chiang Kai - shek Memorial in Taipei is a monument to honor Chiang Kai - shek
The Taj Mahal, a mausoleum in India
The Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela where Saint James is buried
Kościuszko Mound, Poland commemorates Tadeusz Kościuszko
The Bell Telephone Memorial, commemorates the invention of the telephone, Brantford, Ontario
The Hiroshima Cenotaph and Atomic Bomb Dome to remember the victims of August 6, 1945 atomic bombing
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where do the cast of friends live now | Friends - wikipedia
Friends is an American television sitcom, created by David Crane and Marta Kauffman, which aired on NBC from September 22, 1994 to May 6, 2004, lasting ten seasons. With an ensemble cast starring Jennifer Aniston, Courteney Cox, Lisa Kudrow, Matt LeBlanc, Matthew Perry and David Schwimmer, the show revolves around six 20 -- 30 year old friends living in Manhattan, New York City. The series was produced by Bright / Kauffman / Crane Productions, in association with Warner Bros. Television. The original executive producers were Kevin S. Bright, Marta Kauffman, and David Crane.
Kauffman and Crane began developing Friends under the title Insomnia Cafe between November and December 1993. They presented the idea to Bright, and together they pitched a seven - page treatment of the show to NBC. After several script rewrites and changes, including a title change to Six of One, and, Friends Like Us, the series was finally named Friends.
Filming of the show took place at Warner Bros. Studios in Burbank, California. All ten seasons of Friends ranked within the top ten of the final television season ratings; ultimately reaching the number one spot in its eighth season. The series finale, aired on May 6, 2004, was watched by around 52.5 million American viewers, making it the fifth most - watched series finale in television history, and the most - watched television episode of the 2000s decade.
Friends received acclaim throughout its run, becoming one of the most popular television shows of all time. The series was nominated for 62 Primetime Emmy Awards, winning the Outstanding Comedy Series award in 2002 for its eighth season. The show ranked no. 21 on TV Guide 's 50 Greatest TV Shows of All Time, and no. 7 on Empire magazine 's The 50 Greatest TV Shows of All Time. In 1997, the episode "The One with the Prom Video '' was ranked no. 100 on TV Guide 's 100 Greatest Episodes of All - Time. In 2013, Friends ranked no. 24 on the Writers Guild of America 's 101 Best Written TV Series of All Time, and no. 28 on TV Guide 's 60 Best TV Series of All Time.
Rachel Green flees her wedding day and finds childhood friend Monica Geller, a New York City chef. They become roommates, and Rachel joins Monica 's group of single people in their mid-20s: Struggling actor Joey Tribbiani, business professional Chandler Bing, masseuse and musician Phoebe Buffay, and newly divorced palaeontologist Ross Geller, Monica 's older brother. Rachel becomes a waitress at fictitious Manhattan coffee house Central Perk; when not there, the group is usually at Monica and Rachel 's nearby West Village apartment, or Joey and Chandler 's across the hall.
Episodes depict the friends ' comedic and romantic adventures and career issues, such as Joey auditioning for roles or Rachel seeking jobs in the fashion industry. The six characters each have many dates and serious relationships, such as Monica with Richard Burke and Ross with Emily Waltham. Ross and Rachel 's intermittent relationship is the most often - recurring storyline; during the ten seasons of the show they repeatedly date and break up, while Ross briefly marries Emily, he and Rachel have a child, Chandler and Monica date and marry each other, and Phoebe marries Mike Hannigan. Other frequently recurring characters include Ross and Monica 's parents, Jack and Judy, from Long Island; Ross 's ex-wife, Carol and their son, Ben; Central Perk barista Gunther; Chandler 's ex-girlfriend Janice; and Phoebe 's twin sister Ursula.
In their original contracts for the first season, cast members were paid $22,500 per episode. The cast members received different salaries in the second season, beginning from the $20,000 range to $40,000 per episode. Before their salary negotiations for the third season, the cast decided to enter collective negotiations, despite Warner Bros. ' preference for individual deals. The actors were given the salary of the least paid cast member, meaning Aniston and Schwimmer had their salaries reduced. The stars were paid $75,000 per episode in season three, $85,000 in season four, $100,000 in season five, $125,000 in season six, $750,000 in seasons seven and eight, and $1 million in seasons nine and ten, making Aniston, Cox, and Kudrow the highest - paid TV actresses of all time. The cast also received syndication royalties beginning in 2000 after renegotiations. At the time, that financial benefit of a piece of the show 's lucrative back - end profits had only been given out to stars who had ownership rights in a show, like Jerry Seinfeld and Bill Cosby.
Series creator David Crane wanted all six actors to be equally prominent, and the series was lauded as being "the first true ' ensemble ' show. '' The cast members made efforts to keep the ensemble format and not allow one member to dominate; they entered themselves in the same acting categories for awards, opted for collective salary negotiations, and asked to appear together on magazine cover photos in the first season. The cast members also became best friends off - screen, so much so that recurring guest star Tom Selleck reported that he sometimes felt left out.
The cast remained good friends after the series run, most notably Cox and Aniston, with Aniston being godmother to Cox and David Arquette 's daughter, Coco. In the official farewell commemorative book Friends ' Til the End, each separately acknowledged in interviews that the cast had become their family.
The first season introduces the six main characters: Rachel, Monica, Phoebe, Joey, Chandler, and Ross. Rachel arrives at Central Perk after running away from her wedding to her fiancé Barry and moves into an apartment with her friend Monica from high school. Ross, who has had a crush on Rachel since the two of them were in high school, constantly attempts to tell her how he feels about her. However, many obstacles stand in his way, such as the fact that he is expecting a baby with his lesbian ex-wife, Carol. Joey is shown to be a bachelor and struggling actor, while Phoebe works as a masseuse and portrays a slightly "crazy '' attribute to her personality based on her troubles as a child after her mother committed suicide. However, the rest of the group loves her regardless. Chandler breaks up with his girlfriend, Janice (Maggie Wheeler), who frequently returns in later seasons. Carol delivers a baby boy who is named Ben. At the end of the season, Chandler accidentally reveals that Ross loves Rachel, who realizes that she feels the same way. The season ends with Rachel waiting at the airport for Ross ' arrival from a trip.
The second season begins with Rachel waiting at the gate for Ross to declare her love for him. However, she discovers that he is dating Julie (Lauren Tom), someone he knew from graduate school. Rachel 's attempts to tell Ross she likes him mirror his failed attempts in the first season, although the characters eventually begin a relationship. Joey gets cast in a part in a fictional version of the soap opera, Days of Our Lives, but his character is killed off after conflicts with the show 's writers, rooting from him claiming that he writes many of his own lines. Chandler gets back with Janice, his ex-girlfriend from season one. Monica begins dating Richard (Tom Selleck), a recently divorced family friend and 21 years her senior but they eventually break up.
Season three takes on a significantly greater serialized format. Rachel begins working at Bloomingdale 's, an upscale department store chain, and Ross becomes jealous of her colleague, Mark. Rachel decides to take a break from their relationship; and Ross, hurt and drunk sleeps with Chloe, "the hot girl from the Xerox place '', causing Rachel to break up with him. In the meantime, Chandler has a hard time dealing with their breakup because it reminds him of his parents ' divorce. After believing she has no family except her twin sister Ursula (Lisa Kudrow), Phoebe becomes acquainted with her half - brother (Giovanni Ribisi) and birth mother (Teri Garr). Joey develops a relationship with his acting partner Kate (Dina Meyer), and Monica begins a relationship with millionaire Pete Becker (Jon Favreau) which ends because of the disagreements between the two.
In the fourth - season premiere, Ross and Rachel briefly reconcile after Ross pretends to read a long letter that Rachel wrote for him, but continues to insist that the two were on a break so they break up again. Joey dates Kathy (Paget Brewster), a girl that Chandler has a crush on. Kathy and Chandler later kiss, which causes drama between Chandler and Joey. Joey forgives Chandler only after he spends a day in a box as punishment. Phoebe becomes a surrogate mother for her brother and his wife Alice (Debra Jo Rupp). Monica and Rachel are forced to switch apartments with Joey and Chandler after losing a bet during a quiz game, but, manage to switch back by bribing them with Knicks season tickets and a one - minute kiss (off - screen) between the Rachel and Monica. Ross begins dating an English woman named Emily (Helen Baxendale), and the season finale features their wedding in London. Chandler and Monica sleep together, and Rachel decides to attend Ross and Emily 's wedding. While saying his vows, Ross uses the wrong name at the altar (Rachel 's), to the shock of his bride and the guests.
Season five starts with Ross and Emily 's wedding in London. The season features Monica and Chandler trying to keep their new relationship a secret from their friends. Phoebe gives birth to triplets in the show 's 100th episode. She gives birth to a boy, Frank Jr. Jr., and two girls: Leslie and Chandler. Emily states that the only condition in which she would remain married to Ross is if he stops all communication with Rachel. Ross agrees, but during a last dinner with all six main characters together, Emily phones Ross and, upon discovering Rachel is there, realizes she does not trust him, which ends the marriage. Phoebe begins a relationship with a police officer, Gary (Michael Rapaport), after finding his badge and using it as her own. Monica and Chandler go public with their relationship, to the surprise and happiness of their friends. They decide to get married on a trip to Las Vegas, but, change their plans after witnessing Ross and Rachel drunkenly stumble out of the wedding chapel.
In the sixth - season premiere, Ross and Rachel 's marriage is established to be a drunken mistake. Ross and Rachel try to get an annulment because he does not want to have three divorces. However, he realizes he could not do so and tries to keep their wedding a secret from Rachel. Nonetheless, they divorce several episodes later. Monica and Chandler move in together, causing Rachel to move in with Phoebe. Joey lands a role on a cable television series called Mac and C.H.E.E.S.E., where he stars alongside a robot. Ross gets a job lecturing at New York University and starts dating one of his students, Elizabeth (Alexandra Holden). The relationship ends because of their maturity differences. Phoebe and Rachel 's apartment catches fire, and Rachel moves in with Joey, while Phoebe moves in with Chandler and Monica. Chandler proposes to Monica, who says yes even though her ex-boyfriend Richard confesses his love for her.
The seventh season mainly follows the various antics of Monica and Chandler, who begin to plan their wedding and run into financial problems which are quickly fixed by Chandler 's secret funds. Joey 's television series Mac and C.H.E.E.S.E is cancelled, but he is offered his job back on Days of Our Lives. Meanwhile, Ross tries to introduce Ben to Hanukkah with the help of an Armadillo costume. Phoebe 's apartment is fixed, but it is rebuilt with only one large bedroom instead of the original two, so Rachel decides to stay with Joey. The season ends just prior to Monica and Chandler 's wedding, with Phoebe and Rachel finding a positive pregnancy test in the bathroom at Monica and Chandler 's apartment.
In the eighth season, it is revealed at Monica and Chandler 's wedding reception that the positive pregnancy test found in the bathroom at Monica and Chandler 's apartment belongs to Rachel. Rachel takes another pregnancy test, which Phoebe at first claims is negative, in order to find Rachel 's real emotions on the realization of being pregnant. Rachel projects feelings of sadness when she thinks she 's not pregnant, so Phoebe tells her the truth. The two of them and Monica then rejoice in the bathroom. The season revolves around Rachel 's pregnancy; Ross is revealed to be the father after an investigation involving a red sweater. Rachel and Ross decide to have the baby but do not resume their romantic relationship. Joey develops romantic feelings for Rachel, but she does not reciprocate them. Rachel gives birth to baby Emma in the season finale. At the hospital, Ross 's mother offers him an engagement ring because she wants him to marry Rachel. Ross does not intend to ask Rachel to marry him, but he takes the ring anyway and puts it in his jacket pocket. Meanwhile, in the post-delivery room, Joey looks for some tissue for an upset Rachel, picks up Ross 's jacket, and the ring falls to the floor. He kneels to pick it up and turns to Rachel, still on his knees and still holding the ring. Rachel accepts what she thinks is his proposal of marriage.
Season nine begins with Ross and Rachel living together as roommates with their daughter Emma. Monica and Chandler try to conceive a baby of their own but find out that they are unable to, due to health restrictions. Phoebe begins dating Mike Hannigan (Paul Rudd) and chooses to be with him over her ex-boyfriend David (Hank Azaria). Rachel and Emma move in with Joey in the middle of the season, and Rachel develops infatuation towards him, while the rest of the "friends '' try hard to get Ross and Rachel back together. The group travels to Barbados in the finale to hear Ross give a keynote speech at a palaeontology conference, where they stay at a hotel. Joey and his girlfriend Charlie (Aisha Tyler) break up, and she begins a relationship with Ross. Upon seeing Ross and Charlie kiss each other, Joey goes to Rachel 's hotel room, and the finale ends with them kissing.
The tenth season closes several long - running storylines. Charlie breaks up with Ross to get back together with her ex-boyfriend. Joey and Rachel try to contend with Ross ' feelings about them being together and decide it would be best to remain friends. Phoebe and Mike get married mid-season outside the Central Perk coffee house. Monica and Chandler apply to adopt a child and are chosen by Erica (Anna Faris). In the series finale, Erica gives birth to twins, to the surprise of Monica and Chandler -- a boy and a girl. Monica and Chandler prepare to move to the suburbs, and Joey becomes upset with the changes in his life. Rachel gets fired from her job and accepts a new offer in Paris. Ross tries to get her job back by secretly meeting her boss but eventually gives up after realizing that the Paris job is her dream job. Rachel says a tearful goodbye to everyone but Ross. A hurt and angry Ross confronts Rachel, and they end up sleeping together. Rachel leaves, and Ross, realizing he loves her, chases after her to the airport. Rachel realizes she loves him too, and cancels her flight to Paris, agreeing to stay with him. The series ends with all friends plus Monica and Chandler 's new babies leaving the apartment, heading to Central Perk for a final cup of coffee. The finale dialogue used in this series is by Chandler, making a joke for the last time. The camera 's last view is of all of the characters ' keys to the apartment on the counter table, finishing with a shot of the apartment 's purple door.
It 's about sex, love, relationships, careers, a time in your life when everything 's possible. And it 's about friendship because when you 're single and in the city, your friends are your family.
David Crane and Marta Kauffman began developing three new television pilots that would premiere in 1994 after their sitcom Family Album was cancelled by CBS in 1993. Kauffman and Crane decided to pitch the series about "six people in their 20s making their way in Manhattan '' to NBC since they thought it would fit best there. Crane and Kauffman presented the idea to their production partner Kevin Bright, who had served as executive producer on their HBO series Dream On. The idea for the series was conceived when Crane and Kauffman began thinking about the time when they had finished college and started living by themselves in New York; Kauffman believed they were looking at a time when the future was "more of a question mark. '' They found the concept to be interesting, as they believed "everybody knows that feeling '', and because it was also how they felt about their own lives at the time. The team titled the series Insomnia Cafe and pitched the idea as a seven - page treatment to NBC in December 1993.
At the same time, Warren Littlefield, the then - president of NBC Entertainment, was seeking a comedy involving young people living together and sharing expenses. Littlefield wanted the group to share memorable periods of their lives with friends, who had become "new, surrogate family members. '' However, Littlefield found difficulty in bringing the concept to life and found the scripts developed by NBC to be terrible. When Kauffman, Crane and Bright pitched Insomnia Cafe, Littlefield was impressed that they knew who their characters were. NBC bought the idea as a put pilot, meaning they risked financial penalties if the pilot was not filmed. Kauffman and Crane took three days to write the pilot script for a show they titled Friends Like Us. Littlefield wanted the series to "represent Generation X and explore a new kind of tribal bonding '', but the rest disagreed. Crane argued that it was not a series for one generation, and wanted to produce a series that everyone would enjoy watching. NBC liked the script and ordered the series. They changed the title to Six of One, mainly because they felt Friends Like Us was too similar to the ABC sitcom These Friends of Mine.
Once it became apparent that the series was a favored project at NBC, Littlefield reported that he was getting calls from every agent in town, wanting their client to be a part of the series. Auditions for the lead roles took place in New York and Los Angeles. The casting director shortlisted 1,000 actors who had applied for each role down to 75. Those who received a callback read again in front of Crane, Kauffman and Bright. At the end of March, the number of potential actors had been reduced to three or four for each part, and were asked to read for Les Moonves, then - president of Warner Bros. Television.
Having worked with David Schwimmer in the past, the series creators wrote the character of Ross with him in mind, and he was the first actor cast. Cox wanted to play the role of Monica, but the producers had her in mind to play Rachel because of her "cheery, upbeat energy '', which was not how they envisioned Monica; after Cox 's audition, though, Kauffman agreed with Cox, and she got the role. When Matt LeBlanc auditioned for Joey, he put a "different spin '' on the character. He played Joey more simple - minded than intended and gave the character heart. Although Crane and Kauffman did not want LeBlanc for the role at the time, they were told by the network to cast him. Jennifer Aniston, Matthew Perry and Lisa Kudrow were cast based on their auditions.
More changes occurred to the series 's storylines during the casting process. The writers found that they had to adjust the characters they had written to suit the actors, and the discovery process of the characters occurred throughout the first season. Kauffman acknowledged that Joey 's character became "this whole new being '', and that "it was n't until we did the first Thanksgiving episode that we realized how much fun Monica 's neuroses are. ''
In the weeks after NBC 's pick up of Friends, Crane, Kauffman and Bright reviewed sent - in scripts that writers had originally prepared for other series, mainly unproduced Seinfeld episodes. Kauffman and Crane hired a team of seven young writers because "When you 're 40, you ca n't do it anymore. The networks and studios are looking for young people coming in out of college. '' The creators felt that using six equal characters, rather than emphasizing one or two, would allow for "myriad storylines and give the show legs. '' The majority of the storyline ideas came from the writers, although the actors added ideas. Although the writers originally planned the big love story to be between Joey and Monica, the idea of a romantic interest between Ross and Rachel emerged during the period when Kauffman and Crane wrote the pilot script.
During the production of the pilot, NBC requested that the script be changed to feature one dominant storyline and several minor ones, but the writers refused, wanting to keep three storylines of equal weight. NBC also wanted the writers to include an older character to balance out the young ones. Crane and Kauffman were forced to comply and wrote a draft of an early episode that featured "Pat the Cop. '' who would be used to provide advice to the other characters. Crane found the storyline to be terrible, and Kauffman joked, "You know the kids (sic) book, Pat the Bunny? We had Pat the Cop. '' NBC eventually relented and dropped the idea.
Each summer (June, July, and August in the US), the producers would outline the storylines for the subsequent season. Before an episode went into production, Kauffman and Crane would revise the script written by another writer, mainly if something concerning either the series or a character felt foreign. Unlike other storylines, the idea for a relationship between Joey and Rachel was decided on halfway through the eighth season. The creators did not want Ross and Rachel to get back together so soon, and while looking for a romantic impediment, a writer suggested Joey 's romantic interest in Rachel. The storyline was incorporated into the season; However, when the actors feared that the storyline would make their characters unlikable, the storyline was wrapped up, until it again resurfaced in the season 's finale. For the ninth season, the writers were unsure about the amount of storyline to give to Rachel 's baby, as they wanted the show neither to revolve around a baby nor pretend there to be none. Crane said that it took them a while to accept the idea of a tenth season, which they decided to do because they had enough stories left to tell to justify the season. Kauffman and Crane would not have signed on for an eleventh season, even if all the cast members had wanted to continue.
The episode title format -- "The One... '' -- was created when the producers realized that the episode titles would not be featured in the opening credits, and therefore would be unknown to most of the audience. Episode titles officially begin with "The One... '' except the title of the pilot episode and the series finale "The Last One. ''
The first season was shot on Stage 5 at Warner Bros. Studios in Burbank, California. NBC executives had worried that the coffee house setting was too hip and asked for the series to be set in a diner, but, eventually consented to the coffee house concept. The opening title sequence was filmed in a fountain at the Warner Bros. Ranch at 4: 00 am, while it was particularly cold for a Burbank morning. At the beginning of the second season, production moved to the larger Stage 24, which was renamed "The Friends Stage '' after the series finale. Filming for the series began during the summer (June, July, and August in the US) of 1994 in front of a live audience, who were given a summary of the series to familiarize themselves with the six main characters; a hired comedian entertained the studio audience between takes. Each 22 - minute episode took six hours to film -- twice the length of most sitcom tapings -- mainly due to the several retakes and rewrites of the script.
Although the producers always wanted to find the right stories to take advantage of being on location, Friends was never shot in New York. Bright felt that filming outside the studio made episodes less funny, even when shooting on the lot outside, and that the live audience was an integral part of the series. When the series was criticized for incorrectly depicting New York, with the financially struggling group of friends being able to afford huge apartments, Bright noted that the set had to be big enough for the cameras, lighting, and "for the audience to be able to see what 's going on ''; the apartments also needed to provide a place for the actors to execute the funny scripts. The fourth - season finale was shot on location in London because the producers were aware of the series 's popularity in the UK. The scenes were shot in a studio with three audiences each made up of 500 people. These were the show 's largest audiences throughout its run. The fifth - season finale, set in Las Vegas, was filmed at Warner Bros. Studios, although Bright met people who thought it was filmed on location.
The series 's creators completed the first draft of the hour - long finale in January 2004, four months before its original airing. Crane, Kauffman and Bright watched the finales of other sitcoms to prepare the episode 's outline, paying attention to what worked and what did not. They liked the ones that stayed true to the series, citing the finale of The Mary Tyler Moore Show as the gold standard. Crane, Kauffman, and Bright had difficulty writing the finale. They did not want to do "something high concept, or take the show out of the show. '' The most critical parts of the finale were shot without an audience, and with a minimum number of crew members. The main cast enjoyed the finale and were confident that the fans would react similarly:
It 's exactly what I had hoped. We all end up with a sense of a new beginning and the audience has a sense that it 's a new chapter in the lives of all these characters.
NBC heavily promoted the series finale, which was preceded by weeks of media hype. Local NBC affiliates organized viewing parties around the U.S., including an event at Universal CityWalk featuring a special broadcast of the finale on an outdoor Astrovision screen. The finale was the subject of two episodes of Dateline NBC, a weekly television newsmagazine, one of which ran for two hours. A one - hour retrospective of clips from previous episodes was shown before to the airing of the episode. Following the finale, The Tonight Show with Jay Leno was filmed on the set of the Friends ' Central Perk coffee house, which featured the series 's cast as guests. The advertising rates for the finale averaged $2 million for 30 seconds of commercial time, breaking the record held by the Seinfeld finale at $1.7 million.
In the U.S., 52.5 million viewers watched the finale on May 6, 2004, making it the most - watched entertainment telecast since the Seinfeld finale in 1998. Although not the most - watched episode of the series, the finale was the fourth most - watched series finale in television history, only behind the finales of M * A * S * H, Cheers and Seinfeld, which were respectively watched by 105, 80.4 and 76.2 million viewers. The retrospective episode was watched by fewer than 36 million viewers, and the finale was the second most - watched television broadcast of the year in the United States, only behind the Super Bowl. Following the finales of Friends and Frasier, media critics speculated about the fate of the sitcom genre. Expressed opinions varied between a signalling of the end of the sitcom genre, a small decline in the large history of the genre, and a general reduction of scripted television in favor of reality shows.
It may have been impossible for any one episode to live up to the hype and expectations built up around the Friends finale, but this hour probably came as close as fans could have reasonably hoped. Ultimately, the two - hour package did exactly what it was supposed to do. It wrapped up the story while reminding us why we liked the show and will miss it.
Early reviews of the series were mixed; and it holds a Metacritic score of 59 out of 100, based on 20 sampled reviews, indicating "mixed to average reviews. '' Tom Feran of The Plain Dealer wrote that the series traded "vaguely and less successfully on the hanging - out style of Seinfeld '', while Ann Hodges of the Houston Chronicle called it "the new Seinfeld wannabe, but it will never be as funny as Seinfeld. '' In the Los Angeles Daily News, Ray Richmond named the series as "one of the brighter comedies of the new season '', and the Los Angeles Times called it "flat - out the best comedy series of the new season. ''
Chicago Sun - Times ' Ginny Holbert found Joey and Rachel 's characteristics to be underdeveloped, while Richmond commended the cast as a "likeable, youth ensemble '' with "good chemistry. '' Robert Bianco of USA Today was complimentary of Schwimmer, calling him "terrific. '' He also praised the female leads, but was concerned that Perry 's role as Chandler was "undefined '' and that LeBlanc was "relying too much on the same brain - dead stud routine that was already tired the last two times he tried it. '' The authors of Friends Like Us: The Unofficial Guide to Friends thought that the cast was "trying just a little too hard '', in particular, Perry and Schwimmer.
As the series progressed, reviews became more positive, and Friends became one of the most popular sitcoms of its time. It is now often ranked among the all - time best TV shows. Critics commended the series as having consistently sharp writing and the chemistry between the main actors. Noel Holston of Newsday, who had dismissed the pilot as a "so - so Seinfeld wannabe '' in 1994, repudiated his earlier review after rewatching the episode and felt like writing an apology to the writers. Heather Havrilesky of Salon.com thought that the series "hit its stride '' in the second season. Havrilesky found the character - specific jokes and situations "could reliably make you laugh out loud a few times each episode '', and the quality of writing allowed the stories to be "original and innovative. '' Bill Carter of The New York Times called the eighth season a "truly stunning comeback. '' Carter found that by "generating new hot storylines and high - decibel laughs '', the series made its way "back into the hearts of its fans. '' However, Liane Bonin of Entertainment Weekly felt that the direction of the ninth season was a "disappointing buzzkill '', criticizing it for the non-stop celebrity guest spots and going into jump the shark territory. Although disappointed with the season, Bonin noted that "the writing (was) still sharp. '' Havrilesky thought that the tenth season was "alarmingly awful, far worse than you would ever imagine a show that was once so good could be. '' Friends was featured on Time 's list of "The 100 Best TV Shows of All - Time '', saying, "the well - hidden secret of this show was that it called itself Friends, and was really about family. ''
Reviews of the series finale were mixed. USA Today 's Robert Bianco described the finale as entertaining and satisfying and praised it for deftly mixing emotion and humor while highlighting each of the stars. Sarah Rodman of the Boston Herald praised Aniston and Schwimmer for their acting, but felt that their characters ' reunion was "a bit too neat, even if it was what most of the show 's legions of fans wanted. '' Roger Catlin of the Hartford Courant felt that newcomers to the series would be "surprised at how laughless the affair could be, and how nearly every strained gag depends on the sheer stupidity of its characters. '' Ken Parish Perkins, writing for Fort Worth Star - Telegram, pointed out that the finale was "more touching than comical, more satisfying in terms of closure than knee - slappingly funny. ''
To maintain the series 's ensemble format, the main cast members decided to enter themselves in the same acting categories for awards. Beginning with the series 's eighth season, the actors decided to submit themselves in the lead actor balloting, rather than in the supporting actor fields. The series was nominated for 62 Primetime Emmy Awards, winning six. Aniston and Kudrow are the only main cast members to win an Emmy, while Cox is the only actor not to be nominated. The series won the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Comedy Series in 2002, receiving nominations in 1995, 1996, 1999, 2000, and 2003. The series also won an American Comedy Award, one GLAAD Media Award, one Golden Globe Award, three Logie Awards, six People 's Choice Awards, one Satellite Award, and one Screen Actors Guild Award.
The table below shows the ratings of Friends in the United States, where it consistently ranked within the top ten of the final television season ratings. "Rank '' refers to how well Friends rated compared to other television series that aired during primetime hours of the corresponding television season. It is shown in relation to the total number of series airing on the then - six major English - language networks in a given season. "Viewers '' refers to the average number of viewers for all original episodes, broadcast during the television season in the series 's regular timeslot. The "season premiere '' is the date that the first episode of the season aired, and the "season finale '' is the date that the final episode of the season aired. So far, Friends has been the last sitcom to reach the no. 1 spot on television, as its successors were CSI: Crime Scene Investigation, American Idol, NBC Sunday Night Football and NCIS.
Because of syndication revenue, Friends continues to generate approximately $1 billion each year for Warner Bros. That translates into about $20 million in annual residuals each for Jennifer Aniston, Courteney Cox, Lisa Kudrow, Matt LeBlanc, Matthew Perry and David Schwimmer, who each get 2 % of syndication income for Friends. The series has a syndication deal through multiple networks including Nickelodeon, TBS, and Paramount (formerly known as Spike).
Although the producers thought of Friends as "only a TV show '', numerous psychologists investigated the cultural impact of Friends during the series 's run. Aniston 's hairstyle was nicknamed "The Rachel '' and copied around the world. Joey 's catchphrase, "How you doin '? '', became a popular part of Western English slang, often used as a pick - up line or when greeting friends. The series also influenced the English language, according to a study by the University of Toronto that found that the characters used the emphasized word "so '' to modify adjectives more often than any other intensifier. Although the preference had already made its way into the American vernacular, usage on the series may have accelerated the change. Chandler 's habit of ending a sentence unfinished for sarcasm also influenced viewers ' speech. Following the September 11 attacks, ratings increased 17 % over the previous season.
Friends is parodied in the twelfth season Murder, She Wrote episode "Murder Among Friends. '' In the episode, amateur sleuth Jessica Fletcher (Angela Lansbury) investigates the murder of a writer for Buds, a fictional television series about the daily lives of a group of city friends. The episode was devised after CBS moved Murder, She Wrote from its regular Sunday night timeslot to a Thursday night timeslot directly opposite Friends on NBC; Angela Lansbury was quoted by Bruce Lansbury, her brother and Murder, She Wrote 's supervising producer, as having "a bit of an attitude '' about the move to Thursday, but he saw the plot as "a friendly setup, no mean - spiritedness. '' Jerry Ludwig, the writer of the episode, researched the "flavor '' of Buds by watching episodes of Friends.
The Central Perk coffee house, one of the principal settings of the series, has inspired various imitations worldwide. In 2006, Iranian businessman Mojtaba Asadian started a Central Perk franchise, registering the name in 32 countries. The decor of the coffee houses is inspired by Friends, featuring replica couches, counters, neon signage and bricks. The coffee houses also contain paintings of the various characters from the series, and televisions playing Friends episodes. James Michael Tyler, who plays the Central Perk manager in the series, Gunther, attended the grand opening of the Dubai cafe, where he worked as a waiter. Central Perk was rebuilt as part of a museum exhibit at Warner Bros. Studios and was shown on The Ellen DeGeneres Show in October 2008. Jennifer Aniston revisited the set for the first time since the series finale in 2004. From September 24 to October 7, 2009, a Central Perk replica was based at Broadwick Street, Soho, London. The coffee house sold real coffee to customers and featured a display of Friends memorabilia and props, such as the Geller Cup from the season three episode "The One with the Football. '' In Beijing, business owner Du Xin opened a coffee shop named Central Perk in March 2010. In India, there are six Friends themed cafes, located in Chandigarh (named Central Perk), Kolkata; West Bengal (named F.R.I.E.N.D.S. Cafe) which features many icons from the original T.V. series for example, Chandler and Joey 's ugly dog statue, the orange sofa, the purple door of Monica and Rachel 's apartment and Phoebe 's pink bicycle. The other three cafes are located in Delhi, Gurgaon; Bhubaneswar, Odisha; and Pune, Maharashtra. There are two Friends themed cafes in Pakistan as well -- one in Lahore, Punjab known as "Friends Cafe '' and the other in Peshawar, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa called "Central Perk ''. Both of those cafes have an iconic couch, a guitar and foosball table, quotes from the show on the walls and even episode reruns on a projector. They 're also planning to have their own Gunther at the bar. In 2016, a Central Perk replica was opened in Outram, Singapore. It is the only Central Perk that has been given the intellectual property rights by Warner Bros. outside of the United States. The cafe also includes feature walls, replicating the walls of the main characters 's apartments and memorabilia and props used on the show.
Friends has also developed an alternative family lifestyle by representing young people that live unconventional domestic lives. It presents the idea that "all you need is good friends '' and can construct families through choice. The audience is able to identify with the program through the troubles seen on weekly episodes. It portrays a new way of living life and developing relationships which are not normally seen in conventional society. According to a pop - culture expert at the University at Buffalo, Friends is "one of those rare shows that marked a change in American culture. '' The images of youth and the roles they portray are better defined and represent a lifestyle that centres around creating and sustaining relationships between friends running their own lives and seeking help from each other.
Vox stated that Friends impacted the creation of other conflictless "hangout sitcoms '', with groups of adult friends who are funny and have similar character traits. One example of this is How I Met Your Mother, which The Guardian 's TV and radio blog notes also shares its setting with Friends, Manhattan. Other examples include The Big Bang Theory, New Girl, and Happy Endings.
Readers of TV Guide voted the cast of Friends their Best Comedy cast of all time, ranking at 29 % of the votes, beating Seinfeld, which registered 18 %. A poll undertaken by 60 Minutes and Vanity Fair named Friends the third greatest sitcom of all time. In 2014, the series was ranked by Mundo Estranho the Best TV Series of All Time.
After the produced pilot lived up to NBC 's hopes, the series premiered with the name Friends on September 22, 1994, in the coveted Thursday 8: 30 p.m. timeslot. The pilot aired between Mad About You and Seinfeld, and was watched by almost 22 million American viewers. The series was a huge success throughout its run and was a staple of NBC 's Thursday night line - up, dubbed by the network as Must See TV. When Crane told reporters in 2001 that the ninth season was a possibility, critics believed that he was posturing and that at least two of the cast members would not sign on for another season. When it was confirmed that Friends would return for a ninth season, the news was mainly about the amount of money -- $7 million per episode -- that it took to bring the series back for another season.
After year - long expectations that the ninth season would be the series 's last, NBC signed a deal in late December 2002 to bring the series back for a final tenth season. The series 's creative team did not want to extend negotiations into the next year and wanted to start writing the rest of the ninth - season episodes and a potential series finale. NBC agreed to pay $10 million to Warner Bros. for the production of each tenth - season episode, the highest price in television history for a 30 - minute series. Although NBC was unable to bring in enough advertising revenue from commercials to cover the costs, the series was integral to the Thursday night schedule, which brought high ratings and profits to the other television series. The cast demanded that the tenth season be reduced from the usual 24 episodes to 18 episodes to allow them to work on outside projects.
In fall 2001, Warner Bros. Domestic Cable made a deal with sister network TBS (both are owned by Time Warner) to air the series in rerun syndication. Warner Bros. Domestic Cable announced that it had sold additional cable rights to Friends to Nick at Nite which began airing in the fall of 2011 (unlike the TBS and broadcast syndication airings, Nick at Nite broadcasts of the series, which began airing as part of a seven - night launch marathon on September 5, 2011, replace the end credit tag scenes with marginalized credits featuring promotions for the series and other Nick at Nite programs). Warner Bros. was expected to make $200 million in license fees and advertising from the deal. Nick at Nite paid $500,000 per episode to air the episodes after 6 p.m. ET for six years through fall 2017. In syndication until 2005, Friends had earned $4 million per episode in cash license fees for a total of $944 million.
Beginning on March 5, 2012, high definition versions of all 236 Friends episodes were made available to local broadcast stations, starting with the pilot episode. For the remastered episodes, Warner Bros. restored previously cropped images on the left and right sides of the screen, using the original 35 mm film source, to use the entire 16: 9 widescreen frame. These masters had been airing in New Zealand on TV2 since January 2011. Netflix added all ten seasons of Friends in high definition to their streaming service in the United States on January 1, 2015.
Friends has aired on different channels in the UK in their original, unedited international versions prior to their being re-edited for US broadcast and syndication. These versions, with additional footage not seen domestically, have aired on such stations as Channel 4, Sky1, E4, and Comedy Central UK. On September 4, 2011, Friends officially ended on E4 after the channel re-ran the series since 2004. Comedy Central took over the rights to air the program from October 2011. In the Republic of Ireland, each season of the show made its European debut on RTÉ2. After 2004 RTÉ2 began to repeat the series from the start before moving over to TV3 and its digital channel 3e in 2010. As of February 2015, repeats of the show have returned to RTÉ2 while also broadcasting on Comedy Central Ireland.
Friends has aired in Australia on the Seven Network (season 1 only), Nine Network (season 2 -- 10), Network Ten (2007 -- 09, repeats), on GEM (a sub-channel of the Nine Network), and on pay TV channel TV Hits formerly aired on Arena, 111 Hits. The show is broadcast on TV2 in New Zealand.
In Canada, the series was broadcast on Global. In later years, it was syndicated on several of its cable sibling networks, including Slice, DTour, and TVTropolis, its previous incarnation.
In India, the show is broadcast by Comedy Central at various times. It is the most - watched English language show in the country.
In the Philippines, the show was originally aired on ABC - 5 from 1996 to 2005 and ETC from 2005 to 2014.
In Greece, the show was broadcast on Star Channel. In Cyprus, Friends aired on CyBC 2 while reruns air on TVOne.
In Albania, the show was originally broadcast by Top Channel. Reruns were broadcast by A1 Report.
In October 2014, Warner Bros. chairman and chief executive officer, Kevin Tsujihara, announced that the company had licensed the North American streaming rights of all ten seasons of Friends to Netflix, in a deal said to be worth around $500,000 an episode, or about $120 million in total. The show became available on Netflix from January 1, 2015. The Netflix airings are in the versions as aired on NBC rather than the longer international versions, as discussed below.
All ten seasons have been released on DVD individually and as a box set. Each Region 1 season release contains special features and are presented in their aforementioned original international broadcast versions, although Region 2 releases are as originally aired domestically. For the first season, each episode is updated with color correction and sound enhancement. A wide range of Friends merchandise has been produced by various companies. In September 1995, WEA Records released the first album of music from Friends, the Friends Original TV Soundtrack, containing music featured in previous and future episodes. The soundtrack debuted on the Billboard 200 at number 46, and sold 500,000 copies in November 1995. In 1999, a second soundtrack album entitled Friends Again was released. Other merchandise includes a Friends version of the DVD game "Scene It? '', and a quiz video game for PlayStation 2 and PC entitled Friends: The One with All the Trivia. On September 28, 2009, a box set was released in the UK celebrating the series 's 15th anniversary. The box set contained extended episodes, an episode guide, and original special features.
Warner Home Video released a complete series collection on Blu - ray on November 13, 2012. The collection does not feature the extra deleted scenes and jokes that were included on prior DVD releases, and are therefore presented in their NBC broadcast versions.
After the series finale in 2004, LeBlanc signed on for the spin - off series, Joey, following Joey 's move to Los Angeles to pursue his acting career. Kauffman and Crane were not interested in the spin - off, although Bright agreed to executive produce the series with Scott Silveri and Shana Goldberg - Meehan. NBC heavily promoted Joey and gave it Friends ' Thursday 8: 00 pm timeslot. The pilot was watched by 18.60 million American viewers, but ratings continually decreased throughout the series 's two seasons, averaging 10.20 million viewers in the first season and 7.10 million in the second. The final broadcast episode on March 7, 2006, was watched by 7.09 million viewers; NBC cancelled the series on May 15, 2006, after two seasons. Bright blamed the collaboration between NBC executives, the studio and other producers for quickly ruining the series:
On Friends, Joey was a womanizer, but we enjoyed his exploits. He was a solid friend, a guy you knew you could count on. Joey was deconstructed to be a guy who could n't get a job, could n't ask a girl out. He became a pathetic, mopey character. I felt he was moving in the wrong direction, but I was not heard.
Articles concerning the cultural influence of the programme:
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where did the patriots live during the american revolution | Patriot (American Revolution) - wikipedia
Patriots (also known as Revolutionaries, Continentals, Rebels, or American Whigs) were those colonists of the Thirteen Colonies who rebelled against British control during the American Revolution and in July 1776 declared the United States of America an independent nation. Their rebellion was based on the political philosophy of republicanism, as expressed by spokesmen such as Thomas Jefferson, John Adams and Thomas Paine. They were opposed by the Loyalists who instead supported continued British rule.
As a group, Patriots represented a wide array of social, economic and ethnic backgrounds. They included lawyers like John Adams and Alexander Hamilton; planters like Thomas Jefferson and George Mason; merchants like Alexander McDougall and John Hancock; and ordinary farmers like Daniel Shays and Joseph Plumb Martin. Patriots also included slaves and freemen such as Crispus Attucks, a free man and the first martyr of the American Revolution; James Armistead Lafayette, who served as a double agent for the Continental Army; and Jack Sisson, who, under the command of Colonel William Barton, was leader of the first successful black operation mission in American history, resulting in the capture of British General Richard Prescott.
The critics of British rule called themselves "Whigs '' after 1768, identifying with members of the British Whig party (including the Radical Whigs and Patriot Whigs), who favored similar colonial policies. The Oxford English Dictionary 's third definition of "Patriot '' is "A person actively opposing enemy forces occupying his or her country; a member of a resistance movement, a freedom fighter. Originally used of those who opposed and fought the British in the American War of Independence. '' The earliest citation is a 1773 letter by Benjamin Franklin. In Britain at the time, "patriot '' had a negative connotation, and was used, says Samuel Johnson, as a negative epithet for "a factious disturber of the government. ''
Prior to the Revolution, colonists who supported British authority called themselves Tories or royalists, identifying with the political philosophy then dominant in Great Britain, traditionalist conservatism. During the Revolution, these persons became known primarily as Loyalists. Afterward, many emigrated north to the remaining British territories in what is now modern Canada. There they called themselves the United Empire Loyalists.
Many Patriots were active before 1775 in groups such as the Sons of Liberty. The most prominent leaders of the Patriots are referred to today by Americans as the Founding Fathers. The Patriots came from many different backgrounds. Among the most active of the Patriots group were highly educated and fairly wealthy individuals. However, without the support of the ordinary men and women, such as farmers, lawyers, merchants, seamstresses, homemakers, shopkeepers, and ministers, the struggle for independence would have failed.
Historian Robert Calhoon said the consensus of historians is that between 40 and 45 percent of the white population in the Thirteen Colonies supported the Patriots ' cause, between 15 and 20 % supported the Loyalists, and the remainder were neutral or kept a low profile. With a white population of about 2.5 million, that makes about 380,000 to 500,000 Loyalists. The great majority of them remained in America, since only about 80,000 Loyalists left the United States 1775 -- 1783. They went to Canada, Britain, Florida or the West Indies, but some eventually returned.
To understand how people made the choice between being a Patriot or a Loyalist, historians have compared the motivations and personalities of leading men on each side. Labaree (1948) has identified eight characteristics that differentiated the two groups. Psychologically, Loyalists were older, better established, and more likely to resist innovation than the Patriots. Loyalists said the Crown was the legitimate government and resistance to it was morally wrong, while the Patriots thought morality was on their side because the British government had violated the constitutional rights of Englishmen. Men who were alienated by physical attacks on Royal officials took the Loyalist position, while those who applauded were being Patriots. Most men who wanted to find a compromise solution wound up on the Loyalist side, while the proponents of immediate action became Patriots. Merchants in the port cities with long - standing financial and sentimental attachments to the Empire were likely to remain loyal to the system, while few Patriots were so deeply enmeshed in the system. Some Loyalists were procrastinators who believed that independence was bound to come some day, but wanted to postpone the moment; the Patriots wanted to seize the moment. Loyalists were cautious and afraid of anarchy or tyranny that might come from mob rule; Patriots made a systematic effort to use and control mob violence. Finally, Labaree argues that Loyalists were pessimists who lacked the Patriots ' confidence that independence lay ahead.
The Patriot faction came to reject taxes imposed by legislatures in which the tax - payer was not represented. "No taxation without representation '' was their slogan, referring to the lack of representation in the British Parliament. The British countered there was "virtual representation '', that is, all members of Parliament represented the interests of all the citizens of the British Empire.
Though some Patriots declared that they were loyal to the king, they believed that the assemblies should control policy relating to the colonies. They should be able to run their own affairs. In fact, they had been running their own affairs since the period of "salutary neglect '' before the French and Indian War. Some radical Patriots tarred and feathered tax collectors and customs officers, making those positions dangerous; the practice was especially prevalent in Boston, where many Patriots lived, but was curbed there sooner than elsewhere.
Most of the individuals listed below served the American Revolution in multiple capacities.
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when did scotland last beat england at rugby | History of rugby union matches between England and Scotland - wikipedia
England and Scotland have been playing each other at rugby union since 1871 when Scotland beat England in the first ever rugby union international. A total of 135 matches have been played, with England having won 75 times, Scotland 42 times and eighteen matches have been drawn.
Apart from fixtures played in the Home Nations / Five Nations / Six Nations Championship competitions, two games have been played at the Rugby World Cup in 1991 and 2011, in both of which England were victorious. The sides also met in 1971 in a match to commemorate the centenary of the first match between the sides, with Scotland winning.
The 1938 Calcutta Cup match was the first live televised rugby international. It was broadcast by BBC Television.
The Calcutta Cup has been the trophy for the annual fixture between the teams since 1879 and is currently played for in the Six Nations Championship match.
Note: Date shown in brackets indicates when the record was or last set.
In the World Cup, the teams have played on two occasions, 1991 and 2011, with England winning both. In these games, England have scored 25 points, and Scotland 18.
In the Home Nations Championship (1871 -- 1909 and 1932 -- 1939), England played Scotland on 44 occasions, England winning 16, Scotland 19 and nine matches have been drawn. In these games, England have scored 149 points, and Scotland 204.
In the Five Nations (1910 -- 1931 and 1947 -- 1999), England played Scotland on 70 occasions, England winning 43, Scotland 19 and eight matches have been drawn. In these games, England have scored 946 points, and Scotland 688.
In the Six Nations (2000 -- present), England have played Scotland on 18 occasions, England winning 14, Scotland 3 and one match has been drawn. In these games, England have scored 501 points, and Scotland 232.
In other test matches, England have played Scotland on just one occasion, in 1971, at Murrayfield, to mark the 100th anniversary of the very first match played between England and Scotland at Raeburn Place, Edinburgh, with Scotland winning the match by 26 points to 6.
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do sheep have to be pregnant to produce milk | Domestic sheep reproduction - wikipedia
As with other mammals, domestic sheep reproduction occurs sexually. Their reproductive strategy is very similar to other domestic herd animals. A flock of sheep is generally mated by a single ram, which has either been chosen by a farmer or has established dominance through physical contest with other rams (in feral populations). Most sheep have a breeding season (tupping) in the autumn, though some are able to breed year - round.
Largely as a result of the influence of humans in sheep breeding, ewes often produce multiple lambs. This increase in the lamb births, both in number and birth weight, may cause problems in delivery and lamb survival, requiring the intervention of shepherds.
Ewes generally reach sexual maturity at six to eight months of age, and rams generally at four to six (ram lambs have occasionally been known to impregnate their mothers at two months). Ewes enter into oestrus cycles about every 17 days, which last for approximately 30 hours. In addition to emitting a scent, they indicate readiness through physical displays towards rams. The phenomenon of the freemartin, a female bovine that is behaviorally masculine and lacks functioning ovaries, is commonly associated with cattle, but does occur to some extent in sheep. The instance of freemartins in sheep may be increasing in concert with the rise in twinning (freemartins are the result of male - female twin combinations).
Without human intervention, rams may fight during the rut to determine which individuals may mate with ewes. Rams, especially unfamiliar ones, will also fight outside the breeding period to establish dominance; rams can kill one another if allowed to mix freely. During the rut, even normally friendly rams may become aggressive towards humans due to increases in their hormone levels.
Historically, especially aggressive rams were sometimes blindfolded or hobbled. Today, those who keep rams typically prefer softer preventative measures, such as moving within a clear line to an exit, never turning their back on a ram, and possibly dousing with water or a diluted solution of bleach or vinegar to dissuade charges.
Without ultrasound or other special tools, determining if a sheep is pregnant is difficult. Ewes only begin to visibly show a pregnancy about six weeks before giving birth, so shepherds often rely on the assumption that a ram will impregnate all the ewes in a flock. However, by fitting a ram with a chest harness called a marking harness that holds a special crayon (or raddle, sometimes spelled reddle), ewes that have been mounted are marked with a color. Dye may also be directly applied to the ram 's brisket. This measure is not used in flocks where wool is important, since the color of a raddle contaminates it.
After mating, sheep have a gestation period of around five months. Within a few days of the impending birth, ewes begin to behave differently. They may lie down and stand erratically, paw the ground, or otherwise act out of sync with normal flock patterns. An ewe 's udder will quickly fill out, and her vulva will swell. Vaginal, uterine or anal prolapse may also occur, in which case either stitching or a physical retainer can be used to hold the orifice in if the problem persists.
In addition to natural insemination by rams, artificial insemination and embryo transfers have been used in sheep breeding programs for many years in Australia and New Zealand. These programs have become more commonplace in the United States during the 2000s as the number of veterinarians qualified to perform these types of procedures with proficiency have grown. However, ovine AI is a relatively complicated procedure compared to other livestock. Unlike cattle or goats, which have straight cervices that can be vaginally inseminated, ewes have a curved cervix which is more difficult to access. Additionally, breeders were until recently unable to control their ewe 's estrus cycles. The ability to control the estrus cycle is much easier today because of products that safely assist in aligning heat cycles. Some examples of products are PG600, CIDRs, Estrumate and Folltropin V. These products contain progesterone which will bring on the induction of estrus in ewes (sheep) during seasonal anestrus. Seasonal anestrus is when ewes do not have regular estrous cycles outside the natural breeding season.
Historically, vaginal insemination of sheep only produced 40 - 60 % success rates, and was thus called a "shot in the dark '' (SID). In the 1980s, Australian researchers developed a laparoscopic insemination procedure which, combined with the use of progestogen and pregnant mare 's serum gonadotropin (PMSG), yielded much higher success rates (50 - 80 % or more), and has become the standard for artificial insemination of sheep in the 21st century.
Semen collection is naturally an integral component of this entire process. Once semen has been collected it can be used immediately for insemination or slowly frozen for use at a later date. Fresh semen is recognized as the method of choice as it lives longer and yields higher conception rates. Frozen semen will work but it must be the highest quality of semen and the ewes must be inseminated twice in the same day. The marketing of ram semen is a major part of this industry. Producers owning prize winning rams have found this to be a good avenue to leverage the accolades of their most famous animals.
During embryo transfer (ET) a minor surgical procedure with almost no risk of injury or infection when performed properly, sheep laparoscopy allows the importation of improved genetics, even of breeds which may otherwise be non-existent in certain countries due to the regulation of live animal imports. Embryo transfer procedures are used to allow producers to maximize those females that produce the best lambs / kids either for retention into the flock or for sale to other producers. ET also allows producers to continue to utilize a ewe / doe that may not physically be able to carry or feed a set of lambs. ET can allow a producer to grow his flock quickly with above average individuals of similar bloodlines. The primary industry to utilize this technology in the United States is the club lamb breeders and exhibitors. It is a common practice in the commercial sheep industries of Australia, New Zealand, and South America.
Average success rates in Embryo Transfer in terms of embryos recovered can vary widely. Each breed will respond differently to the ET process. Typically white faced ewes and does are more fertile than black faced ewes. A range of zero to the mid 20s in terms of viable embryos recovered from a flush procedure can be expected. Over the course of a year the average is 6.8 transferrable eggs per donor with a 75 % conception rate for those eggs.
When birth is imminent, contractions begin to take place, and the fitful behavior of the ewe may increase. A normal labor may take one to several hours, depending on how many lambs are present, the age of the ewe, and her physical and nutritional condition prior to the birth. Though some breeds may regularly produce larger litters of lambs (records stand around nine lambs at once), most produce either single or twin lambs. At some point, usually at the beginning of labor or soon after the births have occurred, ewes and lambs may be confined to small lambing jugs. These pens, which are generally two to eight feet (0.6 to 2.4 m) in length and width, are designed to aid both careful observation of ewes and to cement the bond between them and their lambs.
Ovine obstetrics can be problematic. By selectively breeding ewes that produce multiple offspring with higher birth weights for generations, sheep producers have inadvertently caused some domestic sheep to have difficulty lambing. However, it is a myth that sheep can not lamb without human assistance; many ewes give birth directly in pasture without aid. This can be proven by the fact that they give birth in the wild. Balancing ease of lambing with high productivity is one of the dilemmas of sheep breeding. While the majority of births are relatively normal and do not require intervention, many complications may arise. A lamb may present in the normal fashion (with both legs and head forward), but may simply be too large to slide out of the birth canal. This often happens when large rams are crossed with diminutive ewes (this is related to breed, rams are naturally larger than ewes by comparison). Lambs may also present themselves with one shoulder to the side, completely backward, or with only some of their limbs protruding. Lambs may also be spontaneously aborted or stillborn. Reproductive failure is a common consequence of infections such as toxoplasmosis and foot - and - mouth disease. Some types of abortion in sheep are preventable by vaccinations against these infections.
In the case of any such problems, those present at lambing (who may or may not include a veterinarian, most shepherds become accomplished at lambing to some degree) may assist the ewe in extracting or repositioning lambs. After the birth, ewes ideally break the amniotic sac (if it is not broken during labor), and begin licking clean the lamb. The licking clears the nose and mouth, dries the lamb, and stimulates it. Lambs that are breathing and healthy at this point begin trying to stand, and ideally do so between a half and full hour, with help from the mother. Generally after lambs stand, the umbilical cord is trimmed to about an inch (2.5 centimeters). Once trimmed, a small container (such as a film canister) of iodine is held against the lamb 's belly over the remainder of the cord to prevent infection.
In normal situations, lambs nurse after standing, receiving vital colostrum milk. Lambs that either fail to nurse or are prevented from doing so by the ewe require aid in order to live. If coaxing the pair to accept nursing does not work, one of several steps may then be taken. Ewes may be held or tied to force them to accept a nursing lamb. If a lamb is not eating, a stomach tube may also be used to force feed the lamb in order to save its life. In the case of a permanently rejected lamb, a shepherd may then attempt to foster an orphaned lamb onto another ewe. Lambs are also sometimes fostered after the death of their mother, either from the birth or other event.
Scent plays a large factor in ewes recognizing their lambs, so disrupting the scent of a newborn lamb with washing or over-handling may cause a ewe to reject it. Conversely, various methods of imparting the scent of a ewe 's own lamb to an orphaned one may be useful in fostering. If an orphaned lamb can not be fostered, then it usually becomes what is known as a bottle lamb -- a lamb raised by people and fed via bottle.
After lambs are stabilized, lamb marking is carried out -- this includes ear tagging, docking, castration and usually vaccination. Ear tags with numbers are the primary mode of identification when sheep are not named; it is also the legal manner of animal identification in the European Union: the number may identify the individual sheep or only its flock. When performed at an early age, ear tagging seems to cause little or no discomfort to lambs. However, using tags improperly or using tags not designed for sheep may cause discomfort, largely due to excess weight of tags for other animals.
Ram lambs not intended for breeding are castrated, though some shepherds choose to avoid the procedure for ethical, economic or practical reasons. Ram lambs that will be slaughtered or separated from ewes before sexual maturity are not usually castrated. In most breeds, lambs ' tails are docked for health reasons. The tail may be removed just below the lamb 's caudal tail flaps (docking shorter than this may cause health problems such as rectal prolapse), but in some breeds the tail is left longer, or is not docked at all. Docking is not necessary in short - tailed breeds, and it is not usually done in breeds in which a long tail is valued, such as Zwartbles. Though docking is often considered cruel and unnatural by animal rights activists, it is considered by sheep producers large and small alike to be a critical step in maintaining the health of sheep. Long, wooly tails make shearing more difficult, interfere with mating, and make sheep extremely susceptible to parasites, especially those that cause flystrike. Both castration and docking can be performed with several instruments. An elastrator places a tight band of rubber around an area, causing it to atrophy and fall off in a number of weeks. This process is bloodless and does not seem to cause extended suffering to lambs, who tend to ignore it after several hours. In addition to the elastrator, a Burdizzo, emasculator, heated chisel or knife are sometimes used. After one to three days in the lambing jugs, ewes and lambs are usually sufficiently stabilized to allow reintroduction to the rest of the flock.
In the large sheep producing nations of South America, Australia and New Zealand sheep are usually bred on large tracts of land with much less intervention from the graziers or breeders. Merinos, and much of the land in these countries does not lend itself to the mob intervention that is found in smaller flock breeding countries. In these countries there is little need, and no option but for ewes to lamb outdoors as there are insufficient structures to handle the large flocks of ewes there. New Zealand ewes produce 36 million lambs each spring time, which is an average of 2,250 lambs per farm. Australian graziers, too, do not receive the financial support that governments in other countries provide to sheep breeders. Low - cost sheep breeding is based on large numbers of sheep per labour unit and having ewes that are capable of unsupervised lambing to produce hardy, active lambs.
For breeders intent on strict improvements to their flocks, ewes are classed and inferior sheep are removed prior to mating in order to maintain or improve the quality of the flock. Muffled (wooly) faces have long been associated with lower fertility rates. Stud or specially selected rams are chosen with aid of objective measurements, genetic information and evaluation services that are now available in Australia and New Zealand. The choice of mating time is governed by many factors including climate, market requirements and feed availability. Rams are typically mated at about 2.5 % depending on the age of the sheep, plus consideration as to the size and type of mating paddocks. The mating period ranges from about 6 to 8 weeks in commercial flocks. Longer mating times result in management problems with lamb marking and shearing etc.
Good nutrition is vital to ewes during the last 6 weeks of pregnancy in order to prevent pregnancy toxaemia, especially in twin bearing ewes. Overfeeding, however, may result in over large single lambs and dystocia. Shearing ewes before lambing reduces the number of ewes that are cast (i.e. unable to rise unassisted), and the number of lambs and ewes that are lost. Lambs, too, are aided in finding the udder and suckling a shorn ewe.
After shearing ewes are typically placed in well sheltered paddocks that have good feed and water. Attention to ewes that are lambing varies according to the breed, size and locations of properties. Unless they are stud ewes it unlikely that they will receive intensive care. On stations with large paddocks there is a policy of non-interference. On other properties the mobs are inspected by stockmen at varying intervals to stand cast ewes and deal with dystocia. Producers also sometimes quietly drift pregnant ewes away from ewes that have already lambed, in order to prevent mis - mothering.
Lambs are usually marked at three to six weeks of age, but a protracted lambing season may necessitate two markings.
Inbreeding tends to occur in flocks of limited size and where only a single or a few rams are used. Associated with inbreeding is a decline in progeny performance usually referred to as inbreeding depression. Inbreeding depression has been found for lamb birthweight, average daily weight gain from birth until two months, and litter size.
In the major sheep countries of Argentina, Uruguay, Brazil, Peru and Chile, breeders are also utilizing fleece testing and performance recording schemes as a means of improving their flocks.
In 2008, for the first time in history, researchers at Chiswick CSIRO research station, between Uralla and Armidale, New South Wales have used stem cells to develop surrogate rams and bulls. These males then produce the viable semen of another male.
The approach in these sheep experiments involves irradiating a ram 's testes while placing stem cells from a second ram into the testes of the first, ram A. In the following weeks ram A produces semen the usual way, but is using the stem cells of ram B and therefore producing semen carrying the genetics of ram B rather than those of his own. Ram A therefore has effectively become a surrogate ram.
The viable semen is then implanted in the ewe and the many lambs born through this process are proving to be normal and healthy. DNA tests have proved that up to 10 % of the lambs are sired by the surrogate ram and carry the genetics of the donor ram.
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cost of tennessee out of state hunting license | Hunting license - wikipedia
A hunting license is a regulatory or legal mechanism to control recreational and sports hunting.
Hunting may be regulated informally by unwritten law, self - restraint, a moral code, or by governmental laws.
The purposes for requiring hunting licenses include the protection of natural treasures, and raising tax revenue (often, but not always, to dedicated funds).
Hunting licenses are millennia old.
Amongst the first hunting laws in the Common law tradition was from the time of William the Conqueror (reign in England starting 1066). In the Peterborough Chronicle entry of 1087, The Rime of King William reported in verse that: Whoever killed a hart or a hind Should be blinded. This was because "William the Conqueror 's moral life lives in the landscape. His control of the forest mirrors his control of the people, and his establishment of hunting laws reveals the dissonance between his love for animals and his contempt for the populace:... He loved the wild animals As if he were their father.
Hunting licenses have several purposes. These reasons include: public safety (especially of children, both as hunters and bystanders), regulation and conservation of wild animals, revenue for the sovereign state, and containing the transmission of animal - borne diseases (such as Lyme disease and rabies). The safety issues are especially highlighted in urban areas and shopping districts. For example, after in an incident in November 2012 whereby a man allegedly shot at a deer in a Walmart parking lot in Pennsylvania, he was charged with "reckless endangerment,... hunting without a license, shooting on or across highways and unlawful killing or taking of big game. ''
All firearm owners and users in Australia require a firearm 's licence, but normally do not require a licence to hunt. Most target species are feral or introduced species, and almost all native animals are protected. Landowners may obtain a "Destruction Permit '' to kill or remove native species when their numbers impact agriculture. Hunting in New South Wales national parks requires a R - licence issued by the Game Council, but (as of mid-2013) this situation has been suspended pending review. Professional hunters are issued what is sometimes referred to as a D - licence, but rather than being a hunting licence this is a category of firearms that includes semi-automatics and large capacity magazines.
Hunting regulation and licensing falls under both provincial / territorial and federal jurisdiction. The federal government is responsible for protecting migratory birds and nationally significant wildlife habitat, the regulation for endangered species and the international wildlife issues and treaties (i.e. CITES) for Canada. For example, Migratory Game Bird Hunting licence is issued by the Canadian Wildlife Service, an agency of Environment Canada. All other matters fall under the provincial / territorial jurisdiction.
The use of firearms in hunting is also separated into provincial / territorial and federal jurisdiction. Whereas the Canadian Firearms Program will determine who is eligible for a Possession and Acquisition Licence and issuance of firearm registration certificates, it is the provincial / territorial government 's responsibility to regulate when and how the firearms can be used in hunting animals.
In Québec hunter education and licensing is managed by the Fédération Québécoise de la Faune. Sécurité Nature, a program managed by the FQF, offers a variety of hunting education courses which allow residents to hunt legally after obtaining their licence and a permit at designated outlets (most hunting & fishing stores, Canadian Tires, etc.) for a fee.
A German hunting license is a certificate that grants its holder the exercise of hunting within legal ordinances. It is also the precondition to own hunting arms and ammunition (unlimited number of rifles / shotguns and up to two handguns). The actual right to exercise hunting in a specific area is entitled to the respective landowners (if they own an area of more than 0.75 square kilometres (190 acres), otherwise all landowners of a municipality are integrated into an association) who may use their right for themselves or lease it. Depending on size and value of a hunting area a typical leasing rate may vary from about 10 to 100 USD per acre per year. Additionally the lesse has to pay the landowner any damage by deers, wild hogs etc. The right to hunt is connected to the duty to care for all kind of animals listed by the hunting laws. For several species such as deers plans have to be developed by hunters and authorities, how many animals of a specified class and age may (or have to) be killed within a certain period of time. The purpose of the hunting license is to ensure that only well trained persons may exercise hunting. Applicants must fulfill the following requirements:
The hunting exam is a test of expertise with a high failure rate. To pass it, each applicant has to participate in a comprehensive, difficult instruction course which consists largely of the areas shooting (shotgun and rifle), theory (esp. weaponry, local wildlife and habitat) and practise.
In practise the German system of examination for deer hunters (stalkers) is very much in line with the English DMQ level DSC2. Over the last ten years or so European countries in general have made efforts to harmonise the previously fragmented rules and regulations with parallels being taken from the more difficult UK system.
In the United States, regulation of hunting is primarily performed by state law; additional regulations are imposed through Federal environmental law regarding migratory birds (such as ducks and geese) and endangered species.
Like many licenses, a hunting license is considered a privilege granted by the government, rather than a constitutional right under the Second Amendment.
As a general rule, unprotected pest species are not subject to a hunting license. Vermin may be hunted without a license, or may even be the subject of a bounty paid to the hunter.
A Federal law, the Airborne Hunting Act (AHA), was passed in 1971 with the goal of eliminating aerial hunting, that is, shooting wildlife from planes or helicopters.
Each state has different standards and paperwork requirements for getting a hunting license. These include the areas, time periods, harvesting techniques, distinctions between species, and a hunting safety course.
Licenses to hunt typically go on sale once a year. Some states, such as New York, allow only during a defined single season, or for a lifetime during such seasons for residents of the state, upon payment of the appropriate fees. As a general rule, hunting licenses are non-transferable, are a privilege (not a right), and does not allow trespass on private land.
Hunting big game typically requires a tag for each animal harvested. Tags must be purchased in addition to the hunting license, and the number of tags issued to an individual is typically limited. In cases where there are more prospective hunters than the quota for that species, tags are usually assigned by lottery. Tags may be further restricted to a specific area or wildlife management unit.
States with these "tags '' include Alaska, California, Florida, Georgia, Illinois, Louisiana, New York, Ohio, Tennessee, Texas, and Virginia.
49 of the 50 states require a prospective big game hunter take a several - hour course about safety, often termed sportsman education or "hunter 's safety course '' in the case of California.
Such jurisdictions also may limit getting a hunting license to adults or may grant a "junior '' license for persons as young as twelve years of age.
Several United States and Canadian provinces have joined in an Interstate Wildlife Violator Compact (IWVC) to control interstate hunting and to punish violators of differing laws.
Federal law requires the purchase of a duck stamp in order to shoot migratory ducks. They are regulated by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.
United States law also mandates strict limits on the hunting ("taking '') of endangered species. The U.S. is a signatory to the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). The Bush Administration proposed lifting some restrictions in 2005 (for antelopes), as did the Norwegian Government (for wolves) in the same year.
Both Federal and state laws exempt the following:
The Eagle feather law, (Title 50 Part 22 of the Code of Federal Regulations), stipulates that only individuals of certifiable American Indian ancestry enrolled in a federally recognized tribe are legally authorized to obtain eagle feathers for religious or spiritual use. American Indians and non-American Indians frequently contest the value and validity of the Eagle feather law, charging that the law is laden with discriminatory racial preferences and infringes on tribal sovereignty. Their arguments include that the law does not allow American Indians to give eagle feathers to non-American Indians, a common modern and traditional practice. (Many non-American Indians have been adopted into American Indian families, made tribal members, and given eagle feathers.)
Some hunters have challenged hunting licenses, as being in violation of the right to keep and bear arms as guaranteed by Second Amendment to the United States Constitution; the Supreme Court of the US in February 2008, heard arguments on the proper standard of review for gun laws or regulations. However, in District of Columbia v. Heller, the Court declined to examine the broader issues, leaving state hunting licenses valid and in force.
The current law is unclear at to what standard of review would apply, but the rational basis or arbitrary and capricious tests are the most likely standards. Under either standard, most hunting license regimes in the United States would likely pass muster, due to the need to conserve natural resources, to enforce the police power, and to raise revenue, all valid purposes of such laws.
Most major conservation organizations in the US favor the continued legality and regulation of hunting, including Ducks Unlimited, the National Wildlife Federation, and The Wilderness Society. The Defenders of Wildlife, National Audubon Society, and the World Wildlife Fund also support licenses for regulated hunting of wildlife.
The Sierra Club supports hunting licenses, but there has been tension in the group for two decades between those who want to ally with hunters and to regulate them, and those opposed to hunting altogether.
The American Humane Association and the People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals are opposed to hunting, and would ban the practice rather than regulating it.
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miles davis live in europe 1969 the bootleg series vol. 2 | Live in Europe 1969: the Bootleg Series Vol. 2 - wikipedia
Live in Europe 1969: The Bootleg Series Vol. 2 is a 3 CD + 1 DVD live album of the Miles Davis Quintet featuring saxophonist Wayne Shorter, pianist Chick Corea, bassist Dave Holland, and drummer Jack DeJohnette. The CDs contain recordings of two concerts in France and one in Sweden and the DVD has an additional concert recorded in Germany.
The first two discs were recorded at the Festival Mondial du Jazz d'Antibes, La Pinède in Juan - les - Pins, France, on July 25 & 26, 1969 with the first concert originally released in Japan in 1993 as 1969 Miles Festiva De Juan Pins. The third disc contains the concert from November 5, 1969 at the Folkets Hus, Stockholm. The DVD was recorded in West Germany on 7 November 1969 at the Berliner Jazztage in the Berlin Philharmonie.
Live in Europe 1969: The Bootleg Series Vol. 2 received positive reviews on release. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalised rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, the album has received a score of 91, based on 11 reviews which is categorised as universal acclaim. Thom Jurek 's review on Allmusic stated "Live in Europe, 1969 makes obvious that on this tour, Davis ' creative vision was holistic and completely assured. These fire - breathing performances offer a band at fever pitch hearing and playing what they knew even then was a new chapter in jazz history ''. In his review for the Los Angeles Times, Chris Barton observed "'' Live in Europe 1969 '' documents the trumpeter 's restless exploration at liftoff ". PopMatters ', Matthew Flander gave the album 10 out of 10 saying "It was as powerful a set of players as Davis ever played with, but it also did its own thing, carving out a space that was equal parts eccentric and classic, innovative and authoritative '' The Guardian 's John Fordham said "The intensity is somewhat relentless, and there is a warts - and - all feel to sound quality and some of the improvising, but this is newly emerging and influential music still in the furnace ''.
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where did the freedom of the press originate | Freedom of the press - wikipedia
Freedom of the press or freedom of the media is the principle that communication and expression through various media, including printed and electronic media, especially published materials, should be considered a right to be exercised freely. Such freedom implies the absence of interference from an overreaching state; its preservation may be sought through constitutional or other legal protections.
With respect to governmental information, any government may distinguish which materials are public or protected from disclosure to the public. State materials are protected due to either of two reasons: the classification of information as sensitive, classified or secret, or the relevance of the information to protecting the national interest. Many governments are also subject to sunshine laws or freedom of information legislation that are used to define the ambit of national interest.
The United Nations ' 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights states: "Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression; this right includes freedom to hold opinions without interference, and to seek, receive, and impart information and ideas through any media regardless of frontiers ''.
This philosophy is usually accompanied by legislation ensuring various degrees of freedom of scientific research (known as scientific freedom), publishing, and press. The depth to which these laws are entrenched in a country 's legal system can go as far down as its constitution. The concept of freedom of speech is often covered by the same laws as freedom of the press, thereby giving equal treatment to spoken and published expression. Sweden was the first country in the world to adopt freedom of the press into its constitution with the Freedom of the Press Act of 1766.
Freedom of the press is construed as an absence of interference by outside entities, such as a government or religious organization, rather than as a right for authors to have their works published by other people. This idea was famously summarized by the 20th century American journalist, A.J. Liebling, who wrote, "Freedom of the press is guaranteed only to those who own one ''. Freedom of the press gives the printer or publisher exclusive control over what the publisher chooses to publish, including the right to refuse to print anything for any reason. If the author can not reach a voluntary agreement with a publisher to produce the author 's work, then the author must turn to self - publishing.
Beyond legal definitions, several non-governmental organizations use other criteria to judge the level of press freedom around the world. Some create subjective lists, while others are based on quantitative data:
Every year, the Committee to Protect Journalists releases its comprehensive list of all journalists killed in relation to their work, including profiles of each journalist and a database, and an annual census of journalists in jail as of midnight on December 1. 2017 was a record year for journalists jailed with 262 journalists behind bars. Turkey, China and Egypt accounted for more than half of all journalists jailed globally.
Every year, Reporters Without Borders establish a subjective ranking of countries in terms of their freedom of the press. Press Freedom Index list is based on responses to surveys sent to journalists that are members of partner organizations of the RWB, as well as related specialists such as researchers, jurists, and human rights activists. The survey asks questions about direct attacks on journalists and the media as well as other indirect sources of pressure against the free press, such as non-governmental groups.
In 2016, the countries where press was the most free were Finland, Netherlands, Norway, Denmark and New Zealand, followed by Costa Rica, Switzerland, Sweden, Ireland and Jamaica. The country with the least degree of press freedom was Eritrea, followed by North Korea, Turkmenistan, Syria, China, Vietnam and Sudan.
The problem with media in India, the world 's largest democracy, is enormous. India does n't have a model for a democratic press. The Canadian Journalists for Free Expression (CJFE) has published a report on India stating that Indian journalists are forced -- or feel compelled for the sake of job security -- to report in ways that reflect the political opinions and corporate interests of shareholders. The report written by Ravi S Jha says "Indian journalism, with its lack of freedom and self - regulation, can not be trusted now -- it is currently known for manipulation and bias. ''
Freedom of the Press is a yearly report by US - based non-profit organization Freedom House. It is known to subjectively measure the level of freedom and editorial independence that is enjoyed by the press in every nation and significant disputed territories around the world. Levels of freedom are scored on a scale from 1 (most free) to 100 (least free). Depending on the basics, the nations are then classified as "Free '', "Partly Free '', or "Not Free ''.
In 2009 Iceland, Norway, Finland, Denmark, and Sweden topped the list with North Korea, Turkmenistan, Myanmar (Burma), Libya, Eritrea at the bottom.
According to Reporters Without Borders, more than a third of the world 's people live in countries where there is no press freedom. Overwhelmingly, these people live in countries where there is no system of democracy or where there are serious deficiencies in the democratic process. Freedom of the press is an extremely problematic problem / concept for most non-democratic systems of government since, in the modern age, strict control of access to information is critical to the existence of most non-democratic governments and their associated control systems and security apparatus. To this end, most non-democratic societies employ state - run news organizations to promote the propaganda critical to maintaining an existing political power base and suppress (often very brutally, through the use of police, military, or intelligence agencies) any significant attempts by the media or individual journalists to challenge the approved "government line '' on contentious issues. In such countries, journalists operating on the fringes of what is deemed to be acceptable will very often find themselves the subject of considerable intimidation by agents of the state. This can range from simple threats to their professional careers (firing, professional blacklisting) to death threats, kidnapping, torture, and assassination.
Central, Northern and Western Europe has a long tradition of freedom of speech, including freedom of the press. After World War II, Hugh Baillie, the president of United Press wire service based in the U.S., promoted freedom of news dissemination. In 1966 he called for an open system of news sources and transmission, and minimum of government regulation of the news. His proposals were aired at the Geneva Conference on Freedom of Information in 1948, but were blocked by the Soviets and the French.
Media freedom is a fundamental right that applies to all member states of the European Union and its citizens, as defined in the EU Charter of Fundamental Rights as well as the European Convention on Human Rights. Within the EU enlargement process, guaranteeing media freedom is named a "key indicator of a country 's readiness to become part of the EU ''.
According to the New York Times, "Britain has a long tradition of a free, inquisitive press '', but "(u) nlike the United States, Britain has no constitutional guarantee of press freedom. '' Freedom of the press was established in Great Britain in 1695, with Alan Rusbridger, former editor of The Guardian, stating: "When people talk about licensing journalists or newspapers the instinct should be to refer them to history. Read about how licensing of the press in Britain was abolished in 1695. Remember how the freedoms won here became a model for much of the rest of the world, and be conscious how the world still watches us to see how we protect those freedoms. ''
Until 1694, England had an elaborate system of licensing; the most recent was seen in the Licensing of the Press Act 1662. No publication was allowed without the accompaniment of a government - granted license. Fifty years earlier, at a time of civil war, John Milton wrote his pamphlet Areopagitica (1644). In this work Milton argued forcefully against this form of government censorship and parodied the idea, writing "when as debtors and delinquents may walk abroad without a keeper, but unoffensive books must not stir forth without a visible jailer in their title. '' Although at the time it did little to halt the practice of licensing, it would be viewed later a significant milestone as one of the most eloquent defenses of press freedom.
Milton 's central argument was that the individual is capable of using reason and distinguishing right from wrong, good from bad. In order to be able to exercise this ration right, the individual must have unlimited access to the ideas of his fellow men in "a free and open encounter. '' From Milton 's writings developed the concept of the open marketplace of ideas, the idea that when people argue against each other, the good arguments will prevail. One form of speech that was widely restricted in England was seditious libel, and laws were in place that made criticizing the government a crime. The King was above public criticism and statements critical of the government were forbidden, according to the English Court of the Star Chamber. Truth was not a defense to seditious libel because the goal was to prevent and punish all condemnation of the government.
Locke contributed to the lapse of the Licensing Act in 1695, whereupon the press needed no license. Still, many libels were tried throughout the 18th century, until "the Society of the Bill of Rights '' led by John Horne Tooke and John Wilkes organized a campaign to publish Parliamentary Debates. This culminated in three defeats of the Crown in the 1770 cases of Almon, of Miller and of Woodfall, who all had published one of the Letters of Junius, and the unsuccessful arrest of John Wheble in 1771. Thereafter the Crown was much more careful in the application of libel; for example, in the aftermath of the Peterloo Massacre, Burdett was convicted, whereas by contrast the Junius affair was over a satire and sarcasm about the non-lethal conduct and policies of government.
In Britain 's American colonies, the first editors discovered their readers enjoyed it when they criticized the local governor; the governors discovered they could shut down the newspapers. The most dramatic confrontation came in New York in 1734, where the governor brought John Peter Zenger to trial for criminal libel after the publication of satirical attacks. The defense lawyers argued that according to English common law, the truth was a valid defense against libel. The jury acquitted Zenger, who became the iconic American hero for freedom of the press. The result was an emerging tension between the media and the government. By the mid-1760s, there were 24 weekly newspapers in the 13 colonies, and the satirical attack on government became common features in American newspapers.
John Stuart Mill in 1869 in his book On Liberty approached the problem of authority versus liberty from the viewpoint of a 19th - century utilitarian: The individual has the right of expressing himself so long as he does not harm other individuals. The good society is one in which the greatest number of persons enjoy the greatest possible amount of happiness. Applying these general principles of liberty to freedom of expression, Mill states that if we silence an opinion, we may silence the truth. The individual freedom of expression is therefore essential to the well - being of society. Mill wrote:
Between September 4, 1770 and October 7, 1771 the kingdom of Denmark -- Norway had the most unrestricted freedom of press of any country in Europe. This occurred during the regime of Johann Friedrich Struensee, whose second act was to abolish the old censorship laws. However, due to the great amount of mostly anonymous pamphlets published that was critical and often slanderous towards Struensee 's own regime, he reinstated some restrictions regarding the freedom of press a year later, October 7, 1771.
After the Italian unification in 1861, the Albertine Statute of 1848 was adopted as the constitution of the Kingdom of Italy. The Statute granted the freedom of the press with some restrictions in case of abuses and in religious matters, as stated in Article 28:
The press shall be free, but the law may suppress abuses of this freedom. However, Bibles, catechisms, liturgical and prayer books shall not be printed without the prior permission of the Bishop.
After the abolition of the monarchy in 1946 and the abrogation of the Statute in 1948, the Constitution of the Republic of Italy guarantees the freedom of the press, as stated in Article 21, Paragraphs 2 and 3:
The press may not be subjected to any authorisation or censorship. Seizure may be permitted only by judicial order stating the reason and only for offences expressly determined by the law on the press or in case of violation of the obligation to identify the persons responsible for such offences.
The Constitution allows the warrantless confiscation of periodicals in cases of absolute urgency, when the Judiciary can not timely intervene, on the condition that a judicial validation must be obtained within 24 hours. Article 21 also gives restrictions against those publications considered offensive by public morality, as stated in Paragraph 6:
Publications, performances, and other exhibits offensive to public morality shall be prohibited. Measures of preventive and repressive measure against such violations shall be established by law.
In 1933 freedom of the press was suppressed in Nazi Germany by the Reichstag Fire Decree of President Paul von Hindenburg, just as Adolf Hitler was coming to power. Hitler largely suppressed freedom of the press through Joseph Goebbels ' Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda. The Ministry acted as a central control point for all media, issuing orders as to what stories could be run and what stories would be suppressed. Anyone involved in the film industry - from directors to the lowliest assistant - had to sign an oath of loyalty to the Nazi Party, due to opinion - changing power Goebbels perceived movies to have. (Goebbels himself maintained some personal control over every single film made in Nazi Europe.) Journalists who crossed the Propaganda Ministry were routinely imprisoned.
One of the world 's first freedom of the press acts was introduced in Sweden in 1766, mainly due to classical liberal member of parliament, Ostrobothnian priest, Anders Chydenius. Excepted and liable to prosecution was only vocal opposition to the King and the Church of Sweden. The Act was largely rolled back after King Gustav 's coup d'état in 1772, restored after the overthrowing of his son, Gustav IV of Sweden in 1809, and fully recognized with the abolition of the king 's prerogative to cancel licenses in the 1840s.
The First Amendment of the United States Constitution states:
Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the government for a redress of grievances.
Section 2 (b) of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms states that everyone has "the freedom of thought, belief, opinion and expression, including freedom of the press and other media of communication. ''
The open court principle ensures the freedom of the press by requiring that court proceedings presumptively be open and accessible to the public and to the media.
Singapore 's media environment is considered to be not controlled by the government.
The Indian Constitution, while not mentioning the word "press '', provides for "the right to freedom of speech and expression '' (Article 19 (1) a). However this right is subject to restrictions under sub clause, whereby this freedom can be restricted for reasons of "sovereignty and integrity of India, the security of the State, friendly relations with foreign States, public order, preserving decency, preserving morality, in relation to contempt, court, defamation, or incitement to an offense ''. Laws such as the Official Secrets Act and Prevention of Terrorist Activities Act (PoTA) have been used to limit press freedom. Under PoTA, person could be detained for up to six months for being in contact with a terrorist or terrorist group. PoTA was repealed in 2006, but the Official Secrets Act 1923 continues.
For the first half - century of independence, media control by the state was the major constraint on press freedom. Indira Gandhi famously stated in 1975 that All India Radio is "a Government organ, it is going to remain a Government organ... '' With the liberalization starting in the 1990s, private control of media has burgeoned, leading to increasing independence and greater scrutiny of government.
It ranks poorly at 138th rank out of 180 listed countries in the Press Freedom Index 2018 released by Reporters Without Borders (RWB). Analytically India 's press freedom, as could be deduced by the Press Freedom Index, has constantly reduced since 2002, when it culminated in terms of apparent freedom, achieving a rank of 80 among the reported countries. In 2018, India 's freedom of press ranking declined two placed to 138. In explaining the decline, RWB cited growing intolerance from Hindu nationalist supporters of Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi, and the murders of journalists such as Gauri Lankesh.
Bangladeshi media is reportedly following a self - censorship due to a controversial act named as Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Act. Under this act, 25 journalists and several hundred bloggers and Facebook users are reportedly prosecuted in Bangladesh in 2017.
Bangladesh ranks poorly at 146th rank out of 180 listed countries in the Press Freedom Index 2018 released by Reporters Without Borders (RWB). Bangladeshi media has faced many problems in 2018. The country 's most popular online newspaper bdnews24.com was blocked for a few hours on June 18, 2018 by Bangladesh 's regulatory authority. Another newspaper The Daily Star 's website was blocked for 22 hours on June 2, 2018 after it had published a report about a victim of an extrajudicial execution in the southeastern city of Cox 's Bazar.
During the road - safety protests in 2018, Bangladeshi government switched off 3G and 4G mobile data and also arrested a photographer named Shahidul Alam under ICT act, after he had given an interview with Al Jazeera.
As of 2018, online content providers must be licensed and pay an annual fee to the government.
Many of the traditional means of delivering information are being slowly superseded by the increasing pace of modern technological advance. Almost every conventional mode of media and information dissemination has a modern counterpart that offers significant potential advantages to journalists seeking to maintain and enhance their freedom of speech. A few simple examples of such phenomena include:
Naturally, governments are responding to the challenges posed by new media technologies by deploying increasingly sophisticated technology of their own (a notable example being China 's attempts to impose control through a state - run internet service provider that controls access to the Internet) but it seems that this will become an increasingly difficult task as journalists continue to find new ways to exploit technology and stay one step ahead of the generally slower - moving government institutions that attempt to censor them.
In May 2010, U.S. President Barack Obama signed legislation intended to promote a free press around the world, a bipartisan measure inspired by the murder in Pakistan of Daniel Pearl, the Wall Street Journal reporter, shortly after the September 11 attacks in 2001. The legislation, called the Daniel Pearl Freedom of the Press Act, requires the United States Department of State to expand its scrutiny of news media restrictions and intimidation as part of its annual review of human rights in each country. In 2012 the Obama Administration collected communication records from 20 separate home and office lines for Associated Press reporters over a two - month period, possibly in an effort to curtail government leaks to the press. The surveillance caused widespread condemnation by First Amendment experts and free press advocates, and led 50 major media organizations to sign and send a letter of protest to American attorney general Eric Holder.
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where does the name erica come from and what does it mean | Erika (given name) - wikipedia
The given name Erika, or Erica, is a feminine form of Eric, deriving from the Old Norse name Eiríkr (or Eríkr in Eastern Scandinavia due to monophthongization). The first element, ei - is derived either from the older Proto - Norse * aina (z), meaning "one, alone, unique '', as in the form Æinrikr explicitly, or from * aiwa (z) "long time, eternity ''. The second element - ríkr stems either from * ríks "king, ruler '' (cf. Gothic reiks) or from the therefrom derived * ríkijaz "kingly, powerful, rich ''. The name is thus usually taken to mean "sole ruler, autocrat '' or "eternal ruler, ever powerful ''.
It is a common name in many Western societies. It is also a popular given name for women in Japan (even though its origin has nothing in common with the Nordic roots of the Western version). Erica is also the name of a genus of approximately 860 species of flowering plants in the family Ericaceae, commonly known as "heaths '' or "heathers '' in English, and is the Latin word for "heather ''.
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in what city and state are nfl footballs made | National Football league - wikipedia
The National Football League (NFL) is a professional American football league consisting of 32 teams, divided equally between the National Football Conference (NFC) and the American Football Conference (AFC). The NFL is one of the four major professional sports leagues in North America, and the highest professional level of American football in the world. The NFL 's 17 - week regular season runs from early September to late December, with each team playing 16 games and having one bye week. Following the conclusion of the regular season, six teams from each conference (four division winners and two wild card teams) advance to the playoffs, a single - elimination tournament culminating in the Super Bowl, which is usually held in the first Sunday in February, and is played between the champions of the NFC and AFC.
The NFL was formed in 1920 as the American Professional Football Association (APFA) before renaming itself the National Football League for the 1922 season. The NFL agreed to merge with the American Football League (AFL) in 1966, and the first Super Bowl was held at the end of that season; the merger was completed in 1970. Today, the NFL has the highest average attendance (67,591) of any professional sports league in the world and is the most popular sports league in the United States. The Super Bowl is among the biggest club sporting events in the world and individual Super Bowl games account for many of the most watched television programs in American history, all occupying the Nielsen 's Top 5 tally of the all - time most watched U.S. television broadcasts by 2015. The NFL 's executive officer is the commissioner, who has broad authority in governing the league.
The team with the most NFL championships is the Green Bay Packers with thirteen (nine NFL titles before the Super Bowl era, and four Super Bowl championships afterwards); the team with the most Super Bowl championships is the Pittsburgh Steelers with six. The current NFL champions are the Philadelphia Eagles, who defeated the New England Patriots in Super Bowl LII, their first Super Bowl championship after winning three NFL titles before the Super Bowl era.
On August 20, 1920, a meeting was held by representatives of the Akron Pros, Canton Bulldogs, Cleveland Indians, Rock Island Independents and Dayton Triangles at the Jordan and Hupmobile auto showroom in Canton, Ohio. This meeting resulted in the formation of the American Professional Football Conference (APFC), a group who, according to the Canton Evening Repository, intended to "raise the standard of professional football in every way possible, to eliminate bidding for players between rival clubs and to secure cooperation in the formation of schedules ''. Another meeting held on September 17, 1920 resulted in the renaming of the league to the American Professional Football Association (APFA). The league hired Jim Thorpe as its first president, and consisted of 14 teams. Only two of these teams, the Decatur Staleys (now the Chicago Bears) and the Chicago Cardinals (now the Arizona Cardinals), remain.
Although the league did not maintain official standings for its 1920 inaugural season and teams played schedules that included non-league opponents, the APFA awarded the Akron Pros the championship by virtue of their 8 -- 0 -- 3 (8 wins, 0 losses, and 3 ties) record. The first event occurred on September 26, 1920 when the Rock Island Independents defeated the non-league St. Paul Ideals 48 -- 0 at Douglas Park. On October 3, 1920, the first full week of league play occurred. The following season resulted in the Chicago Staleys controversially winning the title over the Buffalo All - Americans. On June 24, 1922, the APFA changed its name to the National Football League (NFL).
In 1932, the season ended with the Chicago Bears (6 -- 1 -- 6) and the Portsmouth Spartans (6 -- 1 -- 4) tied for first in the league standings. At the time, teams were ranked on a single table and the team with the highest winning percentage (not including ties, which were not counted towards the standings) at the end of the season was declared the champion; the only tiebreaker was that in the event of a tie, if two teams played twice in a season, the result of the second game determined the title (the source of the 1921 controversy). This method had been used since the league 's creation in 1920, but no situation had been encountered where two teams were tied for first. The league quickly determined that a playoff game between Chicago and Portsmouth was needed to decide the league 's champion. The teams were originally scheduled to play the playoff game, officially a regular season game that would count towards the regular season standings, at Wrigley Field in Chicago, but a combination of heavy snow and extreme cold forced the game to be moved indoors to Chicago Stadium, which did not have a regulation - size football field. Playing with altered rules to accommodate the smaller playing field, the Bears won the game 9 -- 0 and thus won the championship. Fan interest in the de facto championship game led the NFL, beginning in 1933, to split into two divisions with a championship game to be played between the division champions. The 1934 season also marked the first of 12 seasons in which African Americans were absent from the league. The de facto ban was rescinded in 1946, following public pressure and coinciding with the removal of a similar ban in Major League Baseball.
The NFL was always the foremost professional football league in the United States; it nevertheless faced a large number of rival professional leagues through the 1930s and 1940s. Rival leagues included at least three separate American Football Leagues and the All - America Football Conference (AAFC), on top of various regional leagues of varying caliber. Three NFL teams trace their histories to these rival leagues, including the Los Angeles Rams (who came from a 1936 iteration of the American Football League), the Cleveland Browns and San Francisco 49ers (the last two of which came from the AAFC). By the 1950s, the NFL had an effective monopoly on professional football in the United States; its only competition in North America was the professional Canadian football circuit, which formally became the Canadian Football League (CFL) in 1958. With Canadian football being a different football code than the American game, the CFL established a niche market in Canada and still survives as an independent league.
A new professional league, the fourth American Football League (AFL), began play in 1960. The upstart AFL began to challenge the established NFL in popularity, gaining lucrative television contracts and engaging in a bidding war with the NFL for free agents and draft picks. The two leagues announced a merger on June 8, 1966, to take full effect in 1970. In the meantime, the leagues would hold a common draft and championship game. The game, the Super Bowl, was held four times before the merger, with the NFL winning Super Bowl I and Super Bowl II, and the AFL winning Super Bowl III and Super Bowl IV. After the league merged, it was reorganized into two conferences: the National Football Conference (NFC), consisting of most of the pre-merger NFL teams, and the American Football Conference (AFC), consisting of all of the AFL teams as well as three pre-merger NFL teams.
Today, the NFL is considered the most popular sports league in North America; much of its growth is attributed to former Commissioner Pete Rozelle, who led the league from 1960 to 1989. Overall annual attendance increased from three million at the beginning of his tenure to seventeen million by the end of his tenure, and 400 million viewers watched 1989 's Super Bowl XXIII. The NFL established NFL Properties in 1963. The league 's licensing wing, NFL Properties earns the league billions of dollars annually; Rozelle 's tenure also marked the creation of NFL Charities and a national partnership with United Way. Paul Tagliabue was elected as commissioner to succeed Rozelle; his seventeen - year tenure, which ended in 2006, was marked by large increases in television contracts and the addition of four expansion teams, as well as the introduction of league initiatives to increase the number of minorities in league and team management roles. The league 's current Commissioner, Roger Goodell, has focused on reducing the number of illegal hits and making the sport safer, mainly through fining or suspending players who break rules. These actions are among many the NFL is taking to reduce concussions and improve player safety.
From 1920 to 1934, the NFL did not have a set number of games for teams to play, instead setting a minimum. The league mandated a 12 - game regular season for each team beginning in 1935, later shortening this to 11 games in 1937 and 10 games in 1943, mainly due to World War II. After the war ended, the number of games returned to 11 games in 1946 and to 12 in 1947. The NFL went to a 14 - game schedule in 1961, which it retained until switching to the current 16 - game schedule in 1978. Proposals to increase the regular season to 18 games have been made, but have been rejected in labor negotiations with the National Football League Players Association (NFLPA).
The NFL operated in a two - conference system from 1933 to 1966, where the champions of each conference would meet in the NFL Championship Game. If two teams tied for the conference lead, they would meet in a one - game playoff to determine the conference champion. In 1967, the NFL expanded from 15 teams to 16 teams. Instead of just evening out the conferences by adding the expansion New Orleans Saints to the seven - member Western Conference, the NFL realigned the conferences and split each into two four - team divisions. The four division champions would meet in the NFL playoffs, a two - round playoff. The NFL also operated the Playoff Bowl (officially the Bert Bell Benefit Bowl) from 1960 to 1969. Effectively a third - place game, pitting the two conference runners - up against each other, the league considers Playoff Bowls to have been exhibitions rather than playoff games. The league discontinued the Playoff Bowl in 1970 due to its perception as a game for losers.
Following the addition of the former AFL teams into the NFL in 1970, the NFL split into two conferences with three divisions each. The expanded league, now with twenty - six teams, would also feature an expanded eight - team eight playoff, the participants being the three division champions from each conference as well as one ' wild card ' team (the team with the best win percentage) from each conference. In 1978, the league added a second wild card team from each conference, bringing the total number of playoff teams to ten, and a further two wild card teams were added in 1990 to bring the total to twelve. When the NFL expanded to 32 teams in 2002, the league realigned, changing the division structure from three divisions in each conference to four divisions in each conference. As each division champion gets a playoff bid, the number of wild card teams from each conference dropped from three to two.
At the corporate level, the National Football League considers itself a trade association made up of and financed by its 32 member teams. Up until 2015, the league was an unincorporated nonprofit 501 (c) (6) association. Section 501 (c) (6) of the Internal Revenue Code provides an exemption from federal income taxation for "Business leagues, chambers of commerce, real - estate boards, boards of trade, or professional football leagues (whether or not administering a pension fund for football players), not organized for profit and no part of the net earnings of which inures to the benefit of any private shareholder or individual. ''. In contrast, each individual team (except the non-profit Green Bay Packers) is subject to tax because they make a profit.
The NFL gave up the tax exempt status in 2015 following public criticism; in a letter to the club owners, Commissioner Roger Goodell labeled it a "distraction '', saying "the effects of the tax exempt status of the league office have been mischaracterized repeatedly in recent years... Every dollar of income generated through television rights fees, licensing agreements, sponsorships, ticket sales, and other means is earned by the 32 clubs and is taxable there. This will remain the case even when the league office and Management Council file returns as taxable entities, and the change in filing status will make no material difference to our business. '' As a result, the league office might owe around US $10 million in income taxes, but it is no longer required to disclose the salaries of its executive officers.
The league has three defined officers: the commissioner, secretary, and treasurer. Each conference has one defined officer, the president, which is essentially an honorary position with few powers and mostly ceremonial duties (such as awarding the conference championship trophy).
The commissioner is elected by affirmative vote of two - thirds or 18 (whichever is greater) of the members of the league, while the president of each conference is elected by an affirmative vote of three - fourths or ten of the conference members. The commissioner appoints the secretary and treasurer and has broad authority in disputes between clubs, players, coaches, and employees. He is the "principal executive officer '' of the NFL and also has authority in hiring league employees, negotiating television contracts, disciplining individuals that own part or all of an NFL team, clubs, or employed individuals of an NFL club if they have violated league bylaws or committed "conduct detrimental to the welfare of the League or professional football ''. The commissioner can, in the event of misconduct by a party associated with the league, suspend individuals, hand down a fine of up to US $500,000, cancel contracts with the league, and award or strip teams of draft picks.
In extreme cases, the commissioner can offer recommendations to the NFL 's Executive Committee up to and including the "cancellation or forfeiture '' of a club 's franchise or any other action he deems necessary. The commissioner can also issue sanctions up to and including a lifetime ban from the league if an individual connected to the NFL has bet on games or failed to notify the league of conspiracies or plans to bet on or fix games. The current Commissioner of the National Football League is Roger Goodell, who was elected in 2006 after Paul Tagliabue, the previous commissioner, retired.
According to economist Richard Wolff, the NFL redistributes its wealth to all NFL teams equally in contravention of the typical corporate structure. By redistributing profits to all teams the NFL is ensuring that one team will not dominate the league through excessive earnings.
The NFL consists of 32 clubs divided into two conferences of 16 teams in each. Each conference is divided into four divisions of four clubs in each. During the regular season, each team is allowed a maximum of 53 players on its roster; only 46 of these may be active (eligible to play) on game days. Each team can also have a 10 - player practice squad separate from its main roster, but the practice squad may only be composed of players who were not active for at least nine games in any of their seasons in the league. A player can only be on a practice squad for a maximum of three seasons.
Each NFL club is granted a franchise, the league 's authorization for the team to operate in its home city. This franchise covers ' Home Territory ' (the 75 miles surrounding the city limits, or, if the team is within 100 miles of another league city, half the distance between the two cities) and ' Home Marketing Area ' (Home Territory plus the rest of the state the club operates in, as well as the area the team operates its training camp in for the duration of the camp). Each NFL member has the exclusive right to host professional football games inside its Home Territory and the exclusive right to advertise, promote, and host events in its Home Marketing Area. There are several exceptions to this rule, mostly relating to teams with close proximity to each other: the San Francisco 49ers and Oakland Raiders only have exclusive rights in their cities and share rights outside of it; and teams that operate in the same city (e.g. New York City and Los Angeles) or the same state (e.g. California, Florida, and Texas) share the rights to the city 's Home Territory and the state 's Home Marketing Area, respectively.
Every NFL team is based in the contiguous United States. Although no team is based in a foreign country, the Jacksonville Jaguars began playing one home game a year at Wembley Stadium in London, England in 2013 as part of the NFL International Series. The Jaguars ' agreement with Wembley was originally set to expire in 2016, but has since been extended through 2020. The Buffalo Bills played one home game every season at Rogers Centre in Toronto, Ontario, Canada as part of the Bills Toronto Series from 2008 to 2013. Mexico also hosted an NFL regular - season game, a 2005 game between the San Francisco 49ers and Arizona Cardinals known as "Fútbol Americano '', and 39 international preseason games were played from 1986 to 2005 as part of the American Bowl series. The Raiders and Houston Texans played a game in Mexico City at Estadio Azteca on November 21, 2016.
According to Forbes, the Dallas Cowboys, at approximately US $4 billion, are the most valuable NFL franchise and the most valuable sports team in the world. Also, all 32 NFL teams rank among the Top 50 most valuable sports teams in the world; and 14 of the NFL 's owners are listed on the Forbes 400, the most of any sports league or organization.
The 32 teams are organized into eight geographic divisions of four teams each. These divisions are further organized into two conferences, the National Football Conference and the American Football Conference. The two - conference structure has its origins in a time when major American professional football was organized into two independent leagues, the National Football League and its younger rival, the American Football League. The leagues merged in the late 1960s, adopting the older league 's name and reorganizing slightly to assure the same number of teams in both conferences.
The NFL season format consists of a four - week preseason, a seventeen - week regular season (each team plays 16 games), and a twelve - team single - elimination playoff culminating in the Super Bowl, the league 's championship game.
The NFL preseason begins with the Pro Football Hall of Fame Game, played at Fawcett Stadium in Canton. Each NFL team is required to schedule four preseason games, two of which must be at its home stadium, but the teams involved in the Hall of Fame game, as well as any teams playing in an American Bowl game, play five preseason games. Preseason games are exhibition matches and do not count towards regular - season totals. Because the preseason does not count towards standings, teams generally do not focus on winning games; instead, they are used by coaches to evaluate their teams and by players to show their performance, both to their current team and to other teams if they get cut. The quality of preseason games has been criticized by some fans, who dislike having to pay full price for exhibition games, as well as by some players and coaches, who dislike the risk of injury the games have, while others have felt the preseason is a necessary part of the NFL season.
Currently, the thirteen opponents each team faces over the 16 - game regular season schedule are set using a pre-determined formula: The league runs a seventeen - week, 256 - game regular season. Since 2001, the season has begun the week after Labor Day (first Monday in September) and concluded the week after Christmas. The opening game of the season is normally a home game on a Thursday for the league 's defending champion.
Most NFL games are played on Sundays, with a Monday night game typically held at least once a week and Thursday night games occurring on most weeks as well. NFL games are not normally played on Fridays or Saturdays until late in the regular season, as federal law prohibits professional football leagues from competing with college or high school football. Because high school and college teams typically play games on Friday and Saturday, respectively, the NFL can not hold games on those days until the third Friday in December. NFL games are rarely scheduled for Tuesday or Wednesday, and those days have only been used twice since 1948: in 2010, when a Sunday game was rescheduled to Tuesday due to a blizzard, and in 2012, when the Kickoff game was moved from Thursday to Wednesday to avoid conflict with the Democratic National Convention.
NFL regular season matchups are determined according to a scheduling formula. Within a division, all four teams play fourteen out of their sixteen games against common opponents -- two games (home and away) are played against the other three teams in the division, while one game is held against all the members of a division from the NFC and a division from the AFC as determined by a rotating cycle (three years for the conference the team is in, and four years in the conference they are not in). The other two games are intraconference games, determined by the standings of the previous year -- for example, if a team finishes first in its division, it will play two other first - place teams in its conference, while a team that finishes last would play two other last - place teams in the conference. In total, each team plays sixteen games and has one bye week, where they do not play any games.
Although the teams any given club will play are known by the end of the previous year 's regular season, the exact dates, times, and home / away status for NFL games are not determined until much later because the league has to account for, among other things, the Major League Baseball postseason and local events that could pose a scheduling conflict with NFL games. During the 2010 season, over 500,000 potential schedules were created by computers, 5,000 of which were considered "playable schedules '' and were reviewed by the NFL 's scheduling team. After arriving at what they felt was the best schedule out of the group, nearly 50 more potential schedules were developed to try and ensure that the chosen schedule would be the best possible one.
Following the conclusion of the regular season, a twelve - team single elimination tournament, the NFL Playoffs, is held. Six teams are selected from each conference: the winners of each of the four divisions as well as two wild card teams (the two remaining teams with the best overall record). These teams are seeded according to overall record, with the division champions always ranking higher than either of the wild card teams. The top two teams (seeded one and two) from each conference are awarded a bye week, while the remaining four teams (seeded 3 -- 6) from each conference compete in the first round of the playoffs, the Wild Card round, with the third seed competing against the sixth seed and the fourth seed competing against the fifth seed. The winners of the Wild Card round advance to the Divisional Round, which matches the lower seeded team against the first seed and the higher seeded team against the second seed. The winners of those games then compete in the Conference Championships, with the higher remaining seed hosting the lower remaining seed. The AFC and NFC champions then compete in the Super Bowl to determine the league champion.
The only other postseason event hosted by the NFL is the Pro Bowl, the league 's all - star game. Since 2009, the Pro Bowl has been held the week before the Super Bowl; in previous years, the game was held the week following the Super Bowl, but in an effort to boost ratings, the game was moved to the week before. Because of this, players from the teams participating in the Super Bowl are exempt from participating in the game. The Pro Bowl is not considered as competitive as a regular - season game because the biggest concern of teams is to avoid injuries to the players.
The National Football League has used three different trophies to honor its champion over its existence. The first trophy, the Brunswick - Balke Collender Cup, was donated to the NFL (then APFA) in 1920 by the Brunswick - Balke Collender Corporation. The trophy, the appearance of which is only known by its description as a "silver loving cup '', was intended to be a traveling trophy and not to become permanent until a team had won at least three titles. The league awarded it to the Akron Pros, champions of the inaugural 1920 season; however, the trophy was discontinued and its current whereabouts are unknown.
A second trophy, the Ed Thorp Memorial Trophy, was issued by the NFL from 1934 to 1969. The trophy 's namesake, Ed Thorp, was a referee in the league and a friend to many early league owners; upon his death in 1934, the league created the trophy to honor him. In addition to the main trophy, which would be in the possession of the current league champion, the league issued a smaller replica trophy to each champion, who would maintain permanent control over it. The current location of the Ed Thorp Memorial Trophy, like that of its predecessor, is unknown. The predominant theory is that the Minnesota Vikings, the last team to be awarded the trophy, somehow misplaced it after the 1969 season.
The current trophy of the NFL is the Vince Lombardi Trophy. The Super Bowl trophy was officially renamed in 1970 after Vince Lombardi, who as head coach led the Green Bay Packers to victories in the first two Super Bowls. Unlike the previous trophies, a new Vince Lombardi Trophy is issued to each year 's champion, who maintains permanent control of it. Lombardi Trophies are made by Tiffany & Co. out of sterling silver and are worth anywhere from US $25,000 to US $300,000. Additionally, each player on the winning team as well as coaches and personnel are awarded Super Bowl rings to commemorate their victory. The winning team chooses the company that makes the rings; each ring design varies, with the NFL mandating certain ring specifications (which have a degree of room for deviation), in addition to requiring the Super Bowl logo be on at least one side of the ring. The losing team are also awarded rings, which must be no more than half as valuable as the winners ' rings, but those are almost never worn.
The conference champions receive trophies for their achievement. The champions of the NFC receive the George Halas Trophy, named after Chicago Bears founder George Halas, who is also considered as one of the co-founders of the NFL. The AFC champions receive the Lamar Hunt Trophy, named after Lamar Hunt, the founder of the Kansas City Chiefs and the principal founder of the American Football League. Players on the winning team also receive a conference championship ring.
The NFL recognizes a number of awards for its players and coaches at its annual NFL Honors presentation. The most prestigious award is the AP Most Valuable Player (MVP) award. Other major awards include the AP Offensive Player of the Year, AP Defensive Player of the Year, AP Comeback Player of the Year, and the AP Offensive and Defensive Rookie of the Year awards. Another prestigious award is the Walter Payton Man of the Year Award, which recognizes a player 's off - field work in addition to his on - field performance. The NFL Coach of the Year award is the highest coaching award. The NFL also gives out weekly awards such as the FedEx Air & Ground NFL Players of the Week and the Pepsi MAX NFL Rookie of the Week awards.
In the United States, the National Football League has television contracts with four networks: CBS, ESPN, Fox, and NBC. Collectively, these contracts cover every regular season and postseason game. In general, CBS televises afternoon games in which the away team is an AFC team, and Fox carries afternoon games in which the away team belongs to the NFC. These afternoon games are not carried on all affiliates, as multiple games are being played at once; each network affiliate is assigned one game per time slot, according to a complicated set of rules. Since 2011, the league has reserved the right to give Sunday games that, under the contract, would normally air on one network to the other network (known as "flexible scheduling ''). The only way to legally watch a regionally televised game not being carried on the local network affiliates is to purchase NFL Sunday Ticket, the league 's out - of - market sports package, which is only available to subscribers to the DirecTV satellite service. The league also provides RedZone, an omnibus telecast that cuts to the most relevant plays in each game, live as they happen.
In addition to the regional games, the league also has packages of telecasts, mostly in prime time, that are carried nationwide. NBC broadcasts the primetime Sunday Night Football package ', which includes the Thursday NFL Kickoff game that starts the regular season and a primetime Thanksgiving Day game. ESPN carries all Monday Night Football games. The NFL 's own network, NFL Network, broadcasts a series titled Thursday Night Football, which was originally exclusive to the network, but which in recent years has had several games simulcast on CBS (since 2014) and NBC (since 2016) (except the Thanksgiving and kickoff games, which remain exclusive to NBC). For the 2017 season, the NFL Network will broadcast 18 regular season games under its Thursday Night Football brand, 16 Thursday - evening contests (10 of which are simulcast on either NBC or CBS) as well as one of the NFL International Series games on a Sunday morning and one of the 2017 Christmas afternoon games. In addition, 10 of the Thursday night games will be streamed live on Amazon Prime. In 2017, the NFL games occupied the top three rates for a 30 - second advertisement: $699,602 for Sunday Night Football, $550,709 for Thursday Night Football (NBC), and $549,791 for Thursday Night Football (CBS).
The Super Bowl television rights are rotated on a three - year basis between CBS, Fox, and NBC. In 2011, all four stations signed new nine - year contracts with the NFL, each running until 2022; CBS, Fox, and NBC are estimated by Forbes to pay a combined total of US $3 billion a year, while ESPN will pay US $1.9 billion a year. The league also has deals with Spanish - language broadcasters NBC Universo, Fox Deportes, and ESPN Deportes, which air Spanish language dubs of their respective English - language sister networks ' games. The league 's contracts do not cover preseason games, which individual teams are free to sell to local stations directly; a minority of preseason games are distributed among the league 's national television partners.
Through the 2014 season, the NFL had a blackout policy in which games were ' blacked out ' on local television in the home team 's area if the home stadium was not sold out. Clubs could elect to set this requirement at only 85 %, but they would have to give more ticket revenue to the visiting team; teams could also request a specific exemption from the NFL for the game. The vast majority of NFL games were not blacked out; only 6 % of games were blacked out during the 2011 season, and only two games were blacked out in 2013 and none in 2014. The NFL announced in March 2015 that it would suspend its blackout policy for at least the 2015 season. According to Nielsen, the NFL regular season since 2012 was watched by at least 200 million individuals, accounting for 80 % of all television households in the United States and 69 % of all potential viewers in the United States. NFL regular season games accounted for 31 out of the top 32 most - watched programs in the fall season and an NFL game ranked as the most - watched television show in all 17 weeks of the regular season. At the local level, NFL games were the highest - ranked shows in NFL markets 92 % of the time. Super Bowls account for the 22 most - watched programs (based on total audience) in US history, including a record 167 million people that watched Super Bowl XLVIII, the conclusion to the 2013 season.
In addition to radio networks run by each NFL team, select NFL games are broadcast nationally by Westwood One (known as Dial Global for the 2012 season). These games are broadcast on over 500 networks, giving all NFL markets access to each primetime game. The NFL 's deal with Westwood One was extended in 2012 and will run through 2017.
Some broadcasting innovations have either been introduced or popularized during NFL telecasts. Among them, the Skycam camera system was used for the first time in a live telecast, at a 1984 preseason NFL game in San Diego between the Chargers and 49ers, and televised by CBS. Commentator John Madden famously used a telestrator during games between the early 1980s to the mid-2000s, boosting the device 's popularity.
The NFL, as a one - time experiment, distributed the October 25, 2015 International Series game from Wembley Stadium in London between the Buffalo Bills and Jacksonville Jaguars. The game was live streamed on the Internet exclusively via Yahoo!, except for over-the - air broadcasts on the local CBS - TV affiliates in the Buffalo and Jacksonville markets.
In 2015, the NFL began sponsoring a series of public service announcements to bring attention to domestic abuse and sexual assault in response to what was seen as poor handling of incidents of violence by players.
Each April (excluding 2014 when it took place in May), the NFL holds a draft of college players. The draft consists of seven rounds, with each of the 32 clubs getting one pick in each round. The draft order for non-playoff teams is determined by regular - season record; among playoff teams, teams are first ranked by the furthest round of the playoffs they reached, and then are ranked by regular - season record. For example, any team that reached the divisional round will be given a higher pick than any team that reached the conference championships, but will be given a lower pick than any team that did not make the divisional round. The Super Bowl champion always drafts last, and the losing team from the Super Bowl always drafts next - to - last. All potential draftees must be at least three years removed from high school in order to be eligible for the draft. Underclassmen that have met that criterion to be eligible for the draft must write an application to the NFL by January 15 renouncing their remaining college eligibility. Clubs can trade away picks for future draft picks, but can not trade the rights to players they have selected in previous drafts.
Aside from the 32 picks each club gets, compensatory draft picks are given to teams that have lost more compensatory free agents than they have gained. These are spread out from rounds 3 to 7, and a total of 32 are given. Clubs are required to make their selection within a certain period of time, the exact time depending on which round the pick is made in. If they fail to do so on time, the clubs behind them can begin to select their players in order, but they do not lose the pick outright. This happened in the 2003 draft, when the Minnesota Vikings failed to make their selection on time. The Jacksonville Jaguars and Carolina Panthers were able to make their picks before the Vikings were able to use theirs. Selected players are only allowed to negotiate contracts with the team that picked them, but if they choose not to sign they become eligible for the next year 's draft. Under the current collective bargaining contract, all contracts to drafted players must be four - year deals with a club option for a fifth. Contracts themselves are limited to a certain amount of money, depending on the exact draft pick the player was selected with. Players who were draft eligible but not picked in the draft are free to sign with any club.
The NFL operates several other drafts in addition to the NFL draft. The league holds a supplemental draft annually. Clubs submit emails to the league stating the player they wish to select and the round they will do so, and the team with the highest bid wins the rights to that player. The exact order is determined by a lottery held before the draft, and a successful bid for a player will result in the team forfeiting the rights to its pick in the equivalent round of the next NFL draft. Players are only eligible for the supplemental draft after being granted a petition for special eligibility. The league holds expansion drafts, the most recent happening in 2002 when the Houston Texans began play as an expansion team. Other drafts held by the league include an allocation draft in 1950 to allocate players from several teams that played in the dissolved All - America Football Conference and a supplemental draft in 1984 to give NFL teams the rights to players who had been eligible for the main draft but had not been drafted because they had signed contracts with the United States Football League or Canadian Football League.
Like the other major sports leagues in the United States, the NFL maintains protocol for a disaster draft. In the event of a ' near disaster ' (less than 15 players killed or disabled) that caused the club to lose a quarterback, they could draft one from a team with at least three quarterbacks. In the event of a ' disaster ' (15 or more players killed or disabled) that results in a club 's season being cancelled, a restocking draft would be held. Neither of these protocols has ever had to be implemented.
Free agents in the National Football League are divided into restricted free agents, who have three accrued seasons and whose current contract has expired, and unrestricted free agents, who have four or more accrued seasons and whose contract has expired. An accrued season is defined as "six or more regular - season games on a club 's active / inactive, reserved / injured or reserve / physically unable to perform lists ''. Restricted free agents are allowed to negotiate with other clubs besides their former club, but the former club has the right to match any offer. If they choose not to, they are compensated with draft picks. Unrestricted free agents are free to sign with any club, and no compensation is owed if they sign with a different club.
Clubs are given one franchise tag to offer to any unrestricted free agent. The franchise tag is a one - year deal that pays the player 120 % of his previous contract or no less than the average of the five highest - paid players at his position, whichever is greater. There are two types of franchise tags: exclusive tags, which do not allow the player to negotiate with other clubs, and non-exclusive tags, which allow the player to negotiate with other clubs but gives his former club the right to match any offer and two first - round draft picks if they decline to match it.
Clubs also have the option to use a transition tag, which is similar to the non-exclusive franchise tag but offers no compensation if the former club refuses to match the offer. Due to that stipulation, the transition tag is rarely used, even with the removal of the "poison pill '' strategy (offering a contract with stipulations that the former club would be unable to match) that essentially ended the usage of the tag league - wide. Each club is subject to a salary cap, which is set at US $143.28 million for the 2015 season, US $10 million more than in 2014 and US $20 million more than in 2013. The salary cap for the 2016 NFL season was $155.27 million. The salary cap for the 2017 NFL season was about $167 million.
Members of clubs ' practice squads, despite being paid by and working for their respective clubs, are also simultaneously a kind of free agent and are able to sign to any other club 's active roster (provided their new club is not their previous club 's next opponent within a set number of days) without compensation to their previous club; practice squad players can not be signed to other clubs ' practice squads, however, unless released by their original club first.
Explanatory notes
Citations
Bibliography
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who sings i don't want to play house | I Do n't Wanna Play House - Wikipedia
"I Do n't Wanna Play House '' is a song written by Billy Sherrill and Glenn Sutton. In 1967, the song was Tammy Wynette 's first number one country song as a solo artist. "I Do n't Wanna Play House '' spent three weeks at the top spot and a total of eighteen weeks on the chart. The recording earned Wynette the 1968 Grammy Award for Best Female Country Vocal Performance.
In the song, the narrator, a young mother whose husband has left her, overhears her daughter describing to a neighbor boy their broken home, and informing him that she does n't want to play house since, after observing her parents ' troubles, she knows that it can not be fun.
Connie Francis released a cover version of the song in August 1968. It peaked at # 40 on Billboard 's Adult Contemporary Charts.
Skeeter Davis covered the song on her 1968 album Why So Lonely. Lynn Anderson (then the wife of the song 's co-writer, Sutton) covered the song in 1970 on her album Rose Garden.
Loretta Lynn covered the song on her 1968 album, Fist City.
Barbara Ray recorded a version that was a top 10 hit in Australia in 1973. It was ranked as the No. 2 song for that year in Australia.
Mona Gustafsson recorded the song on her 2010 album Countrypärlor.
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which of the following is not among the common signs of mild lead toxicity | Lead poisoning - wikipedia
Lead poisoning is a type of metal poisoning caused by lead in the body. The brain is the most sensitive. Symptoms may include abdominal pain, constipation, headaches, irritability, memory problems, inability to have children, and tingling in the hands and feet. It causes almost 10 % of intellectual disability of otherwise unknown cause and can result in behavioral problems. Some of the effects are permanent. In severe cases anemia, seizures, coma, or death may occur.
Exposure to lead can occur by contaminated air, water, dust, food, or consumer products. Children are at greater risk as they are more likely to put objects in their mouth such as those that contain lead paint and absorb a greater proportion of the lead that they eat. Exposure at work is a common cause of lead poisoning in adults with certain occupations at particular risk. Diagnosis is typically by measurement of the blood lead level. The Centers for Disease Control (US) has set the upper limit for blood lead for adults at 10 μg / dl (10 μg / 100 g) and for children at 5 μg / dl. Elevated lead may also be detected by changes in red blood cells or dense lines in the bones of children as seen on X-ray.
Lead poisoning is preventable. This includes individual efforts such as removing lead - containing items from the home, workplace efforts such as improved ventilation and monitoring, and nationwide policies such as laws that ban lead in products such as paint and gasoline, reduce allowable levels in water or soil, and provide for cleanup of contaminated soil. The major treatments are removal of the source of lead and the use of medications that bind lead so it can be eliminated from the body, known as chelation therapy. Chelation therapy in children is recommended when blood levels are greater than 40 -- 45 μg / dl. Medications used include dimercaprol, edetate calcium disodium, and succimer.
In 2016 lead is believed to have resulted in 540,000 deaths. It occurs most commonly in the developing world. Those who are poor are at greater risk. Lead is believed to result in 0.6 % of the world 's disease burden. People have been mining and using lead for thousands of years. Descriptions of lead poisoning date to at least 2000 BC, while efforts to limit lead 's use date back to at least the 16th century. Concerns for low levels of exposure begin in the 1970s with there being no safe threshold for lead exposure.
Classically, "lead poisoning '' or "lead intoxication '' has been defined as exposure to high levels of lead typically associated with severe health effects. Poisoning is a pattern of symptoms that occur with toxic effects from mid to high levels of exposure; toxicity is a wider spectrum of effects, including subclinical ones (those that do not cause symptoms). However, professionals often use "lead poisoning '' and "lead toxicity '' interchangeably, and official sources do not always restrict the use of "lead poisoning '' to refer only to symptomatic effects of lead.
The amount of lead in the blood and tissues, as well as the time course of exposure, determine toxicity. Lead poisoning may be acute (from intense exposure of short duration) or chronic (from repeat low - level exposure over a prolonged period), but the latter is much more common. Diagnosis and treatment of lead exposure are based on blood lead level (the amount of lead in the blood), measured in micrograms of lead per deciliter of blood (μg / dL). Urine lead levels may be used as well, though less commonly. In cases of chronic exposure lead often sequesters in the highest concentrations first in the bones, then in the kidneys. If a provider is performing a provocative excretion test, or "chelation challenge '', a measurement obtained from urine rather than blood is likely to provide a more accurate representation of total lead burden to a skilled interpreter.
The US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and the World Health Organization state that a blood lead level of 10 μg / dL or above is a cause for concern; however, lead may impair development and have harmful health effects even at lower levels, and there is no known safe exposure level. Authorities such as the American Academy of Pediatrics define lead poisoning as blood lead levels higher than 10 μg / dL.
Lead forms a variety of compounds and exists in the environment in various forms. Features of poisoning differ depending on whether the agent is an organic compound (one that contains carbon), or an inorganic one. Organic lead poisoning is now very rare, because countries across the world have phased out the use of organic lead compounds as gasoline additives, but such compounds are still used in industrial settings. Organic lead compounds, which cross the skin and respiratory tract easily, affect the central nervous system predominantly.
Lead poisoning can cause a variety of symptoms and signs which vary depending on the individual and the duration of lead exposure. Symptoms are nonspecific and may be subtle, and someone with elevated lead levels may have no symptoms. Symptoms usually develop over weeks to months as lead builds up in the body during a chronic exposure, but acute symptoms from brief, intense exposures also occur. Symptoms from exposure to organic lead, which is probably more toxic than inorganic lead due to its lipid solubility, occur rapidly. Poisoning by organic lead compounds has symptoms predominantly in the central nervous system, such as insomnia, delirium, cognitive deficits, tremor, hallucinations, and convulsions.
Symptoms may be different in adults and children; the main symptoms in adults are headache, abdominal pain, memory loss, kidney failure, male reproductive problems, and weakness, pain, or tingling in the extremities.
Early symptoms of lead poisoning in adults are commonly nonspecific and include depression, loss of appetite, intermittent abdominal pain, nausea, diarrhea, constipation, and muscle pain. Other early signs in adults include malaise, fatigue, decreased libido, and problems with sleep. An unusual taste in the mouth and personality changes are also early signs.
In adults, symptoms can occur at levels above 40 μg / dL, but are more likely to occur only above 50 -- 60 μg / dL. Symptoms begin to appear in children generally at around 60 μg / dL. However, the lead levels at which symptoms appear vary widely depending on unknown characteristics of each individual. At blood lead levels between 25 and 60 μg / dL, neuropsychiatric effects such as delayed reaction times, irritability, and difficulty concentrating, as well as slowed motor nerve conduction and headache can occur. Anemia may appear at blood lead levels higher than 50 μg / dL. In adults, abdominal colic, involving paroxysms of pain, may appear at blood lead levels greater than 80 μg / dL. Signs that occur in adults at blood lead levels exceeding 100 μg / dL include wrist drop and foot drop, and signs of encephalopathy (a condition characterized by brain swelling), such as those that accompany increased pressure within the skull, delirium, coma, seizures, and headache. In children, signs of encephalopathy such as bizarre behavior, discoordination, and apathy occur at lead levels exceeding 70 μg / dL. For both adults and children, it is rare to be asymptomatic if blood lead levels exceed 100 μg / dL.
In acute poisoning, typical neurological signs are pain, muscle weakness, numbness and tingling, and, rarely, symptoms associated with inflammation of the brain. Abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and constipation are other acute symptoms. Lead 's effects on the mouth include astringency and a metallic taste. Gastrointestinal problems, such as constipation, diarrhea, poor appetite, or weight loss, are common in acute poisoning. Absorption of large amounts of lead over a short time can cause shock (insufficient fluid in the circulatory system) due to loss of water from the gastrointestinal tract. Hemolysis (the rupture of red blood cells) due to acute poisoning can cause anemia and hemoglobin in the urine. Damage to kidneys can cause changes in urination such as decreased urine output. People who survive acute poisoning often go on to display symptoms of chronic poisoning.
Chronic poisoning usually presents with symptoms affecting multiple systems, but is associated with three main types of symptoms: gastrointestinal, neuromuscular, and neurological. Central nervous system and neuromuscular symptoms usually result from intense exposure, while gastrointestinal symptoms usually result from exposure over longer periods. Signs of chronic exposure include loss of short - term memory or concentration, depression, nausea, abdominal pain, loss of coordination, and numbness and tingling in the extremities. Fatigue, problems with sleep, headaches, stupor, slurred speech, and anemia are also found in chronic lead poisoning. A "lead hue '' of the skin with pallor and / or lividity is another feature. A blue line along the gum with bluish black edging to the teeth, known as a Burton line, is another indication of chronic lead poisoning. Children with chronic poisoning may refuse to play or may have hyperkinetic or aggressive behavior disorders. Visual disturbance may present with gradually progressing blurred vision as a result of central scotoma, caused by toxic optic neuritis.
A woman who has elevated blood lead levels during pregnancy is at greater risk of a prematurely birth or with a low birth weight. Children are more at risk for lead poisoning because their smaller bodies are in a continuous state of growth and development. Lead is absorbed at a faster rate compared to adults, which causes more physical harm than to older people. Furthermore, children, especially as they are learning to crawl and walk, are constantly on the floor and therefore more prone to ingesting and inhaling dust that is contaminated with lead.
The classic signs and symptoms in children are loss of appetite, abdominal pain, vomiting, weight loss, constipation, anemia, kidney failure, irritability, lethargy, learning disabilities, and behavioral problems. Slow development of normal childhood behaviors, such as talking and use of words, and permanent intellectual disability are both commonly seen. Although less common, it is possible for fingernails to develop leukonychia striata if exposed to abnormally high lead concentrations.
Lead affects every one of the body 's organ systems, especially the nervous system, but also the bones and teeth, the kidneys, and the cardiovascular, immune, and reproductive systems. Hearing loss and tooth decay have been linked to lead exposure, as have cataracts. Intrauterine and neonatal lead exposure promote tooth decay. Aside from the developmental effects unique to young children, the health effects experienced by adults are similar to those in children, although the thresholds are generally higher.
Kidney damage occurs with exposure to high levels of lead, and evidence suggests that lower levels can damage kidneys as well. The toxic effect of lead causes nephropathy and may cause Fanconi syndrome, in which the proximal tubular function of the kidney is impaired. Long - term exposure at levels lower than those that cause lead nephropathy have also been reported as nephrotoxic in patients from developed countries that had chronic kidney disease or were at risk because of hypertension or diabetes mellitus. Lead poisoning inhibits excretion of the waste product urate and causes a predisposition for gout, in which urate builds up. This condition is known as saturnine gout.
Evidence suggests lead exposure is associated with high blood pressure, and studies have also found connections between lead exposure and coronary heart disease, heart rate variability, and death from stroke, but this evidence is more limited. People who have been exposed to higher concentrations of lead may be at a higher risk for cardiac autonomic dysfunction on days when ozone and fine particles are higher.
Lead affects both the male and female reproductive systems. In men, when blood lead levels exceed 40 μg / dL, sperm count is reduced and changes occur in volume of sperm, their motility, and their morphology. A pregnant woman 's elevated blood lead level can lead to miscarriage, prematurity, low birth weight, and problems with development during childhood. Lead is able to pass through the placenta and into breast milk, and blood lead levels in mothers and infants are usually similar. A fetus may be poisoned in utero if lead from the mother 's bones is subsequently mobilized by the changes in metabolism due to pregnancy; increased calcium intake in pregnancy may help mitigate this phenomenon.
Lead affects the peripheral nervous system (especially motor nerves) and the central nervous system. Peripheral nervous system effects are more prominent in adults and central nervous system effects are more prominent in children. Lead causes the axons of nerve cells to degenerate and lose their myelin coats.
Lead exposure in young children has been linked to learning disabilities, and children with blood lead concentrations greater than 10 μg / dL are in danger of developmental disabilities. Increased blood lead level in children has been correlated with decreases in intelligence, nonverbal reasoning, short - term memory, attention, reading and arithmetic ability, fine motor skills, emotional regulation, and social engagement.
The effect of lead on children 's cognitive abilities takes place at very low levels. There is apparently no lower threshold to the dose - response relationship (unlike other heavy metals such as mercury). Reduced academic performance has been associated with lead exposure even at blood lead levels lower than 5 μg / dL. Blood lead levels below 10 μg / dL have been reported to be associated with lower IQ and behavior problems such as aggression, in proportion with blood lead levels. Between the blood lead levels of 5 and 35 μg / dL, an IQ decrease of 2 -- 4 points for each μg / dL increase is reported in children. However, studies that show associations between low - level lead exposure and health effects in children may be affected by confounding and overestimate the effects of low - level lead exposure.
High blood lead levels in adults are also associated with decreases in cognitive performance and with psychiatric symptoms such as depression and anxiety. It was found in a large group of current and former inorganic lead workers in Korea that blood lead levels in the range of 20 -- 50 μg / dL were correlated with neuro - cognitive defects. Increases in blood lead levels from about 50 to about 100 μg / dL in adults have been found to be associated with persistent, and possibly permanent, impairment of central nervous system function.
Lead exposure in children is also correlated with neuropsychiatric disorders such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and anti-social behaviour. Elevated lead levels in children are correlated with higher scores on aggression and delinquency measures. A correlation has also been found between prenatal and early childhood lead exposure and violent crime in adulthood. Countries with the highest air lead levels have also been found to have the highest murder rates, after adjusting for confounding factors. A May 2000 study by economic consultant Rick Nevin theorizes that lead exposure explains 65 % to 90 % of the variation in violent crime rates in the US. A 2007 paper by the same author claims to show a strong association between preschool blood lead and subsequent crime rate trends over several decades across nine countries. Lead exposure in childhood appears to increase school suspensions and juvenile detention among boys. It is believed that the U.S. ban on lead paint in buildings in the late 1970s, as well as the phaseout of leaded gasoline in the 1970s and 1980s, partially helped contribute to the decline of violent crime in the United States since the early 1990s.
Lead is a common environmental pollutant. Causes of environmental contamination include industrial use of lead, such as is found in facilities that process lead - acid batteries or produce lead wire or pipes, and metal recycling and foundries. Storage batteries and ammunition are made with the largest amounts of lead consumed in the economy each year, in the US as of 2013. Children living near facilities that process lead, such as lead smelters, have been found to have unusually high blood lead levels. In August 2009, parents rioted in China after lead poisoning was found in nearly 2000 children living near zinc and manganese smelters. Lead exposure can occur from contact with lead in air, household dust, soil, water, and commercial products. Leaded gasoline has also been linked to increases in lead pollution. Some research has suggested a link between leaded gasoline and crime rates. Man made lead pollution has been elevated in the air for the past 2000 years. Lead pollution in the air is entirely due to human activity (mining and smelting).
In adults, occupational exposure is the main cause of lead poisoning. People can be exposed when working in facilities that produce a variety of lead - containing products; these include radiation shields, ammunition, certain surgical equipment, developing dental x-ray films prior to digital x-rays (each film packet had a lead liner to prevent the radiation from going through), fetal monitors, plumbing, circuit boards, jet engines, and ceramic glazes. In addition, lead miners and smelters, plumbers and fitters, auto mechanics, glass manufacturers, construction workers, battery manufacturers and recyclers, firing range instructors, and plastic manufacturers are at risk for lead exposure. Other occupations that present lead exposure risks include welding, manufacture of rubber, printing, zinc and copper smelting, processing of ore, combustion of solid waste, and production of paints and pigments. Parents who are exposed to lead in the workplace can bring lead dust home on clothes or skin and expose their children. Occupational exposure to lead increases the risk of cardiovascular disease, in particular: stroke, and high blood pressure.
Lead may be found in food when food is grown in soil that is high in lead, airborne lead contaminates the crops, animals eat lead in their diet, or lead enters the food either from what it was stored or cooked in.
Some lead compounds are colorful and are used widely in paints, and lead paint is a major route of lead exposure in children. A study conducted in 1998 -- 2000 found that 38 million housing units in the US had lead - based paint, down from a 1990 estimate of 64 million. Deteriorating lead paint can produce dangerous lead levels in household dust and soil. Deteriorating lead paint and lead - containing household dust are the main causes of chronic lead poisoning. The lead breaks down into the dust and since children are more prone to crawling on the floor, it is easily ingested. Many young children display pica, eating things that are not food. Even a small amount of a lead - containing product such as a paint chip or a sip of glaze can contain tens or hundreds of milligrams of lead. Eating chips of lead paint presents a particular hazard to children, generally producing more severe poisoning than occurs from dust. Because removing lead paint from dwellings, e.g. by sanding or torching creates lead - containing dust and fumes, it is generally safer to seal the lead paint under new paint (excepting moveable windows and doors, which create paint dust when operated). Alternatively, special precautions must be taken if the lead paint is to be removed. In oil painting it was once common for colours such as yellow or white to be made with lead carbonate. Lead white oil colour was the main white of oil painters until superseded by compounds containing zinc or titanium in the mid-20th century. It is speculated that the painter Caravaggio and possibly Francisco Goya and Vincent Van Gogh had lead poisoning due to overexposure or carelessness when handling this colour.
Residual lead in soil contributes to lead exposure in urban areas. It has been thought that the more polluted an area is with various contaminants, the more likely it is to contain lead. However, this is not always the case, as there are several other reasons for lead contamination in soil. Lead content in soil may be caused by broken - down lead paint, residues from lead - containing gasoline, used engine oil, tire weights, or pesticides used in the past, contaminated landfills, or from nearby industries such as foundries or smelters. Although leaded soil is less of a problem in countries that no longer have leaded gasoline, it remains prevalent, raising concerns about the safety of urban agriculture; eating food grown in contaminated soil can present a lead hazard.
Lead from the atmosphere or soil can end up in groundwater and surface water. It is also potentially in drinking water, e.g. from plumbing and fixtures that are either made of lead or have lead solder. Since acidic water breaks down lead in plumbing more readily, chemicals can be added to municipal water to increase the pH and thus reduce the corrosivity of the public water supply. Chloramines, which were adopted as a substitute for chlorine disinfectants due to fewer health concerns, increase corrositivity. In the US, 14 -- 20 % of total lead exposure is attributed to drinking water. In 2004, a team of seven reporters from The Washington Post discovered high levels of lead in the drinking water in Washington, D.C. and won an award for investigative reporting for a series of articles about this contamination. In the Flint water crisis, a switch to a more corrosive municipal water source elevated lead levels in drinking water in domestic tap water.
Like Flint, Michigan and Washington, D.C., a similar fate had fallen on the State of Wisconsin, where they are estimated in having to replace up to 176,000 underground pipes due being made of lead. The city of Madison, Wisconsin addressed the issue and replaced all of their piping, but there are still others that have yet to follow suit. While there are chemical methods that could help reduce the amount of lead in the water distributed, the sure fix would be replacing the pipes completely. The problem with this solution is that while the state may replace the pipes below ground, it will be up to the homeowners to fix the pipes on their property which could end up being pretty pricey, about $3,000 on average pricey. Experts say that if the city were to replace their pipes and the citizens were to keep the old pipes located in their homes, there would be a potential for more lead to flow into their drinking water. The ultimate goal is for a total overhaul to take place, but this would require the citizens to buy into the pipe replacement. Such a move would allow the preservation of present health and secure greater health for the future.
Collecting rainwater from roof runoff used as potable water may contain lead if there are lead contaminants on the roof or in the storage tank. The Australian Drinking Water Guidelines allow a maximum of. 01 mg / L lead in water.
Lead can be found in products such as kohl, an ancient cosmetic from the Middle East, South Asia, and parts of Africa that has many names; and from some toys. In 2007, millions of toys made in China were recalled from multiple countries owing to safety hazards including lead paint. Vinyl mini-blinds, found especially in older housing, may contain lead. Lead is commonly incorporated into herbal remedies such as Indian Ayurvedic preparations and remedies of Chinese origin. There are also risks of elevated blood lead levels caused by folk remedies like azarcon and greta, which each contain about 95 % lead.
Ingestion of metallic lead, such as small lead fishing lures, increases blood lead levels and can be fatal. Ingestion of lead - contaminated food is also a threat. Ceramic glaze often contains lead, and dishes that have been improperly fired can leach the metal into food, potentially causing severe poisoning. In some places, the solder in cans used for food contains lead. When manufacturing medical instruments and hardware, solder containing lead may be present. People who eat animals hunted with lead bullets may be at risk for lead exposure. Bullets lodged in the body rarely cause significant levels of lead, but bullets lodged in the joints are the exception, as they deteriorate and release lead into the body over time.
In May 2015, Indian food safety regulators in the state of Uttar Pradesh found that samples of Maggi 2 Minute Noodles contained lead up to 17 times beyond permissible limits. On 3 June 2015, New Delhi Government banned the sale of Maggi noodles in New Delhi stores for 15 days because it was found to contain lead beyond the permissible limit. The Gujarat FDA on June 4, 2015 banned the noodles for 30 days after 27 out of 39 samples were detected with objectionable levels of metallic lead, among other things. Some India 's biggest retailers like Future Group, Big Bazaar, Easyday and Nilgiris have imposed a nationwide ban on Maggi noodles. Many other states too have banned Maggi noodles.
Contact with ammunition is a source of lead exposure. As of 2013, lead - based ammunition production is the second largest annual use of lead in the US, accounting for over 84,800 metric tons consumed in 2013. second only to the manufacture of storage batteries. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) can not regulate cartridges and shells, as a matter of law. Lead birdshot is banned in some areas, but this is primarily for the benefit of the birds and their predators, rather than humans. Contamination from heavily used gun ranges are of concern to those who live near by. Non-lead alternatives include steel, tungsten - nickel - iron, bismuth - tin, and tungsten - polymer.
Because game animals can be shot using lead bullets, the potential for lead ingestion from game meat consumption has been studied clinically and epidemiologically. In a recent study conducted by the CDC, a cohort from North Dakota was enrolled and asked to self - report historical consumption of game meat, and participation in other activities that could cause lead exposure. The study found that participants ' age, sex, housing age, current hobbies with potential for lead exposure, and game consumption were all associated with blood lead level (PbB).
According to a study published in 2008, 1.1 % of the 736 persons consuming wild game meat tested had PbB ≥ 5 μg / dl In November 2015 The US HHS / CDC / NIOSH designated 5 μg / dL (five micrograms per deciliter) of whole blood, in a venous blood sample, as the reference blood lead level for adults. An elevated BLL is defined as a BLL ≥ 5 μg / dL. This case definition is used by the ABLES program, the Council of State and Territorial Epidemiologists (CSTE), and CDC 's National Notifiable Diseases Surveillance System (NNDSS). Previously (i.e. from 2009 until November 2015), the case definition for an elevated BLL was a BLL ≥ 10 μg / dL.
Copper - jacketed, lead - based bullets are more economical to produce and use than lead or any other material. Alternative materials are available such as steel, copper, and tungsten, but alternatives are universally less effective and / or more expensive. However, the biggest impediment to using the vast majority of alternatives relates to current laws in the United States pertaining to armor - piercing rounds. Laws and regulations relating to armor - piercing ammunition expressly prohibit the use of brass, bronze, steel, tungsten, and nearly every metallic alternative in any bullet that can be shot by a handgun, which at this time is nearly every caliber smaller than 50BMG (including the popular. 223 Remington,. 308 Winchester and. 30 - 06 to name just a few). Some lead - based bullets are resistant to fragmentation, offering hunters the ability to clean game animals with negligible risk of including lead fragments in prepared meat. Other bullets are prone to fragmentation and exacerbate the risk of lead ingestion from prepared meat. In practice, use of a non-fragmenting bullet and proper cleaning of the game animal 's wound can eliminate the risk of lead ingestion from eating game; however, isolating such practice to experimentally determine its association with blood lead levels in study is difficult. Bismuth is an element used as a lead - replacement for shotgun pellets used in waterfowl hunting although shotshells made from bismuth are nearly ten times the cost of lead.
Exposure occurs through inhalation, ingestion or occasionally skin contact. Lead may be taken in through direct contact with mouth, nose, and eyes (mucous membranes), and through breaks in the skin. Tetraethyllead, which was a gasoline additive and is still used in fuels such as aviation fuel, passes through the skin; however inorganic lead found in paint, food, and most lead - containing consumer products is only minimally absorbed through the skin. The main sources of absorption of inorganic lead are from ingestion and inhalation. In adults, about 35 -- 40 % of inhaled lead dust is deposited in the lungs, and about 95 % of that goes into the bloodstream. Of ingested inorganic lead, about 15 % is absorbed, but this percentage is higher in children, pregnant women, and people with deficiencies of calcium, zinc, or iron. Infants may absorb about 50 % of ingested lead, but little is known about absorption rates in children.
The main body compartments that store lead are the blood, soft tissues, and bone; the half - life of lead in these tissues is measured in weeks for blood, months for soft tissues, and years for bone. Lead in the bones, teeth, hair, and nails is bound tightly and not available to other tissues, and is generally thought not to be harmful. In adults, 94 % of absorbed lead is deposited in the bones and teeth, but children only store 70 % in this manner, a fact which may partially account for the more serious health effects on children. The estimated half - life of lead in bone is 20 to 30 years, and bone can introduce lead into the bloodstream long after the initial exposure is gone. The half - life of lead in the blood in men is about 40 days, but it may be longer in children and pregnant women, whose bones are undergoing remodeling, which allows the lead to be continuously re-introduced into the bloodstream. Also, if lead exposure takes place over years, clearance is much slower, partly due to the re-release of lead from bone. Many other tissues store lead, but those with the highest concentrations (other than blood, bone, and teeth) are the brain, spleen, kidneys, liver, and lungs. Lead is removed from the body very slowly, mainly through urine. Smaller amounts of lead are also eliminated through the feces, and very small amounts in hair, nails, and sweat.
Lead has no known physiologically relevant role in the body, and its harmful effects are myriad. Lead and other heavy metals create reactive radicals which damage cell structures including DNA and cell membranes. Lead also interferes with DNA transcription, enzymes that help in the synthesis of vitamin D, and enzymes that maintain the integrity of the cell membrane. Anemia may result when the cell membranes of red blood cells become more fragile as the result of damage to their membranes. Lead interferes with metabolism of bones and teeth and alters the permeability of blood vessels and collagen synthesis. Lead may also be harmful to the developing immune system, causing production of excessive inflammatory proteins; this mechanism may mean that lead exposure is a risk factor for asthma in children. Lead exposure has also been associated with a decrease in activity of immune cells such as polymorphonuclear leukocytes. Lead also interferes with the normal metabolism of calcium in cells and causes it to build up within them.
The primary cause of lead 's toxicity is its interference with a variety of enzymes because it binds to sulfhydryl groups found on many enzymes. Part of lead 's toxicity results from its ability to mimic other metals that take part in biological processes, which act as cofactors in many enzymatic reactions, displacing them at the enzymes on which they act. Lead is able to bind to and interact with many of the same enzymes as these metals but, due to its differing chemistry, does not properly function as a cofactor, thus interfering with the enzyme 's ability to catalyze its normal reaction or reactions. Among the essential metals with which lead interacts are calcium, iron, and zinc.
The lead ion has a lone pair in its electronic structure, which can result in a distortion in the coordination of ligands, and in 2007 was hypothesized to be important in lead poisoning 's effects on enzymes (see Lone pair § Unusual lone pairs).
One of the main causes for the pathology of lead is that it interferes with the activity of an essential enzyme called delta - aminolevulinic acid dehydratase, or ALAD (see image of the enzyme structure), which is important in the biosynthesis of heme, the cofactor found in hemoglobin. Lead also inhibits the enzyme ferrochelatase, another enzyme involved in the formation of heme. Ferrochelatase catalyzes the joining of protoporphyrin and Fe to form heme. Lead 's interference with heme synthesis results in production of zinc protoporphyrin and the development of anemia. Another effect of lead 's interference with heme synthesis is the buildup of heme precursors, such as aminolevulinic acid, which may be directly or indirectly harmful to neurons.
The brain is the organ most sensitive to lead exposure. Lead is able to pass through the endothelial cells at the blood brain barrier because it can substitute for calcium ions and be uptaken by calcium - ATPase pumps. Lead poisoning interferes with the normal development of a child 's brain and nervous system; therefore children are at greater risk of lead neurotoxicity than adults are. In a child 's developing brain, lead interferes with synapse formation in the cerebral cortex, neurochemical development (including that of neurotransmitters), and organization of ion channels. It causes loss of neurons ' myelin sheaths, reduces numbers of neurons, interferes with neurotransmission, and decreases neuronal growth.
Lead - ions (Pb), like magnesium - ions (Mg), blocks NMDA receptors. Since the normal Pb concentration in the extracellular fluid is low (adult average of 120 mg), even a low increase in Pb concentration has a significant positive affect on the blockage of NMDA - receptors. Therefore, an increase in Pb concentration, will, effectively, inhibit ongoing long - term potentiations (LTPs), and lead to an abnormal increase long - term depression (LDPs) on neurons on the effected parts of the nervous system. These abnormalities lead to the indirect downregulation of NMDA - receptors, effectively initiating a positive feedback - loop for LDP. The targeting of NMDA receptors is thought to be one of the main causes for lead 's toxicity to neurons.
Diagnosis includes determining the clinical signs and the medical history, with inquiry into possible routes of exposure. Clinical toxicologists, medical specialists in the area of poisoning, may be involved in diagnosis and treatment. The main tool in diagnosing and assessing the severity of lead poisoning is laboratory analysis of the blood lead level (BLL).
Blood film examination may reveal basophilic stippling of red blood cells (dots in red blood cells visible through a microscope), as well as the changes normally associated with iron - deficiency anemia (microcytosis and hypochromasia). This may be known as sideroblastic anemia. However, basophilic stippling is also seen in unrelated conditions, such as megaloblastic anemia caused by vitamin B12 (colbalamin) and folate deficiencies. Contrary to other sideroblastic anemia, there are nevertheless no ring sideroblasts in a bone marrow smear.
Exposure to lead also can be evaluated by measuring erythrocyte protoporphyrin (EP) in blood samples. EP is a part of red blood cells known to increase when the amount of lead in the blood is high, with a delay of a few weeks. Thus EP levels in conjunction with blood lead levels can suggest the time period of exposure; if blood lead levels are high but EP is still normal, this finding suggests exposure was recent. However, the EP level alone is not sensitive enough to identify elevated blood lead levels below about 35 μg / dL. Due to this higher threshold for detection and the fact that EP levels also increase in iron deficiency, use of this method for detecting lead exposure has decreased.
Blood lead levels are an indicator mainly of recent or current lead exposure, not of total body burden. Lead in bones can be measured noninvasively by X-ray fluorescence; this may be the best measure of cumulative exposure and total body burden. However this method is not widely available and is mainly used for research rather than routine diagnosis. Another radiographic sign of elevated lead levels is the presence of radiodense lines called lead lines at the metaphysis in the long bones of growing children, especially around the knees. These lead lines, caused by increased calcification due to disrupted metabolism in the growing bones, become wider as the duration of lead exposure increases. X-rays may also reveal lead - containing foreign materials such as paint chips in the gastrointestinal tract.
Fecal lead content that is measured over the course of a few days may also be an accurate way to estimate the overall amount of childhood lead intake. This form of measurement may serve as a useful way to see the extent of oral lead exposure from all the diet and environmental sources of lead.
Lead poisoning shares symptoms with other conditions and may be easily missed. Conditions that present similarly and must be ruled out in diagnosing lead poisoning include carpal tunnel syndrome, Guillain -- Barré syndrome, renal colic, appendicitis, encephalitis in adults, and viral gastroenteritis in children. Other differential diagnoses in children include constipation, abdominal colic, iron deficiency, subdural hematoma, neoplasms of the central nervous system, emotional and behavior disorders, and intellectual disability.
The current reference range for acceptable blood lead concentrations in healthy persons without excessive exposure to environmental sources of lead is less than 5 μg / dL for children. It was less than 25 μg / dL for adults. Previous to 2012 the value for children was 10 (μg / dl). The current biological exposure index (a level that should not be exceeded) for lead - exposed workers in the U.S. is 30 μg / dL in a random blood specimen.
In 2015, US HHS / CDC / NIOSH designated 5 μg / dL (five micrograms per deciliter) of whole blood, in a venous blood sample, as the reference blood lead level for adults. An elevated BLL is defined as a BLL ≥ 5 μg / dL. This case definition is used by the ABLES program, the Council of State and Territorial Epidemiologists (CSTE), and CDC 's National Notifiable Diseases Surveillance System (NNDSS). Previously (i.e. from 2009 until November 2015), the case definition for an elevated BLL was a BLL ≥ 10 μg / dL. The U.S. national BLL geometric mean among adults was 1.2 μg / dL in 2009 -- 2010.
Blood lead concentrations in poisoning victims have ranged from 30 - > 80 μg / dL in children exposed to lead paint in older houses, 77 -- 104 μg / dL in persons working with pottery glazes, 90 -- 137 μg / dL in individuals consuming contaminated herbal medicines, 109 -- 139 μg / dL in indoor shooting range instructors and as high as 330 μg / dL in those drinking fruit juices from glazed earthenware containers.
In most cases, lead poisoning is preventable by avoiding exposure to lead. Prevention strategies can be divided into individual (measures taken by a family), preventive medicine (identifying and intervening with high - risk individuals), and public health (reducing risk on a population level).
Recommended steps by individuals to reduce the blood lead levels of children include increasing their frequency of hand washing and their intake of calcium and iron, discouraging them from putting their hands to their mouths, vacuuming frequently, and eliminating the presence of lead - containing objects such as blinds and jewellery in the house. In houses with lead pipes or plumbing solder, these can be replaced. Less permanent but cheaper methods include running water in the morning to flush out the most contaminated water, or adjusting the water 's chemistry to prevent corrosion of pipes. Lead testing kits are commercially available for detecting the presence of lead in the household. As hot water is more likely than cold water to contain higher amounts of lead, use only cold water from the tap for drinking, cooking, and for making baby formula. Since most of the lead in household water usually comes from plumbing in the house and not from the local water supply, using cold water can avoid lead exposure. Measures such as dust control and household education do not appear to be effective in changing children 's blood levels.
Screening is an important method in preventive medicine strategies. Screening programs exist to test the blood of children at high risk for lead exposure, such as those who live near lead - related industries.
Prevention measures also exist on national and municipal levels. Recommendations by health professionals for lowering childhood exposures include banning the use of lead where it is not essential and strengthening regulations that limit the amount of lead in soil, water, air, household dust, and products. Regulations exist to limit the amount of lead in paint; for example, a 1978 law in the US restricted the lead in paint for residences, furniture, and toys to 0.06 % or less. In October 2008, the US Environmental Protection Agency reduced the allowable lead level by a factor of ten to 0.15 micrograms per cubic meter of air, giving states five years to comply with the standards. The European Union 's Restriction of Hazardous Substances Directive limits amounts of lead and other toxic substances in electronics and electrical equipment. In some places, remediation programs exist to reduce the presence of lead when it is found to be high, for example in drinking water. As a more radical solution, entire towns located near former lead mines have been "closed '' by the government, and the population resettled elsewhere, as was the case with Picher, Oklahoma in 2009. Removing lead from airplane fuel would also be useful.
The mainstays of treatment are removal from the source of lead and, for people who have significantly high blood lead levels or who have symptoms of poisoning, chelation therapy. Treatment of iron, calcium, and zinc deficiencies, which are associated with increased lead absorption, is another part of treatment for lead poisoning. When lead - containing materials are present in the gastrointestinal tract (as evidenced by abdominal X-rays), whole bowel irrigation, cathartics, endoscopy, or even surgical removal may be used to eliminate it from the gut and prevent further exposure. Lead - containing bullets and shrapnel may also present a threat of further exposure and may need to be surgically removed if they are in or near fluid - filled or synovial spaces. If lead encephalopathy is present, anticonvulsants may be given to control seizures, and treatments to control swelling of the brain include corticosteroids and mannitol. Treatment of organic lead poisoning involves removing the lead compound from the skin, preventing further exposure, treating seizures, and possibly chelation therapy for people with high blood lead concentrations.
A chelating agent is a molecule with at least two negatively charged groups that allow it to form complexes with metal ions with multiple positive charges, such as lead. The chelate that is thus formed is nontoxic and can be excreted in the urine, initially at up to 50 times the normal rate. The chelating agents used for treatment of lead poisoning are edetate disodium calcium (CaNa EDTA), dimercaprol (BAL), which are injected, and succimer and d - penicillamine, which are administered orally. Chelation therapy is used in cases of acute lead poisoning, severe poisoning, and encephalopathy, and is considered for people with blood lead levels above 25 μg / dL. While the use of chelation for people with symptoms of lead poisoning is widely supported, use in asymptomatic people with high blood lead levels is more controversial. Chelation therapy is of limited value for cases of chronic exposure to low levels of lead. Chelation therapy is usually stopped when symptoms resolve or when blood lead levels return to premorbid levels. When lead exposure has taken place over a long period, blood lead levels may rise after chelation is stopped because lead is leached into blood from stores in the bone; thus repeated treatments are often necessary.
People receiving dimercaprol need to be assessed for peanut allergies since the commercial formulation contains peanut oil. Calcium EDTA is also effective if administered four hours after the administration of dimercaprol. Administering dimercaprol, DMSA (Succimer), or DMPS prior to calcium EDTA is necessary to prevent the redistribution of lead into the central nervous system. Dimercaprol used alone may also redistribute lead to the brain and testes. An adverse side effect of calcium EDTA is renal toxicity. Succimer (DMSA) is the preferred agent in mild to moderate lead poisoning cases. This may be the case in instances where children have a blood lead level > 25μg / dL. The most reported adverse side effect for succimer is gastrointestinal disturbances. It is also important to note that chelation therapy only lowers blood lead levels and may not prevent the lead - induced cognitive problems associated with lower lead levels in tissue. This may be because of the inability of these agents to remove sufficient amounts of lead from tissue or inability to reverse preexisting damage. Chelating agents can have adverse effects; for example, chelation therapy can lower the body 's levels of necessary nutrients like zinc. Chelating agents taken orally can increase the body 's absorption of lead through the intestine.
Chelation challenge, also known as provocation testing, is used to indicate an elevated and mobilizable body burden of heavy metals including lead. This testing involves collecting urine before and after administering a one - off dose of chelating agent to mobilize heavy metals into the urine. Then urine is analyzed by a laboratory for levels of heavy metals; from this analysis overall body burden is inferred. Chelation challenge mainly measures the burden of lead in soft tissues, though whether it accurately reflects long - term exposure or the amount of lead stored in bone remains controversial. Although the technique has been used to determine whether chelation therapy is indicated and to diagnose heavy metal exposure, some evidence does not support these uses as blood levels after chelation are not comparable to the reference range typically used to diagnose heavy metal poisoning. The single chelation dose could also redistribute the heavy metals to more sensitive areas such as central nervous system tissue.
Since lead has been used widely for centuries, the effects of exposure are worldwide. Environmental lead is ubiquitous, and everyone has some measurable blood lead level. Atmospheric lead pollution increased dramatically beginning in the 1950s as a result of the widespread use of leaded gasoline. Lead is one of the largest environmental medicine problems in terms of numbers of people exposed and the public health toll it takes. Lead exposure accounts for about 0.2 % of all deaths and 0.6 % of disability adjusted life years globally.
Although regulation reducing lead in products has greatly reduced exposure in the developed world since the 1970s, lead is still allowed in products in many developing countries. In all countries that have banned leaded gasoline, average blood lead levels have fallen sharply. However, some developing countries still allow leaded gasoline, which is the primary source of lead exposure in most developing countries. Beyond exposure from gasoline, the frequent use of pesticides in developing countries adds a risk of lead exposure and subsequent poisoning. Poor children in developing countries are at especially high risk for lead poisoning. Of North American children, 7 % have blood lead levels above 10 μg / dL, whereas among Central and South American children, the percentage is 33 to 34 %. About one fifth of the world 's disease burden from lead poisoning occurs in the Western Pacific, and another fifth is in Southeast Asia.
In developed countries, people with low levels of education living in poorer areas are most at risk for elevated lead. In the US, the groups most at risk for lead exposure are the impoverished, city - dwellers, and immigrants. African - American children and those living in old housing have also been found to be at elevated risk for high blood lead levels in the US. Low - income people often live in old housing with lead paint, which may begin to peel, exposing residents to high levels of lead - containing dust.
Risk factors for elevated lead exposure include alcohol consumption and smoking (possibly because of contamination of tobacco leaves with lead - containing pesticides). Adults with certain risk factors might be more susceptible to toxicity; these include calcium and iron deficiencies, old age, disease of organs targeted by lead (e.g. the brain, the kidneys), and possibly genetic susceptibility. Differences in vulnerability to lead - induced neurological damage between males and females have also been found, but some studies have found males to be at greater risk, while others have found females to be.
In adults, blood lead levels steadily increase with increasing age. In adults of all ages, men have higher blood lead levels than women do. Children are more sensitive to elevated blood lead levels than adults are. Children may also have a higher intake of lead than adults; they breathe faster and may be more likely to have contact with and ingest soil. Children of ages one to three tend to have the highest blood lead levels, possibly because at that age they begin to walk and explore their environment, and they use their mouths in their exploration. Blood levels usually peak at about 18 -- 24 months old. In many countries including the US, household paint and dust are the major route of exposure in children.
Cases of mass lead poisoning can occur. 15,000 people are being relocated from Jiyuan in central Henan province to other locations after 1000 children living around China 's largest smelter plant (owned and operated by Yuguang Gold and Lead) were found to have excess lead in their blood. The total cost of this project is estimated to around 1 billion yuan ($150 million). 70 % of the cost will be paid by local government and the smelter company, while the rest will be paid by the residents themselves. The government has suspended production at 32 of 35 lead plants. The affected area includes people from 10 different villages.
The Zamfara State lead poisoning epidemic occurred in Nigeria in 2010. As of October 5, 2010 at least 400 children have died from the effects of lead poisoning.
Outcome is related to the extent and duration of lead exposure. Effects of lead on the physiology of the kidneys and blood are generally reversible; its effects on the central nervous system are not. While peripheral effects in adults often go away when lead exposure ceases, evidence suggests that most of lead 's effects on a child 's central nervous system are irreversible. Children with lead poisoning may thus have adverse health, cognitive, and behavioral effects that follow them into adulthood.
Lead encephalopathy is a medical emergency and causes permanent brain damage in 70 -- 80 % of children affected by it, even those that receive the best treatment. The mortality rate for people who develop cerebral involvement is about 25 %, and of those who survive who had lead encephalopathy symptoms by the time chelation therapy was begun, about 40 % have permanent neurological problems such as cerebral palsy.
Exposure to lead may also decrease lifespan and have health effects in the long term. Death rates from a variety of causes have been found to be higher in people with elevated blood lead levels; these include cancer, stroke, and heart disease, and general death rates from all causes. Lead is considered a possible human carcinogen based on evidence from animal studies. Evidence also suggests that age - related mental decline and psychiatric symptoms are correlated with lead exposure. Cumulative exposure over a prolonged period may have a more important effect on some aspects of health than recent exposure. Some health effects, such as high blood pressure, are only significant risks when lead exposure is prolonged (over about one year).
Lead poisoning was among the first known and most widely studied work and environmental hazards. One of the first metals to be smelted and used, lead is thought to have been discovered and first mined in Anatolia around 6500 BC. Its density, workability, and corrosion resistance were among the metal 's attractions.
In the 2nd century BC the Greek botanist Nicander described the colic and paralysis seen in lead - poisoned people. Dioscorides, a Greek physician who lived in the 1st century AD, wrote that lead makes the mind "give way ''.
Lead was used extensively in Roman aqueducts from about 500 BC to 300 AD Julius Caesar 's engineer, Vitruvius, reported, "water is much more wholesome from earthenware pipes than from lead pipes. For it seems to be made injurious by lead, because white lead is produced by it, and this is said to be harmful to the human body. '' Gout, prevalent in affluent Rome, is thought to be the result of lead, or leaded eating and drinking vessels. Sugar of lead (lead (II) acetate) was used to sweeten wine, and the gout that resulted from this was known as "saturnine '' gout. It is even hypothesized that lead poisoning may have contributed to the decline of the Roman Empire, a hypothesis thoroughly disputed:
The great disadvantage of lead has always been that it is poisonous. This was fully recognised by the ancients, and Vitruvius specifically warns against its use. Because it was nevertheless used in profusion for carrying drinking water, the conclusion has often been drawn that the Romans must therefore have suffered from lead poisoning; sometimes conclusions are carried even further and it is inferred that this caused infertility and other unwelcome conditions, and that lead plumbing was largely responsible for the decline and fall of Rome.
Two things make this otherwise attractive hypothesis impossible. First, the calcium carbonate deposit that formed so thickly inside the aqueduct channels also formed inside the pipes, effectively insulating the water from the lead, so that the two never touched. Second, because the Romans had so few taps and the water was constantly running, it was never inside the pipes for more than a few minutes, and certainly not long enough to become contaminated.
However, recent research supports the idea that the lead found in the water came from the supply pipes, rather than another source of contamination. It was not unknown for locals to punch holes in the pipes to draw water off, increasing the number of people exposed to the lead.
Thirty years ago, Jerome Nriagu argued in a milestone paper that Roman civilization collapsed as a result of lead poisoning. Clair Patterson, the scientist who convinced governments to ban lead from gasoline, enthusiastically endorsed this idea, which nevertheless triggered a volley of publications aimed at refuting it. Although today lead is no longer seen as the prime culprit of Rome 's demise, its status in the system of water distribution by lead pipes (fistulæ) still stands as a major public health issue. By measuring Pb isotope compositions of sediments from the Tiber River and the Trajanic Harbor, the present work shows that "tap water '' from ancient Rome had 100 times more lead than local spring waters.
Romans also consumed lead through the consumption of defrutum, carenum, and sapa, musts made by boiling down fruit in lead cookware. Defrutum and its relatives were used in ancient Roman cuisine and cosmetics, including as a food preservative. The use of leaden cookware, though popular, was not the general standard and copper cookware was used far more generally. There is also no indication how often sapa was added or in what quantity.
The consumption of sapa as having a role in the fall of the Roman Empire was used in a theory proposed by geochemist Jerome Nriagu to state that "lead poisoning contributed to the decline of the Roman Empire ''. In 1984, John Scarborough, a pharmacologist and classicist, criticized the conclusions drawn by Nriagu 's book as "so full of false evidence, miscitations, typographical errors, and a blatant flippancy regarding primary sources that the reader can not trust the basic arguments. ''
After antiquity, mention of lead poisoning was absent from medical literature until the end of the Middle Ages. In 1656 the German physician Samuel Stockhausen recognized dust and fumes containing lead compounds as the cause of disease, called since ancient Roman times morbi metallici, that were known to afflict miners, smelter workers, potters, and others whose work exposed them to the metal.
The painter Caravaggio might have died of lead poisoning. Bones with high lead levels were recently found in a grave thought likely to be his. Paints used at the time contained high amounts of lead salts. Caravaggio is known to have exhibited violent behavior, a symptom commonly associated with lead poisoning.
In 17th - century Germany, the physician Eberhard Gockel discovered lead - contaminated wine to be the cause of an epidemic of colic. He had noticed that monks who did not drink wine were healthy, while wine drinkers developed colic, and traced the cause to sugar of lead, made by simmering litharge with vinegar. As a result, Eberhard Ludwig, Duke of Württemberg issued an edict in 1696 banning the adulteration of wines with litharge.
In the 18th century lead poisoning was fairly frequent on account of the widespread drinking of rum, which was made in stills with a lead component (the "worm ''). It was a significant cause of mortality amongst slaves and sailors in the colonial West Indies. Lead poisoning from rum was also noted in Boston. Benjamin Franklin suspected lead to be a risk in 1786. Also in the 18th century, "Devonshire colic '' was the name given to the symptoms suffered by people of Devon who drank cider made in presses that were lined with lead. Lead was added to cheap wine illegally in the 18th and early 19th centuries as a sweetener. The composer Beethoven, a heavy wine drinker, suffered elevated lead levels (as later detected in his hair) possibly due to this; the cause of his death is controversial, but lead poisoning is a contender as a factor.
With the Industrial Revolution in the 19th century, lead poisoning became common in the work setting. The introduction of lead paint for residential use in the 19th century increased childhood exposure to lead; for millennia before this, most lead exposure had been occupational. An important step in the understanding of childhood lead poisoning occurred when toxicity in children from lead paint was recognized in Australia in 1897. France, Belgium, and Austria banned white lead interior paints in 1909; the League of Nations followed suit in 1922. However, in the United States, laws banning lead house paint were not passed until 1971, and it was phased out and not fully banned until 1978.
The 20th century saw an increase in worldwide lead exposure levels due to the increased widespread use of the metal. Beginning in the 1920s, lead was added to gasoline to improve its combustion; lead from this exhaust persists today in soil and dust in buildings. Blood lead levels worldwide have been declining sharply since the 1980s, when leaded gasoline began to be phased out. In those countries that have banned lead in solder for food and drink cans and have banned leaded gasoline additives, blood lead levels have fallen sharply since the mid-1980s.
The levels found today in most people are orders of magnitude greater than those of pre-industrial society. Due to reductions of lead in products and the workplace, acute lead poisoning is rare in most countries today, but low level lead exposure is still common. It was not until the second half of the 20th century that subclinical lead exposure became understood to be a problem. During the end of the 20th century, the blood lead levels deemed acceptable steadily declined. Blood lead levels once considered safe are now considered hazardous, with no known safe threshold.
In the late 1950s through the 1970s Herbert Needleman and Clair Cameron Patterson did research trying to prove lead 's toxicity to humans. In the 1980s Needleman was falsely accused of scientific misconduct by the lead industry associates.
In 2002 Tommy Thompson, secretary of Health and Human Services appointed at least two persons with conflicts of interest to the CDC 's Lead Advisory Committee.
In 2014 a case by the state of California against a number of companies decided against Sherwin - Williams, NL Industries and ConAgra and ordered them to pay $1.15 billion. The disposition of The People v. ConAgra Grocery Products Company et al. in the California 6th Appellate District Court on November 14, 2017 is that
... the judgment is reversed, and the matter is remanded to the trial court with directions to (1) recalculate the amount of the abatement fund to limit it to the amount necessary to cover the cost of remediating pre-1951 homes, and (2) hold an evidentiary hearing regarding the appointment of a suitable receiver. The Plaintiff shall recover its costs on appeal.
On December 6, 2017, The petitions for rehearing from NL Industries, Inc., ConAgra Grocery Products Company and The Sherwin - Williams Company were denied.
Studies have found a weak link between lead from leaded gasoline and crime rates.
Humans are not alone in suffering from lead 's effects; plants and animals are also affected by lead toxicity to varying degrees depending on species. Animals experience many of the same effects of lead exposure as humans do, such as abdominal pain, peripheral neuropathy, and behavioral changes such as increased aggression. Much of what is known about human lead toxicity and its effects is derived from animal studies. Animals are used to test the effects of treatments, such as chelating agents, and to provide information on the pathophysiology of lead, such as how it is absorbed and distributed in the body.
Farm animals such as cows and horses as well as pet animals are also susceptible to the effects of lead toxicity. Sources of lead exposure in pets can be the same as those that present health threats to humans sharing the environment, such as paint and blinds, and there is sometimes lead in toys made for pets. Lead poisoning in a pet dog may indicate that children in the same household are at increased risk for elevated lead levels.
Lead, one of the leading causes of toxicity in waterfowl, has been known to cause die - offs of wild bird populations. When hunters use lead shot, waterfowl such as ducks can ingest the spent pellets later and be poisoned; predators that eat these birds are also at risk. Lead shot - related waterfowl poisonings were first documented in the US in the 1880s. By 1919, the spent lead pellets from waterfowl hunting was positively identified as the source of waterfowl deaths. Lead shot has been banned for hunting waterfowl in several countries, including the US in 1991 and Canada in 1997. Other threats to wildlife include lead paint, sediment from lead mines and smelters, and lead weights from fishing lines. Lead in some fishing gear has been banned in several countries.
The critically endangered California condor has also been affected by lead poisoning. As scavengers, condors eat carcasses of game that have been shot but not retrieved, and with them the fragments from lead bullets; this increases their lead levels. Among condors around the Grand Canyon, lead poisoning due to eating lead shot is the most frequently diagnosed cause of death. In an effort to protect this species, in areas designated as the California condor 's range the use of projectiles containing lead has been banned to hunt deer, feral pigs, elk, pronghorn antelope, coyotes, ground squirrels, and other non-game wildlife. Also, conservation programs exist which routinely capture condors, check their blood lead levels, and treat cases of poisoning.
References
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the london eye is the world's largest wheel | London Eye - wikipedia
The London Eye is a giant Ferris wheel on the South Bank of the River Thames in London. It is Europe 's tallest Ferris wheel, is the most popular paid tourist attraction in the United Kingdom with over 3.75 million visitors annually, and has made many appearances in popular culture.
The structure is 135 metres (443 ft) tall and the wheel has a diameter of 120 metres (394 ft). When it opened to the public in 2000 it was the world 's tallest Ferris wheel. Its height was surpassed by the 525 - foot (160 m) Star of Nanchang in 2006, the 165 metres (541 ft) Singapore Flyer in 2008, and the 550 - foot tall (167.6 m) High Roller (Las Vegas) in 2014. Supported by an A-frame on one side only, unlike the taller Nanchang and Singapore wheels, the Eye is described by its operators as "the world 's tallest cantilevered observation wheel ''.
The London Eye offered the highest public viewing point in London until it was superseded by the 245 - metre (804 ft) high observation deck on the 72nd floor of The Shard, which opened to the public on 1 February 2013.
The London Eye adjoins the western end of Jubilee Gardens (previously the site of the former Dome of Discovery), on the South Bank of the River Thames between Westminster Bridge and Hungerford Bridge beside County Hall, in the London Borough of Lambeth.
A predecessor to the London Eye, the Great Wheel, was built for the Empire of India Exhibition at Earls Court and opened to the public on 17 July 1895. Modelled on the original Chicago Ferris Wheel, it was 94 metres (308 ft) tall and 82.3 metres (270 ft) in diameter. It stayed in service until 1906, by which time its 40 cars (each with a capacity of 40 persons) had carried over 2.5 million passengers. The Great Wheel was demolished in 1907 following its last use at the Imperial Austrian Exhibition.
The London Eye was designed by the husband - and - wife team of Julia Barfield and David Marks of Marks Barfield Architects.
Mace was responsible for construction management, with Hollandia as the main steelwork contractor and Tilbury Douglas as the civil contractor. Consulting engineers Tony Gee & Partners designed the foundation works while Beckett Rankine designed the marine works.
Nathaniel Lichfield and Partners assisted The Tussauds Group in obtaining planning and listed building consent to alter the wall on the South Bank of the Thames. They also examined and reported on the implications of a Section 106 agreement attached to the original contract, and also prepared planning and listed building consent applications for the permanent retention of the attraction, which involved the co-ordination of an Environmental Statement and the production of a planning supporting statement detailing the reasons for its retention.
The rim of the Eye is supported by tensioned steel cables and resembles a huge spoked bicycle wheel. The lighting was redone with LED lighting from Color Kinetics in December 2006 to allow digital control of the lights as opposed to the manual replacement of gels over fluorescent tubes.
The wheel was constructed in sections which were floated up the Thames on barges and assembled lying flat on piled platforms in the river. Once the wheel was complete it was lifted into an upright position by a strand jack system made by Enerpac. It was first raised at 2 degrees per hour until it reached 65 degrees, then left in that position for a week while engineers prepared for the second phase of the lift. The project was European with major components coming from six countries: the steel was supplied from the UK and fabricated in The Netherlands by the Dutch company Hollandia, the cables came from Italy, the bearings came from Germany (FAG / Schaeffler Group), the spindle and hub were cast in the Czech Republic, the capsules were made by Poma in France (and the glass for these came from Italy), and the electrical components from the UK.
The London Eye was formally opened by then Prime Minister Tony Blair on 31 December 1999, but did not open to the paying public until 9 March 2000 because of a capsule clutch problem.
The London Eye was originally intended as a temporary attraction, with a five year lease. In December 2001, operators submitted an application to Lambeth Council to give the London Eye permanent status, and the application was granted in July 2002.
On 5 June 2008 it was announced that 30 million people had ridden the London Eye since it opened.
The wheel 's 32 sealed and air - conditioned ovoidal passenger capsules, designed and supplied by Poma, are attached to the external circumference of the wheel and rotated by electric motors. Each of the 10 - tonne (11 - short - ton) capsules represents one of the London Boroughs, and holds up to 25 people, who are free to walk around inside the capsule, though seating is provided. The wheel rotates at 26 cm (10 in) per second (about 0.9 kph or 0.6 mph) so that one revolution takes about 30 minutes. It does not usually stop to take on passengers; the rotation rate is slow enough to allow passengers to walk on and off the moving capsules at ground level. It is, however, stopped to allow disabled or elderly passengers time to embark and disembark safely.
In 2009 the first stage of a £ 12.5 million capsule upgrade began. Each capsule was taken down and floated down the river to Tilbury Docks in Essex.
On 2 June 2013 a passenger capsule was named the Coronation Capsule to mark the sixtieth anniversary of the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II.
Marks Barfield (the lead architects), The Tussauds Group, and British Airways were the original owners of the London Eye. Tussauds bought out British Airways in 2005 and then Marks Barfield in 2006 to become sole owner.
In May 2007, the Blackstone Group purchased The Tussauds Group which was then the owner of the Eye; Tussauds was merged with Blackstone 's Merlin Entertainments and disappeared as an entity. British Airways continued its brand association, but from the beginning of 2008 the name British Airways was dropped from the logo.
On 12 August 2009, the London Eye saw another rebrand, this time being called "The Merlin Entertainments London Eye '' to showcase Merlin Entertainments ' ownership. A new logo was designed for the attraction -- this time taking the form of an eye made out of London 's famous landmarks. This coincided with the launch of Merlin Entertainments 4D Experience preflight show underneath the ticket centre in County Hall. The refurbished ticket hall and 4D cinema experience were designed by architect Kay Elliott working with Merlin Studios project designer Craig Sciba. Merlin Studios later appointed Simex - Iwerks as the 4D theatre hardware specialists. The film was written and directed by 3D director Julian Napier and 3D produced by Phil Streather.
In January 2011, a lighting - up ceremony marked the start of a three - year deal between EDF Energy and Merlin Entertainments. On 1 August 2014 the logo was reverted to the previous "The Merlin Entertainments London Eye '' version, with the name becoming simply "The London Eye ''.
In September 2014, Coca - Cola signed an agreement to sponsor the London Eye for two years, starting from January 2015. On the day of the announcement, the London Eye was lit in red.
On 20 May 2005, there were reports of a leaked letter showing that the South Bank Centre (SBC) -- owners of part of the land on which the struts of the Eye are located -- had served a notice to quit on the attraction along with a demand for an increase in rent from £ 64,000 per year to £ 2.5 million, which the operators rejected as unaffordable.
On 25 May 2005, London mayor Ken Livingstone vowed that the landmark would remain in London. He also pledged that if the dispute was not resolved he would use his powers to ask the London Development Agency to issue a compulsory purchase order. The land in question is a small part of the Jubilee Gardens, which was given to the SBC for £ 1 when the Greater London Council was broken up.
The South Bank Centre and the British Airways London Eye agreed on a 25 - year lease on 8 February 2006 after a judicial review over the rent dispute. The lease agreement meant that the South Bank Centre, a publicly funded charity, would receive at least £ 500,000 a year from the attraction, the status of which is secured for the foreseeable future. Tussauds also announced the acquisition of the entire one - third interests of British Airways and Marks Barfield in the Eye as well as the outstanding debt to BA. These agreements gave Tussauds 100 % ownership and resolved the debt from the Eye 's construction loan from British Airways, which stood at more than £ 150 million by mid-2005 and had been increasing at 25 % per annum.
Sir Richard Rogers, winner of the 2007 Pritzker Architecture Prize, wrote of the London Eye in a book about the project:
The Eye has done for London what the Eiffel Tower did for Paris, which is to give it a symbol and to let people climb above the city and look back down on it. Not just specialists or rich people, but everybody. That 's the beauty of it: it is public and accessible, and it is in a great position at the heart of London.
The nearest London Underground station is Waterloo, although Charing Cross, Embankment, and Westminster are also within easy walking distance.
Connection with National Rail services is made at London Waterloo station and London Waterloo East station.
London River Services operated by Thames Clippers and City Cruises stop at the London Eye Pier.
For other quiescent (incomplete, delayed, stalled, cancelled, failed, or abandoned) proposals, see: Ferris wheel # Quiescent proposals
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the order in which events happen in time is called | Time - wikipedia
Time is the indefinite continued progress of existence and events that occur in apparently irreversible succession from the past through the present to the future. Time is a component quantity of various measurements used to sequence events, to compare the duration of events or the intervals between them, and to quantify rates of change of quantities in material reality or in the conscious experience. Time is often referred to as a fourth dimension, along with three spatial dimensions.
Time has long been an important subject of study in religion, philosophy, and science, but defining it in a manner applicable to all fields without circularity has consistently eluded scholars. Nevertheless, diverse fields such as business, industry, sports, the sciences, and the performing arts all incorporate some notion of time into their respective measuring systems.
Two contrasting viewpoints on time divide prominent philosophers. One view is that time is part of the fundamental structure of the universe -- a dimension independent of events, in which events occur in sequence. Isaac Newton subscribed to this realist view, and hence it is sometimes referred to as Newtonian time. The opposing view is that time does not refer to any kind of "container '' that events and objects "move through '', nor to any entity that "flows '', but that it is instead part of a fundamental intellectual structure (together with space and number) within which humans sequence and compare events. This second view, in the tradition of Gottfried Leibniz and Immanuel Kant, holds that time is neither an event nor a thing, and thus is not itself measurable nor can it be travelled.
Time in physics is unambiguously operationally defined as "what a clock reads ''. See Units of Time. Time is one of the seven fundamental physical quantities in both the International System of Units and International System of Quantities. Time is used to define other quantities -- such as velocity -- so defining time in terms of such quantities would result in circularity of definition. An operational definition of time, wherein one says that observing a certain number of repetitions of one or another standard cyclical event (such as the passage of a free - swinging pendulum) constitutes one standard unit such as the second, is highly useful in the conduct of both advanced experiments and everyday affairs of life. The operational definition leaves aside the question whether there is something called time, apart from the counting activity just mentioned, that flows and that can be measured. Investigations of a single continuum called spacetime bring questions about space into questions about time, questions that have their roots in the works of early students of natural philosophy.
Temporal measurement has occupied scientists and technologists, and was a prime motivation in navigation and astronomy. Periodic events and periodic motion have long served as standards for units of time. Examples include the apparent motion of the sun across the sky, the phases of the moon, the swing of a pendulum, and the beat of a heart. Currently, the international unit of time, the second, is defined by measuring the electronic transition frequency of caesium atoms (see below). Time is also of significant social importance, having economic value ("time is money '') as well as personal value, due to an awareness of the limited time in each day and in human life spans.
Generally speaking, methods of temporal measurement, or chronometry, take two distinct forms: the calendar, a mathematical tool for organising intervals of time, and the clock, a physical mechanism that counts the passage of time. In day - to - day life, the clock is consulted for periods less than a day whereas the calendar is consulted for periods longer than a day. Increasingly, personal electronic devices display both calendars and clocks simultaneously. The number (as on a clock dial or calendar) that marks the occurrence of a specified event as to hour or date is obtained by counting from a fiducial epoch -- a central reference point.
Artifacts from the Paleolithic suggest that the moon was used to reckon time as early as 6,000 years ago. Lunar calendars were among the first to appear, either 12 or 13 lunar months (either 354 or 384 days). Without intercalation to add days or months to some years, seasons quickly drift in a calendar based solely on twelve lunar months. Lunisolar calendars have a thirteenth month added to some years to make up for the difference between a full year (now known to be about 365.24 days) and a year of just twelve lunar months. The numbers twelve and thirteen came to feature prominently in many cultures, at least partly due to this relationship of months to years. Other early forms of calendars originated in Mesoamerica, particularly in ancient Mayan civilization. These calendars were religiously and astronomically based, with 18 months in a year and 20 days in a month, plus five epagomenal days at the end of the year.
The reforms of Julius Caesar in 45 BC put the Roman world on a solar calendar. This Julian calendar was faulty in that its intercalation still allowed the astronomical solstices and equinoxes to advance against it by about 11 minutes per year. Pope Gregory XIII introduced a correction in 1582; the Gregorian calendar was only slowly adopted by different nations over a period of centuries, but it is now the most commonly used calendar around the world, by far.
During the French Revolution, a new clock and calendar were invented in attempt to de-Christianize time and create a more rational system in order to replace the Gregorian calendar. The French Republican Calendar 's days consisted of ten hours of a hundred minutes of a hundred seconds, which marked a deviation from the 12 - based duodecimal system used in many other devices by many cultures. The system was later abolished in 1806.
A large variety of devices have been invented to measure time. The study of these devices is called horology.
An Egyptian device that dates to c. 1500 BC, similar in shape to a bent T - square, measured the passage of time from the shadow cast by its crossbar on a nonlinear rule. The T was oriented eastward in the mornings. At noon, the device was turned around so that it could cast its shadow in the evening direction.
A sundial uses a gnomon to cast a shadow on a set of markings calibrated to the hour. The position of the shadow marks the hour in local time. The idea to separate the day into smaller parts is credited to Egyptians because of their sundials, which operated on a duodecimal system. The importance of the number 12 is due the number of lunar cycles in a year and the number of stars used to count the passage of night.
The most precise timekeeping device of the ancient world was the water clock, or clepsydra, one of which was found in the tomb of Egyptian pharaoh Amenhotep I (1525 -- 1504 BC). They could be used to measure the hours even at night, but required manual upkeep to replenish the flow of water. The Ancient Greeks and the people from Chaldea (southeastern Mesopotamia) regularly maintained timekeeping records as an essential part of their astronomical observations. Arab inventors and engineers in particular made improvements on the use of water clocks up to the Middle Ages. In the 11th century, Chinese inventors and engineers invented the first mechanical clocks driven by an escapement mechanism.
The hourglass uses the flow of sand to measure the flow of time. They were used in navigation. Ferdinand Magellan used 18 glasses on each ship for his circumnavigation of the globe (1522). Incense sticks and candles were, and are, commonly used to measure time in temples and churches across the globe. Waterclocks, and later, mechanical clocks, were used to mark the events of the abbeys and monasteries of the Middle Ages. Richard of Wallingford (1292 -- 1336), abbot of St. Alban 's abbey, famously built a mechanical clock as an astronomical orrery about 1330. Great advances in accurate time - keeping were made by Galileo Galilei and especially Christiaan Huygens with the invention of pendulum driven clocks along with the invention of the minute hand by Jost Burgi.
The English word clock probably comes from the Middle Dutch word klocke which, in turn, derives from the medieval Latin word clocca, which ultimately derives from Celtic and is cognate with French, Latin, and German words that mean bell. The passage of the hours at sea were marked by bells, and denoted the time (see ship 's bell). The hours were marked by bells in abbeys as well as at sea.
Clocks can range from watches, to more exotic varieties such as the Clock of the Long Now. They can be driven by a variety of means, including gravity, springs, and various forms of electrical power, and regulated by a variety of means such as a pendulum.
Alarm clocks first appeared in ancient Greece around 250 BC with a water clock that would set off a whistle. This idea was later mechanized by Levi Hutchins and Seth E. Thomas.
A chronometer is a portable timekeeper that meets certain precision standards. Initially, the term was used to refer to the marine chronometer, a timepiece used to determine longitude by means of celestial navigation, a precision firstly achieved by John Harrison. More recently, the term has also been applied to the chronometer watch, a watch that meets precision standards set by the Swiss agency COSC.
The most accurate timekeeping devices are atomic clocks, which are accurate to seconds in many millions of years, and are used to calibrate other clocks and timekeeping instruments. Atomic clocks use the frequency of electronic transitions in certain atoms to measure the second. One of the most common atoms used is caesium, most modern atomic clocks probe caesium with microwaves to determine the frequency of these electron vibrations. Since 1967, the International System of Measurements bases its unit of time, the second, on the properties of caesium atoms. SI defines the second as 9,192,631,770 cycles of the radiation that corresponds to the transition between two electron spin energy levels of the ground state of the Cs atom.
Today, the Global Positioning System in coordination with the Network Time Protocol can be used to synchronize timekeeping systems across the globe.
In medieval philosophical writings, the atom was a unit of time referred to as the smallest possible division of time. The earliest known occurrence in English is in Byrhtferth 's Enchiridion (a science text) of 1010 -- 1012, where it was defined as 1 / 564 of a momentum (11⁄2 minutes), and thus equal to 15 / 94 of a second. It was used in the computus, the process of calculating the date of Easter.
As of May 2010, the smallest time interval uncertainty in direct measurements is on the order of 12 attoseconds (1.2 × 10 seconds), about 3.7 × 10 Planck times.
The second (s) is the SI base unit. A minute (min) is 60 seconds in length, and an hour is 60 minutes in length. A day is 24 hours or 86,400 seconds in length.
The Mean Solar Time system defines the second as 1 / 86,400 of the mean solar day, which is the year - average of the solar day. The solar day is the time interval between two successive solar noons, i.e., the time interval between two successive passages of the Sun across the local meridian. The local meridian is an imaginary line that runs from celestial north pole to celestial south pole passing directly over the head of the observer. At the local meridian the Sun reaches its highest point on its daily arc across the sky.
In 1874 the British Association for the Advancement of Science introduced the CGS (centimetre / gramme / second system) combining fundamental units of length, mass and time. The second is "elastic '', because tidal friction is slowing the earth 's rotation rate. For use in calculating ephemerides of celestial motion, therefore, in 1952 astronomers introduced the "ephemeris second '', currently defined as
the fraction 1 / 31,556,925.9747 of the tropical year for 1900 January 0 at 12 hours ephemeris time.
The CGS system has been superseded by the Système international. The SI base unit for time is the SI second. The International System of Quantities, which incorporates the SI, also defines larger units of time equal to fixed integer multiples of one second (1 s), such as the minute, hour and day. These are not part of the SI, but may be used alongside the SI. Other units of time such as the month and the year are not equal to fixed multiples of 1 s, and instead exhibit significant variations in duration.
The official SI definition of the second is as follows:
The second is the duration of 9,192,631,770 periods of the radiation corresponding to the transition between the two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the caesium 133 atom.
At its 1997 meeting, the CIPM affirmed that this definition refers to a caesium atom in its ground state at a temperature of 0 K.
The current definition of the second, coupled with the current definition of the metre, is based on the special theory of relativity, which affirms our spacetime to be a Minkowski space. The definition of the second in mean solar time, however, is unchanged.
While in theory, the concept of a single worldwide universal time - scale may have been conceived of many centuries ago, in practicality the technical ability to create and maintain such a time - scale did not become possible until the mid-19th century. The timescale adopted was Greenwich Mean Time, created in 1847. A few countries have replaced it with Coordinated Universal Time, UTC.
With the advent of the industrial revolution, a greater understanding and agreement on the nature of time itself became increasingly necessary and helpful. In 1847 in Britain, Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) was first created for use by the British railways, the British navy, and the British shipping industry. Using telescopes, GMT was calibrated to the mean solar time at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich in the UK.
As international commerce continued to increase throughout Europe, in order to achieve a more efficiently functioning modern society, an agreed upon, and highly accurate international standard of time measurement became necessary. In order to find or determine such a time - standard, three steps had to be followed:
The development of what is now known as UTC time came about historically as an effort which first began as a collaboration between 41 nations, officially agreed to and signed at the International Meridian Conference, in Washington D.C. in 1884. At this conference, the local mean solar time at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich in England was chosen to define the "universal day '', counted from 0 hours at Greenwich mean midnight. This agreed with the civil Greenwich Mean Time used on the island of Great Britain since 1847. In contrast astronomical GMT began at mean noon, i.e. astronomical day X began at noon of civil day X. The purpose of this was to keep one night 's observations under one date. The civil system was adopted as of 0 hours (civil) 1 January 1925. Nautical GMT began 24 hours before astronomical GMT, at least until 1805 in the Royal Navy, but persisted much later elsewhere because it was mentioned at the 1884 conference. In 1884, the Greenwich meridian was used for two - thirds of all charts and maps as their Prime Meridian.
Among the 41 nations represented at the conference, the advanced time - technologies that had already come into use in Britain were fundamental components of the agreed upon method of arriving at a universal and agreed upon international time. In 1928 Greenwich Mean Time was rebranded for scientific purposes by the International Astronomical Union as Universal Time (UT). This was to avoid confusion with the previous system where the day had begun at noon. As the general public had always begun the day at midnight the timescale continued to be presented to them as Greenwich Mean Time. By 1956, universal time had been split into various versions -- UT2, which smoothed for polar motion and seasonal effects, was presented to the public as Greenwich Mean Time. Later, UT1 (which smooths only for polar motion) became the default form of UT used by astronomers and hence the form used in navigation, sunrise and sunset and moonrise and moonset tables where the name Greenwich Mean Time continues to be employed. Greenwich Mean Time is also the preferred method of describing the timescale used by legislators. Even to the present day, UT is still based on an international telescopic system. Observations at the Greenwich Observatory itself ceased in 1954, though the location is still used as the basis for the coordinate system. Because the rotational period of Earth is not perfectly constant, the duration of a second would vary if calibrated to a telescope - based standard like GMT, where the second is defined as 1 / 86 400 of the mean solar day.
For the better part of the first century following the "International Meridian Conference, '' until 1960, the methods and definitions of time - keeping that had been laid out at the conference proved to be adequate to meet time tracking needs of science. Still, with the advent of the "electronic revolution '' in the latter half of the 20th century, the technologies that had been available at the time of the Convention of the Metre proved to be in need of further refinement in order to meet the needs of the ever - increasing precision that the "electronic revolution '' had begun to require.
An invariable second (the "ephemeris second '') had been defined, use of which removed the errors in ephemerides resulting from the use of the variable mean solar second as the time argument. In 1960 this ephemeris second was made the basis of the "coordinated universal time '' which was being derived from atomic clocks. It is a specified fraction of the mean tropical year as at 1900 and, being based on historical telescope observations, corresponds roughly to the mean solar second of the early nineteenth century.
In 1967 a further step was taken with the introduction of the SI second, essentially the ephemeris second as measured by atomic clocks and formally defined in atomic terms. The SI second (Standard Internationale second) is based directly on the measurement of the atomic - clock observation of the frequency oscillation of caesium atoms. It is the basis of all atomic timescales, e.g. coordinated universal time, GPS time, International Atomic Time, etc. Atomic clocks do not measure nuclear decay rates, which is a common misconception, but rather measure a certain natural vibrational frequency of caesium - 133. Coordinated universal time is subject to one constraint which does not affect the other atomic timescales. As it has been adopted as the civil timescale by some countries (most countries have opted to retain mean solar time) it is not permitted to deviate from GMT by more than 0.9 second. This is achieved by the occasional insertion of a leap second.
Most countries use mean solar time. Australia, Canada (Quebec only), Colombia, France, Germany, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea (Bougainville only), Paraguay, Portugal, Switzerland, the United States and Venezuela use UTC. However, UTC is widely used by the scientific community in countries where mean solar time is official. UTC time is based on the SI second, which was first defined in 1967, and is based on the use of atomic clocks. Some other less used but closely related time - standards include International Atomic Time (TAI), Terrestrial Time, and Barycentric Dynamical Time.
Between 1967 and 1971, UTC was periodically adjusted by fractional amounts of a second in order to adjust and refine for variations in mean solar time, with which it is aligned. After 1 January 1972, UTC time has been defined as being offset from atomic time by a whole number of seconds, changing only when a leap second is added to keep radio - controlled clocks synchronized with the rotation of the Earth.
The Global Positioning System also broadcasts a very precise time signal worldwide, along with instructions for converting GPS time to UTC. GPS - time is based on, and regularly synchronized with or from, UTC - time.
Earth is split up into a number of time zones. Most time zones are exactly one hour apart, and by convention compute their local time as an offset from GMT. For example, time zones at sea are based on GMT. In many locations (but not at sea) these offsets vary twice yearly due to daylight saving time transitions.
These conversions are accurate at the millisecond level for time systems involving earth rotation (UT1 & TT). Conversions between atomic time systems (TAI, GPS, and UTC) are accurate at the microsecond level.
Definitions:
Sidereal time is the measurement of time relative to a distant star (instead of solar time that is relative to the sun). It is used in astronomy to predict when a star will be overhead. Due to the orbit of the earth around the sun a sidereal day is about 4 minutes (1 / 366th) less than a solar day.
Another form of time measurement consists of studying the past. Events in the past can be ordered in a sequence (creating a chronology), and can be put into chronological groups (periodization). One of the most important systems of periodization is the geologic time scale, which is a system of periodizing the events that shaped the Earth and its life. Chronology, periodization, and interpretation of the past are together known as the study of history.
The term "time '' is generally used for many close but different concepts, including:
Ancient cultures such as Incan, Mayan, Hopi, and other Native American Tribes - plus the Babylonians, Ancient Greeks, Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and others - have a concept of a wheel of time: they regard time as cyclical and quantic, consisting of repeating ages that happen to every being of the Universe between birth and extinction.
In general, the Islamic and Judeo - Christian world - view regards time as linear and directional, beginning with the act of creation by God. The traditional Christian view sees time ending, teleologically, with the eschatological end of the present order of things, the "end time ''.
In the Old Testament book Ecclesiastes, traditionally ascribed to Solomon (970 -- 928 BC), time (as the Hebrew word עידן, זמן ` iddan (age, as in "Ice age '') zĕman (time) is often translated) was traditionally regarded as a medium for the passage of predestined events. (Another word, زمان '' זמן '' zamān, meant time fit for an event, and is used as the modern Arabic, Persian, and Hebrew equivalent to the English word "time ''.)
The Greek language denotes two distinct principles, Chronos and Kairos. The former refers to numeric, or chronological, time. The latter, literally "the right or opportune moment '', relates specifically to metaphysical or Divine time. In theology, Kairos is qualitative, as opposed to quantitative.
In Greek mythology, Chronos (Ancient Greek: Χρόνος) is identified as the Personification of Time. His name in Greek means "time '' and is alternatively spelled Chronus (Latin spelling) or Khronos. Chronos is usually portrayed as an old, wise man with a long, gray beard, such as "Father Time ''. Some English words whose etymological root is khronos / chronos include chronology, chronometer, chronic, anachronism, synchronise, and chronicle.
According to Kabbalists, "time '' is a paradox and an illusion. Both the future and the past are recognised to be combined and simultaneously present.
Two distinct viewpoints on time divide many prominent philosophers. One view is that time is part of the fundamental structure of the universe, a dimension in which events occur in sequence. Sir Isaac Newton subscribed to this realist view, and hence it is sometimes referred to as Newtonian time. An opposing view is that time does not refer to any kind of actually existing dimension that events and objects "move through '', nor to any entity that "flows '', but that it is instead an intellectual concept (together with space and number) that enables humans to sequence and compare events. This second view, in the tradition of Gottfried Leibniz and Immanuel Kant, holds that space and time "do not exist in and of themselves, but... are the product of the way we represent things '', because we can know objects only as they appear to us.
Furthermore, it may be that there is a subjective component to time, but whether or not time itself is "felt '', as a sensation, or is a judgment, is a matter of debate.
The Vedas, the earliest texts on Indian philosophy and Hindu philosophy dating back to the late 2nd millennium BC, describe ancient Hindu cosmology, in which the universe goes through repeated cycles of creation, destruction and rebirth, with each cycle lasting 4,320 million years. Ancient Greek philosophers, including Parmenides and Heraclitus, wrote essays on the nature of time. Plato, in the Timaeus, identified time with the period of motion of the heavenly bodies. Aristotle, in Book IV of his Physica defined time as ' number of movement in respect of the before and after '.
In Book 11 of his Confessions, St. Augustine of Hippo ruminates on the nature of time, asking, "What then is time? If no one asks me, I know: if I wish to explain it to one that asketh, I know not. '' He begins to define time by what it is not rather than what it is, an approach similar to that taken in other negative definitions. However, Augustine ends up calling time a "distention '' of the mind (Confessions 11.26) by which we simultaneously grasp the past in memory, the present by attention, and the future by expectation.
In contrast to ancient Greek philosophers who believed that the universe had an infinite past with no beginning, medieval philosophers and theologians developed the concept of the universe having a finite past with a beginning. This view is shared by Abrahamic faiths as they believe time started by creation, therefore the only thing being infinite is God and everything else, including time, is finite.
Isaac Newton believed in absolute space and absolute time; Leibniz believed that time and space are relational. The differences between Leibniz 's and Newton 's interpretations came to a head in the famous Leibniz -- Clarke correspondence.
Immanuel Kant, in the Critique of Pure Reason, described time as an a priori intuition that allows us (together with the other a priori intuition, space) to comprehend sense experience. With Kant, neither space nor time are conceived as substances, but rather both are elements of a systematic mental framework that necessarily structures the experiences of any rational agent, or observing subject. Kant thought of time as a fundamental part of an abstract conceptual framework, together with space and number, within which we sequence events, quantify their duration, and compare the motions of objects. In this view, time does not refer to any kind of entity that "flows, '' that objects "move through, '' or that is a "container '' for events. Spatial measurements are used to quantify the extent of and distances between objects, and temporal measurements are used to quantify the durations of and between events. Time was designated by Kant as the purest possible schema of a pure concept or category.
Henri Bergson believed that time was neither a real homogeneous medium nor a mental construct, but possesses what he referred to as Duration. Duration, in Bergson 's view, was creativity and memory as an essential component of reality.
According to Martin Heidegger we do not exist inside time, we are time. Hence, the relationship to the past is a present awareness of having been, which allows the past to exist in the present. The relationship to the future is the state of anticipating a potential possibility, task, or engagement. It is related to the human propensity for caring and being concerned, which causes "being ahead of oneself '' when thinking of a pending occurrence. Therefore, this concern for a potential occurrence also allows the future to exist in the present. The present becomes an experience, which is qualitative instead of quantitative. Heidegger seems to think this is the way that a linear relationship with time, or temporal existence, is broken or transcended. We are not stuck in sequential time. We are able to remember the past and project into the future -- we have a kind of random access to our representation of temporal existence; we can, in our thoughts, step out of (ecstasis) sequential time.
In 5th century BC Greece, Antiphon the Sophist, in a fragment preserved from his chief work On Truth, held that: "Time is not a reality (hypostasis), but a concept (noêma) or a measure (metron). '' Parmenides went further, maintaining that time, motion, and change were illusions, leading to the paradoxes of his follower Zeno. Time as an illusion is also a common theme in Buddhist thought.
J.M.E. McTaggart 's 1908 The Unreality of Time argues that, since every event has the characteristic of being both present and not present (i.e., future or past), that time is a self - contradictory idea (see also The flow of time).
These arguments often center on what it means for something to be unreal. Modern physicists generally believe that time is as real as space -- though others, such as Julian Barbour in his book The End of Time, argue that quantum equations of the universe take their true form when expressed in the timeless realm containing every possible now or momentary configuration of the universe, called ' platonia ' by Barbour.
A modern philosophical theory called presentism views the past and the future as human - mind interpretations of movement instead of real parts of time (or "dimensions '') which coexist with the present. This theory rejects the existence of all direct interaction with the past or the future, holding only the present as tangible. This is one of the philosophical arguments against time travel. This contrasts with eternalism (all time: present, past and future, is real) and the growing block theory (the present and the past are real, but the future is not).
Until Einstein 's reinterpretation of the physical concepts associated with time and space, time was considered to be the same everywhere in the universe, with all observers measuring the same time interval for any event. Non-relativistic classical mechanics is based on this Newtonian idea of time.
Einstein, in his special theory of relativity, postulated the constancy and finiteness of the speed of light for all observers. He showed that this postulate, together with a reasonable definition for what it means for two events to be simultaneous, requires that distances appear compressed and time intervals appear lengthened for events associated with objects in motion relative to an inertial observer.
The theory of special relativity finds a convenient formulation in Minkowski spacetime, a mathematical structure that combines three dimensions of space with a single dimension of time. In this formalism, distances in space can be measured by how long light takes to travel that distance, e.g., a light - year is a measure of distance, and a meter is now defined in terms of how far light travels in a certain amount of time. Two events in Minkowski spacetime are separated by an invariant interval, which can be either space - like, light - like, or time - like. Events that have a time - like separation can not be simultaneous in any frame of reference, there must be a temporal component (and possibly a spatial one) to their separation. Events that have a space - like separation will be simultaneous in some frame of reference, and there is no frame of reference in which they do not have a spatial separation. Different observers may calculate different distances and different time intervals between two events, but the invariant interval between the events is independent of the observer (and his or her velocity).
In non-relativistic classical mechanics, Newton 's concept of "relative, apparent, and common time '' can be used in the formulation of a prescription for the synchronization of clocks. Events seen by two different observers in motion relative to each other produce a mathematical concept of time that works sufficiently well for describing the everyday phenomena of most people 's experience. In the late nineteenth century, physicists encountered problems with the classical understanding of time, in connection with the behavior of electricity and magnetism. Einstein resolved these problems by invoking a method of synchronizing clocks using the constant, finite speed of light as the maximum signal velocity. This led directly to the result that observers in motion relative to one another measure different elapsed times for the same event.
Time has historically been closely related with space, the two together merging into spacetime in Einstein 's special relativity and general relativity. According to these theories, the concept of time depends on the spatial reference frame of the observer, and the human perception as well as the measurement by instruments such as clocks are different for observers in relative motion. For example, if a spaceship carrying a clock flies through space at (very nearly) the speed of light, its crew does not notice a change in the speed of time on board their vessel because everything traveling at the same speed slows down at the same rate (including the clock, the crew 's thought processes, and the functions of their bodies). However, to a stationary observer watching the spaceship fly by, the spaceship appears flattened in the direction it is traveling and the clock on board the spaceship appears to move very slowly.
On the other hand, the crew on board the spaceship also perceives the observer as slowed down and flattened along the spaceship 's direction of travel, because both are moving at very nearly the speed of light relative to each other. Because the outside universe appears flattened to the spaceship, the crew perceives themselves as quickly traveling between regions of space that (to the stationary observer) are many light years apart. This is reconciled by the fact that the crew 's perception of time is different from the stationary observer 's; what seems like seconds to the crew might be hundreds of years to the stationary observer. In either case, however, causality remains unchanged: the past is the set of events that can send light signals to an entity and the future is the set of events to which an entity can send light signals.
Einstein showed in his thought experiments that people travelling at different speeds, while agreeing on cause and effect, measure different time separations between events, and can even observe different chronological orderings between non-causally related events. Though these effects are typically minute in the human experience, the effect becomes much more pronounced for objects moving at speeds approaching the speed of light. Subatomic particles exist for a well known average fraction of a second in a lab relatively at rest, but when travelling close to the speed of light they are measured to travel farther and exist for much longer than when at rest. According to the special theory of relativity, in the high - speed particle 's frame of reference, it exists, on the average, for a standard amount of time known as its mean lifetime, and the distance it travels in that time is zero, because its velocity is zero. Relative to a frame of reference at rest, time seems to "slow down '' for the particle. Relative to the high - speed particle, distances seem to shorten. Einstein showed how both temporal and spatial dimensions can be altered (or "warped '') by high - speed motion.
Einstein (The Meaning of Relativity): "Two events taking place at the points A and B of a system K are simultaneous if they appear at the same instant when observed from the middle point, M, of the interval AB. Time is then defined as the ensemble of the indications of similar clocks, at rest relative to K, which register the same simultaneously. ''
Einstein wrote in his book, Relativity, that simultaneity is also relative, i.e., two events that appear simultaneous to an observer in a particular inertial reference frame need not be judged as simultaneous by a second observer in a different inertial frame of reference.
The animations visualise the different treatments of time in the Newtonian and the relativistic descriptions. At the heart of these differences are the Galilean and Lorentz transformations applicable in the Newtonian and relativistic theories, respectively.
In the figures, the vertical direction indicates time. The horizontal direction indicates distance (only one spatial dimension is taken into account), and the thick dashed curve is the spacetime trajectory ("world line '') of the observer. The small dots indicate specific (past and future) events in spacetime.
The slope of the world line (deviation from being vertical) gives the relative velocity to the observer. Note how in both pictures the view of spacetime changes when the observer accelerates.
In the Newtonian description these changes are such that time is absolute: the movements of the observer do not influence whether an event occurs in the ' now ' (i.e., whether an event passes the horizontal line through the observer).
However, in the relativistic description the observability of events is absolute: the movements of the observer do not influence whether an event passes the "light cone '' of the observer. Notice that with the change from a Newtonian to a relativistic description, the concept of absolute time is no longer applicable: events move up - and - down in the figure depending on the acceleration of the observer.
Time appears to have a direction -- the past lies behind, fixed and immutable, while the future lies ahead and is not necessarily fixed. Yet for the most part the laws of physics do not specify an arrow of time, and allow any process to proceed both forward and in reverse. This is generally a consequence of time being modelled by a parameter in the system being analysed, where there is no "proper time '': the direction of the arrow of time is sometimes arbitrary. Examples of this include the cosmological arrow of time, which points away from the Big Bang, CPT symmetry, and the radiative arrow of time, caused by light only travelling forwards in time (see light cone). In particle physics, the violation of CP symmetry implies that there should be a small counterbalancing time asymmetry to preserve CPT symmetry as stated above. The standard description of measurement in quantum mechanics is also time asymmetric (see Measurement in quantum mechanics). The second law of thermodynamics states that entropy must increase over time (see Entropy). This can be in either direction - Brian Greene theorizes that, according to the equations, the change in entropy occurs symmetrically whether going forward or backward in time. So entropy tends to increase in either direction, and our current low - entropy universe is a statistical aberration, in the similar manner as tossing a coin often enough that eventually heads will result ten times in a row. However, this theory is not supported empirically in local experiment.
Time quantization is a hypothetical concept. In the modern established physical theories (the Standard Model of Particles and Interactions and General Relativity) time is not quantized.
Planck time (~ 5.4 × 10 seconds) is the unit of time in the system of natural units known as Planck units. Current established physical theories are believed to fail at this time scale, and many physicists expect that the Planck time might be the smallest unit of time that could ever be measured, even in principle. Tentative physical theories that describe this time scale exist; see for instance loop quantum gravity.
Time travel is the concept of moving backwards or forwards to different points in time, in a manner analogous to moving through space, and different from the normal "flow '' of time to an earthbound observer. In this view, all points in time (including future times) "persist '' in some way. Time travel has been a plot device in fiction since the 19th century. Travelling backwards in time has never been verified, presents many theoretical problems, and may be an impossibility. Any technological device, whether fictional or hypothetical, that is used to achieve time travel is known as a time machine.
A central problem with time travel to the past is the violation of causality; should an effect precede its cause, it would give rise to the possibility of a temporal paradox. Some interpretations of time travel resolve this by accepting the possibility of travel between branch points, parallel realities, or universes.
Another solution to the problem of causality - based temporal paradoxes is that such paradoxes can not arise simply because they have not arisen. As illustrated in numerous works of fiction, free will either ceases to exist in the past or the outcomes of such decisions are predetermined. As such, it would not be possible to enact the grandfather paradox because it is a historical fact that your grandfather was not killed before his child (your parent) was conceived. This view does n't simply hold that history is an unchangeable constant, but that any change made by a hypothetical future time traveller would already have happened in his or her past, resulting in the reality that the traveller moves from. More elaboration on this view can be found in the Novikov self - consistency principle.
The specious present refers to the time duration wherein one 's perceptions are considered to be in the present. The experienced present is said to be ' specious ' in that, unlike the objective present, it is an interval and not a durationless instant. The term specious present was first introduced by the psychologist E.R. Clay, and later developed by William James.
The brain 's judgment of time is known to be a highly distributed system, including at least the cerebral cortex, cerebellum and basal ganglia as its components. One particular component, the suprachiasmatic nuclei, is responsible for the circadian (or daily) rhythm, while other cell clusters appear capable of shorter - range (ultradian) timekeeping.
Psychoactive drugs can impair the judgment of time. Stimulants can lead both humans and rats to overestimate time intervals, while depressants can have the opposite effect. The level of activity in the brain of neurotransmitters such as dopamine and norepinephrine may be the reason for this. Such chemicals will either excite or inhibit the firing of neurons in the brain, with a greater firing rate allowing the brain to register the occurrence of more events within a given interval (speed up time) and a decreased firing rate reducing the brain 's capacity to distinguish events occurring within a given interval (slow down time).
Mental chronometry is the use of response time in perceptual - motor tasks to infer the content, duration, and temporal sequencing of cognitive operations.
Children 's expanding cognitive abilities allow them to understand time more clearly. Two - and three - year - olds ' understanding of time is mainly limited to "now and not now. '' Five - and six - year - olds can grasp the ideas of past, present, and future. Seven - to ten - year - olds can use clocks and calendars.
In addition to psychoactive drugs, judgments of time can be altered by temporal illusions (like the kappa effect), age, and hypnosis. The sense of time is impaired in some people with neurological diseases such as Parkinson 's disease and attention deficit disorder.
Psychologists assert that time seems to go faster with age, but the literature on this age - related perception of time remains controversial. Those who support this notion argue that young people, having more excitatory neurotransmitters, are able to cope with faster external events.
In sociology and anthropology, time discipline is the general name given to social and economic rules, conventions, customs, and expectations governing the measurement of time, the social currency and awareness of time measurements, and people 's expectations concerning the observance of these customs by others. Arlie Russell Hochschild and Norbert Elias have written on the use of time from a sociological perspective.
The use of time is an important issue in understanding human behavior, education, and travel behavior. Time - use research is a developing field of study. The question concerns how time is allocated across a number of activities (such as time spent at home, at work, shopping, etc.). Time use changes with technology, as the television or the Internet created new opportunities to use time in different ways. However, some aspects of time use are relatively stable over long periods of time, such as the amount of time spent traveling to work, which despite major changes in transport, has been observed to be about 20 -- 30 minutes one - way for a large number of cities over a long period.
Time management is the organization of tasks or events by first estimating how much time a task requires and when it must be completed, and adjusting events that would interfere with its completion so it is done in the appropriate amount of time. Calendars and day planners are common examples of time management tools.
A sequence of events, or series of events, is a sequence of items, facts, events, actions, changes, or procedural steps, arranged in time order (chronological order), often with causality relationships among the items. Because of causality, cause precedes effect, or cause and effect may appear together in a single item, but effect never precedes cause. A sequence of events can be presented in text, tables, charts, or timelines. The description of the items or events may include a timestamp. A sequence of events that includes the time along with place or location information to describe a sequential path may be referred to as a world line.
Uses of a sequence of events include stories, historical events (chronology), directions and steps in procedures, and timetables for scheduling activities. A sequence of events may also be used to help describe processes in science, technology, and medicine. A sequence of events may be focused on past events (e.g., stories, history, chronology), on future events that must be in a predetermined order (e.g., plans, schedules, procedures, timetables), or focused on the observation of past events with the expectation that the events will occur in the future (e.g., processes, projections). The use of a sequence of events occurs in fields as diverse as machines (cam timer), documentaries (Seconds From Disaster), law (choice of law), computer simulation (discrete event simulation), and electric power transmission (sequence of events recorder). A specific example of a sequence of events is the timeline of the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster.
Although time is regarded as an abstract concept, there is increasing evidence that time is conceptualized in the mind in terms of space. That is, instead of thinking about time in a general, abstract way, humans think about time in a spatial way and mentally organize it as such. Using space to think about time allows humans to mentally organize temporal events in a specific way.
This spatial representation of time is often represented in the mind as a Mental Time Line (MTL). Using space to think about time allows humans to mentally organize temporal order. These origins are shaped by many environmental factors -- -- for example, literacy appears to play a large role in the different types of MTLs, as reading / writing direction provides an everyday temporal orientation that differs from culture to culture. In western cultures, the MTL may unfold rightward (with the past on the left and the future on the right) since people read and write from left to right. Western calendars also continue this trend by placing the past on the left with the future progressing toward the right. Conversely, Arabic, Farsi, Urdu and Israeli - Hebrew speakers read from right to left, and their MTLs unfold leftward (past on the right with future on the left), and evidence suggests these speakers organize time events in their minds like this as well.
This linguistic evidence that abstract concepts are based in spatial concepts also reveals that the way humans mentally organize time events varies across cultures -- -- that is, a certain specific mental organization system is not universal. So, although Western cultures typically associate past events with the left and future events with the right according to a certain MTL, this kind of horizontal, egocentric MTL is not the spatial organization of all cultures. Although most developed nations use an egocentric spatial system, there is recent evidence that some cultures use an allocentric spatialization, often based on environmental features.
A recent study of the indigenous Yupno people of Papua New Guinea focused on the directional gestures used when individuals used time - related words. When speaking of the past (such as "last year '' or "past times ''), individuals gestured downhill, where the river of the valley flowed into the ocean. When speaking of the future, they gestured uphill, toward the source of the river. This was common regardless of which direction the person faced, revealing that the Yupno people may use an allocentric MTL, in which time flows uphill.
A similar study of the Pormpuraawans, an aboriginal group in Australia, revealed a similar distinction in which when asked to organize photos of a man aging "in order, '' individuals consistently placed the youngest photos to the east and the oldest photos to the west, regardless of which direction they faced. This directly clashed with an American group which consistently organized the photos from left to right. Therefore, this group also appears to have an allocentric MTL, but based on the cardinal directions instead of geographical features.
The wide array of distinctions in the way different groups think about time leads to the broader question that different groups may also think about other abstract concepts in different ways as well, such as causality and number.
Leading scholarly organisations for researchers on the history and technology of time and timekeeping
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list of all xbox 360 games by release date | List of Xbox 360 games - wikipedia
This is a list of Xbox 360 games that were released via retail disk, digital download or as part of the Xbox Live Arcade (XBLA) program.
There are currently 2097 games on this list.
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which of the following structures is not part of the epidermis | Epidermis - wikipedia
The epidermis (ἐπί epi in Greek meaning "over '' or "upon '') is the outer layer of the two layers that make up the skin (or cutis; Greek δέρμα derma), the inner layer being the dermis. This skin layer provides a barrier to infection from environmental pathogens and regulates the amount of water released from the body into the atmosphere through transepidermal water loss (TEWL).
The outermost part of the epidermis is composed of stratified layers of flattened cells, that overlies a basal layer (stratum basale) composed of columnar cells arranged perpendicularly.
The rows of cells develop from the stem cells in the basal layer. ENaCs are found to be expressed in all layers of the epidermis.
The epidermis has no blood supply and is nourished almost exclusively by diffused oxygen from the surrounding air. It is 95 % keratinocytes (proliferating basal and differentiated suprabasal) but also contains melanocytes, Langerhans cells, Merkel cells, and inflammatory cells. Rete ridges (or rete pegs) are epidermal thickenings that extend downward between dermal papillae. Blood capillaries are found beneath the epidermis, and are linked to an arteriole and a venule.
In the epidermis, the cells are tightly interconnected to serve as a tight barrier. The junctions between the epidermal cells is adherens junction type. These junctions are formed by transmembrane proteins called cadherins. Inside the cell, the cadherins are linked to actin filaments. In immunofluorescence microscopy, the actin filament network appears as a thick border surrounding the cells. Yet, as noted, the actin filaments are located inside the cell and run parallel to the cell membrane. Because of the proximity of the neighboring cells and tightness of the junctions, the actin immunofluorescence appears as a border between cells.
The epidermis is composed of 4 or 5 layers depending on the region of skin being considered. Those layers in descending order are:
The Malpighian layer (stratum malpighi) is both the stratum basale and stratum spinosum.
The epidermis is separated from the dermis, its underlying tissue, by a basement membrane.
The stratified squamous epithelium is maintained by cell division within the stratum basale. Differentiating cell delaminate from the basement membrane and are displaced outwards through the epidermal layers, undergoing multiple stages of differentiation until, in the stratum corneum, losing their nucleus and fusing to squamous sheets, which are eventually shed from the surface (desquamation). Differentiated keratinocytes secrete keratin proteins which contribute to the formation of an extracellular matrix and is an integral part of the skin barrier function. In normal skin, the rate of keratinocyte production equals the rate of loss, taking about two weeks for a cell to journey from the stratum basale to the top of the stratum granulosum, and an additional four weeks to cross the stratum corneum. The entire epidermis is replaced by new cell growth over a period of about 48 days.
Keratinocyte differentiation throughout the epidermis is in part mediated by a calcium gradient, increasing from the stratum basale until the outer stratum granulosum, where it reaches its maximum, and decreasing in the stratum corneum. Calcium concentration in the stratum corneum is very low in part because those relatively dry cells are not able to dissolve the ions. This calcium gradient parallels keratinocyte differentiation and as such is considered a key regulator in the formation of the epidermal layers.
Elevation of extracellular calcium concentrations induces an increase in intracellular free calcium concentrations. Part of that intracellular increase comes from calcium released from intracellular stores and another part comes from transmembrane calcium influx, through both calcium - sensitive chloride channels and voltage - independent cation channels permeable to calcium. Moreover, it has been suggested that an extracellular calcium - sensing receptor (CaSR) also contributes to the rise in intracellular calcium concentration.
Epidermal organogenesis, the formation of the epidermis, begins in the cells covering the embryo after neurulation, the formation of the central nervous system. In most vertebrates, this original one - layered structure quickly transforms into a two - layered tissue; a temporary outer layer, the periderm, which is disposed once the inner basal layer or stratum germinativum has formed.
This inner layer is a germinal epithelium that give rise to all epidermal cells. It divides to form the outer spinous layer (stratum spinosum). The cells of these two layers, together called the Malpighian layer (s) after Marcello Malpighi, divide to form the superficial granular layer (Stratum granulosum) of the epidermis.
The cells in the stratum granulosum do not divide, but instead form skin cells called keratinocytes from the granules of keratin. These skin cells finally become the cornified layer (stratum corneum), the outermost epidermal layer, where the cells become flattened sacks with their nuclei located at one end of the cell. After birth these outermost cells are replaced by new cells from the stratum granulosum and throughout life they are shed at a rate of 0.001 - 0.003 ounces of skin flakes every hour, or 0.024 - 0.072 ounces per day.
Epidermal development is a product of several growth factors, two of which are:
The epidermis serves as a barrier to protect the body against microbial pathogens, oxidant stress (UV light) and chemical compounds and provides mechanical resistance. Most of that function is played by the stratum corneum.
The ability of the skin to hold water is primarily due to the stratum corneum and is critical for maintaining healthy skin. Lipids arranged through a gradient and in an organized manner between the cells of the stratum corneum form a barrier to transepidermal water loss.
The amount and distribution of melanin pigment in the epidermis is the main reason for variation in skin color in Homo sapiens. Melanin is found in the small melanosomes, particles formed in melanocytes from where they are transferred to the surrounding keratinocytes. The size, number, and arrangement of the melanosomes varies between racial groups, but while the number of melanocytes can vary between different body regions, their numbers remain the same in individual body regions in all human beings. In white and Asian skin the melanosomes are packed in "aggregates '', but in black skin they are larger and distributed more evenly. The number of melanosomes in the keratinocytes increases with UV radiation exposure, while their distribution remain largely unaffected.
Laboratory culture of keratinocytes to form a 3D structure (artificial skin) recapitulating most of the properties of the epidermis is routinely used as a tool for drug development and testing.
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one reason for the increase in the numbers of working poor is due to the | Poverty in the United Kingdom - wikipedia
Despite being a developed country, those who are living at the lower end of the income distribution in the United Kingdom have a relatively low standard of living. Data based on incomes published in 2016 by Department for Work and Pensions (DWP) show that, after housing costs have been taken into consideration, the number of people living in the UK in relative poverty to be 13.44 m (21 % of the population) In 2015, a report by Institute for Fiscal Studies reported that 21.6 % of Britons were now in relative poverty. The report showed that there had been a fall in poverty in the first few years of the twenty - first century, but the rate of poverty had remained broadly flat since 2004 / 5.
It has been found by the Poverty and Social Exclusion project at Bristol University in 2014, that the proportion of households lacking three items or activities deemed necessary for life in the UK at that time (as defined by a survey of the wider population) has increased from 14 % in 1983 to 33 % in 2012.
By the end of the 19th century more than 25 % of the population was living at or below the subsistence level due to low wages. Only 75 per cent of population had enough money to access to food, clothes, rent and fuel. In 1900, millions of population lived in terrible conditions such as damp and badly built houses. At the same time, overcrowding led to the spread of disease. Things greatly improved after the First World War, and although poverty had not completely disappeared by the 1930s, it was much less than ever before.
In the early 1950s, it was believed by numerous people that poverty had been all but abolished from Britain, with only a few isolated pockets of deprivation still remaining. Much of this assumption was derived from a 1951 study which showed that in 1950 only 1.5 % of the survey population lived in poverty, compared with 18 % in 1936 when a previous study had been conducted in that town by Rowntree. A leader in The Times spoke positively of this ' remarkable improvement -- no less than the virtual abolition of the sheerest want. '
Over the course of the 1950s and 1960s, however, a "rediscovery '' of poverty took place, with various surveys showing that a substantial proportion of Britons were impoverished, with between 4 % and 12 % of the population estimated to be living below the Supplementary Benefits ' scales. In 1969, Professor A. Atkinson stated that
According to this definition, between 2 - 5 million Britons were trapped in poverty. In addition, some 2.6 million people were in receipt of Supplementary Benefits and therefore living on the poverty line. This meant that at least 10 % of the population were in poverty at his time. Bad housing conditions also constituted a major cause of poverty in the postwar era. In the early Sixties, it was estimated that three million families lived in "slums, near slums on grossly overcrowded conditions, '' while a 1967 housing survey of England and Wales found that 11.7 % of all dwellings were unfit.
In their 1965 study on poverty, "The Poor and the Poorest, '' Professors Peter Townsend and Brian Abel - Smith decided to measure poverty on the basis of the National Assistance levels of living and estimated that some 14 % (around 7.5 million) of Britons lived in poverty. Townsend and Abel - Smith also estimated that since the mid-1950s the percentage of the population living in poverty had risen from 8 % to 14 %.
The continued existence of poverty in the 1960s was also characterised by differences in health between different social classes. In 1964 - 65 the incidence of infant deaths was more than half as much higher in the two lowest social classes than in the two highest social classes. In 1961 - 62 28 % of all men recorded at least one spell of sickness of four days or more. For the lowest social classes, however, 35 % of men had experienced this, compared with 18 % of men in the highest social classes. There is evidence that in large families the height of children was less than that for the average, while families with three or more children were more likely to be inadequately nourished.
In his 1979 work "Poverty in the UK '', Townsend suggested that 15 million people lived in or on the margins of poverty. He also argued that to get a proper measure of relative deprivation, there was a need to take into account other factors apart from income measures such as peoples ' environment, employment, and housing standards.
According to one study, 365,000 families in Britain (excluding Northern Ireland) in 1966 were in poverty by an old assistance standard, and 450,000 families by a new standard. In another study on poverty, Wilfred Beckerman estimated that 9.9 % of the British population lived below a standardised poverty line in 1973, compared with 6.1 % of the population of Belgium.
Low pay was also a major cause of poverty, with a report by the TUC in 1968 finding that about 5 million females and about 2.5 million males earned less than £ 15 a week. According to one study, around 20 % to 23 % of employees in the late 1960s had low hourly wages. In 1974, a quarter of adult employees in Britain earned less than £ 27 a week or less before tax, only slightly above the officially defined poverty line for an average family. Regional differences in pay also remained pronounced during the post-war period. Slum housing also remained a problem, with 12 % of British households living in houses or flats considered to be unfit for human habitation in 1972. In 1975, government statistics estimated that 1,800,000 children lived in poverty.
Nevertheless, the number of people estimated to be living in poor housing conditions was lower at the start of the 1970s than at the start of the 1960s. In 1961, 4,700,000 households lived in unfit or substandard homes, compared with 2,846,000 in 1971.
During the late 1960s and 1970s, progress was made in reducing the level of post-war poverty and inequality, with 3 million families in Britain in poverty in 1977, compared with 5 million in 1961. According to the 1971 Supplementary Benefits scale, the percentage of individuals living in poverty fell from 9.4 % in 1963 to 2.3 % in 1973. Low pay continued to remain a major problem by the end of the 1970s, however, particularly amongst manual workers.
Based on various measurements, however, the number of Britons living in poverty rose significantly from 1979 to 1985. The number of Britons living in poverty (when defined as living below the Supplementary Benefit level) rose from 2,090,000 to 2,420,000 during that period, while the number of people living in poverty when defined as living on or below the Supplementary Benefit level rose from 6,070,000 to 9,380,000. Using a poverty measurement of living at 140 % of the Supplementary Benefit level or below, the rise was from 11,570,000 to 15,420,000.
From 1979 to 1987, the number of Britons living in poverty (defined as living on less than half the national average income) doubled, from roughly 10 % to 20 % of the whole population. In 1989, almost 6 million full - time workers, representing 37 % of the total full - time workforce, earned less than the "decency threshold '' defined by the Council of Europe as 68 % of average full - time earnings. In 1994, 76.7 % of all part - time workers earned less than this threshold.
Figures from the European Commission estimated that from 1975 to 1985 the number of people living in poverty had doubled in Britain, from just over 3 million to 6.5 million. In 1975, the United Kingdom had fewer people living in poverty than Germany, Italy, Belgium, and Luxembourg. By 1989, Britain had a higher poverty than each of these four countries. In 1989, 12 % of the UK population was estimated to be living in poverty, compared with 11.7 % in Italy, 8.5 % in Germany, 7.9 % in Luxembourg, 7.4 % in the Netherlands, and 7.2 % in Belgium.
From the late 1990s onwards, however, poverty began to fall steadily, helped by policies such as big increases in National Insurance benefits and the National Minimum Wage Act 1998. Using the 60 % of median income after housing costs poverty line, the percentage of the British population living in poverty rose to 25.3 % in 1996 / 97, compared with 13.7 % in 1979.
From 1997 / 98 to 2004 / 05 (using the same 60 % of median income after housing costs measurement), the percentage of the population living in poverty fell from 24.4 % to 20.5 %. A 2000 report by the Joseph Rowntree Foundation estimated that 4 million people lacked access to a healthy diet, while a review of EU food and health policies estimated that food poverty was far higher in the UK than any other EU member state.
Rates of poverty fell just before the turn of the century and continued to do so until 2004 - 5. The Institute of Fiscal Studies has counted the number of people in Absolute Poverty as falling from c. 37 % in 1996 / 7 (21.8 m people) to c. 22 % in 2004 / 5 (13.2 m), a figure that remained the same in 2014 / 5 (14.1 m taking population growth into account).
The trend for Relative Poverty is the same (a fall in the number of poor from 1997 / 8 until 2004 / 5 and a relatively stable amount since then), although the earlier numbers are lower. Alternatively it is suggested poverty rose from about 2008 to 2012 but remained stable since then. Socially excluded people are ten times more likely to die early than the general population.
Changes to the benefit system from April 2017, such as not allowing some claimants to claim for more than two children, are predicted to increase the number of families in poverty and push a quarter of a million additional children into poverty. Policy in Practice estimates the two child limit will increase child poverty by 10 % during this parliament. The Child Poverty Action Group charity (CPAG), claim it will reduce children 's life chances. Alison Thewliss said, "When Theresa May stood on the steps of Downing Street last year, she said that her new government would strive to help the ' just about managing ' in society. It appears that this was just empty rhetoric. (...) The reality is that two - thirds of those affected are already in work. '' A doctor claims it is not unusual for up to seven people to live in a one bedroom flat. Parents sometimes do without food themselves in order to care for children, and others can not afford clothes, toothbrushes, or toothpaste. Basic hygiene products like shampoo and sanitary towels are sometimes hard for poor people to afford, and some must choose between buying hygiene products and buying food. Just under one in five UK children under 15 suffers food insecurity. That means sufficient safe, nutritious food can not be guaranteed. The minimum wage is insufficient to cover basic living expenses.
Children become sick because they can not keep warm at home; overcrowding and damp worsens respiratory conditions. Alison Garnham of CPAG said, "Day in, day out, doctors see the damage rising poverty does to children 's health. Low family incomes, inadequate housing and cuts to support services are jeopardising the health of our most vulnerable children. (...) Re-instating the UK 's poverty - reduction targets would be an obvious place to start. ''
Eurostat figures show that the numbers of Britons at risk of poverty fell to 15.9 % in 2014, down from 17.1 % in 2010 and 19 % in 2005 (after social transfers were taken into account). However, the Joseph Rowntree Foundation (JRF) fears that people who are "just about managing '' could fall into poverty, as it forecast that the wages of people in low income and benefits might not keep pace with inflation. One third of UK households are living below what is considered an adequate income according to the JRF research. Campbell Robb of the JRF said, "Millions of families across the country are teetering on a precipice, with 400,000 pensioners and over one million more children likely to fall into poverty and suffer the very real and awful consequences that brings if things do not change. One of the biggest drivers of the rise in child poverty is policy choices, which is why it is essential that the Prime Minister and Chancellor use the upcoming Budget to put in place measures to stop this happening. An excellent start would be to ensure families can keep more of their earnings under the Universal Credit. ''
Poverty exists in rural communities as well as in urban areas. Rural poverty is frequently overlooked.
The most common form of child poverty today is poverty in working families. Roughly 30 % of British children are now classed as poor and of those two - thirds are from working families. Analysts claim cuts to working - age benefits would likely increase poverty rates greatly during the three years following 2017. Campbell Robb said, "These troubling figures are warning signs we could be at the beginning of a sharp rise in poverty, with forecasts suggesting child poverty could rise further by 2021. ''
Food Standards Agency (FSA) research suggests some poor people miss meals or do without healthy food due to financial pressure. One third of unemployed people have cut out meals or reduced the quality of their diet due to lack of cash. 8 % of respondents to a survey have low or very low food security, implying just under four million adults regularly struggle to get enough to eat. Other studies showed benefit freezes together with rising food prices are major factors in food insecurity. Rachel Loopstra who lectures in nutrition at King 's College London, said: "These robust survey data confirm how serious the scale of the problem of people not having enough money for food to eat is in the UK, and are consistent with reports of increasing food bank usage. Anna Taylor of the ' Food Foundation ' thinktank, said: "To take so many British people off the breadline the government must drive uptake of the Healthy Start programme for young and low - income mothers, tackle gaps in food provision during school holidays, and review our welfare policies to protect the diets of society 's most vulnerable. '' Campaigners and MPs have urged the UK government to monitor food insecurity. Ministers so far refused but the Scottish government agreed to enact a food insecurity measure. Women and young people are more likely to live in food insecure households.
The Institute for Fiscal Studies says the benefit rate freeze and child tax credit cuts, together with the rollout of universal credit, which is less generous due to changes in work allowances, means, "large losses '' for low - income households. John McDonnell said the IFS analysis showed a "clear threat '' to working people 's living standards, while the Liberal Democrats said that the "savage cuts '' would make millions of households poorer. Projected benefit cuts will lead to the poorest working - age households losing between 4 % and 10 % of their income a year, according to the IFS. Fewer than one in ten British people believe all work is fair and decent, and 75 % think more should be done to make work fairer. Many British people suffer insecure work with zero hours contracts. Nearly half of workers are anxious over basic household expenses like food, transport and energy. One in six workers had left the heating off despite it being cold to save on fuel bills, and similar numbers had pawned possessions in the previous year because they were short of money. Rents are rising and housing benefit is not rising to match this. Families are forced into increasing poverty, some facing a daily struggle to pay their rent and put food on their table. Some risk homelessness. Families with children are most affected and two thirds of affected families are in work. Homelessness has risen over the last six years and the National Audit Office thinks welfare reforms and a freeze in housing benefit are a likely cause.
An All Party Parliamentary Group on Hunger warned that too many poorer UK children are hungry or malnourished during school holidays. Some subsist on a diet of crisps or stodgy food. One million children who receive free school meals during term time are at risk, as are two million more from working poor families. For both types, school holidays add to financial pressure on families through the need to pay for childcare, food and fuel. These children return to school in bad physical shape, learn less well and get behind children who were better fed during school holidays. The life chances of underfed children are damaged.
When housing benefit does not fully cover rent, people can struggle to pay rent and buy other necessities as well. This can lead to increasing debt. Anne Baxendale of Shelter, said: "We are deeply concerned that the current freeze on housing benefit is piling a huge amount of pressure on to thousands of private renters who are already teetering on the brink of homelessness. '' People are forced out of their homes because they can not pay their rent and all their other bills.
As of 2017, 20 % of UK people live in poverty including 8 million working - age adults, 4 million children and 1.9 million pensioners. Research by the JRF found nearly 400,000 more UK children and 300,000 more UK pensioners were in poverty in 2016 - 17 compared with 2012 - 13.
From April 2018, child benefit will be limited to the first two children, which will affect 150,000 families. Withdrawal of family element from new Universal Credit claims and tax credit claims for families with children will affect 400,000 families.
In 2018, Citizens Advice stated that up to 140,000 houselhods went without power as they could not afford to top up prepayment meters and most such households included children or someone with a long term health problem. The Living Wage Foundation stated many poorest parents went without meals, a third of parents on low incomes do this regularly through lack of money. Roughly half of those families are behind with household bills.
TUC sponsored research indicates that 3.1 million children in working falilies will be below the official breadline in 2018, this is a million more than in 2010. About 600,000 children with working parents became poor due to the government 's benefit cuts and public sector pay limits, the report by the consultancy Landman Economics stated. The research found that the biggest increase in child poverty among working families will be in the East Midlands, followed by the West Midlands and Northern Ireland.
The Office for National Statistics has estimated that in 2011, 14 million people were at risk of poverty or social exclusion, and that one person in 20 (5.1 %) was now experiencing "severe material depression. '' Poverty among young people increased by 3.9 % from 2007 to 2010. In assessing social inequality in Britain, Danny Dorling has noted that "people in different parts of Britain and people living within different quarters of its cities are living in different worlds with different norms and expectations. This was not the case a few decades ago. This is not the case to the same extent in the majority of affluent nations in the world. ''
A new term is appearing, ' Just About Managing ' or ' JAM '. This applies to people who can put food on the table and pay rent or mortgage at least part of the time but have problems if their income falls or if there are unexpected bills. JAM 's are typically families where at least one person works. JAM 's may suffer social exclusion being unable to afford holidays or evenings out.
The Resolution Foundation claims that the incomes of the poorest 10 % in the UK will fall by 3 % in real terms by 2020 due to government policies on tax and welfare. The lowest third of incomes will suffer falls in income over the coming years. Incomes will fall because many welfare benefits that poorer people receive have been frozen in cash terms and with inflation cash will be worth steadily less.
The Institute for Fiscal Studies reported the numbers of poor United Kingdom children in wage - earning families increased from 2009 to 2014 and more poor children currently live in working families than live in families on benefits. The IFS reported "Recent falls in inequality are likely to prove temporary. Stronger earnings growth and the Conservatives ' planned income tax cuts would do most for incomes towards the top of the distribution, while planned benefit cuts will hit low - income households (both in and out of work) hardest. ''
Anne Longfield, Children 's Commissioner for England wrote: "The majority of children living in poverty have at least one parent who is working. Employment is important but if wages do not rise substantially in relation to living costs it will not provide a route out of poverty alone. The Joseph Rowntree Foundation has today published a report stating that families with children working full - time on the National Minimum Wage are now 15 % short of the Minimum Income Standard that people believe offers an acceptable standard of living. Today 's announcement will effectively confine to history any figures on the millions of children being raised in families who experience in - work poverty denying them necessities such as adequate food, clothing and heating. ''
Julia Unwin of the Joseph Rowntree Foundation said: "A strong economy and rising employment have masked the growing problem of in - work poverty, as years of below - inflation wage rises have taken their toll on people 's incomes. The upcoming minimum wage rise will help, but many low - income working families will still find themselves worse off due to tax - credit changes. Boosting productivity and creating more jobs which offer progression at work is vital to make work a reliable route out of poverty. ''
Campbell Robb of Shelter said: "It 's heart - breaking to think that so many people are having to make a choice between paying the rent and putting food on the table, or living in fear that any drop in income would leave them unable to cover their housing costs. The sad truth is that far too many people in Britain right now are living in homes that just are n't up to scratch - from the thousands of families forced to cope with poor conditions, to a generation of renters forking out most of their income on housing each month and unable to save for the future. ''
As of 2015 there is actual hunger in the United Kingdom and significant numbers of UK citizens are driven to use food banks. There is also significant malnutrition. Poorer people are frequently forced to buy and eat cheaper, less healthy food. The BMJ, a UK peer - reviewed medical journal published:
For the poorest in our society, up to 35 % of disposable income will now be needed for food, compared to less than 9 % for the more wealthy. This will increase reliance on cheap, highly processed, high fat, high sugar, high salt, and calorie - dense, unhealthy foods. Re-emerging problems of poor public health nutrition such as rickets and malnutrition in the elderly are also causes for concern.
In 2016, 10 % of UK households lived in fuel poverty. Fuel poverty is calculated by gauging if a household 's income would fall below the official poverty line after spending the actual amount needed to heat the home. The average fuel poverty gap of these households -- that is, the amount needed to escape fuel poverty -- is £ 371 a year, the latest figures indicate, with those in privately rented properties hit hardest.
In a 2013 report commissioned by the Joseph Rowntree Foundation poverty and participation are analyzed as a social phenomenon characterizing UK society following the tradition initiated several decades ago by Peter Townsend. Participation in society is measured in terms of social relationships, membership of organisations, trust in other people, ownership of possessions and purchase of services. The study finds out that all these dimensions of participation are lower among people with low incomes. While participation generally drops as income declines, participation stops falling among the 30 percent or so of people with the lowest incomes, creating a participation ' floor '. The 30 percent of people with the lowest incomes are forced to choose between the basic necessities of modern life; they must decide which needs to neglect.
For people affected by the floor, additional income may well be spent on upgrading the quality of necessary goods and services rather than adding to them. Averages mask important variation. The participation floor for benefit recipients is lower than for other groups on the same income. Most minority ethnic groups experience greater material deprivation than the white majority but social participation is, on average, higher. Children 's engagement in school life and friends is not directly affected by household income. However, parents on low incomes, on average, play less often with their children and spend less on activities. This is associated with poorer educational outcomes as judged by teachers. Low - income parents frequently spend more time than affluent ones assisting children with their school work because they have fallen behind their classmates.
Poverty and economic insecurity increase the risk that a person will commit suicide. The Samaritans claim that the British economic condition -- including low incomes, job insecurity, zero - hours contracts, unmanageable debts and poor housing -- all add to suicide risk. A report titled Dying from Inequality describes "overwhelming evidence of a link between socioeconomic disadvantage and suicidal behaviour ''. "Men in the lowest social class, living in the most deprived areas, are up to 10 times more at risk of suicide than those in the highest social class living in the most affluent areas, '' the report says. Unemployed people are more at risk of suicide than people with work, people with low education and people living in deprived areas are also at increased risk.
The persistence of high poverty rates in the UK is associated with the relatively low generosity of the welfare state. The UK social security system is characterised by a residual welfare state model based on the notion of market dominance and private provision. The state only intervenes to moderate extreme poverty and provide for basic needs, largely on a means - tested basis.
In 2017, inequality has been forecast to return to the levels of the Thatcher years. Torsten Bell of the Resolution Foundation, said: "(A) boom is slowing rapidly as inflation rises, productivity flatlines and employment growth slows... This time around it 's low - and middle - income families with kids who are set to be worst affected. This could leave Britain with the worst of both worlds on living standards -- the weak income growth of the last parliament and rising inequality from the time Margaret Thatcher was in Downing Street. The prime minister 's focus on supporting just managing families is absolutely right. ''
Inflation has been rising while the level of many benefits has remained fixed in money terms. This is causing hardship to low - income families and there are calls for the level of benefits to be increased.
Poverty within the UK is particularly concentrated in Wales. While the relative income - poverty rate for the UK stood at 16.8 % in 2014, the same poverty rate for Wales stood at 23 % in the same year. Poverty in Wales has remained in the 25 % range, with only small dips throughout the last decade. While the trends correlate with overall reductions in less impoverished areas of the UK, it does not correlate with Scotland, who in the 1990s, had a relative similar poverty trend as Wales. Conservative attitudes began to grow during the reign of the Labour party in the 2000s, culminating in an overall negative opinion towards public spending increases beginning in the 2010s.
Data published in 2017 by the New Policy Institute and the Trust for London found that 27 % of Londoners live in poverty, six percentage points higher than in the rest of England. This represents 2.3 million Londoners, 58 % of whom are in a working family. Further research published by Trust for London, carried out by Loughborough University, found that two in five Londoners can not afford what the public regard as a decent standard of living -- one that allows them to meet their basic needs and participate in society at a minimum level. This is significantly higher than the 30 % that fall below the standard in the UK as a whole, and represents 3.3 million Londoners.
The table below shows the percentage of the population in poverty derived by three different measures: relative poverty (earning less than 60 % of the median), the National Assistance scale and the Supplementary Benefits scale. Estimates from the National Institute of Economic and Social Research.
Estimates of poverty in the United Kingdom from 1950 - 1975 (percentage of population)
1953 - 54: 1.2 % (Abel - Smith and Townsend, FES) Unit: Household
1954: 12.3 % (Gough and Stark, IR) Unit: Tax unit
1959: 8.8 % (Gough and Stark, IR) Unit: Tax unit
1960: 3.8 % (Abel - Smith and Townsend, FES) Unit: Household
1963: 9.4 % (Gough and Stark, IR) Unit: Tax unit
1967: 3.5 % (Atkinson, FES) Unit: Household
1969: 3.4 % (Atkinson, FES) Unit: Household
1968 - 69: 6.4 % (Townsend, Survey) Unit: Household
1971: 4.9 % (Fiegehen et al., FES) Unit: Household
1975: 11.3 % (Berthoud and Brown, GHS) Unit: Household
The most common measure for poverty, as used in the Child Poverty Act 2010, is ' household income below 60 percent of median income '. The median is such an income that exactly a half of households earn more than that and the other half earns less.
In 2014 / 5, the median income in the UK was £ 473 per week (£ 24,596 a year). Those earning 60 % of this figure (£ 284 a week / £ 14,758 a year) were considered to be in the low income bracket.
This is the definition that is used by the UK government 's Department of Work and Pensions in its yearly survey Households below average income. However, their reports expressly avoid using the word poverty, using low income instead. Reports from others agencies, such as the Institute of Fiscal Studies Living Standards, Poverty and Inequality in the UK, use the same methodology, but specifically use the word poverty.
This measure can be further divided.
Those who live in absolute poverty have a ' household income below 60 percent of median income ' as compared to a rate fixed in 2010 / 11 and that only changes in line with inflation.
Those who live in relative poverty have a ' household income below 60 percent of median income ' as compared to all other incomes in the same year.
Absolute poverty is better at judging poverty in the short term, whereas relative poverty is better at seeing long - term trends. This is because general concepts of poverty change with time, and relative poverty reflects this better.
Reports on poverty also tend to take housing costs in to account, distinguishing between before housing costs (BHC, where housing costs such as rent and mortgage interest payments have not been deducted) and after housing costs (AHC). Different social groups in the UK tend to have vastly different costs for housing, affecting available income.
Relative poverty was used before its formal adoption now. In the early 1980s, Tony Byrne and Colin F. Padfield defined relative poverty in Britain as a situation in which people are able to survive adequately, but they are either less well off than they used to be (such as when they retire from paid employment) or that they are at a serious disadvantage "in their ability to experience or enjoy the standard of life of most other people -- for example, not being able to afford an annual holiday. ''
In 2011, there was some discussion of the measurement for poverty being changed (from households earning less than 60 % of median income) to a broader analysis of poverty.
As opposed to measuring income, the Consensual Method examines which necessities (e.g. food, clothing, access to healthcare, involvement in social and leisure activities) are thought by the general public to be essential for living in contemporary UK society. Those families or individual who lack a number of these necessities are considered as poor. In the 2012 Poverty and Social Exclusion (PSE) survey on Living Standards, the three necessities deemed as being most often essential to a good standard of living were the ability ' to warm living areas of the home ', a ' damp - free home ' and ' two meals a day. '
Six specific surveys of low standards of living in the UK have made use of this method.
Water poverty is defined by the government as spending more than 3 % of disposable income on water bills. Nationally, in 2006, nearly 10 % of households were in water poverty.
Fuel poverty. A fuel poor household is one that struggles to keep adequately warm at reasonable cost. The most widely accepted definition of a fuel poor household is one which needs to spend more than 10 % of its income on all fuel use and to heat the home to an adequate standard of warmth. This is generally defined as 21 ° C in the living room and 18 ° C in the other occupied rooms. Fuel poverty affects over a million British working households and over 2.3 million households in total and increases in energy prices affect poor people severely.
Eurostat figures show that the numbers of Britons at risk of poverty has fallen to 15.9 % in 2014, down from 17.1 % in 2010 and 19 % in 2005 (after social transfers were taken into account).
If the poverty line is defined as those individuals and households with incomes less than 60 % of their respective medians, then "nearly 60 % '' of those in poverty are homeowners.
Seebohm Rowntree chose a basic ' shopping basket ' of foods (identical to the rations given in the local workhouse), clothing and housing needs -- anyone unable to afford them was deemed to be in poverty. By 1950, with the founding of the modern welfare state, the ' shopping basket ' measurement had been abandoned.
The vast and overwhelming majority of people that fill the government 's current criteria for poverty status (see above) have goods unimaginable to those in poverty in 1900. Poverty in the developed world is often one of perception; people compare their wealth with neighbours and wider society, not with their ancestors or those in foreign countries. Indeed, this is formalised in the government 's measure of poverty. A number of studies have shown that though prosperity in the UK has greatly increased, the level of happiness people report has remained the same or even decreased since the 1950s.
People enter the world of poverty due to: problems at the individual / family level and problems with the economy as a whole. Problems at the individual level include: race (human categorization), gender, sexual orientation, drug use, and level of education. Problems with the economy can include: low labor participation and high levels of unemployment. Welfare is financial support given by the government to people in need. There are pressures on the welfare state because welfare must be justified in terms of its contribution to economic success. Welfare must contribute positively to the economy otherwise there is a risk of damaging currency values. Damage to currency values will damage trading positions and investment which will, in turn, hurt the economy overall.
The Department of Health and Social Security (DHSS) is responsible for the welfare services in the United Kingdom. Income maintenance is centrally administered through DHSS offices (regional and local level). Those who earn 39 pounds a week (except some married women) or more must contribute to the National Insurance Scheme. The National Health Service (NHS) provides virtually free healthcare for all residents -- this is also centrally administered.
Persistent poverty is the effects of experiencing low income for long periods of time. In 2014, 6.5 % of the United Kingdom 's population was classified as being in persistent poverty; that equates to approximately 3.9 million people. The UK 's poverty rate overall in 2014 was the 12th highest amongst all European nations at 16.8 %, however; it has the third - lowest persistent poverty rate. Income tends to be measured before or after housing costs are accounted for (BHC or AHC). Poverty levels tend to be higher after housing costs are accounted for because the poorer households need to spend a higher percentage of their income on housing. In 2014 - 2015, 13.5 million people were in relative low income AHC (an increase of 300,000 from the year before) and 12.9 million people were in absolute low income AHC (a decrease of 700,000 from the year before). Relative low income means that people live in households with income below 60 % of the median in a specified year. Absolute income means that people live in households with income below 60 % of the median income in some base year.
In 2016, the incomes of poor households are extremely sensitive to the activity in the labor market. When any downturn in the labor market occurs, the poorest people in the UK are increasingly more vulnerable and at greater risk. Median income (overall) has moved 2 % above pre-crisis (2007 - 2008) levels. During the recovery period, inequality in workers ' earnings has decreased. There has been strong employment growth along with weak earnings growth which have kept inequality low for several years.
In 1999, Tony Blair, the former Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, pledged that child poverty in the United Kingdom will end within a generation. The goal was to completely eradicate child poverty by 2020. Poverty is a result of several different factors, some of which include a lack of education and training, low participation in the labour market, poor working conditions and affordable housing.
The key components of the UK 's strategy to fight poverty are:
One of the most crucial ways to reduce poverty is to increase benefit take - up. In 2009 - 10 almost a third of those who were eligible for means - tested benefit did not claim. In 2011 - 2012, 15 % of those eligible for Child Tax Credit did not claim, neither did 35 % of those eligible for Working Tax Credit.. Improving these numbers and getting those people to claim their entitlements would significantly help reduce poverty.
Ways that would help to increase benefit take - up include:
A decrease in poverty would mean a more active economy because more people would have the ability to purchase more consumer goods.
For the UK General Election of 2015, research was undertaken to analyse the commitment of the UK 's political parties in addressing poverty. It demonstrated that "poverty has been overlooked as an issue in the General Election campaign '' and that only the Green Party had an effective policy to deal with poverty. Analysis of other parties ' policies and how they are used to deal with poverty ended in negative conclusions: "The Conservatives and UKIP both performed fairly badly ''. Labour performed better in some specific policy areas when compared to the Conservatives, but "there is not very much difference between them. '' Overall, the audit noted that views towards poverty were affected by specific views for those receiving social security benefits: "there was a general tendency to come down hard on welfare recipients, with a shift towards means - testing and victim - blaming across the board. This can be seen particularly in the context of Immigration and Housing. ''
While leader of the Labour Government, Tony Blair vowed in 1999 to cut child poverty 25 % by 2005, 50 % by 2010 and to eradicate child poverty completely by 2020. The Labour Party website states:
"In 1997 Labour inherited one of the highest rates of child poverty in Europe -- with one in three children living in poverty. Our mission to abolish child poverty is grounded both in our determination to secure social justice, and to tackle the problems that the social exclusion of children builds up for the long - term. Work is the best route out of poverty and our successful welfare to work measures have lifted millions out of poverty including disabled people, who have too often previously been consigned to a life on benefits. At the same time, millions of families are benefiting from the Child tax credit, the Working tax credit, and record rises in Child benefit. ''
Their 2005 manifesto states:
"(Since the Labour government came to power in 1997) there are two million fewer children and nearly two million fewer pensioners living in absolute poverty. ''
In late November 2006, the Conservative Party garnered headlines across the press when a senior member spoke out on poverty, invoking the name of Polly Toynbee. The headlines began when David Cameron 's policy advisor and shadow minister Greg Clark wrote:
"The traditional Conservative vision of welfare as a safety net encompasses another outdated Tory nostrum -- that poverty is absolute, not relative. Churchill 's safety net is at the bottom: holding people at subsistence level, just above the abyss of hunger and homelessness. It is the social commentator Polly Toynbee who supplies imagery that is more appropriate for Conservative social policy in the twenty first century. ''
This approach generated much comment and analysis. It was followed two days later by Cameron saying poverty should be seen in relative terms to the rest of society, where people lack those things which others in society take for granted, "those who think otherwise are wrong (...) I believe that poverty is an economic waste, a moral disgrace. (...) We will only tackle the causes of poverty if we give a bigger role to society, tackling poverty is a social responsibility (...) Labour rely too heavily on redistributing money, and on the large, clunking mechanisms of the state. ''
Most people 's ability to sustain their lifestyle and to participate socially comes under threat at around the bottom 30 % of the income distribution, creating a sort of ' participation floor ' that seems to demarcate a major divide in British society. The floor begins around the point in the income distribution when the benefit system starts to contribute substantially to people 's incomes but is not entirely rigid or for example, it is lower for recipients of social security benefits mainly on account of the greater material deprivation that they experience. For those on the floor, participation is severely constrained with people negotiating a zero - sum world in which spending on one area means reduction in another. Whereas for those above the floor, additional income translates into more evident consumption, greater social participation and trust; for those on the floor it means a slight easing of pressure, but no major change in lifestyle sufficient to be identified in survey evidence. The implications for policy and our understanding of society are profound. Much policy, notably the new Universal Credit that was the flagship policy of the past Coalition Government, seeks to maximise work incentives premised on the notion that additional income brings rewards for individuals in terms of higher living standards, and benefits society through greater consumption and a shared work ethic. Similarly, as emphasised by Lansley and Mack, New Labour during the period 1997 -- 2010 (despite trying to tackle child poverty) intervened mainly through more generous and wide - ranging tax - credits rather than fighting poverty and inequality at source.
The Joseph Rowntree Foundation is one of the largest social policy research and development charities in the UK and takes particular interest in the issue of poverty, with over 2,000 reports on poverty and disadvantage available on its website.
The Child Poverty Action Group campaigns for the elimination of poverty amongst children.
End Child Poverty coalition also seeks the eradication of child poverty.
Oxfam UK Poverty Programme works with people and policy makers to tackle the causes of poverty.
In July 2013 Freedom from Torture published its report "The Poverty Barrier: The Right to Rehabilitation for Survivors of Torture in the UK which highlights the failings of the UK Asylum System in their handling of torture survivors arriving in the UK. The evidence included in the report comes from the testimony of over 100 survivors of torture and eighteen members of Freedom from Torture 's clinical department. The report highlights financial insecurity, social exclusion and hopelessness and how poverty prevents the rehabilitation process. One survivor stated: "... Our current living conditions keep our torture trauma still alive. We ca n't move on. ''
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what do you know about sarva siksha abhiyan | Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan - Wikipedia
Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (Hindi: सर्व शिक्षा अभियान, Sarva Shiksha Abhiyān, English: Education for All Movement), or SSA, is an Indian Government programme aimed at the universalisation of elementary education "in a time bound manner '', as mandated by the 86th Amendment to the Constitution of India making free and compulsory education to children between the ages of 6 to 14 (estimated to be 205 million children in 2001) a fundamental right. The programme was pioneered by former Indian Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee.
As an intervention programme, it started on 2001 and SSA has been operational since 2000 - 2001. However, its roots go back to 1993 - 1994, when the District Primary Education Programme (DPEP) was launched, with an aim of achieving the objective of universal primary education. DPEP, over several phases, covered 272 districts in 18 states of the country. The expenditure on the programme was shared by the Central Government (85 %) and the State Governments. The Central share was funded by a number of external agencies, including the World Bank, DFID and UNICEF. By 2001, more than US $1500 million had been committed to the programme, and 50 million children covered in its ambit. In an impact assessment of Phase I of DPEP, the authors concluded that its net impact on minority children was impressive, while there was little evidence of any impact on the enrolment of girls. Nevertheless, they concluded that the investment in DPEP was not a waste, because it introduced a new approach to primary school interventions in India.
The Right to Education Act (RTE) came into force on 1 April 2010. Some educationists and policy makers believe that, with the passing of this act, SSA has acquired the necessary legal force for its implementation.
In 2011 - 12, the Government of India allocated ₹ 21,000 crore for this project.
Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) is a programme for Universal Elementary Education. This programme is also an attempt to provide an opportunity for improving human capabilities to all children through provision of community - owned quality education in a mission mode. It is a response to the demand for quality basic education all over the country.
Objectives
Padhe Bharat Badhe Bharat is a nationwide sub-programme of Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan. Children who fail to read in early education lag behind in other subjects. The programme is designed to improve comprehensive early reading, writing and early mathematics programme for children in Classes I and II. Under this programme, ₹ 762 crore (US $120 million) was approved to States. The programme will not only provide print rich environment, timely distribution of books but will also include new teacher mentoring and appraisal system. SSA has been operational since 2000 - 2001 to provide for a variety of interventions for universal access and retention, bridging of gender and social category gaps in elementary education and improving the quality of learning. SSA interventions include inter alia, opening of new schools and alternate schooling facilities, construction of schools and additional classrooms, toilets and drinking water, provisioning for teachers, regular teacher in service training and academic resource support, free textbooks& uniforms and support for improving learning achievement levels / outcome. With the passage of the RTE Act, changes have been incorporated into the SSA approach, strategies and norms. The changes encompass the vision and approach to elementary education, guided by the following principles: Holistic view of education, as interpreted in the National Curriculum Framework 2005, with implications for a systemic revamp of the entire content and process of education with significant implications for curriculum, teacher education, educational planning and management. Equity, to mean not only equal opportunity, but also creation of conditions in which the disadvantaged sections of the society -- children of SC, ST, Muslim minority, landless agricultural workers and children with special needs, etc. -- can avail of the opportunity. Access, not to be confined to ensuring that a school becomes accessible to all children within specified distance but implies an understanding of the educational needs and predicament of the traditionally excluded categories -- the SC, ST and others sections of the most disadvantaged groups, the Muslim minority, girls in general, and children with special needs. Gender concern, implying not only an effort to enable girls to keep pace with boys but to view education in the perspective spelt out in the National Policy on Education 1986 / 92; i.e. a decisive intervention to bring about a basic change in the status of women. Centrality of teacher, to motivate them to innovate and create a culture in the classroom, and beyond the classroom, that might produce an inclusive environment for children, especially for girls from oppressed and marginalised backgrounds. Moral compulsion is imposed through the RTE Act on parents, teachers, educational administrators and other stakeholders, rather than shifting emphasis on punitive processes. Convergent and integrated system of educational management is pre-requisite for implementation of the RTE law. All states must move in that direction as speedily as feasible
Its goals of 2015 are to:
There are several Non-Government Organizations (NGOs), which are also progressively working in the direction of the upliftment of children, especially in the field of health and education. To name a few of these organizations, Partnering Hope Into Action Foundation (Phia Foundation), Center for Unfolding Learning Potentials - CULP, Smile Foundation, Pratham, Project Nanhi Kali, Relief India Trust, Aashray Society and Reforms India, Plan India, Childhood Enhancement Through Training and Action (CHETNA) and the Qualiterate Movement.
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who plays gary's niece on santa clarita diet | Santa Clarita Diet - Wikipedia
Santa Clarita Diet is an American horror - comedy web television series created by Victor Fresco for the streaming service Netflix, starring Drew Barrymore and Timothy Olyphant. Fresco serves as the showrunner, and is an executive producer alongside Drew Barrymore, Timothy Olyphant, Aaron Kaplan, Tracy Katsky, Chris Miller, Ember Truesdell and Ruben Fleischer.
The single - camera series premiered on February 3, 2017 and consists of 10 episodes. The first season has received generally positive reviews, with critics praising the cast and premise, but criticizing the number of graphic scenes. On March 29, 2017, it was announced that Netflix renewed the series for a second season, which premiered on March 23, 2018. On May 8, 2018, the series was renewed for a 10 - episode third season set to premiere in 2019.
Joel and Sheila Hammond are everyday suburban real estate agents in Santa Clarita, California. The couple face a series of obstacles when Sheila has a physical transformation into a zombie and starts craving human flesh. With Joel and the family trying to help Sheila through the trying time, they have to deal with neighbors, cultural norms and getting to the bottom of a potentially mythological mystery.
Fresco came up with the premise from wanting to make "a family show with an interesting approach that we have n't seen before ''. The zombie angle also allowed Fresco to explore the concept of Narcissism stating that "the undead are the ultimate narcissists. They want what they want when they want it and will do anything to just have what they want and do n't care about other people 's needs ''
For the setting Fresco drew from his own experience growing up in San Fernando Valley. Santa Clarita was chosen because of its middle class inhabitants. The Hammonds ' profession of realtors was chosen because "It gets them out into the world '' as well as the "forced friendliness '' inherent to the profession.
In February 2017, advertising for the show sparked criticism in Germany, where Netflix promoted the show with posters depicting a human finger sliced up like a currywurst, a popular German fast food dish. After receiving more than 50 complaints that the advertising was glorifying violence and inducing fear, especially in children, the German Advertising Council, a self - regulatory institution, forwarded the complaints to the company. Netflix then decided to end the campaign and remove all posters.
The first season of Santa Clarita Diet received generally positive reviews from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes, the season has an approval rating of 75 % based on 64 reviews, with an average rating of 7.18 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Santa Clarita Diet serves up an excellent cast, frequent laughs, and an engaging premise -- but the level of gore might not be to everyone 's taste. '' Metacritic reports that the first season received "generally favorable reviews '' with a score of 67 out of 100, based on 30 critics.
The second season received generally positive reviews as well. The season holds a score of 82 % based on 11 reviews, with an average rating of 7.08 / 10 on Rotten Tomatoes. The site 's critical consensus states: "Santa Clarita Diet rides the momentum of its freshman season with non-stop comedic gore and a big heart that bleeds -- profusely -- for its lovable characters. ''
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where is the weg being held this year | 2018 FEI World Equestrian Games - wikipedia
The 2018 FEI World Equestrian Games are being held in Mill Spring, North Carolina, U.S. at the Tryon International Equestrian Center, from September 11 to September 23, 2018. This is the eighth edition of the games, which are held every four years and run by the International Federation for Equestrian Sports (FEI). This is the second time that North America is hosting the Games, the previous time being in 2010, when the United States were also the hosts. United States will become the first nation to host the Games twice.
The initial bidding process for the 2018 edition of the World Equestrian Games started in 2011 with the initial application stage. Eight countries expressed their interest, and five of them became official candidates in 2012: Rabat, Bromont, Budapest, Vienna and Wellington. Australia, Russia and Sweden withdrew before the official candidature phase.
By 2013, four of the official candidates dropped out, leaving only Bromont in the running. However, instead of awarding the Games to Canada, FEI decided to re-open the bidding process on July 1, 2013, as the Bromont bid was lacking financial support. Bromont remained in the running and was joined by two USA candidates (Wellington and Lexington) as well as Great Britain.
Great Britain and Wellington dropped out, leaving only Bromont and Lexington in contention. Bromont was finally awarded the hosting rights on June 9, 2014.
Bromont withdrew from hosting in 2016, as the financial support was not secured. Following Bromont 's withdrawal, Tryon, North Carolina and Šamorín, Slovakia expressed their interest in hosting the event. Tryon was awarded the Games on November 3, 2016.
Horses competing in the championships were flown in and out of Greenville - Spartanburg International Airport in Greer, South Carolina. They were then transported by horse trailers up to Tryon.
All times are Eastern Daylight Time (UTC - 4)
68 nations are scheduled to take part.
(i) - individual, (s) - squad
Host nation
Hurricane Florence is expected to hit the Tryon Internation Equestrian Center and the surrounding area during the first week of the World Equestrian Games. Possible impacts could include heavy rainfall and increased gusts of wind. A special contingency plan has been addressed for the situation.
Depending on the severity of the storm, the contingency plan will include accommodating all horses on - venue in permanent barns, moving grooms accommodated on - site to permanent buildings at the venue, advising shelter locations for all personnel, continuing discussions with airports and Emirates airline on any necessary steps regarding horse arrivals / departures, ensuring smaller tents in the vendor area are tie - strapped together for security, carrying out additional drainage / water channeling to prevent flooding, purchasing additional fuel tanks and filling all fuel tanks to run the generators, preparing to remove fence scrim already installed and taking down flags.
Alongside the World Equestrian Games, Tryon International Equestrian Center will simultaneously host the inaugural WEQx Games. WEQx Games are scheduled to feature nine spectator - friendly equine competitions that should "highlight the accessibility, diversity, athleticism, and passion for horses and horse sport for athletes of all ages ''.
WEQx Events:
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role of t3 and t4 in the body | Thyroid hormones - wikipedia
The thyroid hormones are tyrosine - based hormones produced by the thyroid gland that are primarily responsible for regulation of metabolism. T and T are partially composed of iodine (see molecular model). A deficiency of iodine leads to decreased production of T and T, enlarges the thyroid tissue and will cause the disease known as simple goitre. The major form of thyroid hormone in the blood is thyroxine (T), which has a longer half - life than T. In humans, the ratio of T to T released into the blood is sometimes claimed to be quite high, but thyroid removal patient data suggests it to vary between 4: 1 to 2: 1 the average being 100: 36. T is converted to the active T (three to four times more potent than T) within cells by deiodinases (5 ' - iodinase). These are further processed by decarboxylation and deiodination to produce iodothyronamine (T a) and thyronamine (T a). All three isoforms of the deiodinases are selenium - containing enzymes, thus dietary selenium is essential for T production. Edward Calvin Kendall was responsible for the isolation of thyroxine in 1915.
The thyroid hormones act on nearly every cell in the body. They act to increase the basal metabolic rate, affect protein synthesis, help regulate long bone growth (synergy with growth hormone) and neural maturation, and increase the body 's sensitivity to catecholamines (such as adrenaline) by permissiveness. The thyroid hormones are essential to proper development and differentiation of all cells of the human body. These hormones also regulate protein, fat, and carbohydrate metabolism, affecting how human cells use energetic compounds. They also stimulate vitamin metabolism. Numerous physiological and pathological stimuli influence thyroid hormone synthesis.
Thyroid hormone leads to heat generation in humans. However, the thyronamines function via some unknown mechanism to inhibit neuronal activity; this plays an important role in the hibernation cycles of mammals and the moulting behaviour of birds. One effect of administering the thyronamines is a severe drop in body temperature.
Both T and T are used to treat thyroid hormone deficiency (hypothyroidism). They are both absorbed well by the gut, so can be given orally. Levothyroxine is the pharmaceutical name of the manufactured version of T, which is metabolised more slowly than T and hence usually only needs once - daily administration. Natural desiccated thyroid hormones are derived from pig thyroid glands, and are a "natural '' hypothyroid treatment containing 20 % T and traces of T, T and calcitonin. Also available are synthetic combinations of T / T in different ratios (such as liotrix) and pure - T medications (INN: liothyronine). Levothyroxine Sodium is usually the first course of treatment tried. Some patients feel they do better on desiccated thyroid hormones; however, this is based on anecdotal evidence and clinical trials have not shown any benefit over the biosynthetic forms. Thyroid tablets are reported to have different effects, which can be attributed to the difference in torsional angles surrounding the reactive site of the molecule.
Thyronamines have no medical usages yet, though their use has been proposed for controlled induction of hypothermia, which causes the brain to enter a protective cycle, useful in preventing damage during ischemic shock.
Synthetic thyroxine was first successfully produced by Charles Robert Harington and George Barger in 1926.
Today most patients are treated with levothyroxine, or a similar synthetic thyroid hormone. Different polymorphs of the compound have different solubilities and potencies. Additionally, natural thyroid hormone supplements from the dried thyroids of animals are still available. Levothyroxine contains T4 only and is therefore largely ineffective for patients unable to convert T4 to T3. These patients may choose to take natural thyroid hormone, as it contains a mixture of T4 and T3, or alternatively supplement with a synthetic T3 treatment. In these cases, synthetic liothyronine is preferred due to the potential differences between the natural thyroid products. Some studies show that the mixed therapy is beneficial to all patients, but the addition of lyothyronine contains additional side effects and the medication should be evaluated on an individual basis. Some natural thyroid hormone brands are FDA approved, but some are not. Thyroid hormones are generally well tolerated. Thyroid hormones are usually not dangerous for pregnant women or nursing mothers, but should be given under a doctor 's supervision. In fact, if a woman who is hypothyroid is left untreated, her baby is at a higher risk for birth defects. When pregnant, a woman with a low - functioning thyroid will also need to increase her dosage of thyroid hormone. One exception is that thyroid hormones may aggravate heart conditions, especially in older patients; therefore, doctors may start these patients on a lower dose and work up to a larger one to avoid risk of heart attack.
Thyroid hormones (T and T) are produced by the follicular cells of the thyroid gland and are regulated by TSH made by the thyrotropes of the anterior pituitary gland. The effects of T in vivo are mediated via T (T is converted to T in target tissues). T is 3 - to 5 - fold more active than T.
Thyroxine (3, 5, 3 ', 5 ' - tetraiodothyronine) is produced by follicular cells of the thyroid gland. It is produced as the precursor thyroglobulin (this is not the same as thyroxine - binding globulin (TBG)), which is cleaved by enzymes to produce active T.
The steps in this process are as follows:
Thyroglobulin (Tg) is a 660 kDa, dimeric protein produced by the follicular cells of the thyroid and used entirely within the thyroid gland. Thyroxine is produced by attaching iodine atoms to the ring structures of this protein 's tyrosine residues; thyroxine (T) contains four iodine atoms, while triiodothyronine (T), otherwise identical to T, has one less iodine atom per molecule. The thyroglobulin protein accounts for approximately half of the protein content of the thyroid gland. Each thyroglobulin molecule contains approximately 100 - 120 tyrosine residues, a small number of which (< 20) are subject to iodination catalysed by thyroperoxidase. The same enzyme then catalyses "coupling '' of one modified tyrosine with another, via a free radical - mediated reaction, and when these iodinated bicyclic molecules are released by hydrolysis of the protein, T3 and T4 are the result. hence, each Tg protein molecule ultimately yields very small amounts of thyroid hormone (experimentally observed to be on the order of 5 - 6 molecules of either T4 or T3 per original molecule of Tg).
More specifically, the monoatomic, anionic form of iodine, iodide, I (\ displaystyle I), is actively absorbed from the bloodstream by a process called iodide trapping. In this process, sodium is cotransported with iodide from the basolateral side of the membrane into the cell, and then concentrated in the thyroid follicles to about thirty times its concentration in the blood. Then, in the first reaction catalysed by the enzyme thyroperoxidase, tyrosine residues in the protein thyroglobulin are iodinated on their phenol rings, at one or both of the positions ortho to the phenolic hydroxyl group, yielding monoiodotyrosine (MIT) and diiodotyrosine (DIT), respectively. This introduces 1 - 2 atoms of the element iodine, covalently bound, per tyrosine residue. The further coupling together of two fully iodinated tyrosine residues, also catalysed by thyroperoxidase, yields the peptidic (still peptide - bound) precursor of thyroxine, and coupling one molecule of MIT and one molecule of DIT yields the comparable precursor of triiodothyronine:
(Coupling of DIT to MIT in the opposite order yields a substance, r-T, which is biologically inactive.) Hydrolysis (cleavage to individual amino acids) of the modified protein by proteases then liberates T3 and T4, as well as the non-coupled tyrosine derivatives MIT and DIT. The hormones T and T are the biologically active agents central to metabolic regulation.
Thyroxine is believed to be a prohormone and a reservoir for the most active and main thyroid hormone T. T is converted as required in the tissues by iodothyronine deiodinase. Deficiency of deiodinase can mimic hypothyroidism due to iodine deficiency. T is more active than T, though it is present in less quantity than T.
Thyrotropin - releasing hormone (TRH) is released from hypothalamus by 6 -- 8 weeks, and thyroid - stimulating hormone (TSH) secretion from fetal pituitary is evident by 12 weeks of gestation, and fetal production of thyroxine (T) reaches a clinically significant level at 18 -- 20 weeks. Fetal triiodothyronine (T) remains low (less than 15 ng / dL) until 30 weeks of gestation, and increases to 50 ng / dL at term. Fetal self - sufficiency of thyroid hormones protects the fetus against e.g. brain development abnormalities caused by maternal hypothyroidism.
If there is a deficiency of dietary iodine, the thyroid will not be able to make thyroid hormone. The lack of thyroid hormone will lead to decreased negative feedback on the pituitary, leading to increased production of thyroid - stimulating hormone, which causes the thyroid to enlarge (the resulting medical condition is called endemic colloid goitre; see goitre). This has the effect of increasing the thyroid 's ability to trap more iodide, compensating for the iodine deficiency and allowing it to produce adequate amounts of thyroid hormone.
Most of the thyroid hormone circulating in the blood is bound to transport proteins. Only a very small fraction of the circulating hormone is free (unbound) and biologically active, hence measuring concentrations of free thyroid hormones is of great diagnostic value.
When thyroid hormone is bound, it is not active, so the amount of free T / T is what is important. For this reason, measuring total thyroxine in the blood can be misleading.
Despite being lipophilic, T and T cross the cell membrane via carrier - mediated transport, which is ATP - dependent.
T a and T a are positively charged and do not cross the membrane; they are believed to function via the trace amine - associated receptor TAAR1 (TAR1, TA1), a G - protein - coupled receptor located in the cell membrane.
Another critical diagnostic tool is measurement of the amount of thyroid - stimulating hormone (TSH) that is present.
Contrary to common belief, thyroid hormones can not traverse cell membranes in a passive manner like other lipophilic substances. The iodine in o - position makes the phenolic OH - group more acidic, resulting in a negative charge at physiological pH. However, at least 10 different active, energy - dependent and genetically - regulated iodothyronine transporters have been identified in humans. They guarantee that intracellular levels of thyroid hormones are higher than in blood plasma or interstitial fluids.
Little is known about intracellular kinetics of thyroid hormones. However, recently it could be demonstrated that the crystallin CRYM binds 3, 5, 3 ′ - triiodothyronine in vivo.
The thyroid hormones function via a well - studied set of nuclear receptors, termed the thyroid hormone receptors. These receptors, together with corepressor molecules, bind DNA regions called thyroid hormone response elements (TREs) near genes. This receptor - corepressor - DNA complex can block gene transcription. When triiodothyronine (T3) binds a receptor, it induces a conformational change in the receptor, displacing the corepressor from the complex. This leads to recruitment of coactivator proteins and RNA polymerase, activating transcription of the gene. Although this general functional model has considerable experimental support, there remain many open questions.
Thyroxine and iodine stimulate the spectacular apoptosis of the cells of the larval gills, tail and fins in amphibian metamorphosis, and stimulate the evolution of their nervous system transforming the aquatic, vegetarian tadpole into the terrestrial, carnivorous frog. In fact, amphibian frog Xenopus laevis serves as an ideal model system for the study of the mechanisms of apoptosis.
Effects of triiodothyronine (T) which is the metabolically active form:
Thyroxine and triiodothyronine can be measured as free thyroxine and free triiodothyronine, which are indicators of thyroxine and triiodothyronine activities in the body. They can also be measured as total thyroxine and total triiodothyronine, which also depend on the thyroxine and triiodothyronine that is bound to thyroxine - binding globulin. A related parameter is the free thyroxine index, which is total thyroxine multiplied by thyroid hormone uptake, which, in turn, is a measure of the unbound thyroxine - binding globulins. Additionally, thyroid disorders can be detected prenatally using advanced imaging techniques and testing fetal hormone levels.
Both excess and deficiency of thyroxine can cause disorders.
Preterm births can suffer neurodevelopmental disorders due to lack of maternal thyroid hormones, at a time when their own thyroid is unable to meet their postnatal needs. Also in normal pregnancies, adequate levels of maternal thyroid hormone are vital in order to ensure thyroid hormone availability for the fetus and its developing brain. Congenital hypothyroidism occurs in every 1 in 1600 -- 3400 newborns with most being born asymptomatic and developing related symptoms weeks after birth.
Iodine uptake against a concentration gradient is mediated by a sodium - iodine symporter and is linked to a sodium - potassium ATPase. Perchlorate and thiocyanate are drugs that can compete with iodine at this point. Compounds such as goitrin, carbimazole, methimazole, propylthiouracil can reduce thyroid hormone production by interfering with iodine oxidation.
Thyroid hormone treatment in thyroid disease
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when does new season of lets make a deal start | Blue Bloods (season 5) - wikipedia
The fifth season of Blue Bloods, a police procedural drama series created by Robin Green and Mitchell Burgess, premiered on CBS on September 26, 2014 and concluded on May 1, 2015. Leonard Goldberg serves as executive producer. CBS had renewed the series for a fifth season on March 13, 2014, with a 22 - episode order. The series aired its 100th episode ("Baggage '') during the fifth season.
On May 11, 2015, CBS renewed Blue Bloods for a sixth season.
Donnie Wahlberg (Danny Reagan), Bridget Moynahan (Erin Reagan), Will Estes (Jamie Reagan) and Len Cariou (Henry Reagan) are first credited. Amy Carlson (Linda Reagan) and Sami Gayle (Nicky Reagan - Boyle) are credited next, marking the first season they have been included in the opening credits. Tom Selleck (Frank Reagan) receives an "and '' billing at the close of the main title sequence.
Marisa Ramirez continued into season 5 as Danny 's partner Detective Maria Baez, and she receives an "also starring '' billing. Vanessa Ray, who was listed as a "special guest star '' in season 4 as Jamie 's partner Eddie Jenko, receives "also starring '' status for season 5. Appearing regularly and receiving "special guest star '' billing are Gregory Jbara as Deputy Commissioner of Public Information Garrett Moore, Robert Clohessy as Lt. Sidney Gormley, and Abigail Hawk as Detective Baker, Frank 's primary aide.
The season airs simultaneously on CTV in Canada. In Africa, it began airing on Dstv on October 23, 2014. In the United Kingdom and Ireland, it began on Sky Atlantic on November 5, 2014.
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who did glen murray play for before brighton | Glenn Murray - wikipedia
Glenn Murray (born 25 September 1983) is an English professional footballer who plays as a striker for Premier League club Brighton & Hove Albion.
Prior to joining Brighton for a second spell in January 2017, Murray previously played for Workington Reds, Wilmington Hammerheads, Barrow, Carlisle United, Stockport, Rochdale, Crystal Palace and Bournemouth, as well as a previous spell at Brighton.
He holds the record for most goals scored in a Championship season with 30 goals in the 2012 -- 13 season.
Born in Maryport, Cumbria, Murray began his playing career playing for non-League side Workington Reds before joining American team Wilmington Hammerheads in 2004. He spent one season with the North Carolina club playing 14 times and scoring three goals in the USL Professional League. After his time in America he joined Barrow where he scored seven goals in seven games. Murray then signed for Conference National side Carlisle United and was part of the Conference play - off winning team in 2005 and League Two winning side a season later in 2006.
Murray joined Stockport County on loan for two months and he returned to Carlisle after this loan deal, following teammate Karl Hawley 's rib injury.
Rochdale manager Steve Parkin then signed Murray on loan until January 2007. Murray then signed for Rochdale on a contract until 2009, for an undisclosed fee. He made his first start for Rochdale in their 7 -- 1 defeat away at Lincoln City on 21 October 2006. His first goal was a 59th - minute equaliser in their match with Barnet on 18 November 2006, but this was not enough for Rochdale as they lost the match 3 -- 2. Murray made 31 league appearances for Rochdale in his first season with the club, scoring 16 goals in the 2006 -- 07 season.
Murray made his first appearances for the 2007 -- 08 season coming on as a 53rd - minute substitute on the opening day of the season in Rochdale 's 3 -- 0 loss away at Peterborough United, his first start of the season came in their 2 -- 2 home draw with Stoke City in the first round of the League Cup three days later on 14 August. Murray scored his first goal of the season in a 1 -- 1 home draw with Norwich City in the league cup second round on 28 August 2007. His first league goal of the season came in Rochdale 's 4 -- 3 victory away at Shrewsbury Town on 29 September. He made 42 league appearances scoring 21 goals, giving him an average of one goal every two games in his Rochdale career.
Murray had been linked with a transfer to League One team Brighton & Hove Albion throughout the January transfer window, and finally completed his move to the Withdean Stadium on 25 January 2008 for a reported £ 300,000. Murray made his debut four days later, coming on as a 61st - minute substitute for Nathan Elder during the 1 -- 0 defeat at Northampton. He then started Albion 's next match on 2 February, at home to Crewe and scored two goals on his home debut in the 3 -- 0 victory. Murray scored nine goals for Brighton during the 2007 -- 08 season.
Despite suffering several injuries during the 2008 -- 09 season, Murray made 28 appearances and scored 12 goals. In the team 's 4 -- 0 win over Barnet in the first round of the League Cup on 12 August 2008, he was sent off. On 27 September, he netted twice in a 2 -- 2 draw at Northampton, his second putting the team ahead in added time before an Adebayo Akinfenwa equaliser. A week later he scored his first hat trick for the team in a 3 -- 3 draw with Cheltenham Town, scoring twice in the opening seven minutes.
On 17 October 2009, Murray won and converted a penalty for a consolation goal in a 1 -- 2 defeat at Tranmere Rovers, but four minutes later was sent off for a second yellow card. He scored four times in Brighton 's 5 -- 2 win away at Wycombe Wanderers on 28 December, a result which moved Brighton out of the relegation zone. Murray 's season ended on 24 April 2010 with Brighton 's 2 -- 1 win over Bristol Rovers to stay in the division; he was sent off ten minutes after coming on as a substitute for Chris Holroyd.
The 2010 -- 11 season proved to be Murray 's best season at Brighton, scoring 22 goals and finishing runner - up to Craig Mackail - Smith in the League One top scorer statistics. This included a hat - trick on 1 January 2011 in a 5 -- 0 win over Leyton Orient. On 20 May 2011, it was revealed that Murray had rejected Brighton 's final offer of a new contract.
On 24 May 2011, Murray signed for Brighton 's rivals Crystal Palace on a free transfer, on a three - year contract. Manager Dougie Freedman said that Murray was the type of player that his squad needed.
He made his debut for the club -- his first match in the Championship -- on 6 August, starting as Palace began the season with a 1 -- 2 loss at Peterborough United. He scored his first goal 21 days later, the equaliser in a 1 -- 1 draw against Blackpool at Selhurst Park. On 27 September, he netted as Palace won 3 -- 1 at his former club Brighton. Murray scored the extra-time winner at Old Trafford against Manchester United in the League Cup quarter - finals on 30 November.
On 22 September 2012, Murray scored a hat - trick including two penalties against Cardiff City, and on 6 November he scored another hat trick including two penalties against Ipswich Town in a 5 -- 0 victory, despite missing a third penalty. He also scored twice in a 3 -- 0 home win over Brighton on 1 December, a result which put Palace on top of the league table.
On 2 February 2013, Murray scored a four - minute brace against South London rivals Charlton Athletic as Palace came from behind to win 2 -- 1. In March 2013, he missed out on the Championship Player of the Season award, being beaten by Watford 's Matej Vydra. On 28 March, Murray signed a new three - year contract with Crystal Palace. Murray missed the play - off final in which Palace secured promotion to the Premier League, having suffered a serious knee injury in the play off semi-final against his former club Brighton on 11 May.
Murray came back from injury as a 72nd - minute substitute for Jason Puncheon on 8 February 2014 in a 3 -- 1 home win against West Bromwich Albion. On 2 March, he scored his only goal of the season and his first in the Premier League, winning a late penalty against Swansea City after being fouled by Chico Flores, and converting it past Michel Vorm to earn a 1 -- 1 away draw.
On 1 September 2014, transfer deadline day, Murray moved to Championship club Reading on loan until 1 January 2015. He scored twice in his debut game for Reading in a 3 -- 0 win over Fulham. Murray scored eight goals in 18 league games for Reading, ending on 26 December with a brace in a 2 -- 2 draw at Brighton where he opened the scoring after 39 seconds. At the end of his loan spell Murray returned to Crystal Palace. On returning, he signed a contract extension with the club until 2017.
On 28 February, he scored twice and was sent off for two bookings as Palace won 3 -- 1 away to West Ham United. Murray opened the scoring on 6 April as Palace defeated reigning Premier League champions Manchester City 2 -- 1. Murray continued his goalscoring form by giving Palace a 1 -- 0 lead in their 4 -- 1 win at Sunderland on 11 April. Eight days later, Murray was selected in the Football Manager Team of the Decade at the Football League Awards. On 16 May against Liverpool, in Steven Gerrard 's final match at Anfield, Murray 's penalty was saved by Simon Mignolet but he hit in the rebound to confirm a 3 -- 1 victory.
On 7 August 2015, Crystal Palace rejected a £ 3 million bid for Murray from Premier League rivals Bournemouth. On 1 September, they accepted an improved bid of £ 4 million, and Murray joined the club on a three - year - deal. He scored his first goal for Bournemouth on 3 October in a 1 -- 1 draw against fellow newly promoted club Watford, but had a penalty saved late on. He scored a consolation goal in the following game, a 5 -- 1 loss at Manchester City. In December, he scored a late headed goal to clinch a famous win against reigning champions Chelsea at Stamford Bridge.
On 3 July 2016, Murray returned to former club Brighton & Hove Albion on a season - long loan deal. Murray 's second début for the Sussex side came on 6 August at Derby County, while his first goal in his second spell came at home to Nottingham Forest six days later; he would score his second in the same match as Albion won 3 -- 0. Brighton would repeat that scoreline at Falmer Stadium four days later against Rotherham United, and Murray was again on the scoresheet. On 29 October 2016, Glenn Murray scored a hat trick against Norwich City at the Amex Stadium as the Seagulls secured a 5 -- 0 win, while on 18 November he scored his 150th career League goal in a 1 -- 1 draw with Aston Villa.
On 31 January 2017, the transfer deadline day, Murray re-signed permanently for Brighton & Hove Albion on a deal until June 2019. He had scored 15 goals in 28 appearances while on loan to the Seagulls for the first half of the season. He contributed with eight more league goals throughout the season after signing permanently with Brighton, helping the south coast club to earn promotion to the Premier League for the first time in their history. Murray 's opening goal in a 2 -- 1 home win against Wigan Athletic was a particular highlight, in that it was the game that sealed Brighton 's promotion to the Premier League.
Newly promoted Brighton made a positive start to their inaugural Premier League season, sitting in 8th place after eleven games. An unbeaten run of four games from mid-October coincided with Murray hitting a good run of form, with the striker scoring four goals in the three games preceding the November international break. His scoring run began with a brace against West Ham in a 3 -- 0 away win for Brighton, and he would follow it up with goals against Southampton at home and Swansea City away, earning Brighton four points with his goals.
Carlisle United
Crystal Palace
Brighton & Hove Albion
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when is the 2017 australian open was won by | 2017 Australian Open -- men 's Singles - wikipedia
Novak Djokovic was the two - time defending champion, but lost in the second round to the 117th ranked Denis Istomin from Uzbekistan. It was the first time since the 2008 Wimbledon Championships, where he lost to Marat Safin, that Djokovic failed to make it past the second round of a major and the first time since the 2006 Australian Open that he failed to make it to the third round in Melbourne.
Roger Federer won his fifth Australian Open title, and 18th Major title overall, defeating Rafael Nadal in the final in five sets. With the win, Federer became the first male player to win at least five titles at three Grand Slam tournaments (five at the Australian Open, seven at Wimbledon and five at the US Open).
This was the first Grand Slam tournament in which Andy Murray started as World No. 1 and top seed. Murray retained the top ranking despite losing to Mischa Zverev in the fourth round, because second seeded Djokovic needed to win the tournament to regain the No. 1 ranking, but lost in the second round. This was the first time since the 2004 French Open that the top two men 's seeds both failed to make it past the fourth round of a major.
This was also the first Grand Slam tournament since the 2002 US Open in which Federer was ranked outside the top - 10. He went on to reach and win the final of the tournament, making him the oldest man to reach a Grand Slam final since Ken Rosewall made the 1974 US Open final at the age of 39, and the oldest Slam champion since Ken Rosewall had won the 1972 Australian Open at 37 years and 63 days old.
Click on the seed number of a player to go to their draw section.
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what time does life is strange come out | Life is Strange - wikipedia
Life Is Strange is an episodic graphic adventure video game developed by Dontnod Entertainment and published by Square Enix for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 3, PlayStation 4, Xbox 360, and Xbox One. The game was released in five episodic parts periodically throughout 2015. All five episodes were released for Linux and macOS on 21 July 2016 by Feral Interactive.
The game 's plot focuses on Max Caulfield, an 18 - year - old photography student who discovers that she has the ability to rewind time at any moment, leading her every choice to enact the butterfly effect. After having foreseen an approaching storm, Max must take on the responsibility to prevent it from destroying her town. The player 's actions will adjust the narrative as it unfolds, and reshape it once allowed to travel back in time. Fetch quests and making environmental changes represent the forms of puzzle solving in addition to using branching choices for conversation.
Development of Life Is Strange began in April 2013. It was formed with an episodic format in mind, for reasons both financial and creative. The developers conducted field research on the setting by travelling to the Pacific Northwest, and subverted known archetypes to make the characters. Player feedback influenced the adjustments made to the episodes. Story and character arc serve as the central point in the game rather than traditional graphic adventure tropes like point - and - click puzzles. The voice recording sessions took place in Los Angeles.
During its release, Life Is Strange received generally favourable reviews commending the character development, rewind game mechanic and tackling of taboo subjects. It won the BAFTA Games Award for Best Story, the Peabody - Facebook Futures of Media Award and The Game Awards ' Games for Impact Award. Common criticisms included the slang that was used, poor lip - syncing in earlier episodes, and tonal inconsistencies in the story. It has sold over three million copies as of May 2017. A prequel -- Before the Storm -- was released on 31 August 2017. A digital series and a sequel -- Life Is Strange 2 -- are in development.
Life Is Strange is a graphic adventure played from a third - person view. The mechanic of rewinding time allows the player to redo any action that has been taken. The player can examine and interact with objects, which enables puzzle solving in the form of fetch quests and making changes to the environment. Items that are collected before time travelling will be kept in the inventory after the fact.
The player can explore various locations in the fictional setting of Arcadia Bay and communicate with non-playable characters. Dialogue exchanges can be rewound while branching options are used for conversation. Once an event is reset, the details provided earlier are permitted to avail themselves in the future. In some instances, choices in dialogue will alter and affect the story through short or long - term consequences. For each one of the choices, something good in the short - term could turn out worse later.
Life Is Strange is set in the fictional town of Arcadia Bay, Oregon, and is told from the perspective of Maxine "Max '' Caulfield (Hannah Telle), a twelfth grade student attending Blackwell Academy during October 2013. During photography class with her teacher Mark Jefferson (Derek Phillips), Max experiences a vision of a lighthouse being destroyed by a swelling tornado. Leaving for the restroom to regain her composure, she witnesses classmate Nathan Prescott (Nik Shriner) accidentally kill a woman in a fit of rage. In a single, sudden effort, she develops the ability to rewind time and rescues the girl; revealed to be her childhood friend Chloe Price (Ashly Burch). The two reunite and go for a walk at the lighthouse, where Max reveals to Chloe her capacity to travel back in time. It is established that the vision is rather the reckoning of a future event: a storm approaching the town. The next day, Max observes fellow student Kate Marsh (Dayeanne Hutton) being bullied for a viral video depicting her kissing several students at a party. It is implied that she was drugged, and Max suspects Nathan as the perpetrator.
Meeting Chloe at the diner where her mother Joyce (Cissy Jones) works, they decide to experiment with Max 's power at Chloe 's secret scrapyard hideout. However, strain causes Max to have a nosebleed and faint. Chloe takes her back to Blackwell, but class is halted when everyone is called out to the courtyard. Kate commits suicide by jumping off the roof of the girls ' dorm. Max manages to rewind and time stops unexpectedly as she reaches Kate, giving Max the opportunity to convince her to come down. Max ultimately resolves to uncover what happened to Kate and Chloe 's missing friend Rachel Amber. Max and Chloe break into the principal 's office that night to investigate and enter the pool for a swim before evading David Madsen (Don McManus), head of security at Blackwell and Chloe 's stepfather, and fleeing back to Chloe 's place. The next morning, they sneak into the motorhome of Frank Bowers (Daniel Bonjour), drug dealer and friend of Rachel, and learn that Rachel was in a relationship with Frank and lied to Chloe about it, causing Chloe to storm off feeling betrayed. Max returns to her dormitory and examines a childhood photo of her and Chloe, but is suddenly transported to the day the picture was taken. Max prevents Chloe 's father William (Joe Ochman) from dying in a traffic collision, which inadvertently creates an alternative reality where William is alive but Chloe has been paralysed from the neck down as a result of a collision in her own car.
Max uses the photo to undo her decision and return to the present day, restoring Chloe 's health. Continuing their investigation, Max and Chloe obtain clues leading them to an abandoned barn owned by the influential Prescott family. They discover a hidden bunker containing pictures of Kate and Rachel tied up and intoxicated, with Rachel being buried at Chloe 's secret hideout. They hurry back to the scrapyard and find Rachel 's grave, much to Chloe 's despair. Max follows Chloe at the school party to confront Nathan, believing he will target fellow student Victoria Chase (Dani Knights). They receive a text from Nathan threatening to destroy the evidence, returning them to the scrapyard. All of a sudden, the two are ambushed by Jefferson, who anaesthetises Max and kills Chloe with a shot to the head. Max is kidnapped and held captive in the "Dark Room '', a place Jefferson has been drugging and photographing young girls to capture their innocence. Max escapes into a photograph and emerges back at the beginning in Jefferson 's class. She alerts David, getting Jefferson arrested.
Max is given the opportunity to go to San Francisco and have one of her photos displayed in an art gallery. She calls Chloe from the event, realizing that, for all her effort, the storm has reached Arcadia Bay. Max travels back to the time at which she took the gallery photo, which eventually leads her to sojourn alternative realities as they devolve into a dreamscape nightmare. Max and Chloe finally return to the lighthouse and confront the fact that Max brought the storm into existence by availing herself of the time travel abilities in the first place. The only way to prevent it is for Max to go back to the beginning and allow Chloe to be killed by Nathan. Max must make a choice: sacrifice Chloe 's life to save Arcadia Bay, or sacrifice Arcadia Bay in order to spare Chloe.
Life Is Strange was Dontnod Entertainment 's second title with a female protagonist. Dontnod published a developer diary that said most prospective publishers were unwilling to publish a game unless it had a male protagonist. Most publishers had the same objection to Dontnod 's first project, Remember Me. Dontnod CEO Oskar Guilbert also challenged the idea at the start. Square Enix was the only publisher with no intention to change the female protagonist. Dontnod co-founder Jean - Maxime Moris said gender equality in video games was "a great debate to have '', but "we 're not pretending to address the issue or use the issue to stand out from the rest ''.
Development of Life Is Strange began in April 2013 with a team of 15, and more people were added when the collaboration with Square Enix began. Dontnod told Square Enix about Life Is Strange only after Square Enix turned down a pitch for a larger game. Before signing with Square Enix, Life Is Strange was imagined as a full - length video game that Dontnod would self - publish. However, the publisher surmised that it would be more successful as an episodic title. The game was originally codenamed What If but then retitled to distinguish itself from the film of the same name. Life Is Strange was born of the idea for the rewind mechanic, which the developer had already experimented on with their last game Remember Me. The lead character Max was created with the ability to rewind time to supplement this mechanism. The episodic format was decided upon by the studio for creative reasons, financial restrictions and marketing purposes, allowing them to tell the story in its preferred slow pace. The Pacific Northwest was picked as the setting for the purpose of conveying a nostalgic and autumnal feel to the game. The development team visited the region, took photographs, looked at local newspapers and used Google Street View to make sure the environment was accurately portrayed.
It was decided early on that most of the budget be spent on the writing and voice actors. The original story was written in French by Jean - Luc Cano, and converted into a game script by the co-directors and design team. It was subsequently handed over to Christian Divine and Cano to be fine tuned in English. Story and character development were highlighted over point - and - click puzzles, making choice and consequence integral to how the narrative unfolds. Hannah Telle auditioned for Max Caulfield in July 2014 and was offered the part; Ashly Burch auditioned for both Max and her given role Chloe Price. The recording sessions were done in Los Angeles, California, with the French developer brought in via Skype.
Although it holds significant differences from Remember Me, the game addresses similar themes of memory and identity. Life Is Strange was specified as an analogue look at human identity in contrast to Remember Me, the digital view of the same theme. Running on an improved version of Unreal Engine 3, it makes use of the tools and special effects like lighting and depth of field engineered for Remember Me as well as subsequent advances. Visual effects like post-processes, double exposure and overlapping screen space particles were used as an artistic approach to be displayed while the lead character rewinds time. The textures seen in the game were entirely hand painted, adapted to achieve what art director Michel Koch called "impressionistic rendering ''. Elements were adjusted based on player feedback, with influences like The Walking Dead, Gone Home and Heavy Rain in mind. The Catcher in the Rye was an additional source of inspiration, whose protagonist Holden Caulfield shares a surname with Max, the game 's lead. The characters were created using known archetypes, at first to establish an entry point for the player, and then to subvert them. For the sake of serving the realism, the supernatural elements were designed as a metaphor for the characters ' inner conflict, and experts were consulted to tackle the subject of teen suicide. Twin Peaks also influenced the setting and characters, and is referenced within the game.
The score was composed by Jonathan Morali of the band Syd Matters. Inspired by modern indie folk music, the soundtrack was intended to inform the mood of the game. The music contains a blend of licensed tracks and composed pieces. Featured artists include José González, Mogwai, Breton, Amanda Palmer, Brian Viglione, Bright Eyes, Message to Bears, Local Natives, Syd Matters, Sparklehorse, Angus & Julia Stone, alt - J, Mud Flow and Foals.
Square Enix and Dontnod announced Life Is Strange on 11 August 2014. The episodes were released digitally on PC via Steam, PlayStation 3 and PlayStation 4 via PlayStation Network, and Xbox 360 and Xbox One via Xbox Live between 30 January 2015 and 20 October 2015. In November 2014, the publisher said they were interested in releasing physical copies of the game, but said that at that time they were "100 per cent focused on the digital release ''. One year later, the retail edition was set to be released for the PC, PS4 and Xbox One in North America on 19 January 2016 and in Europe on 22 January 2016; the limited edition had an artbook, the soundtrack, score, and a director 's commentary.
A Japanese version was released for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 3 and PlayStation 4 on 3 March 2016. Feral Interactive ported Life Is Strange for OS X, released on 16 June 2016, and Linux, released on 21 July 2016. That same day, the first episode was made indefinitely available for free on Linux, Windows, OS X, PS3, PS4, Xbox 360 and Xbox One. Life Is Strange was included on PlayStation Plus for the month of June 2017, along with Killing Floor 2.
Life Is Strange received generally favourable reviews, with a Metacritic score of 85 / 100 on PlayStation 4 and Xbox One. While reviewers criticised the games 's lip - syncing and use of dated slang, they lauded the character development and time travel component, suggesting that there should be more games like it. Eurogamer said it was "one of the best interactive story games of this generation '' and Hardcore Gamer said it was the sleeper hit of 2015. Life Is Strange received over 75 Game of the Year awards and listings. In April 2017, Xbox One UK ranked Life Is Strange first in its list of Xbox One games priced under GB £ 20. Game director Yoko Taro listed it as one of his favourite PlayStation 4 games.
Kevin VanOrd of GameSpot said Episode 1: Chrysalis is "an involving slice of life that works because its situations eloquently capture a peculiar early - college state of mind '', while Game Informer 's Kimberley Wallace said the game 's tackling of "subjects that are usually taboo for video games '' was impressive. Destructoid 's Brett Makedonski said the episode 's strongest characteristic was exploration -- both "self - and worldly ''. Mitch Dyer of IGN said the story was ultimately obstructed by its "laughable '' script and "worse performances ''. In response to Episode 2: Out of Time, Polygon 's Megan Farokhmanesh also said that the emphasis on self - exploration had considerable impact on the enjoyment of the game. Other critics said the ending was an "emotional high point '' and that it brought meaning to the choices from both the first and second episodes. Mike Williams said in USgamer that the pacing of Episode 2: Out of Time was "slower and less exciting '' than that of episode one.
Adnan Riaz of Hardcore Gamer said Episode 3: Chaos Theory was a dramatic improvement that presented a "thrilling, poignant, fascinating and... enticing '' narrative whose outcome from past decisions also added a sense of realism. Peter Paras of Game Revolution complimented the character beats, particularly the development of Chloe Price, who he said "really comes into her own as (a) fully - formed character ''. Though GameSpot 's Alexa Ray Corriea said that the fetch quests interfered with its emotional quality, the episode built up to a "killer cliffhanger '' according to Farokhmanesh. GameZone 's Matt Liebl said Episode 4: Dark Room was "easily the most emotional episode '' and that the mystery of Rachel Amber had done a "tremendous job in keeping us hooked ''. Tom Hoggins of The Telegraph said the developer 's venture into subjects like social division, online bullying, parental conflict and suicide as "bold ''. Critics said there were tonal problems, caused by the game 's "cheap ways '' of progressing the plot, such as character inconsistency and superfluous shocks. Critics were more favorable towards the episode 's puzzles and relationships. They said the final episode, Polarized, had a "fitting conclusion '' to the coming of age story of Max Caulfield and the relationship between the two leads was carried out successfully. One stealth sequence was described as "tedious '' and "out - of - place '' while other aspects inhabiting the same course of events were favoured. Reviewers were essentially divided on the ending, citing the episode 's subtitle as something that mirrored their own feelings toward it.
The first episode was ranked fifth among the best selling PlayStation 3 and PlayStation 4 video games of February 2015. Life Is Strange reached one million sales in July 2015, having accumulated over 1.2 million unique players worldwide; the attach rate to units between the complete season and season pass proved to be "extremely strong '', divulged Square Enix. The retail edition made seventh place in the top ten UK game sales chart for the week ending 23 January 2016. Life Is Strange was one of the top 100 best - selling games on Steam in 2016. As of May 2017, more than three million copies have been sold.
After Life Is Strange achieved financial and commercial success, Dontnod Entertainment started to become more prominent in the video game industry; publishers pursued the studio for the first time, whereas they previously had to pursue publishers themselves. CEO Oskar Guilbert said that the game saved his company financially after the mediocre sales of Remember Me.
In July 2016, Legendary Digital Studios and Square Enix, in conjunction with dj2 Entertainment announced that they would be adapting Life Is Strange as a digital series. Legendary said that, at the time of the announcement, they were meeting with potential writers for the series adaptation, which will be set in Arcadia Bay.
On 18 May 2017, Dontnod Entertainment said Life Is Strange 2 was in the works. It will have a new location and cast of characters.
In early June 2017, developer Deck Nine said they had "signed a partnership deal with a leading AAA videogame publisher '' and were developing a title for a "critically acclaimed franchise '', and images of Life Is Strange characters appeared on Deck Nine 's website. The website Kotaku said this probably meant Square Enix was the publisher and Life Is Strange the game alluded to. Later that month, Square Enix announced Life Is Strange: Before the Storm, a three - part episodic title that launched for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 4 and Xbox One on 31 August 2017.
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who does adriana from 90210 end up with | Adrianna Tate - Duncan - wikipedia
Adrianna "Ade '' Tate - Duncan is a fictional character on The CW television series 90210, the fourth series in the Beverly Hills, 90210 franchise. Portrayed by Jessica Lowndes, the character was originally only scripted as a guest spot in the series ' pilot, but was added to the main cast in the fourteenth episode of the first season, replacing Jessica Walter.
At the opening of the series, Adrianna is an aspiring actress and Naomi Clark 's best friend. She suffers from a serious drug addiction and is pressured by her mother, Constance, to support the family financially with her acting career. In order to afford her drug addiction, Adrianna steals money from her affluent best friend, Naomi. She develops a friendly rivalry with Annie due to her equal singing and acting talents, but falls apart when Annie takes over her role in the school play on opening night. When the school undergoes a drug search, Naomi attempts to protect Adrianna by flushing her drugs down the toilet, but is caught and arrested. Even though she promises she will turn herself in to clear Naomi of the charges, Adrianna overdoses before she can. Her Mother checks her into a drug rehabilitation clinic, paid for by classmate Navid Shirazi. As a result, Navid and Adrianna grow closer. During one of his visits to the clinic, Navid helps her reconnect with Naomi by driving to the Homecoming dance, where the two friends reconcile. As a result of his kindness, Adrianna discovers that he has been in love with her since they were children and they begin a relationship.
After discovering one of her ex-boyfriends, Hank, has relapsed after finding out he was HIV positive, Adrianna takes an HIV - test. While she is negative for HIV, the results do reveal she is pregnant but the paternity is still unknown. Adrianna is unsure of the paternity, as her memories of recent sexual experiences have been clouded by her drug addiction. She does, however, know that the child is not Navid 's, as they have not yet had sex. She and Navid break up as she reveals that she is pregnant because he does n't believe that he can deal with her being pregnant with someone else 's child. Eventually it is revealed that the baby 's father is not Hank (whom she had slept with a few times when she was on drugs), but Ty Collins, her co-star in the school production of Spring Awakening. Naomi 's opinion is that she should get an abortion, while Kelly Taylor thinks she should raise it or give it up for adoption. She drives all night and ends up at a clinic, where they tell her she 's too far along to get an abortion. Naomi convinces Adrianna to tell Ty, and he tells his parents. Ty 's parents tell Adrianna that they will pay for the doctor and anything else she needs. They also say that when she starts to show, they will send her to a retreat in New Mexico, so that nobody finds out, to which she readily agrees. Bolstered by the Collins ' support, Adrianna becomes more confident in her ability to deal with her situation. Later, Ty gives Adrianna a contract which states that Adrianna must keep the whole pregnancy a secret and she realizes that their support hides the reality that they are ashamed of her and her unborn child. Adrianna is unwilling to tell her mother about her pregnancy, as she thinks that Constance will throw her out. Naomi convinces Adrianna to call Ty, she thinks that the contract is unfair. Adrianna does so, and Ty 's mother comes over to Adrianna 's house to discuss the baby with Adrianna 's mother. Ty 's mother and Adrianna sit down to talk and Constance, Adrianna 's mother, finds out about the pregnancy. Ty 's mother gets kicked out of the house due to her arrogance and Constance talks to Adrianna and apologizes for putting so much pressure on her and they reconcile.
Adrianna goes to school and decides to tell everyone her ' secret ', so she gets help from Navid to announce through the school 's video system that she is pregnant and that there is no father. Abandoning his date at the Valentine 's Day dance, Navid shows up at Adrianna 's house and asks her to be his Valentine and she accepts. A short while later, Navid proposes and she says yes. After Navid 's mother approaches Adrianna and tells her that she thinks she should give the baby up, Adrianna takes prescription drugs to combat the stress. After this, she tells Navid that she knows she has to give the baby away. Later, at the prom, Navid and Ty scuffle when Navid becomes irate about Ty ignoring Adrianna and Adrianna subsequently goes into labor. She has a daughter whom she gives up for adoption and the adoptive parents name her Maisy.
It is revealed that childhood friends Adrianna and Erin Silver have grown close once again during the summer through their mutual friendships with Naomi. Naomi and Silver have been in summer school due to Annie Wilson busting Naomi 's post-Prom party. Navid and Adrianna 's relationship has been progressing slowly, and while he is ready to take it to the next level, even going as far as to rent a cabana, she is n't, and still wants to wait. Meanwhile, Adrianna runs into her childhood boyfriend, Teddy Montgomery, causing jealousy in Navid, due to their close relationship and Naomi, who has taken a liking to Teddy. The end of the first episode shows Adrianna and Naomi comforting Silver over her issues with Dixon and beginning their first day back at school, with Naomi proclaiming that this was going to be "their '' year. Adrianna and Teddy kiss on his father 's yacht. Adrianna felt bad and went back and slept with Navid. They later kiss again. Adrianna tells him that he should n't have done that and walks away. Adrianna receives her 6 - month chip for sobriety at a meeting, and has also been in contact with Silver 's mom. In "Wild Alaskan Salmon '' she breaks up with Navid for Teddy and she said to Teddy she liked their relationship but he says he did n't want a relationship and she walks away confused. Then she goes to Navid telling him she wanted to reunite but he says no and he says he knew about her and Teddy and then he says it was not Silver that told him but that it was Teddy who told him. Later in "Unmasked '' she begins to avoid Teddy because of what he did to her. In "Women 's Intuition '' Adrianna fails at winning Navid back, and thus, begins another downward spiral when she witnesses Navid flirting with other girls, and Teddy flirting with Silver. She purchases drugs from Jasper, the boyfriend of her old friend Annie. Navid later sees Adrianna buying drugs from Jasper at school. He confronts her about it but she angrily denies it. Naomi later finds her drugs at her house and leaves angry at her for lying.
When Adrianna finds out about the death of Silver 's mother and Navid 's injury, she decides to make a change for the better. She gets rid of all her drugs and tells Navid that she plans on working on herself, because she realized that even though during the previous year when she was off drugs she had been acting like an addict, as in, extremely dependent on him. Then, at the Winter Wonderland dance, she sees Jasper with Annie. During an intervention for Annie, Adrianna comes clean and tells her that she purchased the drugs from him and that she 's willing to come forward if she has too. Navid tells her that she should n't because she 'll get expelled. Adrianna 's strength and selflessness helps her begin to mend friendships with Silver and Naomi. The three also befriend Annie once they learn the truth about Jen. Adrianna also finds companionship in Gia, fellow West Bev Blazer and former addict. They become close, helping each other out during troubled times. Adrianna helps Gia move on from her ex. Gia convinces Ade to audition to be in an all - girl band, and when Gia confesses to Adrianna that she has feelings for her, Adrianna herself begins to question if their friendship could turn into something more. After a heart - to - heart with Gia, Adrianna comes to the realisation that she reciprocates Gia 's feelings and the two then embark on a relationship. During the early stages of the relationship, Adrianna is reluctant to be public with their relationship much to Gia 's dismay but after Adrianna performs live with ' The Glorious Steinems ' she walks up to Gia to kiss her in front of the audience, after realising that it should n't matter what others think.
Adrianna is then approached by Ivy 's mother, Laurel, who hopes to sign her as a solo singer. Put in the awkward situation of having to choose between staying in the band or going solo she talks to Navid and comes to the conclusion that she should go with the latter. Adrianna then has a heated argument with Gia due to the fact that Adrianna chose to speak with Navid about her doubts rather than Gia and causes Gia to walk out. While at a party, Adrianna and Laurel have a talk and Laurel tells Adrianna to follow her heart and leave the party to find Gia. Adrianna takes this advice and arrives at Gia 's place only to walk in on Gia with her ex, causing Adrianna to leave.
As Adrianna 's music career begins to take off, Laurel has her write a song which turns into a duet between her and famous singer Javier. The two feel an instant connection and things heat up fast while Navid realizes that he still has feelings for her and decides that he 's going to do what he can to win her back. Adrianna gives up on Navid because she thinks he does n't like her anymore. Navid leaves a bracelet for Adrianna and a note saying "Meet me on the Roof. '' After Adrianna performs, she is offered a trip to New York to sing with Javier, before she can see the bracelet. Navid sees them leave and thinks that Adrianna chose Javier. Then Javier pretends the bracelet is from him. However, when shooting a live segment for The Blaze, Navid sees the bracelet and asks to speak with Adrianna alone. They fight about the bracelet and Adrianna realizes that it was from Navid because all her favourite things are on there, including the date they first kissed. Adrianna and Navid reunited but Javier offers Adrianna a chance open for Javier 's tour, which is all year long.
Adrianna and Javier are involved in a car crash, which kills Javier. Before the crash happened, Javier revealed to Adrianna that her music career is over, because Javier is jealous of Adrianna and Navid 's relationship. Adrianna receives a bag with her belongings and a book full of original songs by Javier, which she keeps to use as her own material.
She sings one of Javier 's songs at the memorial, which is attended by Javier 's uncle and when he realizes the song was Javier 's he threatens to ruin her career. However, they make a deal that if he (Victor) becomes her manager, he wo n't tell her secret. She agrees and decides to record the rest of Javier 's songs. Soon, Adrianna finds herself becoming one of the most famous upcoming starlets in Hollywood and it begins to get to her head. She becomes vapid and vain and oblivious to her friends and starts bossing Victor around. Eventually Victor becomes fed up and reveals Adrianna 's secret to the world just as her career really begins to take off, and just as Navid starts to fall in love with Silver, her best friend, unbeknownst to her.
While Navid and Silver begin an affair behind her back, Adrianna scrambles to regain her fame and is now in debt. Out of desperation, she agrees to sell a story to a tabloid regarding the baby she gave up for adoption. Navid, upset how Adrianna used the baby to make money, breaks up with her. Adrianna attempts to reunite with Navid, and finds an earring in his bedroom after he rejects her. She leans on Silver for support, believing that the real reason why Navid had broken up with her is because he had been cheating on her. Soon, reality producers begin following her and her friends around while trying to shoot a pilot. Adrianna and Navid get into an argument and he finally admits to having cheated on her. Once again, Adrianna runs to Silver for support, claiming that she wants to find out who the girl he cheated with is so that she can destroy her. Unbeknownst to her, it 's Silver, who clearly begins to subtly crack under the pressure of her guilty conscience.
While filming more scenes for the show, Adrianna makes a startling discovery. After much investigation, she realizes that it was Silver who Navid had been cheating with. Heartbroken, Adrianna cries to herself, but later masks her hurt with a plot for revenge. Instead of confronting them, she decides to mess with Silver 's guilty conscience by acting oblivious. She plays on Silver 's conscience by telling her and Naomi that she believes that Lila, Navid 's ex-girlfriend, was the girl Navid had been cheating with and that she plans to send a naked picture of Lila to the entire school for her revenge. Knowing that she has to stop Adrianna, Silver decides to come clean and admit that she was the one who Navid had cheated on her with. Adrianna admits that she knew it was her all along and ultimately sends a naked picture of Silver to the entire school. The group takes a trip to Mexico for the spring break, where Adrianna and Silver 's feud continues. Upon their return home, Adrianna asks Silver to put it behind them and she eagerly and happily agrees. However, the next scene shows that Adrianna 's willingness to make up is insincere as she exchanges Silver 's bipolar medication for unknown pills. The effect of this is enormous on Silver who goes through a lengthy manic episode followed by a sudden depressive state. Adrianna 's vengeful prank causes Silver to lose any chance of attending her dream school, NYU, and lands Silver in the psychiatric ward at the local hospital. Adrianna visits the hospital, pretending to be a caring friend, and takes Navid home, giving him alcohol and falling asleep next to him on a bed. When she realizes he was drunk and forgot what happened last night, she invents they kissed. Being rejected later, she goes to Silver and tells her Navid kissed her. At a party for Ivy and Raj, Silver 's stolen medicine falls out of her purse and all her friends turn their backs on her, which makes her think about committing suicide. She decides not to and resolves to becoming a better person.
Adrianna comes back from Africa and visits Silver at her apartment to try to reconcile but is rejected. She then shows up at Naomi 's party to apologize again, but Silver again rejects her saying she does n't think she can ever trust Adrianna again. Dixon Wilson then walks over and comforts her. While Dixon is standing on the balcony of his new condo, Ade walks out in just a T - shirt and tells him she came over to see him because she needed someone to talk to, but she ran into Austin, his new roommate and it is hinted that they might have slept together, but Austin later tells Dixon they just made out a little bit and nothing else. Adrianna starts hanging around Dixon 's apartment and the boys seem a little annoyed by her presence, especially Austin. After it is decided that Dixon tell her to leave, she tells him that she is going home, and that the only reason why she came to see him and been hanging around is because Dixon has been nice and sweet and is the only one who does n't see her as pure evil. Dixon then helps her get a job as a waitress at Liam Court 's new bar. Adrianna continues to try and regain the trust of her friends, though she soon succeeds her goal in Liam and Dixon, the other members of their group still refuse to trust her. Adrianna then soon suspects that Dixon has a drug problem. She is later proven right when in Vegas she follows the gang there to ensure Dixon does not succumb to his newfound drug addiction or previous gambling addiction. Ade comes across him as he prepares to snort some drugs, and after an emotional confrontation the two kiss and have real sex.
When Annie discovers them, she accuses Adrianna of seducing Dixon and bringing the drugs. Fed up with everyone treating her terribly, Adrianna lashes out at Annie, and declares she is there to help Dixon who also comes to her defense. Dixon attempts to start a relationship with Adrianna but she denies him, fearful that he might become dependent on her only so that he can avoid dealing with his own problems. Once Dixon goes through rehab Adrianna decides to give him a chance and they begin a relationship. She becomes worried when he quickly reenters the music industry that he might begin using drugs. Dixon decides to use a song Adrianna sang at a benefit for Raj, their friend Ivy Sullivan 's husband, and remix it to include his own lyrics. When he shows her his version of the song and tells her that he 's going to submit it to a record company, she becomes outraged, believing that he 's using her song to just to get ahead in the music industry. When Dixon decides not to perform the song at an event and instead sings a song about how he is sorry, she forgives him. Adrianna later reveals to Dixon that the song is actually about Maisie, the daughter she gave away in order to pursue a career in the entertainment business as an actress / singer. This sets up the storyline for the latter half of the second season which will begin in 2012 where Adrianna will deal with the repressed repercussions of giving the baby up for adoption as she attempts to reconnect with her child. Adrianna also reveals to Dixon that she wants to collaborate with him musically as they both share a strong passion for music as an art form of expression.
Adrianna learns from Navid that Silver is dating the adoptive father of her child Maisie and that they 're planning on moving to New York City. Upset at the possibility that Silver might raise her daughter, Adrianna pays a surprise visit to Maisie picking her up from daycare pretending to be Greg 's girlfriend. Silver soon finds Adrianna and Maisie and the two have an emotional reunion but Silver 's relationship with Greg comes to an end when he learns that Adrianna has met Maisie under the impression that Silver introduced the two of them to each other. Dixon and Adrianna continue to collaborate musically and he asks her to move in with him once they tell each other that they 're in love with one another and soon after land a meeting with a major movie producer to discuss music on his next film, but are sabotaged by Vanessa, Liam 's girlfriend, who is trying to work behind the scenes to make Liam a movie star. Eventually Adrianna and Dixon land a spot in a musical festival alongside the band Train. Dixon is offered a recording contract by a record executive, but not Adrianna. Adrianna tells Liam about her suspicions that Vanessa may have staged the near - drowning incident which brought him spotlight fame. But Vanessa soon learns about Adrianna 's suspicions and she successfully frames Adrianna for assaulting her. However, Dixon believes Adrianna while Liam believes that Vanessa was attacked by Adrianna. To help get over the ordeal with Vanessa, Dixon and Adrianna continue to work on music.
Dixon collapses while arguing in the recording studio with Adrianna, and he is taken to the hospital for observation where he and Ade learn that he has a congential heart condition and he only has 5 years left to live. Adrianna decides to quit making music with him as she feels guilty for putting too much pressure on him when in reality Dixon is dealing with his own guilt about lying to Adrianna as he secretly signed a solo recording contract behind her back. Navid arrives back in town for a visit where Dixon confesses to him the truth but admits he did not tell Adrianna because the label did n't want to sign her. Dixon also accepts a gig to go on tour to play backup for Haley Reinhart, but does n't tell Adrianna, but she later finds out anyway and forces him to choose either her or his career. He chooses his career over her. Soon after Austin returns to Los Angeles and offers to be Adrianna 's new manager, suggesting she start singing country music as a change of tune to her career after Dixon leaves town without saying goodbye. Austin enlists his father, Judd Ridge, to help launch Adrianna 's new country - western career as a side act. Adrianna deals with Dixon leaving her by writing songs, two of which she sings live at different events. Eventually Dixon decides returns from touring with his band where he calls Adrianna to give their relationship a second chance. Adrianna agrees, but soon regrets it when Dixon fails to show up at their meeting spot and she thinks he bailed on her again, but in reality he gets into a fatal car accident with his bandmates. During the final moment of the season, Adrianna leaves town with Austin to go on tour as the latest country - western star and him as her manager.
Adrianna continues her country music tour, unaware that Dixon has gotten into a life - threatening car accident and is in a coma in a hospital back in Los Angeles. ' Ade ' then has an unforgettable evening after another show in Las Vegas when she hooks up with a handsome stranger named Taylor. Annie finally manages to contact Ade in Vegas and gets her to return to Los Angeles to be with an unconscious Dixon, and the two girls decide to move into the beach apartment together. Adrianna soon learns that Taylor has become Liam and Navid 's business partner and she fails at attempting to avoid him after she becomes confused about her feelings toward him after he kisses her. Dixon, unaware of what has happened between Ade and Taylor, encourages Ade to hire Taylor to create her new music video concept. After Taylor dares Adrianna to show him how sexy she can be, she realizes that she has feeling for him. As Dixon continues to recuperate, Adrianna confides in Annie that she and Dixon are having intimacy issues. After her relationship with Dixon is over, Ade decides to pay much more attention to her friends and mainly with Silver. The two made a show in a truck where they could interview people about their clients. However, when Naomi and Annie 's step brother Mark comes in between the two, they promise not to have a date with him and put their friendship over this. After Naomi 's party night, Silver hooks up with Mark and later confides it to Ade, leaving Ade confused and worried about their friendship.
The series ends with Adrianna and Navid back together. Ready to get a house, a dog and a fireplace.
The character of Adrianna was originally scripted as a guest spot in the series ' pilot. When Lowndes was cast, she only knew that her character was a singer in the school musical, and as a singer herself, she was excited to sing on television. However, Lowndes was surprised when "they chopped my hair off, and wrote this amazing material for me in which I had a drug addiction and I was dying. I honestly did n't know where it was going. '' The day after she filmed the drug overdose scene, Lowndes was offered series regular status. Michael Ausiello of Entertainment Weekly reported that the character was upgraded because she created more storyline.
When Lowndes realized her character was a drug addict, she did a lot of research and talked to real recovering addicts in Vancouver and over the phone. She did not "want to make light of it since I did n't have those experiences myself ''. Upon revelation of Adrianna 's pregnancy in the series, Lowndes said that the fate of the baby was still undecided. The actress also explained that Ty and Adrianna had been together before that night at the hotel, as shown in episode "Wide Awake and Dreaming ''. To create Adrianna 's "rough '' look during her drug addiction, Lowndes had to sit through "an hour of intense white makeup on my face and red and gray under my eyes to create broken capillaries ''. For her character 's pregnancy, Lowndes said she could n't wait to wear a heavy pregnancy belly. The actress said that "by the end of the day my back and feet are killing, so I feel like a real pregnant lady ''.
Speaking about Adrianna 's lesbian relationship with Gia, Lowndes said that it was important that the characters act like any other couple on the series. Lowndes said that "there has been a response from people who have come up to me who have been affected by it. This is truly going on in high school and people are confused and I love that we 're showing somebody like my character, who is confused. '' Lowndes was pleased with the direction of Adrianna 's storyline when her character began a music career. Lowndes, who is herself a singer, was able to sing in most the latter episodes of the season. The actress said, "it 's so exciting, and all different musical styles, as well. It 's awesome that we got a third - season pickup and there 's going to be a lot more music in the third season as well. That 's what I 'm doing when I 'm not working on 90210, I 'm working on my album. So I love it, it 's a dream come true. ''
Actress Lowndes acknowledged that initial response to her character was "a little negative -- people loved to hate me, and my haircut ''. However, she felt that reception became more positive afterward, and recovering addicts told her that she depicted it in a real way. Lowndes thought that people could relate to what she was going through, and that people are "going to like her even more as we go on ''. Lowndes defended the character 's earlier behavior, saying, "I never know what they 're going to write, but I think drugs made her who you saw at the beginning. I think she 's a good person who has a good heart. ''
After Adrianna 's overdose in the seventh episode, "Hollywood Forever '', several critics believed that she had died. Tanya Lane of Poptimal was displeased with the writing of the storyline, citing inconsistencies as the reason. Lane felt that the writers did not address the situation well, and did not like that the storyline picked up with Adrianna "enjoying a luxurious stay at a star - studded rehab '', whereas the previous episode had ended with her overdosing. Lane was also critical of Adrianna 's relationship with Navid, "apparently Navid has always been in love with her, though I ca n't recall the two of them having a single conversation in any of the previous episodes (...) Her character is very messy, so I find it rather odd that the writers are tying the loose ends up with a neat little bow. ''
M.L. House of TV.com praised the writers for slowly building the lesbian romance between Adrianna and Gia. House said, "while most shows are clearly going for a ratings stunt any time girls make out, these two are truly falling for each other. It even seems natural, given Adrianna 's shady past with men (...) Bravo! ''
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who played norma desmond in sunset boulevard on broadway | Sunset Boulevard (musical) - wikipedia
Sunset Boulevard is a musical with book and lyrics by Don Black and Christopher Hampton, and music by Andrew Lloyd Webber. Based on Billy Wilder 's Academy Award - winning 1950 film of the same title, the plot revolves around Norma Desmond, a faded star of the silent screen era, living in the past in her decaying mansion on the fabled Los Angeles street. When young screenwriter Joe Gillis accidentally crosses her path, she sees in him an opportunity to make her return to the big screen. Romance and tragedy follow.
Opening first in London in 1993, the musical has had several long runs internationally and also enjoyed extensive tours. However, it has been the subject of several legal battles and ultimately lost money due to its extraordinary running costs.
From approximately 1952 to 1956, Gloria Swanson worked with actor Richard Stapley (aka Richard Wyler) and cabaret singer / pianist Dickson Hughes on a musical adaptation originally entitled Starring Norma Desmond, then Boulevard! It ended on a happier note than the film, with Norma allowing Joe to leave and pursue a happy ending with Betty. Rights holder Paramount Pictures originally had given Swanson verbal permission to proceed with the musical, but there had been no formal legal arrangement. On 20 February 1957, Paramount executive Russell Holman wrote to Swanson asking her to cease work on the project because "it would be damaging for the property to be offered to the entertainment public in another form as a stage musical. '' In 1994, Hughes incorporated material from the production into Swanson on Sunset, based on his and Stapley 's experiences in writing Boulevard!. A recording of the entire score, which had been housed in the Gloria Swanson archives at the University of Texas, was released on CD in 2008.
In the early 1960s, Stephen Sondheim outlined a musical stage adaptation and went so far as to compose the first scene with librettist Burt Shevelove. A chance encounter with Billy Wilder at a cocktail party gave Sondheim the opportunity to introduce himself and ask the original film 's co-screenwriter and director his opinion of the project (which was to star Jeanette MacDonald). "You ca n't write a musical about Sunset Boulevard, '' Wilder responded, "it has to be an opera. After all, it 's about a dethroned queen ''. Sondheim immediately aborted his plans. A few years later, when he was invited by Hal Prince to write the score for a film remake starring Angela Lansbury as a fading musical comedian rather than a silent film star, Sondheim declined, citing his conversation with Wilder.
When Lloyd Webber saw the film in the early 1970s, he was inspired to write what he pictured as the title song for a theatrical adaptation, fragments of which he instead incorporated into Gumshoe. In 1976, after a conversation with Hal Prince, who had the theatrical rights to Sunset, Lloyd Webber wrote "an idea for the moment when Norma Desmond returns to Paramount Studios ''; Lloyd Webber did no further work on the play until after 1989 's Aspects of Love. At that point, Lloyd Webber "felt it was the subject (he) had to compose next '', though by February 1990 he had announced plans to turn Really Useful Group private so he could "make movies rather than musicals. '' Tim Rice was, at one stage, rumored to have been collaborating on the piece. An early version of "With One Look '', then titled "Just One Glance '', was performed by Elaine Paige at Lloyd Webber 's 1991 wedding.
In 1991, Lloyd Webber asked Amy Powers, a lawyer from New York with no professional lyric - writing experience, to write the lyrics for Sunset Boulevard. Don Black was later brought in to work with Powers; the two wrote the version that was performed in 1991 at Lloyd Webber 's Sydmonton Festival. This original version starred Ria Jones as Norma. but it was not a success. A revised version, written by Black and Christopher Hampton had a complete performance at the 1992 Sydmonton Festival, now with Patti LuPone playing Norma, and "met with great success ''. Lloyd Webber borrowed several of the tunes from his 1986 mini-musical Cricket, written with Tim Rice, which had been performed at Windsor Castle and later at the Sydmonton Festival.
In 1949 Hollywood, down - on - his - luck screenwriter Joe Gillis tries to hustle up some work at Paramount Studios ("Let 's Have Lunch ''). His appointment with a producer goes poorly when the executive rejects both Joe 's proposed script and a loan to bring his car payments up to date. Joe does, however, meet Betty Schaefer, a pretty, young script editor who suggests they collaborate to rework one of his earlier screenplays. As they chat, Joe is spotted by car repossession agents and makes a quick escape.
During the chase that ensues, Joe evades his pursuers by pulling into the garage of a palatial but dilapidated mansion on Sunset Boulevard. Beckoned inside the house, Joe encounters Norma Desmond, the "greatest star of all '' who ruled the silent film era but did n't make the transition to sound movies. Taken aback, Joe comments, "You used to be in pictures; you used to be big, '' to which Norma retorts, "I am big -- it 's the pictures that got small! ''
The gloomy estate is inhabited only by Norma and Max, her loyal butler and chauffeur. Although decades past her prime and mostly forgotten by the public, Norma is convinced she is as beautiful and in demand as ever. Max perpetuates this illusion by shielding her from the realities of life out of the limelight and by writing her letters purportedly from still - devoted fans. Norma informs Joe of her plan to return to the screen with Salome, a script she has written for Cecil B. DeMille to direct with her in the starring role as the teenage biblical temptress. Dubious but sensing opportunity, Joe accepts her offer of work as editor on the script. Norma insists that Joe stay in her home while they collaborate on Salome.
Joe immediately realizes the script is incoherent, but Norma wo n't allow a major rewrite and the revision drags on for months. During this time Joe is a virtual prisoner at the house, but he does break away to fulfill his commitment to Betty. Their working relationship blossoms into a romance that has her reconsidering her engagement to Joe 's best friend, Artie ("Girl Meets Boy '').
Blind to Joe 's opportunism, Norma lavishes him with gifts that include a wardrobe makeover and he becomes her kept man ("The Lady 's Paying ''). She declares her love for him and turns quite possessive ("The Perfect Year ''); when he leaves her to attend Artie 's New Year 's Eve party ("This Time Next Year ''), she is distraught and attempts suicide. As a conciliatory gesture, Joe reluctantly returns to work on Salome.
A cryptic message from Paramount has Norma certain that DeMille is eager to discuss her script. She drops in on the set of his current film and is greeted warmly by former colleagues and the famed director himself, but DeMille is noncommittal about Salome. Meanwhile, Max discovers the studio had called to ask about Norma 's exotic car, not her screenplay. However, a delusional Norma leaves the lot convinced she 'll soon be back in front of the cameras and begins to prepare for the role ("As If We Never Said Goodbye '').
Increasingly paranoid, Norma deduces that Joe and Betty are more than just friends ("Too Much in Love to Care ''). She calls the younger woman to reveal Joe 's secret life at the mansion, but he overhears and grabs the phone to tell Betty to come see for herself. Realizing their affair is doomed, Joe brusquely tells her he enjoys being Norma 's pet and that she should go back to Artie. Betty departs, confused and brokenhearted, and Joe tells Norma he is leaving her and returning to his hometown in Ohio. He also bluntly informs her that Salome is an unfilmable script and her fans have long abandoned her. Furious and grief - stricken, Norma fatally shoots Joe three times as he storms out of the house.
Now completely insane, Norma mistakes the swarms of police and reporters who arrive for studio personnel. Believing she is on the set of Salome, she slowly descends her grand staircase and utters "And now, Mr. DeMille, I am ready for my close - up. ''
† Song added for Los Angeles production
∞ Originally a reprise of "Let 's Have Lunch ''
The original West End production, directed by Trevor Nunn and choreographed by Bob Avian, with costumes from Anthony Powell, opened on 12 July 1993 at the Adelphi Theatre. The cast featured Patti LuPone as Norma Desmond, Kevin Anderson as Joe Gillis, Meredith Braun as Betty Schaefer, and Daniel Benzali as Norma 's ex-husband, Max.
Billy Wilder and his wife Audrey were joined by Nancy Olson, who had played Betty Schaefer in the original film, at the opening night performance. Of it, Wilder observed, "The best thing they did was leave the script alone, '' and of Patti LuPone he exclaimed, "She 's a star from the moment she walks on stage ''.
Reviews were mixed, according to the Associated Press (AP) review summary. That summary quoted, for example, the review by Michael Kuchwara for the AP: "Some reviewers felt Lloyd Webber took the sting out of a cynical tale. ' Wilder 's bitter brew has been diluted, ' wrote AP Drama Critic Michael Kuchwara. He added: ' When LuPone is off stage, the show sags. ' '' Frank Rich wrote "Much of the film 's plot, dialogue and horror - movie mood are preserved, not to mention clips used to illustrate those sequences in which the faded silent - film star, Norma Desmond... and her kept, young screenwriter, Joe Gillis,... travel by car. The lyricist, Don Black..., and the playwright, Christopher Hampton..., smartly tailor their jokes to the original screenplay 's style. At times, even Lloyd Webber gets into the Wilder swing. Both acts open with joltingly angry diatribes about Hollywood, part exposition - packed recitative and part song, in which the surprisingly dark, jazz - accented music, the most interesting I 've yet encountered from this composer, meshes perfectly with the cynical lyrics. Anderson makes the sardonic Wilder voice an almost physical presence in Sunset Boulevard, but he is too often drowned out by both LuPone 's Broadway belt and mechanical efforts of Lloyd Webber and his director, Trevor Nunn, to stamp the proven formulas of Phantom and Les Miz on even an intimate tale. At odd moments, the mammoth set advances like a glacier toward the audience or retreats, or, most dramatically, rises partly up into the flies, actors in tow. ''
The show closed for three weeks, re-opening on 19 April 1994, revamped to follow the Los Angeles production, with a second official "opening ''. The revamped musical had a new song, "Every Movie 's A Circus '', a new set, and new stars, Betty Buckley and John Barrowman. Michael Bauer, who had originally played DeMille, replaced Benzali as Max, a role he played until the end of the London run (and subsequently on the UK tour and in the BBC concert). Buckley and the production garnered rave reviews. David Lister of The Independent, for example wrote: "The show looked an improvement on the one that got decidedly mixed reviews last summer. ''
Buckley went on to replace Glenn Close as Norma in the second year of the Broadway production. Elaine Paige, who had filled in when Buckley was ill in 1994, took over the part in the West End in May 1995 before joining the Broadway production for the end of its run between 1996 and 1997. Petula Clark filled in for Paige during her holiday in September / October 1995, before taking over the role in January 1996 when Paige departed for the United States. The last actress to play Norma in London was Rita Moreno, who filled in for a vacationing Clark in September and October 1996. John Barrowman played Joe until 1995, when he was replaced by Alexander Hanson. Graham Bickley played the role for the final year of the London run.
The show closed on 5 April 1997, having played 1,530 performances.
The American premiere was at the Shubert Theatre in Century City, Los Angeles, California, on 9 December 1993, with Close as Norma and Alan Campbell as Joe. Featured were George Hearn as Max and Judy Kuhn as Betty. Lloyd Webber had reworked both the book and score, tightening the production, better organising the orchestrations, and adding the song "Every Movie 's A Circus ''. This new production was better received by the critics and was an instant success, running for 369 performances. The Los Angeles production also recorded a new cast album that is well regarded. It is also the only unabridged cast recording of the show, since the original London recording was trimmed by over thirty minutes.
A controversy arose with this production after Faye Dunaway was hired to replace Glenn Close. Dunaway went into rehearsals with Rex Smith as Joe and Jon Cypher as Max. Tickets went on sale for Dunaway 's engagement but shortly after rehearsals started the producers announced that Dunaway was unable to sing the role to their standards and the production would shut down when Close left. Dunaway "claims that when advance sales slumped, Sir Andrew decided to save money by sending the LA cast of Sunset Boulevard - based on the story of a clapped - out Hollywood actress - to Broadway, where it is due to open in November. '' However, the Los Angeles Times reported that "The cancellation came despite advance ticket sales for the Los Angeles production ' way in excess of $4 million, ' said Peter Brown, a spokesman for Lloyd Webber. ''
Dunaway filed a lawsuit claiming her reputation had been damaged by the producer 's claims. Dunaway 's lawsuit was settled and the producers paid her a settlement but no other terms of the agreement have ever been disclosed.
The musical opened on Broadway at the Minskoff Theatre on 17 November 1994 with Close, Campbell, and Hearn recreating their roles from the Los Angeles production and Alice Ripley joining the cast as Betty. Also in the cast were Alan Oppenheimer as Cecil B. DeMille and Vincent Tumeo making his Broadway debut as Artie Green. The production opened with the highest advance in the history of Broadway ticket sales at that time and ran for 977 performances. Billy Wilder was in attendance on opening night and was coaxed onstage by Close for the curtain call. In a season with only one other musical nominated for Best Musical, the production won several Tony Awards; Glenn Close, with only one other nominee as Best Actress in a musical, won the Tony for Best Performance by an Actress in a Leading Role.
The New York Times theatre critic Vincent Canby commented about the Tony Awards for this year: "Awards do n't really tell you much when the competition is feeble or simply nonexistent, as was the case the year that Sunset Boulevard won its Tony. Such prizes are for use in advertising and promotion and to impress the folks back home. ''
Patti LuPone, who initially had been promised the Broadway run, sued Lloyd Webber and received a settlement reported to be $1 million. Frank Rich, in his book The Hot Seat, noted that these lawsuits contributed to Sunset Boulevard setting the record for the most money lost by a theatrical endeavour in the history of the United States. According to The New York Times, operating costs soared far beyond the budget, and the "Broadway production has earned back, at best, 80 % of the initial $13 million ''. For example, during the week of 2 July 1995, "it cost $731,304 to run Sunset Boulevard, including... advertising fees of $138,352 (which had been budgeted at $40,000 a week). '' The road companies also generated large financial losses. Rich puts the final figure near or above US $20 million lost, making the show what he termed a "flop - hit, '' as it ran more than two years. The musical sold over a million tickets on Broadway.
The first national US tour in 1996 starring Linda Balgord ended in early 1997 after only a handful of venues due to exorbitant costs involved in transporting the set. Lloyd Webber called in director Susan H. Schulman to design a scaled - down production, with Petula Clark once again in the lead opposite Lewis Cleale as Joe. This production featured Anthony Powell 's Tony Award nominated costumes, a slightly modified libretto by Schulman and Don Black and a new, more tour - friendly set by Derek McLane. The revised production, opening in Pittsburgh about a year after the closing of the original tour in Chicago, went on the road for almost two years, though it avoided the cities covered by the previous tour.
In August 2001, a UK tour commenced in Plymouth starring Faith Brown as Norma, opposite Earl Carpenter as Joe. The production had a completely new set, much simpler than the original London set, although the overall production remained closer to the original staging than the revamped US national tour. Carpenter left midway through the tour and was replaced by Jeremy Finch, who had previously understudied the role. The tour finished in late 2002 in Manchester and met with both excellent reviews and respectable ticket sales.
Ria Jones, who originated the role of Norma Desmond in the 1991 Sydmonton Workshop and understudied Glenn Close in the 2016 West End revival, will lead a new production opening at Leicester 's Curve Theatre on September 16, 2017 for a two - week run before embarking on a national tour around the United Kingdom.
A German production of the musical opened 7 December 1995 at the newly built Rhein - Main Theater in Niedernhausen near Wiesbaden, starring Helen Schneider and Sue Mathys (matinees) as Norma and Uwe Kröger as Joe. A cast recording (with Schneider and Kröger) was released in 1996. The role of Norma was later played by Daniela Ziegler and Christina Grimandi, with Schneider and, for the last few months, Sue Mathys both returning to play the lead. The production closed in May 1998.
The original Canadian production opened in Toronto in 1995 with Diahann Carroll in the lead role. Her performance was also praised by critics, although the production closed sooner than expected. It also starred Rex Smith as Joe, Walter Charles as Max and Anita Louise Combe, who had understudied the role in the London production, as Betty. The production later moved to Vancouver for the final few months of its run. A highlights recording of this production was released on CD.
In October 1996, the original Australian production of the musical opened at Melbourne 's newly restored Regent Theatre. The cast included Debra Byrne as Norma, Hugh Jackman as Joe, and Catherine Porter as Betty. Maria Mercedes starred as the alternate Norma, performing two of the eight shows each week. Amanda Harrison took over the role of Betty for the final months of the show 's run. The production ran until 14 June 1997.
A year - long Dutch tour commenced in the Netherlands on 10 October 2008, with Simone Kleinsma and Pia Douwes alternating as Norma and Antonie Kamerling as Joe, using the same modified libretto that was first used in the 2001 UK tour. Kleinsma went on to win the Best Actress Award for the role in the 2009 Dutch Musical Awards and also Best Actress for the Flemish Musical Prizes. An official cast album was released, with Kleinsma appearing on the main album and with a four track bonus CD of Pia Douwes singing Norma 's main arias.
The Swedish premiere took place at the Värmlandsoperan in September 2009, to mostly positive reviews. The role of Norma was played by Maria Lundqvist. A second much more elaborate production opened in October 2010, at the Gothenburg Opera House, with Gunilla Backman (who previously understudied the role of Betty in the original German production) starring as Norma.
A South African production starring Angela Kilian as Norma and Jonathan Roxmouth as Joe, was shown at the Pieter Toerien Theatre at Montecasino in Johannesburg from late August 2013 to mid October 2013 and at Theatre On The Bay in Cape Town from late October 2013 until early January 2014.
Another German production, starring Katharina Scherer as Norma, Philippe J. Kayser as Joe, Antonia Crames as Betty, and Stephan Vanecek as Max, opened to sold - out seats on 15 September 2017 and had its fourteenth and final performance on 8 October 2017 at the Tuchfabrik in Trier.
The Spanish premiere production opened 27 December 2017 at the Auditorio de Tenerife, directed by Jaime Azpilicueta and starring Paloma San Basilio as Norma Desmond, Gerónimo Rauch as Joe Gillis, Inma Mira as Betty Schaefer, and Gonzalo Montes as Max von Mayerling.
An eight - week engagement of a minimalist production, in which the actors used musical instruments, enjoyed a good run at the Watermill Theatre in Newbury over the summer of 2008. Directed and choreographed by Craig Revel Horwood, the cast featured Kathryn Evans as Norma and Ben Goddard as Joe. A West End transfer of the Watermill production began on 4 December 2008 prior to an official opening 15 December at the Comedy Theatre, with Evans and Goddard reprising their roles, and Dave Willetts joining the cast as Max. The production received rave reviews and extended its run to September 2009. However, the production closed just after initially planned on 30 May 2009. It had originally been booking until 19 September 2009. There were plans for a UK Tour and also talks of bringing the show to Broadway
Opening on 4 April 2016 English National Opera (ENO) presented a five - week ' semi-staged ' run at the London Coliseum. Glenn Close reprised her role as Norma, making her West End debut, along with Michael Xavier as Joe, Siobhan Dillon as Betty and Fred Johanson as Max. Michael Linnit and Michael Grade for Gate Ventures PLC worked with ENO to present the show; Johnny Hon was the executive producer. In October 2016, Playbill reported that "the show ' is definitely a go ' for the Palace Theatre (Broadway) in January 2017. '' There has been no official announcement, but producers have expressed an interest in bringing the ENO production to Broadway. It was announced on 25 October 2016 that the production will transfer to Broadway at the Palace Theatre in a limited engagement, starting in February 2017 with Close playing Norma, directed by Lonny Price.
Glenn Close reprised her performance as Norma Desmond in a revival on Broadway. Featuring a 40 - piece onstage orchestra and a relatively minimalist set, the production began performances at the Palace Theatre on 2 February 2017 before opening officially on 9 February for a limited run, with tickets on sale through 25 June 2017. The cast featured Michael Xavier as Joe Gillis, Siobhan Dillon as Betty Schaefer, and Fred Johanson as Max von Mayerling, all reprising their roles from the 2016 London ENO production. The 2017 Broadway revival was directed by Lonny Price.
In 2004, the first regional production of Sunset Boulevard was staged in the round at the Marriott Theatre in Chicago for a limited period and starred Paula Scrofano as Norma. It was the first and only regional production to be licensed by the Really Useful Group (RUG) for the next six years. However, in the spring of 2010, the leasing rights were finally released to regional companies and numerous productions have been staged around the United States.
The Ogunquit Playhouse production ran from 28 July through 14 August 2010 and starred Stefanie Powers as Norma and Todd Gearhart as Joe. This was the first fully staged production in the U.S. in nearly a decade. The Ogunquit production was directed by Shaun Kerrison with choreography by Tom Kosis, featured costumes by Anthony Powell and an all new set designed exclusively for Ogunquit by Todd Ivins.
The Arvada Center production ran from 14 September to 10 October 2010, in Denver, Colorado, the same city that launched the ill - fated first US tour in 1996. The show starred Ann Crumb as Norma and Kevin Earley as Joe. The production was directed by Rod A. Landsberry.
The Signature Theatre (Arlington, Virginia) production ran from 7 December 2010 to 13 February 2011 and starred Florence Lacey as Norma, with direction by Eric D. Schaeffer. Schaeffer said that the theatre was turned "into the back lot of Paramount Studios, so you feel like you 're sitting in the back lot and there 's sandbags and catwalks overhead, and then that actually transforms into the mansion. '' The production featured a 20 - piece orchestra, which is the largest the theatre has ever used.
Pioneer Theatre Company in Salt Lake City, Utah staged their production 29 April 2011 to 14 May 2011. Lynne Wintersteller starred as Norma, Benjamin Eakeley as Joe and Martin Vidnovic as Max. The show was directed by John Going. The production team included choreographer Jayne Luke, music director Michael Rice, set designer George Maxwell, costume designer Carol Wells - Day, lighting designer Dennis Parichy and sound designer Matthew Tibbs.
The Music Theatre of Wichita staged a production from 6 to 10 July 2011, using a 27 - piece orchestra. The show was directed by Mark Madama and starred Ann Morrison as Norma, Chris Peluso as Joe, Nicolas F. Saverine as Max and Kaleigh Cronin as Betty.
The Barn Theatre in Augusta, Michigan, staged a production starring four - time Emmy - winning soap star Kim Zimmer from 23 August to 4 September 2011. The show was directed by Hans Friedrichs, with music direction by John Jay Espino.
The Pittsburgh CLO staged a new production in July 2012 starring Liz Callaway as Norma Desmond.
Maine State Music Theatre in Brunswick, ME, staged a production for their 2012 Summer Season starring Denise Whelan as Norma and Gregg Goodbrod as Joe. The cast was reduced to 10 and the script was slimmed down to focus on Norma and the people closest to her.
Another scaled down production, using the modified libretto from the 2001 UK tour, played at Vintage Theatre in Denver, Colorado from 29 April to 29 May 2016. It was directed by Evgueni Mlodik and Craig Bond and starred Opera Colorado mezzo soprano Marcia Ragonetti as Norma Desmond, Drew Hirschboeck as Joe Gillis, Wes Munsil as Max, and Miranda Byers as Betty Schaefer. (1)
In April 2004, Petula Clark reprised her role as Norma opposite Michael Ball in a concert production of the show that ran for two nights at the Cork Opera House in Ireland, which was later broadcast on BBC Radio 2. The cast also included Michael Bauer (Max), Emma Williams (Betty), Michael Xavier (Artie) and the BBC Concert Orchestra was conducted by Martin Yates. To date, with more than 2500 performances to her credit, she has played the role more often than any other actress.
Another two - day concert engagement took place in 2004 in Sydney by the Production Company; Judi Connelli starred as Norma, Michael Cormick played Joe and Anthony Warlow was Max. The Production Company staged a slightly more elaborate version of the concert for a week in Melbourne during 2005. Connelli again starred as Norma, and David Campbell took the role of Joe. The State Theatre was sold out for every performance.
Paramount Pictures and the Relevant Picture Company announced in 2005 that they were developing a film adaptation of the musical. In 2007, The Daily Telegraph reported that actresses being considered for the role of Norma Desmond included Close, Paige, Meryl Streep, Liza Minnelli and Barbra Streisand. In an interview in 2008, Andrew Lloyd Webber said that there are no plans for a film adaptation to be made in the near future, but he remains hopeful one will be made at some point. In 2011, Lloyd Webber indicated he would like Madonna to star in the film, though she was n't taking his calls. In December 2011, Andrew Lloyd Webber told the Daily Mail that he was considering filming a stage production of the show for cinema and DVD release featuring Glenn Close as Norma Desmond, but noted that the inherent costs in forming the production might hinder the project 's viability.
In an interview with Elaine Paige during her BBC Radio 2 show Elaine Paige on Sunday on 6 October 2013, Lloyd Webber was asked "What 's happening to the film? '', and he replied:
I would love a film to be made of Sunset, of course, but unfortunately the rights are owned by Paramount who own the original movie and, so far, talks with them have never led to anything. And it 's sad for me because I think in many ways Sunset is, I think, the most complete musical I have written, I mean in the sense that the book and the music and everything come together I think in a way that perhaps even some of the others, they do n't. Anyway that 's my sadness at the moment and maybe, one day, the whole thing will get brokered. I 'm doing something else with Paramount because after I 've done this I 'm producing School of Rock on stage, and that 's a Paramount picture, so maybe if they like what I do with that they 'll let me do Sunset.
In 17 August 2017, Close was in early talks to play Norma Desmond in the movie.
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when did abby cadabby first appear on sesame street | Abby Cadabby - wikipedia
Abigail "Abby '' Cadabby, mostly referred to as just Abby, is a 4 - year - old character in the PBS children 's television show Sesame Street. She is a Muppet. In 2006, Abby made her debut in the first episode of Sesame Street 's 37th season, when she moved into the neighborhood and met some of the Street 's residents. On the day of her debut, her wand broke; Big Bird told her to take her wand to the Fix - It Shop where Maria would fix it. Season 40 features her CGI - animated segment "Abby 's Flying Fairy School ''.
Her name is a pun of the magic word Abracadabra. Abby 's magical powers are limited to popping in and out of thin air, floating when she 's happy, and turning things into pumpkins. Although familiar with the world of fairy tales, Abby is astounded by such basic learning skills as drawing letters or counting, prompting her catchphrase "That 's so magical! '' She frequently uses her wand cell phone to call her mommy. When she 's asked to return home, she says that she 's "got ta poof. '' She can speak a language called Dragonfly and is teaching Rosita the language, while Rosita teaches her Spanish. Along with Baby Bear, Abby begins attending school in a 2006 episode at the Storybook Community School, where Mrs. Goose is the teacher and other fairy tale characters like Hansel and Gretel are her classmates.
Tony Geiss conceptualized Abby as a way to simultaneously introduce a major female character to the show and add someone from a different culture, without "having consciously to introduce somebody from Indonesia or India. '' Abby 's design is an intentional departure from the typical Muppet look because she 's not originally from Sesame Street. The implication is that the fairies in her old neighborhood look like her.
Abby 's likeness has been adapted for a 43 - foot balloon which premiered in the 2007 Macy 's Thanksgiving Day Parade, a full - body costume character for stage appearances and a number of merchandise items.
In 2008, Abby was added to the cast of Plaza Sésamo, the Mexican co-production of Sesame Street, appearing in new segments where she tries to perform magic tricks with various ordinary objects. In 2009, she became the host of 3, 2, 1 Vamos!, a Latin American pre-school programming block, which first aired in English in 2010, on Canadian television.
Abby Cadabby was officially announced in TV Guide, months before the 37th season debut of Sesame Street, and a press kit was issued soon after. Rumors had floated on the Internet before that, with an anonymous Sesame Workshop or Muppet insider revealing the addition on Muppet Wiki.
She made her Street debut on August 14, 2006.
Abby was scheduled to be interviewed 10 August 2006 on The Today Show on NBC; "NBC Special Report '' coverage of the 2006 transatlantic aircraft plot pre-empted the interview. Abby appeared for a short chat on 14 August, a few short minutes with Bobbie Thomas and Hoda Kotb before the weather. The scheduled "satellite - tour '' of local stations across America went on later that day.
Abby was to be featured as ABC World News "Person of the Week '' on 11 August 2006; Hurricane Katrina / 2006 Israel - Lebanon conflict dog rescuer Linda Nealon pre-empted her. Cadabby was featured on the 18 August broadcast, with the teaser, "Femininity comes to Sesame Street ''. She was touted as the first 3 - year - old "Person of The Week ''.
Abby appeared on the August 11 edition of All Things Considered on NPR.
In 2007, Abby had her own balloon made after her in the 2007 Macy 's Thanksgiving Day Parade. In 2008, Abby starred as ' Alice ' in the Sesame Street direct - to - DVD film Abby in Wonderland that adapts Lewis Carroll 's Alice in Wonderland. Abby is also now featured in the 2007 - 2009 tour of Sesame Street Live show When Elmo Grows Up and also on the 2012 - 2013 leg of the "Elmo Makes Music '' tour.
In 2014 's direct - to - DVD film "Elmo 's Super Numbers '', Abby appears at NumberCon as "One - Da Woman '', a numeric spoof and pun of the DC comic book female superhero, Wonder Woman.
Abby is the host of Sesame Street 's autism initiative.
The animation studio SpeakEasy FX, founded by director Scott Stewart, produces the "Abby 's Flying Fairy School '' series.
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when did kobe bryant win his first ring | Kobe Bryant - Wikipedia
Kobe Bean Bryant (born August 23, 1978) is an American retired professional basketball player and businessman. He played his entire 20 - year career with the Los Angeles Lakers of the National Basketball Association (NBA). He entered the NBA directly from high school and won five NBA championships with the Lakers. Bryant is an 18 - time All - Star, 15 - time member of the All - NBA Team, and 12 - time member of the All - Defensive team. He led the NBA in scoring during two seasons, and ranks third on the league 's all - time regular season scoring and fourth on the all - time postseason scoring list. He holds the NBA record for the most seasons playing with one franchise for an entire career.
The son of former NBA player Joe Bryant, Kobe Bryant enjoyed a successful high school basketball career at Lower Merion High School in Pennsylvania, where he was recognized as the top high school basketball player in the country. He declared for the NBA draft upon graduation, and was selected with the 13th overall pick in the 1996 NBA draft by the Charlotte Hornets, who traded him to the Lakers. As a rookie, Bryant earned himself a reputation as a high - flyer and a fan favorite by winning the 1997 Slam Dunk Contest, and he was named an All - Star by his second season. Despite a feud between them, Bryant and Shaquille O'Neal led the Lakers to three consecutive championships from 2000 to 2002.
In 2003, Bryant was accused of sexual assault in Colorado, but the charges were eventually dropped, and a civil suit was settled out of court. After the Lakers lost the 2004 NBA Finals, O'Neal was traded to the Miami Heat. Bryant became the cornerstone of the Lakers, and he led the NBA in scoring during the 2005 -- 06 and 2006 -- 07 seasons. In 2006, he scored a career - high 81 points against the Toronto Raptors, the second most points scored in a single game in league history behind Wilt Chamberlain 's 100 - point game in 1962. Bryant was awarded the regular season 's Most Valuable Player Award (MVP) in 2008. After losing in the 2008 NBA Finals, he led the Lakers to two consecutive championships in 2009 and 2010, earning the Finals MVP Award on both occasions. He continued to be among the top players in the league through 2013, when the 34 - year - old Bryant suffered a torn Achilles tendon. Although he recovered, his play was limited the following two years by season - ending injuries to his knee and shoulder, respectively. Citing his physical decline, he announced that he would be retiring after the 2015 -- 16 season.
At 34 years and 104 days of age, Bryant became the youngest player in league history to reach 30,000 career points. He became the all - time leading scorer in Lakers franchise history on February 1, 2010, when he surpassed Jerry West. Following his second year in the league, Bryant was chosen to start every All - Star Game until his retirement for a record 18 consecutive appearances, and his four All - Star MVP Awards are tied for the most in NBA history. At the 2008 and 2012 Summer Olympics, he won gold medals as a member of the U.S. national team. Sporting News and TNT named Bryant the top NBA player of the 2000s.
Bryant was born in Philadelphia, as the youngest of three children and the only son of former NBA player Joe Bryant and Pamela Cox Bryant. He is also the maternal nephew of basketball player John "Chubby '' Cox. His parents named him after the famous beef of Kobe, Japan, which they saw on a restaurant menu. His middle name, Bean, is derived from his father 's nickname "Jellybean ''. Bryant was raised Roman Catholic. When Bryant was six, his father left the NBA and moved his family to Rieti in Italy to continue playing professional basketball. Bryant became accustomed to his new lifestyle and learned to speak fluent Italian. During summers, he would come back to the United States to play in a basketball summer league.
Bryant started playing basketball when he was 3 years old, and his favorite team growing up was the Lakers. Bryant 's grandfather would mail him videos of NBA games, which Bryant would study. At an early age, he also learned to play soccer and his favorite team was A.C. Milan. Upon Joe Bryant 's retirement from playing basketball in 1991, the Bryant family moved back to the United States.
Bryant earned national recognition during a spectacular high school career at Lower Merion High School located in Ardmore, in the Philadelphia suburb of Lower Merion. As a freshman, he played for the varsity basketball team. He became the first freshman in decades to start for Lower Merion 's varsity team, but the team finished with a 4 -- 20 record. The following three years, the Aces compiled a 77 -- 13 record, with Bryant playing all five positions. During his junior year, he averaged 31.1 points, 10.4 rebounds and 5.2 assists and was named Pennsylvania Player of the Year, attracting attention from college recruiters in the process. Duke, Michigan, North Carolina and Villanova were at the top of his list; however, when Kevin Garnett went in the first round of the 1995 NBA draft, he began considering going directly to the pros.
At Adidas ABCD camp, Bryant earned the 1995 senior MVP award, while playing alongside future NBA teammate Lamar Odom. While in high school, then 76ers coach John Lucas invited Bryant to work out and scrimmage with the team, where he played one - on - one with Jerry Stackhouse. In his senior year of high school, Bryant led the Aces to their first state championship in 53 years. During the run, he averaged 30.8 points, 12 rebounds, 6.5 assists, 4.0 steals, and 3.8 blocked shots in leading the Aces to a 31 -- 3 record. Bryant ended his high school career as Southeastern Pennsylvania 's all - time leading scorer at 2,883 points, surpassing both Wilt Chamberlain and Lionel Simmons.
Bryant received several awards for his performance his senior year including being named Naismith High School Player of the Year, Gatorade Men 's National Basketball Player of the Year, a McDonald 's All - American, and a USA Today All - USA First Team player. Bryant 's varsity coach, Greg Downer, commented that he was "a complete player who dominates '' and praised his work ethic, even as the team 's top player. In 1996, Bryant took R&B singer Brandy to his senior prom, though the two were, and remain, just friends. Ultimately, however, the 17 - year - old Bryant made the decision to go directly into the NBA, only the sixth player in NBA history to do so. Bryant 's news was met with a lot of publicity at a time when prep - to - pro NBA players were not very common (Garnett being the only exception in 20 years). His basketball skills and SAT score of 1080 would have ensured admission to any college he chose, but he did not officially visit any campuses. In 2012, Bryant was honored as one of the 35 Greatest McDonald 's All - Americans.
The first guard to ever be taken out of high school, Bryant was chosen as the 13th overall draft pick by the Charlotte Hornets in 1996. According to Arn Tellem, Bryant 's agent at the time, Bryant playing for the Charlotte Hornets was "an impossibility ''. However, Bill Branch, the Hornets ' head scout at the time, said that the Hornets agreed to trade their draft selection to the Los Angeles Lakers before picking Bryant. The teams agreed to the trade the day before the draft and the Lakers told the Hornets whom to select five minutes before the pick was made. Branch said that prior to the trade agreement, the Hornets never even considered drafting Bryant. Prior to the draft, Bryant had worked out in Los Angeles, where he scrimmaged against former Lakers players Larry Drew and Michael Cooper and, according to then - Laker manager Jerry West, "marched over these people ''. On July 1, 1996, West traded his starting center, Vlade Divac, to the Hornets in exchange for Bryant 's draft rights. Since he was still 17 at the time of the draft, his parents had to cosign his contract with the Lakers until he was able to sign his own when he turned 18 before the season began.
Bryant debuted in the Summer Pro League in Long Beach, California, scoring 25 points in front of a standing - room - only crowd. Defenders struggled to get in front of him, and his performance excited West and Lakers coach Del Harris. He scored 36 points in the finale, and finished with averages of 24.5 points and 5.3 rebounds in four game. As a rookie in 1996 -- 97, Bryant mostly came off the bench behind guards Eddie Jones and Nick Van Exel. At the time he became the youngest player ever to play in an NBA game (18 years, 72 days; a record since broken by Jermaine O'Neal and former teammate Andrew Bynum), and also became the youngest NBA starter ever (18 years, 158 days). Initially, Bryant played limited minutes, but as the season continued, he began to see some more playing time. By the end of the season, he averaged 15.5 minutes a game. During the All - Star weekend, Bryant participated in the Rookie Challenge and won the 1997 Slam Dunk Contest, becoming the youngest dunk champion ever at the age of 18. Bryant 's performance throughout the year earned him a spot on the NBA All - Rookie Second Team with fellow bench teammate Travis Knight. The Lakers advanced to the Western Conference semifinals in the playoffs against the Utah Jazz, when Bryant was pressed into a lead role at the end of Game 5. Byron Scott missed the game with a sprained wrist, Robert Horry was ejected for fighting with the Utah 's Jeff Hornacek, and Shaquille O'Neal fouled out with 1: 46 remaining in the fourth quarter. Bryant shot four air balls at the end of the game; the Jazz won 98 -- 93 in overtime to eliminate the Lakers 4 -- 1. He first whiffed a game - winning 2 - point jump shot in the fourth quarter, and then misfired three three - point field goals in overtime, including two tying shots in the final minute. O'Neal commented that "(Bryant) was the only guy who had the guts at the time to take shots like that. ''
In Bryant 's second season, he received more playing time and began to show more of his abilities as a talented young guard. As a result, Bryant 's point averages more than doubled from 7.6 to 15.4 points per game. Bryant would see an increase in minutes when the Lakers "played small '', which would feature Bryant playing small forward alongside the guards he would usually back up. Bryant was the runner - up for the NBA 's Sixth Man of the Year Award, and through fan voting, he also became the youngest NBA All - Star starter in NBA history. He was joined by teammates O'Neal, Van Exel, and Jones, making it the first time since 1983 that four players on the same team were selected to play in the same All - Star Game. Bryant 's 15.4 points per game was the highest of any non-starter in the season.
The 1998 -- 99 season marked Bryant 's emergence as a premier guard in the league. With starting guards Van Exel and Jones traded, Bryant started every game for the lockout - shortened 50 - game season. During the season, Bryant signed a 6 - year contract extension worth $70 million. This kept him with the Lakers until the end of the 2003 -- 04 season. Even at an early stage of his career, sportswriters were comparing his skills to those of Michael Jordan and Magic Johnson. The playoff results, however, were no better, as the Lakers were swept by the San Antonio Spurs in the Western Conference Semifinals.
Bryant 's fortunes would soon change when Phil Jackson became coach for the Lakers in 1999. After years of steady improvement, Bryant became one of the premier shooting guards in the league, earning appearances in the league 's All - NBA, All - Star, and All - Defensive teams. The Lakers became championship contenders under Bryant and O'Neal, who formed a legendary center - guard combination. Jackson utilized the triangle offense he used to win six championships with the Chicago Bulls, which would help both Bryant and O'Neal rise to the elite class of the NBA. The three resulting championships won consecutively in 2000, 2001, and 2002 further proved such a fact.
Bryant started the 1999 -- 2000 season sidelined for six weeks due to an injury to his hand suffered during a preseason game against the Washington Wizards. With Bryant back and playing over 38 minutes a game, he saw an increase in all statistical categories in the 1999 -- 2000 season. This included leading the team in assists per game and steals per game. The duo of O'Neal and Bryant backed with a strong bench led to the Lakers winning 67 games, tied for fifth-most in NBA history. This followed with O'Neal winning the MVP and Bryant being named to the All - NBA Team Second Team and All - NBA Defensive Team for the first time in his career (the youngest player ever to receive defensive honors). While playing second fiddle to O'Neal in the playoffs, Bryant had some clutch performances including a 25 - point, 11 rebound, 7 assist, 4 block game in game 7 of the Western Conference finals against the Portland Trail Blazers. He also threw an alley - oop pass to O'Neal to clinch the game and the series. In the 2000 Finals against the Indiana Pacers, Bryant injured his ankle in the second quarter of Game 2 after landing on the Pacers ' Jalen Rose 's foot. Rose later admitted he placed his foot under Bryant intentionally. Bryant did not return to the game, and he also missed Game 3 due to the injury. In Game 4, Bryant scored 22 points in the second half, and led the team to an OT victory as O'Neal fouled out of the game. Bryant scored the winning shot to put the Lakers ahead 120 -- 118. With a 116 -- 111 Game 6 victory, the Lakers won their first championship since 1988.
Statistically, the 2000 -- 01 season saw Bryant perform similarly to the previous year, but he averaged 6 more points a game (28.5). It was also the year when disagreements between Bryant and O'Neal began to surface. Once again he led the team in assists with 5 per game. The Lakers however, only won 56 games, an 11 - game drop off from last year. The Lakers would respond by going 15 -- 1 in the playoffs. They easily swept the Portland Trail Blazers, Sacramento Kings, and San Antonio Spurs to advance to the Finals, before losing their first game against the Philadelphia 76ers in OT. They would go on to win the next 4 games and bring their second championship to Los Angeles in as many seasons. During the playoffs, Bryant played heavy minutes which brought his stats up to 29.4 points, 7.3 rebounds, and 6.1 assists per game. In the playoffs, teammate O'Neal declared Bryant the best player in the league. Bryant ended up making the All NBA Second team and All NBA Defensive Team for the second year in a row. In addition, he was also voted to start in the NBA All - Star Game for the 3rd year in a row (no game in 1999).
In the 2001 -- 02 season, Bryant played 80 games for the first time in his career. He continued his all - round play by averaging 25.2 points, 5.5 rebounds, and 5.5 assists per game. He also had a career high 46.9 % shooting and once again led his team in assists. He claimed his first All - Star MVP trophy after a 31 - point performance in Philadelphia, when he was loudly booed by fans as they had throughout the game, stemming from his earlier comment to a 76ers heckler during the Finals that the Lakers were "going to cut your hearts out ''. While making the All - NBA Defensive team again, he was also promoted to the All - NBA First Team for the first time in his career. The Lakers won 58 games that year and finished second place in the Pacific Division behind in - state rival Sacramento Kings. Bryant was suspended one game after he punched Reggie Miller of the Indiana Pacers after the Lakers ' March 1, 2002 victory over the Pacers.
The road to the Finals would prove a lot tougher than the record run the Lakers had the previous year. While the Lakers swept the Blazers and defeated the Spurs 4 -- 1 in the first two rounds of the playoffs, the Lakers did not have home court advantage against the Sacramento Kings. The series would stretch to 7 games, the first time this happened to the Lakers since the 2000 Western Conference Finals. However, the Lakers were able to beat their division rivals and make their third consecutive NBA Finals appearance. In the 2002 Finals against the New Jersey Nets, Bryant averaged 26.8 points, 51.4 % shooting, 5.8 rebounds, 5.3 assists per game, which included scoring a quarter of the teams points. At age 23, Bryant became the youngest player to win three championships. Bryant 's play was notable and praised for his performance in the 4th quarter of games, specifically the last 2 rounds of the playoffs. This cemented Bryant 's reputation as a "clutch player ''.
In the 2002 -- 03 season, Bryant set an NBA record for three - pointers on January 7, 2003, making 12 against the Seattle SuperSonics. He averaged 30 points per game and embarked on a historic run, posting 40 or more points in nine consecutive games while averaging 40.6 in the entire month of February. In addition, he averaged 6.9 rebounds, 5.9 assists, and 2.2 steals per game, all career highs to that point. Bryant was once again voted to both the All - NBA and All - Defensive 1st teams, and came in third place in voting for the MVP award. After finishing 50 -- 32 in the regular season, the Lakers floundered in the playoffs and lost in the Western Conference semi-finals to the eventual NBA champions San Antonio Spurs in six games.
In the following 2003 -- 04 season, the Lakers were able to acquire NBA All - Stars Karl Malone, and Gary Payton to make another push at the NBA Championship. Before the season began, Bryant was arrested for sexual assault. This caused Bryant to miss some games due to court appearances or attend court earlier in the day and travel to play games later in same day. In the final game of the regular season, the Lakers played the Portland Trail Blazers. Bryant made two buzzer beaters to win the game and the Pacific Division title. At the end of the fourth quarter, Bryant made a 3 - pointer with 1.1 seconds left to send it into overtime. The game eventually went to a second overtime, in which Bryant made another 3 - pointer as time expired to lift the Lakers past the Blazers, 105 -- 104.
With a starting lineup of O'Neal, Malone, Payton, and Bryant, the Lakers were able to reach the NBA Finals. However, they were upset in five games by the Detroit Pistons, who won their first championship since 1990. In that series, Bryant averaged 22.6 points per game and 4.4 assists. He shot 35.1 % from the field. Jackson 's contract as coach was not renewed, and Rudy Tomjanovich took over. O'Neal was traded to the Miami Heat for Lamar Odom, Caron Butler, and Brian Grant. The following day, Bryant declined an offer to sign with the Los Angeles Clippers and re-signed with the Lakers on a seven - year contract.
Bryant was closely scrutinized and criticized during the 2004 -- 05 season with his reputation badly damaged from all that had happened over the previous year. A particularly damaging salvo came when Jackson wrote The Last Season: A Team in Search of Its Soul. The book detailed the events of the Lakers ' tumultuous 2003 -- 04 season and has a number of criticisms of Bryant. In the book, Jackson called Bryant "un-coachable ''. Midway through the season, Tomjanovich suddenly resigned as Lakers coach, citing the recurrence of health problems and exhaustion. Without Tomjanovich, stewardship of the remainder of the Lakers ' season fell to career assistant coach Frank Hamblen. Bryant was the league 's second - leading scorer at 27.6 points per game, but he was surrounded by a subpar supporting cast, and the Lakers went 34 -- 48 and missed the playoffs for the first time in over a decade. The year signified a drop in Bryant 's overall status in the NBA, as he did not make the NBA All - Defensive Team and was also demoted to the All - NBA Third Team. During the season, Bryant also engaged in public feuds with Malone and Ray Allen.
The 2005 -- 06 NBA season would mark a crossroads in Bryant 's basketball career. Despite past differences with Bryant, Jackson returned to coach the Lakers. Bryant endorsed the move, and by all appearances, the two men worked together well the second time around, leading the Lakers back into the playoffs. Bryant 's individual scoring accomplishments posted resulted in the finest statistical season of his career. On December 20, 2005, Bryant scored 62 points in three quarters against the Dallas Mavericks. Entering the fourth quarter, Bryant outscored the entire Mavericks team 62 -- 61, the only time a player has done this through three quarters since the introduction of the shot clock. When the Lakers faced the Miami Heat on January 16, 2006, Bryant and Shaquille O'Neal made headlines by engaging in handshakes and hugs before the game, signifying a change in the feud that had festered between them. A month later, at the 2006 NBA All - Star Game, the two were seen laughing together.
On January 22, 2006, Bryant scored a career - high 81 points in a 122 -- 104 victory against the Toronto Raptors. In addition to breaking the previous franchise record of 71 set by Elgin Baylor, Bryant 's 81 - point game was the second - highest point total in NBA history, surpassed only by Chamberlain 's 100 - point game in 1962. Whereas Chamberlain was fed repeatedly by teammates for inside shots in a blowout win, Bryant created his own shot -- mostly from the outside -- in a game which the Lakers trailed at halftime by 14 and did not pull away until the fourth quarter. Chamberlain, playing in an era when the games were paced faster and scoring opportunities were more plentiful, accounted for 59 percent of his team 's points in Philadelphia 's 169 -- 147 win, compared to Bryant scoring 66 percent of the Lakers ' 122 points. In that same month, Bryant also became the first player since 1964 to score 45 points or more in four consecutive games, joining Chamberlain and Baylor as the only players ever to do so. For the month of January, Bryant averaged 43.4 points per game, the eighth highest single month scoring average in NBA history and highest for any player other than Chamberlain. By the end of the 2005 -- 06 season, Bryant set Lakers single - season franchise records for most 40 - point games (27) and most points scored (2,832). He won the league 's scoring title for the first time by averaging 35.4 points per game, becoming just the fifth player in league history to average at least 35 in a season. Bryant finished in fourth place in the voting for the 2006 NBA Most Valuable Player Award, but received 22 first place votes -- second only to winner Steve Nash.
Later in the season, it was reported that Bryant would change his jersey number from 8 to 24 at the start of the 2006 -- 07 NBA season. Bryant 's first high school number was 24 before he switched to 33. After the Lakers ' season ended, Bryant said on TNT that he wanted 24 as a rookie, but it was unavailable, as was 33, retired with Kareem Abdul - Jabbar. Bryant wore 143 at the Adidas ABCD camp, and chose 8 by adding those numbers. In the first round of the playoffs, the Lakers played well enough to reach a 3 -- 1 series lead over the Phoenix Suns, culminating with Bryant 's overtime - forcing and game - winning shots in Game 4. They came within six seconds of eliminating the second - seeded Suns in Game 6, however, they lost that game 126 -- 118 in overtime. Despite Bryant 's 27.9 points per game in the series, the Lakers broke down, and ultimately fell to the Suns in seven games. After scoring 50 points on 20 of 35 shooting in the Game 6 loss, Bryant was criticized for only taking three shots in the second half of the 121 -- 90 Game 7 loss to Phoenix.
During the 2006 -- 07 season, Bryant was selected to his 9th All - Star Game appearance, and on February 18, he logged 31 points, 6 assists, and 6 steals, earning his second career All - Star Game MVP trophy. Over the course of the season, Bryant became involved in a number of on court incidents. On January 28 while attempting to draw contact on a potential game winning jumpshot, he flailed his arm, striking San Antonio Spurs guard Manu Ginóbili in the face with his elbow. Following a league review, Bryant was suspended for the subsequent game at Madison Square Garden against the New York Knicks. The basis given for the suspension was that Bryant had performed an "unnatural motion '' in swinging his arm backwards. Later, on March 6, he seemed to repeat the motion, this time striking Minnesota Timberwolves guard Marko Jarić. On March 7, the NBA handed Bryant his second one - game suspension. In his first game back on March 9, he elbowed Kyle Korver in the face which was retroactively re-classified as a Type 1 flagrant foul.
On March 16, Bryant scored a season - high 65 points in a home game against the Portland Trail Blazers, which helped end the Lakers 7 - game losing streak. This was the second - best scoring performance of his 11 - year career. The following game, Bryant recorded 50 points against the Minnesota Timberwolves, after which he scored 60 points in a road win against the Memphis Grizzlies -- becoming the second Laker to score three straight 50 - plus point games, a feat not seen since Jordan last did it in 1987. The only other Laker to do so was Baylor, who also scored 50 + in three consecutive contests in December 1962. In the following day, in a game against the New Orleans Hornets, Bryant scored 50 points, making him the second player in NBA history to have four straight 50 - point games behind Chamberlain, who achieved it twice with streaks of five and seven. Bryant finished the year with a total of ten 50 - plus point games, matched only by Chamberlain. Bryant also won his second straight scoring title that season. Throughout the 2006 -- 07 season, his jersey became the top selling NBA jersey in the United States and China. A number of journalists have attributed the improved sales to Bryant 's new number, as well as his continuing All - Star performance on the court. In the 2007 NBA playoffs, the Lakers were once again eliminated in the first round by the Phoenix Suns, 4 -- 1.
On May 27, 2007, ESPN reported that Bryant stated that he wanted to be traded if Jerry West did not return to the team with full authority. Bryant later confirmed his desire for West 's return to the franchise, but denied stating that he would want to be traded if that does not occur. However, three days later, on Stephen A. Smith 's radio program, Bryant expressed anger over a Lakers "insider '' who claimed that Bryant was responsible for Shaquille O'Neal 's departure from the team, and publicly stated, "I want to be traded. '' Three hours after making that statement, Bryant stated in another interview that after having a conversation with head coach Jackson, he has reconsidered his decision and backed off his trade request. Bryant was later shown in an infamous amateur video saying that center Andrew Bynum should have been traded for All - Star Jason Kidd.
On December 23, 2007, Bryant became the youngest player (29 years, 122 days) to reach 20,000 points, in a game against the New York Knicks, in Madison Square Garden. This record has since been broken by LeBron James. Despite an injury to his shooting hand 's small finger, described as "a complete tear of the radial collateral ligament, an avulsion fracture, and a volar plate injury at the MCP joint '' that occurred in a game on February 5, 2008, Bryant played all 82 games of the regular season instead of opting for surgery. Regarding his injury, he stated, "I would prefer to delay any surgical procedure until after our Lakers season, and this summer 's Olympic Games. But, this is an injury that myself (sic) and the Lakers ' medical staff will just have to continue to monitor on a day - to - day basis. '' In early September 2008, Bryant decided not to have surgery to repair the injury.
Aided by the signing of Spanish All - Star Pau Gasol, Bryant lead his team to a West best 57 -- 25 record. The Lakers swept the Nuggets in the first round and on May 6, 2008, and Bryant was officially announced as the league MVP. He said, "It 's been a long ride. I 'm very proud to represent this organization, to represent this city. '' West, who was responsible for bringing Bryant to the Lakers, was on hand at the press conference to observe Bryant receive his MVP trophy from NBA commissioner David Stern. He stated, "Kobe deserved it. He 's had just another great season. Does n't surprise me one bit. '' In addition to winning his MVP award, Bryant was the only unanimous selection to the All - NBA team on May 8, 2008 for the third straight season and sixth time in his career. He would then headline the NBA All - Defensive First Team with Kevin Garnett, receiving 52 points overall including 24 first - place nods, earning his eighth selection.
The Lakers concluded the 2007 -- 08 regular season with a 57 -- 25 record, finishing first in the Western Conference and setting up themselves for a first - round contest against the Nuggets. In Game 1, Bryant, who said he made himself a decoy through most of the game, scored 18 of his 32 points in the final 8 minutes to keep Los Angeles safely ahead. That made Denver the first 50 - win team to be swept out of the first round of the playoffs since the Memphis Grizzlies fell in four games to the San Antonio Spurs in 2004. In the first game of the next round against the Jazz, Bryant scored 38 points as the Lakers beat the Jazz in Game 1. The Lakers won the next game as well, but dropped Games 3 and 4, even with Bryant putting up 33.5 points per game. The Lakers then won the next two games to win the semifinals in 6. This set up a Western Conference Finals berth against the San Antonio Spurs. The Lakers defeated the Spurs in 5 games, sending themselves to the NBA Finals against the Boston Celtics. This marked the fifth time in Bryant 's career and the first time without O'Neal to go to the NBA Finals. The Lakers then lost to the Boston Celtics in 6 games.
In the 2008 -- 09 season, the Lakers opened the campaign by winning their first seven games. Bryant led the team to tie the franchise record for most wins to start the season going 17 -- 2, and by the middle of December they compiled a 21 -- 3 record. He was selected to his eleventh consecutive All - Star Game as a starter, and was named the Western Conference Player of the Month for December and January in addition to being named Western Conference Player of the week three times. In a game against the Knicks on February 2, 2009, Bryant scored 61 points, setting a record for the most points scored at Madison Square Garden. During the 2009 NBA All - Star Game, Bryant who tallied 27 points, 4 assists, 4 rebounds, and 4 steals was awarded All - Star Game co-MVP with former teammate O'Neal. The Lakers finished the regular season with the best record in the west (65 -- 17). Bryant was runner - up in the MVP voting behind LeBron James, and was selected to the All - NBA First Team and All - Defensive First Team for the seventh time in his career.
In the playoffs, the Lakers defeated the Utah Jazz in five games and the Houston Rockets in seven games in the opening two rounds. After finishing off the Denver Nuggets in the Conference Finals in six games, the Lakers earned their second straight trip to the NBA Finals where they defeated the Orlando Magic in five games. Bryant was awarded his first NBA Finals MVP trophy upon winning his fourth championship, achieving series averages of 32.4 points, 7.4 assists, 5.6 rebounds, 1.4 steals and 1.4 blocks. He became the first player since West in the 1969 NBA Finals to average at least 32.4 points and 7.4 assists for a finals series and the first since Jordan to average 30 points, 5 rebounds, and 5 assists for a title - winning team in the finals.
During the 2009 -- 10 season, Bryant made six game - winning shots including a buzzer - beating, one - legged 3 - pointer against the Miami Heat on December 4, 2009. Bryant considered the shot one of the luckiest he has made. A week later, Bryant suffered an avulsion fracture in his right index finger in a game against the Minnesota Timberwolves. Despite the injury, Bryant elected to continue playing with it, rather than take any time off to rest the injury. Five days after his finger injury, he made another game winning shot, after missing on an opportunity in regulation, this time against the Milwaukee Bucks in an overtime game. Bryant also became the youngest player (31 years, 151 days) to reach 25,000 points during the season, surpassing Chamberlain. He continued his dominant clutch plays making yet another game - winning three - pointer against the Sacramento Kings, and what would be the game - winning field goal against the Boston Celtics. The following day, he surpassed West to become the all - time leading scorer in Lakers franchise history. After being sidelined for five games from an ankle injury, Bryant made his return and made another clutch three - pointer to give the Lakers a one - point lead with four seconds remaining against the Memphis Grizzlies. Two weeks later, he made his sixth game - winning shot of the season against the Toronto Raptors.
On April 2, 2010, Bryant signed a three - year contract extension worth $87 million. Bryant finished the regular season missing four of the final five games, due to injuries to his knee and finger. Bryant suffered multiple injuries throughout the season and as a result, missed nine games. The Lakers began the playoffs as the number one seed in the Western Conference against the Oklahoma City Thunder, eventually defeating them in six games. The Lakers swept the Utah Jazz in the second round and advanced to the Western Conference Finals, where they faced the Phoenix Suns. In Game 2, Bryant finished the game with 13 assists, setting a new playoff career high; it was the most assists by a Laker in the playoffs since Magic Johnson had 13 in 1996. The Lakers went on to win the series in six games capturing the Western Conference Championship and advancing to the NBA Finals for a third straight season. In a rematch against the 2008 Champion Boston Celtics, Bryant, despite shooting 6 for 24 from the field, led the Lakers back from a thirteen - point third quarter deficit in Game 7 to win the championship; he scored 10 of his game - high 23 points in the fourth quarter, and finished the game with 15 rebounds. Bryant won his fifth championship and earned his second consecutive NBA Finals MVP award. This marked the first time the Lakers won a Game 7 against the Boston Celtics in the NBA Finals. Bryant said that this was the most satisfying of all of his five championships.
Bryant wanted a sixth championship to match Jordan 's total. The Lakers started the 2010 -- 11 season by winning their first eight games. In his ninth game of the season, playing against the Denver Nuggets, Bryant became the youngest player in NBA history to reach 26,000 career points. Bryant also recorded his first triple double since January 21, 2009. On January 30 against the Celtics, he became the youngest player to score 27,000 points. On February 1, 2011, Bryant became one of seven players with at least 25,000 points, 5,000 rebounds and 5,000 assists. In Boston on February 10, Bryant scored 20 of his 23 points in the second half as the Lakers rallied from an early 15 - point deficit for a 92 -- 86 win over the Celtics. It was the Lakers ' first victory of the season against one of the league 's top four teams, as they entered the game 0 -- 5 in previous matchups and had been outscored by an average of 11 points. Bryant, selected to his 13th straight All - Star game after becoming the leading vote - getter, had 37 points, 14 rebounds, and three steals in the 2011 All - Star Game and won his fourth All - Star MVP, tying Hall of Famer Bob Pettit for the most All - Star MVP awards. During the season, Bryant moved from 12th to 6th place on the NBA all - time career scoring list, passing John Havlicek, Dominique Wilkins, Oscar Robertson, Hakeem Olajuwon, Elvin Hayes, and Moses Malone. Bryant finished the season averaging less than 20 shots a game, his fewest since the 2003 -- 04 season.
On April 13, 2011, the NBA fined Bryant $100,000 for directing a gay slur at referee Bennie Adams in frustration in the previous day 's game. The Gay & Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation praised the NBA 's decision to fine Bryant, and the Human Rights Campaign said that Bryant 's language was a "disgrace '' and "distasteful ''. Bryant stated that he was open to discussing the matter with gay rights groups and wanted to appeal his fine. He later apologized for the use of the word. Bryant and other Lakers appeared in a Lakers public service announcement denouncing his behavior. The team 's quest for another three - peat was ended when they were swept by the Dallas Mavericks in the second round of the playoffs. The Mavericks would go on to win the 2011 NBA Finals.
Bryant received experimental platelet - rich plasma therapy called Orthokine in Germany to treat the pain on his left knee and ankle, and Mike Brown replaced the retired Jackson as coach of the Lakers in the offseason. Bryant began the season playing with an injured wrist. On January 10, 2012, Bryant scored 48 points against the Suns, the most ever by a player in his 16th season. "Not bad for the seventh - best player in the league '', said Bryant, referring to a preseason ESPN ranking of the NBA 's top players. He went on to score 40, 42, and 42 in his next three games. It was the sixth time in his career he scored 40 or more points in four straight games, a feat exceeded only by Chamberlain (19 times). At the 2012 NBA All - Star Game, Bryant scored 27 points to pass Jordan as the career scoring leader in the All - Star Game. He also suffered a broken nose and a concussion in the third quarter of the All - Star Game after a hard foul from Dwyane Wade. In April, Bryant missed seven games with a bruised left shin. He returned three games before the end of the regular season. In the last game of the regular season, against Sacramento, he chose not to go for a possible third NBA scoring title, having needed 38 points to surpass Kevin Durant. The Lakers were knocked out of the playoffs by Durant 's Oklahoma City Thunder in the second round of the playoffs, losing in five games.
The Lakers in 2012 -- 13 acquired center Dwight Howard and point guard Steve Nash. On November 2, 2012, Bryant scored 40 points with two steals, and he passed Magic Johnson (1,724) as the Lakers career leader in steals. However, the Lakers lost the game to the Clippers and started the season 0 -- 3 for the first time in 34 years and just the fourth time in franchise history. After starting the season 1 -- 4, coach Brown was fired. He was replaced by Mike D'Antoni, who Bryant knew as a child when Bryant 's father was playing in Italy and D'Antoni was also a star player there. Bryant had grown close with D'Antoni during their time with Team USA. On December 5 against New Orleans, Bryant became the youngest player (34 years and 104 days) in league history to score 30,000 points, joining Hall of Famers Chamberlain, Jordan, Kareem Abdul - Jabbar, and Karl Malone as one of five players to reach that milestone. On December 18, in a 101 -- 100 win over the Charlotte Bobcats, Bryant scored 30 + points in his seventh consecutive game, the longest streak ever by an NBA player after turning 34 years old; it was the fourth - longest such streak in his career. His streak would be snapped at 10 on December 28 in a 104 -- 87 win over the Portland Trail Blazers, when he scored 27 points, sitting out the whole fourth quarter. In a move to improve the team 's defense, D'Antoni began having Bryant guard the opponent 's best perimeter player; Bryant was the primary defender on the Cavaliers ' Kyrie Irving, who was held to 15 points. Bryant acknowledged he was a more focused defender when he had a challenging defensive assignment as opposed to when he played off the ball against weaker players. His defense disrupted opponents and freed Nash from unfavorable matchups.
Bryant was leading the league in scoring through much of the first 42 games. With a disappointing 17 -- 25 start to the season, D'Antoni had Bryant became the primary facilitator on offense and Nash was moved off the ball and became more of a spot - up shooter. In the next three games, Bryant had at least 10 assists in three wins with a three - game total of 39 assists, the most in his career. He missed a triple double in each game with nine rebounds twice and eight in the other. In two crucial wins in March, he scored at least 40 points and had at least 10 assists in back - to - back games, becoming the first Laker to accomplish the feat since West in 1970.
With the Lakers fighting to secure the eighth and final playoff berth in the Western Conference, coupled with injuries on the team, Bryant began playing almost all 48 minutes each game. On April 10, 2013, Bryant became the first player in NBA history to get 47 points, eight rebounds, five assists, four blocks, and three steals in an NBA game. On April 12, Bryant suffered a torn Achilles tendon against the Golden State Warriors, ending his season. His injury came while he was playing seven consecutive quarters and at least 40 minutes for seven consecutive games. The 34 - year - old Bryant was averaging his most minutes (38.6) in six years, and only Portland rookie Damian Lillard was averaging more minutes. Lakers general manager Mitch Kupchak had spoken to Bryant about his extensive playing time 10 days earlier, but Bryant insisted the minutes needed to continue given the Lakers ' playoff push. Bryant had surgery on April 13 to repair the tear, and it was estimated he would miss six to nine months. He ended the season with his customary numbers scoring average of 27.3 points, 46.3 percent shooting, 5.6 rebounds, and 6 assists. However, The New York Times called his leading of the Lakers back into playoff contention "perhaps some of the finest work of his career. '' Eight times he reached 40 points during the season, and eleven times he had 10 or more assists in his role as distributor, dubbed "Magic Mamba '' after the passing skills of Magic Johnson. Bryant 's assists were the second - highest of his career and his field goal percentage was its highest since 2008 -- 09. The Lakers finished the season at 45 - 37, good for seventh in the West. Playing without Bryant, the Lakers were swept in four games by the San Antonio Spurs.
Bryant resumed practicing starting in November, after the start of the 2013 -- 14 season. On November 25, he signed a two - year contract extension with the Lakers at an estimated value of $48.5 million that would make him the first NBA player to play 20 years with the same franchise. He remained the league 's highest - paid player, despite accepting the discounted deal; he had been eligible to receive an extension starting at $32 million per year. His contract became a polarizing topic, with detractors arguing that stars should take less money to allow their teams more financial freedom, while supporters countered that the NBA 's biggest stars were being paid less than their true value. Bryant resumed playing on December 8 after missing the season 's first 19 games. On December 17, Bryant matched his season high of 21 points in a 96 -- 92 win over Memphis, but he suffered a lateral tibial plateau fracture in his left knee that was expected to sideline him for six weeks. He had played six games since returning from his Achilles injury, which included time at point guard after injuries to Nash, Steve Blake, and Jordan Farmar. Bryant was averaging 13.8 points, 6.3 assists, and 4.3 rebounds. Despite being sidelined, he was voted by fans to start in his 16th All - Star game. Bryant did not feel he was deserving of the selection, and some likened it to a career achievement award for his past performance. However, he missed playing in the game, still hampered by his knee. On March 12, 2014, the Lakers ruled Bryant out for the remainder of the season, citing his need for more rehab and the limited time remaining in the season. At the time, the team was 22 -- 42 and tied for the worst record in the Western Conference. The Lakers finished 27 -- 55 and missed the playoffs for the first time since 2005.
Bryant returned for the 2014 -- 15 season, his 19th season with the Lakers, who had replaced D'Antoni with Bryant 's former Lakers teammate, Byron Scott. On November 30, 2014, in a 129 -- 122 overtime victory against the Toronto Raptors, Bryant recorded his 20th career triple - double with 31 points, 12 assists and 11 rebounds. At age 36, he became the oldest NBA player to ever achieve 30 points, 10 rebounds, and 10 assists in a game. On December 14, Bryant became the NBA 's third all - time leading scorer, passing Jordan (32,292) in a 100 -- 94 win against Minnesota. He played in the first 27 games of the season, averaging team - highs with 26.4 points and 35.4 minutes per game while leading the league with 22.4 shots per game. However, Scott held him out for three straight games to rest after one of his worst performances of the season, when Bryant committed nine turnovers and scored 25 points on just 8 - for - 30 shooting in a 108 -- 101 loss to Sacramento. He was suffering from soreness in his knees, feet, back, and Achilles tendons, and Scott planned to reduce his workload going forward. Three times Bryant had exceeded 40 minutes in a game, and the coach blamed himself for overloading him after he started the season in such great shape. For the season, Bryant had been shooting just 37 percent from the field, and the team 's record was only 8 -- 19. In his second game back after resting, he had 23 points, 11 assists, and 11 rebounds in a 111 -- 103 win over Denver, and became just the third player in league history to record multiple triple - doubles in a season at age 36 or older. On January 21, 2015, Bryant suffered a rotator cuff tear in his right shoulder while driving baseline for a two - handed dunk against the New Orleans Pelicans. Though he is right - handed, he returned to play in the game and ran the offense while shooting, dribbling, and passing almost exclusively with his left hand. Prior to the injury, Bryant had been rested in 8 of 16 games. He underwent season - ending surgery for the injury, finishing the season averaging 22.3 points but shooting a career - low 37.3 percent, well below his 45.4 percent career mark to start the season. He was expected to be sidelined for nine months with a return targeted toward the start of the 2015 -- 16 season.
After recovering to play in the 2015 -- 16 preseason, Bryant suffered a calf injury and missed the final two weeks of exhibition games. However, he played in the season opener to begin his 20th season with the Lakers, surpassing John Stockton 's league record of 19 for the most seasons with the same team. On November 24, 2015, the Lakers fell to 2 -- 12 after losing 111 -- 77 to the Warriors. Bryant scored just four points in 25 minutes on 1 - for - 14 shooting, matching the worst - shooting game of his career in which he attempted at least five shots. On December 1, 2015, Bryant played his last game against his hometown team, the Philadelphia 76ers, where the Lakers lost 91 - 103.
On November 29, 2015, Bryant announced via The Players ' Tribune that he would be retiring at the end of the season. In his poem titled "Dear Basketball '', Bryant wrote that he fell in love with the game at age six; "A love so deep I gave you my all / From my mind & body / To my spirit & soul. '' The 2015 -- 16 season "is all I have left to give. / My heart can take the pounding / My mind can handle the grind / But my body knows it 's time to say goodbye. / And that 's OK. / I 'm ready to let you go. '' In a letter distributed to Lakers ' fans before that evening 's game against the Indiana Pacers, Bryant wrote, "What you 've done for me is far greater than anything I 've done for you... My love for this city, this team and for each of you will never fade. Thank you for this incredible journey. ''
At the time of his announcement, he was second on the team in minutes (30.8) behind Jordan Clarkson and leading the team with 16.7 field goal attempts per game, while averaging just 15.7 points and shooting a career - low 31.5 percent. His free throw attempts had dropped from his career average, and his game had become over-reliant on pump fakes and long - range shots, making a league - worst 19.5 percent from three - point range while attempting seven a game, almost double his career average. In his press conference after the announcement, he acknowledged his declining skills. "Even though I play like shit, I 've worked really, really hard not to play like crap and I do everything I possibly can. And I feel good about that '', he said.
Bryant requested that opposing teams on the road not hold any on - court ceremonies in his honor or present him any gifts in public. Prior to announcing his retirement, he had been steadfast about not wanting the fuss of a staged farewell tour, preferring to hear boos instead of cheers. Still, he was honored around the league with video tributes, and fans greeted him with ovations, even at arenas that historically jeered him like TD Garden in Boston and Sleep Train Arena in Sacramento. Previously, Bryant was respected but not beloved, and he was astonished at the cheers he was now receiving.
On February 3, Bryant made seven three - pointers and scored a season - high 38 points, including 14 of the team 's 18 points in the last 5: 02 of the game, for a 119 -- 115 win over Minnesota. The win ended a 10 - game losing streak, and the Lakers averted establishing the longest losing streak in franchise history. Bryant became just the fourth NBA player over 37 years old to log at least 35 points, five rebounds, and five assists in a game. Bryant was the leading overall vote - getter for the 2016 All - Star Game with 1.9 million votes, ahead of Stephen Curry 's 1.6 million. Having moved to small forward that season, Bryant was selected as a frontcourt starter for the first time. Playing in his first All - Star game since 2013, Bryant had 10 points, six rebounds, and seven assists. West teammates offered to feed him the ball in an attempt to get him another All - Star MVP, but he declined.
On April 13, 2016, Bryant played his final NBA game against the Utah Jazz, scoring a season - high 60 points (the most points scored by a player that season), including outscoring the entire Jazz team 23 -- 21 in the fourth quarter, in the Lakers ' 101 -- 96 victory. Bryant became the oldest player to score 60 or more in a game at 37 years and 234 days old.
Bryant declined to play in the 2000 Olympics as he was getting married in the off - season. He also decided not to play in the 2002 FIBA World Championship. Bryant was originally selected for the FIBA Americas Championship in 2003, but withdrew after undergoing arthroscopic shoulder and knee surgeries. In the following summer, he had to withdraw from the Olympic team because of his sexual assault case. Along with LeBron James, he was one of the first two players to publicly named to the 2006 -- 2008 U.S. preliminary roster in 2006 by Jerry Colangelo. However, he was once again sidelined after knee surgery and did n't participate in the 2006 FIBA World Championship.
Bryant 's United States national team career finally began in 2007. He was a member of the 2007 USA Men 's Senior National Team and USA FIBA Americas Championship Team that finished 10 -- 0, won gold and qualified the United States men for the 2008 Olympics. He started in all 10 of the USA 's FIBA Americas Championship games. Bryant averaged 15.3 points, 2.9 assists, 2.0 rebounds, and 1.6 steals per game in the tournament.
On June 23, 2008, he was named to the USA Men 's Senior National Team for the 2008 Summer Olympics. This was his first time going to the Olympics. Bryant scored 20 points, including 13 in the fourth quarter, along with six assists, as Team USA defeated Spain 118 -- 107 in the gold medal game of the 2008 Summer Olympics on August 24, 2008, for its first gold medal in a worldwide competition since the 2000 Olympics. He averaged 15.0 points, 2.8 rebounds, and 2.1 assists while shooting. 462 from the field in eight Olympic contests.
Bryant rejoined the national team for the 2012 Summer Olympics. He retired from the team after winning another gold medal.
Standing at 6 feet 6 inches tall (1.98 m) and weighing 205 pounds (93 kg), Bryant primarily played as a shooting guard. Able to create a decent shot at any time, he is often cited as one of the most dangerous scorers in the NBA. Bryant has drawn frequent comparisons to Jordan, after whom he modeled his playing style. Like Jordan, he became most known shooting a fall - away jump shot. Chris Ballard of Sports Illustrated describes another of Bryant 's most famous moves as the "jab step - and - pause '': Bryant jabs his non-pivot foot forward to let the defender relax and instead of bringing the jab foot back, pushing off it and driving around his opponent to get to the basket.
Bryant established a reputation for taking shots in the closing moments of tight games, even amid double or triple teams, and has been noted as being one of the premier closers in the NBA. In an annual survey of NBA general managers, he was selected in 2012 for the 10th consecutive season as the player they most wanted taking the shot with the game on the line. Bryant enjoys being the villain, and revels in being booed and silencing the crowd with his play. His ability to make difficult shots has also drawn criticism of his shot selection. Throughout his career, he has been disparaged for being a selfish high - volume shooter; he has missed more field goal attempts in his career than any other player in NBA history. Phil Jackson states that Bryant "tends to force the action, especially when the game is n't going his way. When his shot is off, Kobe will pound away relentlessly until his luck turns. '' According to Bryant, "I would go 0 for 30 before I would go 0 for 9; 0 for 9 means you beat yourself, you psyched yourself out of the game. ''
Aside from his abilities on offense, he has established himself as a standout defender. Bryant rarely draws charges playing defense, which he believes has spared his body and contributed to his longevity. Some critics have suggested that the defensive accolades in his later years were earned more on his reputation than his actual play. His role with the Lakers became more focused on offense and conserving his energy for the playoffs, and Metta World Peace assumed the responsibility of guarding the opponent 's top player on the wing.
Bryant is also lauded for his work ethic. Through his first 16 seasons, his body was resilient, and he exhibited a high pain threshold while often playing through injuries. A fierce competitor, opponents and teammates alike have been the object of his scorn. Many players have considered him difficult to play with because of his high level of commitment and performance. According to sportswriter Mark Heisler of Forbes, "circa 2004 -- 2007, Kobe was the most alienated superstar the NBA had ever seen. '' He did, however, lead the Lakers to two championships post-O'Neal while becoming more of a mentor to his teammates. Bryant 's longtime head coach Phil Jackson noted that the biggest difference during his second tenure in coaching the Lakers was that "(Bryant) embraced the team and his teammates, calling them up when we were on the road and inviting them out to dinner. It was as if the other players were now his partners, not his personal spear - carriers. ''
Bryant was called "one of the greatest players in the history of our game '' by NBA commissioner Adam Silver, and The New York Times wrote that he has had "one of the most decorated careers in the history of the sport. '' Reuters called him "arguably the best player of his generation '', while both Sporting News and TNT named him their NBA player of the decade for the 2000s. In 2008 and again in 2016, ESPN ranked him the second greatest shooting guard of all - time after Jordan. Players including Kevin Durant, Dirk Nowitzki, Dwyane Wade, and Derrick Rose have called Bryant their generation 's version of Jordan. The Press - Enterprise described Bryant as "maybe the greatest Laker in the organization 's history ''. He is the Lakers ' all - time leading scorer, and his five titles are tied for the most in franchise history. Both numbers he wore during his career, 8 and 24, are slated to be retired by the Lakers on December 18, 2017.
With career averages of 25.0 points, 5.2 rebounds, 4.7 assists, and 1.4 steals per game, he is considered one of the most complete players in NBA history. He was the first player in NBA history to have at least 30,000 career points and 6,000 career assists, and is one of only four players with 25,000 points, 6,000 rebounds and 6,000 assists. Bryant led the NBA in scoring during the 2005 -- 06 and 2006 -- 07 seasons. His 81 - point performance against Toronto in 2006 was the second - highest in NBA history, behind only Chamberlain 's 100. He has scored at least 50 points 24 times in his career, which is third in league history behind Jordan (31) and Chamberlain (118); six times Bryant scored at least 60. He was just the third player in NBA history to average 40 points in a calendar month, which he has accomplished four times. Bryant was voted the league MVP in 2008 and led his team to the 2008 NBA Finals as the first seed in the Western Conference. In the 2008 Summer Olympics, he won a gold medal as a member of the U.S. men 's basketball team, occasionally referred to as "The Redeem Team ''. He won another gold medal at the 2012 Summer Olympics. He led the Lakers to two more championships in 2009 and 2010, winning the Finals MVP award on both occasions.
Bryant is an 18 - time All - Star, which ranks second behind only Kareem Abdul - Jabbar 's 19. He has been chosen a record 18 straight times, each time as a starter. On four occasions (2003, 2011, 2013, 2016) he was the leading vote - getter. Four times Bryant was named the All - Star MVP, a record he shares with Bob Pettit. He has been selected to the All - NBA Team on 15 occasions, tied for the most with Abdul - Jabbar and Tim Duncan, and his 11 first - team honors are tied for the most ever with Karl Malone. Bryant is also a 12 - time All - Defensive Team selection, trailing only Duncan 's 15, and nine times he was named to the All - Defensive First Team, tied with Jordan, Garnett, and Gary Payton for the most all - time. He was the first guard to play 20 seasons in the NBA. He also won the NBA Slam Dunk Contest in 1997 and is its youngest winner. In his career, Bryant has scored 40 - plus points in 121 games, and 21 times he has recorded a triple - double.
In November 1999, 21 - year - old Bryant met 17 - year - old Vanessa Laine while she was working as a background dancer on the Tha Eastsidaz music video "G 'd Up ''. Bryant was in the building working on his debut musical album. The two began dating and became engaged just six months later in May 2000, while Laine was still a senior at Marina High School in Huntington Beach, California. To avoid media scrutiny, she finished high school through independent study. According to Vanessa 's cousin Laila Laine, there was no prenuptial agreement. Vanessa said Bryant "loved her too much for one ''.
They married on April 18, 2001, at St. Edward the Confessor Catholic Church in Dana Point, California. The wedding was not attended by Bryant 's parents, his two sisters, his longtime advisor and agent Arn Tellem, or his Laker teammates. Bryant 's parents were opposed to the marriage for a number of reasons. Reportedly Bryant 's parents had problems with him marrying so young, especially to a woman who was not African - American. This disagreement resulted in an estrangement period of over two years, which ended when the couple 's first daughter was born.
In 2013, Bryant had a legal disagreement with an auction house over memorabilia from his early years that his mother intended to auction. Pamela Bryant received $450,000 from the auction house for the items, and claimed Bryant had given her the rights to the items he had remaining in her home. However, his lawyers asked the auction house to return the items to Bryant. Before the scheduled trial, a settlement was reached allowing the sale of less than 10 % of the original items. Bryant 's parents apologized to him in a written statement, which also acknowledged the financial support Bryant had provided them in the past.
In January 2002, Bryant bought a Mediterranean - style house for $4 million, located on a cul - de-sac in Newport Coast, Newport Beach, which sold in May 2015.
The Bryants ' first child, a daughter named Natalia Diamante Bryant, was born in 2003. The birth of Natalia influenced Bryant to reconcile his differences with his parents. Vanessa Bryant suffered a miscarriage due to an ectopic pregnancy in the spring of 2005. Their second daughter, Gianna Maria - Onore Bryant, was born in 2006. On December 16, 2011, Vanessa Bryant filed for divorce citing irreconcilable differences, and the couple requested joint custody of their daughters. On January 11, 2013, Bryant and his wife both announced via social media that they had called off their divorce.
In an early 2007 interview, it was revealed that Bryant still speaks Italian fluently. He has also conducted press interviews in Spanish. Bryant assigned himself the nickname of "Black Mamba '', citing a desire for his basketball skills to mimic the eponymous snake 's ability to "strike with 99 % accuracy at maximum speed, in rapid succession. '' During the 2012 -- 13 season, he began referring to himself as "vino '' to describe how his play had been aging like a fine wine.
In 2016, it was announced that Kobe and Vanessa Bryant were going to have their third child, and in early December 2016, Vanessa gave birth to their third daughter named Bianka.
In the summer of 2003, the sheriff 's office of Eagle, Colorado, arrested Bryant in connection with an investigation of a sexual assault complaint filed by a 19 - year - old hotel employee. Bryant had checked into The Lodge and Spa at Cordillera in Eagle County in advance of undergoing knee surgery nearby. The accuser stated that Bryant raped her in his hotel room the night before Bryant was to have the procedure. Bryant admitted to an adulterous sexual encounter with his accuser, but denied her sexual assault allegation.
The accusation tarnished Bryant 's reputation, as the public 's perception of Bryant plummeted, and his endorsement contracts with McDonald 's and Nutella were terminated. Sales for Bryant 's replica jersey fell significantly from their previous highs. However, in September 2004, the assault case was dropped by prosecutors after the accuser refused to testify in the trial. Afterward, Bryant agreed to apologize to her for the incident, including his public mea culpa: "Although I truly believe this encounter between us was consensual, I recognize now that she did not and does not view this incident the same way I did. After months of reviewing discovery, listening to her attorney, and even her testimony in person, I now understand how she feels that she did not consent to this encounter. '' The accuser filed a separate civil lawsuit against Bryant, which the two sides ultimately settled with the specific terms of the settlement being undisclosed to the public.
Before starting the 1996 -- 97 NBA season, Bryant signed a six - year contract with Adidas worth approximately $48 million. His first signature shoe was the Equipment KB 8. Bryant 's other earlier endorsements included deals with The Coca - Cola Company to endorse their Sprite soft drink, appearing in advertisements for McDonald 's, promoting Spalding 's new NBA Infusion Ball, Upper Deck, Italian chocolate company Ferrero SpA 's brand Nutella, Russell Corporation, and appearing on his own series of video games by Nintendo. Many companies like McDonald 's and Ferrero SpA terminated his contracts when rape allegations against him became public. A notable exception was Nike, Inc., who had signed him to a five - year, $40 -- 45 million contract just before the incident. However, they refused to use his image or market a new shoe of his for the year, but eventually did start promoting Bryant once his image recovered 2 years later. He has since resumed endorsement deals with The Coca - Cola Company, through their subsidiary Energy Brands to promote their Vitamin Water brand of drinks. Bryant was also the cover athlete for NBA ' 07: Featuring the Life Vol. 2 and appeared in commercials for the video games Guitar Hero World Tour (with Tony Hawk, Michael Phelps, and Alex Rodriguez) in 2008 and Call of Duty: Black Ops (alongside Jimmy Kimmel) in 2010.
In a 2008 video promoting Nike 's Hyperdunk shoes, Bryant appears to jump over a speeding Aston Martin. The stunt was considered to be fake, and the Los Angeles Times said a real stunt would probably be a violation of Bryant 's Lakers contract. After promoting Nike 's Hyperdunk shoes, Bryant came out with the fourth edition of his signature line by Nike, the Zoom Kobe IV. In 2010 Nike launched another shoe, Nike Zoom Kobe V. In 2009, Bryant signed a deal with Nubeo to market the "Black Mamba collection '', a line of sports / luxury watches that range from $25,000 to $285,000. On February 9, 2009, Bryant was featured on the cover of ESPN The Magazine. However, it was not for anything basketball related, rather it was about Bryant being a big fan of FC Barcelona. CNN estimated Bryant 's endorsement deals in 2007 to be worth $16 million a year. In 2010, Bryant was ranked third behind Tiger Woods and Jordan in Forbes ' list of the world 's highest - paid athletes with $48 million.
On December 13, 2010, Bryant signed a two - year endorsement deal with Turkey 's national airline, Turkish Airlines. The deal involved Bryant being in a promotional film to be aired in over 80 countries in addition to his being used in digital, print and billboard advertising.
Bryant has appeared as the cover athlete for the following video games:
In September 2012, Bryant shot a commercial for Turkish Airlines with FC Barcelona star Lionel Messi. In the airline 's latest commercial, the duo competes to win the attention of a young boy. In 2013, Forbes listed Bryant the fifth highest paid sports star in the world behind Floyd Mayweather, Cristiano Ronaldo, LeBron James and Lionel Messi.
In high school, Bryant was a member of a rap group called CHEIZAW, named after the Chi Sah gang in the martial arts film Kid with the Golden Arm. The group was signed by Sony Entertainment, but the company 's ultimate goal was to eliminate the group and have Bryant record on his own. The label wanted to capitalize on Bryant 's youth and NBA fame. He performed at a 1997 concert by Sway & King Tech and recorded a verse for a remix of Brian McKnight 's "Hold Me ''. Bryant even appeared on Lakers teammate O'Neal's Respect, starting the track "3 X 's Dope '', though Bryant 's name was not listed on the credits.
Sony pushed Bryant from his roots of underground hip hop into a more radio - friendly sound. His debut album, Visions, was scheduled to release in the spring of 2000. The first single, "K.O.B.E ' '', featured supermodel Tyra Banks singing the hook. The single debuted in January 2000, and was performed at NBA All - Star Weekend that month; the song was not well received. Sony abandoned plans for the album, which was never released, and dropped Bryant later that year. The Sony president who originally signed Bryant had already left, and Bryant 's other backers had mostly abandoned him. Afterwards, Bryant co-founded an independent record label, Heads High Entertainment, but it folded within a year.
In 2011, Bryant was featured in Taiwanese singer Jay Chou 's single, "The Heaven and Earth Challenge '' (天地 一 鬥, pronounced "Tian Di Yi Dou ''). The proceeds for downloads of both the single and ringtones were donated to impoverished schools for basketball facilities and equipment. The music video of the single also features Bryant. The song was also used by Sprite in its 2011 marketing campaign in China.
In 2009, rapper Lil Wayne titled a song "Kobe Bryant ''. Similarly, in 2010, the rapper Sho Baraka released a song called "Kobe Bryant On'em '', which was featured in his album Lions and Liars.
Bryant is the official ambassador for After - School All - Stars (ASAS), an American non-profit organization that provides comprehensive after - school programs to children in 13 US cities. Bryant also started the Kobe Bryant China Fund which partnered with the Soong Ching Ling Foundation, a charity backed by the Chinese government. The Kobe Bryant China Fund raises money within China earmarked for education and health programs. On November 4, 2010, Bryant appeared alongside Zach Braff at the Call of Duty: Black Ops launch event at the Santa Monica Airport, where they presented a $1 million check to the Call of Duty Endowment, an Activision - founded nonprofit organization that helps veterans transition to civilian careers after their military service has ended.
Bryant established Kobe Inc. to own and grow brands in the sports industry. The initial investment was in the BodyArmor sports drink company in 2014. The headquarters are in Newport Beach, California.
On August 22, 2016, Kobe along with his business partner Jeff Stibel launched Bryant - Stibel, a venture capital firm focused on different businesses including media, data, gaming, and technology, with $100 million in funding. The pair have already invested in 15 businesses together since 2013.
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what do the lines on a toaster mean | Toaster - wikipedia
A toaster, or a toast maker, is an electric small appliance designed to toast sliced bread by exposing it to radiant heat, thus converting it into toast. Toasters can toast multiple types of sliced bread products. Invented in Scotland in 1893, it was developed over the years, with the introduction of an automatic mechanism to stop the toasting and pop the slices up.
The most common household toasting appliances are the pop - up toaster and the toaster oven. Bread slices are inserted into slots in the top of a pop - up toaster, which make toast from bread in one to three minutes by using electric heating elements. Toasters have a control to adjust how much the appliance toasts the bread. Toaster ovens have a hinged door in the front that opens to allow food items to be placed on a rack, which has heat elements above and below the grilling area. Toaster ovens function the same as a small - scale conventional oven. Toaster ovens typically have settings to toast bread and a temperature control for use of the appliance as an oven.
Modern toasters are typically one of three varieties: pop - up toasters, toaster ovens, and conveyor belt toasters. For home use, consumers typically choose a toaster type based on their intended use. Pop - up toasters are better than toaster ovens for making evenly toasted toast, but toaster ovens can bake and broil while pop - up toasters can not.
Conveyor belt toasters are mostly used in restaurants or other industrial catering environments where toast needs to be made quickly and in larger quantities.
Toasters are designed to look in place in any kitchen. Designers presented more aesthetic variations to pop - up toasters than other toasters. Consumers may choose a toaster by its appearance.
Features which distinguish various types of toasters include the following:
In pop - up or automatic toasters, bread slices are inserted vertically into the slots (generally only large enough to admit a single slice of bread each) on the top of the toaster. A lever on the side of the toaster is pressed, activating the toaster. When an internal device determines that the toasting cycle is complete, the toaster turns off and the toast pops up out of the slots. The heating elements of a pop - up toaster are usually oriented vertically, parallel to the bread slice -- although there are some variations.
In earlier days, the completion of the toasting operation was determined by a mechanical clockwork timer; the user could adjust the running time of the timer to determine the degree of "doneness '' of the toast, but the first cycle produced less toasted toast than subsequent cycles because the toaster was not yet warmed up. Toasters made since the 1930s frequently use a thermal sensor, such as a bimetallic strip, located close to the toast. This allows the first cycle to run longer than subsequent cycles. The thermal device is also slightly responsive to the actual temperature of the toast itself. Like the timer, it can be adjusted by the user to determine the "doneness '' of the toast.
The most commonly used methods to adjust heat supplied to the toast are either variable time or a heat sensor.
Among pop - up toasters, those toasting two slices of bread are more purchased than those which can toast four. Pop - up toasters can have a range of appearances beyond just a square box, and may have an exterior finish of chrome, copper, brushed metal, or any color plastic. The marketing and price of toasters may not be an indication of quality for producing good toast. A typical modern two - slice pop - up toaster can draw from 600 to 1200 watts.
Toaster ovens are small electric ovens with a front door, wire rack and removable baking pan. To toast bread with a toaster oven, slices of bread are placed horizontally on the rack. When the toast is done, the toaster turns off, but in most cases the door must be opened manually. Most toaster ovens are significantly larger than toasters, but are capable of performing most of the functions of electric ovens, albeit on a much smaller scale. They can be used to cook toast with toppings, like garlic bread or cheese, though they tend to produce drier toast since their heating elements are located farther from the toast (to allow larger items to be cooked). They take 4 -- 6 minutes to make toast as compared to 2 -- 3 minutes in pop - up toasters. Since the toast lies on bars in a toaster oven, the toast will have untoasted stripes on one side. The evidence from product testing does not indicate that convection toaster ovens perform better than regular toaster ovens.
As an appliance, the space toaster ovens require on a countertop ranges from 16 by 8 inches (41 cm × 20 cm) to 20 by 10 inches (51 cm × 25 cm).
Conveyor toasters are designed to make many slices of toast and are generally used in the catering industry, in cafeterias, diners and institutional cooking facilities, as they are suitable for large - scale use. Bread is toasted at a rate of 300 -- 1600 slices an hour, making conveyor toasters ideal for a large restaurant that is consistently busy. Such devices have occasionally been produced for home use as far back as 1938, when the Toast - O - Lator went into limited production.
Before the development of the electric toaster, sliced bread was toasted by placing it in a metal frame or on a long - handled toasting - fork and holding it near a fire or over a kitchen grill. Utensils for toasting bread over open flames appeared in the early 19th century, including decorative implements made from wrought iron.
The first electric bread toaster was invented by Alan MacMasters in Edinburgh, Scotland in 1893.
The primary technical problem at the time was the development of a heating element which would be able to sustain repeated heating to red - hot temperatures without either breaking or becoming too brittle. A similar technical challenge had recently been surmounted with the invention of the first successful incandescent lightbulbs by Joseph Swan and Thomas Edison. However, the light bulb took advantage of the presence of a vacuum, something that could n't be used with the toaster.
Macmaster 's toaster was commercialized by the Crompton, Stephen J. Cook & Company of the UK as a toasting appliance called the Eclipse. Early attempts at producing electrical appliances using iron wiring were unsuccessful, because the wiring was easily melted and a serious fire hazard. Meanwhile, electricity was not readily available, and when it was, mostly only at night.
The problem of the heating element was solved in 1905 by a young engineer named Albert Marsh who designed an alloy of nickel and chromium, which came to be known as Nichrome.
The first US patent application for an electric toaster was filed by George Schneider of the American Electrical Heater Company of Detroit in collaboration with Marsh. One of the first applications the Hoskins company had considered for chromel was toasters, but eventually abandoned such efforts to focus on making just the wire itself.
The first commercially successful electric toaster was introduced by General Electric in 1909 for the GE model D - 12.
In 1913, Lloyd Groff Copeman and his wife Hazel Berger Copeman applied for various toaster patents and in that same year the Copeman Electric Stove Company introduced the toaster with automatic bread turner. The company also produced the "toaster that turns toast. '' Before this, electric toasters cooked bread on one side and then it was flipped by hand to toast the other side. Copeman 's toaster turned the bread around without having to touch it.
The automatic pop - up toaster, which ejects the toast after toasting it, was first patented by Charles Strite in 1921. In 1925, using a redesigned version of Strite 's toaster, the Waters Genter Company introduced the Model 1 - A-1 Toastmaster, the first automatic pop - up, household toaster that could brown bread on both sides simultaneously, set the heating element on a timer, and eject the toast when finished.
By the middle of the 20th century, some high - end U.S. toasters featured automatic toast lowering and raising, with no levers to operate -- simply dropping the slices into the machine commenced the toasting procedure. A notable example was the Sunbeam T - 20, T - 35 and T - 50 models (identical except for details such as control positioning) made from the late 1940s through the 1960s, which used the mechanically multiplied thermal expansion of the resistance wire in the center element assembly to lower the bread; the inserted slice of bread tripped a lever to switch on the power which immediately caused the heating element to begin expanding thus lowering the bread.
When the toast was done, as determined by a small bimetallic sensor actuated by the heat passing through the toast, the heaters were shut off and the pull - down mechanism returned to its room - temperature position, slowly raising the finished toast. This sensing of the heat passing through the toast, meant that regardless of the color of the bread (white or wholemeal) and the initial temperature of the bread (even frozen), the bread would always be toasted to the same degree. If a piece of toast was re-inserted into the toaster, it would be only reheated.
Newer additions to toaster technology include wider toasting slots for bagels and thick breads, the ability to toast frozen breads, and the option to heat a single side or slot. Most toasters can also be used to toast other foods such as teacakes, Pop Tarts, potato waffles and crumpets, though the addition of melted butter or sugar to the interior components of automatic electric toasters often contributes to eventual failure. In rare cases, some hobbyists modify toasters to print images and logos on bread slices.
Toasters cause nearly 800 deaths annually due to electrocution and fires.
A number of projects have added advanced technology to toasters. In 1990, Simon Hackett and John Romkey created The Internet Toaster, a toaster which could be controlled from the Internet. In 2001, Robin Southgate from Brunel University in England created a toaster that could toast a graphic of the weather prediction (limited to sunny or cloudy) onto a piece of bread. The toaster dials a pre-coded phone number to get the weather forecast.
In 2005, Technologic Systems, a vendor of embedded systems hardware, designed a toaster running the NetBSD Unix - like operating system as a sales demonstration system. In 2012, Basheer Tome, a student at Georgia Tech, designed a toaster using color sensors to toast bread to the exact shade of brown specified by a user.
A toaster which used Twitter was cited as an early example of an application of the Internet of Things. Toasters have been used as advertising devices for online marketing.
With permanent modifications, a toaster oven can be used as a reflow oven for the purpose of soldering electronic components to circuit boards.
A hot dog toaster is a variation on the toaster design; it will cook hot dogs without use of microwaves or stoves. The appliance looks similar to a regular toaster, except that there are two slots in the middle for hot dogs, and two slots on the outside for toasting the buns.
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what did the first american football look like | History of American football - wikipedia
Origins of American football
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The history of American football can be traced to early versions of rugby football and association football. Both games have their origin in varieties of football played in Britain in the mid-19th century, in which a football is kicked at a goal or kicked over a line, which in turn were based on the varieties of English public school football games.
American football resulted from several major divergences from association football and rugby football, most notably the rule changes instituted by Walter Camp, a Yale University and Hopkins School graduate who is considered to be the "Father of American Football ''. Among these important changes were the introduction of the line of scrimmage, of down - and - distance rules and of the legalization of blocking. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, gameplay developments by college coaches such as Eddie Cochems, Amos Alonzo Stagg, Parke H. Davis, Knute Rockne, and Glenn "Pop '' Warner helped take advantage of the newly introduced forward pass. The popularity of college football grew as it became the dominant version of the sport in the United States for the first half of the 20th century. Bowl games, a college football tradition, attracted a national audience for college teams. Boosted by fierce rivalries and colorful traditions, college football still holds widespread appeal in the United States.
The origin of professional football can be traced back to 1892, with William "Pudge '' Heffelfinger 's $500 contract to play in a game for the Allegheny Athletic Association against the Pittsburgh Athletic Club. In 1920 the American Professional Football Association was formed. This league changed its name to the National Football League (NFL) two years later, and eventually became the major league of American football. Primarily a sport of Midwestern industrial towns in the United States, professional football eventually became a national phenomenon.
The modern era of American football can be considered to have begun after the 1932 NFL Playoff game, which was the first indoor game since 1902 and the first American football game to feature hash marks, forward passes anywhere behind the line of scrimmage, and the movement of the goal posts back to the goal line. Other innovations to occur immediately after 1932 were the introduction of the AP Poll in 1934, the tapering of the ends of the football in 1934, the awarding of the first Heisman Trophy in 1935, the first NFL draft in 1936 and the first televised game in 1939. Another important event was the American football game at the 1932 Summer Olympics, which combined with a similar demonstration game at 1933 World 's Fair, led to the first College All - Star Game in 1934, which in turn was an important factor in the growth of professional football in the United States. American football 's explosion in popularity during the second half of the 20th century can be traced to the 1958 NFL Championship Game, a contest that has been dubbed the "Greatest Game Ever Played ''. A rival league to the NFL, the American Football League (AFL), began play in 1960; the pressure it put on the senior league led to a merger between the two leagues and the creation of the Super Bowl, which has become the most watched television event in the United States on an annual basis.
Forms of traditional football have been played throughout Europe and beyond since antiquity. Many of these involved handling of the ball, and scrummage - like formations. These archaic forms of football, typically classified as mob football, would be played between neighboring towns and villages, involving an unlimited number of players on opposing teams, who would clash in a heaving mass of people struggling to drag an inflated pig 's bladder by any means possible to markers at each end of a town. By some accounts, in some such events any means could be used to move the ball towards the goal, as long as it did not lead to manslaughter or murder. These antiquated games went into sharp decline in the 19th century when the Highway Act 1835 was passed banning the playing of football on public highways.
Although there are some mentions of Native Americans playing football - like games, modern American football has its origins in the traditional football games played in the cities, villages and schools of Europe for many centuries before America was settled by Europeans. Early games appear to have had much in common with the traditional "mob football '' played in England. The games remained largely unorganized until the 19th century, when intramural games of football began to be played on college campuses. Each school played its own variety of football. Princeton University students played a game called "ballown '' as early as 1820. A Harvard tradition known as "Bloody Monday '' began in 1827, which consisted of a mass ballgame between the freshman and sophomore classes. In 1860, both the town police and the college authorities agreed the Bloody Monday had to go. The Harvard students responded by going into mourning for a mock figure called "Football Fightum '', for whom they conducted funeral rites. The authorities held firm and it was a dozen years before football was once again played at Harvard. Dartmouth played its own version called "Old division football '', the rules of which were first published in 1871, though the game dates to at least the 1830s. All of these games, and others, shared certain commonalities. They remained largely "mob '' style games, with huge numbers of players attempting to advance the ball into a goal area, often by any means necessary. Rules were simple, violence and injury were common. The violence of these mob - style games led to widespread protests and a decision to abandon them. Yale, under pressure from the city of New Haven, banned the play of all forms of football in 1860.
The game began to return to college campuses by the late 1860s. Yale, Princeton, Rutgers University, and Brown University began playing the popular "kicking '' game during this time. In 1867, Princeton used rules based on those of the London Football Association. A "running game '', resembling rugby football, was taken up by the Montreal Football Club in Canada in 1868.
On November 28, 1869, Rutgers University faced Princeton University (then known as the College of New Jersey) in a game that was played with a round ball and, used a set of rules suggested by Rutgers captain William J. Leggett, based on the Football Association 's first set of rules, which were an early attempt by the former pupils of England 's public schools, to unify the rules of their public schools games and create a universal and standardized set of rules for the game of football and bore little resemblance to the American game which would be developed in the following decades. It is still usually regarded as the first game of intercollegiate American football. The game was played at a Rutgers field. Two teams of 25 players attempted to score by kicking the ball into the opposing team 's goal. Throwing or carrying the ball was not allowed, but there was plenty of physical contact between players. The first team to reach six goals was declared the winner. Rutgers won by a score of six to four. A rematch was played at Princeton a week later under Princeton 's own set of rules (one notable difference was the awarding of a "free kick '' to any player that caught the ball on the fly, which was a feature adopted from the Football Association 's rules; the fair catch kick rule has survived through to modern American game). Princeton won that game by a score of 8 -- 0. Columbia joined the series in 1870, and by 1872 several schools were fielding intercollegiate teams, including Yale and Stevens Institute of Technology.
Rutgers was first to extend the reach of the game. An intercollegiate game was first played in the state of New York when Rutgers played Columbia on November 2, 1872. It was also the first scoreless tie in the history of the fledgling sport. Yale football started the same year and had its first match against Columbia, the nearest college to play football. It took place at Hamilton Park in New Haven and was the first game in New England. The game used a set of rules based on association football with 20 - man sides, played on a field 400 by 250 feet. Yale wins 3 - 0, Tommy Sherman scoring the first goal and Lew Irwin the other two.
By 1873, the college students playing football had made significant efforts to standardize their fledgling game. Teams had been scaled down from 25 players to 20. The only way to score was still to bat or kick the ball through the opposing team 's goal, and the game was played in two 45 minute halves on fields 140 yards long and 70 yards wide. On October 20, 1873, representatives from Yale, Columbia, Princeton, and Rutgers met at the Fifth Avenue Hotel in New York City to codify the first set of intercollegiate football rules. Before this meeting, each school had its own set of rules and games were usually played using the home team 's own particular code. At this meeting, a list of rules, based more on the Football Association 's rules than the rules of the recently founded Rugby Football Union, was drawn up for intercollegiate football games.
Harvard refused to attend the rules conference organized by the other schools and continued to play under its own code. While Harvard 's decision to maintain its code made it hard for them to schedule games against other American universities, it agreed to play McGill University, from Montreal, in a two - game series in 1874. Harvard won the first game, in which its rules were used, 3 -- 0. The second game, which was played under rugby regulations, did not have a winner as neither team managed to score.
Harvard quickly took a liking to the rugby game, and its use of the try which, until that time, was not used in American football. The try would later evolve into the score known as the touchdown. On June 4, 1875, Harvard faced Tufts University in the first game between two American colleges played under rules similar to the McGill / Harvard contest, which was won by Tufts. The rules included each side fielding 11 men at any given time, the ball was advanced by kicking or carrying it, and tackles of the ball carrier stopped play. Further elated by the excitement of McGill 's version of football, Harvard challenged its closest rival, Yale, to which the Bulldogs accepted. The two teams agreed to play under a set of rules called the "Concessionary Rules '', which involved Harvard conceding something to Yale 's soccer and Yale conceding a great deal to Harvard 's rugby. They decided to play with 15 players on each team. On November 13, 1875, Yale and Harvard played each other for the first time ever, where Harvard won 4 - 0. At the first The Game -- the annual contest between Harvard and Yale, among the 2000 spectators attending the game that day, was the future "father of American football '' Walter Camp. Walter, who would enroll at Yale the next year, was torn between an admiration for Harvard 's style of play and the misery of the Yale defeat, and became determined to avenge Yale 's defeat. Spectators from Princeton admired this type of game and it became the most popular version of football there.
Walter Camp is widely considered to be the most important figure in the development of American football. As a youth, he excelled in sports like track, baseball, and association football, and after enrolling at Yale in 1876, he earned varsity honors in every sport the school offered.
Following the introduction of rugby - style rules to American football, Camp became a fixture at the Massasoit House conventions where rules were debated and changed. Dissatisfied with what seemed to him to be a disorganized mob, he proposed his first rule change at the first meeting he attended in 1878: a reduction from fifteen players to eleven. The motion was rejected at that time but passed in 1880. The effect was to open up the game and emphasize speed over strength. Camp 's most famous change, the establishment of the line of scrimmage and the snap from center to quarterback, was also passed in 1880. Originally, the snap was executed with the foot of the center. Later changes made it possible to snap the ball with the hands, either through the air or by a direct hand - to - hand pass.
Camp 's new scrimmage rules revolutionized the game, though not always as intended. Princeton, in particular, used scrimmage play to slow the game, making incremental progress towards the end zone during each down. Rather than increase scoring, which had been Camp 's original intent, the rule was exploited to maintain control of the ball for the entire game, resulting in slow, unexciting contests. At the 1882 rules meeting, Camp proposed that a team be required to advance the ball a minimum of five yards within three downs. These down - and - distance rules, combined with the establishment of the line of scrimmage, transformed the game from a variation of rugby football into the distinct sport of American football.
Camp was central to several more significant rule changes that came to define American football. In 1881, the field was reduced in size to its modern dimensions of 120 by 53 ⁄ yards (109.7 by 48.8 meters). Several times in 1883, Camp tinkered with the scoring rules, finally arriving at four points for a touchdown, two points for kicks after touchdowns, two points for safeties, and five for field goals. Camp 's innovations in the area of point scoring influenced rugby union 's move to point scoring in 1890. In 1887, game time was set at two halves of 45 minutes each. Also in 1887, two paid officials -- a referee and an umpire -- were mandated for each game. A year later, the rules were changed to allow tackling below the waist, and in 1889, the officials were given whistles and stopwatches.
The last, and arguably most important innovation, which would at last make American football uniquely "American '', was the legalization of interference, or blocking, a tactic which was highly illegal under the rugby - style rules. Interference remains strictly illegal in both rugby codes to this day. The prohibition of interference in the rugby game stems from the game 's strict enforcement of its offsides rule, which prohibited any player on the team with possession of the ball to loiter between the ball and the goal. At first, American players would find creative ways of aiding the runner by pretending to accidentally knock into defenders trying to tackle the runner. When Walter Camp witnessed this tactic being employed against his Yale team, he was at first appalled, but the next year had adopted the blocking tactics for his own team. During the 1880s and 1890s, teams developed increasingly complex blocking tactics including the interlocking interference technique known as the Flying wedge or "V - trick formation '', which was developed by Lorin F. Deland and first introduced by Harvard in a collegiate game against Yale in 1892. Despite its effectiveness, it was outlawed two seasons later in 1894 through the efforts of the rule committee led by Parke H. Davis, because of its contribution to serious injury.
After his playing career at Yale ended in 1882, Camp was employed by the New Haven Clock Company until his death in 1925. Though no longer a player, he remained a fixture at annual rules meetings for most of his life, and he personally selected an annual All - American team every year from 1889 through 1924. The Walter Camp Football Foundation continues to select All - American teams in his honor.
On November 23, 1876, representatives from Harvard, Yale, Princeton, and Columbia met at the Massasoit House in Springfield, Massachusetts to standardize a new code of rules based on the rugby game first introduced to Harvard by McGill University in 1874. The rules were based largely on the Rugby Football Union 's code from England, though one important difference was the replacement of a kicked goal with a touchdown as the primary means of scoring (a change that would later occur in rugby itself, favoring the try as the main scoring event). Three of the schools -- Harvard, Columbia, and Princeton -- formed the Intercollegiate Football Association, as a result of the meeting. Yale did not join the group until 1879, because of an early disagreement about the number of players per team.
The first game where one team scored over 100 points happened on October 25, 1884 when Yale routed Dartmouth 113 -- 0. It was also the first time one team scored over 100 points and the opposing team was shut out. The next week, Princeton outscored Lafayette by 140 to 0.
In 1879, the University of Michigan became the first school west of Pennsylvania to establish a college football team. On May 30, 1879 Michigan beat Racine College 1 -- 0 in a game played in Chicago. The Chicago Daily Tribune called it "the first rugby - football game to be played west of the Alleghenies. '' Other Midwestern schools soon followed suit, including the University of Chicago, Northwestern University, and the University of Minnesota. The first western team to travel east was the 1881 Michigan team, which played at Harvard, Yale and Princeton. The nation 's first college football league, the Intercollegiate Conference of Faculty Representatives (also known as the Western Conference), a precursor to the Big Ten Conference, was founded in 1895.
Organized intercollegiate football was first played in the state of Virginia and the south on November 2, 1873 in Lexington between Washington and Lee and VMI. Washington and Lee won 4 -- 2. Some industrious students of the two schools organized a game for October 23, 1869 -- but it was rained out.
On April 9, 1880 at Stoll Field, Transylvania University (then called Kentucky University) beat Centre College by the score of 133⁄4 -- 0 in what is often considered the first recorded game played in the South. The first game of "scientific football '' in the South was the first instance of the Victory Bell rivalry between North Carolina and Duke (then known as Trinity College) held on Thanksgiving Day, 1888, at the North Carolina State Fairgrounds in Raleigh, North Carolina.
On November 13, 1887 the Virginia Cavaliers and Pantops Academy fought to a scoreless tie in the first organized football game in the state of Virginia. Students at UVA were playing pickup games of the kicking - style of football as early as 1870, and some accounts even claim that some industrious ones organized a game against Washington and Lee College in 1871, just two years after Rutgers and Princeton 's historic first game in 1869. But no record has been found of the score of this contest. Washington and Lee also claims a 4 to 2 win over VMI in 1873.
College football expanded greatly during the last two decades of the 19th century. Several major rivalries date from this time period.
November 1890 was an active time in the sport. In Baldwin City, Kansas, on November 22, 1890, college football was first played in the state of Kansas. Baker beat Kansas 22 -- 9. On the 27th, Vanderbilt played Nashville (Peabody) at Athletic Park and won 40 -- 0. It was the first time organized football played in the state of Tennessee. The 29th also saw the first instance of the Army -- Navy Game. Navy won 24 -- 0.
The first nighttime football game was played in Mansfield, Pennsylvania on September 28, 1892 between Mansfield State Normal and Wyoming Seminary and ended at halftime in a 0 -- 0 tie. The Army - Navy game of 1893 saw the first documented use of a football helmet by a player in a game. Joseph M. Reeves had a crude leather helmet made by a shoemaker in Annapolis and wore it in the game after being warned by his doctor that he risked death if he continued to play football after suffering an earlier kick to the head.
Although the beginnings of the contemporary Southeastern Conference and Atlantic Coast Conference start in 1892. Upon organizing the first Auburn football team in that year, George Petrie arranged for the team to play the University of Georgia team at Piedmont Park in Atlanta, Georgia. Auburn won the game, 10 -- 0, in front of 2,000 spectators. The game inaugurated what is known to college football fans as the Deep South 's Oldest Rivalry. It was in 1894 the Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Association (SIAA) was founded on December 21, 1894, by Dr. William Dudley, a chemistry professor at Vanderbilt. The original members were Alabama, Auburn, Georgia, Georgia Tech, North Carolina, Sewanee, and Vanderbilt. Clemson, Cumberland, Kentucky, LSU, Mercer, Mississippi, Mississippi A&M (Mississippi State), Southwestern Presbyterian University, Tennessee, Texas, Tulane, and the University of Nashville joined the following year in 1895 as invited charter members. The conference was originally formed for "the development and purification of college athletics throughout the South ''.
It is thought that the first forward pass in football occurred on October 26, 1895 in a game between Georgia and North Carolina when, out of desperation, the ball was thrown by the North Carolina back Joel Whitaker instead of punted and George Stephens caught the ball. On November 9, 1895 John Heisman executed a hidden ball trick utilizing quarterback Reynolds Tichenor to get Auburn 's only touchdown in a 6 to 9 loss to Vanderbilt. It was the first game in the south decided by a field goal. Heisman later used the trick against Pop Warner 's Georgia team. Warner picked up the trick and later used it at Cornell against Penn State in 1897. He then used it in 1903 at Carlisle against Harvard and garnered national attention.
The 1899 Sewanee Tigers are one of the all - time great teams of the early sport. The team went 12 -- 0, outscoring opponents 322 to 10. Known as the "Iron Men '', with just 13 men they had a six - day road trip with five shutout wins over Texas A&M; Texas; Tulane; LSU; and Ole Miss. It is recalled memorably with the phrase "... and on the seventh day they rested. '' Grantland Rice called them "the most durable football team I ever saw. ''
The first college football game in Oklahoma Territory occurred on November 7, 1895 when the ' Oklahoma City Terrors ' defeated the Oklahoma Sooners 34 to 0. The Terrors were a mix of Methodist college students and high schoolers. The Sooners did not manage a single first down. By next season, Oklahoma coach John A. Harts had left to prospect for gold in the Arctic. Organized football was first played in the territory on November 29, 1894 between the Oklahoma City Terrors and Oklahoma City High School. The high school won 24 to 0.
In 1891, the first Stanford football team was hastily organized and played a four - game season beginning in January 1892 with no official head coach. Following the season, Stanford captain John Whittemore wrote to Yale coach Walter Camp asking him to recommend a coach for Stanford. To Whittemore 's surprise, Camp agreed to coach the team himself, on the condition that he finish the season at Yale first. As a result of Camp 's late arrival, Stanford played just three official games, against San Francisco 's Olympic Club and rival California. The team also played exhibition games against two Los Angeles area teams that Stanford does not include in official results. Camp returned to the East Coast following the season, but coached Stanford for two further years from 1894 -- 1895.
USC first fielded an American football team in 1888. Playing its first game on November 14 of that year against the Alliance Athletic Club, in which USC gained a 16 -- 0 victory. Frank Suffel and Henry H. Goddard were playing coaches for the first team which was put together by quarterback Arthur Carroll; who in turn volunteered to make the pants for the team and later became a tailor. USC faced its first collegiate opponent the following year in fall 1889, playing St. Vincent 's College to a 40 -- 0 victory. In 1893, USC joined the Intercollegiate Football Association of Southern California (the forerunner of the SCIAC), which was composed of USC, Occidental College, Throop Polytechnic Institute (Cal Tech), and Chaffey College. Pomona College was invited to enter, but declined to do so. An invitation was also extended to Los Angeles High School.
The Big Game between Stanford and California is the oldest college football rivalry in the West. The first game was played on San Francisco 's Haight Street Grounds on March 19, 1892 with Stanford winning 14 -- 10. The term "Big Game '' was first used in 1900, when it was played on Thanksgiving Day in San Francisco. During that game, a large group of men and boys, who were observing from the roof of the nearby S.F. and Pacific Glass Works, fell into the fiery interior of the building when the roof collapsed, resulting in 13 dead and 78 injured. On December 4, 1900, the last victim of the disaster (Fred Lilly) died, bringing the death toll to 22; and, to this day, the "Thanksgiving Day Disaster '' remains the deadliest accident to kill spectators at a U.S. sporting event.
In May 1900, Fielding H. Yost was hired as the football coach at Stanford University, and, after traveling home to West Virginia, he arrived in Palo Alto, California, on August 21, 1900. Yost led the 1900 Stanford team to a 7 -- 2 -- 1 record, outscoring opponents 154 to 20. The next year in 1901, Yost was hired by Charles A. Baird as the head football coach for the Michigan Wolverines football team. Led by Yost, Michigan became the first "western '' national power. From 1901 to 1905, Michigan had a 56 - game undefeated streak that included a 1902 trip to play in the first college football bowl game, which later became the Rose Bowl Game. During this streak, Michigan scored 2,831 points while allowing only 40.
In 1906, citing concerns about the violence in American Football, universities on the West Coast, led by California and Stanford, replaced the sport with rugby union. At the time, the future of American football was very much in doubt and these schools believed that rugby union would eventually be adopted nationwide. Other schools followed suit and also made the switch included Nevada, St. Mary 's, Santa Clara, and USC (in 1911). However, due to the perception that West Coast football was inferior to the game played on the East Coast anyway, East Coast and Midwest teams shrugged off the loss of the teams and continued playing American football. With no nationwide movement, the available pool of rugby teams to play remained small. The schools scheduled games against local club teams and reached out to rugby union powers in Australia, New Zealand, and especially, due to its proximity, Canada. The annual Big Game between Stanford and California continued as rugby, with the winner invited by the British Columbia Rugby Union to a tournament in Vancouver over the Christmas holidays, with the winner of that tournament receiving the Cooper Keith Trophy.
From its earliest days as a mob game, football was a violent sport. The 1894 Harvard - Yale game, known as the "Hampden Park Blood Bath '', resulted in crippling injuries for four players; the contest was suspended until 1897. The annual Army - Navy game was suspended from 1894 to 1898 for similar reasons. One of the major problems was the popularity of mass - formations like the flying wedge, in which a large number of offensive players charged as a unit against a similarly arranged defense. The resultant collisions often led to serious injuries and sometimes even death. Georgia fullback Richard Von Albade Gammon died on the field from a concussion received against Virginia in 1897, causing some southern universities to temporarily stop their football programs.
In 1905 there were 19 fatalities nationwide. President Theodore Roosevelt reportedly threatened to shut down the game if drastic changes were not made. However, the threat by Roosevelt to eliminate football is disputed by sports historians. What is absolutely certain is that on October 9, 1905, Roosevelt held a meeting of football representatives from Harvard, Yale, and Princeton. Though he lectured on eliminating and reducing injuries, he never threatened to ban football. He also lacked the authority to abolish football and was, in fact, actually a fan of the sport and wanted to preserve it. The President 's sons were also playing football at the college and secondary levels at the time.
Meanwhile, John H. Outland held an experimental game in Wichita, Kansas that reduced the number of scrimmage plays to earn a first down from four to three in an attempt to reduce injuries. The Los Angeles Times reported an increase in punts and considered the game much safer than regular play but that the new rule was not "conducive to the sport. '' Finally, on December 28, 1905, 62 schools met in New York City to discuss rule changes to make the game safer. As a result of this meeting, the Intercollegiate Athletic Association of the United States, later named the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA), was formed. One rule change introduced in 1906, devised to open up the game and reduce injury, was the introduction of the legal forward pass. Though it was underutilized for years, this proved to be one of the most important rule changes in the establishment of the modern game.
As a result of the 1905 -- 1906 reforms, mass formation plays became illegal and forward passes legal. Bradbury Robinson, playing for visionary coach Eddie Cochems at St. Louis University, threw the first legal pass in a September 5, 1906, game against Carroll College at Waukesha. Other important changes, formally adopted in 1910, were the requirements that at least seven offensive players be on the line of scrimmage at the time of the snap, that there be no pushing or pulling, and that interlocking interference (arms linked or hands on belts and uniforms) was not allowed. These changes greatly reduced the potential for collision injuries. Several coaches emerged who took advantage of these sweeping changes. Amos Alonzo Stagg introduced such innovations as the huddle, the tackling dummy, and the pre-snap shift. Other coaches, such as Pop Warner and Knute Rockne, introduced new strategies that still remain part of the game.
Besides these coaching innovations, several rules changes during the first third of the 20th century had a profound impact on the game, mostly in opening up the passing game. In 1914, the first roughing - the - passer penalty was implemented. In 1918, the rules on eligible receivers were loosened to allow eligible players to catch the ball anywhere on the field -- previously strict rules were in place only allowing passes to certain areas of the field. Scoring rules also changed during this time: field goals were lowered to three points in 1909 and touchdowns raised to six points in 1912.
Star players that emerged in the early 20th century include Jim Thorpe, Red Grange, and Bronko Nagurski; these three made the transition to the fledgling NFL and helped turn it into a successful league. Sportswriter Grantland Rice helped popularize the sport with his poetic descriptions of games and colorful nicknames for the game 's biggest players, including Notre Dame 's "Four Horsemen '' backfield and Fordham University 's linemen, known as the "Seven Blocks of Granite ''.
In 1907 at Champaign, Illinois Chicago and Illinois played in the first game to have a halftime show featuring a marching band. Chicago won 42 -- 6. On November 25, 1911 Kansas and Missouri played the first homecoming football game. The game was "broadcast '' play - by - play over telegraph to at least 1,000 fans in Lawrence, Kansas. It ended in a 3 -- 3 tie. The game between West Virginia and Pittsburgh on October 8, 1921, saw the first live radio broadcast of a college football game when Harold W. Arlin announced that year 's Backyard Brawl played at Forbes Field on KDKA. Pitt won 21 -- 13. On October 28, 1922, Princeton and Chicago played the first game to be nationally broadcast on radio. Princeton won 21 -- 18 in a hotly contested game which had Princeton dubbed the "Team of Destiny. ''
In 1906 Vanderbilt defeated Carlisle 4 -- 0, the result of a Bob Blake field goal. In 1907 Vanderbilt fought Navy to a 6 -- 6 tie. In 1910 Vanderbilt held defending national champion Yale to a scoreless tie.
Helping Georgia Tech 's claim to a title in 1917, the Auburn Tigers held undefeated, Chic Harley led Big Ten champion Ohio State to a scoreless tie the week before Georgia Tech beat the Tigers 68 -- 7. The next season, with many players gone due to World War I, a game was finally scheduled at Forbes Field with Pittsburgh. The Panthers, led by halfback Tom Davies, defeated Georgia Tech 32 -- 0.
1917 saw the rise of another Southern team in Centre of Danville, Kentucky. In 1921 Bo McMillin led Centre upset defending national champion Harvard 6 -- 0 in what is widely considered one of the greatest upsets in college football history. The next year Vanderbilt fought Michigan to a scoreless tie at the inaugural game on Dudley Field, the first stadium in the South made exclusively for college football. Michigan coach Fielding Yost and Vanderbilt coach Dan McGugin were brothers - in - law, and the latter the protege of the former. The game featured the season 's two best defenses and included a goal line stand by Vanderbilt to preserve the tie. Its result was "a great surprise to the sporting world. '' Commodore fans celebrated by throwing some 3,000 seat cushions onto the field. The game features prominently in Vanderbilt 's history. That same year, Alabama upset Penn 9 -- 7.
Vanderbilt 's line coach then was Wallace Wade, who in 1925 coached Alabama to the south 's first Rose Bowl victory. This game is commonly referred to as "the game that changed the south. '' Wade followed up the next season with an undefeated record and Rose Bowl tie.
In the early 1930s, the college game continued to grow, particularly in the South, bolstered by fierce rivalries such as the "South 's Oldest Rivalry '', between Virginia and North Carolina and the "Deep South 's Oldest Rivalry '', between Georgia and Auburn. Although before the mid-1920s most national powers came from the Northeast or the Midwest, the trend changed when several teams from the South and the West Coast achieved national success. Wallace William Wade 's 1925 Alabama team won the 1926 Rose Bowl after receiving its first national title and William Alexander 's 1928 Georgia Tech team defeated California in the 1929 Rose Bowl. College football quickly became the most popular spectator sport in the South.
Several major modern college football conferences rose to prominence during this time period. The Southwest Athletic Conference had been founded in 1915. Consisting mostly of schools from Texas, the conference saw back - to - back national champions with Texas Christian University (TCU) in 1938 and Texas A&M in 1939. The Pacific Coast Conference (PCC), a precursor to the Pac - 12 Conference (Pac - 12), had its own back - to - back champion in the University of Southern California which was awarded the title in 1931 and 1932. The Southeastern Conference (SEC) formed in 1932 and consisted mostly of schools in the Deep South. As in previous decades, the Big Ten continued to dominate in the 1930s and 1940s, with Minnesota winning 5 titles between 1934 and 1941, and Michigan (1933, 1947, and 1948) and Ohio State (1942) also winning titles.
As it grew beyond its regional affiliations in the 1930s, college football garnered increased national attention. Four new bowl games were created: the Orange Bowl, Sugar Bowl, the Sun Bowl in 1935, and the Cotton Bowl in 1937. In lieu of an actual national championship, these bowl games, along with the earlier Rose Bowl, provided a way to match up teams from distant regions of the country that did not otherwise play. In 1936, the Associated Press began its weekly poll of prominent sports writers, ranking all of the nation 's college football teams. Since there was no national championship game, the final version of the AP poll was used to determine who was crowned the National Champion of college football.
The 1930s saw growth in the passing game. Though some coaches, such as General Robert Neyland at Tennessee, continued to eschew its use and was the last college team to produce an undefeated, untied & unscored upon season in 1939. several rules changes to the game had a profound effect on teams ' ability to throw the ball. In 1934, the rules committee removed two major penalties -- a loss of five yards for a second incomplete pass in any series of downs and a loss of possession for an incomplete pass in the end zone -- and shrunk the circumference of the ball, making it easier to grip and throw. Players who became famous for taking advantage of the easier passing game included Alabama end Don Hutson and TCU passer "Slingin '' Sammy Baugh.
In 1935, New York City 's Downtown Athletic Club awarded the first Heisman Trophy to University of Chicago halfback Jay Berwanger, who was also the first ever NFL Draft pick in 1936. The trophy was designed by sculptor Frank Eliscu and modeled after New York University player Ed Smith. The trophy recognizes the nation 's "most outstanding '' college football player and has become one of the most coveted awards in all of American sports.
During World War II, college football players enlisted in the armed forces, some playing in Europe during the war. As most of these players had eligibility left on their college careers, some of them returned to college at West Point, bringing Army back - to - back national titles in 1944 and 1945 under coach Red Blaik. Doc Blanchard (known as "Mr. Inside '') and Glenn Davis (known as "Mr. Outside '') both won the Heisman Trophy, in 1945 and 1946 respectively. On the coaching staff of those 1944 -- 1946 Army teams was future Pro Football Hall of Fame coach Vince Lombardi.
The 1950s saw the rise of yet more dynasties and power programs. Oklahoma, under coach Bud Wilkinson, won three national titles (1950, 1955, 1956) and all ten Big Eight Conference championships in the decade while building a record 47 - game winning streak. Woody Hayes led Ohio State to two national titles, in 1954 and 1957, and dominated the Big Ten conference, winning three Big Ten titles -- more than any other school. Wilkinson and Hayes, along with Robert Neyland of Tennessee, oversaw a revival of the running game in the 1950s. Passing numbers dropped from an average of 18.9 attempts in 1951 to 13.6 attempts in 1955, while teams averaged just shy of 50 running plays per game. Nine out of ten Heisman trophy winners in the 1950s were runners. Notre Dame, one of the biggest passing teams of the decade, saw a substantial decline in success; the 1950s were the only decade between 1920 and 1990 when the team did not win at least a share of the national title. Paul Hornung, Notre Dame quarterback, did, however, win the Heisman in 1956, becoming the only player from a losing team ever to do so.
Following the enormous success of the National Football League 's 1958 championship game, college football no longer enjoyed the same popularity as the NFL, at least on a national level. While both games benefited from the advent of television, since the late 1950s, the NFL has become a nationally popular sport while college football has maintained strong regional ties.
As professional football became a national television phenomenon, college football did as well. In the 1950s, Notre Dame, which had a large national following, formed its own network to broadcast its games, but by and large the sport still retained a mostly regional following. In 1952, the NCAA claimed all television broadcasting rights for the games of its member institutions, and it alone negotiated television rights. This situation continued until 1984, when several schools brought a suit under the Sherman Antitrust Act; the Supreme Court ruled against the NCAA and schools are now free to negotiate their own television deals. ABC Sports began broadcasting a national Game of the Week in 1966, bringing key matchups and rivalries to a national audience for the first time.
New formations and play sets continued to be developed. Emory Bellard, an assistant coach under Darrell Royal at the University of Texas, developed a three - back option style offense known as the wishbone. The wishbone is a run - heavy offense that depends on the quarterback making last second decisions on when and to whom to hand or pitch the ball to. Royal went on to teach the offense to other coaches, including Bear Bryant at Alabama, Chuck Fairbanks at Oklahoma and Pepper Rodgers at UCLA; who all adapted and developed it to their own tastes. The strategic opposite of the wishbone is the spread offense, developed by professional and college coaches throughout the 1960s and 1970s. Though some schools play a run - based version of the spread, its most common use is as a passing offense designed to "spread '' the field both horizontally and vertically. Some teams have managed to adapt with the times to keep winning consistently. In the rankings of the most victorious programs, Michigan, Notre Dame, and Texas are ranked first, second, and third in total wins.
In 1940, for the highest level of college football, there were only five bowl games (Rose, Orange, Sugar, Sun, and Cotton). By 1950, three more had joined that number and in 1970, there were still only eight major college bowl games. The number grew to eleven in 1976. At the birth of cable television and cable sports networks like ESPN, there were fifteen bowls in 1980. With more national venues and increased available revenue, the bowls saw an explosive growth throughout the 1980s and 1990s. In the thirty years from 1950 to 1980, seven bowl games were added to the schedule. From 1980 to 2008, an additional 20 bowl games were added to the schedule. Some have criticized this growth, claiming that the increased number of games has diluted the significance of playing in a bowl game. Yet others have countered that the increased number of games has increased exposure and revenue for a greater number of schools, and see it as a positive development.
With the growth of bowl games, it became difficult to determine a national champion in a fair and equitable manner. As conferences became contractually bound to certain bowl games (a situation known as a tie - in), match - ups that guaranteed a consensus national champion became increasingly rare. In 1992, seven conferences and independent Notre Dame formed the Bowl Coalition, which attempted to arrange an annual No. 1 versus No. 2 matchup based on the final AP poll standings. The Coalition lasted for three years; however, several scheduling issues prevented much success; tie - ins still took precedence in several cases. For example, the Big Eight and SEC champions could never meet, since they were contractually bound to different bowl games. The coalition also excluded the Rose Bowl, arguably the most prestigious game in the nation, and two major conferences -- the Pac - 10 and Big Ten -- meaning that it had limited success. In 1995, the Coalition was replaced by the Bowl Alliance, which reduced the number of bowl games to host a national championship game to three -- the Fiesta, Sugar, and Orange Bowls -- and the participating conferences to five -- the ACC, SEC, Southwest, Big Eight, and Big East. It was agreed that the No. 1 and No. 2 ranked teams gave up their prior bowl tie - ins and were guaranteed to meet in the national championship game, which rotated between the three participating bowls. The system still did not include the Big Ten, Pac - 10, or the Rose Bowl, and thus still lacked the legitimacy of a true national championship.
In 1998, a new system was put into place called the Bowl Championship Series. For the first time, it included all major conferences (ACC, Big East, Big 12, Big Ten, Pac - 10, and SEC) and all four major bowl games (Rose, Orange, Sugar and Fiesta). The champions of these six conferences, along with two "at - large '' selections, were invited to play in the four bowl games. Each year, one of the four bowl games served as a national championship game. Also, a complex system of human polls, computer rankings, and strength of schedule calculations was instituted to rank schools. Based on this ranking system, the No. 1 and No. 2 teams met each year in the national championship game. Traditional tie - ins were maintained for schools and bowls not part of the national championship. For example, in years when not a part of the national championship, the Rose Bowl still hosted the Big Ten and Pac - 10 champions.
The system continued to change, as the formula for ranking teams was tweaked from year to year. At - large teams could be chosen from any of the Division I conferences, though only one selection -- Utah in 2005 -- came from a non-BCS affiliated conference. Starting with the 2006 season, a fifth game -- simply called the BCS National Championship Game -- was added to the schedule, to be played at the site of one of the four BCS bowl games on a rotating basis, one week after the regular bowl game. This opened up the BCS to two additional at - large teams. Also, rules were changed to add the champions of five additional conferences (Conference USA, the Mid-American Conference, the Mountain West Conference, the Sun Belt Conference and the Western Athletic Conference), provided that said champion ranked in the top twelve in the final BCS rankings, or was within the top 16 of the BCS rankings and ranked higher than the champion of at least one of the "BCS conferences '' (also known as "AQ '' conferences, for Automatic Qualifying). Several times after this rule change was implemented, schools from non-AQ conferences played in BCS bowl games. In 2009, Boise State played TCU in the Fiesta Bowl, the first time two schools from non-BCS conferences played each other in a BCS bowl game. The last team from the non-AQ ranks to reach a BCS bowl game was Northern Illinois in 2012, which played in (and lost) the 2013 Orange Bowl.
Due to the intensification of the college football playoff debate after nearly a decade of the sometimes disputable results of the BCS, the conference commissioners and Notre Dame 's president voted to implement a Plus - One system which was to be called the ' College Football Playoff '. The College Football Playoff is the annual postseason tournament for the NCAA Division I Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS) and just as its predecessors, has failed to receive sanctioning from the NCAA. The playoff began with the 2014 NCAA Division I FBS football season. Four teams play in two semifinal games, and the winners advance to the College Football Playoff National Championship game. The first season of the new system was not without controversy, however, after TCU and Baylor (both with only one loss) both failed to receive the support of the College Football Playoff selection committee.
In the early 20th century, football began to catch on in the general population of the United States and was the subject of intense competition and rivalry, albeit of a localized nature. Although payments to players were considered unsporting and dishonorable at the time, a Pittsburgh area club, the Allegheny Athletic Association, of the unofficial western Pennsylvania football circuit, surreptitiously hired former Yale All - American guard William "Pudge '' Heffelfinger. On November 12, 1892, Heffelfinger became the first known professional football player. He was paid $500 to play in a game against the Pittsburgh Athletic Club. Heffelfinger picked up a Pittsburgh fumble and ran 35 yards for a touchdown, winning the game 4 -- 0 for Allegheny. Although observers held suspicions, the payment remained a secret for years.
On September 3, 1895 the first wholly professional game was played, in Latrobe, Pennsylvania, between the Latrobe Athletic Association and the Jeannette Athletic Club. Latrobe won the contest 12 -- 0. During this game, Latrobe 's quarterback, John Brallier became the first player to openly admit to being paid to play football. He was paid $10 plus expenses to play. In 1897, the Latrobe Athletic Association paid all of its players for the whole season, becoming the first fully professional football team. In 1898, William Chase Temple took over the team payments for the Duquesne Country and Athletic Club, a professional football team based in Pittsburgh from 1895 until 1900, becoming the first known individual football club owner. Later that year, the Morgan Athletic Club, on the South Side of Chicago, was founded. This team later became the Chicago Cardinals, then the St. Louis Cardinals and now is known as the Arizona Cardinals, making them the oldest continuously operating professional football team.
The first known professional football league, known as the National Football League (not the same as the modern league) began play in 1902 when several baseball clubs formed football teams to play in the league, including the Philadelphia Athletics, Pittsburgh Pirates and the Philadelphia Phillies. The Pirates ' team the Pittsburgh Stars were awarded the league championship. However, the Philadelphia Football Athletics and Philadelphia Football Phillies also claimed the title. A five - team tournament, known as the World Series of Football was organized by Tom O'Rouke, the manager of Madison Square Garden. The event featured the first - ever indoor pro football games. The first professional indoor game came on December 29, 1902, when the Syracuse Athletic Club defeated the "New York team '' 5 -- 0. Syracuse would go on to win the 1902 Series, while the Franklin Athletic Club won the Series in 1903. The World Series only lasted two seasons.
The first black person to be paid for his play in football games is thought to be two - sport athlete Charles Follis, A member of the Shelby Steamfitters for five years starting in 1902, Follis turned professional in 1904.
The game moved west into Ohio, which became the center of professional football during the early decades of the 20th century. Small towns such as Massillon, Akron, Portsmouth, and Canton all supported professional teams in a loose coalition known as the "Ohio League '', the direct predecessor to today 's National Football League. In 1906 the Canton Bulldogs -- Massillon Tigers betting scandal became the first major scandal in professional football in the United States. It was the first known case of professional gamblers attempting to fix a professional sport. Although the Massillon Tigers could not prove that the Canton Bulldogs had thrown the second game, the scandal tarnished the Bulldogs ' name and helped ruin professional football in Ohio until the mid-1910s.
In 1915, the reformed Canton Bulldogs signed former Olympian and Carlisle Indian School standout Jim Thorpe to a contract. Thorpe became the face of professional football for the next several years and was present at the founding of the National Football League five years later.
In 1920, the American Professional Football Association (APFA) was founded, in a meeting at a Hupmobile car dealership in Canton, Ohio. Jim Thorpe was elected the league 's first president. After several more meetings, the league 's membership was formalized. The original teams were:
In its early years the league was little more than a formal agreement between teams to play each other and to declare a champion at season 's end. Teams were still permitted to play non-league members. The 1920 season saw several teams drop out and fail to play through their schedule. Only four teams: Akron, Buffalo, Canton, and Decatur, finished the schedule. Akron claimed the first league champion, with the only undefeated record among the remaining teams.
The APFA, which later became known as the National Football League (NFL), had a limited number of black players. In the league 's first seven years, nine African - Americans played in the APFA / NFL. Two black players took part in the league 's inaugural season: Fritz Pollard and Bobby Marshall. In 1921, Pollard coached in the league, becoming the first African - American to do so.
In 1921, several more teams joined the league, increasing the membership to 22 teams. Among the new additions were the Green Bay Packers, which now has the record for longest use of an unchanged team name. Also in 1921, A.E. Staley, the owner of the Decatur Staleys, sold the team to player - coach George Halas, who went on to become one of the most important figures in the first half century of the NFL. In 1921, Halas moved the team to Chicago, but retained the Staleys nickname. In 1922 the team was renamed the Chicago Bears. The Staleys won the 1921 AFPA Championship, over the Buffalo All - Americans in an event later referred to as the "Staley Swindle ''.
By the mid-1920s, NFL membership had grown to 25 teams, and a rival league known as the American Football League was formed. The rival AFL folded after a single season, but it symbolized a growing interest in the professional game. Several college stars joined the NFL, most notably Red Grange from the University of Illinois, who was taken on a famous barnstorming tour in 1925 by the Chicago Bears. Another scandal that season centered on a 1925 game between the Chicago Cardinals and the Milwaukee Badgers. The scandal involved a Chicago player, Art Folz, hiring a group of high school football players to play for the Milwaukee Badgers, against the Cardinals. This would ensure an inferior opponent for Chicago. The game was used to help prop up their win - loss percentage and as a chance of wrestling away the 1925 Championship away from the first place Pottsville Maroons. All parties were severely punished initially; however, a few months later the punishments were rescinded. Also that year a controversial dispute stripped the NFL title from the Maroons and awarded it to the Cardinals.
At the end of the 1932 season, the Chicago Bears and the Portsmouth Spartans were tied with the best regular - season records. To determine the champion, the league voted to hold its first playoff game. Because of cold weather, the game was held indoors at Chicago Stadium, which forced some temporary rule changes. Chicago won, 9 -- 0. The playoff proved so popular that the league reorganized into two divisions for the 1933 season, with the winners advancing to a scheduled championship game. A number of new rule changes were also instituted: the goal posts were moved forward to the goal line, every play started from between the hash marks, and forward passes could originate from anywhere behind the line of scrimmage (instead of the previous five yards behind). In 1936, the NFL instituted the first draft of college players. With the first ever draft selection, the Philadelphia Eagles picked Heisman Trophy winner Jay Berwanger, but he declined to play professionally. Also in that year, another AFL formed, but it also lasted only two seasons.
The 1930s represented an important time of transition for the NFL. League membership was fluid prior to the mid-1930s. 1936 was the first year where there were no franchise moves, prior to that year 51 teams had gone defunct. In 1941, the NFL named its first Commissioner, Elmer Layden. The new office replaced that of President. Layden held the job for five years, before being replaced by Pittsburgh Steelers co-owner Bert Bell in 1946.
During World War II, a player shortage led to a shrinking of the league as several teams folded and others merged. Among the short - lived merged teams were the Steagles (Pittsburgh and Philadelphia) in 1943, the Card - Pitts (Chicago Cardinals and Pittsburgh) in 1944, and a team formed from the merger of the Brooklyn Dodgers and the Boston Yanks in 1945.
1946 was an important year in the history of professional football, as that was the year when the league reintegrated. The Los Angeles Rams signed two African American players, Kenny Washington and Woody Strode. Also that year, a competing league, the All - America Football Conference (AAFC), began operation.
During the 1950s, additional teams entered the league. In 1950, the AAFC folded, and three teams from that league were absorbed into the NFL: the Cleveland Browns (who had won the AAFC Championship every year of the league 's existence), the San Francisco 49ers, and the Baltimore Colts (not the same as the modern franchise, this version folded after one year). The remaining players were chosen by the now 13 NFL teams in a dispersal draft. Also in 1950, the Los Angeles Rams became the first team to televise its entire schedule, marking the beginning of an important relationship between television and professional football. In 1952, the Dallas Texans went defunct, becoming the last NFL franchise to do so. The following year a new Baltimore Colts franchise formed to take over the assets of the Texans. The players ' union, known as the NFL Players Association, formed in 1956.
At the conclusion of the 1958 NFL season, the Baltimore Colts and the New York Giants met at Yankee Stadium to determine the league champion. Tied after 60 minutes of play, it became the first NFL game to go into sudden death overtime. The final score was Colts 23, Giants 17. The game has since become widely known as "the Greatest Game Ever Played ''. It was carried live on the NBC television network, and the national exposure it provided the league has been cited as a watershed moment in professional football history, helping propel the NFL to become one of the most popular sports leagues in the United States. Journalist Tex Maule said of the contest, "This, for the first time, was a truly epic game which inflamed the imagination of a national audience. ''
In 1959, longtime NFL commissioner Bert Bell died of a heart attack while attending an Eagles / Steelers game at Franklin Field. That same year, Dallas businessman Lamar Hunt led the formation of the rival American Football League, the fourth such league to bear that name, with war hero and former South Dakota Governor Joe Foss as its Commissioner. Unlike the earlier rival leagues, and bolstered by television exposure, the AFL posed a significant threat to NFL dominance of the professional football world. With the exception of Los Angeles and New York, the AFL avoided placing teams in markets where they directly competed with established NFL franchises. In 1960, the AFL began play with eight teams and a double round - robin schedule of fourteen games. New NFL commissioner Pete Rozelle took office the same year.
The AFL became a viable alternative to the NFL as it made a concerted effort to attract established talent away from the NFL, signing half of the NFL 's first - round draft choices in 1960. The AFL worked hard to secure top college players, many from sources virtually untapped by the established league: small colleges and predominantly black colleges. Two of the eight coaches of the Original Eight AFL franchises, Hank Stram (Texans / Chiefs) and Sid Gillman (Chargers) eventually were inducted to the Hall of Fame. Led by Oakland Raiders owner and AFL commissioner Al Davis, the AFL established a "war chest '' to entice top talent with higher pay than they got from the NFL. Former Green Bay Packers quarterback Babe Parilli became a star for the Boston Patriots during the early years of the AFL, and University of Alabama passer Joe Namath rejected the NFL to play for the New York Jets. Namath became the face of the league as it reached its height of popularity in the mid-1960s. Davis 's methods worked, and in 1966, the junior league forced a partial merger with the NFL. The two leagues agreed to have a common draft and play in a common season - ending championship game, known as the AFL - NFL World Championship. Two years later, the game 's name was changed to the Super Bowl. AFL teams won the next two Super Bowls, and in 1970, the two leagues merged to form a new 26 - team league. The resulting newly expanded NFL eventually incorporated some of the innovations that led to the AFL 's success, such as including names on player 's jerseys, official scoreboard clocks, national television contracts (the addition of Monday Night Football gave the NFL broadcast rights on all of the Big Three television networks), and sharing of gate and broadcasting revenues between home and visiting teams.
The NFL continued to grow, eventually adopting some innovations of the AFL, including the two - point conversion. It has expanded several times to its current 32 - team membership, and the Super Bowl has become a cultural phenomena across the United States. One of the most popular televised events annually in the United States, it has become a major source of advertising revenue for the television networks that have carried it and it serves as a means for advertisers to debut elaborate and expensive commercials for their products. The NFL has grown to become the most popular spectator sports league in the United States.
One of the things that have marked the modern NFL as different from other major professional sports leagues is the apparent parity between its 32 teams. While from time to time, dominant teams have arisen, the league has been cited as one of the few where every team has a realistic chance of winning the championship from year to year. The league 's complex labor agreement with its players ' union, which mandates a hard salary cap and revenue sharing between its clubs, prevents the richest teams from stockpiling the best players and gives even teams in smaller cities such as Green Bay and New Orleans the opportunity to compete for the Super Bowl. One of the chief architects of this labor agreement was former NFL commissioner Paul Tagliabue, who presided over the league from 1989 to 2006. In addition to providing parity between the clubs, the current labor contract, established in 1993 and renewed in 1998 and 2006, has kept player salaries low -- the lowest among the four major league sports in the United States -- and has helped make the NFL the only major American professional sports league since 1993 not to suffer any player strike or work stoppage.
Since taking over as commissioner before the 2006 season, Roger Goodell has made player conduct a priority of his office. Since taking office, several high - profile players have experienced trouble with the law, from Adam "Pacman '' Jones to Michael Vick. In these and other cases, Commissioner Goodell has mandated lengthy suspensions for players who fall outside of acceptable conduct limits. Goodell, however, has remained a largely unpopular figure to many of the league 's fans, who perceive him attempting to change the NFL 's identity and haphazardly damage the sport.
Minor professional leagues such as the original United Football League, Atlantic Coast Football League (ACFL), Seaboard Football League and Continental Football League existed in abundance in the 1960s and early 1970s, to varying degrees of success. In 1970, Patricia Barzi Palinkas became the first woman to ever play on a men 's semipro football team when she joined the Orlando Panthers of the ACFL.
Several other professional football leagues have been formed since the AFL -- NFL merger, though none have had the success of the AFL. In 1974, the World Football League formed and was able to attract such stars as Larry Csonka away from the NFL with lucrative contracts. However, most of the WFL franchises were insolvent and the league folded in 1975.
In 1982, the United States Football League formed as a spring league, and enjoyed moderate success during its first two seasons behind such stars as Jim Kelly and Herschel Walker. In 1985, the league, which lost a considerable amount of money due to overspending on players, opted to gamble on moving its schedule to fall in 1986 and filing a billion - dollar antitrust lawsuit against the NFL in an effort to stay afloat. When the lawsuit only drew a three - dollar judgment, the USFL folded.
The NFL founded a developmental league known as the World League of American Football with teams based in the United States, Canada, and Europe. The WLAF ran for two years, from 1991 to 1992. Its successor, the all - European NFL Europe League, ran from 1995 to 2007.
In 2001, the XFL was formed as a joint venture between the World Wrestling Federation and the NBC television network. It folded after one season in the face of rapidly declining fan interest and a poor reputation. However, XFL stars such as Tommy Maddox and Rod "He Hate Me '' Smart later saw success in the NFL.
Football is a popular participatory sport among youth. One of the earliest youth football organizations was founded in Philadelphia, in 1929, as the Junior Football Conference. Organizer Joe Tomlin started the league to provide activities and guidance for teenage boys who were vandalizing the factory he owned. The original four - team league expanded to sixteen teams in 1933 when Pop Warner, who had just been hired as the new coach of the Temple University football team, agreed to give a lecture to the boys in the league. In his honor, the league was renamed the Pop Warner Conference.
Today, Pop Warner Little Scholars -- as the program is now known -- enrolls over 300,000 young boys and girls ages 5 -- 16 in over 5000 football and cheerleading squads, and has affiliate programs in Mexico and Japan. Other organizations, such as the Police Athletic League, Upward, and the National Football League 's NFL Youth Football Program also manage various youth football leagues.
Football is a popular sport for high schools in the United States. The National Federation of State High School Associations (NFHS) was founded in 1920 as an umbrella organization for state - level organizations that manage high school sports, including high school football. The NFHS publishes the rules followed by most local high school football associations. More than 13,000 high schools participate in football, and in some places high school teams play in stadiums that rival college - level facilities. For example, the school district serving the Houston suburb of Katy, Texas opened a 12,000 - seat stadium in 2017 that cost over $70 million to host the district 's eight high school teams. The growth of high school football and its impact on small town communities has been documented by landmark non-fiction works such as the 1990 book Friday Night Lights and the subsequent fictionalized film and television series.
American football has been played outside the US since the 1920s and accelerated in popularity after World War II, especially in countries with large numbers of U.S. military personnel, who often formed a substantial proportion of the players and spectators.
In 1998, the International Federation of American Football, was formed to coordinate international amateur competition. At present, 45 associations from the Americas, Europe, Asia and Oceania are organized within the IFAF, which claims to represent 23 million amateur athletes. The IFAF, which is based in La Courneuve, France, organizes the quadrennial World Championship of American Football.
A long - term goal of the IFAF is for American football to be accepted by the International Olympic Committee as an Olympic sport. The only time that the sport was played was at the 1932 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles, but as a demonstration sport. Among the various problems the IFAF has to solve in order to be accepted by the IOC are building a competitive women 's division, expanding the sport into Africa, and overcoming the current worldwide competitive imbalance that is in favor of American teams.
Other codes of football share a common history with American football. Canadian football is a form of the game that evolved parallel to American football. While both games share a common history, there are some important differences between the two. A more modern sport that derives from American football is Arena football, designed to be played indoors inside of hockey or basketball arenas. The game was invented in 1981 by Jim Foster and the Arena Football League was founded in 1987 as the first major professional league to play the sport. Several other indoor football leagues have since been founded and continue to play today.
American football 's parent sport of rugby continued to evolve. Today, two distinct codes known as rugby union and rugby league are played throughout the world. Since the two codes split following a schism on how the sport should be managed in 1895, the history of rugby league and the history of rugby union have evolved separately. Both codes have adopted innovations parallel to the American game; the rugby union scoring system is almost identical to the American game, while rugby league uses a gridiron - style field and a six - tackle rule similar to the system of downs in American Football.
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who has been both host and musical guest on snl | List of Saturday Night Live guests - wikipedia
Saturday Night Live (abbreviated as SNL) is a late - night sketch comedy and variety show created by Lorne Michaels. It premiered on NBC, a terrestrial television network, on October 11, 1975 under the title NBC 's Saturday Night. The show usually satirizes contemporary American popular culture and politics. Saturday Night Live features a two - tiered cast: the repertory members, also known as the "Not Ready for Prime - Time Players '', and newer cast members, known as "Featured Players. ''
A typical episode of SNL will feature a single host, who delivers the opening monologue and performs in sketches with the cast. While the format also features a musical guest, and a number of episodes have featured celebrity cameos, the focus of the show is the guest host.
George Carlin was first to host the show; Candice Bergen was the first woman to host the show a few weeks later and again hosted only six weeks after that. Guests that host five times (or more) are members of the Five - Timers Club that originated on December 8, 1990, when Tom Hanks became the seventh person to host their fifth episode. Occasionally, a host will also be the musical guest, such as first seen with Paul Simon on October 18, 1975, and, most recently, Donald Glover in 2018.
Saturday Night Live has featured a wide array of hosts and musical guests. George Carlin served as the show 's first host in October 1975; three episodes later, Candice Bergen became the first female host and the first to host more than once. Actor Alec Baldwin holds the record for most times hosting, having performed the duty on seventeen different occasions since 1990; Baldwin took the record from actor Steve Martin who has hosted fifteen times since 1976.
Several former cast members have returned to take on hosting duties. Original cast member Chevy Chase has hosted the most times, eight in total. Tina Fey follows behind, having hosted six times, while Bill Murray has hosted five times. On December 11, 1982, Eddie Murphy became the only person to host while still a member of the cast, filling the role at the last minute when the scheduled host (his 48 Hours co-star Nick Nolte) became ill.
Musical guests can be solo acts or bands, who perform two to three musical numbers. Occasionally, the musical guest has also simultaneously served as the host. Paul Simon was the first example, hosting and performing on the second episode on October 18, 1975. As of May 19, 2012, Dave Grohl is the most frequent musical guest, performing on eleven shows since 1992.
In 1982, at age 7, Drew Barrymore became the youngest person to host the show. Actress Betty White is the oldest person to host, having done so at 88 years of age on May 8, 2010. Concerned about White 's age and possible fatigue, her episode had Tina Fey, Molly Shannon, Maya Rudolph, Rachel Dratch and Amy Poehler on standby to replace her; White went on to appear in every sketch. In 2000, singer Britney Spears became the youngest person to both host and simultaneously serve as the show 's musical guest, at 18 years and 161 days old.
In addition to making cameo appearances, political figures have also hosted the show. Donald Trump, who hosted in 2004 (promoting the reality TV hit The Apprentice) and again in 2015 as a presidential hopeful, is the only host who eventually became President. Al Gore hosted in 2002, the only former Vice President to do so. Presidential candidates, either former, current, or future, have served as hosts: in addition to Trump and Gore, there was Ralph Nader in 1977, Jesse Jackson and George McGovern in 1984, Steve Forbes in 1996, Rudy Giuliani in 1997, John McCain in 2002, and Al Sharpton in 2003.
The Five - Timers Club is the group of performers who have hosted SNL at least five times. The club was first mentioned on the show on December 8, 1990 by Tom Hanks who, in his monologue, touched upon the fact that it was his fifth appearance as host:
Believe it or not, this is the fifth Saturday Night Live I have been lucky enough to host. Now, the first time you do the show, you ca n't believe you 're here. You just ca n't believe it. Your head buzzes with excitement. The second time you do the show, it means you were funny enough to be asked back - and you 're pushing a movie. The third time you do the show, the second time did n't go so well, and you have something to prove to yourself. The fourth time you do the show, you 're just blatantly pushing a movie. But the fifth time you do the show is the most special time of all, because you get this (holds up a card)... a membership card in the Five - Timers Club. Come with me... (walks off the stage) I 'm gon na give you a chance to look in on one of the most exclusive clubs in the world.
After Hanks gave his monologue, the show segued to a sketch featuring Hanks, Steve Martin, Elliott Gould, and Paul Simon in the richly appointed club. Martin and Gould were both five - time hosts; Simon had only hosted four episodes, but was accepted as a member due to his numerous appearances as a musical guest. The Five - Timers Club was mentioned to have a swimming pool with perfect 80 degree waters. The food that is served there is named after SNL performers. Then - Saturday Night Live writer Conan O'Brien portrayed Sean, the doorman of the club. Jon Lovitz appears as a club waiter. Ralph Nader appears as a former SNL host trying to get into the Five - Timers Club only for Lovitz to tell him and his group to leave.
The second time the Five - Timers Club was mentioned was when Danny DeVito was inducted in 1993. The Club was mentioned again after the mark was reached by hosts Alec Baldwin (1994), John Goodman (1994), Christopher Walken (2001), Drew Barrymore (2007), Justin Timberlake (2013), Ben Affleck (2013), Scarlett Johansson (2017), Melissa McCarthy (2017), and Dwayne Johnson (2017); Steve Martin appeared at the end of McCarthy 's fifth episode to present her with a jacket, while Alec Baldwin did the same for Dwayne Johnson in the monologue of the season finale. McCarthy had previously mentioned the club on her fourth appearance, when she claimed to be eligible because she had also been in the 40th anniversary special.
Justin Timberlake 's monologue from March 9, 2013 featured the reappearance of the richly appointed club. The sketch features Paul Simon, Steve Martin, Chevy Chase, Alec Baldwin, Tom Hanks, and Candice Bergen. There were portraits of John Goodman and Drew Barrymore in the Five - Timers Club 's Hall of Portraits. The staff at the Five - Timers Club are former cast members, with Dan Aykroyd (1975 -- 79) and Martin Short (1984 -- 85) appearing as the club 's bartender and waiter, respectively. Future cast member Mike O'Brien makes an appearance as the doorman who greets Justin. The entertainment at the Five - Timers Club involves making the current SNL performers fight each other to the death, with Bobby Moynihan shown fighting Taran Killam. When Melissa McCarthy hosted for show for the fifth time, five - timers club member Steve Martin appeared in the goodnights to welcome her to the club. When Dwayne Johnson hosted the show for the fifth time, five - timers club members Tom Hanks and Alec Baldwin appeared in the monologue to welcome him to the club.
Steve Martin was the fastest to join the Five - Timers club, hosting five times in only 546 days. Buck Henry is the only other member to join in less than four years, hosting five times in 671 days, although, in keeping with his persona on the show of being an undesirable or boring host, is said not to have been told about the club itself. The following people are members of the Five - Timers Club.
Simon has only guest - hosted four times but has been included in both Five - Timers Club sketches. The show credits him as co-host of the 100th episode even though a host is not officially credited in the opening sequence. His fifth appearance on the show was as a musical guest appearance.
Out of his four appearances as host, Simon acted as both host and musical guest during one episode.
Out of his five appearances as host, Timberlake acted as both host and musical guest during three episodes. During his most recent appearance on December 21, 2013, he was the musical guest while Jimmy Fallon hosted.
The Five - Timers Club has been referenced in other media since its creation in 1990. The entertainment channel E! placed it at No. 22 on its list of SNL top moments. The club was also referenced by Fox Sports as the basis behind the creation of the "Favre Backup Club '' which seeks to be the "NFL 's equivalent '' to the Five - Timers Club.
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what type of film do polaroid cameras use | Instant film - Wikipedia
Instant film is a type of photographic film introduced by Polaroid to be used in an instant camera (and, with accessory hardware, many other professional film cameras). The film contains the chemicals needed for developing and fixing the photograph, and the instant camera exposes and initiates the developing process after a photo has been taken.
In earlier Polaroid instant cameras the film is pulled through rollers which breaks open a pod containing a reagent that is spread between the exposed negative and receiving positive sheet. This film sandwich develops for some time after which the positive sheet is peeled away from the negative to reveal the developed photo. In 1972, Polaroid introduced integral film, which incorporated timing and receiving layers to automatically develop and fix the photo without any intervention from the photographer.
Instant film is available in sizes from 24 mm × 36 mm (0.94 in × 1.42 in) (similar to 135 film) up to 50.8 cm × 61 cm (20 in × 24 in) size, with the most popular film sizes for consumer snapshots being approximately 83 mm × 108 mm (3.3 in × 4.3 in) (the image itself is smaller as it is surrounded by a border). Early instant film was distributed on rolls, but later and current films are supplied in packs of 8 or 10 sheets, and single sheet films for use in large format cameras with a compatible back.
Though the quality of integral instant film is not as good as conventional film, peel apart black and white film, and to a lesser extent color film approached the quality of traditional film types. Instant film was used where it was undesirable to have to wait for a roll of conventional film to be finished and processed, e.g., documenting evidence in law enforcement, in health care and scientific applications, and producing photographs for passports and other identity documents, or simply for snapshots to be seen immediately. Some photographers use instant film for test shots, to see how a subject or setup looks before using conventional film for the final exposure. Instant film is also used by artists to achieve effects that are impossible to accomplish with traditional photography, by manipulating the emulsion during the developing process, or separating the image emulsion from the film base. Instant film has been supplanted for most purposes by digital photography, which allows the result to be viewed immediately on a display screen or printed with dye sublimation, inkjet, or laser home or professional printers.
Instant film is notable for having had a wider range of film speeds available than other negative films of the same era, having been produced in ISO 4 to ISO 20,000. Current instant film formats typically have an ISO between 100 and 1000.
Two companies manufacture instant film: Fujifilm (Instax integral film for its Instax cameras), and Polaroid Originals (previously named The Impossible Project) for older Polaroid cameras (600, SX - 70, Spectra and 8 × 10) and its I - Type cameras.
Instant positive film (which produced a print) uses diffusion transfer to move the dyes from the negative to the positive via a reagent. The process varies according to the film type.
In 1947 Edward H. Land introduced the Polaroid - Land process. The first instant films produced sepia tone photos. A negative sheet is exposed inside the camera, then lined up with a positive sheet and squeezed through a set of rollers which spread a reagent between the two layers, creating a developing film "sandwich ''. The negative develops quickly, after which some of the unexposed silver halide grains (and the latent image it contains) are solubilized by the reagent and transferred by diffusion from the negative to the positive. After a minute, depending on film type and ambient temperature, the negative is peeled away to reveal the photo which was transferred to the positive receiving sheet. True black and white films were released in 1950 after problems with chemistry stabilization were overcome.
Color film is much more complex due to multiple layers of emulsion and dye. The negative consists of three emulsion layers sensitive to the primary colors (red, green, and blue) each with a layer of developing dye beneath it of the complementary color (cyan, magenta, and yellow). Once light exposed the negative, the reagent is spread between the negative and positive and the developing dye layer migrates to the positive surface where it forms the photo. Emulsion layers exposed to their respective color block the complementary dye below it, reproducing the original color. For example, a photo of a blue sky would expose the blue emulsion, blocking all the yellow dye beneath it and allowing the magenta and cyan dye layers to migrate to the positive to form blue.
This process is similar to subtractive color instant film with added timing and receiving layers. Land 's solution was to incorporate an opacifier, which would darken when ejected from the camera, and then become clear to reveal the photograph. The film itself integrates all the layers to expose, develop, and fix the photo into a plastic envelope and frame commonly associated with a Polaroid photo.
Additive film (such as Polavision and Polachrome slide film) uses a color mask of microscopically thin transparent red, green, and blue lines (3000 lines per inch) and a black and white emulsion layer to reproduce color images in transparency film. The resulting dye developers (unexposed emulsion) block the colors not needed and project the color or combination of colors which form in the resulting image. Since the lines are so close to each other, the human eye easily blended the primary colors together to form the correct color, much like an LCD display or television. For instance, a photo of a yellow flower would expose the emulsion beneath the red and green masks and not the blue mask. The developing process removed the exposed emulsion (under the red and green masks) and diffused the unexposed dye developer (under the blue mask) to its receiving layer, blocking light from coming through. This resulted in the projected light shining through the red and green masks but not the blue mask, creating the color yellow. Because of the film density, film speeds were necessarily slow. High precision was required for the production of this film.
Polaroid Corporation invented and produced the widest range of instant film. Roll film was distributed in two separate negative and positive rolls and developed inside the camera. It was introduced in 1948 and was manufactured until 1992. Sheet film was introduced in 1958 for 4x5 '' film holder # 500. Each sheet contains a reagent pod, negative and receiving positive, and was loaded separately and developed outside the film holder. In 1973 Polaroid introduced 8x10 '' Instant film. Pack film was distributed in a film pack which contained both negative and positive sheets and was developed outside the camera. It was introduced in 1963. Integral film is also distributed in a film pack, but each film envelope contains all the chemical layers to expose, develop, and fix the photo. It was introduced in 1972.
Polavision was an instant motion picture film. Polavision was introduced by Polaroid in 1978, with an image format similar to Super 8 mm film, and based on an additive color process. Polavision required a specific camera and tabletop viewer, and was not a commercial success, but did lead to the development of an instant 35 mm color slide film. Polavision film has been taken off the market. Polachrome was an easy to develop 35 mm film, available in color, monochrome and ' blue ' formats (the latter intended for making title cards). Each roll of film came with a cartridge containing developing chemicals which were pressed between the film and a developing strip by a hand - cranked machine called the AutoProcessor. The AutoProcessor was very cheap and did not require a darkroom; the results were somewhat variable, the resolution was not as good as conventional film due to the matrix of tiny red, green and blue filters required to make the monochrome emulsion work in color, and the sensitivity was low, even for slide film; in tungsten light, Polachrome CS is rated at ISO 40. It was introduced in 1983.
Polaroid integral film packs usually contain a flat "Polapulse '' electrical battery, which powers systems in the camera, including exposure and focusing mechanisms, electronic flash, and a film ejection motor. The inclusion of the battery within the film pack ensures that a fresh battery is available with each new pack of film.
Polaroid no longer produces instant film. It has become an organization which licenses its brand name to other manufacturers. An example of this is the Polaroid 300 camera, which is a Polaroid branded Fuji Instax. Polaroid PIF - 300 film is essentially rebranded Fuji Instax mini film.
Polaroids have the same storage standards under ISO 18920: 2000 as any other photograph. Regular storage conditions should be less than 70 degrees Fahrenheit and between 50 % and 30 % relative humidity (RH). Cold storage (0 degrees Fahrenheit optimum) is not helpful unless RH can be controlled and cold storage RH is generally drier than required. RH below 30 % will create an environment that is too dry and may cause the photograph to curl. A Polaroid transfer removes the emulsion from the plastic backing and residual chemicals, offering an alternate form of preservation.
In February 2008, Polaroid (by then under the control of Thomas J. Petters of Petters Group Worldwide) announced it would cease production of all instant film; the company shut down three factories and laid off 450 workers. Sales of chemical film by all makers have dropped by at least 25 % per year since 2000, but a new birth of interest around Fujifilm and, in particular, The Impossible Project films fulfilled demand in the market.
PolaBlue, PolaChrome CS, PolaChrome HCP, PolaGraph HC, and PolaPan CT were 35 mm instant slide films.
20x24 P3 PolaColor, 20x24 P7 PolaColor, and 20x24 PolaPan.
Kodak manufactured the negative component of Polaroid 's instant film from 1963 to 1969, when Polaroid decided to manufacture its own. Kodak 's original plan was to create packfilm type instant products. There were many prototypes and test runs of the film with many private demonstrations to their board. Plans changed when Polaroid in 1972 released the integral type film with the introduction of the SX - 70 system. Kodak decided to scrap the plans for packfilm release and focus on an integral type process. A few years later Kodak introduced its own instant film products in 1976, which was different from Polaroid 's in several ways:
Kodak instant film was exposed from the back without a mirror, the opposite of Polaroid 's film which was exposed from the front with a mirror to reverse the image. Kodak used a matte finish on the front, made possible by exposing the film through the back. The negative and empty pod could be removed by peeling it off of the back of the print. Unlike Polaroid 's integral film packs, Kodak 's did not contain a battery, and used conventional batteries. Kodak 's PR 10 film was found to have light fading stability issues.
Polaroid filed suit against Eastman Kodak in April 1976 for the infringement of ten patents held by Edwin Land and others on his development team relating to instant photography. In September 1985, the United States District Court of Massachusetts ruled that seven patents were valid and infringed, two were invalid but infringed, and one was valid but not infringed by Kodak. Kodak appealed but was denied and an injunction prohibiting production of their instant film and cameras was put into effect. Kodak 's appeal to the Supreme Court was denied a few months later, and in January 1986, Kodak announced it would no longer be producing their instant line of products. In 1991, Polaroid was awarded $925 million in damages from Kodak.
While Kodak instant films have been discontinued, Fuji 's instant film available in Japan since the 1980s is very similar to Kodak 's. The pictures are the same size, the cartridge is almost the same, with some easy plastic modifications; the Fuji Fotorama series film can be made to fit. It was closest to the Kodak with the ISO at 160, many of the camera 's brightness controls can be adjusted to work with the different ISO; However, the FI - 10 series was discontinued in the 1990s. The faster ISO 800 instant films will work as well but would require the use of a filter either on the film cartridge or lens.
In Japan, Fujifilm introduced their own line of instant photographic products in 1981 starting with the Fotorama line of cameras. The name Fotorama came from photograph and panorama, as the film was a wide format compared to the square Polaroid SX - 70 / 600 films. These Integral films developed similar to Kodak 's with the back layer first. This presented a major problem for Fujifilm because of the ongoing litigation between Kodak and Polaroid. Polaroid also has a separate suit with Fujifilm and their instant film patents in Japan. When Kodak lost, Fujifilm was able to work with Polaroid to allow their cameras and films to remain in the market, provided that they have a technology sharing agreement. Polaroid was interested in branching out to magnetic media in the boom of the videotape era and had acquired a company called MagMedia Ltd. Fujifilm has a long history in magnetic media dating to the mid-1950s. This led to Polaroid having access to Fujifilm 's extensive electronic, video tape and floppy disc magnetic products. This allowed Fujifilm access to Polaroid 's film technology.
By the mid-1980s Fujifilm introduced the higher ISO System 800 series, followed by the ACE series in the mid-1990s. Instant ACE is nearly identical to System 800, the only difference is the design of the plastic cartridge in the ACE do not contain the spring mechanism (the spring is in the camera). Most of these products were available only in the Japanese market, until the release of Instax series of cameras was released in 1998. Fujifilm originally wanted to release the Instax series worldwide including North America and Europe simultaneously, but decided to work with Polaroid on the mio camera based on the Instax mini 10 for the US market; while Canada did get the Instax Wide 100. Another product was Fujifilm 's Digital Instax Pivi film for their battery powered portable printer which was made available for those who wanted to print from their mobile phone via infrared, USB and Bluetooth.
Fujifilm makes pack film for their passport camera systems, and had been available outside Japan since the mid-1980s. No legal issues arose with Fuji 's peel apart instant films as Polaroid 's patents had expired. While very popular in Australia as a cheaper alternative to Polaroid, it was generally not too well known elsewhere due to Polaroid 's dominance in most countries. In 2000, Fuji decided to change the way they manufacture pack film, making the entire pack out of plastic instead of a metal and plastic combination. Fujifilm announced at PMA 2003 that pack film would be made available to the North American market.
With the discontinuation of Polaroid instant film in 2008, Fuji started to export more of their instant film products to overseas markets, starting with making an increased variety of pack films available. In November 2008 the Instax Wide format was available in the US with the Instax 200 camera. Instax mini series of cameras and films became available in the US during the second half of 2009, with the mini 7s, also an updated Instax 210 replaced the Instax 200. Fujifilm 's FP - 100b45 was announced in Sept of 2009 for the US market. The FP - 3000b45 arrived in the North American market in Jan 2011, after Fujifilm Japan stopped manufacturing FP - 100b, but was discontinued in 2012. In late 2012 Fujifilm discontinued FP - 3000B, followed by the discontinuation of FP - 100C in spring 2016. In April 2017 Fujifilm announced the Instax SQUARE 1: 1 format and compatible Instax SQ10 camera.
Fujifilm instant films include:
A group called the Impossible Project acquired Polaroid 's old equipment and factory in Enschede, in the Netherlands. On their website they state:
We aim to re-start production of analog instant film for vintage Polaroid cameras in 2010.
and
"The Impossible mission is not to re-build Polaroid Integral film but (with the help of strategic partners) to develop a new product with new characteristics, consisting of new optimised components, produced with a streamlined modern setup. An innovative and fresh analog material, sold under a new brand name that perfectly will match the global re-positioning of Integral Films. ''
On March 22, 2010, it was announced they were successful in manufacturing instant film compatible with Polaroid SX - 70 / 600 instant cameras. Two new products were announced -- PX100 and PX600. Their PX100 Silver Shade instant film is a manipulable, monochromatic replacement of old Polaroid brand instant film compatible with SX - 70 cameras while the PX600 Silver Shade instant film is compatible with 600 cameras. That formulation has since been supplanted by improved films.
The company, renamed Polaroid Originals in 2017, produces 600, SX - 70, Spectra and 8 × 10 color and monochrome film packs with a variety of colored borders. It also produces I - Type film packs that differ from traditional 600 packs in their omission of the battery (thus lowering costs), for use in its Impossible I - 1 camera (released in 2016) and its Polaroid OneStep 2 camera (announced in 2017).
Summit Global Group, using the Polaroid brand, produced an instant photography camera and film starting with the Polaroid PIC 300, based on Fujifilm 's Instax Mini 7.
A company called New55Film is bringing to market a 4x5 P / N material that is exposed and processed in a Polaroid 545 holder, and other instant and film - related products. New55 PN provides a positive print and a 4x5 negative that can be scanned, contact printed, or enlarged.
The liquid chemicals for the developing process contained in the more common instant photo sheets are caustic and can cause chemical burns. For such liquid the manufacture recommendation can be to avoid contact with skin and when contact with skin is made wash immediately with much water. Some instant films have used less common reagents and have had differing suggested responses.
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how did robin get his name in batman | Robin (character) - wikipedia
Robin is the name of several fictional superheroes appearing in American comic books published by DC Comics. The character was originally created by Bob Kane, Bill Finger, and Jerry Robinson, to serve as a junior counterpart to the superhero Batman. The character 's first incarnation, Dick Grayson, debuted in Detective Comics # 38 (April 1940). Conceived as a vehicle to attract young readership, Robin garnered overwhelmingly positive critical reception, doubling the sales of the Batman related comic books. The early adventures of Robin included Star Spangled Comics # 65 -- 130 (1947 -- 1952), which was the character 's first solo feature. Robin made regular appearances in Batman related comic books and other DC Comics publications from 1940 through the early 1980s until the character set aside the Robin identity and became the independent superhero Nightwing. The team of Batman and Robin has commonly been referred to as the Caped Crusaders or Dynamic Duo.
The character 's second incarnation Jason Todd debuted in Batman # 357 (1983). This Robin made regular appearances in Batman related comic books until 1988, when the character was murdered by the Joker in the storyline "A Death in the Family '' (1989). Jason would later find himself alive after a reality changing incident, eventually becoming the Red Hood. The premiere Robin limited series was published in 1991 which featured the character 's third incarnation Tim Drake training to earn the role of Batman 's vigilante partner. Following two successful sequels, the monthly Robin ongoing series began in 1993 and ended in early 2009, which also helped his transition from sidekick to a superhero in his own right. In 2004 storylines, established DC Comics character Stephanie Brown became the fourth Robin for a short duration before the role reverted to Tim Drake. Damian Wayne succeeds Drake as Robin in the 2009 story arc "Battle for the Cowl ''.
Following the 2011 continuity reboot "the New 52 '', Tim Drake was revised as having assumed the title Red Robin, and Jason Todd, operating as the Red Hood, was slowly repairing his relationship with Batman. Dick Grayson resumed his role as Nightwing and Stephanie Brown was introduced anew under her previous moniker Spoiler in the pages of Batman Eternal (2014). The 2016 DC Rebirth continuity relaunch starts off with Damian Wayne as Robin, Tim Drake as Red Robin, Jason Todd as Red Hood, and Dick Grayson as Nightwing. Robins have also been featured throughout stories set in parallel worlds, owing to DC Comics ' longstanding "Multiverse '' concept. For example, in the original Earth - Two, Dick Grayson never adopted the name Nightwing, and continues operating as Robin into adulthood. In the New 52 's "Earth - 2 '' continuity, Robin is Helena Wayne, daughter of Batman and Catwoman, who was stranded on the Earth of the main continuity and takes the name Huntress.
About a year after Batman 's debut, Batman creators Bob Kane and Bill Finger introduced Robin the Boy Wonder in Detective Comics # 38 (1940). The name "Robin the Boy Wonder '' and the medieval look of the original costume were inspired by The Adventures of Robin Hood. Robinson noted he "came up with Robin Hood because The Adventures of Robin Hood were boyhood favorites of mine. I had been given a Robin Hood book illustrated by N.C. Wyeth... and that 's what I quickly sketched out when I suggested the name Robin Hood, which they seemed to like, and then showed them the costume. And if you look at it, it 's Wyeth 's costume, from my memory, because I did n't have the book to look at. '' (Some later accounts of Robin 's origin have stated that the name comes from the American robin bird, not from Robin Hood, Frank Miller 's All Star Batman and Robin being a notable exception. Sometimes both sources are credited, as in Len Wein 's The Untold Legend of the Batman.) Although Robin is best known as Batman 's sidekick, the Robins have also been members of the superhero group the Teen Titans - with the original Robin, Dick Grayson, as a founding member and the group 's leader and with Tim Drake as the team leader as of 2012.
In Batman stories the character of Robin was intended to be the Batman 's Watson: Bill Finger, writer for many early Batman adventures, wrote:
"Robin was an outgrowth of a conversation I had with Bob. As I said, Batman was a combination of Douglas Fairbanks and Sherlock Holmes. Holmes had his Watson. The thing that bothered me was that Batman did n't have anyone to talk to, and it got a little tiresome always having him thinking. I found that as I went along Batman needed a Watson to talk to. That 's how Robin came to be. Bob called me over and said he was going to put a boy in the strip to identify with Batman. I thought it was a great idea. ''
The following fictional characters have assumed the Robin role at various times in the main DC Comics Universe continuity:
In the comics, Dick Grayson was an 8 - year - old acrobat and the youngest of a family act called the "Flying Graysons ''. A gangster named Boss Zucco, loosely based on actor Edward G. Robinson 's Little Caesar character, had been extorting money from the circus and killed Grayson 's parents, John and Mary, by sabotaging their trapeze equipment as a warning against defiance. Batman investigated the crime and, as his alter ego billionaire Bruce Wayne, had Dick put under his custody as a legal ward. Together they investigated Zucco and collected the evidence needed to bring him to justice. From his debut appearance in 1940 through 1969, Robin was known as the Boy Wonder. Batman creates a costume for Dick, consisting of a red tunic, yellow cape, green gloves, green boots, green spandex briefs, and a utility belt. As he grew older, graduated from high school, and enrolled in Hudson University, Robin continued his career as the Teen Wonder, from 1970 into the early 1980s.
The character was rediscovered by a new generation of fans during the 1980s because of the success of The New Teen Titans, in which he left Batman 's shadow entirely to assume the identity of Nightwing. He aids Batman throughout the later storyline regarding the several conflicts with Jason Todd until he makes his final return as the "Red Hood ''. Grayson temporarily took over as Batman (while Wayne was traveling through time), using the aid of Damian Wayne, making his newish appearance as "Robin '', to defeat and imprison Todd. With Bruce Wayne 's return, Grayson went back to being Nightwing.
DC was initially hesitant to turn Grayson into Nightwing and to replace him with a new Robin. To minimize the change, they made the new Robin, Jason Peter Todd, who first appeared in Batman # 357 (1983), similar to a young Grayson. Like Dick Grayson, Jason Todd was the son of circus acrobats murdered by a criminal (this time the Batman adversary Killer Croc), and then adopted by Bruce Wayne. In this incarnation, he was originally red - haired and unfailingly cheerful, and wore his circus costume to fight crime until Dick Grayson presented him with a Robin suit of his own. At that point, he dyed his hair black.
After the mini-series Crisis on Infinite Earths, much of the DC Comics continuity was redone. Dick Grayson 's origin, years with Batman, and growth into Nightwing remained mostly unchanged; but Todd 's character was completely revised. He was now a black - haired street orphan who first encountered Batman when he attempted to steal tires from the Batmobile. Batman saw to it that he was placed in a school for troubled youths. Weeks later, after Dick Grayson became Nightwing and Todd proved his crime - fighting worth by helping Batman catch a gang of robbers, Batman offered Todd the position as Robin.
Believing that readers never truly bonded with Todd, DC Comics made the controversial decision in 1988 to poll readers using a 1 - 900 number as to whether or not Todd should be killed. The event received more attention in the mainstream media than any other comic book event before it. Readers voted "yes '' by a small margin (5,343 to 5,271) and Todd was subsequently murdered by the Joker in the storyline, A Death in the Family, in which the psychopath beat the youngster severely with a crowbar, and left him to die in a warehouse rigged with a bomb.
Jason Todd later returned as the new Red Hood (the original alias of the Joker) when he was brought back to life due to reality being altered. After the continuity changes following the New 52 DC Comics relaunch, Jason becomes a leader of the Outlaws, a superhero team that includes Starfire and Arsenal.
DC Comics was left uncertain about readers ' decision to kill Jason Todd, wondering if readers preferred Batman as a lone vigilante, disliked Todd specifically, or just wanted to see if DC would actually kill the character. In addition, the 1989 Batman film did not feature Robin, giving DC a reason to keep him out of the comic book series for marketing purposes. Regardless, Batman editor Denny O'Neil introduced a new Robin. The third Robin, Timothy Drake, first appeared in a flashback in Batman # 436 (1989).
In the comics, Tim Drake was a young boy who had followed the adventures of Batman and Robin ever since witnessing the murder of the Flying Graysons. This served to connect Drake to Grayson, establishing a link that DC hoped would help readers accept this new Robin. Drake surmised their secret identities with his amateur but instinctive detective skills and followed their careers closely. Tim stated on numerous occasions that he wishes to become "The World 's Greatest Detective '', a title currently belonging to the Dark Knight. Batman himself stated that one day Drake will surpass him as a detective. Despite his combat skills not being the match of Grayson 's (although there are some similarities, in that they are far superior to Todd 's when he was Robin), his detective skills more than make up for this. In addition, Batman supplied him with a new armored costume.
Tim Drake 's first Robin costume had a red torso, yellow stitching and belt, black boots, and green short sleeves, gloves, pants, and domino mask. He wore a cape that was black on the outside and yellow on the inside. This costume had an armored tunic and gorget, an emergency "R '' shuriken on his chest in addition to the traditional batarangs, and a collapsible bo staff as his primary weapon, which Tim Drake continues to use as the superhero Red Robin.
The character was introduced as a happy medium between the first two Robins in that, from the readers ' point of view, he is neither overly well behaved like Dick Grayson nor overly impudent like Jason Todd. Tim Drake is the first Robin to have his own comic book series, where he fought crime on his own. Tim Drake, as Robin, co-founded the superhero team Young Justice in the absence of the Teen Titans of Dick Grayson 's generation, but would then later re-form the Teen Titans after Young Justice disbanded following a massive sidekick crossover during which Donna Troy was killed. Tim served as leader of this version of the Titans until 2009, at which point he quit due to the events of Batman R.I.P.
Following Infinite Crisis and 52, Tim Drake modified his costume to favor a mostly red and black color scheme in tribute to his best friend, Superboy (Kon - El), who died fighting Earth - Prime Superboy. This Robin costume had a red torso, long sleeves, and pants. It also included black gloves and boots, yellow stitching and belt, and a black and yellow cape. Tim Drake continued the motif of a red and black costume when he assumed the role of Red Robin before and during the events of the New 52.
Tim Drake assumes the identity of Red Robin after Batman 's disappearance following the events of Final Crisis and Battle For The Cowl and Damian Wayne becoming Grayson 's Robin. Following 2011 's continuity changes resulting from the New 52 DC Comics relaunch, history was altered such that Tim Drake never took up the Robin mantle after Jason Todd 's death, feeling that it would be inappropriate. Instead, he served as Batman 's sidekick under the name of Red Robin.
Stephanie Brown, Tim Drake 's girlfriend and the costumed adventurer previously known as the Spoiler, volunteered for the role of Robin upon Tim 's resignation. Batman fired the Girl Wonder for not obeying his orders to the letter on two separate occasions. Stephanie then stole one of Batman 's incomplete plans to control Gotham crime and executed it. Trying to prove her worthiness, Brown inadvertently set off a gang war on the streets of Gotham. While trying to help end the war, Brown was captured and tortured by the lunatic crime boss Black Mask. She managed to escape but apparently died shortly afterwards due to the severity of her injuries. Tim Drake keeps a memorial for her in his cave hideout underneath Titans Tower in San Francisco. She appeared alive and stalking Tim, after his return from traveling around the globe with his mentor. It turned out that Dr. Leslie Thompkins had faked Stephanie 's death in an effort to protect her. For years she operated on and off as the Spoiler, but was then recruited as Barbara Gordon 's replacement as Batgirl. She had her own series as well as making appearances throughout various Batman and Batman spin - off series. Her time as Spoiler, Robin, and Batgirl was retconned to have never occurred after the Flashpoint event, with her being reintroduced having just become Spoiler in Batman Eternal.
Damian Wayne was the child of Bruce Wayne and Talia al Ghul, thus the grandson of the immortal Ra 's al Ghul. Batman was unaware of his son 's existence for years until Talia left Damian in his care. Damian was violent and lacking in discipline and morality, and was trained by the League of Assassins. Learning to kill at a young age, Damian 's murderous behavior created a troubled relationship with his father, who vowed never to take a life.
Originally conceived to become a host for his maternal grandfather 's soul as well as a pawn against the Dark Knight, Batman saved his child from this fate which forced Ra 's to inhabit his own son 's body, and Damian was affectionate to his father. After Batman 's apparent death during Final Crisis, Talia left her son under Dick Grayson and Alfred Pennyworth 's care and Damian was deeply affected by his father 's absence. In the first issue of "Battle for the Cowl '', Damian was driving the Batmobile and was attacked by Poison Ivy and Killer Croc. Damian was rescued by Nightwing who then tries to escape but was shot down by Black Mask 's men. Nightwing tried to fight the thugs, but the thugs were shot by Jason Todd. After a fight between Nightwing and Todd, Todd eventually shot Damian in the chest. In the final issue of the series, Alfred made Damian into Robin. Damian 's first task as Robin was to rescue Tim. After "Battle for the Cowl '', Grayson adopted the mantle of Batman, and instead of having Tim (who he viewed as an equal, rather than a protégé) remain as Robin, he gave the role to Damian, who he felt needed the training that his father would have given him.
Following Batman: The Return of Bruce Wayne and Flashpoint events, Bruce Wayne returned to his role as Batman while Dick resumed as Nightwing. As of the "New 52 '', Damian continued to work with his father, but temporarily gave up being Robin (as his mother put a price on his head), and went under the identity of Red Bird. Damian met his end at the hands of Heretic, an aged - clone of Damian working for Leviathan, bravely giving up his life. Despite his status as deceased, Damian starred in his own mini-series, Damian: Son of Batman, written and drawn by Andy Kubert, set in a future where Damian is on the path to become Batman after his father fell victim to a trap set by the Joker. Batman eventually started a difficult quest to resurrect him, returning Damian to life with Darkseid 's Chaos Shard.
A Batman story from the 1950s featured the young Bruce Wayne assuming the identity of Robin, complete with the original costume, in order to learn the basics of detective work from a famous detective named Harvey Harris. The purpose of the secret identity was to prevent Harris from learning Wayne 's true motivation for approaching him, which could have led to the detective attempting to discourage the boy from pursuing his obsession. Though this story remained canonical through the most of the 1980s (it was revisited in the Untold Legend of the Batman miniseries in 1980), it was revised post-Crisis to edit out any reference to Bruce Wayne having ever called himself "Robin '' or worn any costume before he finally donned his Batman costume as an adult. John Byrne later worked this aspect into his non-canonical story Superman & Batman: Generations.
Post-Crisis, there was one instance in continuity when Bruce Wayne adopted the Robin persona. In Batboy & Robin, a tie - in special to the DC Comics storyline Sins of Youth, Bruce and Tim Drake, the third Robin, had their ages magically switched. In an effort to keep up the illusion of Batman, Bruce had Tim adopt the Batman identity while he is forced to be Robin.
On Earth - Two, home of the Golden Age version of DC 's superheroes, Dick Grayson continued to be Robin even as an adult, having no successors, and even after Batman 's death. His allies as a boy included the All - Star Squadron along with Batwoman and Flamebird.
By the 1960s, Grayson had become an adult, and was a lawyer and the ambassador to South Africa. He adopted a more Batman - like costume, but still fought crime as Robin. This adult version of Dick Grayson debuted in Justice League of America # 55, where he also became a member of the Justice Society of America. Although in semi-retirement for a time, he was called back to active duty when he rejoined the Justice Society during the period when he, Power Girl and Star - Spangled Kid, assisted them as The Super Squad.
He appeared to have died during the 1985 miniseries Crisis on Infinite Earths, in which the DC Multiverse was reduced to one Universe, and this version of Grayson, as well as the Earth - Two Batman, were deemed never to have existed. The Earth - 2 concept was revived and reimagined twice subsequently, following the comic books 52 (2006 -- 7) and Flashpoint (2011).
In the DC One Million storyline, members of the Justice League of America encounter a variety of heroes from the future, including an 853rd - century Batman who patrols the prison planet Pluto. This version of Batman is accompanied by a robotic Robin who contains a transcribed copy of his own personality from before his parents were murdered by Plutonian criminals.
This Robin (who calls himself "the Toy Wonder '') is a member of the Justice Legion T in addition to serving as a deliberate counterbalance to Batman 's dark personality.
Elseworlds versions of DC characters are ones that exist in alternate timelines or realities that take place in entirely self - contained continuities. In Elseworlds Robin has been a German immigrant during WWII named Richart Graustark, Bruce Wayne Jr (the son of Julia Madison and Bruce Wayne), a genetically enhanced ape named Rodney, a samurai named Tengu, a pirate 's cabin boy, a girl traveling via space ship to a far off colonial planet, Bruce Wayne 's nephew Thomas Wayne III, MI - 6 agent Alfred Pennyworth, Bruce Wayne 's sister during the Reign of Terror in France, and a Native American named Red Bird.
In Frank Miller 's non-canonical The Dark Knight Returns, the role of Robin is filled by Carrie Kelley, a thirteen - year - old girl. She becomes Robin, and is accepted by the Batman after she saves his life. Unlike the previous Robins, Carrie is not an orphan, but she appears to have rather neglectful parents who are never actually depicted (one of them mutters "Did n't we have a kid? '' while their daughter is watching the fierce battle between Batman and the Mutants). It is hinted through their dialogue that they were once activists and possibly hippies during the 1960s, but have since become apathetic stoners. She was the first female Robin and the first Robin with living parents. In the sequel, Batman: The Dark Knight Strikes Again, 2001, Carrie dons the identity of Catgirl but still works as Batman 's second - in - command.
She was also featured in an episode of Batman: The Animated Series entitled "Legends of the Dark Knight ''. She then appeared in Batman: The Brave and the Bold 's episode entitled "Batman Dies At Dawn! '' along with Dick Grayson, Jason Todd, Tim Drake, Stephanie Brown, and Damian Wayne. Kelley joined the New 52 DC universe in Batman and Robin # 19, in a story titled Batman and Red Robin.
Crime Syndicate version of Robin on Earth - 3, associate of Owlman. Talon refers to Owlman as his father, whether he is the biological son of Thomas Wayne II or an alternate version of Jason Todd or Tim Drake is unknown. Talon first appeared in Teen Titans (vol. 3) # 32 (March 2006).
In the final issue of 52, a new Multiverse is revealed, originally consisting of 52 identical realities. Among the parallel realities shown is one designated "Earth - 2 ''. As a result of Mister Mind "eating '' aspects of this reality, it takes on visual aspects similar to the pre-Crisis Earth - 2, including Robin among other Justice Society of America characters. Based on comments by Grant Morrison, this alternate universe is not the pre-Crisis Earth - 2. However, in the Justice Society of America Annual # 1, published in the summer of 2008, Silver Scarab explains that the events of the Crisis are remembered by the people of this Earth - 2, and from their perspective, Earth - 2 seemed to be the only Earth to have survived the Crisis, raising theories as to whether or not Earth - 2 was really destroyed, or was perhaps replaced by a new Earth - 2. Indeed, in Justice Society of America # 20, published in December 2008, Starman explains that during the re-expansion of the DC Multiverse, Earth - 2 was reborn "along with everyone on it '', including Robin.
Following Flashpoint (2011) and The New 52 reboot, this Earth is replaced by another reimagining of Earth 2, one where Batman 's daughter Helena Wayne served as Robin until an incident five years prior to the relaunch sent her to DC 's primary continuity, Earth - 0, where she works as Huntress. The 2014 series Earth 2: World 's End establishes that Dick Grayson never served as Robin on this Earth, and was instead a reporter who married Barbara Gordon and had a son. During Darkseid 's invasion of Earth 2, Barbara is killed, and Dick is trained in how to fight by Ted Grant and goes on a mission to find his missing son.
The first Robin miniseries was printed in 1992 following Tim Drake 's debut as Robin. The series centered around Tim 's continued training and set up villains linked to the character. It was followed up by another series Robin II: Joker 's Wild which pitted Tim against his predecessor 's murderer the Joker. With Batman out of town, it was up to Tim and Alfred to end the Joker 's latest crime spree. A final miniseries, Robin III: Cry of Huntress wrapped up the trilogy, teaming Tim with the Huntress. In 1993, the success of the three miniseries led to the ongoing Robin series which ran 183 issues until 2009. The title was replaced by a Batman and Robin series following the Battle for the Cowl mini-series, as well as an ongoing Red Robin monthly which continues the story of Tim Drake.
The ongoing Robin series has taken part in a number of crossovers with other comics, especially Batman and related series. These include:
In addition, two Robin related series will launch in June 2015: We Are Robin, featuring writer Lee Bermejo and artists Rob Haynes and Khary Randolph, and detailing multiple teenagers in Gotham who take up the mantle of Robin; and Robin, Son of Batman, written and drawn by Patrick Gleason, showing the individual adventures of Damian Wayne.
According to Entertainment Weekly in 2008, Robin is one of the "greatest sidekicks ''.
Robin (Dick Grayson) was portrayed by Douglas Croft and Johnny Duncan, respectively, in the 1943 and 1949 fifteen chapter Batman serials. Burt Ward played him in the 1966 -- 1968 Batman television series and the related 1966 film. In the live - action movies Batman Forever and Batman & Robin, he was played by Chris O'Donnell. Michael Cera voiced the character in The Lego Batman Movie.
The Dick Grayson version of Robin also appears in Batman: The Animated Series, voiced by Loren Lester. Grayson is replaced by Tim Drake, played by Mathew Valencia, in the subsequent series The New Batman Adventures.
The animated series Teen Titans features Robin (voiced by Scott Menville) as the leader of a team of young heroes; it is hinted in several episodes that this Robin is Dick Grayson. In the season two episode "Fractured '', a version of Bat - Mite is introduced who claims to be Robin 's "DNA buddy '' (genetic twin). Bat - Mite gives his name as Nosyarg Kcid ("Dick Grayson '' spelled backwards). In another episode, Raven reads Robin 's mind and sees a man and a woman falling from a trapeze (an event known only to have happened to Grayson and not to any other Robin). In another episode, Starfire travels to the future and discovers that Robin has taken the identity of Nightwing. Menville reprises his role as Robin in Teen Titans Go!.
Robin is also seen in the 1987 Zeller 's commercial, which features the infamous catchphrase, "Well said, Robin! ''.
Robin is voiced by Jesse McCartney in Young Justice.
Robin is portrayed by Nick Lang in Holy Musical B@man!. His portrayal is based mainly on Burt Ward 's Dick Grayson.
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who has the most saves this year in major league baseball | List of Major League Baseball players to hit for the cycle - Wikipedia
In baseball, completing the cycle is the accomplishment of hitting a single, a double, a triple, and a home run in the same game. Collecting the hits in that order is known as a "natural cycle '', which has occurred 14 times in Major League Baseball (MLB). The cycle itself is rare in MLB, occurring a total of 320 times, starting with Curry Foley in 1882. In terms of frequency, the cycle is roughly as common as a no - hitter; Baseball Digest calls it "one of the rarest feats in baseball ''. Only one current team in Major League Baseball has never had a player hit for the cycle: the Miami Marlins.
The most cycles hit by a single player in Major League Baseball is three, accomplished by four players; John Reilly was the first to hit a third when he completed the cycle on August 6, 1890, after hitting his first two in a week (September 12 and 19, 1883) for the Cincinnati Reds. Bob Meusel became the second man to complete three cycles, playing for the New York Yankees; his first occurred on May 7, 1921, the next on July 3, 1922, and his final cycle on July 26, 1928. Babe Herman accomplished the feat for two different teams -- the Brooklyn Robins (May 18 and July 24, 1931) and the Chicago Cubs (September 30, 1933). Adrián Beltré is the most recent addition to this list, cycling first for the Seattle Mariners (September 1, 2008) before cycling twice as a member of the Texas Rangers (August 24, 2012 and August 3, 2015). Beltré is the only player to have completed all three cycles in the same ballpark, with the first occurring as an opponent of the Texas Rangers at Globe Life Park in Arlington.
The most cycles hit in a single major league season is eight, which has occurred twice: first in the 1933 season, and then again in the 2009 season; all eight cycles in each of those seasons were hit by different players. Cycles have occurred on the same day twice in Major League Baseball history: on September 17, 1920, hit by Bobby Veach of the Detroit Tigers and George Burns of the New York Giants; and again on September 1, 2008, when the Arizona Diamondbacks ' Stephen Drew and the Seattle Mariners ' Adrián Beltré each completed the four - hit group. Conversely, the longest period of time between two players hitting for the cycle was 5 years, 1 month, and 10 days, a drought lasting from Bill Joyce 's cycle in 1896 to Harry Davis ' in 1901. Three players -- John Olerud, Bob Watson and Michael Cuddyer -- have hit for the cycle in both the National and American Leagues. Family pairs to hit for the cycle include father and son Gary and Daryle Ward, who accomplished the feat in 1980 and 2004, respectively; and grandfather and grandson Gus and David Bell, the elder of whom hit for the cycle in 1951, and the younger in 2004. Dave Winfield and Mel Ott are the oldest and youngest players to hit for the cycle at ages 39 and 20, respectively. Of multiple - cycle hitters, John Reilly holds the record for the shortest amount of time between cycles (7 days), while Aaron Hill holds the record since the formation of the American League, with his two 2012 feats coming within an 11 - day span.
Italic text indicates the current name of a current MLB franchise; names not in italics indicate either defunct teams or defunct team names. Teams are listed only as major league squads; minor league teams promoted into MLB do not have minor league names or tenures listed. Initial table sorting is by number of cycles hit per franchise and then by ratio of cycles hit to cycles allowed. Only one current MLB team has never had a player hit for the cycle, the Miami Marlins.
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menon institute of legal advocacy training (milat) | N.R. Madhava Menon - Wikipedia
Neelakanta Ramakrishna Madhava Menon (born 4 May 1935) is an Indian legal educator, considered by many as the father of modern legal education in India. He is the founder Director of the National Law School of India University (NLSIU) and the National Judicial Academy, Bhopal and the founder Vice Chancellor of the West Bengal National University of Juridical Sciences (NUJS). Menon was honored by the Government of India, in 2003, with the fourth highest Indian civilian award of Padma Shri.
Madhava Menon was born on 4 May 1935 at Thiruvananthapuram, in the South Indian state of Kerala in a Nair family to Bhavani Amma and Ramakrishna Menon as the fourth of their six children. His father, a law graduate and a Revenue Officer working for the Travancore Corporation, died succumbing to a typhoid attack, when Menon was only two years old and he was brought up by his mother, with the assistance of her brothers and sisters. His mother took up a job as a clerk at Travancore Corporation to bring up Appu, as he was known at home, and his three elder sisters and one younger brother; one of his younger brothers died in childhood.
Madhava Menon schooling was at Sreemoolavilasam Government High School, Thiruvananthapuram from where he passed matriculation in 1949 and completed the Pre University course in 1950, when the erstwhile two - year course was realigned as a truncated one - year course. His graduate studies were at S.D. College, Alappuzha from where he passed BSc in Zoology in 1953. He also passed the Hindi Visharad course conducted by the Dakshin Bharat Hindi Prachar Sabha simultaneously with his graduate studies. He continued his studies at Government Law College, Ernakulam, but shifted to Government Law College, Thiruvananthapuram when the college was restarted in the capital city in 1953 and has been the Student Editor of the College magazine in 1954 - 55. He passed the law course (BL) in 1955.
Madava Menon started his career in 1955, as an apprentice to a locally known lawyer, V. Nagappan Nair, and assisted him for 13 months. The next year, in 1956, he registered at the High Court of Kerala, in Ernakulam, as a lawyer and started practice under advocate Poovanpallil Neelakandan Pillai at the district court in Thiruvananthapuram. One year later, Menon appeared for the Civil Services Examination but could get only a lower grade which made him eligible for a job at the Central Secretariat Service, in New Delhi. On the advice of his teacher and mentor, A.T. Markose, the first director of the Indian Law Institute and the author of Judicial Control of Administrative Action in India, he took up the job at the secretatriat in New Delhi.
While working at the secretariat, Menon continued his studies at Campus College located at Gole Market, affiliated to Punjab University and secured a post graduate degree (MA) in political science with distinction, in 1960. Afterwards, Menon joined Faculty of Law, Aligarh Muslim University for further studies in law and passed the master 's degree in law (LLM) and, obtaining a UGC scholarship, continued research on the topic, White Collar Crime. Teaching and doing part - time job as the warden of the Sir Syed Hall at the university, he completed his research to obtain PhD in 1965, relocated to Delhi, and got married to Rema Devi, the same year. He is the first PhD of Faculty of Law, Aligarh Muslim University. He was also the first non - Muslim to be appointed warden of a hostel at Aligarh Muslim University.
In 1968, Menon joined his alma mater, Faculty of Law, Aligarh Muslim University, as a professor. The subsequent move was again to University of Delhi as the Reader in the faculty of law, and later as the professor of the department. During his stint there, he received a Fulbright Scholarship from the American Council of Learned Societies and had the opportunity to present a paper on "Legal Aid '' at Berkeley, California. He was a member of the Delhi University panel which liaised with universities from the United States such as Harvard, Columbia, Michigan and Yale. It was during this period that Menon published his first book, Law Relating to Government Control Over Private Enterprise, co-authored by his colleague, G. Narasimhaswamy, published through Eastern Law Book Company. Soon, his second book, Law and Property was published by N.M. Tripathy Co. He also published an article, co-authored by Clarke Cunningham in the Michigan Law Review.
Madhava Menon, while working in Delhi, is known to have organized the annual conference of the All India Law Teachers Association, in 1972, where he was elected as the Secretary General of the association. He has served as a member of the Committee for Implementing Legal Aid Schemes (CILAS), which was formed under the chairmanship of V.R. Krishna Iyer, by the Indira Gandhi government, in connection with the Garibi Hatao programme. He has also served as the Secretary of the Bar Council of India Trust. During an interlude, he worked as the principal of the Government Law College, Pondicherry. When the Bar Council of India decided to establish a new law school in early 1980s, Menon 's services were sought and he is known to have set up the Bangalore - based National Law School of India University with a US $ 150,000 government grant. The school was the first in India to use the Harvard Law School 's case study method, which later became the mainstream form of legal education in India. Menon worked there for 12 years as the director, moving from there after the institution gained university status.
In 1998, Menon was invited by the West Bengal Government to set up the West Bengal National University of Juridical Sciences (NUJS) on the lines of the Bangalore initiative. As the first vice-chancellor, he is known to have developed its infrastructure and educational curriculum and held the post till 2003, when the Supreme Court of India asked him to take over the responsibility as the first director of the newly formed National Judicial Academy a training centre for judges where he worked till his retirement in 2006.
After retiring from active government service in 2006, Menon was appointed by the Union Government as a member of the Commission on Centre - State Relations, a position he held till 2010. He has also served as the Chairman of the Indian Statistical Institute, Kolkata, and later, as the Chairman of the Centre for Development Studies, Thiruvananthapuram. He headed the central government committee constituted to draft the National Policy on Criminal Justice and served as the Commission on Equal Opportunity. He is a former member of Law Commission of India and has been a member of the Committee on Restructuring of Higher Education in India as well as the Criminal Justice Reform committee. Later, Madhava Menon headed a Commission constituted as per a Supreme Court order of April 2014 to submit recommendations on government advertisements, on which report was submitted in October 2014.
Menon who is a former member of the Board of Governors of the International Organization of Judicial Trainers (IOJT), is an advisor to the Commonwealth Judicial Education Institute, Canada. He holds the chair of the International Bar Association on Continuing Legal Education based at the National Law School, Bengaluru and Menon Institute of Legal Advocay Training (MILAT), a non governmental organization founded by him in Thiruvananthapuram. He is the Chancellor of the Guru Ghasidas University, Bilaspur, India and a member of the Centre for Development Studies, Nirma University, Ahmedabad, Dr. Ambedkar University of Social Sciences, Delhi, NALSAR University of Law, Hyderabad, National Law University, Jodhpur, National Law University Odisha and the School of Law, Indira Gandhi National Open University.
Madhava Menon lives in Thiruvananthapuram with his wife, Rema Devi. The couple has a son, Ramesh, who is an engineer based in Bengaluru.
Madhava Menon, the president of the Bar Council of India during the period, 1994 -- 98, was conferred the Living Legend of Law Award by the International Bar Association in 1994. He is also a recipient of the Rotary Club Award for Vocational Excellence and the Plaque of Honour from the Bar Council of India. He received the degree of Doctor of Law (Honoris Causa) from the National Law School of India University in 2001. He is a Fellow of the American Council of Learned Societies and Columbia University. The Government of India included Menon, in 2003, in the Republic Day honours list, for the civilian award of Padma Shri.
Madhava Menon 's contributions are known behind the establishment of two law schools in India viz. National Law School of India University, Bangalore and West Bengal National University of Juridical Sciences, Kolkata. He is credited with the conceptualization of five year integrated LLB course, in place of the earlier 3 - year course. His Socratic Method of teaching, involving participation of law students in legal clinics, is considered by many as an innovation. Menon Institute of Legal Advocay Training (MILAT), a non governmental organization founded by him, is involved in promoting human rights values and judicial reforms and conducting advance training programs for lawyers.
Prof. Menon has narrated the journey of his life in his autobiography, The Story of a Law Teacher: Turning Point, besides publishing several books, articles and monographs on a variety of legal subjects. Some of his notable works are:
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now thats what i call music vol 11 | Now That 's What I Call Music! 11 (U.S. series) - Wikipedia
Now That 's What I Call Music! 11 was released on November 19, 2002. The album is the 11th edition of the (U.S.) Now! series. It debuted at its peak of number two on the Billboard 200 and has been certified 2x Platinum. The album features one Billboard Hot 100 number - one hit, "Hot In Herre ''.
* The version of "Love at First Sight '' is not the popular Ruff & Jam U.S. Remix played on U.S. radio stations, but the original Fever album version.
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