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the great east african rift valleys are an example of this type of plate boundary | East African Rift - wikipedia
The East African Rift (EAR) is an active continental rift zone in East Africa. The EAR began developing around the onset of the Miocene, 22 -- 25 million years ago. In the past, it was considered to be part of a larger Great Rift Valley that extended north to Asia Minor.
The rift is a narrow zone that is a developing divergent tectonic plate boundary, in which the African Plate is in the process of splitting into two tectonic plates, called the Somali Plate and the Nubian Plate, at a rate of 6 -- 7 mm annually. As extension continues, lithospheric rupture will occur within 10 million years, the Somalian plate will break off, and a new ocean basin will form.
A series of distinct rift basins, the East African Rift System extends over thousands of kilometers. The EAR consists of two main branches. The Eastern Rift Valley (also known as Gregory Rift) includes the Main Ethiopian Rift, running eastward from the Afar Triple Junction, which continues south as the Kenyan Rift Valley. The Western Rift Valley includes the Albertine Rift, and farther south, the valley of Lake Malawi. To the north of the Afar Triple Junction, the rift follows one of two paths: west to the Red Sea Rift or east to the Aden Ridge in the Gulf of Aden.
The EAR runs from the Afar Triple Junction in the Afar Triangle of Ethiopia through eastern Africa, terminating in Mozambique. The EAR transects through Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, Zambia, Tanzania, Malawi and Mozambique. It also runs offshore of the coast of Mozambique along the Kerimba and Lacerda grabens, which are joined by the Davie Ridge, a 2200 km - long relic fracture zone that cuts across the West Somali basin, straddling the boundary between Tanzania and Mozambique. The Davie Ridge ranges between 30 -- 120 km wide, with a west facing scarp (east - plunging arch) along the southern half of its length that rises up to 2300 m above the sea floor. Its movement is concurrent with the EAR.
Over time, many theories have tried to clarify the evolution of the East African Rift. In 1972 it was proposed that the EAR was not caused by tectonic activity, but rather by differences in crustal density. Others proposed an African superplume causing mantle deformation. However, the varying geochemical signatures of a suite of Ethiopian lavas suggest multiple plume sources: at least one of deep mantle origin, and one from within the subcontinental lithosphere. Additionally, the subject of deep - rooted mantle plumes is still a matter of controversy, and therefore can not be confirmed.
The most recent and accepted view is the theory put forth in 2009: that magmatism and plate tectonics have a feedback with one another, controlled by oblique rifting conditions. At that time it was suggested that lithospheric thinning generated volcanic activity, further increasing the magmatic processes at play such as intrusions and numerous small plumes. These processes further thin the lithosphere in saturated areas, forcing the thinning lithosphere to behave like a mid-ocean ridge.
Prior to rifting, enormous continental flood basalts erupted on the surface and uplift of the Ethiopian, Somalian, and East African plateaus occurred. The first stage of rifting of the EAR is characterized by rift localization and magmatism along the entire rift zone. Periods of extension alternated with times of relative inactivity. There was also the reactivation of a pre-Cambrian weakness in the crust, a suture zone of multiple cratons, displacement along large boundary faults, and the development of deep asymmetric basins. The second stage of rifting is characterized by the deactivation of large boundary faults, the development of internal fault segments, and the concentration of magmatic activity towards the rifts.
Today, the narrow rift segments of the East African Rift system form zones of localized strain. These rifts are the result of the actions of numerous normal faults which are typical of all tectonic rift zones. As aforementioned, voluminous magmatism and continental flood basalts characterize some of the rift segments, while other segments, such as the Western branch, have only very small volumes of volcanic rock.
The African continental crust is generally cool and strong. Many cratons are found throughout the EAR, such as the Tanzania and Kaapvaal cratons. The cratons are thick, and have survived for billions of years with little tectonic activity. They are characterized by greenstone belts, tonalites, and other high - grade metamorphic lithologies. The cratons are of significant importance in terms of mineral resources, with major deposits of gold, antimony, iron, chromium and nickel.
A large volume of continental flood basalts erupted during the Oligocene, with the majority of the volcanism coinciding with the opening of the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden approximately 30 Ma. The composition of the volcanics are a continuum of ultra-alkaline to tholeiitic and felsic rocks. It has been suggested that the diversity of the compositions could be partially explained by different mantle source regions. The EAR also cuts through old sedimentary rocks deposited in ancient basins.
The East African Rift Zone includes a number of active as well as dormant volcanoes, among them: Mount Kilimanjaro, Mount Kenya, Mount Longonot, Menengai Crater, Mount Karisimbi, Mount Nyiragongo, Mount Meru and Mount Elgon, as well as the Crater Highlands in Tanzania. Although most of these mountains lie outside of the rift valley, the EAR created them.
Active volcanos include Erta Ale, DallaFilla, and Ol Doinyo Lengai, the former of which is a continuously active basaltic shield volcano in the Afar Region of northeastern Ethiopia. When DallaFilla erupted in 2008 it was the largest volcanic eruption in Ethiopia in recorded history. The Ol Doinyo Lengai volcano is currently the only active natrocarbonatite volcano in the world. The magma contains almost no silica, making the flow viscosity extremely low. "Its lava fountains crystallize in midair then shatter like glass '' according to the National Geographic. Approximately 50 volcanic structures in Ethiopia alone have documented activity since the onset of the Holocene.
The EAR is the largest seismically active rift system on Earth today. The majority of earthquakes occur near the Afar Depression, with the largest earthquakes typically occurring along or near major border faults. Seismic events in the past century are estimated to have reached a maximum moment magnitude of 7.0. The seismicity trends parallel to the rift system, with a shallow focal depth of 12 -- 15 km beneath the rift axis. Further away from the rift axis, focal depths can reach depths of over 30 km. Focal mechanism solutions strike NE and frequently demonstrate normal dip - slip faults, although left - lateral motion is also observed.
The Rift Valley in East Africa has been a rich source of hominid fossils that allow the study of human evolution. The rapidly eroding highlands quickly filled the valley with sediments, creating a favorable environment for the preservation of remains. The bones of several hominid ancestors of modern humans have been found here, including those of "Lucy '', a partial australopithecine skeleton discovered by anthropologist Donald Johanson dating back over 3 million years. Richard and Mary Leakey have done significant work in this region also. More recently, two other hominid ancestors have been discovered here: a 10 - million - year - old ape called Chororapithecus abyssinicus, found in the Afar rift in eastern Ethiopia, and Nakalipithecus nakayamai, which is also 10 million years old.
Coordinates: 3 ° 00 ′ 00 '' S 35 ° 30 ′ 00 '' E / 3.0000 ° S 35.5000 ° E / - 3.0000; 35.5000
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different phenotype depending on parental origin of gene | Genomic imprinting - wikipedia
Genomic imprinting is an epigenetic phenomenon that causes genes to be expressed in a parent - of - origin - specific manner. Forms of genomic imprinting have been demonstrated in fungi, plants and animals. As of 2014, there are about 150 imprinted genes known in the mouse and about half that in humans.
Genomic imprinting is an inheritance process independent of the classical Mendelian inheritance. It is an epigenetic process that involves DNA methylation and histone methylation without altering the genetic sequence. These epigenetic marks are established ("imprinted '') in the germline (sperm or egg cells) of the parents and are maintained through mitotic cell divisions in the somatic cells of an organism.
Appropriate imprinting of certain genes is important for normal development. Human diseases involving genomic imprinting include Angelman syndrome and Prader -- Willi syndrome.
In diploid organisms (like humans), the somatic cells possess two copies of the genome, one inherited from the father and one from the mother. Each autosomal gene is therefore represented by two copies, or alleles, with one copy inherited from each parent at fertilization. For the vast majority of autosomal genes, expression occurs from both alleles simultaneously. In mammals, however, a small proportion (< 1 %) of genes are imprinted, meaning that gene expression occurs from only one allele (some recent studies have questioned this assertion, claiming that the number of regions of parent - of - origin methylation in, for example, the human genome, is much larger than previously thought). The expressed allele is dependent upon its parental origin. For example, the gene encoding insulin - like growth factor 2 (IGF2 / Igf2) is only expressed from the allele inherited from the father.
The term "imprinting '' was first used to describe events in the insect Pseudococcus nipae. In Pseudococcids (mealybugs) (Hemiptera, Coccoidea) both the male and female develop from a fertilised egg. In females, all chromosomes remain euchromatic and functional. In embryos destined to become males, one haploid set of chromosomes becomes heterochromatinised after the sixth cleavage division and remains so in most tissues; males are thus functionally haploid.
That imprinting might be a feature of mammalian development was suggested in breeding experiments in mice carrying reciprocal chromosomal translocations. Nucleus transplantation experiments in mouse zygotes in the early 1980s confirmed that normal development requires the contribution of both the maternal and paternal genomes. The vast majority of mouse embryos derived from parthenogenesis (called parthenogenones, with two maternal or egg genomes) and androgenesis (called androgenones, with two paternal or sperm genomes) die at or before the blastocyst / implantation stage. In the rare instances that they develop to postimplantation stages, gynogenetic embryos show better embryonic development relative to placental development, while for androgenones, the reverse is true. Nevertheless, for the latter, only a few have been described (in a 1984 paper).
No naturally occurring cases of parthenogenesis exist in mammals because of imprinted genes. However, in 2004, experimental manipulation by Japanese researchers of a paternal methylation imprint controlling the Igf2 gene led to the birth of a mouse (named Kaguya) with two maternal sets of chromosomes, though it is not a true parthenogenone since cells from two different female mice were used. The researchers were able to succeed by using one egg from an immature parent, thus reducing maternal imprinting, and modifying it to express the gene Igf2, which is normally only expressed by the paternal copy of the gene.
Parthenogenetic / gynogenetic embryos have twice the normal expression level of maternally derived genes, and lack expression of paternally expressed genes, while the reverse is true for androgenetic embryos. It is now known that there are at least 80 imprinted genes in humans and mice, many of which are involved in embryonic and placental growth and development. Hybrid offspring of two species may exhibit unusual growth due to the novel combination of imprinted genes.
Various methods have been used to identify imprinted genes. In swine, Bischoff et al. 2009 compared transcriptional profiles using short - oligonucleotide microarrays to survey differentially expressed genes between parthenotes (2 maternal genomes) and control fetuses (1 maternal, 1 paternal genome). An intriguing study surveying the transcriptome of murine brain tissues revealed over 1300 imprinted gene loci (approximately 10-fold more than previously reported) by RNA - sequencing from F1 hybrids resulting from reciprocal crosses. The result however has been challenged by others who claimed that this is an overestimation by an order of magnitude due to flawed statistical analysis.
In domesticated livestock, single - nucleotide polymorphisms in imprinted genes influencing foetal growth and development have been shown to be associated with economically important production traits in cattle, sheep and pigs.
At the same time as the generation of the gynogenetic and androgenetic embryos discussed above, mouse embryos were also being generated that contained only small regions that were derived from either a paternal or maternal source. The generation of a series of such uniparental disomies, which together span the entire genome, allowed the creation of an imprinting map. Those regions which when inherited from a single parent result in a discernible phenotype contain imprinted gene (s). Further research showed that within these regions there were often numerous imprinted genes. Around 80 % of imprinted genes are found in clusters such as these, called imprinted domains, suggesting a level of co-ordinated control. More recently, genome - wide screens to identify imprinted genes have used differential expression of mRNAs from control fetuses and parthenogenetic or androgenetic fetuses hybridized to expression arrays, allele - specific gene expression using SNP genotyping arrays, transcriptome sequencing, and in silico prediction pipelines.
Imprinting is a dynamic process. It must be possible to erase and re-establish imprints through each generation so that genes that are imprinted in an adult may still be expressed in that adult 's offspring. (For example, the maternal genes that control insulin production will be imprinted in a male but will be expressed in any of the male 's offspring that inherit these genes.) The nature of imprinting must therefore be epigenetic rather than DNA sequence dependent. In germline cells the imprint is erased and then re-established according to the sex of the individual, i.e. in the developing sperm (during spermatogenesis), a paternal imprint is established, whereas in developing oocytes (oogenesis), a maternal imprint is established. This process of erasure and reprogramming is necessary such that the germ cell imprinting status is relevant to the sex of the individual. In both plants and mammals there are two major mechanisms that are involved in establishing the imprint; these are DNA methylation and histone modifications.
Recently, a new study has suggested a novel inheritable imprinting mechanism in humans that would be specific of placental tissue and that is independent of DNA methylation (the main and classical mechanism for genomic imprinting). Among the hypothetical explanations for this exclusively human phenomenon, two possible mechanisms have been proposed: either a histone modification that confers imprinting at novel placental - specific imprinted loci or, alternatively, a recruitment of DNMTs to these loci by a specific and unknown transcription factor that would be expressed during early trophoblast differentiation.
The grouping of imprinted genes within clusters allows them to share common regulatory elements, such as non-coding RNAs and differentially methylated regions (DMRs). When these regulatory elements control the imprinting of one or more genes, they are known as imprinting control regions (ICR). The expression of non-coding RNAs, such as Air on mouse chromosome 17 and KCNQ1OT1 on human chromosome 11p15. 5, have been shown to be essential for the imprinting of genes in their corresponding regions.
Differentially methylated regions are generally segments of DNA rich in cytosine and guanine nucleotides, with the cytosine nucleotides methylated on one copy but not on the other. Contrary to expectation, methylation does not necessarily mean silencing; instead, the effect of methylation depends upon the default state of the region.
The control of expression of specific genes by genomic imprinting is unique to therian mammals (placental mammals and marsupials) and flowering plants. Imprinting of whole chromosomes has been reported in mealybugs (Genus: Pseudococcus). and a fungus gnat (Sciara). It has also been established that X-chromosome inactivation occurs in an imprinted manner in the extra-embryonic tissues of mice and all tissues in marsupials, where it is always the paternal X-chromosome which is silenced.
The majority of imprinted genes in mammals have been found to have roles in the control of embryonic growth and development, including development of the placenta. Other imprinted genes are involved in post-natal development, with roles affecting suckling and metabolism.
A widely accepted hypothesis for the evolution of genomic imprinting is the "parental conflict hypothesis ''. Also known as the kinship theory of genomic imprinting, this hypothesis states that the inequality between parental genomes due to imprinting is a result of the differing interests of each parent in terms of the evolutionary fitness of their genes. The father 's genes that encode for imprinting gain greater fitness through the success of the offspring, at the expense of the mother. The mother 's evolutionary imperative is often to conserve resources for her own survival while providing sufficient nourishment to current and subsequent litters. Accordingly, paternally expressed genes tend to be growth - promoting whereas maternally expressed genes tend to be growth - limiting. In support of this hypothesis, genomic imprinting has been found in all placental mammals, where post-fertilisation offspring resource consumption at the expense of the mother is high; although it has also been found in oviparous birds where there is relatively little post-fertilisation resource transfer and therefore less parental conflict.
However, our understanding of the molecular mechanisms behind genomic imprinting show that it is the maternal genome that controls much of the imprinting of both its own and the paternally - derived genes in the zygote, making it difficult to explain why the maternal genes would willingly relinquish their dominance to that of the paternally - derived genes in light of the conflict hypothesis.
Another hypothesis proposed is that some imprinted genes act coadaptively to improve both fetal development and maternal provisioning for nutrition and care. In it a subset of paternally expressed genes are co-expressed in both the placenta and the mother 's hypothalamus. This would come about through selective pressure from parent - infant coadaptation to improve infant survival. Paternally expressed 3 (Peg3) is a gene for which this hypothesis may apply.
Others have approached their study of the origins of genomic imprinting from a different side, arguing that natural selection is operating on the role of epigenetic marks as machinery for homologous chromosome recognition during meiosis, rather than on their role in differential expression. This argument centers on the existence of epigenetic effects on chromosomes that do not directly affect gene expression, but do depend on which parent the chromosome originated from. This group of epigenetic changes that depend on the chromosome 's parent of origin (including both those that affect gene expression and those that do not) are called parental origin effects, and include phenomena such as paternal X inactivation in the marsupials, nonrandom parental chromatid distribution in the ferns, and even mating type switching in yeast. This diversity in organisms that show parental origin effects has prompted theorists to place the evolutionary origin of genomic imprinting before the last common ancestor of plants and animals, over a billion years ago.
Natural selection for genomic imprinting requires genetic variation in a population. A hypothesis for the origin of this genetic variation states that the host - defense system responsible for silencing foreign DNA elements, such as genes of viral origin, mistakenly silenced genes whose silencing turned out to be beneficial for the organism. There appears to be an over-representation of retrotransposed genes, that is to say genes that are inserted into the genome by viruses, among imprinted genes. It has also been postulated that if the retrotransposed gene is inserted close to another imprinted gene, it may just acquire this imprint.
Imprinting may cause problems in cloning, with clones having DNA that is not methylated in the correct positions. It is possible that this is due to a lack of time for reprogramming to be completely achieved. When a nucleus is added to an egg during somatic cell nuclear transfer, the egg starts dividing in minutes, as compared to the days or months it takes for reprogramming during embryonic development. If time is the responsible factor, it may be possible to delay cell division in clones, giving time for proper reprogramming to occur.
An allele of the "callipyge '' (from the Greek for "beautiful buttocks ''), or CLPG, gene in sheep produces large buttocks consisting of muscle with very little fat. The large - buttocked phenotype only occurs when the allele is present on the copy of chromosome 18 inherited from a sheep 's father and is not on the copy of chromosome 18 inherited from that sheep 's mother.
In vitro fertilisation, including ICSI, is associated with an increased risk of imprinting disorders, with an odds ratio of 3.7 (95 % confidence interval 1.4 to 9.7).
The first imprinted genetic disorders to be described in humans were the reciprocally inherited Prader - Willi syndrome and Angelman syndrome. Both syndromes are associated with loss of the chromosomal region 15q11 - 13 (band 11 of the long arm of chromosome 15). This region contains the paternally expressed genes SNRPN and NDN and the maternally expressed gene UBE3A.
DIRAS3 is a paternally expressed and maternally imprinted gene located on chromosome 1 in humans. Reduced DIRAS3 expression is linked to an increased risk of ovarian and breast cancers; in 41 % of breast and ovarian cancers the protein encoded by DIRAS3 is not expressed, suggesting that it functions as a tumor suppressor gene Therefore, if uniparental disomy occurs and a person inherits both chromosomes from the mother, the gene will not be expressed and the individual is put at a greater risk for breast and ovarian cancer.
Other conditions involving imprinting include Beckwith - Wiedemann syndrome, Silver - Russell syndrome, and pseudohypoparathyroidism.
Transient neonatal diabetes mellitus can also involve imprinting.
The "imprinted brain theory '' argues that unbalanced imprinting may be a cause of autism and psychosis.
In insects, imprinting affects entire chromosomes. In some insects the entire paternal genome is silenced in male offspring, and thus is involved in sex determination. The imprinting produces effects similar to the mechanisms in other insects that eliminate paternally inherited chromosomes in male offspring, including arrhenotoky.
In placental species, parent - offspring conflict can result in the evolution of strategies, such as genomic imprinting, for embryos to subvert maternal nutrient provisioning. Despite several attempts to find it, genomic imprinting has not been found in the platypus, reptiles, birds or fish. The absence of genomic imprinting in a placental reptile, the southern grass skink, is interesting as genomic imprinting was thought to be associated with the evolution of viviparity and placental nutrient transport.
Studies in domestic livestock, such as dairy and beef cattle, have implicated imprinted genes (e.g. IGF2) in a range of economic traits, including dairy performance in Holstein - Friesian cattle.
A similar imprinting phenomenon has also been described in flowering plants (angiosperms). During fertilisation of the egg cell, a second, separate fertilization event gives rise to the endosperm, an extraembryonic structure that nourishes the embryo in a manner analogous to the mammalian placenta. Unlike the embryo, the endosperm is often formed from the fusion of two maternal cells with a male gamete. This results in a triploid genome. The 2: 1 ratio of maternal to paternal genomes appears to be critical for seed development. Some genes are found to be expressed from both maternal genomes while others are expressed exclusively from the lone paternal copy. It has been suggested that these imprinted genes are responsible for the triploid block effect in flowering plants that prevents hybridization between diploids and autotetraploids.
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alfred hitchcock movie that spawned tv series bates motel | Bates Motel (TV series) - wikipedia
Bates Motel is an American psychological horror drama television series that aired from March 18, 2013 to April 24, 2017. It was developed by Carlton Cuse, Kerry Ehrin, and Anthony Cipriano, and is produced by Universal Television and American Genre for the cable network A&E.
The series, a contemporary prequel to Alfred Hitchcock 's 1960 film Psycho; based on Robert Bloch 's 1959 novel of the same name, depicts the lives of Norman Bates (Freddie Highmore) and his mother Norma (Vera Farmiga) prior to the events portrayed in the novel and film, albeit in a different fictional town (White Pine Bay, Oregon, as opposed to Fairvale, California) and in a modern - day setting. However, the final season loosely adapts the plot of Psycho. Max Thieriot and Olivia Cooke both starred as part of the main cast throughout the series ' run. After recurring in the first season, Nestor Carbonell was added to the main cast from season two onward.
The series begins in Arizona with the death of Norma 's husband, after which Norma purchases the Seafairer motel located in a coastal Oregon town so that she and Norman can start a new life. Subsequent seasons follow Norman as his mental illness becomes dangerous, and Norma as she struggles to protect her son, and those around him, from himself. The series was filmed outside Vancouver in Aldergrove, British Columbia, along with other locations within the Fraser Valley of British Columbia.
A&E chose to skip a pilot of the series, opting to go straight - to - series by ordering a 10 - episode first season. On June 15, 2015, the series was renewed for a fourth and fifth season, making Bates Motel A&E 's longest - running original scripted drama series in the channel 's history. The series ' lead actors, Vera Farmiga and Freddie Highmore, received particular praise for their performances in the series, with the former receiving a Primetime Emmy Award nomination and winning a Saturn Award for Best Actress on Television. Bates Motel also won three People 's Choice Awards for Favorite Cable TV Drama, and for Favorite Cable TV Actress (Farmiga) and Actor (Highmore).
The first season follows Norma and Norman Bates as they buy a motel after Norman 's father dies. On one of the first nights of the two owning the motel, the former owner breaks in and sexually assaults Norma. Norman knocks the attacker out, and Norma stabs him to death. She decides it 's best not to call the police and to cover up the murder. She and Norman dispose of the body. He complicates the cover - up by keeping a belt that belonged to the victim. When the town sheriff and his deputy notice that a man has gone missing, Norma and Norman must keep them from digging too far.
The second season follows the aftermath of Norman 's teacher 's murder, as her mysterious past comes to light. Meanwhile, Norma finds herself making dangerous decisions in order to keep the motel running and preventing the impending bypass. Bradley 's search for her father 's killer leads to the extremes, and Dylan learns the disturbing truth about his parentage.
The third season focuses on Norman 's waning deniability about what 's happening to him, and the lengths he will go to gain control of his fragile psyche. The dramatic events of last season leave Norma more aware of her son 's mental fragility and fearful of what he is capable of. Meanwhile, Sheriff Romero begins to distance himself from the Bates family after he suspects Norma is lying to him about her husband 's death.
The fourth season follows Norma as she becomes increasingly fearful of Norman, going to great lengths to find him the professional help he needs. This complicates their once unbreakable trust as Norman struggles to maintain his grip on reality. Meanwhile, Sheriff Romero once again finds himself drawn into Norma and Norman 's lives. He agrees to marry Norma because his insurance will enable her to place Norman in an expensive psychiatric hospital. His generosity backfires, however, when Norman learns of the marriage. Norman bitterly resents Romero for coming between him and his mother and at one point threatens the sheriff with an axe.
The fifth season begins two years after the death of Norma. Publicly happy and well - adjusted, Norman struggles at home, where his blackouts are increasing and "Mother '' threatens to take him over completely. Meanwhile, Dylan and Emma find themselves drawn back into Norman 's world, and Romero hungers for revenge against his stepson, Norman.
On January 12, 2012, it was reported that A&E were developing a television series titled Bates Motel that would serve as a prequel to the Alfred Hitchcock film Psycho. The first script was written by Anthony Cipriano. In March 2012, Carlton Cuse and Kerry Ehrin joined the project as executive producers and head writers. Cuse has cited the drama series Twin Peaks as a key inspiration for Bates Motel, stating, "We pretty much ripped off Twin Peaks... If you wanted to get that confession, the answer is yes. I loved that show. They only did 30 episodes. Kerry (Ehrin) and I thought we 'd do the 70 that are missing. '' On July 2, 2012, A&E gave Bates Motel a straight - to - series order. Chris Bacon was hired to score the music for the series in January 2013.
On August 27, 2012, Vera Farmiga was the first to be cast in the leading role of Norma Louise Bates. On September 14, 2012, Freddie Highmore was cast as Norman Bates. That same day, Max Thieriot was cast as Norman 's half - brother, Dylan Massett. Shortly after, on September 19, 2012, Nicola Peltz was cast as Bradley Martin, a possible love interest for Norman. Finally, on September 20, 2012, Olivia Cooke was the final main cast member to join the series, in the role of Emma Decody, Norman 's best friend. Nestor Carbonell was cast in a recurring role as Sheriff Alex Romero in the first season, but was upgraded to the main cast at the beginning of the second season. In July 2014, Kenny Johnson, who recurred as Norma 's brother Caleb Calhoun in the second season, was promoted to a series regular for the third season. It was announced on July 22, 2016 at San Diego Comic - Con International that Rihanna would appear in the iconic role of Marion Crane for the fifth and final season.
A replica of the original Bates Motel set from the film Psycho was built on location at approximately 1054 272nd Street in Aldergrove, British Columbia, where portions of the series were filmed. The original house and motel is located in Universal Studios, Hollywood, Los Angeles. Additional filming for the series took place in multiple areas in Metro Vancouver, including Steveston, Coquitlam, Horseshoe Bay, West Vancouver and Fort Langley. In February 2017, after filming was completed for the series, the Bates Motel exterior set in Aldergrove was demolished.
The first season of Bates Motel received a score of 66 on Metacritic, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reported that 81 % of 37 critics gave the first season a positive review. The site 's consensus reads, "Bates Motel utilizes mind manipulation and suspenseful fear tactics, on top of consistently sharp character work and wonderfully uncomfortable familial relationships. '' The second season of Bates Motel received a score of 67 out of 100 on Metacritic, from 11 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. Rotten Tomatoes reported an 86 % rating from 12 reviews for the second season. The site 's consensus reads, "Bates Motel reinvents a classic thriller with believable performances and distinguished writing. ''
The third season of Bates Motel received a score of 72 out of 100 on Metacritic, from 5 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. Rotten Tomatoes reported a 92 % rating from 12 reviews. The site 's consensus reads, "Bates Motel further blurs lines around TV 's creepiest taboo mother / son relationship, uncomfortably darkening its already fascinating tone. '' The fourth season of Bates Motel was met with positive reviews from critics. Rotten Tomatoes reported a 100 % positive rating from 8 reviews. The fifth and final season of Bates Motel received a score of 81 out of 100 on Metacritic, from 8 reviews, indicating "universal acclaim ''. Rotten Tomatoes reported a 100 % rating from 8 reviews.
In Canada, the series airs only on the U.S. network A&E, which is available through most Canadian cable and satellite companies. In Australia, the series premiered on Fox8 on May 26, 2013. In the UK and Ireland, it premiered on Universal Channel on April 2, 2014. In Jamaica, it premiered on CVM TV on August 11, 2014. In the Middle East, it premiered on OSN First HD in mid-2014. The second season premiered on January 5, 2015. In the Philippines, Bates Motel began airing on Jack TV on August 12, 2013. In South Africa, the series premiered on MNet on June 21, 2013. The series premiered in India on Colors Infinity on November 6, 2015.
NBCUniversal partnered with Hot Topic, the American retailer of pop culture merchandise, to introduce a collection of clothing and accessories inspired by Bates Motel. The merchandise, including items such as bathrobes and bloody shower curtains, became available at Hot Topic 's website and select stores on March 18, 2014. As of 2018, the merchandise is no longer available through Hot Topic.
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meaning of the song pumped up kicks lyrics | Pumped up Kicks - wikipedia
"Pumped Up Kicks '' is a song by American indie pop band Foster the People. It was released as the group 's debut single in September 2010, and the following year was included on their EP Foster the People and their debut album, Torches. "Pumped Up Kicks '' became the group 's breakthrough hit and was one of the most popular songs of 2011. The song was written and recorded by frontman Mark Foster while he was working as a commercial jingle writer. Contrasting with the upbeat musical composition, the lyrics describe the homicidal thoughts of a troubled youth.
The track received considerable attention after it was posted online in 2010 as a free download, and it helped the group garner a multi-album record deal with Columbia Records imprint Startime International. "Pumped Up Kicks '' proved to be a sleeper hit; in 2011, after receiving significant airplay on modern rock stations, the song crossed - over onto contemporary hit radio stations. The song spent eight consecutive weeks at number three on the Billboard Hot 100 chart in the United States, making it the first Billboard Alternative Songs number - one single to crack the U.S. top 5 since Kings of Leon 's "Use Somebody '' in 2009. The song was widely praised by critics, and it has been licensed for use in a wide range of popular media since its release. "Pumped Up Kicks '' received a Grammy Award nomination for Best Pop Duo / Group Performance.
Soon after Mark Foster formed Foster the People in 2009, he wrote and recorded "Pumped Up Kicks '' in five hours while working as a commercial jingle writer at Mophonics in Los Angeles. On the day of recording, Foster debated between songwriting in the studio and going to the beach. He explained: "I really did n't have anything to do that day. I was standing there in the studio, and this thought came in my mind like, ' I 'm going to write a song, '... and then I was like, ' I do n't feel like writing. I do n't want to write a song. ' I was a block away from the beach, and it was a beautiful day. I kind of just wanted to just be lazy and go hang out at the beach or whatever. But I just forced myself to write a song... By that time the next day, the song was finished. ''
Reflecting on the lack of inspiration he felt when writing the song, Foster said, "I 've heard a lot of other artists talk about this as well, like, ' I 'm not inspired right now. I 've got writer 's block. I 'm just not really feeling anything. ' And I 've felt that way, too, just not being inspired and wanting to wait for inspiration to come before I wrote. But I was n't inspired when I wrote ' Pumped Up Kicks, ' and that 's what came out. So... it just solidified the notion that perspiration is more powerful than inspiration. '' Thinking that he was just recording a demo, he played all of the instruments on the song, and using the software Logic Pro, he arranged and edited the song himself. The demo is ultimately the version of the song that Foster released.
-- Mark Foster
The lyrics to "Pumped Up Kicks '' are written from the perspective of a troubled and delusional youth with homicidal thoughts. The lines in the chorus warn potential victims to "outrun my gun '' and that they "better run, better run, faster than my bullet. '' Foster said in a statement to CNN.com, "I wrote ' Pumped Up Kicks ' when I began to read about the growing trend in teenage mental illness. I wanted to understand the psychology behind it because it was foreign to me. It was terrifying how mental illness among youth had skyrocketed in the last decade. I was scared to see where the pattern was headed if we did n't start changing the way we were bringing up the next generation. '' In writing the song, Foster wanted to "get inside the head of an isolated, psychotic kid '' and "bring awareness '' to the issue of gun violence among youth, which he feels is an epidemic perpetuated by "lack of family, lack of love, and isolation. '' The song 's title refers to shoes that the narrator 's peers wear as a status symbol.
The issue of youth violence is a matter close to the group. Foster was bullied in high school, while bassist Cubbie Fink has a cousin who survived the Columbine High School massacre in 1999. Fink said of his cousin 's experience, "She was actually in the library when everything went down, so I actually flew out to be with her the day after it happened and experienced the trauma surrounding it and saw how affected she was by it. She is as close as a sister, so obviously, it affected me deeply. So to be able to have a song to create a platform to talk about this stuff has been good for us. ''
Contrasting with the dark lyrics of the song, the music, which was written first, is upbeat. Foster said, "It 's a ' fuck you ' song to the hipsters in a way -- but it 's a song the hipsters are going to want to dance to. '' Jeffery Berg of Frontier Psychiatrist said, "I was so engrossed with the cheery melody of its chorus that it took me a few listens to discover that the lyrics suggest dark, Columbine revenge. ''
Due to the opening lyrics, "Robert 's got a quick hand, '' many have speculated that the song is a reference to Robert Hawkins, perpetrator of Omaha 's Westroads Mall shooting. The band 's publicist denied any connection: "This is completely false. The character name in the song is just a coincidence. '' For play on the television channels MTV and MTVu, the words "gun '' and "bullet '' were removed from the song 's chorus. Many have misinterpreted the song 's meaning, and have written letters to Foster 's record label and called radio stations to complain. He explained, "The song is not about condoning violence at all. It 's the complete opposite. The song is an amazing platform to have a conversation with your kids about something that should n't be ignored, to talk about it in a loving way. ''
"Pumped Up Kicks '' drew considerable attention online after Foster posted the song on his website as a free download in early 2010; Nylon magazine used the track in an online advertising campaign, and through various blogs, it went viral. Foster the People first performed the song live at the Stand Up Charity Benefit in Venice in February. The group, yet to be signed, garnered buzz with performances at the South by Southwest music festival in March. Foster was emailed by many people about the song, and needing professional guidance, he contacted artist manager Brent Kredel at Monotone, Inc., saying, "Everyone is calling me and emailing me -- what do I do? Who are the good guys, who are the bad guys? '' Kredel recalled that "He went from the guy who could n't get a hold of anyone to being the guy who had hundreds of emails in his inbox. '' Kredel and Brett Williams were subsequently hired to co-manage Foster the People, and they helped the group get a multi-album record deal with Columbia Records imprint Startime International in May 2010. Wishing to release a record that would back up the song 's success, the group wrote new material between July -- September 2010.
"Pumped Up Kicks '' was licensed for use in a July 2010 episode of the TV series Entourage, the first of many instances in which Foster the People 's music was licensed in popular media. The song received its first widespread radio play that month on Sirius XM 's Alt Nation channel and the Australian radio station Triple J. The song was released as their debut single on September 14, 2010. In November, the University of Maryland 's radio station WMUC played the song, marking its debut on US terrestrial radio. The song placed at number 32 in the Triple J 's Hottest 100 for 2010, a notable achievement due to the band being relatively unknown in Australia. Still, the group was inexperienced as a live act, and as a result, their booking agent Tom Windish secured them several club shows "to help them get their sea legs. '' Foster the People promoted these concerts in January 2011 by emailing fans who had downloaded "Pumped Up Kicks '' from their website, notifying them of the shows. The group continued to grow its fanbase with a month - long residency of concerts in January at The Echo nightclub in Los Angeles. By the group 's third show at the venue, according to Windish, "there were hundreds of people trying to get in outside... It was an obvious turning point that could be measured in numbers. ''
In January 2011, the band issued their first commercial non-single release, a self - titled EP on which "Pumped Up Kicks '' appeared. Around the same time, many alternative radio stations began playing "Pumped Up Kicks '', including Los Angeles terrestrial stations KROQ - FM and KYSR, and it continued to gain popularity on Alt Nation. Mark Foster credits Sirius XM 's airplay with the song 's success, saying, "Alt Nation played our music before any other radio outlet in the country. '' On January 29, the song debuted on Billboard 's Rock Songs chart and a week later, it debuted on the Alternative Songs chart. In May, the track debuted at number 96 on the Billboard Hot 100, and later that month, the group released their first full - length studio album, Torches, on which "Pumped Up Kicks '' appears. On May 23, 2011, BBC Radio 1 DJ Greg James selected the song as his Record of the Week, which ran until May 27. During this time, James released an accompanying video of him dancing to the song which he entitled and promoted "The Bum Dance ''.
The song proved to be a crossover hit; after peaking at number one on the Alternative Songs chart in June and number three on the Rock Songs chart in July, the song broke into the top 40 of the Hot 100 in late July and appeared on the Adult Top 40 and Mainstream Top 40 charts. Columbia senior VP of promotion Lee Leipsner said, "It was one of the only alternative bands I remember in a while that you could actually dance to. And the fact that the record has a groove and rhythmic feel to it -- not heavy guitar - based at all -- gave us a wide opportunity to cross the record. '' He credits the song 's crossover success and push into the top 40 to a June presentation of new music by Clear Channel president of national programming platforms Tom Poleman. According to Leipsner, "After we showed our presentation, we had so many Clear Channel major - market programmers come up to us and say, ' The record I want to play besides Adele is Foster the People. ' '' "Pumped Up Kicks '' peaked at number three on the Hot 100, spending eight consecutive weeks at the position, seven of them stuck behind Maroon 5 's "Moves Like Jagger '' and Adele 's "Someone like You '' occupying the two spots above. It has been certified 5 × platinum in Canada and Australia, 4 × platinum in the United States, and gold in Germany. The song ranked as the sixth - best - selling digital song of 2011 in the United States with 3.84 million copies sold, while it ranked as music streaming service Spotify 's most streamed song of the year. The song has sold 5,173,000 copies in the United States as of August 2013.
The music video, directed by Josef Geiger, features the band playing a show. There are also cuts to band members doing other activities, such as playing frisbee and surfing. The video peaked at # 21 on the MuchMusic Countdown in Canada. As of 29 December 2017, the video has received over 400 million views on YouTube.
"Pumped Up Kicks '' received positive reviews from critics. Barry Walters of Spin said that with the song as their debut single, Foster the People "announce themselves as major players. '' Jon Dolan of Rolling Stone described the song as having a "slinky groove, misty guitar flange and delicious astral - wimp vocals. '' Rob Webb of NME drew some parallels between the song and other indie pop hits like "Young Folks, '' "Paris, '' and "Kids '' describing its rise in popularity thus: "artist writes (undeniably brilliant) pop song, makes it catchy as hell, but quirky enough for the ' cool ' crowd, song subsequently gets some big pimping from every blog / radio station / Hype Machine user on the planet and, seemingly overnight, becomes utterly, irritatingly inescapable. ''
August Brown of the Los Angeles Times called it a "reputation - making single '' that "cakes Foster in Strokes - y vocal distortion atop a loping synth bass. '' Jon Pareles of The New York Times called it a "pop ditty with dazed, dweeby vocals and a handclapping chorus that warns, ' You better run, better run, outrun my gun. ' '' BBC Music 's Mark Beaumont called the song a "psychedelic block party skipping tune. '' Reflecting on the song 's fusion of various musical elements, Beaumont said the song is a prime example of how they "adapt Animal Collective 's art - tronic adventurousness to incorporate the funky danceability of Scissor Sisters, the fuzzy pop catchiness of ' Kids ' and the knack of throwing in deceptively downbeat twists akin to Girls, Sleigh Bells or Smith Westerns. '' Matt Collar of Allmusic said the song, like other tracks from the album, is "catchy, electro - lite dance - pop that fits nicely next to such contemporaries as MGMT and Phoenix ''. The Guardian 's Michael Hann was less receptive, saying it "amounts to little more than a bassline and a chorus '' and that "It 's as irresistible as it is infuriating ''.
A Rolling Stone readers poll named it the second - best song of summer 2011. Claire Suddath of Time magazine named "Pumped Up Kicks '' one of the Top 10 Songs of 2011, while Entertainment Weekly selected the song as the year 's second - best single. In end - of - year polls, writers for Rolling Stone selected "Pumped Up Kicks '' as the 11th - best song of 2011, while the publication 's readers voted it the year 's sixth - best song.
A listeners poll by Toronto radio station CFNY - FM (102.1 The Edge) voted it # 1 in a list of the top 102 new rock songs of 2011. NME ranked it number 21 on its list of the "50 Best Tracks of 2011 '', writing, "Unusually for a song so omnipresent, listening to its hyper - upbeat melodies about a psycho high - school kid - killer is still an enjoyable experience. '' The magazine 's readers voted "Pumped Up Kicks '' the year 's eighth - best song. At the end of 2011, the song received a Grammy Award nomination for Best Pop Duo / Group Performance.
-- Mark Foster, on the song 's success
In an article for The Huffington Post, DJ Louie XIV singled out "Pumped Up Kicks '' as one of several popular songs that helped usher in the return of commercially successful indie music. In discussing the growing acceptance of fringe cultures, he wrote, "It seems only fitting, then, that the soundtrack to this time period should be music that was itself once viewed as fringe culture. '' Reflecting on the song 's success, Gary Trust, the associate director of charts / radio for Billboard, said, "They 're walking a tightrope very well in terms of eras, formats and styles. When you mix all that together, it becomes a very good recipe for a hit that works on so many levels. It 's the perfect song. '' Foster said of the song, "There 's a spirit there and that 's what people resonate with. ' Pumped Up Kicks ' was n't an accident. ''
The song was used in TV series such as Entourage, Gossip Girl, CSI: NY, Cougar Town, Homeland, Pretty Little Liars, Warehouse 13 and The Vampire Diaries, and also in the 2011 films Friends with Benefits and Fright Night, as well as sampled in Shawn Chrystopher 's song "All the Other Kids '', from his 2010 hip - hop album You, and Only You. The whistling part of the song is part of the rotation of bumper music played on the Michael Medved syndicated radio program. The song was also used on the BBC programmes Top Gear and Match of the Day. On October 8, 2011, Foster the People performed the song on Saturday Night Live. The song was also used in Australian beer XXXX 's "XXXX Summer Bright Lager '' television commercial. "Pumped Up Kicks '' was included as a playable track in the music video game Rock Band Blitz and Guitar Hero Live. The song was also used in Season 1 Episode 4 of Suits in the episode "Dirty Little Secrets ''. The song was used in an episode of American Horror Story. Season 1 Episode 6 "Piggy Piggy '' Initial Air Date November 9, 2011.
The song was pulled from some U.S. radio stations in December 2012 in the aftermath of the Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting, due to lyrics that depict a school shooting.
The official remix of the single was released by New York City - duo The Knocks in April 2011, under the name "Pumped Up Kicks (The Knocks Speeding Bullet Remix) '', and was made available to subscribers to the band 's email list. The song was covered by Weezer during their 2011 North American Tour, at the Orange County Fair on August 4, 2011. Weezer also played the song during their grandstand performance at the Minnesota State Fair on September 3, 2011. Mark Foster said in reaction, "Nine years ago, I met Rivers Cuomo at a party, and I had my acoustic guitar with me. He taught me how to play ' Say It Ai n't So '. So nine years later, to watch him play one of my songs - it was wild. I ca n't wait to meet him and remind him of that story. '' Peruvian sinder Tongo also recorded a cover in 2017, called Pan con ají (Bread and peppers), in allusion to a vague pronunciation with Spanish phonemes. In 2017, French DJ Klingande released a song titled "Pumped Up '' using the same lyrics in the chorus of the song.
In 2011, The Kooks covered the song in BBC Radio 1 's Live Lounge. Australian musician Owl Eyes performed a version of "Pumped Up Kicks '' for Triple J 's Like a Version. Also in 2011 the underground rapper George Watsky released a Pumped Up Kicks remix on his album A New Kind of Sexy Mixtape. In the Triple J Hottest 100, 2011, Owl Eyes ' version came in at 28, four positions higher than the original did the previous year. Singer - songwriters Dani Shay and Justin Chase covered the song in a theatrical music video October 2011 and released the single in November 2011. A parody of the song was performed by Taylor Swift and Zac Efron on The Ellen DeGeneres Show, as a serenade to the host. Its lyrics were about how they felt weird when Ellen used to put them as a couple when they were not. On March 12, 2012 singers Lex Land and Charlotte Sometimes performed the song during the second "Battle Round '' episode of The Voice. In September 2012, singer Mackenzie Bourg performed this song as his Blind Audition for The Voice, winning a spot on Cee Lo Green 's team. Kendrick Lamar also recorded a remix to the song with DJ Reflex. On February 1, 2013 singer Fatin Shidqia performed this song as her solo performances on Bootcamp 3 episode of X Factor Indonesia. The rapper Yonas released a remix version to "Pumped Up Kicks ''. "Weird Al '' Yankovic covered the song as part of his polka medley "NOW That 's What I Call Polka! '' for his 2014 album, Mandatory Fun. Keller Williams with The Travelin ' McCourys has performed this song in concert.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
Since May 2013 RIAA certifications for digital singles include on - demand audio and / or video song streams in addition to downloads.
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what is the maximum length of a path in g give an example of a path of that length | Arc length - wikipedia
Determining the length of an irregular arc segment is also called rectification of a curve. Historically, many methods were used for specific curves. The advent of infinitesimal calculus led to a general formula that provides closed - form solutions in some cases.
A curve in the plane can be approximated by connecting a finite number of points on the curve using line segments to create a polygonal path. Since it is straightforward to calculate the length of each linear segment (using the Pythagorean theorem in Euclidean space, for example), the total length of the approximation can be found by summing the lengths of each linear segment; that approximation is known as the (cumulative) chordal distance.
If the curve is not already a polygonal path, using a progressively larger number of segments of smaller lengths will result in better approximations. The lengths of the successive approximations will not decrease and may keep increasing indefinitely, but for smooth curves they will tend to a finite limit as the lengths of the segments get arbitrarily small.
For some curves there is a smallest number L (\ displaystyle L) that is an upper bound on the length of any polygonal approximation. These curves are called rectifiable and the number L (\ displaystyle L) is defined as the arc length.
Let f: (a, b) → R n (\ displaystyle f \ colon (a, b) \ to \ mathbb (R) ^ (n)) be a continuously differentiable function. The length of the curve defined by f (\ displaystyle f) can be defined as the limit of the sum of line segment lengths for a regular partition of (a, b) (\ displaystyle (a, b)) as the number of segments approaches infinity. This means
where t i = a + i (b − a) / N = a + i Δ t (\ displaystyle t_ (i) = a + i (b-a) / N = a + i \ Delta t) for i = 0, 1,..., N. (\ displaystyle i = 0, 1, \ dotsc, N.) This definition is equivalent to the standard definition of arc length as an integral:
The last equality above is true because the definition of the derivative as a limit implies that there is a positive real function δ (ε) (\ displaystyle \ delta (\ epsilon)) of positive real ε (\ displaystyle \ epsilon) such that Δ t < δ (ε) (\ displaystyle \ Delta t < \ delta (\ epsilon)) implies f (t i) − f (t i − 1) Δ t − f ′ (t i) < ε. (\ displaystyle \ left (\ bigg) (\ frac (f (t_ (i)) - f (t_ (i - 1))) (\ Delta t)) (\ bigg) - (\ Big) f ' (t_ (i)) (\ Big) \ right < \ epsilon.) This means
has absolute value less than ε (b − a) (\ displaystyle \ epsilon (b-a)) for N > (b − a) / δ (ε). (\ displaystyle N > (b-a) / \ delta (\ epsilon).) This means that in the limit N → ∞, (\ displaystyle N \ rightarrow \ infty,) the left term above equals the right term, which is just the Riemann integral of f ′ (t) (\ displaystyle f ' (t)) on (a, b). (\ displaystyle (a, b).) This definition of arc length shows that the length of a curve f: (a, b) → R n (\ displaystyle f: (a, b) \ rightarrow \ mathbb (R) ^ (n)) continuously differentiable on (a, b) (\ displaystyle (a, b)) is always finite. In other words, the curve is always rectifiable.
The definition of arc length of a smooth curve as the integral of the norm of the derivative is equivalent to the definition
where the supremum is taken over all possible partitions a = t 0 < t 1 < ⋯ < t N − 1 < t N = b (\ displaystyle a = t_ (0) < t_ (1) < \ dots < t_ (N - 1) < t_ (N) = b) of (a, b). (\ displaystyle (a, b).) This definition is also valid if f (\ displaystyle f) is merely continuous, not differentiable.
A curve can be parameterized in infinitely many ways. Let φ: (a, b) → (c, d) (\ displaystyle \ varphi: (a, b) \ to (c, d)) be any continuously differentiable bijection. Then g = f ∘ φ − 1: (c, d) → R n (\ displaystyle g = f \ circ \ varphi ^ (- 1): (c, d) \ to \ mathbb (R) ^ (n)) is another continuously differentiable parameterization of the curve originally defined by f. (\ displaystyle f.) The arc length of the curve is the same regardless of the parameterization used to define the curve:
If a planar curve in R 2 (\ displaystyle \ mathbb (R) ^ (2)) is defined by the equation y = f (x), (\ displaystyle y = f (x),) where f (\ displaystyle f) is continuously differentiable, then it is simply a special case of a parametric equation where x = t (\ displaystyle x = t) and y = f (t), (\ displaystyle y = f (t),) the arc length is given by:
Curves with closed - form solutions for arc length include the catenary, circle, cycloid, logarithmic spiral, parabola, semicubical parabola and straight line. The lack of a closed form solution for the arc length of an elliptic arc led to the development of the elliptic integrals.
In most cases, including even simple curves, there are no closed - form solutions for arc length and numerical integration is necessary. Numerical integration of the arc length integral is usually very efficient. For example, consider the problem of finding the length of a quarter of the unit circle by numerically integrating the arc length integral. The upper half of the unit circle can be parameterized as y = 1 − x 2. (\ displaystyle y = (\ sqrt (1 - x ^ (2))).) The interval x ∈ (− 2 / 2, 2 / 2) (\ displaystyle x \ in (- (\ sqrt (2)) / 2, (\ sqrt (2)) / 2)) corresponds to a quarter of the circle. Since d y / d x = − x / 1 − x 2 (\ displaystyle dy / dx = - x / (\ sqrt (1 - x ^ (2)))) and 1 + (d y / d x) 2 = 1 / (1 − x 2), (\ displaystyle 1 + (dy / dx) ^ (2) = 1 / (1 - x ^ (2)),) the length of a quarter of the unit circle is
The 15 - point Gauss - Kronrod rule estimate for this integral of 7000157079632680817 ♠ 1.570 796 326 808 177 differs from the true length of π / 2 (\ displaystyle \ pi / 2) by 6989130000000000000 ♠ 1.3 × 10 and the 16 - point Gaussian quadrature rule estimate of 7000157079632679472 ♠ 1.570 796 326 794 727 differs from the true length by only 6987170000000000000 ♠ 1.7 × 10. This means it is possible to evaluate this integral to almost machine precision with only 16 integrand evaluations.
Let x (u, v) (\ displaystyle \ mathbf (x) (u, v)) be a surface mapping and let C (t) = (u (t), v (t)) (\ displaystyle \ mathbf (C) (t) = (u (t), v (t))) be a curve on this surface. The integrand of the arc length integral is (x ∘ C) ′ (t). (\ displaystyle (\ mathbf (x) \ circ \ mathbf (C)) ' (t).) Evaluating the derivative requires the chain rule for vector fields:
The squared norm of this vector is (x u u ′ + x v v ′) ⋅ (x u u ′ + x v v ′) = g 11 (u ′) 2 + 2 g 12 u ′ v ′ + g 22 (v ′) 2 (\ displaystyle (\ mathbf (x) _ (u) u'+ \ mathbf (x) _ (v) v ') \ cdot (\ mathbf (x) _ (u) u'+ \ mathbf (x) _ (v) v ') = g_ (11) (u ') ^ (2) + 2g_ (12) u'v'+ g_ (22) (v ') ^ (2)) (where g i j (\ displaystyle g_ (ij)) is the first fundamental form coefficient), so the integrand of the arc length integral can be written as g a b (u a) ′ (u b) ′ (\ displaystyle (\ sqrt (g_ (ab) (u ^ (a)) ' (u ^ (b)) '))) (where u 1 = u (\ displaystyle u ^ (1) = u) and u 2 = v (\ displaystyle u ^ (2) = v)).
Let C (t) = (r (t), θ (t)) (\ displaystyle \ mathbf (C) (t) = (r (t), \ theta (t))) be a curve expressed in polar coordinates. The mapping that transforms from polar coordinates to rectangular coordinates is
The integrand of the arc length integral is (x ∘ C) ′ (t). (\ displaystyle (\ mathbf (x) \ circ \ mathbf (C)) ' (t).) The chain rule for vector fields shows that D (x ∘ C) = x r r ′ + x θ θ ′. (\ displaystyle D (\ mathbf (x) \ circ \ mathbf (C)) = \ mathbf (x) _ (r) r'+ \ mathbf (x) _ (\ theta) \ theta '.) So the squared integrand of the arc length integral is
So for a curve expressed in polar coordinates, the arc length is
Now let C (t) = (r (t), θ (t), φ (t)) (\ displaystyle \ mathbf (C) (t) = (r (t), \ theta (t), \ phi (t))) be a curve expressed in spherical coordinates where θ (\ displaystyle \ theta) is the polar angle measured from the positive z (\ displaystyle z) - axis and φ (\ displaystyle \ phi) is the azimuthal angle. The mapping that transforms from spherical coordinates to rectangular coordinates is
Using the chain rule again shows that D (x ∘ C) = x r r ′ + x θ θ ′ + x φ φ ′. (\ displaystyle D (\ mathbf (x) \ circ \ mathbf (C)) = \ mathbf (x) _ (r) r'+ \ mathbf (x) _ (\ theta) \ theta ' + \ mathbf (x) _ (\ phi) \ phi '.) All dot products x i ⋅ x j (\ displaystyle \ mathbf (x) _ (i) \ cdot \ mathbf (x) _ (j)) where i (\ displaystyle i) and j (\ displaystyle j) differ are zero, so the squared norm of this vector is
So for a curve expressed in spherical coordinates, the arc length is
A very similar calculation shows that the arc length of a curve expressed in cylindrical coordinates is
Arc lengths are denoted by s, since the Latin word for length (or size) is spatium.
In the following lines, r (\ displaystyle r) represents the radius of a circle, d (\ displaystyle d) is its diameter, C (\ displaystyle C) is its circumference, s (\ displaystyle s) is the length of an arc of the circle, and θ (\ displaystyle \ theta) is the angle which the arc subtends at the centre of the circle. The distances r, d, C, (\ displaystyle r, d, C,) and s (\ displaystyle s) are expressed in the same units.
Two units of length, the nautical mile and the metre (or kilometre), were originally defined so the lengths of arcs of great circles on the Earth 's surface would be simply numerically related to the angles they subtend at its centre. The simple equation s = θ (\ displaystyle s = \ theta) applies in the following circumstances:
The lengths of the distance units were chosen to make the circumference of the Earth equal 7004400000000000000 ♠ 40 000 kilometres, or 7004216000000000000 ♠ 21 600 nautical miles. These are the numbers of the corresponding angle units in one complete turn.
These definitions of the metre and nautical mile have been superseded by more precise ones, but the original definitions are still accurate enough for conceptual purposes, and for some calculations. For example, they imply that one kilometre is exactly 0.54 nautical miles. Using official modern definitions, one nautical mile is exactly 1.852 kilometres, which implies that 1 kilometre ≈ 6999539956800000000 ♠ 0.539 956 80 nautical miles. This modern ratio differs from the one calculated from the original definitions by less than one part in ten thousand.
For much of the history of mathematics, even the greatest thinkers considered it impossible to compute the length of an irregular arc. Although Archimedes had pioneered a way of finding the area beneath a curve with his "method of exhaustion '', few believed it was even possible for curves to have definite lengths, as do straight lines. The first ground was broken in this field, as it often has been in calculus, by approximation. People began to inscribe polygons within the curves and compute the length of the sides for a somewhat accurate measurement of the length. By using more segments, and by decreasing the length of each segment, they were able to obtain a more and more accurate approximation. In particular, by inscribing a polygon of many sides in a circle, they were able to find approximate values of π.
In the 17th century, the method of exhaustion led to the rectification by geometrical methods of several transcendental curves: the logarithmic spiral by Evangelista Torricelli in 1645 (some sources say John Wallis in the 1650s), the cycloid by Christopher Wren in 1658, and the catenary by Gottfried Leibniz in 1691.
In 1659, Wallis credited William Neile 's discovery of the first rectification of a nontrivial algebraic curve, the semicubical parabola. The accompanying figures appear on page 145. On page 91, William Neile is mentioned as Gulielmus Nelius.
Before the full formal development of calculus, the basis for the modern integral form for arc length was independently discovered by Hendrik van Heuraet and Pierre de Fermat.
In 1659 van Heuraet published a construction showing that the problem of determining arc length could be transformed into the problem of determining the area under a curve (i.e., an integral). As an example of his method, he determined the arc length of a semicubical parabola, which required finding the area under a parabola. In 1660, Fermat published a more general theory containing the same result in his De linearum curvarum cum lineis rectis comparatione dissertatio geometrica (Geometric dissertation on curved lines in comparison with straight lines).
Building on his previous work with tangents, Fermat used the curve
whose tangent at x = a had a slope of
so the tangent line would have the equation
Next, he increased a by a small amount to a + ε, making segment AC a relatively good approximation for the length of the curve from A to D. To find the length of the segment AC, he used the Pythagorean theorem:
which, when solved, yields
In order to approximate the length, Fermat would sum up a sequence of short segments.
As mentioned above, some curves are non-rectifiable. That is, there is no upper bound on the lengths of polygonal approximations; the length can be made arbitrarily large. Informally, such curves are said to have infinite length. There are continuous curves on which every arc (other than a single - point arc) has infinite length. An example of such a curve is the Koch curve. Another example of a curve with infinite length is the graph of the function defined by f (x) = x sin (1 / x) for any open set with 0 as one of its delimiters and f (0) = 0. Sometimes the Hausdorff dimension and Hausdorff measure are used to quantify the size of such curves.
Let M (\ displaystyle M) be a (pseudo -) Riemannian manifold, γ: (0, 1) → M (\ displaystyle \ gamma: (0, 1) \ rightarrow M) a curve in M (\ displaystyle M) and g (\ displaystyle g) the (pseudo -) metric tensor.
The length of γ (\ displaystyle \ gamma) is defined to be
where γ ′ (t) ∈ T γ (t) M (\ displaystyle \ gamma ' (t) \ in T_ (\ gamma (t)) M) is the tangent vector of γ (\ displaystyle \ gamma) at t. (\ displaystyle t.) The sign in the square root is chosen once for a given curve, to ensure that the square root is a real number. The positive sign is chosen for spacelike curves; in a pseudo-Riemannian manifold, the negative sign may be chosen for timelike curves. Thus the length of a curve in a non-negative real number. Usually no curves are considered which are partly spacelike and partly timelike.
In theory of relativity, arc length of timelike curves (world lines) is the proper time elapsed along the world line, and arc length of a spacelike curve the proper distance along the curve.
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world's strictest parents uk where are they now | The World 's Strictest parents - wikipedia
The World 's Strictest Parents (or World 's Strictest Parents) is an international television franchise reality series developed by TwentyTwenty Television with its original broadcast in Britain by the BBC. The success of the program led to many overseas versions being created including in the Americas (broadcast by CMT) (part of MTV Networks) the CMT episodes frequently rebroadcasting on MTV. There are also many other international foreign versions (listed below) including an Australian version, a New Zealand version, and a German (German language) - version titled "Die strengsten Eltern der Welt '' (The Strictest Parents of the World). As well other locales to have locally produced adaptations include Scandinavia, Turkey, and Poland.
The series won an International Emmy Award for best Non-Scripted Entertainment. The concept is that two unruly teenagers are sent to live with a strict host family either locally or abroad for a week in an attempt to change their attitudes, outlooks, and behaviours in general. During the week they receive an impact letter from their real parents with a list of issues they should try to resolve.
Unruly British teenagers are sent to live with strict families in an experiment to try to change their behaviour. Generally they spend 10 days, later 7 days, with their host parents trying to live by the latter 's rules.
All series episodes were broadcast on a weekly basis.
Series two premiered on BBC Three on 15 October 2009 and ran to 17 December.
This episode was aired as an Australian episode and narrated by Axle Whitehead.
Series three premiered on BBC Three on 11 October 2010, the show returned for an 11 - episode run. Whilst not formally announced, it appears the teens now spend a week with their adopted families rather than the 10 days in the two previous series. Each episode aired at 9: 00pm on BBC Three and was repeated at various times over the following week. It was also moved to a Monday.
Series 4 premiered on 3 November 2011 and featured 12 teenagers. The series ran until 15 December.
BBC Episode Guide - S04E04
BBC Episode Guide - S04E05
Unlike the original British series, in which teenagers were sent to live abroad, the US series had the teenagers remain within The United States, as the program was produced with a reduced cable network budget rather than that of a national broadcast network, and law and passport concerns as some episodes would likely feature subjects which would not meet passport regulations. Another difference was that their own parents came for them and evaluated the stay with the host family.
The Seven Network also created their own series of The World 's Strictest Parents, hosted by singer and actor Axle Whitehead. The first season debuted in Australia on 22 July 2009. However, a sneak peek was shown on 24 June 2009 and was the top watched show of the week, with 1.875 million people tuning in. Whitehead 's song Way Home was featured in the advertisements. The show is classified PG.
A second season went to air on 14 July 2010, starting with two British episodes featuring Whitehead 's narration.
Season 3 premiered on 10 August 2011, however the series was continually interrupted due to the airing of the third season of The X Factor Australia.
The remainder of season three was aired in the middle of 2012.
The show did not return for a fourth season in 2013, due to poor ratings. Repeats of old episodes are currently being aired on Sunday afternoons.
The first episode attracted an audience of 1.54 million, and was the second most watched show of the night.
A New Zealand adaptation of The World 's Strictest Parents aired in 2012 on TV One. Only one series was made.
In Denmark the show is called "Verdens strengeste forældre '' and it is broadcast by TV3.
In Germany the show is called "Die strengsten Eltern der Welt ''. It is broadcast by Kabel Eins.
Unlike the original series, the teenagers don ` t know they are going to different parents and think it 's a holiday trip. The new family usually does not speak German and the teenagers likewise usually do n't speak any other language than German so they can only talk through translators. Therefore, they do not have long conversation or are given advice as in the original series.
In Poland the show is called "Surowi Rodzice '' (strict parents). It is broadcast by TVN.
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results of growth and trade of cities in the middle ages | Late Middle Ages - wikipedia
The Late Middle Ages or Late Medieval Period were the period of European history generally comprising the 14th and 15th centuries (c. 1301 -- c. 1500). The Late Middle Ages followed the High Middle Ages and preceded the onset of the early modern era (and, in much of Europe, the Renaissance).
Around 1300, centuries of prosperity and growth in Europe came to a halt. A series of famines and plagues, including the Great Famine of 1315 -- 1317 and the Black Death, reduced the population to around half of what it was before the calamities. Along with depopulation came social unrest and endemic warfare. France and England experienced serious peasant uprisings, such as the Jacquerie and the Peasants ' Revolt, as well as over a century of intermittent conflict in the Hundred Years ' War. To add to the many problems of the period, the unity of the Catholic Church was temporarily shattered by the Western Schism. Collectively these events are sometimes called the Crisis of the Late Middle Ages.
Despite these crises, the 14th century was also a time of great progress in the arts and sciences. Following a renewed interest in ancient Greek and Roman texts that took root in the High Middle Ages, the Italian Renaissance began. The absorption of Latin texts had started before the Renaissance of the 12th century through contact with Arabs during the Crusades, but the availability of important Greek texts accelerated with the capture of Constantinople by the Ottoman Turks, when many Byzantine scholars had to seek refuge in the West, particularly Italy.
Combined with this influx of classical ideas was the invention of printing, which facilitated dissemination of the printed word and democratized learning. These two things would later lead to the Protestant Reformation. Toward the end of the period, the Age of Discovery began. The expansion of the Ottoman Empire cut off trading possibilities with the east. Europeans were forced to seek new trading routes, leading to the Spanish expedition under Columbus to the Americas in 1492, and Vasco da Gama 's voyage to Africa and India in 1498. Their discoveries strengthened the economy and power of European nations.
The changes brought about by these developments have led many scholars to view this period as the end of the Middle Ages and beginning of modern history and early modern Europe. However, the division is somewhat artificial, since ancient learning was never entirely absent from European society. As a result there was developmental continuity between the ancient age (via classical antiquity) and the modern age. Some historians, particularly in Italy, prefer not to speak of the Late Middle Ages at all, but rather see the high period of the Middle Ages transitioning to the Renaissance and the modern era.
The term "Late Middle Ages '' refers to one of the three periods of the Middle Ages, along with the Early Middle Ages and the High Middle Ages. Leonardo Bruni was the first historian to use tripartite periodization in his History of the Florentine People (1442). Flavio Biondo used a similar framework in Decades of History from the Deterioration of the Roman Empire (1439 -- 1453). Tripartite periodization became standard after the German historian Christoph Cellarius published Universal History Divided into an Ancient, Medieval, and New Period (1683).
For 18th - century historians studying the 14th and 15th centuries, the central theme was the Renaissance, with its rediscovery of ancient learning and the emergence of an individual spirit. The heart of this rediscovery lies in Italy, where, in the words of Jacob Burckhardt: "Man became a spiritual individual and recognized himself as such ''. This proposition was later challenged, and it was argued that the 12th century was a period of greater cultural achievement.
As economic and demographic methods were applied to the study of history, the trend was increasingly to see the late Middle Ages as a period of recession and crisis. Belgian historian Henri Pirenne continued the subdivision of Early, High, and Late Middle Ages in the years around World War I. Yet it was his Dutch colleague, Johan Huizinga, who was primarily responsible for popularising the pessimistic view of the Late Middle Ages, with his book The Autumn of the Middle Ages (1919). To Huizinga, whose research focused on France and the Low Countries rather than Italy, despair and decline were the main themes, not rebirth.
Modern historiography on the period has reached a consensus between the two extremes of innovation and crisis. It is now generally acknowledged that conditions were vastly different north and south of the Alps, and the term "Late Middle Ages '' is often avoided entirely within Italian historiography. The term "Renaissance '' is still considered useful for describing certain intellectual, cultural, or artistic developments, but not as the defining feature of an entire European historical epoch. The period from the early 14th century up until -- and sometimes including -- the 16th century, is rather seen as characterized by other trends: demographic and economic decline followed by recovery, the end of western religious unity and the subsequent emergence of the nation state, and the expansion of European influence onto the rest of the world.
The limits of Christian Europe were still being defined in the 14th and 15th centuries. While the Grand Duchy of Moscow was beginning to repel the Mongols, and the Iberian kingdoms completed the Reconquista of the peninsula and turned their attention outwards, the Balkans fell under the dominance of the Ottoman Empire. Meanwhile, the remaining nations of the continent were locked in almost constant international or internal conflict.
The situation gradually led to the consolidation of central authority and the emergence of the nation state. The financial demands of war necessitated higher levels of taxation, resulting in the emergence of representative bodies -- most notably the English Parliament. The growth of secular authority was further aided by the decline of the papacy with the Western Schism and the coming of the Protestant Reformation.
After the failed union of Sweden and Norway of 1319 -- 1365, the pan-Scandinavian Kalmar Union was instituted in 1397. The Swedes were reluctant members of the Danish - dominated union from the start. In an attempt to subdue the Swedes, King Christian II of Denmark had large numbers of the Swedish aristocracy killed in the Stockholm Bloodbath of 1520. Yet this measure only led to further hostilities, and Sweden broke away for good in 1523. Norway, on the other hand, became an inferior party of the union and remained united with Denmark until 1814.
Iceland benefited from its relative isolation and was the last Scandinavian country to be struck by the Black Death. Meanwhile, the Norse colony in Greenland died out, probably under extreme weather conditions in the 15th century. These conditions might have been the effect of the Little Ice Age.
The death of Alexander III of Scotland in 1286 threw the country into a succession crisis, and the English king, Edward I, was brought in to arbitrate. Edward claimed overlordship over Scotland, leading to the Wars of Scottish Independence. The English were eventually defeated, and the Scots were able to develop a stronger state under the Stuarts.
From 1337, England 's attention was largely directed towards France in the Hundred Years ' War. Henry V 's victory at the Battle of Agincourt in 1415 briefly paved the way for a unification of the two kingdoms, but his son Henry VI soon squandered all previous gains. The loss of France led to discontent at home. Soon after the end of the war in 1453, the dynastic struggles of the Wars of the Roses (c. 1455 -- 1485) began, involving the rival dynasties of the House of Lancaster and House of York.
The war ended in the accession of Henry VII of the Tudor family, who continued the work started by the Yorkist kings of building a strong, centralized monarchy. While England 's attention was thus directed elsewhere, the Hiberno - Norman lords in Ireland were becoming gradually more assimilated into Irish society, and the island was allowed to develop virtual independence under English overlordship.
The French House of Valois, which followed the House of Capet in 1328, was at its outset marginalized in its own country, first by the English invading forces of the Hundred Years ' War, and later by the powerful Duchy of Burgundy. The emergence of Joan of Arc as a military leader changed the course of war in favour of the French, and the initiative was carried further by King Louis XI.
Meanwhile, Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, met resistance in his attempts to consolidate his possessions, particularly from the Swiss Confederation formed in 1291. When Charles was killed in the Burgundian Wars at the Battle of Nancy in 1477, the Duchy of Burgundy was reclaimed by France. At the same time, the County of Burgundy and the wealthy Burgundian Netherlands came into the Holy Roman Empire under Habsburg control, setting up conflict for centuries to come.
Bohemia prospered in the 14th century, and the Golden Bull of 1356 made the king of Bohemia first among the imperial electors, but the Hussite revolution threw the country into crisis. The Holy Roman Empire passed to the Habsburgs in 1438, where it remained until its dissolution in 1806. Yet in spite of the extensive territories held by the Habsburgs, the Empire itself remained fragmented, and much real power and influence lay with the individual principalities. In addition, financial institutions, such as the Hanseatic League and the Fugger family, held great power, on both economic and political levels.
The kingdom of Hungary experienced a golden age during the 14th century. In particular the reigns of the Angevin kings Charles Robert (1308 -- 42) and his son Louis the Great (1342 -- 82) were marked by success. The country grew wealthy as the main European supplier of gold and silver. Louis the Great led successful campaigns from Lithuania to Southern Italy, and from Poland to Northern Greece.
He had the greatest military potential of the 14th century with his enormous armies (often over 100,000 men). Meanwhile, Poland 's attention was turned eastwards, as the union with Lithuania created an enormous entity in the region. The union, and the conversion of Lithuania, also marked the end of paganism in Europe.
Louis did not leave a son as heir after his death in 1382. Instead, he named as his heir the young prince Sigismund of Luxemburg. The Hungarian nobility did not accept his claim, and the result was an internal war. Sigismund eventually achieved total control of Hungary and established his court in Buda and Visegrád. Both palaces were rebuilt and improved, and were considered the richest of the time in Europe. Inheriting the throne of Bohemia and the Holy Roman Empire, Sigismund continued conducting his politics from Hungary, but he was kept busy fighting the Hussites and the Ottoman Empire, which was becoming a menace to Europe in the beginning of the 15th century.
The King Matthias Corvinus of Hungary led the largest army of mercenaries of the time, The Black Army of Hungary, which he used to conquer Bohemia and Austria and to fight the Ottoman Empire. However, the glory of the Kingdom ended in the early 16th century, when the King Louis II of Hungary was killed in the battle of Mohács in 1526 against the Ottoman Empire. Hungary then fell into a serious crisis and was invaded, ending its significance in central Europe during the medieval era.
The state of Kievan Rus ' fell during the 13th century in the Mongol invasion. The Grand Duchy of Moscow rose in power thereafter, winning a great victory against the Golden Horde at the Battle of Kulikovo in 1380. The victory did not end Tartar rule in the region, however, and its immediate beneficiary was the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, which extended its influence eastwards.
Under the reign of Ivan the Great (1462 -- 1505), Moscow became a major regional power, and the annexation of the vast Republic of Novgorod in 1478 laid the foundations for a Russian national state. After the Fall of Constantinople in 1453 the Russian princes started to see themselves as the heirs of the Byzantine Empire. They eventually took on the imperial title of Tsar, and Moscow was described as the Third Rome.
The Byzantine Empire had for a long time dominated the eastern Mediterranean in politics and culture. By the 14th century, however, it had almost entirely collapsed into a tributary state of the Ottoman Empire, centered on the city of Constantinople and a few enclaves in Greece. With the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, the Byzantine Empire was permanently extinguished.
The Bulgarian Empire was in decline by the 14th century, and the ascendancy of Serbia was marked by the Serbian victory over the Bulgarians in the Battle of Velbazhd in 1330. By 1346, the Serbian king Stefan Dušan had been proclaimed emperor. Yet Serbian dominance was short - lived; the Serbian army led by the Lazar Hrebljevanovic was defeated by the Ottomans at the Battle of Kosovo in 1389, where most of the Serbian nobility was killed and the south of the country came under Ottoman occupation, as much of southern Bulgaria had become Ottoman territory in 1371. Northern remnants of Bulgaria were finally conquered by 1396, Serbia fell in 1459, Bosnia in 1463, and Albania was finally subordinated in 1479 only a few years after the death of Skanderbeg. Belgrade, an Hungarian domain at the time, was the last large Balkan city to fall under Ottoman rule, in 1521. By the end of the medieval period, the entire Balkan peninsula was annexed by, or became vassal to, the Ottomans.
Avignon was the seat of the papacy from 1309 to 1376. With the return of the Pope to Rome in 1378, the Papal State developed into a major secular power, culminating in the morally corrupt papacy of Alexander VI. Florence grew to prominence amongst the Italian city - states through financial business, and the dominant Medici family became important promoters of the Renaissance through their patronage of the arts. Other city states in northern Italy also expanded their territories and consolidated their power, primarily Milan and Venice. The War of the Sicilian Vespers had by the early 14th century divided southern Italy into an Aragon Kingdom of Sicily and an Anjou Kingdom of Naples. In 1442, the two kingdoms were effectively united under Aragonese control.
The 1469 marriage of Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon and the 1479 death of John II of Aragon led to the creation of modern - day Spain. In 1492, Granada was captured from the Moors, thereby completing the Reconquista. Portugal had during the 15th century -- particularly under Henry the Navigator -- gradually explored the coast of Africa, and in 1498, Vasco da Gama found the sea route to India. The Spanish monarchs met the Portuguese challenge by financing the expedition of Christopher Columbus to find a western sea route to India, leading to the discovery of the Americas in 1492.
Around 1300 -- 1350 the Medieval Warm Period gave way to the Little Ice Age. The colder climate resulted in agricultural crises, the first of which is known as the Great Famine of 1315 - 1317. The demographic consequences of this famine, however, were not as severe as the plagues that occurred later in the century, particularly the Black Death. Estimates of the death rate caused by this epidemic range from one third to as much as sixty percent. By around 1420, the accumulated effect of recurring plagues and famines had reduced the population of Europe to perhaps no more than a third of what it was a century earlier. The effects of natural disasters were exacerbated by armed conflicts; this was particularly the case in France during the Hundred Years ' War.
As the European population was severely reduced, land became more plentiful for the survivors, and labour consequently more expensive. Attempts by landowners to forcibly reduce wages, such as the English 1351 Statute of Laborers, were doomed to fail. These efforts resulted in nothing more than fostering resentment among the peasantry, leading to rebellions such as the French Jacquerie in 1358 and the English Peasants ' Revolt in 1381. The long - term effect was the virtual end of serfdom in Western Europe. In Eastern Europe, on the other hand, landowners were able to exploit the situation to force the peasantry into even more repressive bondage.
The upheavals caused by the Black Death left certain minority groups particularly vulnerable, especially the Jews, who were often blamed for the calamities. Anti-Jewish pogroms were carried out all over Europe; in February 1349, 2,000 Jews were murdered in Strasbourg. States were also guilty of discrimination against the Jews. Monarchs gave in to the demands of the people, and the Jews were expelled from England in 1290, from France in 1306, from Spain in 1492, and from Portugal in 1497.
While the Jews were suffering persecution, one group that probably experienced increased empowerment in the Late Middle Ages was women. The great social changes of the period opened up new possibilities for women in the fields of commerce, learning and religion. Yet at the same time, women were also vulnerable to incrimination and persecution, as belief in witchcraft increased.
Up until the mid-14th century, Europe had experienced steadily increasing urbanisation. Cities were also decimated by the Black Death, but the role of urban areas as centres of learning, commerce and government ensured continued growth. By 1500, Venice, Milan, Naples, Paris and Constantinople each probably had more than 100,000 inhabitants. Twenty - two other cities were larger than 40,000; most of these were in Italy and the Iberian peninsula, but there were also some in France, the Empire, the Low Countries, plus London in England.
Through battles such as Courtrai (1302), Bannockburn (1314), and Morgarten (1315), it became clear to the great territorial princes of Europe that the military advantage of the feudal cavalry was lost, and that a well equipped infantry was preferable. Through the Welsh Wars the English became acquainted with, and adopted, the highly efficient longbow. Once properly managed, this weapon gave them a great advantage over the French in the Hundred Years ' War.
The introduction of gunpowder affected the conduct of war significantly. Though employed by the English as early as the Battle of Crécy in 1346, firearms initially had little effect in the field of battle. It was through the use of cannons as siege weapons that major change was brought about; the new methods would eventually change the architectural structure of fortifications.
Changes also took place within the recruitment and composition of armies. The use of the national or feudal levy was gradually replaced by paid troops of domestic retinues or foreign mercenaries. The practice was associated with Edward III of England and the condottieri of the Italian city - states. All over Europe, Swiss soldiers were in particularly high demand. At the same time, the period also saw the emergence of the first permanent armies. It was in Valois France, under the heavy demands of the Hundred Years ' War, that the armed forces gradually assumed a permanent nature.
Parallel to the military developments emerged also a constantly more elaborate chivalric code of conduct for the warrior class. This new - found ethos can be seen as a response to the diminishing military role of the aristocracy, and gradually it became almost entirely detached from its military origin. The spirit of chivalry was given expression through the new (secular) type of chivalric orders; the first of these was the Order of St. George, founded by Charles I of Hungary in 1325, while the best known was probably the English Order of the Garter, founded by Edward III in 1348.
The French crown 's increasing dominance over the Papacy culminated in the transference of the Holy See to Avignon in 1309. When the Pope returned to Rome in 1377, this led to the election of different popes in Avignon and Rome, resulting in the Papal Schism (1378 -- 1417). The Schism divided Europe along political lines; while France, her ally Scotland and the Spanish kingdoms supported the Avignon Papacy, France 's enemy England stood behind the Pope in Rome, together with Portugal, Scandinavia and most of the German princes.
At the Council of Constance (1414 -- 1418), the Papacy was once more united in Rome. Even though the unity of the Western Church was to last for another hundred years, and though the Papacy was to experience greater material prosperity than ever before, the Great Schism had done irreparable damage. The internal struggles within the Church had impaired her claim to universal rule, and promoted anti-clericalism among the people and their rulers, paving the way for reform movements.
Though many of the events were outside the traditional time period of the Middle Ages, the end of the unity of the Western Church (the Protestant Reformation), was one of the distinguishing characteristics of the medieval period. The Catholic Church had long fought against heretic movements, but during the Late Middle Ages, it started to experience demands for reform from within. The first of these came from Oxford professor John Wycliffe in England. Wycliffe held that the Bible should be the only authority in religious questions, and he spoke out against transubstantiation, celibacy and indulgences. In spite of influential supporters among the English aristocracy, such as John of Gaunt, the movement was not allowed to survive. Though Wycliffe himself was left unmolested, his supporters, the Lollards, were eventually suppressed in England.
The marriage of Richard II of England to Anne of Bohemia established contacts between the two nations and brought Lollard ideas to her homeland. The teachings of the Czech priest Jan Hus were based on those of John Wycliffe, yet his followers, the Hussites, were to have a much greater political impact than the Lollards. Hus gained a great following in Bohemia, and in 1414, he was requested to appear at the Council of Constance to defend his cause. When he was burned as a heretic in 1415, it caused a popular uprising in the Czech lands. The subsequent Hussite Wars fell apart due to internal quarrels and did not result in religious or national independence for the Czechs, but both the Catholic Church and the German element within the country were weakened.
Martin Luther, a German monk, started the German Reformation by posting 95 theses on the castle church of Wittenberg on October 31, 1517. The immediate provocation spurring this act was Pope Leo X 's renewal of the indulgence for the building of the new St. Peter 's Basilica in 1514. Luther was challenged to recant his heresy at the Diet of Worms in 1521. When he refused, he was placed under the ban of the Empire by Charles V. Receiving the protection of Frederick the Wise, he was then able to translate the Bible into German.
To many secular rulers the Protestant reformation was a welcome opportunity to expand their wealth and influence. The Catholic Church met the challenges of the reforming movements with what has been called the Catholic Reformation, or Counter-Reformation. Europe became split into northern Protestant and southern Catholic parts, resulting in the Religious Wars of the 16th and 17th centuries.
The increasingly dominant position of the Ottoman Empire in the eastern Mediterranean presented an impediment to trade for the Christian nations of the west, who in turn started looking for alternatives. Portuguese and Spanish explorers found new trade routes -- south of Africa to India, and across the Atlantic Ocean to America. As Genoese and Venetian merchants opened up direct sea routes with Flanders, the Champagne fairs lost much of their importance.
At the same time, English wool export shifted from raw wool to processed cloth, resulting in losses for the cloth manufacturers of the Low Countries. In the Baltic and North Sea, the Hanseatic League reached the peak of their power in the 14th century, but started going into decline in the fifteenth.
In the late 13th and early 14th centuries, a process took place -- primarily in Italy but partly also in the Empire -- that historians have termed a ' commercial revolution '. Among the innovations of the period were new forms of partnership and the issuing of insurance, both of which contributed to reducing the risk of commercial ventures; the bill of exchange and other forms of credit that circumvented the canonical laws for gentiles against usury, and eliminated the dangers of carrying bullion; and new forms of accounting, in particular double - entry bookkeeping, which allowed for better oversight and accuracy.
With the financial expansion, trading rights became more jealously guarded by the commercial elite. Towns saw the growing power of guilds, while on a national level special companies would be granted monopolies on particular trades, like the English wool Staple. The beneficiaries of these developments would accumulate immense wealth. Families like the Fuggers in Germany, the Medicis in Italy, the de la Poles in England, and individuals like Jacques Coeur in France would help finance the wars of kings, and achieve great political influence in the process.
Though there is no doubt that the demographic crisis of the 14th century caused a dramatic fall in production and commerce in absolute terms, there has been a vigorous historical debate over whether the decline was greater than the fall in population. While the older orthodoxy held that the artistic output of the Renaissance was a result of greater opulence, more recent studies have suggested that there might have been a so - called ' depression of the Renaissance '. In spite of convincing arguments for the case, the statistical evidence is simply too incomplete for a definite conclusion to be made.
In the 14th century, the predominant academic trend of scholasticism was challenged by the humanist movement. Though primarily an attempt to revitalise the classical languages, the movement also led to innovations within the fields of science, art and literature, helped on by impulses from Byzantine scholars who had to seek refuge in the west after the Fall of Constantinople in 1453.
In science, classical authorities like Aristotle were challenged for the first time since antiquity. Within the arts, humanism took the form of the Renaissance. Though the 15th century Renaissance was a highly localised phenomenon -- limited mostly to the city states of northern Italy -- artistic developments were taking place also further north, particularly in the Netherlands.
The predominant school of thought in the 13th century was the Thomistic reconciliation of the teachings of Aristotle with Christian theology. The Condemnation of 1277, enacted at the University of Paris, placed restrictions on ideas that could be interpreted as heretical; restrictions that had implication for Aristotelian thought. An alternative was presented by William of Ockham, following the manner of the earlier Franciscan John Duns Scotus, who insisted that the world of reason and the world of faith had to be kept apart. Ockham introduced the principle of parsimony -- or Occam 's razor -- whereby a simple theory is preferred to a more complex one, and speculation on unobservable phenomena is avoided. This maxim is, however, often misquoted. Occam was referring to his nominalism in this quotation. Essentially saying the theory of absolutes, or metaphysical realism, was unnecessary to make sense of the world.
This new approach liberated scientific speculation from the dogmatic restraints of Aristotelian science, and paved the way for new approaches. Particularly within the field of theories of motion great advances were made, when such scholars as Jean Buridan, Nicole Oresme and the Oxford Calculators challenged the work of Aristotle. Buridan developed the theory of impetus as the cause of the motion of projectiles, which was an important step towards the modern concept of inertia. The works of these scholars anticipated the heliocentric worldview of Nicolaus Copernicus.
Certain technological inventions of the period -- whether of Arab or Chinese origin, or unique European innovations -- were to have great influence on political and social developments, in particular gunpowder, the printing press and the compass. The introduction of gunpowder to the field of battle affected not only military organisation, but helped advance the nation state. Gutenberg 's movable type printing press made possible not only the Reformation, but also a dissemination of knowledge that would lead to a gradually more egalitarian society. The compass, along with other innovations such as the cross-staff, the mariner 's astrolabe, and advances in shipbuilding, enabled the navigation of the World Oceans, and the early phases of colonialism. Other inventions had a greater impact on everyday life, such as eyeglasses and the weight - driven clock.
A precursor to Renaissance art can be seen already in the early 14th - century works of Giotto. Giotto was the first painter since antiquity to attempt the representation of a three - dimensional reality, and to endow his characters with true human emotions. The most important developments, however, came in 15th century Florence. The affluence of the merchant class allowed extensive patronage of the arts, and foremost among the patrons were the Medici.
The period saw several important technical innovations, like the principle of linear perspective found in the work of Masaccio, and later described by Brunelleschi. Greater realism was also achieved through the scientific study of anatomy, championed by artists like Donatello. This can be seen particularly well in his sculptures, inspired by the study of classical models. As the centre of the movement shifted to Rome, the period culminated in the High Renaissance masters da Vinci, Michelangelo and Raphael.
The ideas of the Italian Renaissance were slow to cross the Alps into northern Europe, but important artistic innovations were made also in the Low Countries. Though not -- as previously believed -- the inventor of oil painting, Jan van Eyck was a champion of the new medium, and used it to create works of great realism and minute detail. The two cultures influenced each other and learned from each other, but painting in the Netherlands remained more focused on textures and surfaces than the idealized compositions of Italy.
In northern European countries Gothic architecture remained the norm, and the gothic cathedral was further elaborated. In Italy, on the other hand, architecture took a different direction, also here inspired by classical ideals. The crowning work of the period was the Santa Maria del Fiore in Florence, with Giotto 's clock tower, Ghiberti 's baptistery gates, and Brunelleschi 's cathedral dome of unprecedented proportions.
The most important development of late medieval literature was the ascendancy of the vernacular languages. The vernacular had been in use in England since the 8th century and France since the 11th century, where the most popular genres had been the chanson de geste, troubadour lyrics and romantic epics, or the romance. Though Italy was later in evolving a native literature in the vernacular language, it was here that the most important developments of the period were to come.
Dante Alighieri 's Divine Comedy, written in the early 14th century, merged a medieval world view with classical ideals. Another promoter of the Italian language was Boccaccio with his Decameron. The application of the vernacular did not entail a rejection of Latin, and both Dante and Boccaccio wrote prolifically in Latin as well as Italian, as would Petrarch later (whose Canzoniere also promoted the vernacular and whose contents are considered the first modern lyric poems). Together the three poets established the Tuscan dialect as the norm for the modern Italian language.
The new literary style spread rapidly, and in France influenced such writers as Eustache Deschamps and Guillaume de Machaut. In England Geoffrey Chaucer helped establish Middle English as a literary language with his Canterbury Tales, which contained a wide variety of narrators and stories (including some translated from Boccaccio). The spread of vernacular literature eventually reached as far as Bohemia, and the Baltic, Slavic and Byzantine worlds.
Music was an important part of both secular and spiritual culture, and in the universities it made up part of the quadrivium of the liberal arts. From the early 13th century, the dominant sacred musical form had been the motet; a composition with text in several parts. From the 1330s and onwards, emerged the polyphonic style, which was a more complex fusion of independent voices. Polyphony had been common in the secular music of the Provençal troubadours. Many of these had fallen victim to the 13th - century Albigensian Crusade, but their influence reached the papal court at Avignon.
The main representatives of the new style, often referred to as ars nova as opposed to the ars antiqua, were the composers Philippe de Vitry and Guillaume de Machaut. In Italy, where the Provençal troubadours had also found refuge, the corresponding period goes under the name of trecento, and the leading composers were Giovanni da Cascia, Jacopo da Bologna and Francesco Landini. Prominent reformer of Orthodox Church music from the first half of 14th century was John Kukuzelis; he also introduced a system of notation widely used in the Balkans in the following centuries.
In the British Isles, plays were produced in some 127 different towns during the Middle Ages. These vernacular Mystery plays were written in cycles of a large number of plays: York (48 plays), Chester (24), Wakefield (32) and Unknown (42). A larger number of plays survive from France and Germany in this period and some type of religious dramas were performed in nearly every European country in the Late Middle Ages. Many of these plays contained comedy, devils, villains and clowns.
Morality plays emerged as a distinct dramatic form around 1400 and flourished until 1550. The most interesting morality play is The Castle of Perseverance which depicts mankind 's progress from birth to death. However, the most famous morality play and perhaps best known medieval drama is Everyman. Everyman receives Death 's summons, struggles to escape and finally resigns himself to necessity. Along the way, he is deserted by Kindred, Goods, and Fellowship -- only Good Deeds goes with him to the grave.
At the end of the Late Middle Ages, professional actors began to appear in England and Europe. Richard III and Henry VII both maintained small companies of professional actors. Their plays were performed in the Great Hall of a nobleman 's residence, often with a raised platform at one end for the audience and a "screen '' at the other for the actors. Also important were Mummers ' plays, performed during the Christmas season, and court masques. These masques were especially popular during the reign of Henry VIII who had a House of Revels built and an Office of Revels established in 1545.
The end of medieval drama came about due to a number of factors, including the weakening power of the Catholic Church, the Protestant Reformation and the banning of religious plays in many countries. Elizabeth I forbid all religious plays in 1558 and the great cycle plays had been silenced by the 1580s. Similarly, religious plays were banned in the Netherlands in 1539, the Papal States in 1547 and in Paris in 1548. The abandonment of these plays destroyed the international theatre that had thereto existed and forced each country to develop its own form of drama. It also allowed dramatists to turn to secular subjects and the reviving interest in Greek and Roman theatre provided them with the perfect opportunity.
After the end of the late Middle Ages period, the Renaissance spread unevenly over continental Europe from the southern European region. The intellectual transformation of the Renaissance is viewed as a bridge between the Middle Ages and the Modern era. Europeans would later begin an era of world discovery. Combined with the influx of classical ideas was the invention of printing which facilitated dissemination of the printed word and democratized learning. These two things would lead to the Protestant Reformation. Europeans also discovered new trading routes, as was the case with Columbus ' travel to the Americas in 1492, and Vasco da Gama 's circumnavigation of Africa and India in 1498. Their discoveries strengthened the economy and power of European nations.
By the end of the 15th century the Ottoman Empire had advanced all over Southeastern Europe, eventually conquering the Byzantine Empire and extending control over the Balkan states. Hungary was the last bastion of the Latin Christian world in the East, and fought to keep its rule over a period of two centuries. After the tragic death of the young king Vladislaus I of Hungary during the Battle of Varna in 1444 against the Ottomans, the Kingdom was placed in the hands of count John Hunyadi, who became Hungary 's regent - governor (1446 -- 1453). Hunyadi was considered one of the most relevant military figures of the 15th century: Pope Pius II awarded him the title of Athleta Christi or Champion of Christ for being the only hope of resisting the Ottomans from advancing to Central and Western Europe.
Hunyadi succeeded during the Siege of Belgrade in 1456 against the Ottomans, the biggest victory against that empire in decades. This battle became a real Crusade against the Muslims, as the peasants were motivated by the Franciscan monk Saint John of Capistrano, who came from Italy predicating Holy War. The effect that it created in that time was one of the main factors that helped in achieving the victory. However the premature death of the Hungarian Lord left Pannonia defenseless and in chaos. In an extremely unusual event for the Middle Ages, Hunyadi 's son, Matthias, was elected as King of Hungary by the nobility. For the first time, a member of an aristocratic family (and not from a royal family) was crowned.
King Matthias Corvinus of Hungary (1458 -- 1490) was one of the most prominent figures of the period, directing campaigns to the West, conquering Bohemia in answer to the Pope 's call for help against the Hussite Protestants. Also, in resolving political hostilities with the German emperor Frederick III of Habsburg, he invaded his western domains. Matthew organized the Black Army of mercenary soldiers; it was considered as the biggest army of its time. Using this powerful tool, the Hungarian king led wars against the Turkish armies and stopped the Ottomans during his reign. After the death of Matthew, and with end of the Black Army, the Ottoman Empire grew in strength and Central Europe was defenseless. At the Battle of Mohács, the forces of the Ottoman Empire annihilated the Hungarian army and Louis II of Hungary drowned in the Csele Creek while trying to escape. The leader of the Hungarian army, Pál Tomori, also died in the battle. This is considered to be one of the final battles of Medieval times.
Dates are approximate, consult particular articles for details Middle Ages Themes Other themes
Peasants in fields Très Riches Heures.
Joan of Arc (Hundred Years ' War)
Charles I (Kingdom of Hungary)
Jan Hus (Protestant Reformation)
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now that's what i call music uk | Now That 's What I Call Music! Discography - wikipedia
This is a list of known albums and DVDs belonging to the various Now That 's What I Call Music! series. They are categorised by series (country), then ordered by date.
The titles given here are the literal names as printed on the front cover. Thus, volumes 2 and 13 use Roman numerals and the exclamation mark first appears with volume 18 (changing to its present position from volume 20 onwards).
The first full - track edition to be released on compact disc was Volume 10. Vinyls ended with Now 35 and audio cassettes ended with Now 64. Part of the series was also released on the Mini Disc format, beginning with Now 43 and ending with Now 48.
Some of the albums have also been released on video. Volumes 1 through 18 and 20 were released on VHS. The first two albums were also issued on Laser - disc. Every video tape had a typical running time of roughly 1 hour. From 2001 to 2007, the videos were published on DVD with a frequency of one per year. The DVDs are numbered by year and not linked to album numbers. Now 2006 was released on UMD as well as DVD.
The series release dates below represent the date of release in the United Kingdom. Through the release of Now 90 on 30 March 2015, the release date in Ireland was three days before the UK release. Beginning with the release of Now 91 on 24 July 2015, the release dates in the UK and Ireland have been the same following the announcement of the Global Release Day campaign by IFPI, which became effective on 10 July 2015.
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shri ram college of commerce university of delhi | Shri Ram College of Commerce - Wikipedia
Shri Ram College of Commerce (SRCC) is one of the premier colleges affiliated to the University of Delhi granting undergraduate and postgraduate degrees. Founded in 1926 in New Delhi, it is one of the most prestigious and oldest institutes of higher learning in Commerce and Economics. The cutoffs required to gain admission in this premier institute are often much higher than other colleges affiliated with University of Delhi. As a result, SRCC enjoys an elite status as the most sought after commerce college in India and has established a reputation for attracting some of the brightest students in the country.
SRCC was established by educationist and industrialist, late Lala Shri Ram. Apart from SRCC, he also owned the company DCM Shriram. The institute was established first in Daryaganj and shifted to its present location in the North Campus, Delhi University in 1957. The present location is a 17 acres (69,000 m) campus with educational and recreational areas.
The institute offers courses in the commerce and economics streams only. The undergraduate and graduate programs offered are -
The institute 's departments include:
Student societies include:
Sciences Po and the Shri Ram College of Commerce of New Delhi have recently created a student exchange programme. This new programme brings the number of Sciences Po 's university partners in India to nine. 42 students from Sciences Po spent their third year abroad in India in the 2010 - 11 academic year. In addition, students from SRCC along with students of Miranda House spent six days in Utrecht representing India as part of The Indo - Dutch collaborative programme between the Shri Ram College of Commerce, Miranda House and HU University of Applied Sciences Utrecht in 2012. Besides this, the college 's student exchange programme saw students from Schreyer Honors College of Pennsylvania, USA and students of SRCC participate as part of the Penn State - SRCC Collaborative programme in the same year.
In 2015, Shri Ram College of Commerce became the first undergraduate commerce college in India to set up a centre for startups. The operational cost of Centre for Innovation, Incubation and Entrepreneurship is borne by NITI Aayog and other government agencies. Initial funding came from the alumni network of the college. The Centre was opened at the campus in presence of global alumni and representatives of some successful startups. It aims to tap the potential of the students and alumni as well as explore government initiatives to foster the spirit of entrepreneurship as well as give the space to create new products.
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what are the main hubs for southwest airlines | Southwest Airlines - Wikipedia
Coordinates: 32 ° 50 ′ 48 '' N 96 ° 51 ′ 40 '' W / 32.8467 ° N 96.861 ° W / 32.8467; - 96.861 (Southwest Airlines Headquarters)
Southwest Airlines Co. (NYSE: LUV) is a major United States airline headquartered in Dallas, Texas, and the world 's largest low - cost carrier.
The airline was established in 1967 by Herb Kelleher as Air Southwest Co. and then adopted its current name, Southwest Airlines Co., in 1971, when it began operating as an intrastate airline wholly within the state of Texas. The airline has more than 57,000 employees as of March 2018 and operates more than 4,000 departures a day during peak travel season. As of 2014, it carried the most domestic passengers of any U.S. airline. As of July 2018, Southwest Airlines has scheduled services to 99 destinations in the United States and ten additional countries, with services to Turks & Caicos having begun on November 5, 2017. Service to four destinations in Hawaii is coming in late 2018 or early 2019 subject to FAA approval, with routes to be decided on and announced in the near future.
Southwest Airlines has only operated Boeing 737 jetliner models, except for a period from 1979 to 1987 when it leased and operated several Boeing 727 - 200s from Braniff International Airways. Since January 2016, Southwest has been the largest operator of the Boeing 737 worldwide, with over 700 in service and each aircraft averaging six flights per day.
In 1966 Southwest Airlines was founded by Herbert Kelleher and Rollin King, and in 1967 it was incorporated as Air Southwest Co. It was not until 1971 that the airline began scheduled flights from Dallas Love Field. The same year the organization adopted the name Southwest Airlines Co. The expansion of flights started in 1975, to cities throughout Texas, and in 1978 Southwest began flying to neighboring states. Service to the East and the Southeast started in the 1990s.
The company has always employed humor in its advertising. Former slogans include "Love Is Still Our Field, '' "Just Plane Smart, '' "The Somebody Else Up There Who Loves You, '' "You 're Now Free To Move About The Country, '' "THE Low Fare Airline, '' "Grab your bag, It 's On! '' and "Welcome Aboard. '' The airline 's current slogan is "Low fares. Nothing to hide. ''
In March 1992, shortly after Southwest started using the "Just Plane Smart '' motto, Stevens Aviation, which had been using "Plane Smart '' for its motto, advised Southwest that it was infringing on its trademark.
Instead of a lawsuit, the CEOs for both companies staged an arm wrestling match. Held at the now - demolished Dallas Sportatorium (the famed wrestling facility) and set for two out of three rounds, the loser of each round was to pay $5,000 to the charity of his choice, with the winner gaining the use of the trademarked phrase. A promotional video was created showing the CEOs "training '' for the bout (with CEO Herb Kelleher being helped up during a sit up where a cigarette and glass of whiskey (Wild Turkey 101 was waiting) and distributed among the employees and also as a video press release along with the video of the match itself. Herb Kelleher lost the match for Southwest, with Stevens Aviation winning the rights to the phrase. Kurt Herwald, CEO of Stevens Aviation, immediately granted the use of "Just Plane Smart '' to Southwest Airlines. The net result was both companies having use of the trademark, $15,000 going to charity, and good publicity for both companies.
Southwest Airlines is the official commercial airline of the Honor Flight Network. Honor Flights are dedicated to bringing aging and ailing veterans to visit the national monuments in Washington, D.C., devoted to the wars in which they served.
The Southwest Airlines headquarters is located on the grounds of Dallas Love Field in the Love Field neighborhood of Dallas, Texas.
On September 17, 2012, Southwest broke ground on a new Training and Operational Support (TOPS) building. The TOPS Building is across the street from its current headquarters building. The property includes a two - story, 100,000 square foot Network Operations Control (NOC) building that can withstand an EF3 tornado. It also includes a four - story, 392,000 square foot office and training facility with two levels devoted to each function. The new facilities house 24 - hour coordination and maintenance operations, customer support and services, and training. The project was completed in late 2013, with occupancy beginning in 2014.
On June 2, 2016, Southwest broke ground on its new office and training facility known as Wings. The newest addition to the corporate campus is composed of a 420,000 square foot six story office building, and 380,000 square foot adjoining structure called the LEAD (Leadership Education and Aircrew Development) Center which serves as the new pilot training facility. The LEAD Center has capacity to house and support 18 flight simulators. It is designed to be expanded to accommodate up to 26 simulator bays. The building opened on April 3, 2018.
As of March 30, 2018, Southwest Airlines has more than 57,112 employees.
Gary C. Kelly is Chairman and CEO of Southwest Airlines. Kelly replaced former CEO Jim Parker on July 15, 2004 and assumed the title of "President '' on July 15, 2008, replacing former President Colleen Barrett. In July 2008, Herb Kelleher resigned his position as Chairman. Colleen Barrett left her post on the Board of Directors and as Corporate Secretary in May 2008 and as President in July 2008. Kelleher was President and CEO of Southwest from September 1981 - June 2001.
On January 10, 2017, Southwest announced changes to the Company 's executive Leadership ranks with Thomas M. Nealon named as President and Michael G. Van de Ven named as the airline 's Chief Operating Officer.
Southwest employees are generally members of a union. The Southwest Airline Pilots ' Association, a company union not affiliated with the Air Line Pilots Association, represents the airline 's pilots. The Aircraft Maintenance Technicians are represented by the Aircraft Mechanics Fraternal Association (AMFA). Customer Service Agents and Reservation Agents are represented by the International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers Union (IAM). Flight Dispatchers, Flight Attendants, Ramp agents and Operations agents are represented by the Transport Workers Union (TWU).
Southwest Airlines is the official airline for four Major League Baseball teams - the Arizona Diamondbacks, Baltimore Orioles, Milwaukee Brewers & Texas Rangers; five NBA teams - the Denver Nuggets, the Houston Rockets, the Indiana Pacers, the Orlando Magic, and the Phoenix Suns - four WNBA teams - the Dallas Wings, Indiana Fever, Las Vegas Aces & Phoenix Mercury - and the NFL 's Baltimore Ravens in addition to being the official airline for the Super Bowl. It also sponsors the NHL 's Vegas Golden Knights and Tampa Bay Lightning.
Southwest Airlines is the title sponsor of the annual Southwest Airlines San Francisco Chinese New Year Festival and Parade.
There were two aircraft painted to resemble Orcas to promote SeaWorld but they were repainted to standard Southwest livery following the end of their 26 - year partnership.
Southwest has been a major inspiration to other low - cost carriers, and its business model has been repeated many times around the world. The competitive strategy combines high level of employee and aircraft productivity with low unit costs by reducing aircraft turn around time particularly at the gate. Europe 's EasyJet and Ryanair are two of the best known airlines to follow Southwest 's business strategy in that continent. Other airlines with a business model based on Southwest 's system include Canada 's WestJet, Malaysia 's AirAsia (the first and biggest LCC in Asia), India 's IndiGo, Australia 's Jetstar, a subsidiary of Qantas (although Jetstar now operates three aircraft types), Philippines 's Cebu Pacific, Thailand 's Nok Air, Mexico 's Volaris, Indonesia 's Lion Air and Turkey 's Pegasus Airlines. Although Southwest has been a major inspiration to many other airlines, including Ryanair, AirAsia, Lion Air and Jetstar, the management strategies, for example, of Ryanair, AirAsia, Lion Air and Jetstar differ significantly from those of Southwest. All these different management strategies can be seen as means of differentiation from other competitors in order to gain competitive advantages.
Southwest has fought against the development of a high - speed rail system in Texas.
In 1991, a plan was made to connect the Texas Triangle (Houston -- Dallas -- Fort Worth -- San Antonio) with a privately financed high speed train system that would quickly take passengers from one city to the next. This was the same model Southwest Airlines used 20 years earlier to break into the Texas market where it served the same cities.
Southwest Airlines, with the help of lobbyists, created legal barriers to prohibit the consortium from moving forward and the entire project was eventually scuttled in 1994, when the State of Texas withdrew the franchise. This was also aided by lobbying from hotels and fast food restaurants.
As of July 2018, Southwest Airlines has scheduled flights to 99 destinations in 40 states, Puerto Rico, Mexico, Central America and the Caribbean. It operates crew bases at the following airports: Atlanta, Baltimore, Chicago -- Midway, Dallas -- Love, Denver, Houston -- Hobby, Las Vegas, Los Angeles, Oakland, Orlando, and Phoenix -- Sky Harbor. Southwest does not use the "hub and spoke '' system of other major airlines, preferring the "point - to - point '' system, combined with a "rolling hub '' model in its larger cities.
Southwest does not currently partner with any other airline.
Since its inception Southwest Airlines has almost exclusively operated Boeing 737 aircraft (except for a brief period when it leased and flew some Boeing 727 - 200 aircraft). Southwest is the world 's largest operator of the Boeing 737, and was the launch customer of the 737 - 300, 737 - 500, 737 - 700, and 737 MAX 8. Southwest Airlines is also poised to be the launch customer for the 737 MAX 7.
Southwest added the Boeing 737 - 700 to its fleet on December 17, 1997. Southwest added the Boeing 737 - 800 to its fleet on April 11, 2012. The aircraft has 175 seats, 32 more than the former largest 737s in Southwest 's fleet.
After completing the purchase of AirTran Airways, Southwest Airlines acquired AirTran 's existing fleet of Boeing 717 aircraft. However, Southwest elected not to integrate them into its fleet and currently leases them to Delta Air Lines.
On December 13, 2011, Southwest placed a firm order for 150 Boeing 737 MAX 8 aircraft, becoming the launch customer for the type (although the first delivery of the 737 MAX 8 was to Malindo Air).
On May 15, 2013, Southwest became the launch customer for the Boeing 737 MAX 7 aircraft and now has 30 MAX 7 aircraft on order. The first delivery is expected in 2019.
On August 29, 2017, Southwest Airlines took delivery of its first Boeing 737 MAX 8, making it the first airline in North America to do so. The airline was also the first in North America to operate the aircraft on scheduled revenue passenger flights, which began October 1, 2017. On January 2, 2018, Southwest converted 40 options into firm orders for the Boeing 737 MAX 8, bringing total orders of the variant to more than 250 aircraft. On the same day, the airline also announced that it was deferring 23 deliveries of the Boeing 737 MAX 7 to 2023 - 2024 and beyond. On April 26, 2018, Southwest exercised a further 40 options on the Boeing 737 MAX 8, converting them to firm orders. This establishes the airline as the largest 737 MAX customer with 280 total orders for the MAX 8 variant, and 310 aircraft total for the 737 MAX family.
On March 13, 2018, Southwest Airlines took delivery of the 10,000 th Boeing 737, setting the Guinness World Record for Boeing which started producing the 737 in January 1967. This beat the previous record of 5,000 set back in 2006. This will be flown under tail number N8717M. There are no special markings on it at this time to commemorate it and it will fly under the standard Southwest color scheme.
Southwest 's original primary livery was "Desert Gold '' (Gold, Red and Orange, with pinstripes of white separating each section of color). The word Southwest appeared in white on the gold portion of the tail. On the original three 737 - 200s, from June 1971, on the left side of the aircraft, the word Southwest was placed along the upper rear portion of the fuselage, with the word Airlines painted on the tail N21SW. On the right side, the word Southwest was on the tail, but also had the word Airlines painted on the upper rear portion of the fuselage. N20SW. This was later revised to simply include "Southwest '' on both sides of the tail. The airline 's Boeing 727 - 200s, operated briefly in the late 1970s and early 1980s, featured other variations on the livery; one was painted in a shade of ochre instead of gold with stylized titles on the forward fuselage and an "S '' logo on the tail, while others bore the standard livery (albeit in metallic gold) with the word "Southwest '' moved from the tail to the forward fuselage.
Southwest introduced the canyon blue livery on January 16, 2001, the first primary livery change in Southwest 's then - 30 - year history. Spirit One was the first aircraft painted in the canyon blue fleet color scheme. The second livery replaces the former primary color, "Desert Gold '', with "Canyon Blue '' and changes the Southwest text and pinstripes to gold. The orange and red stripes continued to be used. The pinstripe along the aircraft was drawn in a more curved pattern instead of the straight horizontal line separating the colors in the original. For aircraft equipped with blended winglets, the blended winglets were painted to include the text Southwest.com. Southwest completed repainting its entire fleet with the new "Canyon Blue '' livery in early 2010; however, The Colleen Barrett Classic (N714CB), The Herbert D. Kelleher One (N711HK) and The Metallic Gold One (N792SW, now repainted to Heart livery), which are Boeing 737 -- 700 aircraft, retained a simplified version of the original "Desert Gold '' livery.
A new livery, named "Heart One '' and developed with firms GSD&M, Lippincott, VML, Razorfish, and Camelot Communications, was unveiled on September 8, 2014. The new livery uses a darker shade of blue. The orange stripe on the tail is changed to yellow; both the red and yellow stripes are now enlarged in reverse pattern; and the belly of the aircraft is now in blue and features a heart, which has been a symbol for Southwest during its 43 - year history. Additionally, the pinstripes are changed to a silver - gray; and the Southwest text, now white, has been moved to the front of the fuselage. Lettering is in a font custom designed by Monotype, Southwest Sans. The web address was moved from the winglets to the engines.
Some Southwest aircraft feature special liveries or are named with special decals. Southwest gives these aircraft special names, usually ending in "One. '' All special liveries painted prior to Spirit One originally wore the standard Desert Gold, red and orange colors on the vertical stabilizer and rudder. Subsequent special liveries featured tails painted with the canyon blue livery, with all earlier specials repainted with the Spirit livery tail. Aircraft painted in special liveries have white painted blended winglets with two exceptions: Warrior One, which added the split scimitar winglet in May 2014, and Missouri One. Missouri One was the first special livery to feature a modified version of the Heart tail design, with the red and yellow ribbons shrunk in order to fit the Southwest wordmark as it is too large to be used on the fuselage as on other aircraft. Previous special livery aircraft are currently being repainted with the new tail design.
N955WN (current)
N943WN (current)
N906WN (current)
Heroine of the Heart (N266WN)
N201LV (current)
N931WN (current)
N301SW (previous) N302SW (previous) N448WN (current)
N409WN (current)
N241WN N950WN N798SW
N507SW (Two) N501SW (Three) N713SW (Two) N715SW (Three)
N944WN
Southwest offers free in - flight non-alcoholic beverages and offers alcoholic beverages for sale for $6 - 7 / beverage, with Rapid Rewards members eligible to receive drinks vouchers with their tickets. Free alcoholic drinks are offered on popular holidays such as New Year 's Day, Valentine 's Day and Mardi Gras, provided the passenger is at least 21. Southwest has complimentary peanuts (dropping August 2018) or pretzels on all flights, and most flights have free Nabisco snacks. Southwest is known for colorful boarding announcements and crews that burst out in song, which is quite popular among passengers.
Southwest maintains excellent customer satisfaction ratings; according to the Department of Transportation (DOT) Southwest ranks number one (lowest number of complaints) of all U.S. airlines for customer complaints. Southwest Airlines has consistently received the fewest ratio of complaints per passengers boarded of all major U.S. carriers that have been reporting statistics to the DOT since 1987, which is when the DOT began tracking customer satisfaction statistics and publishing its Air Travel Consumer Report.
Prior to 2007, Southwest boarded passengers by grouping the passengers into three groups, labeled A, B and C. Passengers would line up at their specified letter and board.
In 2007, Southwest modified their boarding procedure by introducing a number. Each passenger receives a letter (A, B or C) and a number 1 through 60. Passengers line up in numerical order within each letter group and choose any open seat on the aircraft as part of Southwest 's open seating policy. According to a 2012 study by Mythbusters, this is the fastest method currently in use for non-first class passengers to board a plane; on average, it is 10 minutes faster than the standard method used by most airlines of boarding from the back frontward.
All Southwest Airlines aircraft are equipped with Wi - Fi, free streaming live television, and movies on demand for a fee. After completing a testing phase that began in February 2009, Southwest announced on August 21, 2009 that it would begin rolling out in - flight Wi - Fi Internet connectivity via Global Eagle Entertainment 's satellite - broadband based product. Southwest began adding Wi - Fi to its aircraft in the first quarter of 2010. The airline began testing streaming live television in the summer of 2012 and video on demand in January 2013. As of 2017, live in - flight video and realtime flight tracking information via Wi - Fi are available for free to all passengers, with full Internet access available at a fee for regular passengers and free to A-List Preferred Rapid Rewards members.
On January 17, 2012, Southwest introduced a plan to retrofit its fleet with a new interior. Improvements include a modern cabin design, lighter and more comfortable seats made of eco-friendly products, increased under - seat space, new netted seatback pockets to provide more knee room, a new fixed - wing headrest and improved ergonomics. All Boeing 737 - 700s and 115 - 800s have the Evolve Interior. Though not originally planned, because of space saved, Southwest was able to fit an extra row of seats on its planes. All Boeing 737 - 800s have the Boeing Sky Interior, which features sculpted sidewalls and redesigned window housings, along with increased headroom and LED mood lighting.
On June 20, 2016, Southwest introduced its newest interior, called the Heart Interior. It includes the widest seat to fit a Boeing 737 that provides additional space for passengers and also includes a new galley. The seat is being delivered on all new 737 - 800s and 737 MAX aircraft. All current evolve equipped 737s will be retrofitted with new bulkheads and bold blue seat cushions to match the look of the heart interior.
Southwest first began to offer a frequent - flyer program on June 20, 1987, calling it The Company Club. Unlike some competitors ' programs that were based on miles flown (but not Northwest Airlines), The Company Club credited for trips flown regardless of distance. Southwest Airlines renamed its frequent flyer program Rapid Rewards on April 25, 1996.
The original Rapid Rewards program offered one credit per one - way flight from an origin to a destination including any stops or connections on Southwest Airlines. When 16 credits were accumulated in a 24 - month period, Southwest awarded one free round - trip ticket that was valid for 12 months.
On March 1, 2011, Rapid Rewards changed to a points system based on ticket cost. Members earn and redeem points based on a three - tier fare scale multiplier and the cost of the ticket. Changes also included no blackout dates, seat restrictions or expiring credits. It also adds more options to use points.
Southwest Vacations is the vacation package provider for Southwest Airlines. Southwest Vacations was founded May 14, 1989, and has since been operated by The Mark Travel Corporation (TMTC). The parent company of TMTC is La Macchia Enterprises, which was founded in 1983. Southwest Vacations ' products primarily focus on flight and hotel vacation packages to destinations within the U.S., Mexico, the Caribbean, and Central America.
Southwest Airlines accidents and incidents include three deaths: one accidental passenger death inflight, one non-passenger death on the ground and one passenger death from injuries he sustained when he was subdued while attempting to break into the cockpit of an aircraft.
Southwest has had eight accidents, including two aircraft hull losses. The airline was considered among the ten safest in the world in 2012.
On June 22, 2011, a March 25 recording of an in - flight transmission of Southwest pilot Captain James Taylor apparently unintentionally broadcasting a conversation with his first officer was released to the press. The conversation was peppered with foul language directed at gay, overweight, and older flight attendants. According to Southwest, the pilot was reprimanded and temporarily suspended without pay and received diversity education before being reinstated. Captain Taylor also sent an e-mail apology to all of Southwest 's employees, especially the crew members who were criticized.
On September 26, 2017, a woman was removed from a Southwest flight after claiming to have a life - threatening allergy to dogs, two of which were present on the aircraft, and having to be removed by law enforcement after failing to follow the instructions of airline staff. Only one of the two dogs present was a service animal though. After learning about the woman 's allergy, Southwest employees requested that she prove her condition with the correct documentation. When she failed to do so, staff asked her to exit the aircraft multiple times. She refused, which prompted law enforcement to step in and remove the passenger. The interactions between the woman and the officers were recorded and posted online to many social media platforms, and gained much attention.
On December 29, 2017, a family was kicked off a flight from Chicago Midway Airport to Santa Ana, California because of an unconfirmed lice accusation. The family did not have lice after all, and was rebooked on the next flight.
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when did english merchants form the east india company | East India company - wikipedia
The East India Company (EIC), also known as the Honourable East India Company (HEIC) or the British East India Company and informally as John Company, was an English and later British joint - stock company, which was formed to pursue trade with the "East Indies '' (in present - day terms, Maritime Southeast Asia), but ended up trading mainly with Qing China and seizing control of the Indian subcontinent.
Originally chartered as the "Governor and Company of Merchants of London trading into the East Indies '', the company rose to account for half of the world 's trade, particularly in basic commodities including cotton, silk, indigo dye, salt, saltpetre, tea, and opium. The company also ruled the beginnings of the British Empire in India.
The company received a Royal Charter from Queen Elizabeth I on 31 December 1600, making it the oldest among several similarly formed European East India Companies. Wealthy merchants and aristocrats owned the company 's shares. Initially the government owned no shares and had only indirect control.
During its first century of operation, the focus of the company was trade, not the building of an empire in India. Company interests turned from trade to territory during the 18th century as the Mughal Empire declined in power and the East India Company struggled with its French counterpart, the French East India Company (Compagnie française des Indes orientales) during the Carnatic Wars of the 1740s and 1750s. The Battle of Plassey and Battle of Buxar, in which the British, led by Robert Clive, defeated the Indian powers, left the company in control of Bengal and a major military and political power in India. In the following decades it gradually increased the extent of the territories under its control, ruling the whole Indian subcontinent either directly or indirectly via local puppet rulers under the threat of force by its Presidency armies, much of which were composed of native Indian sepoys.
By 1803, at the height of its rule in India, the British East India company had a private army of about 260,000 -- twice the size of the British Army. The company eventually came to rule large areas of India with its private armies, exercising military power and assuming administrative functions. Company rule in India effectively began in 1757 and lasted until 1858, when, following the Indian Rebellion of 1857, the Government of India Act 1858 led to the British Crown 's assuming direct control of the Indian subcontinent in the form of the new British Raj.
Despite frequent government intervention, the company had recurring problems with its finances. It was dissolved in 1874 as a result of the East India Stock Dividend Redemption Act passed one year earlier, as the Government of India Act had by then rendered it vestigial, powerless, and obsolete. The official government machinery of British India had assumed its governmental functions and absorbed its armies.
Soon after the defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588, London merchants presented a petition to Queen Elizabeth I for permission to sail to the Indian Ocean. Permission was granted, and on 10 April 1591 three ships sailed from Torbay around the Cape of Good Hope to the Arabian Sea on one of the earliest English overseas Indian expeditions. One of them, Edward Bonaventure, then sailed around Cape Comorin to the Malay Peninsula and returned to England in 1594.
In 1596, three more ships sailed east but were all lost at sea. Three years later, on 22 September 1599, another group of merchants met and stated their intention "to venture in the pretended voyage to the East Indies (the which it may please the Lord to prosper), and the sums that they will adventure '', committing £ 30,133. Two days later, on 24 September, "the Adventurers '' reconvened and resolved to apply to the Queen for support of the project. Although their first attempt had not been completely successful, they nonetheless sought the Queen 's unofficial approval to continue, bought ships for their venture and increased their capital to £ 68,373.
The Adventurers convened again a year later. This time they succeeded, and on 31 December 1600, the Queen granted a Royal Charter to "George, Earl of Cumberland, and 215 Knights, Aldermen, and Burgesses '' under the name, Governor and Company of Merchants of London trading with the East Indies. For a period of fifteen years the charter awarded the newly formed company a monopoly on trade with all countries east of the Cape of Good Hope and west of the Straits of Magellan. Any traders in breach of the charter without a licence from the company were liable to forfeiture of their ships and cargo (half of which went to the Crown and the other half to the company), as well as imprisonment at the "royal pleasure ''.
The governance of the company was in the hands of one governor and 24 directors or "committees '', who made up the Court of Directors. They, in turn, reported to the Court of Proprietors, which appointed them. Ten committees reported to the Court of Directors. According to tradition, business was initially transacted at the Nags Head Inn, opposite St Botolph 's church in Bishopsgate, before moving to India House in Leadenhall Street.
Sir James Lancaster commanded the first East India Company voyage in 1601 and returned in 1603. In March 1604 Sir Henry Middleton commanded the second voyage. General William Keeling, a captain during the second voyage, led the third voyage aboard the Red Dragon from 1607 to 1610 along with the Hector under Captain William Hawkins and the Consent under Captain David Middleton.
Early in 1608 Alexander Sharpeigh was appointed captain of the company 's Ascension, and general or commander of the fourth voyage. Thereafter two ships, Ascension and Union (captained by Richard Rowles) sailed from Woolwich on 14 March 1607 -- 08.
Initially, the company struggled in the spice trade because of the competition from the already well - established Dutch East India Company. The company opened a factory in Bantam on the first voyage, and imports of pepper from Java were an important part of the company 's trade for twenty years. The factory in Bantam was closed in 1683. During this time ships belonging to the company arriving in India docked at Surat, which was established as a trade transit point in 1608.
In the next two years, the company established its first factory in south India in the town of Machilipatnam on the Coromandel Coast of the Bay of Bengal. The high profits reported by the company after landing in India initially prompted King James I to grant subsidiary licences to other trading companies in England. But in 1609 he renewed the charter given to the company for an indefinite period, including a clause that specified that the charter would cease to be in force if the trade turned unprofitable for three consecutive years.
English traders frequently engaged in hostilities with their Dutch and Portuguese counterparts in the Indian Ocean. The company achieved a major victory over the Portuguese in the Battle of Swally in 1612, at Suvali in Surat. The company decided to explore the feasibility of gaining a territorial foothold in mainland India, with official sanction from both Britain and the Mughal Empire, and requested that the Crown launch a diplomatic mission.
In 1612, James I instructed Sir Thomas Roe to visit the Mughal Emperor Nuruddin Salim Jahangir (r. 1605 -- 1627) to arrange for a commercial treaty that would give the company exclusive rights to reside and establish factories in Surat and other areas. In return, the company offered to provide the Emperor with goods and rarities from the European market. This mission was highly successful, and Jahangir sent a letter to James through Sir Thomas Roe:
Upon which assurance of your royal love I have given my general command to all the kingdoms and ports of my dominions to receive all the merchants of the English nation as the subjects of my friend; that in what place soever they choose to live, they may have free liberty without any restraint; and at what port soever they shall arrive, that neither Portugal nor any other shall dare to molest their quiet; and in what city soever they shall have residence, I have commanded all my governors and captains to give them freedom answerable to their own desires; to sell, buy, and to transport into their country at their pleasure. For confirmation of our love and friendship, I desire your Majesty to command your merchants to bring in their ships of all sorts of rarities and rich goods fit for my palace; and that you be pleased to send me your royal letters by every opportunity, that I may rejoice in your health and prosperous affairs; that our friendship may be interchanged and eternal.
The company, which benefited from the imperial patronage, soon expanded its commercial trading operations. It eclipsed the Portuguese Estado da Índia, which had established bases in Goa, Chittagong, and Bombay, which Portugal later ceded to England as part of the dowry of Catherine of Braganza on her marriage to King Charles II. The East India Company also launched a joint attack with the Dutch United East India Company (VOC) on Portuguese and Spanish ships off the coast of China, which helped secure EIC ports in China. The company established trading posts in Surat (1619), Madras (1639), Bombay (1668), and Calcutta (1690). By 1647, the company had 23 factories, each under the command of a factor or master merchant and governor, and 90 employees in India. The major factories became the walled forts of Fort William in Bengal, Fort St George in Madras, and Bombay Castle.
In 1634, the Mughal emperor extended his hospitality to the English traders to the region of Bengal, and in 1717 completely waived customs duties for their trade. The company 's mainstay businesses were by then cotton, silk, indigo dye, saltpetre, and tea. The Dutch were aggressive competitors and had meanwhile expanded their monopoly of the spice trade in the Straits of Malacca by ousting the Portuguese in 1640 -- 41. With reduced Portuguese and Spanish influence in the region, the EIC and VOC entered a period of intense competition, resulting in the Anglo - Dutch Wars of the 17th and 18th centuries.
Competition arose in 1635 when Charles I granted a trading licence to Sir William Courteen, which permitted the rival Courteen association to trade with the east at any location in which the EIC had no presence.
In 1657, Oliver Cromwell renewed the charter of 1609, and brought about minor changes in the holding of the company. The restoration of monarchy in England further enhanced the EIC 's status.
In an act aimed at strengthening the power of the EIC, King Charles II granted the EIC (in a series of five acts around 1670) the rights to autonomous territorial acquisitions, to mint money, to command fortresses and troops and form alliances, to make war and peace, and to exercise both civil and criminal jurisdiction over the acquired areas.
William Hedges was sent in 1682 to Shaista Khan, the Mughal governor of Bengal, to obtain a firman, an imperial directive that would grant England regular trading privileges throughout the Mughal Empire. However, the company 's governor in London, Sir Josiah Child, interfered with Hedges 's mission, causing Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb to break off the negotiations.
In 1689 a Mughal fleet commanded by Sidi Yaqub attacked Bombay. After a year of resistance the EIC surrendered in 1690, and the company sent envoys to Aurangzeb 's camp to plead for a pardon. The company 's envoys had to prostrate themselves before the emperor, pay a large indemnity, and promise better behaviour in the future. The emperor withdrew his troops, and the company subsequently re-established itself in Bombay and set up a new base in Calcutta.
Eventually, the East India Company seized control of Bengal and slowly the whole Indian subcontinent with its private armies, composed primarily of Indian sepoys. As historian William Dalrymple observes,
We still talk about the British conquering India, but that phrase disguises a more sinister reality. It was not the British government that seized India at the end of the 18th century, but a dangerously unregulated private company headquartered in one small office, five windows wide, in London, and managed in India by an unstable sociopath -- (Robert) Clive.
In 1613, during the rule of Tokugawa Hidetada of the Tokugawa shogunate, the British ship Clove, under the command of Captain John Saris, was the first British ship to call on Japan. Saris was the chief factor of the EIC 's trading post in Java, and with the assistance of William Adams, a British sailor who had arrived in Japan in 1600, he was able to gain permission from the ruler to establish a commercial house in Hirado on the Japanese island of Kyushu:
We give free license to the subjects of the King of Great Britaine, Sir Thomas Smythe, Governor and Company of the East Indian Merchants and Adventurers forever safely come into any of our ports of our Empire of Japan with their shippes and merchandise, without any hindrance to them or their goods, and to abide, buy, sell and barter according to their own manner with all nations, to tarry here as long as they think good, and to depart at their pleasure.
However, unable to obtain Japanese raw silk for import to China and with their trading area reduced to Hirado and Nagasaki from 1616 onwards, the company closed its factory in 1623.
In September 1695, Captain Henry Every, an English patna pirate on board the Fancy, reached the Straits of Bab - el - Mandeb, where he teamed up with five other pirate captains to make an attack on the Indian fleet making the annual voyage to Mocha. The Mughal convoy included the treasure - laden Ganj - i - Sawai, reported to be the greatest in the Mughal fleet and the largest ship operational in the Indian Ocean, and its escort, the Fateh Muhammed. They were spotted passing the straits en route to Surat. The pirates gave chase and caught up with Fateh Muhammed some days later, and meeting little resistance, took some £ 50,000 to £ 60,000 worth of treasure.
Every continued in pursuit and managed to overhaul Ganj - i - Sawai, which resisted strongly before eventually striking. Ganj - i - Sawai carried enormous wealth and, according to contemporary East India Company sources, was carrying a relative of the Grand Mughal, though there is no evidence to suggest that it was his daughter and her retinue. The loot from the Ganj - i - Sawai had a total value between £ 325,000 and £ 600,000, including 500,000 gold and silver pieces, and has become known as the richest ship ever taken by pirates.
In a letter sent to the Privy Council by Sir John Gayer, then governor of Bombay and head of the East India Company, Gayer claims that "it is certain the Pirates... did do very barbarously by the People of the Ganj - i - Sawai and Abdul Ghaffar 's ship, to make them confess where their money was. '' The pirates set free the survivors who were left aboard their emptied ships, to continue their voyage back to India.
When the news arrived in England it caused an outcry. In response, a combined bounty of £ 1,000 was offered for Every 's capture by the Privy Council and East India Company, leading to the first worldwide manhunt in recorded history. The plunder of Aurangzeb 's treasure ship had serious consequences for the English East India Company. The furious Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb ordered Sidi Yaqub and Nawab Daud Khan to attack and close four of the company 's factories in India and imprison their officers, who were almost lynched by a mob of angry Mughals, blaming them for their countryman 's depredations, and threatened to put an end to all English trading in India. To appease Emperor Aurangzeb and particularly his Grand Vizier Asad Khan, Parliament exempted Every from all of the Acts of Grace (pardons) and amnesties it would subsequently issue to other pirates.
An 18th - century depiction of Henry Every, with the Fancy shown engaging its prey in the background
British pirates that fought during the Child 's War engaging the Ganj - i - Sawai
Depiction of Captain Every 's encounter with the Mughal Emperor 's granddaughter after his September 1695 capture of the Mughal trader Ganj - i - Sawai
The prosperity that the officers of the company enjoyed allowed them to return to Britain and establish sprawling estates and businesses, and to obtain political power. The company developed a lobby in the English parliament. Under pressure from ambitious tradesmen and former associates of the company (pejoratively termed Interlopers by the company), who wanted to establish private trading firms in India, a deregulating act was passed in 1694.
This allowed any English firm to trade with India, unless specifically prohibited by act of parliament, thereby annulling the charter that had been in force for almost 100 years. By an act that was passed in 1698, a new "parallel '' East India Company (officially titled the English Company Trading to the East Indies) was floated under a state - backed indemnity of £ 2 million. The powerful stockholders of the old company quickly subscribed a sum of £ 315,000 in the new concern, and dominated the new body. The two companies wrestled with each other for some time, both in England and in India, for a dominant share of the trade.
It quickly became evident that, in practice, the original company faced scarcely any measurable competition. The companies merged in 1708, by a tripartite indenture involving both companies and the state. Under this arrangement, the merged company lent to the Treasury a sum of £ 3,200,000, in return for exclusive privileges for the next three years, after which the situation was to be reviewed. The amalgamated company became the United Company of Merchants of England Trading to the East Indies.
In the following decades there was a constant battle between the company lobby and the Parliament. The company sought a permanent establishment, while the Parliament would not willingly allow it greater autonomy and so relinquish the opportunity to exploit the company 's profits. In 1712, another act renewed the status of the company, though the debts were repaid. By 1720, 15 % of British imports were from India, almost all passing through the company, which reasserted the influence of the company lobby. The licence was prolonged until 1766 by yet another act in 1730.
At this time, Britain and France became bitter rivals. Frequent skirmishes between them took place for control of colonial possessions. In 1742, fearing the monetary consequences of a war, the British government agreed to extend the deadline for the licensed exclusive trade by the company in India until 1783, in return for a further loan of £ 1 million. Between 1756 and 1763, the Seven Years ' War diverted the state 's attention towards consolidation and defence of its territorial possessions in Europe and its colonies in North America.
The war took place on Indian soil, between the company troops and the French forces. In 1757, the Law Officers of the Crown delivered the Pratt - Yorke opinion distinguishing overseas territories acquired by right of conquest from those acquired by private treaty. The opinion asserted that, while the Crown of Great Britain enjoyed sovereignty over both, only the property of the former was vested in the Crown.
With the advent of the Industrial Revolution, Britain surged ahead of its European rivals. Demand for Indian commodities was boosted by the need to sustain the troops and the economy during the war, and by the increased availability of raw materials and efficient methods of production. As home to the revolution, Britain experienced higher standards of living. Its spiralling cycle of prosperity, demand and production had a profound influence on overseas trade. The company became the single largest player in the British global market. William Henry Pyne notes in his book The Microcosm of London (1808) that:
On the 1 March 1801, the debts of the East India Company to £ 5,393,989 their effects to £ 15,404,736 and their sales increased since February 1793, from £ 4,988,300 to £ 7,602,041.
Sir John Banks, a businessman from Kent who negotiated an agreement between the king and the company, began his career in a syndicate arranging contracts for victualling the navy, an interest he kept up for most of his life. He knew that Samuel Pepys and John Evelyn had amassed a substantial fortune from the Levant and Indian trades.
He became a Director and later, as Governor of the East India Company in 1672, he arranged a contract which included a loan of £ 20,000 and £ 30,000 worth of saltpetre -- also known as potassium nitrate, a primary ingredient in gunpowder -- for the King "at the price it shall sell by the candle '' -- that is by auction -- where bidding could continue as long as an inch - long candle remained alight.
Outstanding debts were also agreed and the company permitted to export 250 tons of saltpetre. Again in 1673, Banks successfully negotiated another contract for 700 tons of saltpetre at £ 37,000 between the king and the company. So urgent was the need to supply the armed forces in the United Kingdom, America and elsewhere that the authorities sometimes turned a blind eye on the untaxed sales. One governor of the company was even reported as saying in 1864 that he would rather have the saltpetre made than the tax on salt.
The Seven Years ' War (1756 -- 63) resulted in the defeat of the French forces, limited French imperial ambitions, and stunted the influence of the Industrial Revolution in French territories. Robert Clive, the Governor General, led the company to a victory against Joseph François Dupleix, the commander of the French forces in India, and recaptured Fort St George from the French. The company took this respite to seize Manila in 1762.
By the Treaty of Paris, France regained the five establishments captured by the British during the war (Pondichéry, Mahe, Karikal, Yanam and Chandernagar) but was prevented from erecting fortifications and keeping troops in Bengal (art. XI). Elsewhere in India, the French were to remain a military threat, particularly during the War of American Independence, and up to the capture of Pondichéry in 1793 at the outset of the French Revolutionary Wars without any military presence. Although these small outposts remained French possessions for the next two hundred years, French ambitions on Indian territories were effectively laid to rest, thus eliminating a major source of economic competition for the company.
In its first century and half, the EIC used a few hundred soldiers as guards. The great expansion came after 1750, when it had 3,000 regular troops. By 1763, it had 26,000; by 1778, it had 67,000. It recruited largely Indian troops, and trained them along European lines. The military arm of the East India Company quickly developed to become a private corporate armed force, and was used as an instrument of geo - political power and expansion, rather than its original purpose as a guard force, and became the most powerful military force in the Indian sub-continent. As it increased in size the army was broken into the Presidency Armies of Bengal, Madras and Bombay each recruiting their own integral infantry, cavalry, artillery and horse artillery units. The navy also grew significantly, vastly expanding its fleet and although made up predominantly of heavily armed merchant vessels, called East Indiamen, it also included warships.
The company, fresh from a colossal victory, and with the backing of its own private well - disciplined and experienced army, was able to assert its interests in the Carnatic region from its base at Madras and in Bengal from Calcutta, without facing any further obstacles from other colonial powers.
It continued to experience resistance from local rulers during its expansion. Robert Clive led company forces against Siraj Ud Daulah, the last independent Nawab of Bengal, Bihar, and Midnapore district in Odisha to victory at the Battle of Plassey in 1757, resulting in the conquest of Bengal. This victory estranged the British and the Mughals, since Siraj Ud Daulah was a Mughal feudatory ally.
With the gradual weakening of the Marathas in the aftermath of the three Anglo - Maratha wars, the British also secured the Ganges - Jumna Doab, the Delhi - Agra region, parts of Bundelkhand, Broach, some districts of Gujarat, the fort of Ahmmadnagar, province of Cuttack (which included Mughalbandi / the coastal part of Odisha, Garjat / the princely states of Odisha, Balasore Port, parts of Midnapore district of West Bengal), Bombay (Mumbai) and the surrounding areas, leading to a formal end of the Maratha empire and firm establishment of the British East India Company in India.
Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan, the rulers of the Kingdom of Mysore, offered much resistance to the British forces. Having sided with the French during the Revolutionary War, the rulers of Mysore continued their struggle against the company with the four Anglo - Mysore Wars. Mysore finally fell to the company forces in 1799, in the fourth Anglo - Mysore war during which Tipu Sultan was killed.
The last vestiges of local administration were restricted to the northern regions of Delhi, Oudh, Rajputana, and Punjab, where the company 's presence was ever increasing amidst infighting and offers of protection among the remaining princes. The hundred years from the Battle of Plassey in 1757 to the Indian Rebellion of 1857 were a period of consolidation for the company, during which it seized control of the entire Indian subcontinent and functioned more as an administrator and less as a trading concern.
A cholera pandemic began in Bengal, then spread across India by 1820. 10,000 British troops and countless Indians died during this pandemic. Between 1760 and 1834 only some 10 % of the East India Company 's officers survived to take the final voyage home.
In the early 19th century the Indian question of geopolitical dominance and empire holding remained with the East India Company. The three independent armies of the company 's Presidencies, with some locally raised irregular forces, expanded to a total of 280,000 men by 1857. First recruited from mercenaries and low - caste volunteers, the Bengal Army especially eventually became composed largely of high - caste Hindus and landowning Muslims.
Within the Army, British officers who initially trained at the company 's own academy at the Addiscombe Military Seminary, always outranked Indians, no matter how long their service. The highest rank to which an Indian soldier could aspire was Subadar - Major (or Rissaldar - Major in cavalry units), effectively a senior subaltern equivalent. Promotion for both British and Indian soldiers was strictly by seniority, so Indian soldiers rarely reached the commissioned ranks of Jamadar or Subadar before they were middle aged at best. They received no training in administration or leadership to make them independent of their British officers.
During the wars against the French and their allies in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, the East India Company 's armies were used to seize the colonial possessions of other European nations, including the islands of Réunion and Mauritius.
There was a systemic disrespect in the company for the spreading of Protestantism although it fostered respect for Hindu and Muslim, castes and ethnic groups. The growth of tensions between the EIC and the local religious and cultural groups grew in the 19th century as the Protestant revival grew in Great Britain. These tensions erupted at the Indian Rebellion of 1857 and the company ceased to exist when the company dissolved through the East India Stock Dividend Redemption Act 1873.
In the 18th century, Britain had a huge trade deficit with Qing dynasty China and so, in 1773, the company created a British monopoly on opium buying in Bengal, India by prohibiting the licensing of opium farmers and private cultivation. The monopoly system established in 1799 continued with minimal changes until 1947. As the opium trade was illegal in China, Company ships could not carry opium to China. So the opium produced in Bengal was sold in Calcutta on condition that it be sent to China.
Despite the Chinese ban on opium imports, reaffirmed in 1799 by the Jiaqing Emperor, the drug was smuggled into China from Bengal by traffickers and agency houses such as Jardine, Matheson & Co and Dent & Co. in amounts averaging 900 tons a year. The proceeds of the drug - smugglers landing their cargoes at Lintin Island were paid into the company 's factory at Canton and by 1825, most of the money needed to buy tea in China was raised by the illegal opium trade.
The company established a group of trading settlements centred on the Straits of Malacca called the Straits Settlements in 1826 to protect its trade route to China and to combat local piracy. The settlements were also used as penal settlements for Indian civilian and military prisoners.
In 1838 with the amount of smuggled opium entering China approaching 1,400 tons a year, the Chinese imposed a death penalty for opium smuggling and sent a Special Imperial Commissioner, Lin Zexu, to curb smuggling. This resulted in the First Opium War (1839 -- 42). After the war Hong Kong island was ceded to Britain under the Treaty of Nanking and the Chinese market opened to the opium traders of Britain and other nations. The Jardines and Apcar and Company dominated the trade, although P&O also tried to take a share. A Second Opium War fought by Britain and France against China lasted from 1856 until 1860 and led to the Treaty of Tientsin, which legalised the importation of opium. Legalisation stimulated domestic Chinese opium production and increased the importation of opium from Turkey and Persia. This increased competition for the Chinese market led to India 's reducing its opium output and diversifying its exports.
The company employed many junior clerks, known as "writers '', to record the details of accounting, managerial decisions, and activities related to the company, such as minutes of meetings, copies of Company orders and contracts, and filings of reports and copies of ship 's logs. Several well - known British scholars and literary men had Company writerships, such as Henry Thomas Colebrooke in India and Charles Lamb in England.
Though the company was becoming increasingly bold and ambitious in putting down resisting states, it was becoming clearer that the company was incapable of governing the vast expanse of the captured territories. The Bengal famine of 1770, in which one - third of the local population died, caused distress in Britain. Military and administrative costs mounted beyond control in British - administered regions in Bengal because of the ensuing drop in labour productivity.
At the same time, there was commercial stagnation and trade depression throughout Europe. The directors of the company attempted to avert bankruptcy by appealing to Parliament for financial help. This led to the passing of the Tea Act in 1773, which gave the company greater autonomy in running its trade in the American colonies, and allowed it an exemption from tea import duties which its colonial competitors were required to pay.
When the American colonists and tea merchants were told of this Act, they boycotted the company tea. Although the price of tea had dropped because of the Act, it also validated the Townshend Acts, setting the precedent for the king to impose additional taxes in the future. The arrival of tax - exempt Company tea, undercutting the local merchants, triggered the Boston Tea Party in the Province of Massachusetts Bay, one of the major events leading up to the American Revolution.
By the Regulating Act of 1773 (later known as the East India Company Act 1773), the Parliament of Great Britain imposed a series of administrative and economic reforms; this clearly established Parliament 's sovereignty and ultimate control over the company. The Act recognised the company 's political functions and clearly established that the "acquisition of sovereignty by the subjects of the Crown is on behalf of the Crown and not in its own right ''.
Despite stiff resistance from the East India lobby in parliament and from the company 's shareholders, the Act passed. It introduced substantial governmental control and allowed British India to be formally under the control of the Crown, but leased back to the company at £ 40,000 for two years. Under the Act 's most important provision, a governing Council composed of five members was created in Calcutta. The three members nominated by Parliament and representing the Government 's interest could, and invariably would, outvote the two Company members. The Council was headed by Warren Hastings, the incumbent Governor, who became the first Governor - General of Bengal, with an ill - defined authority over the Bombay and Madras Presidencies. His nomination, made by the Court of Directors, would in future be subject to the approval of a Council of Four appointed by the Crown. Initially, the Council consisted of Lt. General Sir John Clavering, The Honourable Sir George Monson, Sir Richard Barwell, and Sir Philip Francis.
Hastings was entrusted with the power of peace and war. British judges and magistrates would also be sent to India to administer the legal system. The Governor General and the council would have complete legislative powers. The company was allowed to maintain its virtual monopoly over trade in exchange for the biennial sum and was obligated to export a minimum quantity of goods yearly to Britain. The costs of administration were to be met by the company. The company initially welcomed these provisions, but the annual burden of the payment contributed to the steady decline of its finances.
The East India Company Act 1784 (Pitt 's India Act) had two key aspects:
Pitt 's Act was deemed a failure because it quickly became apparent that the boundaries between government control and the company 's powers were nebulous and highly subjective. The government felt obliged to respond to humanitarian calls for better treatment of local peoples in British - occupied territories. Edmund Burke, a former East India Company shareholder and diplomat, was moved to address the situation and introduced a new Regulating Bill in 1783. The bill was defeated amid lobbying by company loyalists and accusations of nepotism in the bill 's recommendations for the appointment of councillors.
The Act of 1786 (26 Geo. 3 c. 16) enacted the demand of Earl Cornwallis that the powers of the Governor - General be enlarged to empower him, in special cases, to override the majority of his Council and act on his own special responsibility. The Act enabled the offices of the Governor - General and the Commander - in - Chief to be jointly held by the same official.
This Act clearly demarcated borders between the Crown and the company. After this point, the company functioned as a regularised subsidiary of the Crown, with greater accountability for its actions and reached a stable stage of expansion and consolidation. Having temporarily achieved a state of truce with the Crown, the company continued to expand its influence to nearby territories through threats and coercive actions. By the middle of the 19th century, the company 's rule extended across most of India, Burma, Malaya, Singapore, and British Hong Kong, and a fifth of the world 's population was under its trading influence. In addition, Penang, one of the states in Malaya, became the fourth most important settlement, a presidency, of the company 's Indian territories.
The company 's charter was renewed for a further 20 years by the Charter Act of 1793. In contrast with the legislative proposals of the previous two decades, the 1793 Act was not a particularly controversial measure, and made only minimal changes to the system of government in India and to British oversight of the company 's activities.
The aggressive policies of Lord Wellesley and the Marquess of Hastings led to the company 's gaining control of all India (except for the Punjab and Sindh), and some part of the then kingdom of Nepal under the Sugauli Treaty. The Indian Princes had become vassals of the company. But the expense of wars leading to the total control of India strained the company 's finances. The company was forced to petition Parliament for assistance. This was the background to the Charter Act of 1813 which, among other things:
The Industrial Revolution in Britain, the consequent search for markets, and the rise of laissez - faire economic ideology form the background to the Government of India Act 1833 (3 & 4 Will. 4 c. 85). The Act:
British influence continued to expand; in 1845, Great Britain purchased the Danish colony of Tranquebar. The company had at various stages extended its influence to China, the Philippines, and Java. It had solved its critical lack of cash needed to buy tea by exporting Indian - grown opium to China. China 's efforts to end the trade led to the First Opium War (1839 -- 1842).
The English Education Act by the Council of India in 1835 reallocated funds from the East India Company to spend on education and literature in India.
This Act (16 & 17 Vict. c. 95) provided that British India would remain under the administration of the company in trust for the Crown until Parliament should decide otherwise. It also introduced a system of open competition as the basis of recruitment for civil servants of the company and thus deprived the Directors of their patronage system.
Under the act, for the first time the legislative and executive powers of the governor general 's council were separated. It also added six additional members to the governor general 's executive committee.
The Indian Rebellion of 1857 (also known as the Indian Mutiny) resulted in widespread devastation in India: many condemned the East India Company for permitting the events to occur. In the aftermath of the Rebellion, under the provisions of the Government of India Act 1858, the British Government nationalised the company. The Crown took over its Indian possessions, its administrative powers and machinery, and its armed forces.
The company remained in existence in vestigial form, continuing to manage the tea trade on behalf of the British Government (and the supply of Saint Helena) until the East India Stock Dividend Redemption Act 1873 came into effect, on 1 January 1874. This Act provided for the formal dissolution of the company on 1 June 1874, after a final dividend payment and the commutation or redemption of its stock. The Times commented on 8 April 1873:
It accomplished a work such as in the whole history of the human race no other trading Company ever attempted, and such as none, surely, is likely to attempt in the years to come.
The company 's headquarters in London, from which much of India was governed, was East India House in Leadenhall Street. After occupying premises in Philpot Lane from 1600 to 1621; in Crosby House, Bishopsgate, from 1621 to 1638; and in Leadenhall Street from 1638 to 1648, the company moved into Craven House, an Elizabethan mansion in Leadenhall Street. The building had become known as East India House by 1661. It was completely rebuilt and enlarged in 1726 -- 9; and further significantly remodelled and expanded in 1796 -- 1800. It was finally vacated in 1860 and demolished in 1861 -- 62. The site is now occupied by the Lloyd 's building.
In 1607, the company decided to build its own ships and leased a yard on the River Thames at Deptford. By 1614, the yard having become too small, an alternative site was acquired at Blackwall: the new yard was fully operational by 1617. It was sold in 1656, although for some years East India Company ships continued to be built and repaired there under the new owners.
In 1803, an Act of Parliament, promoted by the East India Company, established the East India Dock Company, with the aim of establishing a new set of docks (the East India Docks) primarily for the use of ships trading with India. The existing Brunswick Dock, part of the Blackwall Yard site, became the Export Dock; while a new Import Dock was built to the north. In 1838 the East India Dock Company merged with the West India Dock Company. The docks were taken over by the Port of London Authority in 1909, and closed in 1967.
The East India College was founded in 1806 as a training establishment for "writers '' (i.e. clerks) in the company 's service. It was initially located in Hertford Castle, but moved in 1809 to purpose - built premises at Hertford Heath, Hertfordshire. In 1858 the college closed; but in 1862 the buildings reopened as a public school, now Haileybury and Imperial Service College.
The East India Company Military Seminary was founded in 1809 at Addiscombe, near Croydon, Surrey, to train young officers for service in the company 's armies in India. It was based in Addiscombe Place, an early 18th - century mansion. The government took it over in 1858, and renamed it the Royal Indian Military College. In 1861 it was closed, and the site was subsequently redeveloped.
In 1818, the company entered into an agreement by which those of its servants who were certified insane in India might be cared for at Pembroke House, Hackney, London, a private lunatic asylum run by Dr George Rees until 1838, and thereafter by Dr William Williams. The arrangement outlasted the company itself, continuing until 1870, when the India Office opened its own asylum, the Royal India Asylum, at Hanwell, Middlesex.
The East India Club in London was formed in 1849 for officers of the company. The Club still exists today as a private gentlemen 's club with its club house situated at 16 St. James 's Square, London.
The East India Company had a long lasting impact on the Indian Subcontinent, with both positive and harmful effects. Although dissolved following the rebellion of 1857, it stimulated the growth of the British Empire. Its armies were to become the armies of British India after 1857, and it played a key role in introducing English as an official language in India.
The East India Company was the first company to record the Chinese usage of orange - flavoured tea, which led to the development of Earl Grey tea.
The East India Company introduced a system of merit - based appointments that provided a model for the British and Indian civil service.
Widespread corruption and looting of Bengal resources and treasures during its rule resulted in poverty. Famines, such as the Great Bengal famine of 1770 and subsequent famines during the 18th and 19th centuries, became more widespread, chiefly because of exploitative agriculture promulgated by the policies of the East India company and the forced cultivation of opium in place of grain.
Downman (1685)
Lens (1700)
National Geographic (1917)
Rees (1820)
Laurie (1842)
1600 -- 1707
1707 -- 1801
1801 -- 1874
The English East India Company flag changed with history, with a canton based on the current flag of the Kingdom, and a field of 9 to 13 alternating red and white stripes.
From the period of 1600, the canton consisted of a St George 's Cross representing the Kingdom of England. With the Acts of Union 1707, the canton was updated to be the new Union Flag -- consisting of an English St George 's Cross combined with a Scottish St Andrew 's cross -- representing the Kingdom of Great Britain. After the Acts of Union 1800 that joined Ireland with Great Britain to form the United Kingdom, the canton of the East India Company flag was altered accordingly to include a Saint Patrick 's Saltire replicating the updated Union Flag representing the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.
Regarding the field of the flag, there has been much debate and discussion regarding the number and order of the stripes. Historical documents and paintings show many variations from 9 to 13 stripes, with some images showing the top stripe 's being red and others showing the top stripe being white.
At the time of the American Revolution the East India Company flag was nearly identical to the Grand Union Flag. Historian Charles Fawcett argued that the East India Company Flag inspired the Stars and Stripes.
The East India Company 's original coat of arms was granted in 1600. The arms was as follows:
"Azure, three ships with three masts, rigged and under full sail, the sails, pennants and ensigns Argent, each charged with a cross Gules; on a chief of the second a pale quarterly Azure and Gules, on the 1st and 4th a fleur - de-lis or, on the 2nd and 3rd a leopard or, between two roses Gules seeded Or barbed Vert. '' The shield had as a crest: "A sphere without a frame, bounded with the Zodiac in bend Or, between two pennants flottant Argent, each charged with a cross Gules, over the sphere the words DEUS INDICAT '' (Latin: God Indicates). The supporters were two sea lions (lions with fishes ' tails) and the motto was DEO DUCENTE NIL NOCET (Latin: Where God Leads, Nothing Harms).
The East India Company 's arms, granted in 1698, were: "Argent a cross Gules; in the dexter chief quarter an escutcheon of the arms of France and England quarterly, the shield ornamentally and regally crowned Or. '' The crest was: "A lion rampant guardant Or holding between the forepaws a regal crown proper. '' The supporters were: "Two lions rampant guardant Or, each supporting a banner erect Argent, charged with a cross Gules. '' The motto was AUSPICIO REGIS ET SENATUS ANGLIÆ (Latin: Under the auspices of the King and the Senate of England).
HEIC Merchant 's mark on East India Company Coin: 1791 Half Pice
HEIC Merchant 's mark on a Blue Scinde Dawk postage stamp (1852)
When the East India Company was chartered in 1600, it was still customary for individual merchants or members of Companies such as the Company of Merchant Adventurers to have a distinguishing merchant 's mark which often included the mystical "Sign of Four '' and served as a trademark. The East India Company 's merchant mark consisted of a "Sign of Four '' atop a heart within which was a saltire between the lower arms of which were the initials "EIC ''. This mark was a central motif of the East India Company 's coinage and forms the central emblem displayed on the Scinde Dawk postage stamps.
Ships of the East India Company were called East Indiamen or simply "Indiamen ''.
During the period of the Napoleonic Wars, the East India Company arranged for letters of marque for its vessels such as the Lord Nelson. This was not so that they could carry cannon to fend off warships, privateers and pirates on their voyages to India and China (that they could do without permission) but so that, should they have the opportunity to take a prize, they could do so without being guilty of piracy. Similarly, the Earl of Mornington, an East India Company packet ship of only six guns, also sailed under a letter of marque.
In addition, the company had its own navy, the Bombay Marine, equipped with warships such as Grappler. These vessels often accompanied vessels of the Royal Navy on expeditions, such as the Invasion of Java.
At the Battle of Pulo Aura, which was probably the company 's most notable naval victory, Nathaniel Dance, Commodore of a convoy of Indiamen and sailing aboard the Warley, led several Indiamen in a skirmish with a French squadron, driving them off. Some six years earlier, on 28 January 1797, five Indiamen, the Woodford, under Captain Charles Lennox, the Taunton - Castle, Captain Edward Studd, Canton, Captain Abel Vyvyan, Boddam, Captain George Palmer, and Ocean, Captain John Christian Lochner, had encountered Admiral de Sercey and his squadron of frigates. On this occasion the Indiamen also succeeded in bluffing their way to safety, and without any shots even being fired. Lastly, on 15 June 1795, the General Goddard played a large role in the capture of seven Dutch East Indiamen off St Helena.
East India Company (EIC) 's ships were well built, with the result that the Royal Navy bought several Company ships to convert to warships and transports. The Earl of Mornington became HMS Drake. Other examples include:
Unlike all other British Government records, the records from the East India Company (and its successor the India Office) are not in The National Archives at Kew, London, but are held by the British Library in London as part of the Asia, Pacific and Africa Collections. The catalogue is searchable online in the Access to Archives catalogues. Many of the East India Company records are freely available online under an agreement that the Families in British India Society has with the British Library. Published catalogues exist of East India Company ships ' journals and logs, 1600 -- 1834; and of some of the company 's daughter institutions, including the East India Company College, Haileybury, and Addiscombe Military Seminary.
East India Company:
General:
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when is will killed in the good wife | Will Gardner - wikipedia
Will Gardner is a character of CBS television series The Good Wife and was portrayed by Josh Charles for the first five seasons of the show 's run. For his performance, Charles received two Primetime Emmy Award nominations as well as a Golden Globe nomination.
An old friend of Alicia 's, in the pilot he helped her get a job with the firm and is constantly trying to avoid appearing as if he favors her. This is complicated by the fact that the two have feelings for each other. Will and Alicia have an affair beginning at the end of season two. In season three they break up when Alicia 's daughter goes missing, and Alicia decides she needs to focus more on her children. He is seen as very much of a ladies ' man throughout the series and had various love affairs and girlfriends. Will generally had a good working relationship with Diane Lockhart, his co-managing partner at the firm, and the two demonstrate a shrewd ability to guide their business, even through difficult times. Will plays in a regular pick - up basketball game with other attorneys and judges, and has friendships with the players that are eventually scrutinized. During season three, Will is suspended from practicing law for six months as punishment stemming from an old bribery scandal but returns to the firm in season four. In season five after much planning, Alicia and Cary leave Lockhart & Gardner to start their own firm; Will takes this betrayal personally. In episode 15 of the fifth season, he is shot and killed in the courtroom by his client Jeffrey Grant (played by Hunter Parrish).
Following his death, he appeared in dream sequences in episodes "Minds Eye '' and the series finale, "End ''.
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where did the 7 days of the week come from | Week - wikipedia
A week is a time unit equal to seven days. It is the standard time period used for cycles of rest days in most parts of the world, mostly alongside -- although not strictly part of -- the Gregorian calendar.
The days of the week were named after the classical planets (derived from the astrological system of planetary hours) in the Roman era. In English, the names are Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday, Saturday and Sunday.
ISO 8601 includes the ISO week date system, a numbering system for weeks within a given year -- each week begins on a Monday and is associated with the year that contains that week 's Thursday (so that if a year starts in a long weekend Friday -- Sunday, week number one of the year will start after that). ISO 8601 assigns numbers to the days of the week, running from 1 to 7 for Monday through to Sunday.
The term "week '' is sometimes expanded to refer to other time units comprising a few days, such as the nundinal cycle of the ancient Roman calendar or the "work week '' or "school week '' referring only to the days spent on those activities.
The English word week comes from the Old English wice, ultimately from a Common Germanic * wikōn -, from a root * wik - "turn, move, change ''. The Germanic word probably had a wider meaning prior to the adoption of the Roman calendar, perhaps "succession series '', as suggested by Gothic wikō translating taxis "order '' in Luke 1: 8.
The seven - day week is named in many languages by a word derived from "seven ''. The archaism sennight ("seven - night '') preserves the old Germanic practice of reckoning time by nights, as in the more common fortnight. Hebdomad and hebdomadal week both derive from the Greek hebdomás (ἑβδομάς, "a seven ''). The obsolete septimane is cognate with the Romance terms derived from Latin septimana ("a seven '').
Slavic has a formation * tъ (žь) dьnь (Serbo - Croatian тједан, Ukrainian тиждень, Czech týden, Polish tydzień), from * tъ "this '' + * dьnь "day '', in some cases alongside nedělja (OCS нєдѣлꙗ), a loan - translation of Latin feria and sedmitsa (седмица), as ἑβδομάς derived from "seven ''. Chinese has 星期, as it were "planetary time unit ''.
A week is defined as an interval of exactly seven days, so that technically, except at daylight saving time transitions or leap seconds,
With respect to the Gregorian calendar:
In a Gregorian mean year, there are 365.2425 days, and thus exactly 52 ⁄ or 52.1775 weeks (unlike the Julian year of 365.25 days or 52 ⁄ ≈ 52.1786 weeks, which can not be represented by a finite decimal expansion). There are exactly 20,871 weeks in 400 Gregorian years, so 3 October 1617 was a Tuesday just like 3 October 2017.
Relative to the path of the Moon, a week is 23.659 % of an average lunation, or 94.637 % of an average quarter lunation.
Historically, the system of Dominical letters (letters A to G identifying the weekday of the first day of a given year) has been used to facilitate calculation of the day of week. The day of the week can be easily calculated given a date 's Julian day number (JD, i.e. the integer value at noon UT): Adding one to the remainder after dividing the Julian day number by seven (JD modulo 7 + 1) yields that date 's ISO 8601 day of the week (for example, the Julian day number of 3 October 2017 is 2458030. Calculating (2458030 mod 7 + 1) yields 2, corresponding to Tuesday.).
The days of the week were originally named for the classical planets. This naming system persisted alongside an "ecclesiastical '' tradition of numbering the days, in ecclesiastical Latin beginning with dominica (the Day of the Lord) as the first day. The Greco - Roman gods associated with the classical planets were rendered in their interpretatio germanica at some point during the late Roman Empire, yielding the Germanic tradition of names based on indigenous deities.
The ordering of the weekday names is not the classical order of the planets (by distance in the planetary spheres model, or, equivalently, by their apparent speed of movement in the night sky). Instead, the planetary hours systems resulted in succeeding days being named for planets that are three places apart in their traditional listing. This characteristic was apparently discussed in Plutarch in a treatise written in c. AD 100, which is reported to have addressed the question of Why are the days named after the planets reckoned in a different order from the actual order? (the text of Plutarch 's treatise has been lost).
An ecclesiastical, non-astrological, system of numbering the days of the week was adopted in Late Antiquity. This model also seems to have influenced (presumably via Gothic) the designation of Wednesday as "mid-week '' in Old High German (mittawehha) and Old Church Slavonic (срѣда). Old Church Slavonic may have also modeled the name of Monday, понєдѣльникъ, after the Latin feria secunda. The ecclesiastical system became prevalent in Eastern Christianity, but in the Latin West it remains extant only in modern Icelandic, Galician and Portuguese.
A continuous seven - day cycle that runs throughout history paying no attention whatsoever to the phases of the moon was probably first practiced in Judaism, dated to the 6th century BC at the latest.
There are several hypotheses concerning the origin of the biblical seven - day cycle.
Friedrich Delitzsch and others suggested that the seven - day week being approximately a quarter of a lunation is the implicit astronomical origin of the seven - day week, and indeed the Babylonian calendar used intercalary days to synchronize the last week of a month with the new moon. According to this theory, the Jewish week was adopted from the Babylonians while removing the moon - dependency.
However, Niels - Erik Andreasen, Jeffrey H. Tigay and others claimed that the sabbath is mentioned as a day of rest in some of the earliest layers of the Pentateuch dated to the 9th century BC at the latest, centuries before Judea 's Babylonian exile. They also find the resemblance between the biblical Sabbath and the Babylonian system weak. Therefore they suggested that the seven - day week may reflect an independent Israelite tradition. Tigay writes:
It is clear that among neighboring nations that were in position to have an influence over Israel - and in fact which did influence it in various matters - there is no precise parallel to the Israelite Sabbatical week. This leads to the conclusion that the Sabbatical week, which is as unique to Israel as the Sabbath from which it flows, is an independent Israelite creation.
The seven - day week seems to have been adopted, at different stages, by the Persian Empire, in Hellenistic astrology, and (via Greek transmission) in Gupta India and Tang China.
The Babylonian system was received by the Greeks in the 4th century BC (notably via Eudoxus of Cnidus). However the designation of the seven days of the week to the seven planets is an innovation introduced in the time of Augustus. The astrological concept of planetary hours is rather an original innovation of Hellenistic astrology, probably first conceived in the 2nd century BC.
The seven day week was widely known throughout the Roman Empire by the 1st century AD, along with references to the Jewish Sabbath by Roman scholars such as Seneca and Ovid. The seven day cycle ultimately replaced the older Roman system of the nundinal cycle, probably during the 4th century.
The earliest evidence of an astrological significance of a seven - day period is connected to Gudea, priest - king of Lagash in Sumer during the Gutian dynasty, who built a seven - room temple, which he dedicated with a seven - day festival. In the flood story of the Assyro - Babylonian epic of Gilgamesh the storm lasts for seven days, the dove is sent out after seven days, and the Noah - like character of Utnapishtim leaves the ark seven days after it reaches firm ground.
It seems likely that the Hebrew seven - day week is based on the Babylonian tradition, although going through certain adaptations. George Aaron Barton speculated that the seven - day creation account of Genesis is connected to the Babylonian creation epic, Enûma Eliš, which is recorded on seven tablets.
Counting from the new moon, the Babylonians celebrated the 7th, 14th, 21st and 28th as "holy - days '', also called "evil days '' (meaning "unsuitable '' for prohibited activities). On these days, officials were prohibited from various activities and common men were forbidden to "make a wish '', and at least the 28th was known as a "rest - day ''. On each of them, offerings were made to a different god and goddess.
In a frequently - quoted suggestion going back to the early 20th century the Hebrew Sabbath is compared to the Sumerian sa - bat "mid-rest '', a term for the full moon. The Sumerian term has been reconstructed as rendered Sapattu or Sabattu in Babylonian, possibly present in the lost fifth tablet of the Enûma Eliš, tentatively reconstructed "(Sa) bbath shalt thou then encounter, mid (month) ly ''.
The Zoroastrian calendar follows the Babylonian in relating the seventh and other days of the month to Ahura Mazda. The forerunner of all modern Zoroastrian calendars is the system used to reckon dates in the Persian Empire, adopted from the Babylonian calendar by the 4th century BC.
Frank C. Senn in his book Christian Liturgy: Catholic and Evangelical points to data suggesting evidence of an early continuous use of a seven - day week; referring to the Jews during the Babylonian Captivity in the 6th century BC, after the destruction of the Temple of Solomon. While the seven - day week in Judaism is tied to Creation account in the Book of Genesis in the Hebrew Bible (where God creates the heavens and the earth in six days and rests on the seventh; Genesis 1: 1 -- 2: 3, in the Book of Exodus, the fourth of the Ten Commandments is to rest on the seventh day, Shabbat, which can be seen as implying a socially instituted seven - day week), it is not clear whether the Genesis narrative predates the Babylonian Captivity of the Jews in the 6th century BC. At least since the Second Temple period under Persian rule, Judaism relied on the seven - day cycle of recurring Sabbaths
Tablets from the Achaemenid period indicate that the lunation of 29 or 30 days basically contained three seven - day weeks, and a final week of eight or nine days inclusive, breaking the continuous seven - day cycle. The Babylonians additionally celebrated the 19th as a special "evil day '', the "day of anger '', because it was roughly the 49th day of the (preceding) month, completing a "week of weeks '', also with sacrifices and prohibitions.
Difficulties with Friedrich Delitzsch 's origin theory connecting Hebrew Shabbat with the Babylonian lunar cycle include reconciling the differences between an unbroken week and a lunar week, and explaining the absence of texts naming the lunar week as Shabbat in any language.
In Jewish sources by the time of the Septuagint, the term "Sabbath '' (Greek Sabbaton) by synecdoche also came to refer to an entire seven - day week, the interval between two weekly Sabbaths. Jesus 's parable of the Pharisee and the Publican (Luke 18: 12) describes the Pharisee as fasting "twice in the week '' (Greek δὶς τοῦ σαββάτου dis tou sabbatou).
The ancient Romans traditionally used the eight - day nundinum but, after the Julian calendar had come into effect in 45 BC, the seven - day week came into increasing use. For a while, the week and the nundinal cycle coexisted, but by the time the week was officially adopted by Constantine in AD 321, the nundinal cycle had fallen out of use. The association of the days of the week with the Sun, the Moon and the five planets visible to the naked eye dates to the Roman era (2nd century).
The continuous seven - day cycle of the days of the week can be traced back to the reign of Augustus; the first identifiable date cited complete with day of the week is 6 February AD 60, identified as a "Sunday '' (as viii idus Februarius dies solis "eighth day before the ides of February, day of the Sun '') in a Pompeiian graffito. According to the currently - used Julian calendar, 6 February 60 was, however, a Wednesday. This is explained by the existence of two conventions of naming days of the weeks based on the planetary hours system: 6 February was a "Sunday '' based on the sunset naming convention, and a "Wednesday '' based on the sunrise naming convention.
The earliest known reference in Chinese writings to a seven - day week is attributed to Fan Ning, who lived in the late 4th century in the Jin Dynasty, while diffusions from the Manichaeans are documented with the writings of the Chinese Buddhist monk Yi Jing and the Ceylonese or Central Asian Buddhist monk Bu Kong of the 7th century (Tang Dynasty).
The Chinese variant of the planetary system was brought to Japan by the Japanese monk Kobo Daishi (9th century). Surviving diaries of the Japanese statesman Fujiwara Michinaga show the seven - day system in use in Heian Japan as early as 1007. In Japan, the seven - day system was kept in use for astrological purposes until its promotion to a full - fledged Western - style calendrical basis during the Meiji era.
The seven - day week was known in India by the 6th century, referenced in the Pañcasiddhāntikā.. Shashi (2000) mentions the Garga Samhita, which he places in the 1st century BC or AD, as a possible earlier reference to a seven - day week in India. He concludes "the above references furnish a terminus ad quem (viz. 1st century) The terminus a quo can not be stated with certainty ''.
The seven - day weekly cycle has remained unbroken in Christendom, and hence in Western history, for almost two millennia, despite changes to the Coptic, Julian, and Gregorian calendars, demonstrated by the date of Easter Sunday having been traced back through numerous computistic tables to an Ethiopic copy of an early Alexandrian table beginning with the Easter of AD 311.
A tradition of divinations arranged for the days of the week on which certain feast days occur develops in the Early Medieval period. There are many later variants of this, including the German Bauern - Praktik and the versions of Erra Pater published in 16th to 17th century England, mocked in Samuel Butler 's Hudibras. South and East Slavic versions are known as koliadniki (from koliada, a loan of Latin calendae), with Bulgarian copies dating from the 13th century, and Serbian versions from the 14th century. Medieval Christian traditions associated with the lucky or unlucky nature of certain days of the week survived into the modern period. This concerns primarily Friday, associated with the crucifixion of Jesus. Sunday, sometimes personified as Saint Anastasia, was itself an object of worship in Russia, a practice denounced in a sermon extant in copies going back to the 14th century.
Sunday, in the ecclesiastical numbering system also counted as the feria prima or the first day of the week; yet, at the same time, figures as the "eighth day '', and has occasionally been so called in Christian liturgy.
Justin Martyr wrote: "the first day after the Sabbath, remaining the first of all the days, is called, however, the eighth, according to the number of all the days of the cycle, and (yet) remains the first ''.
A period of eight days, starting and ending on a Sunday, is called an octave, particularly in Roman Catholic liturgy. In German, the phrase in acht Tagen (literally "in eight days '') means one week from today.
Weeks in a Gregorian calendar year can be numbered for each year. This style of numbering is commonly used (for example, by schools and businesses) in some European and Asian countries, but rare elsewhere.
ISO 8601 includes the ISO week date system, a numbering system for weeks -- each week begins on a Monday and is associated with the year that contains that week 's Thursday (so that if a year starts in a long weekend Friday -- Sunday, week number one of the year will start after that). For example, week 1 of 2004 (2004W01) ran from Monday, 29 December 2003 to Sunday, 4 January 2004, because its Thursday was 1 January 2004, whereas week 1 of 2005 (2005W01) ran from Monday, 3 January 2005 to Sunday, 9 January 2005, because its Thursday was 6 January 2005 and so the first Thursday of 2005. The highest week number in a year is either 52 or 53 (it was 53 in the year 2004). Schematically, this ISO convention translates as follows:
In some countries, though, the numbering system is different from the ISO standard. At least six numberings are in use:
The semiconductor package date code is often a 4 digit date code YYWW where the first two digits YY are the last 2 digits of the calendar year and the last two digits WW are the two - digit week number.
The tire date code mandated by the US DOT is a 4 digit date code WWYY with two digits of the week number WW followed by the last two digits of the calendar year YY.
The term "week '' is sometimes expanded to refer to other time units comprising a few days. Such "weeks '' of between four and ten days have been used historically in various places. Intervals longer than 10 days are not usually termed "weeks '' as they are closer in length to the fortnight or the month than to the seven - day week.
Calendars unrelated to the Chaldean, Hellenistic, Christian or Jewish traditions often have time cycles between the day and the month of varying lengths, sometimes also called "weeks ''.
An eight - day week was used in Ancient Rome and possibly in the pre-Christian Celtic calendar. Traces of a nine - day week are found in Baltic languages and in Welsh. The ancient Chinese calendar had a ten - day week, as did the ancient Egyptian calendar (and, incidentally, the French Republican Calendar, dividing its 30 - day months into thirds).
A six - day week is found in the Akan Calendar. Several cultures used a five - day week, including the 10th century Icelandic calendar, the Javanese calendar, and the traditional cycle of market days in Korea. The Igbo have a "market week '' of four days. Evidence of a "three - day week '' has been derived from the names of the days of the week in Guipuscoan Basque.
The Aztecs divided a ritual cycle of 260 days, known as Tonalpohualli, into 20 weeks of 13 days known in Spanish as Trecena. They also divided the solar year into 18 periods of 20 days and five nameless days known as Nemontemi, creating a "20 - day month '' divided into four "five - day weeks ''. The Maya divided a 260 - day ritual cycle known Tzolk'in into 20 weeks of 13 days known as Trecena. The Maya also divided the year, Haab ', into 18 periods of 20 days, Uinal and five nameless days known as Wayeb '.
The Balinese Pawukon is a 210 - day calendar consisting of 10 different simultaneously running weeks of 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10 days, of which the weeks of 4, 8 and 9 days are interrupted to fit into the 210 - day cycle.
A 10 - day week, called décade, was used in France for nine and a half years from October 1793 to April 1802; furthermore, the Paris Commune adopted the Revolutionary Calendar for 18 days in 1871.
The Bahá'í calendar features a 19 - day period which some classify as a month and others classify as a week.
The International Fixed Calendar (also known as the "Eastman plan '') fixed every date always on the same weekday. This plan kept a 7 - day week while defining a year of 13 months with 28 days each. It was the official calendar of the Eastman Kodak Company for decades.
Between 1929 and 1931, the USSR changed from the seven - day week to a five - day week. There were 72 weeks and an additional five national holidays inserted within three of them, totaling a year of 365 days. In 1931, after its brief experiment with a five - day week, the Soviet Union changed to a six - day week. Every sixth day (6th, 12th, 18th, 24th and 30th) of the Gregorian Calendar was a state rest day. The five additional national holidays in the earlier five - day week remained and did not fall on the state rest day. But, as January, March, May, July, August, October and December have 31 days, the week after the state rest day of the 30th was seven days long (31st -- 7th). This extra day was a working day for most or an extra holiday for others. Also as February is only 28 or 29 days depending on whether it is a leap year or not, the first of March was also made a state rest day, although not every enterprise conformed to this. To clarify, the week after the state rest day, 24 / 25 February to 1 March, was only five or six days long, depending on whether it was a leap year or not. The week after that, 2 to 6 March, was only five days long. The calendar was abandoned 26 June 1940 and the seven - day week reintroduced the next day.
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when is the braking effect of the engine the greatest | Engine braking - wikipedia
Engine braking occurs when the retarding forces within an engine are used to slow a vehicle down, as opposed to using additional external braking mechanisms such as friction brakes or magnetic brakes.
The term is often confused with several other types of braking, most notably compression - release braking or "jake braking '' which uses a different mechanism.
Traffic regulations in a large number of countries require trucks to always drive with an engaged gear, which in turn provides a certain amount of engine braking (viscous losses to the engine oil and air pumped through the engine and friction losses to the cylinder walls and bearings) when no accelerator pedal is applied.
The term "engine braking '' refers to the braking effect that occurs in gasoline engines when the accelerator pedal is released. This results in the throttle valve that controls intake airflow closing and the air flow through the intake becoming greatly restricted (but not cut off completely). This causes a high manifold vacuum which the cylinders have to work against -- sapping energy and producing the majority of the engine braking force.
While some of the braking force is produced due to friction in the drive train, this is negligible compared to the effect from the manifold vacuum caused by the air - flow restriction.
Diesel engines do not have engine braking in the above sense. Unlike gasoline engines, diesel engines vary fuel flow to control power, rather than throttling air intake and maintaining a constant fuel ratio as gasoline engines do. Since they do not maintain a throttle vacuum, they are not subjected to the same engine braking effects. This is partly why non-turbo diesel - engined vehicles can coast in - gear for longer than an equivalent gasoline engine.
The higher compression ratio in diesels means they are harder to start, but once they are running the energy expended in compressing air is regained during the expansion stroke when the compressed air is allowed to "spring '' back, so the higher compression ratio causes negligible engine braking via energy being lost as friction and heat of compressed air to engine block.
A compression release brake (also known as a Jacobs brake or "jake brake ''), is the type of brake most commonly confused with real engine braking; it is used mainly in large diesel trucks and works by opening the exhaust valves at the top of the compression stroke, so the large amount of energy stored in that compressed air is not returned to the crankshaft, but is released into the atmosphere.
Normally, during the compression stroke, energy is used as the upward - traveling piston compresses air in the cylinder; the compressed air then acts as a compressed spring and pushes the piston back down. However, with the jake brake in operation, the compressed air is suddenly released just before the piston begins its downward travel. (This sudden release of compressed air creates audible sound waves similar to the expanding gases escaping from the muzzle of a firearm.) Having lost the energy stored within the compressed air, there is no "spring back '' so the engine must expend yet more energy pulling the piston back down again.
This type of brake is banned or restricted in many locations where people live because it creates a machine gun like sound loud enough to disturb the peace, including waking people at night. It is very effective, however, and creates immense amounts of braking force which significantly extends friction brake life -- a 565 hp (421 kW) diesel engine can produce up to 600 hp (450 kW) of braking power at 2,100 RPM.
An exhaust brake works by causing a restriction in the exhaust, much like the intake throttle causes in a gasoline engine. In simple terms, it works by increasing the back - pressure of the exhaust. Nearly all of these brakes are butterfly valves similar to a throttle valve, mounted downstream of the turbocharger if there is one.
Modern diesels are subject to many strict controls on emissions and often have many obstructions in the exhaust, which cause them to feel like they have some engine braking like a gasoline engine. The main ones are:
Engine braking in a premix two - stroke engine can be extremely harmful to the engine, because cylinder and piston lubricant is delivered to each cylinder mixed with fuel. Consequently, during engine braking, the engine starves not only of fuel but also lubricant, causing accelerated wear. Many old two - stroke cars (Saab, Wartburg, etc.) had a freewheel device on the transmission to make engine braking optional. Most two - stroke motorcycle engines since the 1970s have had lubrication by an oil pump, independent of the throttle and fuel system, such as Suzuki 's Posi - Force system.
As soon as the accelerator is released enough to slow the engine, engine braking comes into effect as long as the wheels remain connected via the transmission to the engine. A slipping or disengaged clutch, or a torque converter, would disengage the wheels or absorb braking energy. The braking force varies depending on the engine, and the gear the transmission is in. The lower the gear, the higher the braking effect due to higher rpm and the torque transferred through the transmission (higher torque is delivered from the engine in lower gears).
Engine braking avoids wear on brakes, and can help a driver maintain control of the vehicle. Active use of engine braking by shifting into a lower gear can help control speed while driving down very steep and long slopes, saving the brakes from overheating or excessive wear. If it is applied before the brakes have been used, it can leave the brakes available to make emergency stops. The desired speed is maintained by using engine braking to counteract gravitational acceleration. Potential transmission wear caused by engine braking can be mitigated by certain techniques. Slipping the clutch to complete a downshift wears the clutch plate as it slows the vehicle, doing the job of the brake pads or shoes. A well - executed rev - match in the same setting minimizes stresses on transmission components, so engine braking does the work of slowing the vehicle.
Improper engine braking technique can cause the wheels to skid (also called shift - locking), especially on slippery surfaces, as a result of too much deceleration. As in a skid caused by overbraking, the vehicle will not regain traction until the wheels are allowed to turn more quickly. If the driver reduces engine braking by shifting back up, or disengaging the clutch on a manual transmission, traction can be regained.
In hybrid electric vehicles, like the Toyota Prius, engine braking is simulated by the computer software to match the feel of a traditional automatic transmission. For long downhill runs, the "B '' mode acts like a lower gear, using the higher RPM of the internal combustion engine to waste energy, preventing the battery from being overcharged. Almost all electric and hybrid vehicles are able to convert kinetic motion into electricity, i.e. regenerative brakes, but since the internal combustion engine is not used to slow the vehicle when using regenerative braking, it is not the same as engine braking.
Engine braking is a generally accepted practice and can help save wear on friction brakes. It is even used in some motor sports to reduce the risk of the friction brakes overheating. Additionally, fuel injection engines generally do n't use any fuel while engine braking. This is known as deceleration fuel cut - off (DFCO).
Although no longer in production in most countries, there are still plenty of carburated engines in service, with which engine braking is counter-productive to fuel economy due to the lack of a DFCO mechanism. The cost of wasted fuel can well outweigh the gain of reduced brake wear.
Compression - release ("Jake '') braking, a form of engine braking used almost exclusively on diesel engines, produces extreme amounts of noise pollution if there is no muffler on the intake manifold of the engine. Anecdotally, it sounds similar to a jackhammer, however the loudness is between 10 and 20 times the sound pressure level of a jackhammer (10 to 13 dB greater). Numerous cities, municipalities, states, and provinces have banned the use of unmuffled compression brakes, which are typically only legal in roads away from populations. In Australia, traffic enforcement cameras are currently being tested that automatically photograph heavy vehicles that use compression braking.
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who plays the little girl in a cinderella story | A Cinderella Story - wikipedia
A Cinderella Story is a 2004 American teen romantic comedy film directed by Mark Rosman, written by Leigh Dunlap and stars Hilary Duff, Chad Michael Murray, Jennifer Coolidge and Regina King. A modernization of the classic Cinderella folklore, the film 's plot revolves around two Internet pen pals who plan to meet in person at their high school 's Halloween dance.
The film was released on July 16, 2004. While it received negative reviews from critics, the film was a box office success, grossing $70 million against its $19 million budget, and spawned three straight - to - video sequels.
Sam Montgomery lives in the San Fernando Valley area of Los Angeles, with her widowed father Hal, who runs a popular sports - themed diner. Feeling Sam needs a mother, Hal marries a vain and selfish gold digger named Fiona, who has socially - awkward fraternal twin daughters, Brianna and Gabriella. During the 1994 Northridge earthquake, Hal is killed when he runs to save Fiona. Having supposedly left no will, Fiona receives all of his belongings, including the house, the diner, and to her dismay, Sam.
Eight years later, Sam is employed as a waitress at the diner to save money to attend Princeton University, but she is regularly tormented by her stepfamily, who constantly insult her and treat her as if they were popular, despite being regarded as obnoxious. Even worse, Fiona, in her vanity, uses the inheritance to live as if they were insanely rich, including spending on minor facial surgeries, and even refuses to save water during the ongoing drought. She also transformed the diner into something befitting of her own image, and demands that salmon be served and included in over half the dishes. Sam struggles to cope socially at North Valley High School, where queen bee cheerleader Shelby Cummings also torments her and calls her "Diner Girl '', along with other members of the popular clique.
Sam confides in her online pen pal "Nomad '' about her dream to attend Princeton, a dream which he also shares. However, Nomad 's true identity is Austin Ames, the popular, yet unhappy, quarterback of the school 's football team and Shelby 's ex-boyfriend, although she refuses to accept that he has broken up with her. He is unhappy because Austin 's father planned for him to go to the University of Southern California with a football scholarship rather than going to Princeton. Nomad proposes that they meet in person at the school 's Halloween - themed homecoming dance. On the night of the dance, Fiona orders Sam to work the night shift at the diner, then leaves to drive Brianna and Gabriella to the dance. Initially reluctant, Sam is convinced by her best friend, Carter Ferrell, to go to the dance and meet her mysterious online friend.
Rhonda, Sam 's other best friend, and the rest of the diner staff also convince her to disobey Fiona and go to the dance anyway. Sam, wearing a mask and a beautiful white dress, meets Nomad at the dance, and is surprised to learn that he is Austin, who had become smitten with her upon her entrance. The two decide to leave the party to walk alone and get to know each other a little better. While sharing a romantic dance, Sam and Austin begin to fall in love. But just as Austin is about to unmask her, Sam 's cell phone alarm goes off, warning her to return to the diner before Fiona returns at midnight. She leaves without revealing her identity to Austin, and drops her phone on the way out.
Austin picks up her phone and begins a desperate search to figure out who his "Cinderella '' really is, but every girl at school claims to be the mysterious owner of the phone. Sam is reluctant to reveal her identity to Austin, feeling that he will not accept her due to her being ordinary and Austin being popular. When Austin comes into the diner one day, Sam is forced to help him and, after a talk, she attempts to reveal her identity to him, but is cut off by Fiona. Sam 's stepsisters end up discovering Sam and Austin 's email relationship, and (after having failed to convince Austin that one of them is the owner of the phone) convince Shelby that Sam tried to steal Austin from her. During a pep rally, they and the other cheerleaders humiliate Sam in front of the entire school and expose her identity, as well as naming her an impostor. Austin, hurt by Sam 's secrecy, does not step up to defend her, and Sam leaves the pep rally in tears.
Like Austin, Sam had been accepted at Princeton, only to be duped by Fiona into believing she was rejected by having a fake rejection letter made to keep Sam working at the diner and as her servant. Sam then decides to give up on her dreams and resigns herself to working at the diner, but Rhonda gives Sam a pep talk not to lose hope. When her stepsisters come into the diner, they slam the door, causing a guitar to fall off the wall, tearing the wallpaper down with it, and blame it on Sam. Sam then sees her father 's words, "Never let the fear of striking out keep you from playing the game, '' on the wall and regains her confidence (in real life, this quote came from Babe Ruth). She stands up to Fiona and her stepsisters stating that she will no longer put up with their emotional abuse, quits her job at the diner, and moves in with Rhonda, who also quits along with the entire diner staff, all of whom had only put up with so many years of Fiona 's abuse after Hal 's death for Sam 's sake. The customers, who witness the entire scene, promptly leave in disgust as well.
Before the school 's homecoming football game, Sam confronts Austin about his cowardice and not defending her at the pep rally. Before the final play of the game, he sees Sam making her way out of the stands, and finally stands up to his father, saying he wants to attend Princeton rather than simply play football all his life. He chases after Sam and apologizes. She accepts his apology, and they share their first kiss as rain falls over the drought - plagued valley (at the same time, the North Valley High Fighting Frogs win the football game). Soon after, Sam finds Hal 's will hidden in her childhood fairy - tale book, stating that all of his money and possessions actually belong to her. Since this leaves her as the rightful and legal owner, Sam sells her stepfamily 's fancy cars so that she can pay for college, and Fiona, who signed the will as a witness but claims to have never seen it before, is arrested for financial fraud and violating California 's child labor laws for all the times she made Sam work long hours at the diner in spite of her being a minor.
Sam finds that she was in fact accepted at Princeton; the acceptance letter is retrieved from the garbage by her stepsisters, who knew where Fiona hid it. Fiona, Brianna, and Gabriella are made by the District Attorney to work off the money they stole from Sam at the diner, which is restored to its former glory by its new owners, Sam and Rhonda. Also, Austin 's father comes to accept his son 's desire to attend Princeton. Things even work out in the end for Carter as he makes a commercial for acne medication. Shelby, having previously rejected Carter for being an outcast even after he was a proper gentleman to her at the Halloween dance, aims to pursue him since he is now popular, but after finally seeing her true shallow and cruel nature, he turns her down for Astrid, the high school 's goth DJ and announcer. The film ends with Sam and Austin, now officially a couple, driving off to Princeton together after Sam gets her phone back from Austin.
On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 11 % based on 103 reviews, with an average rating of 3.6 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "An uninspired, generic updating of the classic fairy tale. '' On Metacritic, the film has a score on 25 out of 100, based on 30 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A -- '' on an A+ to F scale.
Roger Ebert called A Cinderella Story "a lame, stupid movie ''. The film was nominated for five Teen Choice Awards at the 2005 ceremony, winning the award for Choice Movie Blush Scene, the same year Duff won the Kids Choice Awards for Favorite Movie Actress. In 2005, Duff also received a nomination for the Golden Raspberry Award for Worst Actress.
In its opening weekend, the film grossed $13,623,350 in 2,625 theaters in the United States and Canada, ranking # 4 at the box office, behind I, Robot, Spider - Man 2 and Anchorman: The Legend of Ron Burgundy. By the end of its run, A Cinderella Story grossed $51,438,175 domestically and $18,629,734 internationally, totaling $70,067,909 worldwide.
The film was followed by three direct - to - video sequels: Another Cinderella Story (2008) starring Selena Gomez, A Cinderella Story: Once Upon a Song (2011) starring Lucy Hale and A Cinderella Story: If the Shoe Fits (2016) starring Sofia Carson. The sequels use the themes and situations but do not contain any characters from the first film. Unlike the first film, the sequels also include musical and dance themes.
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when do airlines have to pay for delays | Flight cancellation and delay - wikipedia
A flight delay is when an airline flight takes off and / or lands later than its scheduled time. The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) considers a flight to be delayed when it is 15 minutes later than its scheduled time. A cancellation occurs when the airline does not operate the flight at all for a certain reason.
In the European Union, Flight Compensation Regulation 261 / 2004 states that flight delays for over three hours, cancellations and denied boarding entitles passengers to a compensation from € 250 up to € 600 per passenger from the airline.
In the United States, when flights are canceled or delayed, passengers may be entitled to compensation due to rules obeyed by every flight company, usually Rule 240, or Rule 218 in certain locations. This rule usually specifies that passengers may be entitled to certain reimbursements, including a free room if the next flight is the day after the canceled one, a choice of reimbursement, rerouting, phone calls, and refreshments. When a flight is delayed, the FAA allocates slots for takeoffs and landings based on which flight is scheduled first. The Transportation Department imposes a fine of up to $27,500 per passenger for planes left on the tarmac for more than three hours without taking off (four hours for international flights). In the United States, passengers are not entitled to compensation when a delay occurs, not even a cut of fees airlines must pay federal authorities for long delays. Airlines are required to pay for lodging costs of passengers if the delay or a cancellation is through their own fault, but not if the cause is beyond their control, such as weather.
Since 2003, the United States Bureau of Transportation Statistics has been keeping track of the causes of flight delays.
Some of the causes of flight delays or cancellation are as follows:
The number of flight delays has increased as staff has been cut back as a result of the financial woes following the September 11 attacks.
In the United States, the Federal Aviation Administration estimates that flight delays cost airlines $22 billion yearly. Airlines are forced to pay federal authorities when they hold planes on the tarmac for more than three hours for domestic flights or more than four hours for international flights.
Flight delays are an inconvenience to passengers. A delayed flight can be costly to passengers by making them late to their personal scheduled events and commitments. A passenger who is delayed on a multi-plane trip could miss a connecting flight. Anger and frustration can occur in delayed passengers.
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where does the trail of tears start and end | Trail of Tears - wikipedia
Cherokee (4,000) Creek Seminole (3,000 in Second Seminole War -- 1835 -- 1842) Chickasaw (3,500)
The Trail of Tears was a series of forced removals, sometimes at gunpoint, of Native American nations from their ancestral homelands in the Southeastern United States to other areas, one which was an area West of the Mississippi River that had been designated as Indian Territory. The forced relocations were carried out by government authorities following the passage of the Indian Removal Act in 1830. Many of the relocated native people suffered from exposure, disease, and starvation while en route to their new designated reserve, and many died before reaching their various designated reserve (s). The removal included members of the Cherokee, Muscogee (Creek), Seminole, Chickasaw, Choctaw, and Ponca nations. The phrase "Trail of Tears '' originates from a description of the many native american tribes removal; including the infamous Cherokee Nation in 1838.
Between 1830 and 1850, the Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek, Seminole, and Cherokee people (including mixed - race and black freedmen and slaves who lived among them) were forcibly removed from their traditional lands in the Southeastern United States, and relocated farther west. Those Native Americans that were relocated were forced to march to their destinations by state and local militias.
The Cherokee removal in 1838 (the last forced removal east of the Mississippi) was brought on by the discovery of gold near Dahlonega, Georgia in 1828, resulting in the Georgia Gold Rush. Approximately 2,000 -- 6,000 of the 16,543 relocated Cherokee perished along the way.
In 1830, a group of Indians collectively referred to as the Five Civilized Tribes (the Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Muscogee, and Seminole tribes) were living as autonomous nations in what would be later called the American Deep South. The process of cultural transformation, as proposed by George Washington and Henry Knox, was gaining momentum, especially among the Cherokee and Choctaw.
American settlers had been pressuring the federal government to remove Indians from the Southeast; many settlers were encroaching on Indian lands, while others wanted more land made available to white settlers. Although the effort was vehemently opposed by many, including U.S. Congressman Davy Crockett of Tennessee, President Andrew Jackson was able to gain Congressional passage of the Indian Removal Act of 1830, which authorized the government to extinguish Indian title to lands in the Southeast.
In 1831, the Choctaw became the first Nation to be removed, and their removal served as the model for all future relocations. After two wars, many Seminoles were removed in 1832. The Creek removal followed in 1834, the Chickasaw in 1837, and lastly the Cherokee in 1838. Many Indians remained in their ancestral homelands; some Choctaw are found in Mississippi, Creek in Alabama and Florida, Cherokee in North Carolina, and Seminole in Florida; a small group had moved to the Everglades and were never defeated by the United States government. A limited number of non-Indians, including some of African descent (some as slaves, and others as spouses or freedmen), also accompanied the Indians on the trek westward. By 1837, 46,000 Indians from the southeastern states had been removed from their homelands, thereby opening 25 million acres (100,000 km) for predominantly white settlement.
Prior to 1830, the fixed boundaries of these autonomous tribal nations, comprising large areas of the United States, were subject to continual cession and annexation, in part due to pressure from squatters and the threat of military force in the newly declared U.S. territories -- federally administered regions whose boundaries supervened upon the Native treaty claims. As these territories became U.S. states, state governments sought to dissolve the boundaries of the Indian nations within their borders, which were independent of state jurisdiction, and to expropriate the land therein. These pressures were exacerbated by U.S. population growth and the expansion of slavery in the South, with the rapid development of cotton cultivation in the uplands following the invention of the cotton gin.
The removals, conducted under Presidents Andrew Jackson and Martin Van Buren, followed the Indian Removal Act of 1830. The Act provided the President with powers to exchange land with Native tribes and provide infrastructure improvements on the existing lands. The law also gave the president power to pay for transportation costs to the West, should tribes choose to relocate. The law did not, however, allow the President to force tribes to move West without a mutually agreed - upon treaty.
In the years following the Act, the Cherokee filed several lawsuits regarding conflicts with the state of Georgia. Some of these cases reached the Supreme Court, the most influential being Worcester v. Georgia (1832). Samuel Worcester and other non-Indians were convicted by Georgia law for residing in Cherokee territory in the state of Georgia, without a license. Worcester was sentenced to prison for four years and appealed the ruling, arguing that this sentence violated treaties made between Indian nations and the United States federal government by imposing state laws on Cherokee lands. The Court ruled in Worcester 's favor, declaring that the Cherokee Nation was subject only to federal law and that the Supremacy Clause barred legislative interference by the state of Georgia. Chief Justice Marshall argued, "The Cherokee nation, then, is a distinct community occupying its own territory in which the laws of Georgia can have no force. The whole intercourse between the United States and this Nation, is, by our constitution and laws, vested in the government of the United States. ''
Andrew Jackson did not listen to the Supreme Court mandate barring Georgia from intruding on Cherokee lands. He feared that enforcement would lead to open warfare between federal troops and the Georgia militia, which would compound the ongoing crisis in South Carolina and lead to a broader civil war. Instead, he vigorously negotiated a land exchange treaty with the Cherokee. Political opponents Henry Clay and John Quincy Adams, who supported the Worcester decision, were outraged by Jackson 's refusal to uphold Cherokee claims against the state of Georgia. Ralph Waldo Emerson wrote an account of Cherokee assimilation into the American culture, declaring his support of the Worcester decision.
Jackson chose to continue with Indian removal, and negotiated The Treaty of New Echota, on December 29, 1835, which granted Cherokee Indians two years to move to Indian Territory (modern Oklahoma). Only a fraction of the Cherokees left voluntarily. The U.S. government, with assistance from state militias, forced most of the remaining Cherokees west in 1838. The Cherokees were temporarily remanded in camps in eastern Tennessee. In November, the Cherokee were broken into groups of around 1,000 each and began the journey west. They endured heavy rains, snow, and freezing temperatures.
When the Cherokee negotiated the Treaty of New Echota, they exchanged all their land east of the Mississippi for land in modern Oklahoma and a $5 million payment from the federal government. Many Cherokee felt betrayed that their leadership accepted the deal, and over 16,000 Cherokee signed a petition to prevent the passage of the treaty. By the end of the decade in 1840, tens of thousands of Cherokee and other tribes had been removed from their land east of the Mississippi River. The Creek, Choctaw, Seminole, and Chicksaw were also relocated under the Indian Removal Act of 1830. One Choctaw leader portrayed the removal as "A Trail of Tears and Deaths '', a devastating event that removed most of the Native population of the southeastern United States from their traditional homelands.
The latter forced relocations have sometimes been referred to as "death marches '', in particular with reference to the Cherokee march across the Midwest in 1838, which occurred on a predominantly land route.
Indians who had the means initially provided for their own removal. Contingents that were led by conductors from the U.S. Army included those led by Edward Deas, who was claimed to be a sympathizer for the Cherokee plight. The largest death toll from the Cherokee forced relocation comes from the period after the May 23, 1838 deadline. This was at the point when the remaining Cherokee were rounded into camps and pressed into oversized detachments, often over 700 in size (larger than the populations of Little Rock or Memphis at that time). Communicable diseases spread quickly through these closely quartered groups, killing many. These contingents were among the last to move, but following the same routes the others had taken; the areas they were going through had been depleted of supplies due to the vast numbers that had gone before them. The marchers were subject to extortion and violence along the route. In addition, these final contingents were forced to set out during the hottest and coldest months of the year, killing many. Exposure to the elements, disease and starvation, harassment by local frontiersmen, and insufficient rations similarly killed up to one - third of the Choctaw and other nations on the march.
There exists some debate among historians and the affected tribes as to whether the term "Trail of Tears '' should be used to refer to the entire history of forced relocations from the United States east of the Mississippi into Indian Territory (as was the stated U.S. policy), or to the Five Tribes described above, to the route of the land march specifically, or to specific marches in which the remaining holdouts from each area were rounded up.
The territorial boundaries claimed as sovereign and controlled by the Indian nations living in what were then known as the Indian Territories -- the portion of the early United States west of the Mississippi River not yet claimed or allotted to become Oklahoma -- were fixed and determined by national treaties with the United States federal government. These recognized the tribal governments as dependent but internally sovereign, or autonomous nations under the sole jurisdiction of the federal government.
While retaining their tribal governance, which included a constitution or official council in tribes such as the Iroquois and Cherokee, many portions of the southeastern Indian nations had become partially or completely economically integrated into the economy of the region. This included the plantation economy in states such as Georgia, and the possession of slaves. These slaves were also forcibly relocated during the process of removal. A similar process had occurred earlier in the territories controlled by the Confederacy of the Six Nations in what is now upstate New York prior to the British invasion and subsequent U.S. annexation of the Iroquois nation.
Under the history of U.S. treaty law, the territorial boundaries claimed by federally recognized tribes received the same status under which the Southeastern tribal claims were recognized; until the following establishment of reservations of land, determined by the federal government, which were ceded to the remaining tribes by de jure treaty, in a process that often entailed forced relocation. The establishment of the Indian Territory and the extinguishment of Indian land claims east of the Mississippi anticipated the establishment of the U.S. Indian reservation system. It was imposed on remaining Indian lands later in the 19th century.
The statutory argument for Indian sovereignty persisted until the Supreme Court of the United States ruled in Cherokee Nation v. Georgia (1831), that (e.g.) the Cherokee were not a sovereign and independent nation, and therefore not entitled to a hearing before the court. However, in Worcester v. Georgia (1832), the court re-established limited internal sovereignty under the sole jurisdiction of the federal government, in a ruling that both opposed the subsequent forced relocation and set the basis for modern U.S. case law.
While the latter ruling was defied by Jackson, the actions of the Jackson administration were not isolated because state and federal officials had violated treaties without consequence, often attributed to military exigency, as the members of individual Indian nations were not automatically United States citizens and were rarely given standing in any U.S. court.
Jackson 's involvement in what became known as the Trail of Tears can not be ignored. In a speech regarding Indian removal, Jackson said, "It will separate the Indians from immediate contact with settlements of whites; free them from the power of the States; enable them to pursue happiness in their own way and under their own rude institutions; will retard the progress of decay, which is lessening their numbers, and perhaps cause them gradually, under the protection of the Government and through the influence of good counsels, to cast off their savage habits and become an interesting, civilized, and Christian community. '' According to Jackson, the move would be nothing but beneficial for all parties. His point of view garnered support from many Americans, many of whom would benefit economically from the removal.
This was compounded by the fact that while citizenship tests existed for Indians living in newly annexed areas before and after forced relocation, individual U.S. states did not recognize tribal land claims, only individual title under State law, and distinguished between the rights of white and non-white citizens, who often had limited standing in court; and Indian removal was carried out under U.S. military jurisdiction, often by state militias. As a result, individual Indians who could prove U.S. citizenship were nevertheless displaced from newly annexed areas. The military actions and subsequent treaties enacted by Jackson 's and Martin Van Buren 's administrations pursuant to the 1830 law, which Tennessee Congressman Davy Crockett had unsuccessfully voted against, are widely considered to have directly caused the expulsion or death of a substantial part of the Indian population then living in the southeastern United States.
The Choctaw nation occupied large portions of what are now the U.S. states of Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana. After a series of treaties starting in 1801, the Choctaw nation was reduced to 11,000,000 acres (45,000 km). The Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek ceded the remaining country to the United States and was ratified in early 1831. The removals were only agreed to after a provision in the Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek allowed some Choctaw to remain. George W. Harkins wrote to the citizens of the United States before the removals were to commence:
It is with considerable diffidence that I attempt to address the American people, knowing and feeling sensibly my incompetency; and believing that your highly and well improved minds would not be well entertained by the address of a Choctaw. But having determined to emigrate west of the Mississippi river this fall, I have thought proper in bidding you farewell to make a few remarks expressive of my views, and the feelings that actuate me on the subject of our removal... We as Choctaws rather chose to suffer and be free, than live under the degrading influence of laws, which our voice could not be heard in their formation.
United States Secretary of War Lewis Cass appointed George Gaines to manage the removals. Gaines decided to remove Choctaws in three phases starting in 1831 and ending in 1833. The first was to begin on November 1, 1831 with groups meeting at Memphis and Vicksburg. A harsh winter would batter the emigrants with flash floods, sleet, and snow. Initially the Choctaws were to be transported by wagon but floods halted them. With food running out, the residents of Vicksburg and Memphis were concerned. Five steamboats (the Walter Scott, the Brandywine, the Reindeer, the Talma, and the Cleopatra) would ferry Choctaws to their river - based destinations. The Memphis group traveled up the Arkansas for about 60 miles (100 km) to Arkansas Post. There the temperature stayed below freezing for almost a week with the rivers clogged with ice, so there could be no travel for weeks. Food rationing consisted of a handful of boiled corn, one turnip, and two cups of heated water per day. Forty government wagons were sent to Arkansas Post to transport them to Little Rock. When they reached Little Rock, a Choctaw chief referred to their trek as a "trail of tears and death ''. The Vicksburg group was led by an incompetent guide and was lost in the Lake Providence swamps.
Alexis de Tocqueville, the French philosopher, witnessed the Choctaw removals while in Memphis, Tennessee in 1831,
In the whole scene there was an air of ruin and destruction, something which betrayed a final and irrevocable adieu; one could n't watch without feeling one 's heart wrung. The Indians were tranquil, but sombre and taciturn. There was one who could speak English and of whom I asked why the Chactas were leaving their country. "To be free, '' he answered, could never get any other reason out of him. We... watch the expulsion... of one of the most celebrated and ancient American peoples.
Nearly 17,000 Choctaws made the move to what would be called Indian Territory and then later Oklahoma. About 2,500 -- 6,000 died along the trail of tears. Approximately 5,000 -- 6,000 Choctaws remained in Mississippi in 1831 after the initial removal efforts. The Choctaws who chose to remain in newly formed Mississippi were subject to legal conflict, harassment, and intimidation. The Choctaws "have had our habitations torn down and burned, our fences destroyed, cattle turned into our fields and we ourselves have been scourged, manacled, fettered and otherwise personally abused, until by such treatment some of our best men have died ''. The Choctaws in Mississippi were later reformed as the Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians and the removed Choctaws became the Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma. The Choctaws were the first to sign a removal treaty presented by the federal government. President Andrew Jackson wanted strong negotiations with the Choctaws in Mississippi, and the Choctaws seemed much more cooperative than Andrew Jackson had imagined. When commissioners and Choctaws came to negotiation agreements it was said the United States would bear the expense of moving their homes and that they had to be removed within two and a half years of the signed treaty.
The U.S. acquired Florida from Spain via the Adams -- Onís Treaty and took possession in 1821. In 1832 the Seminoles were called to a meeting at Payne 's Landing on the Ocklawaha River. The treaty negotiated called for the Seminoles to move west, if the land were found to be suitable. They were to be settled on the Creek reservation and become part of the Creek tribe, who considered them deserters; some of the Seminoles had been derived from Creek bands but also from other tribes. Those among the tribe who once were members of Creek bands did not wish to move west to where they were certain that they would meet death for leaving the main band of Creek Indians. The delegation of seven chiefs who were to inspect the new reservation did not leave Florida until October 1832. After touring the area for several months and conferring with the Creeks who had already settled there, the seven chiefs signed a statement on March 28, 1833 that the new land was acceptable. Upon their return to Florida, however, most of the chiefs renounced the statement, claiming that they had not signed it, or that they had been forced to sign it, and in any case, that they did not have the power to decide for all the tribes and bands that resided on the reservation. The villages in the area of the Apalachicola River were more easily persuaded, however, and went west in 1834. On December 28, 1835 a group of Seminoles and blacks ambushed a U.S. Army company marching from Fort Brooke in Tampa to Fort King in Ocala, killing all but three of the 110 army troops. This came to be known as the Dade Massacre.
As the realization that the Seminoles would resist relocation sank in, Florida began preparing for war. The St. Augustine Militia asked the War Department for the loan of 500 muskets. Five hundred volunteers were mobilized under Brig. Gen. Richard K. Call. Indian war parties raided farms and settlements, and families fled to forts, large towns, or out of the territory altogether. A war party led by Osceola captured a Florida militia supply train, killing eight of its guards and wounding six others. Most of the goods taken were recovered by the militia in another fight a few days later. Sugar plantations along the Atlantic coast south of St. Augustine were destroyed, with many of the slaves on the plantations joining the Seminoles.
Other warchiefs such as Halleck Tustenuggee, Jumper, and Black Seminoles Abraham and John Horse continued the Seminole resistance against the army. The war ended, after a full decade of fighting, in 1842. The U.S. government is estimated to have spent about $20,000,000 on the war, at the time an astronomical sum, and equal to $507,172,414 today. Many Indians were forcibly exiled to Creek lands west of the Mississippi; others retreated into the Everglades. In the end, the government gave up trying to subjugate the Seminole in their Everglades redoubts and left fewer than 100 Seminoles in peace. However, other scholars state that at least several hundred Seminoles remained in the Everglades after the Seminole Wars.
As a result of the Seminole Wars, the surviving Seminole band of the Everglades claims to be the only federally recognized tribe which never relinquished sovereignty or signed a peace treaty with the United States.
In general the American people tended to view the Indian resistance as unwarranted. An article published by the Virginia Enquirer on January 26, 1836, called the "Hostilities of the Seminoles '', assigned all the blame for the violence that came from the Seminole 's resistance to the Seminoles themselves. The article accuses the Indians of not staying true to their word -- the promises they supposedly made in the treaties and negotiations from the Indian Removal Act.
After the War of 1812, some Muscogee leaders such as William McIntosh signed treaties that ceded more land to Georgia. The 1814 signing of the Treaty of Fort Jackson signaled the end for the Creek Nation and for all Indians in the South. Friendly Creek leaders, like Selocta and Big Warrior, addressed Sharp Knife (the Indian nickname for Andrew Jackson) and reminded him that they keep the peace. Nevertheless, Jackson retorted that they did not "cut (Tecumseh 's) throat '' when they had the chance, so they must now cede Creek lands. Jackson also ignored Article 9 of the Treaty of Ghent that restored sovereignty to Indians and their nations.
Jackson opened this first peace session by faintly acknowledging the help of the friendly Creeks. That done, he turned to the Red Sticks and admonished them for listening to evil counsel. For their crime, he said, the entire Creek Nation must pay. He demanded the equivalent of all expenses incurred by the United States in prosecuting the war, which by his calculation came to 23,000,000 acres (93,000 km) of land. -- Robert V. Remini, Andrew Jackson
Eventually, the Creek Confederacy enacted a law that made further land cessions a capital offense. Nevertheless, on February 12, 1825, McIntosh and other chiefs signed the Treaty of Indian Springs, which gave up most of the remaining Creek lands in Georgia. After the U.S. Senate ratified the treaty, McIntosh was assassinated on May 13, 1825, by Creeks led by Menawa.
The Creek National Council, led by Opothle Yohola, protested to the United States that the Treaty of Indian Springs was fraudulent. President John Quincy Adams was sympathetic, and eventually the treaty was nullified in a new agreement, the Treaty of Washington (1826). The historian R. Douglas Hurt wrote: "The Creeks had accomplished what no Indian nation had ever done or would do again -- achieve the annulment of a ratified treaty. '' However, Governor Troup of Georgia ignored the new treaty and began to forcibly remove the Indians under the terms of the earlier treaty. At first, President Adams attempted to intervene with federal troops, but Troup called out the militia, and Adams, fearful of a civil war, conceded. As he explained to his intimates, "The Indians are not worth going to war over. ''
Although the Creeks had been forced from Georgia, with many Lower Creeks moving to the Indian Territory, there were still about 20,000 Upper Creeks living in Alabama. However, the state moved to abolish tribal governments and extend state laws over the Creeks. Opothle Yohola appealed to the administration of President Andrew Jackson for protection from Alabama; when none was forthcoming, the Treaty of Cusseta was signed on March 24, 1832, which divided up Creek lands into individual allotments. Creeks could either sell their allotments and receive funds to remove to the west, or stay in Alabama and submit to state laws. The Creeks were never given a fair chance to comply with the terms of the treaty, however. Rampant illegal settlement of their lands by Americans continued unabated with federal and state authorities unable or unwilling to do much to halt it. Further, as recently detailed by historian Billy Winn in his thorough chronicle of the events leading to removal, a variety of fraudulent schemes designed to cheat the Creeks out of their allotments, many of them organized by speculators operating out of Columbus, Georgia and Montgomery, Alabama, were perpetrated after the signing of the Treaty of Cusseta. A portion of the beleaguered Creeks, many desperately poor and feeling abused and oppressed by their American neighbors, struck back by carrying out occasional raids on area farms and committing other isolated acts of violence. Escalating tensions erupted into open war with the United States following the destruction of the village of Roanoke, Georgia, located along the Chattahoochee River on the boundary between Creek and American territory, in May 1836. During the so - called "Creek War of 1836 '' Secretary of War Lewis Cass dispatched General Winfield Scott to end the violence by forcibly removing the Creeks to the Indian Territory west of the Mississippi River. With the Indian Removal Act of 1830 it continued into 1835 and after as in 1836 over 15,000 Creeks were driven from their land for the last time. 3,500 of those 15,000 Creeks did not survive the trip to Oklahoma where they eventually settled.
The Chickasaw received financial compensation from the United States for their lands east of the Mississippi River. In 1836, the Chickasaws had reached an agreement to purchase land from the previously removed Choctaws after a bitter five - year debate. They paid the Choctaws $530,000 (equal to $11,810,970 today) for the westernmost part of the Choctaw land. The first group of Chickasaws moved in 1836 and was led by John M. Millard. The Chickasaws gathered at Memphis on July 4, 1836, with all of their assets -- belongings, livestock, and slaves. Once across the Mississippi River, they followed routes previously established by the Choctaws and the Creeks. Once in Indian Territory, the Chickasaws merged with the Choctaw nation.
By 1838, about 2,000 Cherokee had voluntarily relocated from Georgia to Indian Territory (present day Oklahoma). Forcible removals began in May 1838 when General Winfield Scott received a final order from President Martin Van Buren to relocate the remaining Cherokees. Approximately 4,000 Cherokees died in the ensuing trek to Oklahoma. In the Cherokee language, the event is called nu na da ul tsun yi ("the place where they cried '') or nu na hi du na tlo hi lu i (the trail where they cried). The Cherokee Trail of Tears resulted from the enforcement of the Treaty of New Echota, an agreement signed under the provisions of the Indian Removal Act of 1830, which exchanged Indian land in the East for lands west of the Mississippi River, but which was never accepted by the elected tribal leadership or a majority of the Cherokee people.
The sparsely inhabited Cherokee lands were highly attractive to Georgian farmers experiencing population pressure, and illegal settlements resulted. Long - simmering tensions between Georgia and the Cherokee Nation were brought to a crisis by the discovery of gold near Dahlonega, Georgia, in 1829, resulting in the Georgia Gold Rush, the second gold rush in U.S. history. Hopeful gold speculators began trespassing on Cherokee lands, and pressure mounted to fulfill the Compact of 1802 in which the US Government promised to extinguish Indian land claims in the state of Georgia.
When Georgia moved to extend state laws over Cherokee lands in 1830, the matter went to the U.S. Supreme Court. In Cherokee Nation v. Georgia (1831), the Marshall court ruled that the Cherokee Nation was not a sovereign and independent nation, and therefore refused to hear the case. However, in Worcester v. Georgia (1832), the Court ruled that Georgia could not impose laws in Cherokee territory, since only the national government -- not state governments -- had authority in Indian affairs. Worcester v Georgia is associated with Andrew Jackson 's famous, though apocryphal, quote "John Marshall has made his decision; now let him enforce it! '' In reality, this quote did not appear until 30 years after the incident and was first printed in a textbook authored by Jackson critic Horace Greeley.
Fearing open warfare between federal troops and the Georgia militia, Jackson decided not to enforce Cherokee claims against the state of Georgia. He was already embroiled in a constitutional crisis with South Carolina (i.e. the nullification crisis) and favored Cherokee relocation over civil war. With the Indian Removal Act of 1830, the U.S. Congress had given Jackson authority to negotiate removal treaties, exchanging Indian land in the East for land west of the Mississippi River. Jackson used the dispute with Georgia to put pressure on the Cherokees to sign a removal treaty.
The final treaty, passed in Congress by a single vote, and signed by President Andrew Jackson, was imposed by his successor President Martin Van Buren. Van Buren allowed Georgia, Tennessee, North Carolina, and Alabama an armed force of 7,000 militiamen, army regulars, and volunteers under General Winfield Scott to relocate about 13,000 Cherokees to Cleveland, Tennessee. After the initial roundup, the U.S. military oversaw the emigration to Oklahoma. Former Cherokee lands were immediately opened to settlement. Most of the deaths during the journey were caused by disease, malnutrition, and exposure during an unusually cold winter.
In the winter of 1838 the Cherokee began the 1,000 - mile (1,600 km) march with scant clothing and most on foot without shoes or moccasins. The march began in Red Clay, Tennessee, the location of the last Eastern capital of the Cherokee Nation. Because of the diseases, the Indians were not allowed to go into any towns or villages along the way; many times this meant traveling much farther to go around them. After crossing Tennessee and Kentucky, they arrived at the Ohio River across from Golconda in southern Illinois about the 3rd of December 1838. Here the starving Indians were charged a dollar a head (equal to $22.98 today) to cross the river on "Berry 's Ferry '' which typically charged twelve cents, equal to $2.76 today. They were not allowed passage until the ferry had serviced all others wishing to cross and were forced to take shelter under "Mantle Rock '', a shelter bluff on the Kentucky side, until "Berry had nothing better to do ''. Many died huddled together at Mantle Rock waiting to cross. Several Cherokee were murdered by locals. The Cherokee filed a lawsuit against the U.S. Government through the courthouse in Vienna, suing the government for $35 a head (equal to $804.34 today) to bury the murdered Cherokee.
As they crossed southern Illinois, on December 26, Martin Davis, Commissary Agent for Moses Daniel 's detachment, wrote:
"There is the coldest weather in Illinois I ever experienced anywhere. The streams are all frozen over something like 8 or 12 inches (20 or 30 cm) thick. We are compelled to cut through the ice to get water for ourselves and animals. It snows here every two or three days at the fartherest. We are now camped in Mississippi (River) swamp 4 miles (6 km) from the river, and there is no possible chance of crossing the river for the numerous quantity of ice that comes floating down the river every day. We have only traveled 65 miles (105 km) on the last month, including the time spent at this place, which has been about three weeks. It is unknown when we shall cross the river... ''
A soldier from Georgia said:
I fought through the War Between the States and have seen many men shot, but the Cherokee Removal was the cruelest work I ever knew.
It eventually took almost three months to cross the 60 miles (97 kilometres) on land between the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers. The trek through southern Illinois is where the Cherokee suffered most of their deaths. However a few years before forced removal, some Cherokee who opted to leave their homes voluntarily chose a water - based route through the Tennessee, Ohio and Mississippi rivers. It took only 21 days, but the Cherokee who were forcibly relocated were weary of water travel.
Removed Cherokees initially settled near Tahlequah, Oklahoma. When signing the Treaty of New Echota in 1835 Major Ridge said "I have signed my death warrant. '' The resulting political turmoil led to the killings of Major Ridge, John Ridge, and Elias Boudinot; of the leaders of the Treaty Party, only Stand Watie escaped death. The population of the Cherokee Nation eventually rebounded, and today the Cherokees are the largest American Indian group in the United States.
There were some exceptions to removal. Approximately 100 Cherokees evaded the U.S. soldiers and lived off the land in Georgia and other states. Those Cherokees who lived on private, individually owned lands (rather than communally owned tribal land) were not subject to removal. In North Carolina, about 400 Cherokees, known as the Oconaluftee Cherokee, lived on land in the Great Smoky Mountains owned by a white man named William Holland Thomas (who had been adopted by Cherokees as a boy), and were thus not subject to removal. Added to this were some 200 Cherokee from the Nantahala area allowed to stay in the Qualla Boundary after assisting the U.S. Army in hunting down and capturing the family of the old prophet, Tsali (who faced a firing squad after capture). These North Carolina Cherokees became the Eastern Band of the Cherokee Nation.
The United States Court of Claims ruled in favor of the Eastern Cherokee Tribe 's claim against the U.S. on May 18, 1905. This resulted in the appropriation of $1 million (equal to $27,438,023.04 today) to the Tribe 's eligible individuals and families. Interior Department employee Guion Miller created a list using several rolls and applications to verify tribal enrollment for the distribution of funds, known as the Guion Miller Roll. The applications received documented over 125,000 individuals; the court approved more than 30,000 individuals to share in the funds.
In 1987, about 2,200 miles (3,500 km) of trails were authorized by federal law to mark the removal of 17 detachments of the Cherokee people. Called the "Trail of Tears National Historic Trail '', it traverses portions of nine states and includes land and water routes.
A historical drama based on the Trail of Tears, Unto These Hills written by Kermit Hunter, has sold over five million tickets for its performances since its opening on July 1, 1950, both touring and at the outdoor Mountainside Theater of the Cherokee Historical Association in Cherokee, North Carolina.
Cherokee artist Troy Anderson was commissioned to design the Cherokee Trail of Tears Sesquicentennial Commemorative Medallion. The falling - tear medallion shows a seven - pointed star, the symbol of the seven clans of the Cherokees.
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who played primrose everdeen in the hunger games | Willow Shields - wikipedia
Willow Shields is an American actress. She is best known for her role as Primrose Everdeen in The Hunger Games film series.
Willow Shields was born in Albuquerque, New Mexico, the daughter of Carrie and Rob Shields, an art teacher. She has a fraternal twin sister, and an older brother, both of whom are also actors.
Shields ' first job was in 2008 narrating the short film Las Vegas New Mexico 1875. She portrayed Lisa Rogan a.k.a. Lisa Royal in a 2009 episode of the USA Network drama In Plain Sight, entitled "In My Humboldt Opinion '', and the voice of a girl watching a gun fight in the 7 - minute 2008 Western short film Las Vegas New Mexico 1875. In 2011, Shields appeared on CBS in the Hallmark Hall of Fame movie, Beyond the Blackboard, starring Emily VanCamp. In the television movie, Shields portrayed a homeless child named Grace.
Shields co-starred in The Hunger Games, portraying Primrose Everdeen. She reprised her role in the sequels, The Hunger Games: Catching Fire, The Hunger Games: Mockingjay -- Part 1, and The Hunger Games: Mockingjay -- Part 2. She has said that "just growing up as the character is going to be really fun ''. Shields will also star in The Wonder and A Fall From Grace.
On February 24, 2015, Shields was announced as one of the celebrities to compete on season 20 of Dancing with the Stars. Her professional partner was Mark Ballas. At age 14, she is the youngest competitor to ever appear on the show (taking the record from Zendaya, who was 16 when she competed on Season 16). In a shocking turn of events, the couple was eliminated in the seventh week of competition, (finishing in 7th place) despite receiving consistently high scores from the judges throughout the season.
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who's the actress that plays khaleesi on game of thrones | Emilia Clarke - wikipedia
Emilia Isabelle Euphemia Rose Clarke (born 23 October 1986) is an English actress. Born in London and raised in Berkshire, Clarke studied at the Drama Centre London and appeared in a number of stage productions. Her television debut came with a guest appearance in an episode of the British soap opera Doctors. In 2010, she was named as one of the UK Stars of Tomorrow by Screen International magazine for her role in Syfy 's film Triassic Attack (2010).
Clarke rose to prominence in 2011 for her breakthrough role as Daenerys Targaryen in the HBO series Game of Thrones (2011 -- present), a performance that has gained her critical acclaim. She has been nominated for three Emmy Awards for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series, and two Critics Choice Television Awards for Best Supporting Actress in a Drama Series, among other accolades.
Clarke made her Broadway debut as Holly Golightly in a production of Breakfast at Tiffany 's in 2013. In 2015, she was named Esquire 's Sexiest Woman Alive. She is also known for her starring roles as Sarah Connor in the science fiction film Terminator Genisys (2015) and as Louisa Clark in the romance film Me Before You (2016). She is also starring in the upcoming Star Wars Anthology film Solo: A Star Wars Story (2018).
Emilia Isabelle Euphemia Rose Clarke was born in London on 23 October 1986, and grew up in Berkshire. Her father (died 10 July 2016) was a theatre sound engineer from Wolverhampton, West Midlands. Her mother, Jennifer Clarke, is the director of the charity The Anima Foundation. She has a younger brother. Clarke 's interest in acting began at the age of three after seeing the musical Show Boat, on which her father was working. She was educated at Rye St Antony School and at St Edward 's School, graduating in 2005. She attended Drama Centre London, and graduated in 2009.
Clarke 's early work includes two plays at St. Edwards, ten plays at Drama Centre London, the 2009 Company of Angels production of Sense, and two 2009 commercials for Samaritans. One of her first film roles was for a University of London students ' short film. Her first television roles were Saskia Mayer in a 2009 episode of the British soap opera Doctors and Savannah in Syfy 's 2010 film Triassic Attack. Screen International magazine named her as one of the "UK Stars of Tomorrow ''.
In 2010 Clarke was cast as Daenerys Targaryen in the HBO fantasy series Game of Thrones, based on the book series A Song of Ice and Fire by George R.R. Martin. She was cast after fellow British actress Tamzin Merchant was replaced for undisclosed reasons. In an interview, Clarke stated that she did the funky chicken and robot dance during her audition. The show debuted in April 2011 to positive reviews and was quickly picked up by the network for a second season. Clarke won the 2011 EWwy Award for Best Supporting Actress in a Drama for her role as Daenerys. In 2013, Clarke was nominated for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series at the 65th Primetime Emmy Awards. She was nominated again in the category in 2015 and 2016.
Clarke has received widespread praise for her performance. Her acting, as she closed Daenerys 's arc initiated in the first episode from a frightened girl to an empowered woman, was praised. Matthew Gilbert of The Boston Globe called her scenes "mesmerizing '', adding that "Clarke does n't have a lot of emotional variety to work with as Daenerys, aside from fierce determination, and yet she is riveting. '' Todd VanDerWerff for The A.V. Club commented on the difficulty of adapting such an evolution from page to screen, but concluded that "Clarke (...) more than seal (s) the deal here. In 2017, Clarke reportedly became one of the highest paid actors on television, earning £ 2 million per episode of Game of Thrones.
In 2012, Clarke appeared in Spike Island, a film named after the location of The Stone Roses 's seminal 1990 gig. From March to April 2013, Clarke played Holly Golightly in a Broadway production of Breakfast at Tiffany 's. That year, she also starred in Dom Hemingway alongside Jude Law. Critical reaction to the film was mostly positive, though it was a commercial failure.
In May 2014, it was announced that she had joined the feature film Garden of Last Days alongside James Franco, but the movie was scrapped two weeks before production was due to begin. Clarke was offered the role of Anastasia Steele in Fifty Shades of Grey but turned down the part because of the nudity required. She played Sarah Connor in Terminator Genisys (2015), opposite Arnold Schwarzenegger, Jai Courtney, and Jason Clarke. The film grossed over $400 million worldwide, but received generally unfavorable reviews from critics, despite this she did receive nominations for awards like the Teen Choice Award for Choice Summer Movie Star - Female and Germany 's Jupiter Award for Best International Actress.
In 2016, Clarke starred as the female lead, opposite Sam Claflin, in the movie adaption of the best selling book (of the same name), Me Before You, released on 3 June 2016. The film was a commercial success, grossing over $200 million worldwide and is Clarke 's highest - rated film on the review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes. For her role as Louisa Clark, she shared nominations with Sam Claflin for the Teen Choice Award for Choice Movie Liplock and the MTV Television Tearjerker Award.
She played the lead as Nurse Verena, in the film Voice from the Stone which was released on April 2017 in limited release, video on demand and digital HD.
Clarke is also set to be attached to the films The Guns of August opposite Helena Bonham Carter, Set It Up opposite Glen Powell, and Above Suspicion opposite Jack Huston. In November 2016, Clarke was cast as the female lead in Solo: A Star Wars Story, set to be released worldwide on 25 May 2018. In January 2017, Clarke was cast as the lead in the upcoming English language adaptation of the 2015 Korean romantic comedy, The Beauty Inside.
In 2009, Clarke appeared in a campaign titled "Lisa 's Story '' for Samaritans, an organisation aiming to provide emotional support to those in emotional distress.
Since her rise to prominence, Clarke was contributed time and effort to a variety of charitable organisations. In September 2011, Emilia joined SMA Trust team as their celebrity ambassador. In August 2016, she was appointed trustee to The Anima Foundation, a not - for - profit organisation to educated the public on subjects relating to brain injuries. In August 2017, she became a patron of Open Door, a non-profit that aims to help young people gain access to drama school auditions. Clarke auctioned at chance to watch an episode of "Game of Thrones '' with her at the 2018 Sean Penn Charity Gala which raised over $120,000 benefit the J / P HRO & Disaster Relief Organizations. In February 2018, Clarke appeared at London 's Centerpoint Awards, which celebrates the courage shown by homeless young people. In April 2018, she was named ambassador to the Royal College of Nursing in the UK.
From 2012 until 2013, Clarke dated comedian and filmmaker Seth MacFarlane. The two broke up after approximately six months but remain friends.
As of October 2015, Clarke resides in Hampstead, London. In 2016, she purchased a $4.64 million house in Venice Beach, California.
Clarke was voted the most desirable woman in the world by AskMen readers in 2014. She was named Esquire 's Sexiest Woman Alive in 2015. On International Women 's Day 2017, she published a well - received op - ed on HuffPost UK regarding modern feminism and encouraging gender equality. She was the cover feature for the edition of 13 July 2017 of Rolling Stone.
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pretty little liars season 2 episode 13 cast | Pretty Little Liars (season 2) - wikipedia
The second season of Pretty Little Liars, based on the books of the same name by Sara Shepard, premiered on June 14, 2011 and concluded on March 19, 2012 on ABC Family. On January 10, 2011, ABC Family renewed the series for a second season. The season premiere brought in 3.68 million viewers, which was higher than the season 1 premiere. The Halloween special aired on October 19, 2011, drawing 2.5 million total viewers. The second half of season 2 premiered on January 2, 2012.
Picking up the night Ian Thomas 's body disappears, Spencer, Aria, Hanna, and Emily are painted as liars by the news and police. The girls ' parents request they see a therapist, Dr. Anne Sullivan. They initially refuse, and after a tense therapy session, their parents ask that the girls end their friendships with one another. This creates much tension, as the girls are forced to meet in secret. Spencer reveals that Ian may still be alive, suspecting Melissa to be hiding him somewhere. With the help of Melissa 's ex-fiance Wren, the girls follow them out to an old silo, where Ian 's body is discovered, along with a suicide note. Emily later realizes that the note is composed of various messages from "- A '' and that "- A '' planted the note to make them think Ian had murdered Alison. Armed with this revelation, the girls begin investigating other potential suspects, such as Alison 's older brother Jason, who has moved back to town, as well as Jenna Marshall. They later cut ties with Garrett Reynolds after learning of his romantic relationship with Jenna, who Ali had accidentally blinded in a prank gone wrong.
The girls confess to Dr. Sullivan that they are being tortured by "- A '', allowing Dr. Sullivan to piece together the blackmailer 's identity. However, before Dr. Sullivan can inform the girls of who "- A '' is, she disappears. "- A '' forces the girls to do various tasks throughout Hanna 's father 's wedding day, such as forcing Aria to blackmail Ezra 's former fiance with a plagiarized college paper and sabotaging Hanna 's father 's wedding. Spencer is also forced to end her relationship with Toby Cavanaugh to keep him safe from "- A 's '' wrath.
Emily is lured out to an old barn, where she is trapped by "- A '' who attempts to kill her using carbon monoxide poisoning. However, someone rescues her, and Emily has a vision of Alison. The girls arrive and "- A '' instructs them to dig up Dr. Sullivan before she runs out of oxygen. However, "- A '' has framed them, and they are subsequently arrested with the shovel Alison had been murdered with. Spencer 's mother is able to get them out of jail and they are forced to endure community service.
Aria also reveals her relationship with Ezra to her parents before "- A '' can, which ends negatively. Aria 's father makes numerous threats towards him, before causing him to lose his job at Hollis College. Although they break up briefly, Aria and Ezra begin seeing each other in secret with the help of her childhood friend, Holden Strauss. Unbeknownst to his overprotective parents, Holden participates in regular fighting competitions, despite having a severe heart condition.
The girls later attempt to trick "- A '' by making them think they have something that could give away their identity; Emily is confronted by "- A '' in an abandoned plant nursery. When Emily reveals the girls had tricked them, "- A '' physically attacks her, but Aria and Spencer arrive and corner them. They throw a vase into the air, shattering the glass ceiling and allowing them enough time to escape; however, Hanna arrives and hits "- A '' with her car, knocking them down momentarily. The girls chase them into the woods, but lose them. When they examine Hanna 's car, they discover "- A 's '' phone on the ground, which had apparently fallen out of their pocket when Hanna hit them with her car. The girls enlist Caleb 's help in unlocking the phone, as Hanna and Caleb had gotten back together during the latter half of the season.
Eventually, Alison is linked to an old doll hospital in town nearby called Brookhaven, and later a rural motel, The Lost Woods Resort. The girls attend a masquerade party, where they plan to confront "- A '' who appears to be a woman dressed as The Black Swan from Swan Lake. Spencer, accompanied by Mona, rides out to Lost Woods, while the other girls chase "- A ''. Spencer and Mona are able to steal the key to one of the rooms, which is revealed to be "- A 's '' Lair. Mona then reveals to Spencer that she is "- A '', while the woman at the costume party was only a decoy. Mona knocks Spencer unconscious, driving her to a nearby cliff. She gives Spencer the option of joining her "- A '' Team, or dying.
Spencer momentarily escapes, and the other girls learn of Mona 's plan and rush to her aid. Spencer and Mona struggle, and Mona is knocked into a ravine, but survives. Emily learns that Maya was murdered, after she had seemingly disappeared. Mona is hospitalized in Radley Sanitarium, where she is visited by a blonde woman in a red trench coat, revealing Mona was working for someone else the whole time.
The girls ' parents have gathered for an intervention to send the girls to group therapy. Aria finally considers reconciling and visits Ezra 's apartment, their relationship worsens when Ezra admits that he was still in love with his ex, Jackie, when he and Aria first met. Lucas brings Caleb back to Rosewood for Hanna but she 's too hurt to take him back. Caleb explains that he wrote her a letter and gave it to Mona, who threw it away. Hanna confronts Mona about the letter, but leaves when she realizes to her shock that Noel Khan and Mona are dating. Emily is struggling to deal with her impending move to Texas and losing her friends, including Toby, who she re-bonds with as they wait for Spencer to join them in secret. Spencer then cancels as she is having some difficulties with family at home: Melissa, distraught over her missing husband, Ian, threatens not to let Spencer anywhere near the baby. She decides to make up with Spencer, however, even telling her the unborn baby 's name, Taylor. The girls resolve to spill at least some of their secrets to Dr. Sullivan. The girls then notice that Ezra 's diploma, the missing piece from his apartment, is sitting on a shelf in the doctor 's office. The girls freak out and leave before they can tell Dr. Sullivan their secrets. Dr. Sullivan later contacts the girls ' parents and recommends that they take some time apart due to their "unstable '' behavior during their last therapy session. After Spencer finds a text message on Melissa 's phone, she suspects that the caller is Ian.
The Liars find that Jason Dilaurentis has moved back into Rosewood, with a very suspicious attitude. Samara and Emily start to hang out, but Emily struggles with her family 's impending move to Texas. However, when a college athletic scout approaches her after a swim meet, she sees an opportunity that could keep her in Rosewood. She tries to convince her parents that the athletic scout "basically offered '' her a scholarship to college, but she has to have a record of continuity. When she asks for a formal letter of this offer, the scout tells her there 's no guarantee she 'll get it. Pam tells Emily that someone has been breaking into everyone 's houses stealing camping supplies. Hanna 's father returns to town, but Hanna does n't trust him after seeing him marry into a new family. Mona tries to get Hanna 's forgiveness by talking to Aria for advice; -- but Aria tells her that she 's not allowed to talk to Hanna, so Mona 's on her own. Mona also asks Aria to pick a goodbye present for Ezra 's last day, since she knows him better "from the play. '' Spencer thinks that her sister is hiding something to protect Ian. She also discovers that Toby, much to her dismay, has a new job with the Rosewood construction company; -- so that he can be free of his parents with the money he earns; -- only to be let go on his first day due to a conflict with the clients over Toby 's reputation. Spencer tries to find out what Jason is up to, only to be interrogated by Jason about Ian 's apparent death. The Liars discuss the fact that the only evidence they had has been deleted.
Spencer dreams that "A '' is about to attack all the girls as they are hanging out together in a movie theater. Melissa rudely awakens Spencer as she searched for her lost wedding ring. Spencer then begins to suspect that Melissa has been talking to Ian since she leaves the room to take calls and lies about leaving the house. Hanna 's dad is staying in Rosewood, and Hanna is confused to how she feels and why her mother is not reacting in romantic manners to Tom 's appearance. Emily creates a fake letter saying she will be accepted into Danby University if she continues to swim anchor for Rosewood Swim Team. Aria takes a pottery class at Hollis but she runs into Jenna. Toby begins to work for Jason DiLaurentis, in order to save up for a truck so he can begin his job in Yardley and finally get away from his parents and step - sister. Spencer suspects that Jason is housing Ian because of the shadows in the upstairs windows and the bloody gauze in the garbage.
To celebrate Emily 's "acceptance '' to Danby University, Pam invites Samara over for dinner. Samara is able to convince Pam that Danby wo n't be the only school interested in offering Emily a scholarship, giving Emily time to figure out what to do next. Lucas worries about his upcoming date with Danielle, so he asks Hanna to double with him and tells her to bring Caleb. Unfortunately, Danielle thinks that Hanna is interested in Lucas. To convince Danielle that there is nothing between her and Lucas, Hanna and Caleb pretend to be on a real date. Hanna goes to the therapist alone for the first time, but is n't willing to open up to her. However, after Lucas thanks her for helping him with Danielle, Hanna realizes that she ca n't allow Ali to control her life anymore. She goes to see Dr. Sullivan again and confronts her past. Meanwhile, Aria learns that Mike has been lying about playing basketball after school every day. Spencer goes to Wren to ask him for help in tracking down Ian, but he refuses. She is finally able to convince him to trick Melissa into bringing him to Ian, so Spencer can follow them there. When Wren gets the word, the Liars follow Melissa in a car to a cabin in the woods, a few seconds later Melissa screams, and when they enter the cabin, they see Ian 's dead body sitting up against the wall, along with a gun and a suicide note, in which he has confessed to Alison 's murder.
Emily, Aria, Hanna, and Spencer learn that Ian 's suicide note was n't real; it was just made up of "A '' text messages. Aria 's brother Mike is caught trying to break into Jason DiLaurentis ' house and is also the one that stole things from Emily 's garage and pushed Aria in Spencer 's house. Melissa tells Spencer that her baby is a girl and while talking to Melissa, Ian 's phone goes off in Spencer 's bag making it look like Spencer was pretending to be Ian by texting Melissa. Hanna meets Caleb 's foster mom, Janet, and says that if she does n't continue giving Caleb his money until he is 18, then Hanna is going to bring Janet to court. While Emily is at a delivery store, she comes across Logan Reed, Logan then tells Emily that he never met Ian and that a woman on the phone hired him. At Ian 's funeral, Aria talks to Jason who tells her he thought he could have possibly killed Alison while he was drunk the night of her death and his suspicions were raised when he woke up the next morning with a note that read, "I know what you did. '' Emily 's clues from A 's texts lead the girls to Alison 's grave where A plays the video of Ian presumably killing Alison with the added part of Ali shown to be unharmed revealing she was still alive.
Spencer hears her dad on the phone with someone, yelling and specifically complaining that Jason is home. Spencer tries to strike up a conversation with her father, as he searches for an unhealthy night - time snack. The Liars meet with Jessica DiLaurentis for lunch shortly afterwards, despite their awkward reservations. She then presents the girls with presents; four high fashion dresses and asks the girls to model them in the fashion show. Just before the show, Spencer hands Noel the disc Mona asked her to deliver to him. In the corner of the room, Jessica and Peter have an argument. The fashion shows starts, and later the tribute to Alison begins, with her image prominent on the runway screen and the girls walking the runway in her dresses. Suddenly, the image changes so as to make Alison look like the devil, with fire around and peeling black eyes. The screen flashes "the bitch is dead, '' and the music changes from sentimental to hellish. Spencer runs to Noel to make him turn it off, but he claims he ca n't. She unplugs all the wires around his equipment until the images and sound effects stop.
Aria 's parents throw a dinner party, putting Aria face - to - face with both Ezra and Jason. The awkward night is interrupted when Mike gets arrested for breaking into another house. Emily tries to get used to living with the Marins, while Hanna tries to come to terms with Caleb 's "sketchy '' business. While doing landscaping work for the Hastings, Toby finds an old hockey stick buried in the backyard, and Spencer 's father becomes visibly nervous but burns it in the fire saying it does n't mean anything. Toby later tells Spencer about it, and she thinks it might be the weapon used to kill Ali. Ashley and Ella begin to wonder if there is n't something more serious going on in the girls ' lives that they do n't know. After searching through Mike 's bag of stolen items, Aria realizes that Officer Garrett can not be trusted, just as Spencer sits in the car telling Garrett she does n't know if she believes that Ian killed Ali anymore.
Emily has been juggling a lot of secrets and lies lately, and with a surprise visit from her father before a big swim meet, the pressure gets to be too much for her -- sending her to the hospital with an ulcer. But with the prospect of having to come clean to her father about Danby, Emily realizes she has bigger problems when "A '' reveals his / her part in Emily 's swim career. Wren turns out to be her doctor in the hospital. While visiting Emily, Spencer and Aria take the opportunity to try and do more digging around about the cause of Alison 's death and how the broken field hockey stick may play a part in the last few moments of their friend 's life. Spencer discovers that Ali had been buried alive because Ali 's autopsy report mentions her having dirt in her lungs. She also discovers that Ali 's report is missing a page. Meanwhile, Hanna struggles with the prospect of losing both men in her life when her father 's wedding "Save the Date '' arrives, and the possibility of Caleb running out of Rosewood before his past can come back to haunt him.
Spencer begins to suspect Jason after finding his broken hockey stick in her yard, and deciding that he was the one who stole the missing page in Alison 's autopsy file. While spying on him in his front yard and seeing how protective he is over the shed in his yard, she and Emily decide to break in. While in the shed, they find pictures of Aria while she is sleeping, and a box of cameras and spying equipment. This leads the girls to realizing that Jason is spying on Aria, and could be spying on all of them. Meanwhile, A put steroids in Emily 's pain cream which caused her blood tests to show signs of human growth hormones. Hanna 's mom allows Emily to have Samara and some of Samara 's friends over for a small get together, and A forces Emily to give her phone number to one of Samara 's friends, Zoey. Samara 's other friend catches Emily giving Zoey her number and then later tells Samara, which ends Emily 's relationship with her. Aria begins to have continuous dreams about Jason, which she feels is threatening her relationship with Ezra. Later at the park, Jason kisses Aria, but she tells him she is already taken, leading Jason to think she 's afraid of him. Hanna discovers that the man following Caleb is not a policeman, but instead a private investigator hired by his birth mother to find him. Caleb receives her phone number and is not sure whether to call her but Hanna convinces him that he should. Caleb leaves Rosewood and go to California to see her. Spencer and Emily return to Jason 's shed, only to find that he has discovered someone was in it and he has removed everything.
Aria finds herself in a difficult position when trying to process Spencer and Emily 's news about Jason. Aria reveals to Emily and Spencer that Jason kissed her, but she rejected him, and in turn, Emily and Spencer reveal that Jason has been taking pictures of her while she was sleeping; as well as having a darkroom in his shed. Aria talks to Jason about what her friends told her about him. He tells Aria that Ali was the one who took the pictures of Aria, and he had found the pictures in a box underneath Ali 's floorboards in her room when he was renovating it. Spencer reveals to Ezra that she knows about his and Aria 's relationship, and Aria 's mother suspects that Spencer and Ezra are hooking up when she sees them conversing in his car. Ella tells Aria that she thinks Spencer and Ezra have something going on; Aria finds out that she would feel betrayed if Aria told her about her relationship with Ezra; Ella decides to send Mike to a therapist. Mona pushes Hanna to try to play nice with her future step - sister, Kate, at her bridesmaids fitting, which ends up with the two riding horses at an equestrian club. Meanwhile, Spencer and Toby find Ian 's old yearbook while packing up his belongings and they find out that Jason, Ian, and Garrett were all in the "NAT Club. Jenna pays a visit to Spencer 's house and demands she stop digging for information.
After being pushed around, threatened and more by "A, '' Emily is at a breaking point and her friends know that something drastic has to be done to save her. The girls turn to the only person they have come to trust and know that she ca n't let their secrets out; -- Dr. Sullivan. Finally being able to reveal the torment that "A '' has put them through to someone outside of the tight - knit group gives the girls a sense of relief and Emily a new sense of courage. Hanna 's grandmother arrives in town for Tom 's rehearsal dinner, making sure to let it be known that she does n't want the wedding to happen. Kate seeks her revenge on Hanna for what she said at the ranch. Byron and Ella continue to argue about how to help Mike, while Mike finally manages to open up to Aria. Spencer 's father tells her that he committed a crime to help the DiLaurentis family and that Jason had motive to kill Alison, and he inadvertently tells her that the DiLaurentis family has some dirt against them. Emily, still feeling more courageous because of her talk with Dr. Sullivan, calls Maya and they meet for dinner. During that dinner, Dr. Sullivan studies her files and soon figures out who "A '' is.
"A '' has given each of the four girls a task to save Dr. Sullivan. They each receive wind - up dolls that speak out their missions. Aria 's task is to get rid of Jackie with proof of Jackie 's plagiarism. Spencer must break up with Toby in order to keep him safe from "A ''. Hanna must stop her father 's wedding by telling Isabel about her parents ' affair. Emily has to follow A 's directions, and winds up getting trapped in a barn with a car engine running. Emily passes out and is later saved from the death of carbon monoxide poisoning by "A '' and dragged out of the barn. Emily has a conversation with Alison in a dream. Emily then wakes up to find the other three girls beside her. Emily notices a shovel that had n't been present when she arrived at the barn. A message on the shovel reveals the coordinates of Dr. Sullivan 's location in the forest. The four assume that Dr. Sullivan was buried alive, but when they dig up the "burial ground '', they only find her boots and a dummy. They are cornered by the police and taken into custody. Garrett gives Jenna the missing page 5 of Alison 's autopsy report which he plans for Jenna to burn.
It 's exactly a month after "A '' framed the girls for Alison 's murder. Spencer rejects Toby and the gift he made her, Caleb returns to Hanna, and Ezra and Aria reveal their relationship to Aria 's parents. The relationship between Aria, Emily, Hanna, and Spencer changes following their arrest. Spencer and Emily fight to trick ' A ' into believing that the girls were falling apart. The girls fool "A '' into believing that they know something which was hidden in Alison 's box that Jason gave to Aria. Emily meets "A '' and shows them an empty box, making the girls ' charade known to "A ''. "A '' attacks Emily and tries to stab her with a nearby tool, but Aria and Spencer show up and corner them before they are able to use it. "A '' shatters the glass from the ceiling by throwing up a pot and makes a run for it. As "A '' exits the greenhouse they were in, Hanna pulls up, and "A '' is hit by her car. The girls chase after "A, '' but lose them and, just when Spencer declares they have nothing, they notice "A 's '' cell phone lying on the ground.
The girl 's head back into the greenhouse to look for the box and decide what to do next. Spencer suggests calling Caleb to help them recover information from the phone. While Caleb downloads the information on the computer from the phone, the owner shuts the phone down. Caleb works on decrypting the files on his laptop at school, which concerns Hanna. Spencer approaches Emily, hoping to enlist her help in snooping around Jason 's house. Emily starts community service at the crisis hotline that afternoon, Aria is on lockdown and Hanna is unhappy with Spencer for dragging Caleb into their "A '' investigation. Emily suggests Spencer let Hanna use her lake house with Caleb. At Hanna 's house, Hanna tries to study while Lucas seems distracted. She gets a text from Spencer offering her the lake house. She gets the brilliant idea to use it to throw Caleb a surprise birthday party and enlists Lucas ' help in planning it. Emily attends her first training session at the crisis hotline center. While reading a training transcript, Emily realizes the caller seems likely to be "A 's '' helper. Emily shows Spencer and Aria the transcript she swiped from the crisis center. At the crisis center, Emily 's supervisor tells her to listen in on the call that just came in because it is the transcript caller calling back. Spencer and Emily listen together and recognize the caller 's voice as Lucas '. Spencer and Emily learn from Mona that Hanna took the rowboat out with Lucas to set up the fireworks across the lake. Halfway across the lake, Lucas stops rowing. Hanna flips, pushes him overboard, and takes the oars but later falls overboard. Emily to go inside and call the police as Hanna swims to the shore.
Spencer finds an old receipt in her lake house attic, and assumes that "A '' had been there. The receipt shows an address in Philadelphia, which Aria and Spencer agree to visit. At school, Aria confesses to Spencer that her mom thinks she made a date with Holden when she really called Ezra. Ezra tells her that she ca n't call him anymore. Holden asks Aria out despite her being grounded. Aria buys tickets for a play for her and Holden 's date. Hanna argues with Caleb when Caleb wants to go look for Lucas but she does n't want to. In Philly, Spencer notices a rehab center for the blind near the address on the receipt. This was where Jenna used to go before moving back to Rosewood. Spencer goes in to ask about Jenna, and notices Garrett checked Jenna out of the rehab center the night after Ali died, and never checked back in. Spencer steals the patient logbook from which the year Jenna was there, and leaves after pretending to sign - in. Holden figures out that Aria and Ezra have a relationship, and understands this because he hides stuff from his parents too. Maya reveals to Emily that while she was at "sober camp '', she hooked up with a guy, and Emily is unstirred. Hanna encounters Lucas in her house, and Lucas tells her he never wanted to hurt her. Caleb shows up and asks where Lucas was. Lucas reveals he was on the crisis hotline because he lost Caleb 's money in a bet. He was missing because he drove around all night selling his comic books to get the money back, and he took Hanna out onto the lake to ask her to soften the blow of the news for Caleb.
The girls check out what Caleb got from A 's cell phone. They see a video from Alison 's bedroom. Ian sets up a video camera, and then Garrett leads Jenna into the room. Ian and Garrett argue over getting videos from Alison and the girls realize this was the night Alison was murdered. Hanna notices a piece of paper inside the dolls from the box. It is a series of threatening notes, one of them making reference to a pumpkin. The girls flash back to Halloween coming home with Alison after Noel 's party. A jack - o - lantern on her front porch had a knife stuck in its head. Toby climbs the scaffolding at the Hastings ' house and falls off causing him to break his arm. Spencer tells Emily she thinks she 's putting Toby in danger. She wants Emily to do something that might make him hate Spencer but there is only one thing she could think of that could save Toby. Emily sees Toby 's and tells him that the guy Spencer was seeing before him is back. Emily says she 's telling him because Spencer could n't. Ezra eventually shows up to meet Aria. In his car he says what they are doing is dangerous. He wants her to be safe and happy and wants her to make sure that being together is what she wants. Caleb tells Spencer and Emily that the only way he 's going to continue working is if they let him know what Hanna is so afraid of. Spencer gave Caleb a streamlined version of what has been happening, but Hanna does n't know they have told him anything. Spencer, Emily, and Aria watch the rest of the video. Ian tells Garrett he 's "going down '' and pulls out the camera. Garrett and Ian fight just as Alison enters the room.
Hanna thinks that the girls are icing her out because she destroyed the memory card from A 's phone. Caleb agreed to continue decrypting the information from A 's phone if Spencer, Aria, and Emily agrees to not tell Hanna about it. A knows that Caleb is working on decrypting the phone, so A threatens Hanna to make Caleb stop or else she 'd expose her mother 's secret about stealing money from the bank. Hanna decides to tell Caleb about her mother 's secret, in hoping that he 'd stop working on A 's phone. Caleb finds a photo of a fake ID of a brunette Alison. Hanna sees this picture and tells Spencer that she saw Alison in a brunette wig, with the alias of Vivian Darkbloom. Hanna and Spencer find a claim ticket in one of Alison 's books. Spencer, pretending to be Vivian, calls the number. Hanna 's step - sister Kate is now in Rosewood. When Spencer meets Kate, she realizes that she knows her from a summer camp that Melissa used to work at. Spencer had a photo of Kate with a bunch of bug bites from camp, and threatened to show it to the school if Kate is n't nice to Hanna. Meanwhile, Emily hopes that her mother 's visit to Rosewood will be a good opportunity to re-introduce her to Maya and hope that things will turn out better than they did the last time. However, Maya is still upset about how Pam ratted her out, so she goes out of her way to make the dinner extremely uncomfortable for Emily and her mother. Ezra gets offered a job that would require him to move. He finds out that Aria 's father had set up this job offer for him in hoping that Ezra would be out of Aria 's life.
It 's Truth Up Day at Rosewood High, and it seems some will have more to spill than others. Spencer, Aria, Emily and Hanna deal with their own personal problems, before A exposes everything. When they see that Kate has a birthmark right above her waist, they know that the photo that was sent to everyone else was photoshopped. Hanna realizes that A had n't sent that photo with Hanna 's phone, because there was no reason for A to help Kate. In the bathroom, Hanna pushes Kate to tell the truth, which Aria and Emily record while hiding in the stalls. They prove to the principal that Hanna is innocent. Aria is suspicious about Holden, who she thinks is "hurting himself ''. When Aria gets locked out on the rooftop of the school and is attacked by Noel, who is now Jenna 's boyfriend, Holden rescues her by kicking Noel in the face in a very professional matter, thus revealing more about his secret. Mona and Emily become closer when Mona volunteers to find a way to get Emily back on the swim team since the principal felt Emily would tarnish the team 's reputation, due to the Liars ' trouble with the police. Jason comes back to Rosewood looking for Spencer 's father. During the school 's Truth Up Day event, Spencer overhears Jason and her mom arguing about how everyone should "know the truth. '' It is then revealed that Jason and Spencer share the same father. Later on, the number they found in Vivian Darkbloom 's jacket returns their call and asks to meet up face - to - face to answer some questions.
Garrett gives Caleb a court order to obtain his computer as says someone is hacking into the school 's files and he traced it back to his IP address. In the computer lab, Caleb tells Hanna that Garrett ca n't get past his firewall without his help and the files from A are all on flash drives. Aria finally finds out what Holden is doing on their "dates '' - he is doing martial arts but his parents forbid it as Holden has a heart condition. Spencer visits Jason where he tells her that he found another one of Ali 's boxes under the floorboards at their grandma 's house. There were love letters and $15,000. Later, the girls go to meet Jonah, someone with information about Alison 's alter ego, Vivian. He says Vivian told him about a friend called Alison who was getting texts from somebody with a blocked number and she would pay to find out whom. Ashley and Hanna are called to the police station where they reveal a photo of Emily, Spencer, and Hanna in nurse dresses outside the morgue. Hanna tells Ashley it was a practical joke and they do n't know anything about the missing page. Spencer talks with her dad about Jason and admits he cheated and got Jessica DiLaurentis pregnant. Spencer asks about the letters and money, but he says he never gave money to the DiLaurentis family. In her bedroom, Hanna is trying to hack into Caleb 's computer to delete the files, but ca n't remember his password. Wilden and Garrett go through Caleb 's files while Hanna successfully logs into Caleb 's account and finds the files "A '' planted and deletes them clearing Caleb 's name. Spencer tells Jason Ali needed the money to find someone she was afraid of and that the girls intend to as well.
Spencer tells the girls she got the money for Jonah from a relative and her and Aria meet Jonah at the park at 6 o'clock. They give him the money and he gives them an address, but Jonah wo n't disclose anything else. As the girls leave, they notice Garrett watching them in his car. Aria tells the girls that "A '' sent her dad a note trying to catch Ezra and Aria and now Ella wants to find out who "A '' is, and admits she and Ezra are still seeing each other. Caleb sends the girls an email with another part of Ian 's video. Melissa walks into Alison 's room, angrily asking where Alison is. Spencer wants to talk to Melissa first before the other girls turn her in. Mona shows Hanna an incident report from when Hanna shoplifted the sunglasses, sent by "A ''. "A '' threatened Mona to give the report and picture to the newspaper or else she 'll be filling out a police report. Hanna tells Mona about "A '' and Mona asks what to do about the report. Aria, Hanna, and Emily go to the address Jonah gave of a law firm but the girls leave in a hurry when an alarm is set off. The next morning, Mona reveals to Hanna she returned the jewellery she stole saving Hanna and her mom. Ezra tells Aria he has to move away and take the job or else Aria 's dad will know what 's making him stay. Ella goes to Ezra 's apartment saying she wants to understand. Melissa says she needs to tell Spencer something that she wanted to tell her at Ian 's funeral. In Hanna 's bedroom, Ashley spots the letter Aria picked up from the law firm and mentions Melissa worked there as a summer intern.
The cops tell Emily that Maya is missing, and that her parents do n't know where she is. Rosewood high hosts a father daughter dance and the girls make plans for their dates. Byron and Aria 's relationship is strained, Hanna 's father is MIA so her mother offers to go with her, and Emily 's father comes back from Texas to attend with her. After Spencer tells Melissa that she saw her get into a car with Garrett, Melissa tells her that Garrett was helping her, as he was a close friend of Ian 's. She also reveals that she sent texts to Alison telling her to back off. Emily discovers, with help from her father, that Maya bought a ticket to San Francisco, but may not have gotten on the train. After Ashley tries to figure out who could have blackmailed Hannah with the police report, the girls decide that they should lie and say that they did it to get their parents off of "A 's '' trail. Aria is nominated for the job, and lies to Hanna 's mother about sending the shoplifting report to Hanna saying that she did it in order to get Hannah to stop shoplifting. Spencer finds her father 's check book and a check stub for $15,000 in cash. She also finds a folder with pictures of Ali in it. When Spencer confronts her father, he confesses he paid $15,000 for a private investigator to find Ali. He did this to keep Melissa safe, who was harassing Alison with vicious text messages about Ian.
The liars are on the hunt for answers of what Alison knew before she died. The girls meet a boy named Duncan from Alison 's past, he explains how he and Ali were good friends during the summer before she returned to Rosewood and went missing. He reveals he was with Ali the day she was murdered and Ali had returned home earlier than she led the girls to believe. Toby returns to Rosewood still angry at Spencer and helping Jenna again although he suffered from her in the past. After a confrontation with Hanna, he assures her he knows what he 's doing. Jenna undergoes her eye surgery but the effectiveness of the surgery is still unknown for the time being. Jason gives the girls a bag of Ali 's personal items which the girls do n't seem to understand until Spencer notices the box was covered with highlighted newspapers from the summer Ali died and realizes there is some pattern to it all. Jenna is injured in a fire at Jason 's house but is saved by Hanna.
Ezra tells Aria he 's worried about the fallout from him not taking the job Byron lined up for him. Jenna takes off the bandage covering her surgically repaired eye and it seems her surgery failed. Spencer finds out that Alison and "A '' had been communicating via newspaper classified ads and was set to meet up. The girls decide to go to Brookhaven where the meeting was supposed to take place. Mona gets a text from "A '' that says if she does n't break up Hanna and Caleb she 'll go back to being a loser. Aria finds an application for a boarding school in Vermont that Byron has left for Ella. The girls go to the doll store in Brookhaven and they speak with a boy named Seth, who tells them that Alison was in the store a year ago looking for a voodoo doll. He warned her against it, since a man and woman with dark hair were trying to hurt her. Aria mentions the application to Ella who says she 's considering it because of "A ''. Aria hints at hurting Byron 's career by revealing his past affair with Meredith. Melissa asks about the bag she found in Spencer 's room. Spencer then shows her the video of her coming into Alison 's room and says she thinks the police need to see it, but Melissa threatens her. Jenna shows Toby the missing page from Alison 's autopsy report, which she got from Garrett. Jenna thinks the police should have it, so they go to the station. Melissa and Garrett are in the kitchen when she assures him Spencer did n't turn in the video. Two officers come to place Garrett under arrest for Alison 's murder.
On the night of the annual masquerade ball, the girls finally decide to put an end to A 's game. During the ball, Mona mentions to Spencer how she saw Alison spying on someone. Emily talks with her ex Paige and they decide that they 're going to attempt a friendship now that she 's out of the closet. Spencer realizes that "A '' was n't watching Ali; Ali was watching "A ''. Mona and her go back to the Lost Woods Resort, and Spencer realizes that Room One was n't where they had to look - it was Room two. They open the door, gasping at what they see: "A '' 's Lair. It is plastered with pictures of the girls, and other things such as the voodoo doll Alison received, the creepy baby doll costume, and a doll set, each one looking like the girls with Alison sitting on the top. Spencer finds numerous things that point to Mona being "A '', and "A '' is finally revealed to be Mona Vanderwaal. She knocks Spencer out cold, and they take a drive. Aria video calls Spencer, and the girls see who "A '' is. They flee to catch up with them. Spencer jumps out of the car, and the girls arrive. Mona freaks out and tries to kill Spencer, but ends up falling off a cliff. The ambulance arrives, and so does Dr. Sullivan. She tells them "A '' threatened her son, which is why she left. It is then revealed Mona is alive. Meanwhile, we get a peek at what Mona is thinking while being kept in the mental hospital: She says that this is what "they '' wanted, and their plan worked out just right. This means that Mona is n't working alone. A body is found, and it is Maya 's. Emily cries while the girls comfort her.
After an initial order of 24 episodes, it was announced in June that a special Halloween - themed flashback episode would air as part of ABC Family 's 13 Nights of Halloween lineup, bringing the season 2 episode order to 25 episodes.
On December 13, 2011, it was announced that the identity of A would be revealed in the Spring Finale. Plus, the season finale will see someone arrested for the murder of Alison, as well as the death of a beloved character -- excluding the four female leads. Filming of season two wrapped on December 16, 2011.
Janel Parrish, Tammin Sursok, Bianca Lawson, and Tyler Blackburn return in the second season as Mona Vanderwaal, Jenna Marshall, Maya St. Germain, and Caleb Rivers. Also returning are Yani Gellman, Torrey DeVitto, Lindsey Shaw, Claire Holt, Keegan Allen, Brant Daugherty, Brendan Robinson, and Julian Morris, who will all reprise their roles from the first season. Annabeth Gish appears as Anne Sullivan, a therapist whom the girls ' parents feel can help them on their problems. Andrea Parker will play Jessica DiLaurentis, Alison 's mother, who returns to Rosewood to help out with a fashion show being held in Alison 's honour. Actor Drew Van Acker also joined the cast playing Jason DiLaurentis, replacing Parker Bagley.
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when was mr smith goes to washington made | Mr. Smith Goes to Washington - wikipedia
Mr. Smith Goes to Washington is a 1939 American political comedy - drama film directed by Frank Capra, starring Jean Arthur and James Stewart, and featuring Claude Rains and Edward Arnold. The film is about a newly appointed United States Senator who fights against a corrupt political system, and was written by Sidney Buchman, based on Lewis R. Foster 's unpublished story "The Gentleman from Montana ''. The film was controversial when it was first released, but was also successful at the box office, and made Stewart a major movie star.
Mr. Smith Goes to Washington was nominated for eleven Academy Awards, winning for Best Original Story. Considered to be one of the greatest films of all time, the film was selected by the Library of Congress for preservation in the United States National Film Registry in 1989, deeming it "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant ''.
The governor of an unnamed western state, Hubert "Happy '' Hopper (Guy Kibbee), has to pick a replacement for recently deceased U.S. Senator Sam Foley. His corrupt political boss, Jim Taylor (Edward Arnold), pressures Hopper to choose his handpicked stooge, while popular committees want a reformer, Henry Hill. The governor 's children want him to select Jefferson Smith (James Stewart), the head of the Boy Rangers. Unable to make up his mind between Taylor 's stooge and the reformer, Hopper decides to flip a coin. When it lands on edge -- and next to a newspaper story on one of Smith 's accomplishments -- he chooses Smith, calculating that his wholesome image will please the people while his naïveté will make him easy to manipulate.
Junior Senator Smith is taken under the wing of the publicly esteemed, but secretly crooked, Senator Joseph Paine (Claude Rains), who was Smith 's late father 's friend. Smith develops an immediate attraction to the senator 's daughter, Susan (Astrid Allwyn). At Senator Paine 's home, Smith has a conversation with Susan, fidgeting and bumbling, entranced by the young socialite. Smith 's naïve and honest nature allows the unforgiving Washington press to take advantage of him, quickly tarnishing Smith 's reputation with ridiculous front page pictures and headlines branding him a bumpkin.
To keep Smith busy, Paine suggests he propose a bill. With the help of his secretary, Clarissa Saunders (Jean Arthur), who was the aide to Smith 's predecessor and had been around Washington and politics for years, Smith comes up with a bill to authorize a federal government loan to buy some land in his home state for a national boys ' camp, to be paid back by youngsters across America. Donations pour in immediately. However, the proposed campsite is already part of a dam - building graft scheme included in an appropriations bill framed by the Taylor political machine and supported by Senator Paine.
Unwilling to crucify the worshipful Smith so that their graft plan will go through, Paine tells Taylor he wants out, but Taylor reminds him that Paine is in power primarily through Taylor 's influence. Through Paine, the machine in his state accuses Smith of trying to profit from his bill by producing fraudulent evidence that Smith already owns the land in question. Smith is too shocked by Paine 's betrayal to defend himself, and runs away.
Saunders, who looked down on Smith at first, but has come to believe in him, talks him into launching a filibuster to postpone the appropriations bill and prove his innocence on the Senate floor just before the vote to expel him. In his last chance to prove his innocence, he talks non-stop for about 24 hours, reaffirming the American ideals of freedom and disclosing the true motives of the dam scheme. Yet none of the Senators are convinced.
The constituents try to rally around him, but the entrenched opposition is too powerful, and all attempts are crushed. Owing to the influence of Taylor 's machine, newspapers and radio stations in Smith 's home state, on Taylor 's orders, refuse to report what Smith has to say and even distort the facts against the senator. An effort by the Boy Rangers to spread the news in support of Smith results in vicious attacks on the children by Taylor 's minions.
Although all hope seems lost, the senators begin to pay attention as Smith approaches utter exhaustion. Paine has one last card up his sleeve: he brings in bins of letters and telegrams from Smith 's home state, purportedly from average people demanding his expulsion. Nearly broken by the news, Smith finds a small ray of hope in a friendly smile from the President of the Senate (Harry Carey). Smith vows to press on until people believe him, but immediately collapses in a faint. Overcome with guilt, Paine leaves the Senate chamber and attempts to commit suicide by gunshot, but is stopped by onlooking senators. He then bursts back into the Senate chamber, shouting a confession to the whole scheme; Paine further insists that he should be expelled from the Senate and affirms Smith 's innocence, to the delight of Clarissa. The President of the Senate observes the ensuing chaos with amusement.
Uncredited
Cast notes:
Columbia Pictures originally purchased Lewis R. Foster 's unpublished story, variously called "The Gentleman from Montana '' and "The Gentleman from Wyoming '', as a vehicle for Ralph Bellamy, but once Frank Capra came on board as director -- after Rouben Mamoulian had expressed interest -- the film was to be a sequel to his Mr. Deeds Goes to Town, called Mr. Deeds Goes to Washington, with Gary Cooper reprising his role as Longfellow Deeds. Because Cooper was unavailable, Capra then "saw it immediately as a vehicle for Jimmy Stewart and Jean Arthur '', and Stewart was borrowed from MGM. Capra said of Stewart: "I knew he would make a hell of a Mr. Smith... He looked like the country kid, the idealist. It was very close to him. ''
Although a youth group is featured in the story, the Boy Scouts of America refused to allow their name to be used in the film and instead the fanciful "Boy Rangers '' was used.
In January 1938, both Metro - Goldwyn - Mayer and Paramount Pictures submitted Foster 's story to the censors at the Hays Office, likely indicating that both studios had an interest in the project before Columbia purchased it. Joseph Breen, the head of that office, warned the studios: "(W) e would urge most earnestly that you take serious counsel before embarking on the production of any motion picture based on this story. It looks to us like one that might well be loaded with dynamite, both for the motion picture industry, and for the country at large. '' Breen specifically objected to "the generally unflattering portrayal of our system of Government, which might well lead to such a picture being considered, both here, and more particularly abroad, as a covert attack on the Democratic form of government '', and warned that the film should make clear that "the Senate is made up of a group of fine, upstanding citizens, who labor long and tirelessly for the best interests of the nation... ''
Later, after the screenplay had been written and submitted, Breen reversed course, saying of the film, "It is a grand yarn that will do a great deal of good for all those who see it and, in my judgment, it is particularly fortunate that this kind of story is to be made at this time. Out of all Senator Jeff 's difficulties there has been evolved the importance of a democracy and there is splendidly emphasized the rich and glorious heritage which is ours and which comes when you have a government ' of the people, by the people, and for the people ' ''.
The film was in production from April 3, 1939, to July 7 of that year. Some location shooting took place in Washington, D.C., at Union Station and at the United States Capitol, as well as other locations for background use.
In the studio, to ensure authenticity, an elaborate set was created, consisting of Senate committee rooms, cloak rooms, and hotel suites, as well as specific Washington, D.C., monuments, all based on a trip Capra and his crew made to the capital. Even the Press Club of Washington was reproduced in minute detail, but the major effort went into a faithful reproduction of the Senate Chamber on the Columbia lot. James D. Preston, a former superintendent of the Senate gallery, acted as technical director for the Senate set, as well as advising on political protocol. The production also utilized the "New York street set '' on the Warner Bros. lot, using 1,000 extras when that scene was shot.
The ending of the film was apparently changed at some point, as the original program describes Stewart and Arthur returning to Smith 's hometown, where they are met by a big parade, with the implication that they are married and starting a family. In addition, the Taylor political machine is shown being crushed; Smith, riding a motorcycle, visits Senator Paine and forgives him; and a visit to Smith 's mother is included. Some of this footage can be seen in the film 's trailer.
The film premiered in Constitution Hall in Washington, D.C., on October 17, 1939, sponsored by the National Press Club, an event to which 4,000 guests were invited, including 45 senators. Mr. Smith Goes to Washington was attacked by the Washington press, and politicians in the U.S. Congress, as anti-American and pro-Communist for its portrayal of corruption in the American government. While Capra claims in his autobiography that some senators walked out of the premiere, contemporary press accounts are unclear about whether this occurred or not, or whether senators yelled back at the screen during the film.
It is known that Alben W. Barkley, a Democrat and the Senate Majority Leader, called the film "silly and stupid '', and said it "makes the Senate look like a bunch of crooks ''. He also remarked that the film was "a grotesque distortion '' of the Senate, "as grotesque as anything ever seen! Imagine the Vice President of the United States winking at a pretty girl in the gallery in order to encourage a filibuster! '' Barkley thought the film "... showed the Senate as the biggest aggregation of nincompoops on record! ''
Pete Harrison, a respected journalist and publisher of the motion picture trade journal Harrison 's Reports, suggested that the Senate pass a bill allowing theater owners to refuse to show films that "were not in the best interest of our country ''. That did not happen, but one of the ways that some senators attempted to retaliate for the damage they felt the film had done to the reputation of their institution was by pushing the passage of the Neely Anti-Block Booking Bill, which eventually led to the breakup of the studio - owned theater chains in the late 1940s. Columbia responded by distributing a program which put forward the film 's patriotism and support of democracy and publicized the film 's many positive reviews.
Other objections were voiced as well. Joseph P. Kennedy, the American Ambassador to Great Britain, wrote to Capra and Columbia head Harry Cohn to say that he feared the film would damage "America 's prestige in Europe '', and because of this urged that it be withdrawn from European release. Capra and Cohn responded, citing the film 's review, which mollified Kennedy to the extent that he never followed up, although he privately still had doubts about the film.
The film was banned in Hitler 's Germany, Mussolini 's Italy, Franco 's Spain and Stalin 's USSR. According to Capra, the film was also dubbed in certain European countries to alter the message of the film so it conformed with official ideology.
When a ban on American films was imposed in German occupied France in 1942, some theaters chose to show Mr. Smith Goes to Washington as the last movie before the ban went into effect. One theater owner in Paris reportedly screened the film nonstop for 30 days after the ban was announced.
The critical response to the film was more measured than the reaction by politicians, domestic and foreign. The critic for The New York Times, for instance, Frank S. Nugent, wrote that "(Capra) is operating, of course, under the protection of that unwritten clause in the Bill of Rights entitling every voting citizen to at least one free swing at the Senate. Mr. Capra 's swing is from the floor and in the best of humor; if it fails to rock the august body to its heels -- from laughter as much as from injured dignity -- it wo n't be his fault but the Senate 's, and we should really begin to worry about the upper house. ''
Mr. Smith Goes to Washington has been called one of the quintessential whistleblower films in American history. Dr. James Murtagh and Dr. Jeffrey Wigand cited this film as a seminal event in U.S. history at the first "Whistleblower Week in Washington '' (May 13 -- 19, 2007).
Mr. Smith Goes to Washington has often been listed as among Capra 's best, but it has been noted that it "marked a turning point in Capra 's vision of the world, from nervous optimism to a darker, more pessimistic tone. Beginning with American Madness (1932), such Capra films as Lady for a Day (1933), It Happened One Night (1934), Mr. Deeds Goes to Town (1936), and You Ca n't Take It With You (1938) had trumpeted their belief in the decency of the common man. In Mr. Smith Goes to Washington, however, the decent common man is surrounded by a venal, petty and thuggish group of crooks. Everyone in the film -- except for Jefferson Smith and his tiny cadre of believers -- is either in the pay of the political machine run by Edward Arnold 's James Taylor or complicit in Taylor 's corruption through their silence, and they all sit by as innocent people, including children, are brutalized and intimidated, rights are violated, and the government is brought to a halt ''.
Nevertheless, Smith 's filibuster and the tacit encouragement of the Senate President are both emblematic of the director 's belief in the difference that one individual can make. This theme would be expanded further in Capra 's It 's a Wonderful Life (1946) and other films.
Mr. Smith Goes to Washington was nominated for 11 Academy Awards but won only one.
Informational notes
Citations
Bibliography
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why was houston able to defeat the mexican army | Battle of San Jacinto - wikipedia
Decisive Texian victory;
The Battle of San Jacinto, fought on April 21, 1836, in present - day Harris County, Texas, was the decisive battle of the Texas Revolution. Led by General Sam Houston, the Texian Army engaged and defeated General Antonio López de Santa Anna 's Mexican army in a fight that lasted just 18 minutes. A detailed, first - hand account of the battle was written by General Houston from Headquarters of the Texian Army, San Jacinto on April 25, 1836. Numerous secondary analyses and interpretations have followed, several of which are cited and discussed throughout this entry.
General Santa Anna, the President of Mexico, and General Martín Perfecto de Cos both escaped during the battle. Santa Anna was captured the next day on April 22 and Cos on April 24, 1836. After being held about three weeks as a prisoner of war, Santa Anna signed the peace treaty that dictated that the Mexican army leave the region, paving the way for the Republic of Texas to become an independent country. These treaties did not specifically recognize Texas as a sovereign nation, but stipulated that Santa Anna was to lobby for such recognition in Mexico City. Sam Houston became a national celebrity, and the Texans ' rallying cries from events of the war, "Remember the Alamo! '' and "Remember Goliad!, '' became etched into Texan history and legend.
General Antonio López de Santa Anna was a proponent of governmental federalism when he helped oust Mexican president Anastasio Bustamante in December 1832. Upon his election as president in April 1833, Santa Anna switched his political ideology and began implementing centralist policies that increased the authoritarian powers of his office. His abrogation of the Constitution of 1824, correlating with his abolishing local - level authority over Mexico 's state of Coahuila y Tejas (Coahuila and Texas), became a flashpoint in the growing tensions between the central government and its Tejano and Anglo citizens in Texas. While in Mexico City awaiting a meeting with Santa Anna, Texian empresario Stephen F. Austin wrote to the Béxar ayuntamiento (city council) urging a break - away state. In response, the Mexican government kept him imprisoned for most of 1834.
Colonel Juan Almonte was appointed Director of Colonization in Texas, ostensibly to ease relations with the colonists and mitigate their anxieties about Austin 's imprisonment. He delivered promises of self - governance, and conveyed regrets that the Mexican congress deemed it constitutionally impossible for Texas to be a separate state. Behind the rhetoric, his covert mission was to identify the local power brokers, obstruct any plans for rebellion, and supply the Mexican government with data that would be of use in a military conflict. For nine months in 1834, under the guise of serving as a government liaison, Almonte traveled through Texas and compiled an all - encompassing intelligence report on the population and its environs, including an assessment of their resources and defense capabilities.
In consolidating his power base, Santa Anna installed General Martín Perfecto de Cos as the governing military authority over Texas in 1835. Cos established headquarters in San Antonio on October 9, triggering what became known as the Siege of Béxar. After two months of trying to repel the Texian forces, Cos raised a white flag on December 9, and signed surrender terms two days later. The surrender of Cos effectively removed the occupying Mexican army from Texas. Many believed the war was over, and volunteers began returning home.
In compliance with orders from Santa Anna, Mexico 's Minister of War José María Tornel issued his December 30 "Circular No. 5 '', often referred to as the Tornel Decree, aimed at dealing with United States intervention in the uprising in Texas. It declared that foreigners who entered Mexico for the purpose of joining the rebellion were to be treated as "pirates '', to be put to death if captured. In adding "since they are not subjects of any nation at war with the republic nor do they militate under any recognized flag, '' Tornel avoided declaring war on the United States.
The Mexican Army of Operations numbered 6,019 soldiers and was spread out over 300 miles (480 km) on its march to Béxar. General Joaquín Ramírez y Sesma was put in command of the Vanguard of the Advance that crossed into Texas. Santa Anna and his aide - de-camp Almonte forded the Rio Grande at Guerrero, Coahuila on February 16, 1836, with General José de Urrea and 500 more troops following the next day at Matamoros. Béxar was captured on February 23 and when the assault commenced, attempts at negotiation for surrender were initiated from inside the fortress. Travis sent Albert Martin to request a meeting with Almonte, who replied that he did not have the authority to speak for Santa Anna. Bowie dispatched Green B. Jameson with a letter, translated into Spanish by Juan Seguín, requesting a meeting with Santa Anna, who immediately refused. Santa Anna did, however, extend an offer of amnesty to Tejanos inside the fortress. Alamo non-combatant survivor Enrique Esparza said that most Tejanos left when Bowie advised them to take the offer.
Cos, in violation of his surrender terms, forded into Texas at Guerrero on February 26 to join with the main army at Béxar. Urrea proceeded to secure the Gulf Coast, and was victorious in two skirmishes with Texian detachments serving under Fannin at Goliad. On February 27 a foraging detachment under Frank W. Johnson at San Patricio was attacked by Urrea. Sixteen were killed, and 21 taken prisoner, but Johnson and 4 others escaped. Urrea sent a company to Agua Dulce searching for James Grant and Plácido Benavides who were leading a company of Anglos and Tejanos towards an invasion of Matamoros. The Mexicans set a trap, killing Grant and most of the company. Benavides and 4 others escaped, and 6 were taken prisoner.
The Convention of 1836 met at Washington - on - the - Brazos on March 1. The following day, Sam Houston 's 42nd birthday, the 59 delegates signed the Texas Declaration of Independence, and chose an ad interim government. When news of the declaration reached Goliad, Benavides informed Fannin that in spite of his opposition to Santa Anna, he was still loyal to Mexico and did not wish to help Texas break away. Fannin discharged him from his duties and sent him home. On March 4 Houston 's military authority was expanded to include "the land forces of the Texian army both Regular, Volunteer, and Militia. ''
At 5 a.m. on March 6, the Mexican troops launched their final assault on the Alamo. The guns fell silent 90 minutes later; the Alamo had fallen. Survivors Susannah Dickinson, her daughter Angelina, Travis ' slave Joe, and Almonte 's cook Ben were spared by Santa Anna and sent to Gonzales, where Texian volunteers had been assembling.
The same day that Mexican troops departed Béxar, Houston arrived in Gonzales and informed the 374 volunteers (some without weapons) gathered there that Texas was now an independent republic. Just after 11 p.m. on March 13, Susanna Dickinson and Joe brought news that the Alamo garrison had been defeated and the Mexican army was marching towards Texian settlements. A hastily convened council of war voted to evacuate the area and retreat. The evacuation commenced at midnight and happened so quickly that many Texian scouts were unaware the army had moved on. Everything that could not be carried was burned, and the army 's only two cannons were thrown into the Guadalupe River. When Ramírez y Sesma reached Gonzales the morning of March 14, he found the buildings still smoldering.
Most citizens fled on foot, many carrying their small children. A cavalry company led by Seguín and Salvador Flores were assigned as rear guard to evacuate the more isolated ranches and protect the civilians from attacks by Mexican troops or Indians. The further the army retreated, the more civilians joined the flight. For both armies and the civilians, the pace was slow; torrential rains had flooded the rivers and turned the roads into mud pits.
As news of the Alamo 's fall spread, volunteer ranks swelled, reaching about 1,400 men on March 19. Houston learned of Fannin 's defeat on March 20 and realized his army was the last hope for an independent Texas. Concerned that his ill - trained and ill - disciplined force would be good for only one battle, and aware that his men could easily be outflanked by Urrea 's forces, Houston continued to avoid engagement, to the immense displeasure of his troops. By March 28, the Texian army had retreated 120 miles (190 km) across the Navidad and Colorado Rivers. Many troops deserted; those who remained grumbled that their commander was a coward.
On March 31, Houston paused his men at Groce 's Landing, roughly 15 miles (24 km) north of San Felipe. Two companies that refused to retreat further than San Felipe were assigned to guard the crossings on the Brazos River. For the next two weeks, the Texians rested, recovered from illness, and, for the first time, began practicing military drills. While there, two cannons, known as the Twin Sisters, arrived from Cincinnati, Ohio. Interim Secretary of War Thomas Rusk joined the camp, with orders from President David G. Burnet to replace Houston if he refused to fight. Houston quickly persuaded Rusk that his plans were sound. Secretary of State Samuel P. Carson advised Houston to continue retreating all the way to the Sabine River, where more volunteers would likely flock from the United States and allow the army to counterattack. Unhappy with everyone involved, Burnet wrote to Houston: "The enemy are laughing you to scorn. You must fight them. You must retreat no further. The country expects you to fight. The salvation of the country depends on your doing so. '' Complaints within the camp became so strong that Houston posted notices that anyone attempting to usurp his position would be court - martialed and shot.
Santa Anna and a smaller force had remained in Béxar. After receiving word that the acting president, Miguel Barragán, had died, Santa Anna seriously considered returning to Mexico City to solidify his position. Fear that Urrea 's victories would position him as a political rival convinced Santa Anna to remain in Texas to personally oversee the final phase of the campaign. He left on March 29 to join Ramírez y Sesma, leaving only a small force to hold Béxar. At dawn on April 7, their combined force marched into San Felipe and captured a Texian soldier, who informed Santa Anna that the Texians planned to retreat further if the Mexican army crossed the Brazos River. Unable to cross the Brazos due to the small company of Texians barricaded at the river crossing, on April 14 a frustrated Santa Anna led a force of about 700 troops to capture the interim Texas government. Government officials fled mere hours before Mexican troops arrived in Harrisburgh (now Harrisburg, Houston) and Santa Anna sent Colonel Juan Almonte with 50 cavalry to intercept them in New Washington. Almonte arrived just as Burnet shoved off in a rowboat, bound for Galveston Island. Although the boat was still within range of their weapons, Almonte ordered his men to hold their fire so as not to endanger Burnet 's family.
At this point, Santa Anna believed the rebellion was in its final death throes. The Texian government had been forced off the mainland, with no way to communicate with its army, which had shown no interest in fighting. He determined to block the Texian army 's retreat and put a decisive end to the war. Almonte 's scouts incorrectly reported that Houston 's army was going to Lynchburg Crossing, on Buffalo Bayou, in preparation for joining the government in Galveston, so Santa Anna ordered Harrisburg burned and pressed on towards Lynchburg.
The Texian army had resumed their march eastward. On April 16, they came to a crossroads; one road led north towards Nacogdoches, the other went to Harrisburg. Without orders from Houston and with no discussion amongst themselves, the troops in the lead took the road to Harrisburg. They arrived on April 18, not long after the Mexican army 's departure. That same day, Deaf Smith and Henry Karnes captured a Mexican courier carrying intelligence on the locations and future plans of all of the Mexican troops in Texas. Realizing that Santa Anna had only a small force and was not far away, Houston gave a rousing speech to his men, exhorting them to "Remember the Alamo '' and "Remember Goliad ''. His army then raced towards Lynchburg. Out of concern that his men might not differentiate between Mexican soldiers and the Tejanos in Seguín 's company, Houston originally ordered Seguín and his men to remain in Harrisburg to guard those who were too ill to travel quickly. After loud protests from Seguín and Antonio Menchaca, the order was rescinded, provided the Tejanos wear a piece of cardboard in their hats to identify them as Texian soldiers.
The area along Buffalo Bayou had many thick oak groves, separated by marshes. This type of terrain was familiar to the Texians and quite alien to the Mexican soldiers. Houston 's army, comprising 900 men, reached Lynch 's Ferry mid-morning on April 20; Santa Anna 's 700 - man force arrived a few hours later. The Texians made camp in a wooded area along the bank of Buffalo Bayou; while the location provided good cover and helped hide their full strength, it also left the Texians no room for retreat. Over the protests of several of his officers, Santa Anna chose to make camp in a vulnerable location, a plain near the San Jacinto River, bordered by woods on one side, marsh and lake on another. The two camps were approximately 500 yards (460 m) apart, separated by a grassy area with a slight rise in the middle. Colonel Pedro Delgado later wrote that "the camping ground of His Excellency 's selection was in all respects, against military rules. Any youngster would have done better. ''
Over the next several hours, two brief skirmishes occurred. Texians won the first, forcing a small group of dragoons and the Mexican artillery to withdraw. Mexican dragoons then forced the Texian cavalry to withdraw. In the melee, Rusk, on foot to reload his rifle, was almost captured by Mexican soldiers, but was rescued by newly arrived Texian volunteer Mirabeau B. Lamar. Over Houston 's objections, many infantrymen rushed onto the field. As the Texian cavalry fell back, Lamar remained behind to rescue another Texian who had been thrown from his horse; Mexican officers "reportedly applauded '' his bravery. Houston was irate that the infantry had disobeyed his orders and given Santa Anna a better estimate of their strength; the men were equally upset that Houston had not allowed a full battle.
Throughout the night, Mexican troops worked to fortify their camp, creating breastworks out of everything they could find, including saddles and brush. At 9 a.m. on April 21, Cos arrived with 540 reinforcements, bringing the Mexican force to approximately 1200 - 1500 men which outnumbered the Texian aggregate forces of approximately 800 men (official count entering battle was reported at 783). General Cos ' men were mostly raw recruits rather than experienced soldiers, and they had marched steadily for more than 24 hours, with no rest and no food. As the morning wore on with no Texian attack, Mexican officers lowered their guard. By afternoon, Santa Anna had given permission for Cos ' men to sleep; his own tired troops also took advantage of the time to rest, eat, and bathe.
Not long after Cos arrived with reinforcements, General Houston ordered Smith to destroy Vince 's Bridge (located about 8 miles from the Texian encampment) to block the only road out of the Brassos and, thereby, prevent any possibility of escape by Santa Anna. General Sam Houston described how he arrayed the Texian forces in preparation of battle: "Colonel Edward Burleson was assigned the center. The second regiment, under the command of Colonel Sydney Sherman, formed the left wing of the army. The artillery, under the special command of Col. Geo. W. Hackley, inspector general, was placed on the right of the first regiment, and four companies under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Henry Millard, sustained the artillery on the right, and our cavalry, sixty - one in number and commanded by Colonel Mirabeau B. LaMar... placed on our extreme right, composed our line. ''
The Texian cavalry was first dispatched to the Mexican forces ' far left and the artillery advanced through the tall grass to within 200 yards of the Mexican breastworks.. The Texian cannon fired at 4: 30, beginning the battle of San Jacinto. After a single volley, Texians broke ranks and swarmed over the Mexican breastworks to engage in hand - to - hand combat. Mexican soldiers were taken by surprise. Santa Anna, Castrillón, and Almonte yelled often conflicting orders, attempting to organize their men into some form of defense. The Texian infantry forces advanced without halt until they had possession of the woodland and the Mexican breastwork; the right wing of Burleson 's and the left wing of Millard 's forces took possession of the breastwork. Within 18 minutes, Mexican soldiers abandoned their campsite and fled for their lives. The killing lasted for hours.
Many Mexican soldiers retreated through the marsh to Peggy Lake. Texian riflemen stationed themselves on the banks and shot at anything that moved. Many Texian officers, including Houston and Rusk, attempted to stop the slaughter, but they were unable to gain control of the men. Texians continued to chant "Remember the Alamo! Remember Goliad! '' while frightened Mexican infantry yelled "Me no Alamo! '' and begged for mercy to no avail. In what historian Davis called "one of the most one - sided victories in history '', 650 Mexican soldiers were killed and 300 captured. Eleven Texians died, with 30 others, including Houston, wounded.
Although Santa Anna 's troops had been thoroughly vanquished, they did not represent the bulk of the Mexican army in Texas. An additional 4,000 troops remained under the commands of Urrea and General Vicente Filisola. Texians had won the battle due to mistakes made by Santa Anna, and Houston was well aware that his troops would have little hope of repeating their victory against Urrea or Filisola. As darkness fell, a large group of prisoners was led into camp. Houston initially mistook the group for Mexican reinforcements and reportedly shouted out that all was lost.
Santa Anna had escaped towards Vince 's Bridge. Finding the bridge destroyed, he hid in the marsh and was captured the following day. He was brought before Houston, who had been shot in the ankle and badly wounded. Texian soldiers gathered around, calling for the Mexican general 's immediate execution. Bargaining for his life, Santa Anna suggested that he order the remaining Mexican troops to stay away. In a letter to Filisola, who was now the senior Mexican official in Texas, Santa Anna wrote that "yesterday evening (we) had an unfortunate encounter '' and ordered his troops to retreat to Béxar and await further instructions.
Urrea urged Filisola to continue the campaign. He was confident that he could challenge the Texian troops. According to Hardin, "Santa Anna had presented Mexico with one military disaster; Filisola did not wish to risk another. '' Spring rains had ruined the ammunition and rendered the roads nearly impassable, with troops sinking to their knees in mud. The Mexican troops were soon out of food and began to fall ill from dysentery and other diseases. Their supply lines had broken down, leaving no hope of further reinforcements. Filisola later wrote that "Had the enemy met us under these cruel circumstances, on the only road that was left, no alternative remained but to die or surrender at discretion ''.
For several weeks after San Jacinto, Santa Anna continued to negotiate with Houston, Rusk, and then Burnet. Santa Anna suggested two treaties, a public version of promises made between the two countries, and a private version that included Santa Anna 's personal agreements. The Treaties of Velasco required that all Mexican troops withdraw south of the Rio Grande and that all private property be respected and restored. Prisoners of war would be released unharmed and Santa Anna would be given immediate passage to Veracruz. He secretly promised to persuade the Mexican Congress to acknowledge the Republic of Texas and to recognize the Rio Grande as the border between the two countries.
When Urrea began marching south in mid-May, many families from San Patricio who had supported the Mexican army went with him. When Texian troops arrived in early June, they found only 20 families remaining. The area around San Patricio and Refugio suffered a "noticeable depopulation '' in the Republic of Texas years. Although the treaty had specified that Urrea and Filisola would return any slaves their armies had sheltered, Urrea refused to comply. Many former slaves followed the army to Mexico, where they could be free. By late May, the Mexican troops had crossed the Nueces. Filisola fully expected that the defeat was temporary and that a second campaign would be launched to retake Texas.
When Mexican authorities received word of Santa Anna 's defeat at San Jacinto, flags across the country were lowered to half staff and draped in mourning. Denouncing any agreements signed by a prisoner, Mexican authorities refused to recognize the Republic of Texas. Filisola was derided for leading the retreat and quickly replaced by Urrea. Within months, Urrea gathered 6,000 troops in Matamoros, poised to reconquer Texas. His army was redirected to address continued federalist rebellions in other regions.
Most in Texas assumed the Mexican army would return quickly. So many American volunteers flocked to the Texian army in the months after the victory at San Jacinto that the Texian government was unable to maintain an accurate list of enlistments. Out of caution, Béxar remained under martial law throughout 1836. Rusk ordered that all Tejanos in the area between the Guadalupe and Nueces Rivers migrate either to east Texas or to Mexico. Some residents who refused to comply were forcibly removed. New Anglo settlers moved in and used threats and legal maneuvering to take over the land once owned by Tejanos. Over the next several years, hundreds of Tejano families resettled in Mexico.
For years, Mexican authorities used the reconquering of Texas as an excuse for implementing new taxes and making the army the budgetary priority of the impoverished nation. Only sporadic skirmishes resulted. Larger expeditions were postponed as military funding was consistently diverted to other rebellions, out of fear that those regions would ally with Texas and further fragment the country. The northern Mexican states, the focus of the Matamoros Expedition, briefly launched an independent Republic of the Rio Grande in 1839. The same year, the Mexican Congress considered a law to declare it treasonous to speak positively of Texas. In June 1843, leaders of the two nations declared an armistice.
On June 1, Santa Anna boarded a ship to travel back to Mexico. For the next two days, crowds of soldiers, many of whom had arrived that week from the United States, gathered to demand his execution. Lamar, by now promoted to Secretary of War, gave a speech insisting that "Mobs must not intimidate the government. We want no French Revolution in Texas! '', but on June 4 soldiers seized Santa Anna and put him under military arrest. Burnet called for elections to ratify the constitution and elect a Congress, the sixth set of leaders for Texas in a twelve - month period. Voters overwhelmingly chose Houston the first president, ratified the constitution drawn up by the Convention of 1836, and approved a resolution to request annexation to the United States. Houston issued an executive order sending Santa Anna to Washington, D.C., and from there he was soon sent home.
During his absence, Santa Anna had been deposed. Upon his arrival, the Mexican press wasted no time in attacking him for his cruelty towards those executed at Goliad. In May 1837, Santa Anna requested an inquiry into the event. The judge determined the inquiry was only for fact - finding and took no action; press attacks in both Mexico and the United States continued. Santa Anna was disgraced until the following year, when he became a hero of the Pastry War.
Although the Texian interim governments had vowed to eventually compensate citizens for goods that were impressed during the war efforts, for the most part livestock and horses were not returned. Veterans were guaranteed land bounties; in 1879, surviving Texian veterans who served more than three months from October 1, 1835, through January 1, 1837, were guaranteed an additional 1,280 acres (520 ha) in public lands. Over 1.3 million acres (559 thousand ha) of land were granted; some of this was in Greer County, which was later determined to be part of Oklahoma.
When Republic President Burnet unknowingly escaped death at New Washington, Almonte had found him by following courier Mike McCormick, whose widowed mother Peggy was the owner of the land on which the battle was subsequently fought. Although she sought financial restitution from the Republic of Texas for loss of livestock and other goods during the battle, McCormick died without recompense. Decades after her death, the state of Texas purchased part of her acreage for a commemoration site.
The San Jacinto Battleground State Historic Site was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1960. The site includes the 570 ft (170 m) San Jacinto Monument, which was erected by the Public Works Administration. Authorized April 21, 1936, and dedicated April 21, 1939, the monument cost $1.5 million (equivalent to $26.39 million in 2015). The site hosts a San Jacinto Day festival and battle re-enactment each year in April.
Both the Texas Navy and the United States Navy have commissioned ships named after the Battle of San Jacinto: the Texan schooner San Jacinto and three ships named USS San Jacinto. There has been one civilian passenger ship named SS San Jacinto.
When the veteran battleship USS Texas was decommissioned in 1948 and made into a museum ship, it was decided to give her a permanent new anchorage near the San Jacinto Monument, at San Jacinto State Park. Her arrival from Baltimore, where she was decommissioned, was timed for April 21, 1948 -- the anniversary of the Battle of San Jacinto.
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otome wa boku ni koishiteru futari no elder anime | Otome wa Boku ni Koishiteru - wikipedia
Otome wa Boku ni Koishiteru (処女 はお 姉 さま に 恋し てる, lit. The Maidens Are Falling in Love with Me), commonly known as Otoboku (お と ボク), is a Japanese adult visual novel developed by Caramel Box and released on January 28, 2005 playable on Windows PCs. The game was later ported to the PlayStation 2 and PlayStation Portable (PSP) with the adult content removed. The Windows version was released in English by MangaGamer in 2012. The story follows the life of Mizuho Miyanokouji, an androgynous male high school student, who transfers into an all - girls school due to his grandfather 's will.
The gameplay in Otoboku follows a branching plot line which offers pre-determined scenarios with courses of interaction, and focuses on the appeal of the six female main characters by the player character. The game ranked as the second best - selling PC game sold in Japan for the time of its release, and charted in the national top 50 several more times afterwards. Caramel Box went on to produce two fan discs released in 2005 and 2007 in Caramel Box Yarukibako and Caramel Box Yarukibako 2, respectively. Caramel Box later produced a sequel to Otoboku titled Otome wa Boku ni Koishiteru: Futari no Elder released on June 30, 2010 playable on Windows PCs. Futari no Elder was ported to the PSP with the adult content removed. The story follows Chihaya Kisakinomiya, an androgynous male, who transfers into the all - girls school that was the setting of Otoboku.
A manga adaptation of Otoboku was serialized in ASCII Media Works ' Dengeki Daioh, and a manga adaptation of Futari no Elder was serialized in Kadokawa Shoten 's Comp Ace. Comic anthologies, light novels and art books were also published, as were audio dramas and several music albums. A 12 - episode Otoboku anime produced by Feel aired in Japanese between October and December 2006, and an extra original video animation (OVA) episode was released in April 2007. Media Blasters licensed the anime and released the series in three DVD volumes. The Otoboku anime was generally panned in reviews at Anime News Network where the series was described as "cruelly unimaginative '' with "obnoxious quirks and technical shortcomings. '' In a review of the anime by Mania Entertainment, the series is thought to be "very predictable and bland. '' A three - episode OVA adaptation of Futari no Elder produced by Silver Link was released between August and October 2012.
Otome wa Boku ni Koishiteru is a romance visual novel in which the player assumes the role of Mizuho Miyanokouji. Its gameplay requires little player interaction as much of the game 's duration is spent on reading the text that appears on the screen, which represents the story 's narrative and dialogue. Otoboku follows a branching plot line with multiple endings, and depending on the decisions that the player makes during the game, the plot will progress in a specific direction.
There are six main plot lines that the player will have the chance to experience, one for each of the heroines in the story. Every so often, the player will come to a point where he or she is given the chance to choose from multiple options. Text progression pauses at these points until a choice is made. To view all plot lines in their entirety, the player will have to replay the game multiple times and choose different choices to further the plot to an alternate direction. Each scenario is divided into eight episodes, one interlude episode and an epilogue. At the end of an episode, an announcement of the next episode appears showing a preview of what is to consist in the next episode. Each episode takes place within the span of one month between June and March from episode one through the epilogue. The interlude episode is placed between the second and third episodes.
In the adult versions of the game, there are scenes with sexual CGs depicting Mizuho and a given heroine having sex. When the game was ported to the PlayStation 2 (PS2) console, the gameplay was somewhat altered. The PS2 version, and later the PlayStation Portable (PSP) version, both had the sexual content removed, and in these versions there is no evidence that physical relationships actually take place between any of the students.
There are ten additional sub episodes and a special sub episode. The CD and DVD Windows editions contain four sub episodes, the fan disc Caramel Box Yarukibako contains four sub episodes and a special episode, Caramel Box Yarukibako 2 contains two sub episodes, and the PS2 version contains six sub episodes, though the order in which they appeared was altered.
In Otome wa Boku ni Koishiteru: Futari no Elder, the player assumes the roles of the main protagonist Chihaya Kisakinomiya and the secondary character Kaoruko Nanahara. There are six main plot lines that the player will have the chance to experience, one for each of the heroines in the story. In the adult versions of Futari no Elder, there are scenes with sexual CGs depicting Chihaya and a given heroine having sex. The gameplay is somewhat altered in the PSP version. The PSP version has the sexual content removed, the scenarios of Utano Sasou and Kaori Kamichika that appeared in the Windows version are removed, and it contains newly added scenarios of You Kashiwagi and Hatsune Minase. There are three additional sub episodes in the Windows version of Futari no Elder.
The primary setting is at a private all - girls school named Seio Girls ' Academy, also called Seio Jogakuin Christian Education, which was founded in 1886 by Mizuho 's ancestor. Seio was originally named Keisen Girls ' Academy (恵 泉 女学院, Keisen Jogakuin), which was used in original Windows version, the drama CD of the visual novel, and for the Caramel Box Yarukibako fan disc. This name was later ascertained to be similar to a name of an actual school, and the school 's name was changed to Seio Girls ' Academy (聖 應 女学院, Seiō Jogakuin, 聖 応 女学院 as written in PlayStation 2 version). Seio is used in the PlayStation 2 version, DVD Windows edition, Caramel Box Yarukibako Fukkoku - ban and anime series. The secondary setting is at a dormitory building named Sakura - yakata (櫻 館), which Mizuho, Mariya, Yukari and Kana are boarding at. There are four other former dormitories named Tsubaki - yakata, Enoki - yakata, Hisagi - yakata and Hiiragi - yakata.
The player assumes the role of Mizuho Miyanokouji, the protagonist of Otome wa Boku ni Koishiteru. He is a kind high school student who impersonates a girl at an all - girls school, which he transfers into per his grandfather 's will. He spends his time with many fellow attendees, some of which live in the nearby dormitory, and enjoys helping them with any problems they may have. His childhood friend Mariya Mikado attends the school with him, and helps in his female transition. She has a spirited personality with a bit of a temper, and has been a support for Mizuho in the past. Mizuho meets a classmate named Shion Jujo who has a silent voice and demeanor; she quickly figures out that Mizuho is actually a boy, but tells no one. The previous year, she had to be hospitalized soon after she was elected as the Elder due to an illness.
At the dormitory lives an energetic first - year student named Yukari Kamioka. She is on the track and field team along with Mariya, who is her Oneesama (お 姉 さま, meaning "Older sister ''), and has low confidence in her ability to run. Another first - year at the dormitory named Kana Suoin meets Mizuho on the day he moves in, and soon after Mizuho becomes her Oneesama. Kana is more than happy to serve Mizuho any way she can, since she admires him immensely. A hyperactive ghost resides in Mizuho 's room named Ichiko Takashima and is shown to speak very fast when excited. She says that Mizuho looks very much like her previous Elder love interest, who turns out to be Mizuho 's deceased mother. The student council president at Seio is Takako Itsukushima who tends to have a serious personality.
Otome wa Boku ni Koishiteru revolves around the main protagonist Mizuho Miyanokouji, a male high school student. After Mizuho 's grandfather dies, his will is reviewed, which explains his desire to have his grandson transfer to Seio Girls ' Academy, the same one his own mother attended and his ancestors founded. Abiding by the will, Mizuho cross-dresses to attend the school. The headmistress, the deputy head teacher (visual novel only), Mizuho 's homeroom teacher Hisako Kajiura and Mariya Mikado initially know his secret; Shion Jujo and Ichiko Takashima also eventually find this out. Mizuho is very popular among the other students, who often talk about how pretty, nice, and athletic Mizuho is. This rampant popularity escalates to him even being nominated against his will to join in on the Elder election. By these terms, the current student council president, Takako Itsukushima, runs against Mizuho.
The Elder election is an old tradition at Seio Girls ' Academy where every June one of the students is elected by her peers to be the "Elder '', who is seen as the number one "Elder Sister '' in the school. Until her graduation, she is referred to by her peers as Onee - sama (お 姉 さま). To become an Elder, a candidate must gain at least 75 % of the votes. If none of the candidates get at least 75 % in the first round of voting, one of the candidates hands over her votes to another candidate, and the candidate who finally obtains at least 75 % of the votes becomes the Elder. If there is no one else in the election, the current year 's student council president becomes the Elder. In Otoboku, Mizuho gains 82 % of the votes in the first round, effectively becoming the 72nd Elder in the school 's history. After becoming Elder, Mizuho progressively gets more popular among the student body since he is now a symbol of the school 's excellence. In the following months, Mizuho starts to get to know some of the girls better and helps them with their problems.
Otome wa Boku ni Koishiteru: Futari no Elder is written from the viewpoints of main character Chihaya Kisakinomiya and secondary character Kaoruko Nanahara. Futari no Elder begins about two years after Mizuho 's graduation. The main protagonist Chihaya Mikado was truant at his school because of harassment in the school and of a distrust in men. His mother can not bear to watch him be in trouble, so she makes him transfer to Seio Girls ' Academy, her old school. He dresses as a girl and introduces himself as Chihaya Kisakinomiya. Chihaya meets another protagonist Kaoruko Nanahara, who once rescued him from a playboy, and he begins to live in the dormitory building. He becomes the focus of public attention due to his attractive face and figure, and due to high grades at studies.
In the 75th Elder election, there are four finalists; Hatsune Minase hands over her votes to Kaoruko and Makiyo Shingyouji hands over her votes to Chihaya. Then Chihaya and Kaoruko gain the same votes of 368 together. Though a candidate which gains 75 % or more of the votes becomes the Elder, Hatsune, as the student council president, proposes that both Chihaya and Kaoruko become the Elders; the motion is adopted unanimously. This is the first time there have been two Elders in the history of Seio Girls ' Academy.
Otome wa Boku ni Koishiteru is the fourth visual novel developed by Caramel Box. The scenario is written by Aya Takaya, and this was the first time Takaya was staffed on a Caramel Box game. Art direction and character design is done by Norita, who was staffed on Caramel Box 's debut release Blue as an artist. The super deformed illustrations featured in Otoboku were drawn by the game illustrator Yoda. The music was composed by the music team Zizz Studio.
The original title uses the kanji 処女 (shojo), which means "virgin '', but is very close to the word for "young lady '', shōjo. The creators added furigana subscript to indicate they wanted it read "otome '' meaning "young maiden ''. Additionally, furigana was added above お 姉 さま (onee - sama) to indicate that they wanted it read "boku ''. Despite the different kanji, the official reading is "Otome wa Boku ni Koishiteru ''. When the game was ported to the PlayStation 2, it was rewritten as 乙女 はお 姉 さま に 恋し てる with the same pronunciation of "Otome wa Boku ni Koishiteru '', which uses the actual "otome '' (乙女) kanji. The latter name was kept for the manga and anime releases.
A free game demo of Otome wa Boku ni Koishiteru can be downloaded at the game 's official website. The game was released as an adult game on January 28, 2005 as a limited edition, playable on a Windows PC as a 2 - disc CD - ROM set. The limited edition came bundled with a special story book entitled Tsunderera. The regular edition was released on February 18, 2005, and one select lot of this version contained a limited edition sticker. An updated version with full voice acting was released on April 28, 2006 as a DVD. Another updated version compatible for Windows Vista / 7 was released on May 27, 2011. The Windows version of Otoboku was released in English by MangaGamer on November 23, 2012.
Caramel Box released a fan disc of Otoboku on June 24, 2005 in a collection called Caramel Box Yarukibako, which contained additional scenarios that furthered the story from the original visual novel; the fan disc came with a small figurine. The collection was re-released under the title Caramel Box Yarukibako Fukkoku - ban on January 26, 2007. A second fan disc was released on October 19, 2007 in the collection Caramel Box Yarukibako 2, which again contained additional scenarios. Alchemist released a PlayStation 2 port on December 29, 2005, which removed the adult elements of the game. Additional scenarios were included in the PS2 version written by Kiichi Kanō. A version of the adult game featuring only Sion 's scenario playable on iOS devices was released in six volumes between March 29 and June 4, 2010. A PlayStation Portable (PSP) version titled Otome wa Boku ni Koishiteru Portable was released on April 29, 2010 by Alchemist.
A sequel to the visual novel titled Otome wa Boku ni Koishiteru: Futari no Elder (処女 はお 姉 さま に 恋し てる ~ 2 人 の エルダー ~) was released as an adult game on June 30, 2010 as a limited edition, playable on a Windows PC as a DVD. The same staff that worked on Otoboku returned for the sequel. The limited edition came bundled with a 96 - page guide book, an original card from the Lycèe Trading Card Game, and an original pouch. A free game demo of Futari no Elder can be downloaded at the game 's official website. The regular edition was released on July 30, 2010. Settings and characters from Sakura no Sono no Étoile, a novel written by the scriptwriter of Otoboku as a sequel to Takako 's story, appear in Futari no Elder. Also, the release date of June 30 coincides in - story with the day of the election day of the 75th Elder sister. A PSP version titled Otome wa Boku ni Koishiteru Portable: Futari no Elder was released on April 28, 2011 by Alchemist. A downloadable version of the PSP release via the PlayStation Store was released by Alchemist on December 1, 2011.
Two novels written based on the original game written by Saki Murakami and published by Paradigm were released in Japan in June and August 2005. The first released was Toraware no Himegimi: Sion - hen (囚われ の 姫君 ~ 紫苑 編 ~, Imprisoned Princess: Sion Chapter) centering on Sion, with the second entitled Tomadou Juliet: Takako - hen (とまどう ジュリエット ~ 貴子 編 ~, Perplexed Juliet: Takako Chapter) centering on Takako. These novels contain erotic content. A single volume titled Otome wa Boku ni Koishiteru written by Chihiro Minagawa with accompanying illustrations by Ume Aoi was published by Jive in August 2005, and centers on Takako 's scenario. Sion 's scenario was ported to the iPhone as an e-book between March 29 and June 4, 2010 by DML. A semi official dōjin novel was written by the original scenario writer for the game, Aya Takaya, called Sakura no Sono no Étoile (櫻 の 園 の エトワール, lit. Étoile in the Cherry Orchard), with illustrations by the original game artist Norita. The novel contains a two short stories that is a sequel of Takako 's scenario, and Kana and Yukari have little sisters. The revised and completed edition of the dōjin novel was published as an official novel by Enterbrain on December 25, 2007.
Three volumes based on Futari no Elder were written by Tasuku Saiga and published by Paradigm between September 30, 2010 and January 19, 2011. The first volume centers on Kaoruko Nanahara, the second is around Kaori Kamichika, and the third centers on Utano Sasou. A single volume written by Reiji Mai titled Knight no Kimi no Love Romance (騎士 の 君 の ラブ ロマンス, Love Affair of You, the Knight) was published by Kill Time Communication on December 3, 2010. These four novels contain erotic content. Three volumes written by Aya Takaya were released by SoftBank Creative between December 15, 2010 and January 15, 2012. The first volume titled Futari no Elder (二 人 の エルダー) is the story until Chihaya Kisakinomiya and Kaoruko Nanahara are elected as Elders; the second titled Madogoshi no Ihōjin (窓 越し の 異邦 人, The Stranger Through the Window) is the story until the end of first term and it mainly focuses Kaoruko Nanahara, You Kashiwagi and Hatsune Minase; and the third titled Kin no Ori, Ibara no Torikago (黄金 の 檻 荊 の 鳥 籠, lit. The Golden Cage, The Birdcage of Thorns) is the story between summer vacation and September and it mainly focuses Awayuki Reizei and Utano Sasou. There were five novels published by Multi Bunko between June 30, 2011 and March 29, 2012: three volumes written by Tasuku Saiga are around Utano Sasou, Fumi Watarai and Awayuki Reizei; one volume written by Ricotta is around Kaoruko Nanahara; and a volume written by Mitsuru Iiyama is not dependent on any heroine 's scenario. These eight novels are not erotic.
A manga adaptation is illustrated by Kanao Araki and was serialized in ASCII Media Works ' magazine Dengeki Daioh between the November 2006 and August 2008 issues in Japan. Two tankōbon volumes were released under ASCII Media Works ' Dengeki Comics imprint, the first on August 27, 2007 and the second on September 27, 2008. A four panel comic strip manga was published by Enterbrain in 12 comics anthologies released between March 26, 2007 and March 25, 2009.
A manga adaptation of Futari no Elder illustrated by Akuru Uira was serialized between the July 2010 and February 2012 issues of Kadokawa Shoten 's Comp Ace. Three volumes were published between November 26, 2010 and January 26, 2012. Three volumes of a four panel, comic strip manga of Futari no Elder were published by Enterbrain between September 26, 2010 and January 29, 2011. Two comic anthologies were released by Ichijinsha between October 25 and November 25, 2010.
An Internet radio show to promote the anime series was broadcast between October 5, 2006 and March 27, 2008 called the Seio Girls ' Academy Broadcasting Station (聖 應 女学院 放送 局, Seiō Jogakuin Hōsōkyoku). It aired every Thursday hosted by Miyu Matsuki and Yuko Goto who played Sion Jujo and Ichiko Takashima in the anime, respectively; it was produced by Animate TV. There are thirteen corners, or parts, to the program which correspond to the general life of the characters in the story, and 74 episodes were produced. There were several guests to the show such as Chiaki Takahashi in episodes six and seven as Takako Itsukushima, Akemi Kanda in episodes eleven and twelve as Kana Suoin, Ayano Matsumoto in episodes fifteen and sixteen as Yukari Kamioka, and Madoka Kimura in episodes nineteen and twenty as Kimie Sugawara. The radio show episodes were released on four CDs released between May 9, 2007 and February 6, 2008.
An anime adaptation is produced by the animation studio Feel, written by Katsumi Hasegawa, directed by Munenori Nawa, and features character design by Noriko Shimazawa who based the designs on Norita 's original concept. The anime contained twelve episodes which aired between October 6 and December 24, 2006 on several UHF networks including TV Kanagawa and Chiba TV. The episodes were released on four DVD compilations released in Japan as limited and regular editions. A single original video animation (OVA) episode was released on the final limited edition DVD on April 4, 2007. Media Blasters released the series, including the OVA, as English - subtitled DVDs between June 24 and October 7, 2008 under the title Otoboku: Maidens Are Falling For Me!.
A three - episode OVA adaptation of Futari no Elder is produced by the animation studio Silver Link, directed by Shin'ya Kawatsura, written by Michiko Yokote, and features character design by Keiichi Sano who based the designs on Norita 's original concept. The episodes were released on three Blu - ray Disc / DVD volumes between August 29 and October 24, 2012.
The Otome wa Boku ni Koishiteru visual novel has three theme songs: the opening theme "You Make My Day! '' by Yuria, the ending theme "Itoshii Kimochi '' (いとしい き もち) by Yui Sakakibara, and "Sayonara no Sasayaki '' (さよなら の 囁き) by Sakakibara as an insert song. The original soundtrack for the visual novel titled Maiden 's Rest was released in Japan on February 25, 2005 by Digiturbo. The Futari no Elder visual novel has four theme songs: an opening theme, an ending theme, and two insert songs. For the Windows version of Futari no Elder, the opening theme is "Underhanded Girl '' (アンダー ハン デッド ・ ガール) by Yuria, and the ending theme is "Hidamari no Naka e '' (陽 だまり の 中 へ) by Aki Misato. For the PSP version of Futari no Elder, the opening theme is "Crystal Wish '' by Miyuki Hashimoto, and the ending theme is "Tamerai, Fuwari '' (ためらい 、 ふわり.) by Shiori. The insert songs, both sung by Sakakibara, are "Utsuriyuku Hana no Yōni '' (移り ゆく 花 の よう に) and "Kimi no Mama de '' (君 の まま で). An album was released containing the theme songs for the Windows version of Futari no Elder on May 26, 2010 by Lantis. A single was released containing the theme songs for the PSP version of Futari no Elder on April 27, 2011 by Lantis.
Two singles were released for the opening and ending themes for the anime adaptation. The first called "Love Power '' by Aice contained the opening theme of the same name. The other single entitled "Again '' by Yui Sakakibara contained the ending theme entitled "Beautiful Day ''. The A-side track from that single entitled "Again '' was used as an insert song in episode eleven. Both singles were released on October 25, 2006 by King Records. The soundtrack for the anime was released on November 22, 2006 by King Records. Three character image song albums were released sung by voice actors from the anime adaptation. The first album was by Yui Horie as Mizuho Miyanokouji, Miyu Matsuki as Sion Jujo and Masumi Asano as Mariya Mikado. The second album featured Ayano Matsumoto as Yukari Kamioka, Akemi Kanda as Kana Suoin and Yuko Goto as Ichiko Takashima. The third album was recorded by Chiaki Takahashi as Takako Itsukushima, Madoka Kimura as Kimie Sugawara and Yui Sakakibara as Hisako Kajiura. These CDs were released between July 26 and September 21, 2006.
Seven drama CDs based on Otoboku have also been produced. The first was based on the visual novel and was released on September 22, 2005. Four more based on the Otoboku anime adaptation were released between October 25, 2006 and April 11, 2007. A drama CD based on the novel Sakura no Sono no Étoile was released on January 29, 2010. The last one was based on a special episode contained in the fan disc Caramel Box Yarukibako with voice actors from anime adaptation released on January 29, 2010.
According to a national ranking of how well bishōjo games sold nationally in Japan, the Otome wa Boku ni Koishiteru limited edition Windows release premiered at number two in the rankings. The limited edition achieved a ranking of four out of 50 in the ranking for the next two weeks. The regular edition Windows release premiered at number six in the rankings, and stayed in the top 50 for a month and a half until mid-April 2005. The regular edition was again in the rankings for May 2005, managing to rank in at 38 and 49. The Otome wa Boku ni Koishiteru Windows edition playable as a DVD premiered at number 13 in the rankings and stayed at that rank for the next listing. The DVD edition ranked twice more over the next month: the first at 43 and the last at 33. From May to June 2010, Otome wa Boku ni Koishiteru: Futari no Elder ranked third in national PC game pre-orders in Japan. Futari no Elder ranked second in terms of national sales of PC games in Japan in June 2010.
The first two anime DVD volumes released by Media Blasters were reviewed by Anime News Network. In the review of the first DVD, the reviewer Carl Kimlinger generally panned the volume, commenting how the three episodes were "cruelly unimaginative '' where "afterwards it 's one long slide into a torturous hell of girls ' school tripe where not even humor or romance can pierce the veil of pain. '' The Catholic girls ' school premise is likened to Maria - sama ga Miteru and Strawberry Panic!, and is considered to be used "merely as visual spice. '' For the second DVD volume, Kimlinger wrote that "while the onslaught of squealing, caffeinated moe - bait has abated somewhat in its ferocity, a sagging of the already listlessly undirected plot ensures that the series ' sophomore outing is only marginally more tolerable than the first. '' Further, the series is described as having "obnoxious quirks and technical shortcomings. ''
The first two anime DVD volumes released by Media Blasters were also reviewed by Mania Entertainment. In the review of the first DVD, the reviewer Chris Beveridge felt the anime reminded him of "parts of Princess Princess, especially when it came to the Elder status piece. It 's even reminiscent of Strawberry Panic in this way. '' The series is described as "all about the "moe '' factor, bringing about an atmosphere that makes you like the characters, care about them and feel good about seeing them interact. It does it well even if it does n't have an amazing hook. '' For the second DVD volume, Beveridge commented that the series continues to be "very predictable and bland '' which is "at this point fun but entirely forgettable. '' Beveridge also wrote how "the characters are all pleasant, nicely designed and with mildly interesting personalities that could lead to something more but never does. ''
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why is biomass a temporary sink for co2 | Carbon sink - Wikipedia
A carbon sink is a natural or artificial reservoir that accumulates and stores some carbon - containing chemical compound for an indefinite period. The process by which carbon sinks remove carbon dioxide (CO) from the atmosphere is known as carbon sequestration. Public awareness of the significance of CO sinks has grown since passage of the Kyoto Protocol, which promotes their use as a form of carbon offset. There are also different strategies used to enhance this process.
The natural sinks are:
Natural sinks are typically much bigger than artificial sinks. The main artificial sinks are:
Carbon sources include:
Because growing vegetation takes in carbon dioxide, the Kyoto Protocol allows Annex I countries with large areas of growing forests to issue Removal Units to recognize the sequestration of carbon. The additional units make it easier for them to achieve their target emission levels. It is estimated that forests absorb between 10 and 20 tons of carbon dioxide per hectare each year, through photosynthetic conversion into starch, cellulose, lignin, and wooden biomass. While this has been well documented for temperate forests and plantations, the fauna of the tropical forests place some limitations for such global estimates.
Some countries seek to trade emission rights in carbon emission markets, purchasing the unused carbon emission allowances of other countries. If overall limits on greenhouse gas emission are put into place, cap and trade market mechanisms are purported to find cost - effective ways to reduce emissions. There is as yet no carbon audit regime for all such markets globally, and none is specified in the Kyoto Protocol. National carbon emissions are self - declared.
In the Clean Development Mechanism, only afforestation and reforestation are eligible to produce certified emission reductions (CERs) in the first commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol (2008 -- 2012). Forest conservation activities or activities avoiding deforestation, which would result in emission reduction through the conservation of existing carbon stocks, are not eligible at this time. Also, agricultural carbon sequestration is not possible yet.
Soils represent a short to long - term carbon storage medium, and contains more carbon than all terrestrial vegetation and the atmosphere combined. Plant litter and other biomass including charcoal accumulates as organic matter in soils, and is degraded by chemical weathering and biological degradation. More recalcitrant organic carbon polymers such as cellulose, hemi - cellulose, lignin, aliphatic compounds, waxes and terpenoids are collectively retained as humus. Organic matter tends to accumulate in litter and soils of colder regions such as the boreal forests of North America and the Taiga of Russia. Leaf litter and humus are rapidly oxidized and poorly retained in sub-tropical and tropical climate conditions due to high temperatures and extensive leaching by rainfall. Areas where shifting cultivation or slash and burn agriculture are practiced are generally only fertile for 2 -- 3 years before they are abandoned. These tropical jungles are similar to coral reefs in that they are highly efficient at conserving and circulating necessary nutrients, which explains their lushness in a nutrient desert. Much organic carbon retained in many agricultural areas worldwide has been severely depleted due to intensive farming practices.
Grasslands contribute to soil organic matter, stored mainly in their extensive fibrous root mats. Due in part to the climatic conditions of these regions (e.g. cooler temperatures and semi-arid to arid conditions), these soils can accumulate significant quantities of organic matter. This can vary based on rainfall, the length of the winter season, and the frequency of naturally occurring lightning - induced grass - fires. While these fires release carbon dioxide, they improve the quality of the grasslands overall, in turn increasing the amount of carbon retained in the humic material. They also deposit carbon directly to the soil in the form of char that does not significantly degrade back to carbon dioxide.
Forest fires release absorbed carbon back into the atmosphere, as does deforestation due to rapidly increased oxidation of soil organic matter.
Organic matter in peat bogs undergoes slow anaerobic decomposition below the surface. This process is slow enough that in many cases the bog grows rapidly and fixes more carbon from the atmosphere than is released. Over time, the peat grows deeper. Peat bogs hold approximately one - quarter of the carbon stored in land plants and soils.
Under some conditions, forests and peat bogs may become sources of CO, such as when a forest is flooded by the construction of a hydroelectric dam. Unless the forests and peat are harvested before flooding, the rotting vegetation is a source of CO and methane comparable in magnitude to the amount of carbon released by a fossil - fuel powered plant of equivalent power.
Current agricultural practices lead to carbon loss from soils. It has been suggested that improved farming practices could return the soils to being a carbon sink. Present worldwide practises of overgrazing are substantially reducing many grasslands ' performance as carbon sinks. The Rodale Institute says that regenerative agriculture, if practiced on the planet 's 3.6 billion tillable acres, could sequester up to 40 % of current CO emissions. They claim that agricultural carbon sequestration has the potential to mitigate global warming. When using biologically based regenerative practices, this dramatic benefit can be accomplished with no decrease in yields or farmer profits. Organically managed soils can convert carbon dioxide from a greenhouse gas into a food - producing asset.
In 2006, U.S. carbon dioxide emissions, largely from fossil fuel combustion, were estimated at nearly 6.5 billion tons. If a 2,000 (lb / ac) / year sequestration rate was achieved on all 434,000,000 acres (1,760,000 km) of cropland in the United States, nearly 1.6 billion tons of carbon dioxide would be sequestered per year, mitigating close to one quarter of the country 's total fossil fuel emissions.
Oceans are at present CO sinks, and represent the largest active carbon sink on Earth, absorbing more than a quarter of the carbon dioxide that humans put into the air. The solubility pump is the primary mechanism responsible for the CO2 absorption by the oceans.
The biological pump plays a negligible role, because of the limitation to pump by ambient light and nutrients required by the phytoplankton that ultimately drive it. Total inorganic carbon is not believed to limit primary production in the oceans, so its increasing availability in the ocean does not directly affect production (the situation on land is different, since enhanced atmospheric levels of CO essentially "fertilize '' land plant growth to some threshold). However, ocean acidification by invading anthropogenic CO may affect the biological pump by negatively impacting calcifying organisms such as coccolithophores, foraminiferans and pteropods. Climate change may also affect the biological pump in the future by warming and stratifying the surface ocean, thus reducing the supply of limiting nutrients to surface waters.
A study from 2008 claims that CO could increase primary productivity, particularly in eel grasses in coastal and estuarine habitats. This postulate, however, has yet to be proven.
In January 2009, the Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration announced a joint study to determine whether the ocean off the California coast was serving as a carbon source or a carbon sink. Principal instrumentation for the study will be self - contained CO monitors placed on buoys in the ocean. They will measure the partial pressure of CO in the ocean and the atmosphere just above the water surface.
In February 2009, Science Daily reported that the Southern Indian Ocean is becoming less effective at absorbing carbon dioxide due to changes to the region 's climate which include higher wind speeds.
On longer timescales Oceans may be both sources and sinks -- during ice ages CO levels decrease to ≈ 180 ppmv, and much of this is believed to be stored in the oceans. As ice ages end, CO is released from the oceans and CO levels during previous interglacials have been around ≈ 280 ppmv. This role as a sink for CO is driven by two processes, the solubility pump and the biological pump. The former is primarily a function of differential CO solubility in seawater and the thermohaline circulation, while the latter is the sum of a series of biological processes that transport carbon (in organic and inorganic forms) from the surface euphotic zone to the ocean 's interior. A small fraction of the organic carbon transported by the biological pump to the seafloor is buried in anoxic conditions under sediments and ultimately forms fossil fuels such as oil and natural gas.
At the end of glacials with sea level rapidly rising, corals tend to grow slower due to increased ocean temperature as seen on the Showtime series "Years of Living Dangerously ''. The calcium carbonate from which coral skeletons are made is just over 60 % carbon dioxide. If we postulate that coral reefs were eroded down to the glacial sea level, then coral reefs have grown 120m upward since the end of the recent glacial.
Forests can be carbon stores, and they are carbon dioxide sinks when they are increasing in density or area. In Canada 's boreal forests as much as 80 % of the total carbon is stored in the soils as dead organic matter. A 40 - year study of African, Asian, and South American tropical forests by the University of Leeds, shows tropical forests absorb about 18 % of all carbon dioxide added by fossil fuels. Truly mature tropical forests, by definition, grow rapidly as each tree produces at least 10 new trees each year. Based on studies of the FAO and UNEP it has been estimated that Asian forests absorb about 5 tonnes of carbon dioxide per hectare each year. The global cooling effect of carbon sequestration by forests is partially counterbalanced in that reforestation can decrease the reflection of sunlight (albedo). Mid-to - high latitude forests have a much lower albedo during snow seasons than flat ground, thus contributing to warming. Modeling that compares the effects of albedo differences between forests and grasslands suggests that expanding the land area of forests in temperate zones offers only a temporary cooling benefit.
In the United States in 2004 (the most recent year for which EPA statistics are available), forests sequestered 10.6 % (637 MegaTonnes) of the carbon dioxide released in the United States by the combustion of fossil fuels (coal, oil and natural gas; 5657 MegaTonnes). Urban trees sequestered another 1.5 % (88 MegaTonnes). To further reduce U.S. carbon dioxide emissions by 7 %, as stipulated by the Kyoto Protocol, would require the planting of "an area the size of Texas (8 % of the area of Brazil) every 30 years ''. Carbon offset programs are planting millions of fast - growing trees per year to reforest tropical lands, for as little as $0.10 per tree; over their typical 40 - year lifetime, one million of these trees will fix 1 to 2 MegaTonnes of carbon dioxide. In Canada, reducing timber harvesting would have very little impact on carbon dioxide emissions because of the combination of harvest and stored carbon in manufactured wood products along with the regrowth of the harvested forests. Additionally, the amount of carbon released from harvesting is small compared to the amount of carbon lost each year to forest fires and other natural disturbances.
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change concluded that "a sustainable forest management strategy aimed at maintaining or increasing forest carbon stocks, while producing an annual sustained yield of timber fibre or energy from the forest, will generate the largest sustained mitigation benefit ''. Sustainable management practices keep forests growing at a higher rate over a potentially longer period of time, thus providing net sequestration benefits in addition to those of unmanaged forests.
Life expectancy of forests varies throughout the world, influenced by tree species, site conditions and natural disturbance patterns. In some forests carbon may be stored for centuries, while in other forests carbon is released with frequent stand replacing fires. Forests that are harvested prior to stand replacing events allow for the retention of carbon in manufactured forest products such as lumber. However, only a portion of the carbon removed from logged forests ends up as durable goods and buildings. The remainder ends up as sawmill by - products such as pulp, paper and pallets, which often end with incineration (resulting in carbon release into the atmosphere) at the end of their lifecycle. For instance, of the 1,692 MegaTonnes of carbon harvested from forests in Oregon and Washington (U.S) from 1900 to 1992, only 23 % is in long - term storage in forest products.
One way to increase the carbon sequestration efficiency of the oceans is to add micrometre - sized iron particles in the form of either hematite (iron oxide) or melanterite (iron sulfate) to certain regions of the ocean. This has the effect of stimulating growth of plankton. Iron is an important nutrient for phytoplankton, usually made available via upwelling along the continental shelves, inflows from rivers and streams, as well as deposition of dust suspended in the atmosphere. Natural sources of ocean iron have been declining in recent decades, contributing to an overall decline in ocean productivity (NASA, 2003). Yet in the presence of iron nutrients plankton populations quickly grow, or ' bloom ', expanding the base of biomass productivity throughout the region and removing significant quantities of CO from the atmosphere via photosynthesis. A test in 2002 in the Southern Ocean around Antarctica suggests that between 10,000 and 100,000 carbon atoms are sunk for each iron atom added to the water. More recent work in Germany (2005) suggests that any biomass carbon in the oceans, whether exported to depth or recycled in the euphotic zone, represents long - term storage of carbon. This means that application of iron nutrients in select parts of the oceans, at appropriate scales, could have the combined effect of restoring ocean productivity while at the same time mitigating the effects of human caused emissions of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere.
Because the effect of periodic small scale phytoplankton blooms on ocean ecosystems is unclear, more studies would be helpful. Phytoplankton have a complex effect on cloud formation via the release of substances such as dimethyl sulfide (DMS) that are converted to sulfate aerosols in the atmosphere, providing cloud condensation nuclei, or CCN. But the effect of small scale plankton blooms on overall DMS production is unknown.
Other nutrients such as nitrates, phosphates, and silica as well as iron may cause ocean fertilization. There has been some speculation that using pulses of fertilization (around 20 days in length) may be more effective at getting carbon to ocean floor than sustained fertilization.
There is some controversy over seeding the oceans with iron however, due to the potential for increased toxic phytoplankton growth (e.g. "red tide ''), declining water quality due to overgrowth, and increasing anoxia in areas harming other sea - life such as zooplankton, fish, coral, etc.
Since the 1850s, a large proportion of the world 's grasslands have been tilled and converted to croplands, allowing the rapid oxidation of large quantities of soil organic carbon. However, in the United States in 2004 (the most recent year for which EPA statistics are available), agricultural soils including pasture land sequestered 0.8 % (46 teragrams) as much carbon as was released in the United States by the combustion of fossil fuels (5988 teragrams). The annual amount of this sequestration has been gradually increasing since 1998.
Methods that significantly enhance carbon sequestration in soil include no - till farming, residue mulching, cover cropping, and crop rotation, all of which are more widely used in organic farming than in conventional farming. Because only 5 % of US farmland currently uses no - till and residue mulching, there is a large potential for carbon sequestration. Conversion to pastureland, particularly with good management of grazing, can sequester even more carbon in the soil.
Terra preta, an anthropogenic, high - carbon soil, is also being investigated as a sequestration mechanism. By pyrolysing biomass, about half of its carbon can be reduced to charcoal, which can persist in the soil for centuries, and makes a useful soil amendment, especially in tropical soils (biochar or agrichar).
Controlled burns on far north Australian savannas can result in an overall carbon sink. One working example is the West Arnhem Fire Management Agreement, started to bring "strategic fire management across 28,000 km2 of Western Arnhem Land ''. Deliberately starting controlled burns early in the dry season results in a mosaic of burnt and unburnt country which reduces the area of burning compared with stronger, late dry season fires. In the early dry season there are higher moisture levels, cooler temperatures, and lighter wind than later in the dry season; fires tend to go out overnight. Early controlled burns also results in a smaller proportion of the grass and tree biomass being burnt. Emission reductions of 256,000 tonnes of CO have been made as of 2007.
For carbon to be sequestered artificially (i.e. not using the natural processes of the carbon cycle) it must first be captured, or it must be significantly delayed or prevented from being re-released into the atmosphere (by combustion, decay, etc.) from an existing carbon - rich material, by being incorporated into an enduring usage (such as in construction). Thereafter it can be passively stored or remain productively utilized over time in a variety of ways.
For example, upon harvesting, wood (as a carbon - rich material) can be immediately burned or otherwise serve as a fuel, returning its carbon to the atmosphere, or it can be incorporated into construction or a range of other durable products, thus sequestering its carbon over years or even centuries.
Indeed, a very carefully designed and durable, energy - efficient and energy - capturing building has the potential to sequester (in its carbon - rich construction materials), as much as or more carbon than was released by the acquisition and incorporation of all its materials and than will be released by building - function "energy - imports '' during the structure 's (potentially multi-century) existence. Such a structure might be termed "carbon neutral '' or even "carbon negative ''. Building construction and operation (electricity usage, heating, etc.) are estimated to contribute nearly half of the annual human - caused carbon additions to the atmosphere.
Natural - gas purification plants often already have to remove carbon dioxide, either to avoid dry ice clogging gas tankers or to prevent carbon - dioxide concentrations exceeding the 3 % maximum permitted on the natural - gas distribution grid.
Beyond this, one of the most likely early applications of carbon capture is the capture of carbon dioxide from flue gases at power stations (in the case of coal, this coal pollution mitigation is sometimes known as "clean coal ''). A typical new 1000 MW coal - fired power station produces around 6 million tons of carbon dioxide annually. Adding carbon capture to existing plants can add significantly to the costs of energy production; scrubbing costs aside, a 1000 MW coal plant will require the storage of about 50 million barrels (7,900,000 m) of carbon dioxide a year. However, scrubbing is relatively affordable when added to new plants based on coal gasification technology, where it is estimated to raise energy costs for households in the United States using only coal - fired electricity sources from 10 cents per kW h to 12 cents.
Currently, capture of carbon dioxide is performed on a large scale by absorption of carbon dioxide onto various amine - based solvents. Other techniques are currently being investigated, such as pressure swing adsorption, temperature swing adsorption, gas separation membranes, cryogenics and flue capture.
In coal - fired power stations, the main alternatives to retrofitting amine - based absorbers to existing power stations are two new technologies: coal gasification combined - cycle and oxy - fuel combustion. Gasification first produces a "syngas '' primarily of hydrogen and carbon monoxide, which is burned, with carbon dioxide filtered from the flue gas. Oxy - fuel combustion burns the coal in oxygen instead of air, producing only carbon dioxide and water vapour, which are relatively easily separated. Some of the combustion products must be returned to the combustion chamber, either before or after separation, otherwise the temperatures would be too high for the turbine.
Another long - term option is carbon capture directly from the air using hydroxides. The air would literally be scrubbed of its CO content. This idea offers an alternative to non-carbon - based fuels for the transportation sector.
Examples of carbon sequestration at coal plants include converting carbon from smokestacks into baking soda, and algae - based carbon capture, circumventing storage by converting algae into fuel or feed.
Another proposed form of carbon sequestration in the ocean is direct injection. In this method, carbon dioxide is pumped directly into the water at depth, and expected to form "lakes '' of liquid CO at the bottom. Experiments carried out in moderate to deep waters (350 -- 3600 m) indicate that the liquid CO reacts to form solid CO clathrate hydrates, which gradually dissolve in the surrounding waters.
This method, too, has potentially dangerous environmental consequences. The carbon dioxide does react with the water to form carbonic acid, H CO; however, most (as much as 99 %) remains as dissolved molecular CO. The equilibrium would no doubt be quite different under the high pressure conditions in the deep ocean. In addition, if deep - sea bacterial methanogens that reduce carbon dioxide were to encounter the carbon dioxide sinks, levels of methane gas may increase, leading to the generation of an even worse greenhouse gas. The resulting environmental effects on benthic life forms of the bathypelagic, abyssopelagic and hadopelagic zones are unknown. Even though life appears to be rather sparse in the deep ocean basins, energy and chemical effects in these deep basins could have far - reaching implications. Much more work is needed here to define the extent of the potential problems.
Carbon storage in or under oceans may not be compatible with the Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter.
An additional method of long - term ocean - based sequestration is to gather crop residue such as corn stalks or excess hay into large weighted bales of biomass and deposit it in the alluvial fan areas of the deep ocean basin. Dropping these residues in alluvial fans would cause the residues to be quickly buried in silt on the sea floor, sequestering the biomass for very long time spans. Alluvial fans exist in all of the world 's oceans and seas where river deltas fall off the edge of the continental shelf such as the Mississippi alluvial fan in the gulf of Mexico and the Nile alluvial fan in the Mediterranean Sea. A downside, however, would be an increase in aerobic bacteria growth due to the introduction of biomass, leading to more competition for oxygen resources in the deep sea, similar to the oxygen minimum zone.
The method of geo - sequestration or geological storage involves injecting carbon dioxide directly into underground geological formations. Declining oil fields, saline aquifers, and unminable coal seams have been suggested as storage sites. Caverns and old mines that are commonly used to store natural gas are not considered, because of a lack of storage safety.
CO has been injected into declining oil fields for more than 40 years, to increase oil recovery. This option is attractive because the storage costs are offset by the sale of additional oil that is recovered. Typically, 10 -- 15 % additional recovery of the original oil in place is possible. Further benefits are the existing infrastructure and the geophysical and geological information about the oil field that is available from the oil exploration. Another benefit of injecting CO into Oil fields is that CO is soluble in oil. Dissolving CO in oil lowers the viscosity of the oil and reduces its interfacial tension which increases the oils mobility. All oil fields have a geological barrier preventing upward migration of oil. As most oil and gas has been in place for millions to tens of millions of years, depleted oil and gas reservoirs can contain carbon dioxide for millennia. Identified possible problems are the many ' leak ' opportunities provided by old oil wells, the need for high injection pressures and acidification which can damage the geological barrier. Other disadvantages of old oil fields are their limited geographic distribution and depths, which require high injection pressures for sequestration. Below a depth of about 1000 m, carbon dioxide is injected as a supercritical fluid, a material with the density of a liquid, but the viscosity and diffusivity of a gas. Unminable coal seams can be used to store CO, because CO absorbs to the coal surface, ensuring safe long - term storage. In the process it releases methane that was previously adsorbed to the coal surface and that may be recovered. Again the sale of the methane can be used to offset the cost of the CO storage. Release or burning of methane would of course at least partially offset the obtained sequestration result -- except when the gas is allowed to escape into the atmosphere in significant quantities: methane has a higher global warming potential than CO.
Saline aquifers contain highly mineralized brines and have so far been considered of no benefit to humans except in a few cases where they have been used for the storage of chemical waste. Their advantages include a large potential storage volume and relatively common occurrence reducing the distance over which CO has to be transported. The major disadvantage of saline aquifers is that relatively little is known about them compared to oil fields. Another disadvantage of saline aquifers is that as the salinity of the water increases, less CO can be dissolved into aqueous solution. To keep the cost of storage acceptable the geophysical exploration may be limited, resulting in larger uncertainty about the structure of a given aquifer. Unlike storage in oil fields or coal beds, no side product will offset the storage cost. Leakage of CO back into the atmosphere may be a problem in saline - aquifer storage. However, current research shows that several trapping mechanisms immobilize the CO underground, reducing the risk of leakage.
A major research project examining the geological sequestration of carbon dioxide is currently being performed at an oil field at Weyburn in south - eastern Saskatchewan. In the North Sea, Norway 's Statoil natural - gas platform Sleipner strips carbon dioxide out of the natural gas with amine solvents and disposes of this carbon dioxide by geological sequestration. Sleipner reduces emissions of carbon dioxide by approximately one million tonnes a year. The cost of geological sequestration is minor relative to the overall running costs. As of April 2005, BP is considering a trial of large - scale sequestration of carbon dioxide stripped from power plant emissions in the Miller oilfield as its reserves are depleted.
In October 2007, the Bureau of Economic Geology at The University of Texas at Austin received a 10 - year, $38 million subcontract to conduct the first intensively monitored, long - term project in the United States studying the feasibility of injecting a large volume of CO for underground storage. The project is a research program of the Southeast Regional Carbon Sequestration Partnership (SECARB), funded by the National Energy Technology Laboratory of the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE). The SECARB partnership will demonstrate CO injection rate and storage capacity in the Tuscaloosa - Woodbine geologic system that stretches from Texas to Florida. Beginning in fall 2007, the project will inject CO at the rate of one million tons per year, for up to 1.5 years, into brine up to 10,000 feet (3,000 m) below the land surface near the Cranfield oil field about 15 miles (24 km) east of Natchez, Mississippi. Experimental equipment will measure the ability of the subsurface to accept and retain CO.
Mineral sequestration aims to trap carbon in the form of solid carbonate salts. This process occurs slowly in nature and is responsible for the deposition and accumulation of limestone over geologic time. Carbonic acid in groundwater slowly reacts with complex silicates to dissolve calcium, magnesium, alkalis and silica and leave a residue of clay minerals. The dissolved calcium and magnesium react with bicarbonate to precipitate calcium and magnesium carbonates, a process that organisms use to make shells. When the organisms die, their shells are deposited as sediment and eventually turn into limestone. Limestones have accumulated over billions of years of geologic time and contain much of Earth 's carbon. Ongoing research aims to speed up similar reactions involving alkali carbonates.
Several serpentinite deposits are being investigated as potentially large scale CO storage sinks such as those found in NSW, Australia, where the first mineral carbonation pilot plant project is underway. Beneficial re-use of magnesium carbonate from this process could provide feedstock for new products developed for the built environment and agriculture without returning the carbon into the atmosphere and so acting as a carbon sink.
One proposed reaction is that of the olivine - rich rock dunite, or its hydrated equivalent serpentinite with carbon dioxide to form the carbonate mineral magnesite, plus silica and iron oxide (magnetite).
Serpentinite sequestration is favored because of the non-toxic and stable nature of magnesium carbonate. The ideal reactions involve the magnesium endmember components of the olivine (reaction 1) or serpentine (reaction 2), the latter derived from earlier olivine by hydration and silicification (reaction 3). The presence of iron in the olivine or serpentine reduces the efficiency of sequestration, since the iron components of these minerals break down to iron oxide and silica (reaction 4).
Reaction 1 Mg - olivine + carbon dioxide → magnesite + silica + water
Reaction 2 Serpentine + carbon dioxide → magnesite + silica + water
Reaction 3 Mg - olivine + water + silica → serpentine
Reaction 4 Fe - olivine + water → magnetite + silica + hydrogen
Zeolitic imidazolate frameworks is a metal - organic framework carbon dioxide sink which could be used to keep industrial emissions of carbon dioxide out of the atmosphere.
According to a report in Nature magazine, (November, 2009) the first year - by - year accounting of this mechanism during the industrial era, and the first time scientists have actually measured it, suggests "the oceans are struggling to keep up with rising emissions -- a finding with potentially wide implications for future climate. '' With total world emissions from fossil fuels growing rapidly, the proportion of fossil - fuel emissions absorbed by the oceans since 2000 may have declined by as much as 10 %, indicating that over time the ocean will become "a less efficient sink of manmade carbon. '' Samar Khatiwala, an oceanographer at Columbia University concludes that the studies suggest "we can not count on these sinks operating in the future as they have in the past, and keep on subsidizing our ever - growing appetite for fossil fuels. '' However, a recent paper by Wolfgang Knorr indicates that the fraction of CO absorbed by carbon sinks has not changed since 1850.
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who played rusty in national lampoon's european vacation | Jason Lively - Wikipedia
Ronald Jason Lively (born March 12, 1968), better known as Jason Lively, is an American former actor.
Ronald Jason Lively was born on March 12, 1968 in Carroll County, Georgia, the son of talent manager Elaine (née McAlpin) and her first husband, Ronald Otis "Ronnie '' Lively. He is the stepson of actor Ernie Lively, the brother of actresses Lori Lively and Robyn Lively, and the half - brother of actor Eric Lively and actress Blake Lively.
Lively started his career by appearing in the pilot episode of The Dukes of Hazzard when he was 10 years old. His first film appearance was four years later in the 1983 film Brainstorm. That same year he also had another appearance in The Dukes of Hazzard. His most recognizable roles came later when he played Rusty Griswold in National Lampoon 's European Vacation, and Chris in Night of the Creeps. After that, he appeared in the films Ghost Chase and Maximum Force. In 1993, he appeared in the video game Return to Zork, along with his sisters, Robyn Lively and Lori Lively.
Lively currently works for a computer company and is also owner and operator of Jimmy Crack Corn, a mobile roasted corn business.
Lively is married and has two sons with his wife Lani. They live in Heber City, Utah.
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who provides the lead role in monitoring and enforcing the relevant state food act and regulations | Food and Drug Administration - wikipedia
The Food and Drug Administration (FDA or USFDA) is a federal agency of the United States Department of Health and Human Services, one of the United States federal executive departments. The FDA is responsible for protecting and promoting public health through the control and supervision of food safety, tobacco products, dietary supplements, prescription and over-the - counter pharmaceutical drugs (medications), vaccines, biopharmaceuticals, blood transfusions, medical devices, electromagnetic radiation emitting devices (ERED), cosmetics, animal foods & feed and veterinary products. As of 2017, 3 / 4th of the FDA budget (approximately $700 million) is funded by the pharmaceutical companies due to the Prescription Drug User Fee Act.
The FDA was empowered by the United States Congress to enforce the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act, which serves as the primary focus for the Agency; the FDA also enforces other laws, notably Section 361 of the Public Health Service Act and associated regulations, many of which are not directly related to food or drugs. These include regulating lasers, cellular phones, condoms and control of disease on products ranging from certain household pets to sperm donation for assisted reproduction.
The FDA is led by the Commissioner of Food and Drugs, appointed by the President with the advice and consent of the Senate. The Commissioner reports to the Secretary of Health and Human Services. Scott Gottlieb, M.D. is the current commissioner, who took over in May 2017.
The FDA has its headquarters in unincorporated White Oak, Maryland. The agency also has 223 field offices and 13 laboratories located throughout the 50 states, the United States Virgin Islands, and Puerto Rico. In 2008, the FDA began to post employees to foreign countries, including China, India, Costa Rica, Chile, Belgium, and the United Kingdom.
In recent years, the agency began undertaking a large - scale effort to consolidate its 25 operations in the Washington Metropolitan Area, moving from its main headquarters in Rockville and several fragmented office buildings to the former site of the Naval Ordnance Laboratory in the White Oak area of Silver Spring, Maryland. The site was renamed from the White Oak Naval Surface Warfare Center to the Federal Research Center at White Oak. The first building, the Life Sciences Laboratory, was dedicated and opened with 104 employees on the campus in December 2003. Only one original building from the naval facility was kept. All other buildings are new construction. The project is slated to be completed by 2017, assuming future Congressional funding
While most of the Centers are located in the Washington, D.C. area as part of the Headquarters divisions, two offices -- the Office of Regulatory Affairs (ORA) and the Office of Criminal Investigations (OCI) -- are primarily field offices with a workforce spread across the country.
The Office of Regulatory Affairs is considered the "eyes and ears '' of the agency, conducting the vast majority of the FDA 's work in the field. Consumer Safety Officers, more commonly called Investigators, are the individuals who inspect production and warehousing facilities, investigate complaints, illnesses, or outbreaks, and review documentation in the case of medical devices, drugs, biological products, and other items where it may be difficult to conduct a physical examination or take a physical sample of the product.
The Office of Regulatory Affairs is divided into five regions, which are further divided into 20 districts. Districts are based roughly on the geographic divisions of the federal court system. Each district comprises a main district office and a number of Resident Posts, which are FDA remote offices that serve a particular geographic area. ORA also includes the Agency 's network of regulatory laboratories, which analyze any physical samples taken. Though samples are usually food - related, some laboratories are equipped to analyze drugs, cosmetics, and radiation - emitting devices.
The Office of Criminal Investigations was established in 1991 to investigate criminal cases. Unlike ORA Investigators, OCI Special Agents are armed, and do n't focus on technical aspects of the regulated industries. OCI agents pursue and develop cases where individuals and companies have committed criminal actions, such as fraudulent claims, or knowingly and willfully shipping known adulterated goods in interstate commerce. In many cases, OCI pursues cases involving Title 18 violations (e.g., conspiracy, false statements, wire fraud, mail fraud), in addition to prohibited acts as defined in Chapter III of the FD&C Act. OCI Special Agents often come from other criminal investigations backgrounds, and work closely with the Federal Bureau of Investigation, Assistant Attorney General, and even Interpol. OCI receives cases from a variety of sources -- including ORA, local agencies, and the FBI -- and works with ORA Investigators to help develop the technical and science - based aspects of a case. OCI is a smaller branch, comprising about 200 agents nationwide.
The FDA frequently works with other federal agencies, including the Department of Agriculture, Drug Enforcement Administration, Customs and Border Protection, and Consumer Product Safety Commission. Often local and state government agencies also work with the FDA to provide regulatory inspections and enforcement action.
The FDA regulates more than US $1 trillion worth of consumer goods, about 25 % of consumer expenditures in the United States. This includes $466 billion in food sales, $275 billion in drugs, $60 billion in cosmetics and $18 billion in vitamin supplements. Much of these expenditures are for goods imported into the United States; the FDA is responsible for monitoring imports.
The FDA 's federal budget request for fiscal year (FY) 2012 totaled $4.36 billion, while the proposed 2014 budget is $4.7 billion. About $2 billion of this budget is generated by user fees. Pharmaceutical firms pay the majority of these fees, which are used to expedite drug reviews. The FDA 's federal budget request for fiscal year (FY) 2008 (October 2007 through September 2008) totaled $2.1 billion, a $105.8 million increase from what it received for fiscal year 2007.
In February 2008, the FDA announced that the Bush Administration 's FY 2009 budget request for the agency was just under $2.4 billion: $1.77 billion in budget authority (federal funding) and $628 million in user fees. The requested budget authority was an increase of $50.7 million more than the FY 2008 funding -- about a three percent increase. In June 2008, Congress gave the agency an emergency appropriation of $150 million for FY 2008 and another $150 million.
Most federal laws concerning the FDA are part of the Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act, (first passed in 1938 and extensively amended since) and are codified in Title 21, Chapter 9 of the United States Code. Other significant laws enforced by the FDA include the Public Health Service Act, parts of the Controlled Substances Act, the Federal Anti-Tampering Act, as well as many others. In many cases these responsibilities are shared with other federal agencies.
As of 2015, the agency regulates more than $1 trillion in consumer products, including:
The programs for safety regulation vary widely by the type of product, its potential risks, and the regulatory powers granted to the agency. For example, the FDA regulates almost every facet of prescription drugs, including testing, manufacturing, labeling, advertising, marketing, efficacy, and safety -- yet FDA regulation of cosmetics focuses primarily on labeling and safety. The FDA regulates most products with a set of published standards enforced by a modest number of facility inspections. Inspection observations are documented on Form 483.
On February 4, 2011, Canadian Prime Minister Stephen Harper and United States President Barack Obama issued a "Declaration on a Shared Vision for Perimeter Security and Economic Competitiveness '' and announced the creation of the Canada - United States Regulatory Cooperation Council (RCC) "to increase regulatory transparency and coordination between the two countries ''.
Health Canada and the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) under the RCC mandate, undertook the "first of its kind '' initiative by selecting "as its first area of alignment common cold indications for certain over-the - counter antihistamine ingredients (GC 2013 - 01 - 10). ''
The regulation of food and dietary supplements by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration is governed by various statutes enacted by the United States Congress and interpreted by the FDA. Pursuant to the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act ("the Act '') and accompanying legislation, the FDA has authority to oversee the quality of substances sold as food in the United States, and to monitor claims made in the labeling about both the composition and the health benefits of foods.
The FDA subdivides substances that it regulates as food into various categories -- including foods, food additives, added substances (man - made substances that are not intentionally introduced into food, but nevertheless end up in it), and dietary supplements. Specific standards the FDA exercises differ from one category to the next. Furthermore, legislation had granted the FDA a variety of means to address violations of standards for a given substance category.
The Center for Drug Evaluation and Research uses different requirements for the three main drug product types: new drugs, generic drugs, and over-the - counter drugs. A drug is considered "new '' if it is made by a different manufacturer, uses different excipients or inactive ingredients, is used for a different purpose, or undergoes any substantial change. The most rigorous requirements apply to new molecular entities: drugs that are not based on existing medications.
New drugs receive extensive scrutiny before FDA approval in a process called a new drug application (NDA). Critics, however, argue that the FDA standards are not sufficiently rigorous, allowing unsafe or ineffective drugs to be approved. New drugs are available only by prescription by default. A change to over-the - counter (OTC) status is a separate process, and the drug must be approved through an NDA first. A drug that is approved is said to be "safe and effective when used as directed ''.
Some very rare limited exceptions to this multi-step process involving animal testing and controlled clinical trials can be granted out of compassionate use protocols, as was the case during the 2015 Ebola epidemic with the use, by prescription and authorization, of ZMapp and other experimental treatments, and for new drugs that can be used to treat debilitating and / or very rare conditions for which no existing remedies or drugs are satisfactory, or where there has not been an advance in a long period of time. The studies are progressively longer, gradually adding more individuals as they progress from stage I to stage III, normally over a period of years, and normally involve drug companies, the government and its laboratories, and often medical schools and hospitals and clinics. However, any exceptions to the aforementioned process are subject to strict review and scrutiny and conditions, and are only given if a substantial amount of research and at least some preliminary human testing has shown that they are believed to be somewhat safe and possibly effective.
The FDA 's Office of Prescription Drug Promotion reviews and regulates prescription drug advertising and promotion through surveillance activities and issuance of enforcement letters to pharmaceutical manufacturers. Advertising and promotion for over-the - counter drugs is regulated by the Federal Trade Commission.
The drug advertising regulation contains two broad requirements: (1) a company may advertise or promote a drug only for the specific indication or medical use for which it was approved by FDA. Also, an advertisement must contain a "fair balance '' between the benefits and the risks (side effects) of a drug.
The term off - label refers to drug usage for indications other than those approved by the FDA.
After NDA approval, the sponsor must review and report to the FDA every patient adverse drug experience it learns of. They must report unexpected serious and fatal adverse drug events within 15 days, and other events on a quarterly basis. The FDA also receives directly adverse drug event reports through its MedWatch program. These reports are called "spontaneous reports '' because reporting by consumers and health professionals is voluntary.
While this remains the primary tool of postmarket safety surveillance, FDA requirements for postmarketing risk management are increasing. As a condition of approval, a sponsor may be required to conduct additional clinical trials, called Phase IV trials. In some cases, the FDA requires risk management plans ("Risk Evaluation and Mitigation Strategy '' or "REMS '') for some drugs that require actions to be taken to ensure that the drug is used safely. For example, thalidomide can cause birth defects but has uses that outweigh the risks if men and women taking the drugs do not conceive a child; a REMS program for thalidomide mandates an auditable process to ensure that people taking the drug take action to avoid pregnancy; many opioid drugs have REMS programs to avoid addiction and diversion of drugs.
Generic drugs are chemical equivalents of name - brand drugs whose patents have expired. In general, they are less expensive than their name brand counterparts, are manufactured and marketed by other companies and, in the 1990s, accounted for about a third of all prescriptions written in the United States. For approval of a generic drug, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) requires scientific evidence that the generic drug is interchangeable with or therapeutically equivalent to the originally approved drug. This is called an "ANDA '' (Abbreviated New Drug Application). As of 2012 80 % of all FDA approved drugs are available in generic form.
In 1989, a major scandal erupted involving the procedures used by the FDA to approve generic drugs for sale to the public. Charges of corruption in generic drug approval first emerged in 1988, in the course of an extensive congressional investigation into the FDA. The oversight subcommitee of the United States House Energy and Commerce Committee resulted from a complaint brought against the FDA by Mylan Laboratories Inc. of Pittsburgh. When its application to manufacture generics were subjected to repeated delays by the FDA, Mylan, convinced that it was being discriminated against, soon began its own private investigation of the agency in 1987. Mylan eventually filed suit against two former FDA employees and four drug - manufacturing companies, charging that corruption within the federal agency resulted in racketeering and in violations of antitrust law. "The order in which new generic drugs were approved was set by the FDA employees even before drug manufacturers submitted applications '' and, according to Mylan, this illegal procedure was followed to give preferential treatment to certain companies. During the summer of 1989, three FDA officials (Charles Y. Chang, David J. Brancato, Walter Kletch) pleaded guilty to criminal charges of accepting bribes from generic drugs makers, and two companies (Par Pharmaceutical and its subsidiary Quad Pharmaceuticals) pleaded guilty to giving bribes.
Furthermore, it was discovered that several manufacturers had falsified data submitted in seeking FDA authorization to market certain generic drugs. Vitarine Pharmaceuticals of New York, which sought approval of a generic version of the drug Dyazide, a medication for high blood pressure, submitted Dyazide, rather than its generic version, for the FDA tests. In April 1989, the FDA investigated 11 manufacturers for irregularities; and later brought that number up to 13. Dozens of drugs were eventually suspended or recalled by manufacturers. In the early 1990s, the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission filed securities fraud charges against the Bolar Pharmaceutical Company, a major generic manufacturer based in Long Island, New York.
Over-the - counter (OTC) drugs like aspirin are drugs and combinations that do not require a doctor 's prescription. The FDA has a list of approximately 800 approved ingredients that are combined in various ways to create more than 100,000 OTC drug products. Many OTC drug ingredients had been previously approved prescription drugs now deemed safe enough for use without a medical practitioner 's supervision like ibuprofen.
In 2014, the FDA added an Ebola treatment being developed by Canadian pharmaceutical company Tekmira to the Fast Track program, but halted the phase 1 trials in July pending the receipt of more information about how the drug works. This is seen as increasingly important in the face of a major outbreak of the disease in West Africa that began in late March 2014 and continued as of August 2014.
The Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research is the branch of the FDA responsible for ensuring the safety and efficacy of biological therapeutic agents. These include blood and blood products, vaccines, allergenics, cell and tissue - based products, and gene therapy products. New biologics are required to go through a premarket approval process called a Biologics License Application (BLA), similar to that for drugs.
The original authority for government regulation of biological products was established by the 1902 Biologics Control Act, with additional authority established by the 1944 Public Health Service Act. Along with these Acts, the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act applies to all biologic products, as well. Originally, the entity responsible for regulation of biological products resided under the National Institutes of Health; this authority was transferred to the FDA in 1972.
The Center for Devices and Radiological Health (CDRH) is the branch of the FDA responsible for the premarket approval of all medical devices, as well as overseeing the manufacturing, performance and safety of these devices. The definition of a medical device is given in the FD&C Act, and it includes products from the simple toothbrush to complex devices such as implantable neurostimulators. CDRH also oversees the safety performance of non-medical devices that emit certain types of electromagnetic radiation. Examples of CDRH - regulated devices include cellular phones, airport baggage screening equipment, television receivers, microwave ovens, tanning booths, and laser products.
CDRH regulatory powers include the authority to require certain technical reports from the manufacturers or importers of regulated products, to require that radiation - emitting products meet mandatory safety performance standards, to declare regulated products defective, and to order the recall of defective or noncompliant products. CDRH also conducts limited amounts of direct product testing.
Clearance requests are for medical devices that prove they are "substantially equivalent '' to the predicate devices already on the market. Approved requests are for items that are new or substantially different and need to demonstrate "safety and efficacy '', for example it may be inspected for safety in case of new toxic hazards. Both aspects need to be proved or provided by the submitter to ensure proper procedures are followed.
The FDA does not approve applied coatings used in the food processing industry. There is no review process to approve the composition of nonstick coatings, nor does the FDA inspect or test these materials. Through their governing of processes, however, the FDA does have a set of regulations that cover the formulation, manufacturing, and use of nonstick coatings. Hence, materials like Polytetrafluoroethylene (Teflon) are not, and can not be, considered as FDA Approved, rather, they are "FDA Compliant '' or "FDA Acceptable ''.
Cosmetics are regulated by the Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, the same branch of the FDA that regulates food. Cosmetic products are not, in general, subject to premarket approval by the FDA unless they make "structure or function claims '' that make them into drugs (see Cosmeceutical). However, all color additives must be specifically FDA approved before manufacturers can include them in cosmetic products sold in the U.S. The FDA regulates cosmetics labeling, and cosmetics that have not been safety tested must bear a warning to that effect.
Though the cosmetic industry is predominantly responsible in ensuring the safety of its products, the FDA also has the power to intervene when necessary to protect the public but in general does not require pre-market approval or testing. Companies are required to place a warning note on their products if they have not been tested. Experts in cosmetic ingredient reviews also play a role in monitoring safety through influence on the use of ingredients, but also lack legal authority. Overall the organization has reviewed about 1,200 ingredients and has suggested that several hundred be restricted, but there is no standard or systemic method for reviewing chemicals for safety and a clear definition of what is meant by ' safety ' so that all chemicals are tested on the same basis.
The Center for Veterinary Medicine (CVM) is the branch of the FDA that regulates food additives and drugs that are given to animals. CVM does not regulate vaccines for animals; these are handled by the United States Department of Agriculture.
CVM 's primary focus is on medications that are used in food animals and ensuring that they do not affect the human food supply. The FDA 's requirements to prevent the spread of bovine spongiform encephalopathy are also administered by CVM through inspections of feed manufacturers.
Since the Family Smoking Prevention and Tobacco Control Act became law in 2009, the FDA also has had the authority to regulate tobacco products.
In 2009, Congress passed a law requiring color warnings on cigarette packages and on printed advertising, in addition to text warnings from the U.S. Surgeon General.
The nine new graphic warning labels were announced by the FDA in June 2011 and were scheduled to be required to appear on packaging by September 2012. The implementation date is uncertain, due to ongoing proceedings in the case of R.J. Reynolds Tobacco Co. v. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. R.J. Reynolds, Lorillard, Commonwealth Brands Inc., Liggett Group LLC and Santa Fe Natural Tobacco Company Inc. have filed suit in Washington, D.C. federal court claiming that the graphic labels are an unconstitutional way of forcing tobacco companies to engage in anti-smoking advocacy on the government 's behalf.
A First Amendment lawyer, Floyd Abrams, is representing the tobacco companies in the case, contending requiring graphic warning labels on a lawful product can not withstand constitutional scrutiny. The Association of National Advertisers and the American Advertising Federation have also filed a brief in the suit, arguing that the labels infringe on commercial free speech and could lead to further government intrusion if left unchallenged. In November 2011, Federal judge Richard Leon of the U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia temporarily halted the new labels, likely delaying the requirement that tobacco companies display the labels. The U.S. Supreme Court ultimately could decide the matter.
In July 2017, the FDA announced a plan that would reduce the current levels of nicotine permitted in tobacco cigarettes.
With acceptance of premarket notification 510 (k) k033391 in January 2004, the FDA granted Dr. Ronald Sherman permission to produce and market medical maggots for use in humans or other animals as a prescription medical device. Medical maggots represent the first living organism allowed by the Food and Drug Administration for production and marketing as a prescription medical device.
In June 2004, the FDA cleared Hirudo medicinalis (medicinal leeches) as the second living organism to be used as a medical device.
The FDA also requires milk to be pasteurized to remove bacteria.
In addition to its regulatory functions, the FDA carries out research and development activities to develop technology and standards that support its regulatory role, with the objective of resolving scientific and technical challenges before they become impediments. The FDA 's research efforts include the areas of biologics, medical devices, drugs, women 's health, toxicology, food safety and applied nutrition, and veterinary medicine.
The FDA has collected a large amount of data through decades. In March 2013, OpenFDA was created to enable easy access of the data for the public.
Up until the 20th century, there were few federal laws regulating the contents and sale of domestically produced food and pharmaceuticals, with one exception being the short - lived Vaccine Act of 1813. The history of the FDA can be traced to the latter part of the 19th century and the U.S. Department of Agriculture 's Division of Chemistry, later its Bureau of Chemistry. Under Harvey Washington Wiley, appointed chief chemist in 1883, the Division began conducting research into the adulteration and misbranding of food and drugs on the American market. Wiley 's advocacy came at a time when the public had become aroused to hazards in the marketplace by muckraking journalists like Upton Sinclair, and became part of a general trend for increased federal regulations in matters pertinent to public safety during the Progressive Era. The 1902 Biologics Control Act was put in place after a diphtheria antitoxin -- derived from tetanus - contaminated serum -- was used to produce a vaccine that caused the deaths of thirteen children in St. Louis, Missouri. The serum was originally collected from a horse named Jim, who had contracted tetanus.
In June 1906, President Theodore Roosevelt signed into law the Pure Food and Drug Act, also known as the "Wiley Act '' after its chief advocate. The Act prohibited, under penalty of seizure of goods, the interstate transport of food that had been "adulterated ''. The act applied similar penalties to the interstate marketing of "adulterated '' drugs, in which the "standard of strength, quality, or purity '' of the active ingredient was not either stated clearly on the label or listed in the United States Pharmacopoeia or the National Formulary.
The responsibility for examining food and drugs for such "adulteration '' or "misbranding '' was given to Wiley 's USDA Bureau of Chemistry. Wiley used these new regulatory powers to pursue an aggressive campaign against the manufacturers of foods with chemical additives, but the Chemistry Bureau 's authority was soon checked by judicial decisions, which narrowly defined the bureau 's powers and set high standards for proof of fraudulent intent. In 1927, the Bureau of Chemistry 's regulatory powers were reorganized under a new USDA body, the Food, Drug, and Insecticide organization. This name was shortened to the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) three years later.
By the 1930s, muckraking journalists, consumer protection organizations, and federal regulators began mounting a campaign for stronger regulatory authority by publicizing a list of injurious products that had been ruled permissible under the 1906 law, including radioactive beverages, the mascara Lash lure, which caused blindness, and worthless "cures '' for diabetes and tuberculosis. The resulting proposed law was unable to get through the Congress of the United States for five years, but was rapidly enacted into law following the public outcry over the 1937 Elixir Sulfanilamide tragedy, in which over 100 people died after using a drug formulated with a toxic, untested solvent.
President Franklin Delano Roosevelt signed the new Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FD&C Act) into law on June 24, 1938. The new law significantly increased federal regulatory authority over drugs by mandating a pre-market review of the safety of all new drugs, as well as banning false therapeutic claims in drug labeling without requiring that the FDA prove fraudulent intent. Soon after passage of the 1938 Act, the FDA began to designate certain drugs as safe for use only under the supervision of a medical professional, and the category of "prescription - only '' drugs was securely codified into law by the 1951 Durham - Humphrey Amendment. These developments confirmed extensive powers for the FDA to enforce post-marketing recalls of ineffective drugs.
In 1959, the thalidomide tragedy, in which thousands of European babies were born deformed after their mothers took that drug -- marketed for treatment of nausea -- during their pregnancies, Considering the US was largely spared that tragedy because Dr. Frances Oldham Kelsey of the FDA refused to authorize the medication for market, the 1962 Kefauver - Harris Amendment to the FD&C Act was passed, which represented a "revolution '' in FDA regulatory authority. The most important change was the requirement that all new drug applications demonstrate "substantial evidence '' of the drug 's efficacy for a marketed indication, in addition to the existing requirement for pre-marketing demonstration of safety. This marked the start of the FDA approval process in its modern form.
These reforms had the effect of increasing the time, and the difficulty, required to bring a drug to market. One of the most important statutes in establishing the modern American pharmaceutical market was the 1984 Drug Price Competition and Patent Term Restoration Act, more commonly known as the "Hatch - Waxman Act '' after its chief sponsors. The act extended the patent exclusivity terms of new drugs, and tied those extensions, in part, to the length of the FDA approval process for each individual drug. For generic manufacturers, the Act created a new approval mechanism, the Abbreviated New Drug Application (ANDA), in which the generic drug manufacturer need only demonstrate that their generic formulation has the same active ingredient, route of administration, dosage form, strength, and pharmacokinetic properties ("bioequivalence '') as the corresponding brand - name drug. This act has been credited with in essence creating the modern generic drug industry.
Concerns about the length of the drug approval process were brought to the fore early in the AIDS epidemic. In the mid - and late 1980s, ACT - UP and other HIV activist organizations accused the FDA of unnecessarily delaying the approval of medications to fight HIV and opportunistic infections. Partly in response to these criticisms, the FDA issued new rules to expedite approval of drugs for life - threatening diseases, and expanded pre-approval access to drugs for patients with limited treatment options. All of the initial drugs approved for the treatment of HIV / AIDS were approved through these accelerated approval mechanisms. Frank Young, the commissioner of the FDA was behind the Action Plan Phase II, established in August 1987 for quicker approval of AIDS medication.
In two instances, state governments have sought to legalize drugs that the FDA has not approved. Under the theory that federal law passed pursuant to Constitutional authority overrules conflicting state laws, federal authorities still claim the authority to seize, arrest, and prosecute for possession and sales of these substances, even in states where they are legal under state law. The first wave was the legalization by 27 states of laetrile in the late 1970s. This drug was used as a treatment for cancer, but scientific studies both before and after this legislative trend found it to be ineffective. The second wave concerned medical marijuana in the 1990s and 2000s. Though Virginia passed a law with limited effect in 1979, a more widespread trend began in California in 1996.
When the FDA requested Endo Pharmaceuticals on June 8, 2017 to remove oxymorphone hydrochloride from the market, it was the first such request in FDA history.
The Critical Path Initiative is FDA 's effort to stimulate and facilitate a national effort to modernize the sciences through which FDA - regulated products are developed, evaluated, and manufactured. The Initiative was launched in March 2004, with the release of a report entitled Innovation / Stagnation: Challenge and Opportunity on the Critical Path to New Medical Products.
The Compassionate Investigational New Drug program was created after Randall v. U.S. ruled in favor of Robert C. Randall in 1978, creating a program for medical marijuana.
A 2006 court case, Abigail Alliance v. von Eschenbach, would have forced radical changes in FDA regulation of unapproved drugs. The Abigail Alliance argued that the FDA must license drugs for use by terminally ill patients with "desperate diagnoses, '' after they have completed Phase I testing. The case won an initial appeal in May 2006, but that decision was reversed by a March 2007 rehearing. The US Supreme Court declined to hear the case, and the final decision denied the existence of a right to unapproved medications.
Critics of the FDA 's regulatory power argue that the FDA takes too long to approve drugs that might ease pain and human suffering faster if brought to market sooner. The AIDS crisis created some political efforts to streamline the approval process. However, these limited reforms were targeted for AIDS drugs, not for the broader market. This has led to the call for more robust and enduring reforms that would allow patients, under the care of their doctors, access to drugs that have passed the first round of clinical trials.
The widely publicized recall of Vioxx, a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug now estimated to have contributed to fatal heart attacks in thousands of Americans, played a strong role in driving a new wave of safety reforms at both the FDA rulemaking and statutory levels. Vioxx was approved by the FDA in 1999, and was initially hoped to be safer than previous NSAIDs, due to its reduced risk of intestinal tract bleeding. However, a number of pre - and post-marketing studies suggested that Vioxx might increase the risk of myocardial infarction, and this was conclusively demonstrated by results from the APPROVe trial in 2004.
Faced with numerous lawsuits, the manufacturer voluntarily withdrew it from the market. The example of Vioxx has been prominent in an ongoing debate over whether new drugs should be evaluated on the basis of their absolute safety, or their safety relative to existing treatments for a given condition. In the wake of the Vioxx recall, there were widespread calls by major newspapers, medical journals, consumer advocacy organizations, lawmakers, and FDA officials for reforms in the FDA 's procedures for pre - and post - market drug safety regulation.
In 2006, a congressionally requested committee was appointed by the Institute of Medicine to review pharmaceutical safety regulation in the U.S. and to issue recommendations for improvements. The committee was composed of 16 experts, including leaders in clinical medicinemedical research, economics, biostatistics, law, public policy, public health, and the allied health professions, as well as current and former executives from the pharmaceutical, hospital, and health insurance industries. The authors found major deficiencies in the current FDA system for ensuring the safety of drugs on the American market. Overall, the authors called for an increase in the regulatory powers, funding, and independence of the FDA. Some of the committee 's recommendations have been incorporated into drafts of the PDUFA IV bill, which was signed into law in 2007.
As of 2011, Risk Minimization Action Plans (RiskMAPS) have been created to ensure risks of a drug never outweigh the benefits of that drug within the postmarketing period. This program requires that manufacturers design and implement periodic assessments of their programs ' effectiveness. The Risk Minimization Action Plans are set in place depending on the overall level of risk a prescription drug is likely to pose to the public.
Prior to the 1990s, only 20 % of all drugs prescribed for children in the United States were tested for safety or efficacy in a pediatric population. This became a major concern of pediatricians as evidence accumulated that the physiological response of children to many drugs differed significantly from those drugs ' effects on adults. Children react different to the drugs because of many reason, including size, weight, etc. There were several reasons that not many medical trials were done with children. For many drugs, children represented such a small proportion of the potential market, that drug manufacturers did not see such testing as cost - effective.
Also, because children were thought to be ethically restricted in their ability to give informed consent, there were increased governmental and institutional hurdles to approval of these clinical trials, as well as greater concerns about legal liability. Thus, for decades, most medicines prescribed to children in the U.S. were done so in a non-FDA - approved, "off - label '' manner, with dosages "extrapolated '' from adult data through body weight and body - surface - area calculations.
An initial attempt by the FDA to address this issue was the 1994 FDA Final Rule on Pediatric Labeling and Extrapolation, which allowed manufacturers to add pediatric labeling information, but required drugs that had not been tested for pediatric safety and efficacy to bear a disclaimer to that effect. However, this rule failed to motivate many drug companies to conduct additional pediatric drug trials. In 1997, the FDA proposed a rule to require pediatric drug trials from the sponsors of New Drug Applications. However, this new rule was successfully preempted in federal court as exceeding the FDA 's statutory authority.
While this debate was unfolding, Congress used the 1997 Food and Drug Administration Modernization Act to pass incentives that gave pharmaceutical manufacturers a six - month patent term extension on new drugs submitted with pediatric trial data. The act reauthorizing these provisions, the 2002 Best Pharmaceuticals for Children Act, allowed the FDA to request NIH - sponsored testing for pediatric drug testing, although these requests are subject to NIH funding constraints. In the Pediatric Research Equity Act of 2003, Congress codified the FDA 's authority to mandate manufacturer - sponsored pediatric drug trials for certain drugs as a "last resort '' if incentives and publicly funded mechanisms proved inadequate.
The priority review voucher is a provision of the Food and Drug Administration Amendments Act (HR 3580) signed by President George W. Bush signed the bill in September 2007 which awards a transferable "priority review voucher '' to any company that obtains approval for a treatment for a neglected tropical diseases. The system was first proposed by Duke University faculty David Ridley, Henry Grabowski, and Jeffrey Moe in their 2006 Health Affairs paper: "Developing Drugs for Developing Countries ''. In 2012, President Obama signed into law the FDA Safety and Innovation Act which includes Section 908 the "Rare Pediatric Disease Priority Review Voucher Incentive Program ''.
Since the 1990s, many successful new drugs for the treatment of cancer, autoimmune diseases, and other conditions have been protein - based biotechnology drugs, regulated by the Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research. Many of these drugs are extremely expensive; for example, the anti-cancer drug Avastin costs $55,000 for a year of treatment, while the enzyme replacement therapy drug Cerezyme costs $200,000 per year, and must be taken by Gaucher 's Disease patients for life.
Biotechnology drugs do not have the simple, readily verifiable chemical structures of conventional drugs, and are produced through complex, often proprietary techniques, such as transgenic mammalian cell cultures. Because of these complexities, the 1984 Hatch - Waxman Act did not include biologics in the Abbreviated New Drug Application (ANDA) process, in essence precluding the possibility of generic drug competition for biotechnology drugs. In February 2007, identical bills were introduced into the House to create an ANDA process for the approval of generic biologics, but were not passed.
In 2013, a guidance was issued to regulate mobile medical applications and protect users from their unintended use. This guidance distinguishes the apps subjected to regulation based on the marketing claims of the apps. Incorporation of the guidelines during the development phase of such app has been proposed for expedite market entry and clearance.
The FDA has regulatory oversight over a large array of products that affect the health and life of American citizens. As a result, the FDA 's powers and decisions are carefully monitored by several governmental and non-governmental organizations. A $1.8 million 2006 Institute of Medicine report on pharmaceutical regulation in the U.S. found major deficiencies in the current FDA system for ensuring the safety of drugs on the American market. Overall, the authors called for an increase in the regulatory powers, funding, and independence of the FDA.
Nine FDA scientists appealed to then president - elect Barack Obama over pressures from management, experienced during the George W. Bush presidency, to manipulate data, including in relation to the review process for medical devices. Characterized as "corrupted and distorted by current FDA managers, thereby placing the American people at risk, '' these concerns were also highlighted in the 2006 report on the agency as well.
The FDA has also been criticized from the opposite viewpoint, as being too tough on industry. According to an analysis published on the website of the libertarian Mercatus Center as well as published statements by economists, medical practitioners, and concerned consumers, many feel the FDA oversteps its regulatory powers and undermines small business and small farms in favor of large corporations. Three of the FDA restrictions under analysis are the permitting of new drugs and devices, the control of manufacturer speech, and the imposition of prescription requirements. The authors argue that in the increasingly complex and diverse food marketplace, the FDA is not equipped to adequately regulate or inspect food. In addition, excessive regulation is blamed for the rising costs of health care and the creation of monopolies, as potential competitors are unable to get FDA approval to enter the market to compete and keep health care costs down.
However, in an indicator that the FDA may be too lax in their approval process, in particular for medical devices, a 2011 study by Dr. Diana Zuckerman and Paul Brown of the National Research Center for Women and Families, and Dr. Steven Nissen of the Cleveland Clinic, published in the Archives of Internal Medicine, showed that most medical devices recalled in the last five years for "serious health problems or death '' had been previously approved by the FDA using the less stringent, and cheaper, 510 (k) process. In a few cases the devices had been deemed so low - risk that they did not need FDA regulation. Of the 113 devices recalled, 35 were for cardiovascular health purposes.
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expansion of idea on blood is thicker than water | Blood is thicker than water - wikipedia
In modern society, the proverb "blood is thicker than water '' is used to imply that family relationships are always more important than friends.
The equivalent proverb in German (originally: Blut ist dicker als Wasser), first appeared in a different form in the medieval German beast epic Reinhart Fuchs (c. 1180; English: Reynard the Fox) by Heinrich der Glîchezære. The 13th - century Heidelberg manuscript reads in part, "ouch hoer ich sagen, das sippe blůt von wazzere niht verdirbet '' (lines 265 - 266). In English we read, "I also hear it said, kin - blood is not spoiled by water. '' which may in part due to the high seas being tamed refer to distance not changing familial ties or duties.
In 1412, the English priest John Lydgate observed in Troy Book, "For naturally blood will be of kind / Drawn - to blood, where he may it find. ''
By 1670, the modern version was included in John Ray 's collected Proverbs, and later appeared in Sir Walter Scott 's novel Guy Mannering (1815): "Weel -- Blud 's (sic) thicker than water -- she 's welcome to the cheeses. '' and in English reformer Thomas Hughes 's Tom Brown 's School Days (1857).
The phrase was first attested in the United States in the Journal of Athabasca Department (1821). '' On June 25, 1859, U.S. Navy Commodore Josiah Tattnall, in command of the U.S. Squadron in Far Eastern waters, made this adage a part of U.S. history when explaining why he had given aid to the British squadron in an attack on Taku Forts at the mouth of the Pei Ho River, thereby abandoning the strict American policy of neutrality.
Modern commentators, including authors Albert Jack and R. Richard Pustelniak, claim the original meaning of the expression was that the ties between people who 've made a blood covenant were stronger than ties formed by "the water of the womb ''. However, no known historical sources support this.
The use of the word "blood '' to refer to kin or familial relations has roots dating back to Greek and Roman traditions. This usage of the term was common in the English - speaking world at least as early as the mid 1300s.
Although not specifically related to the expression, H.C. Trumbull notes an interesting comparison of blood and milk in the Arab world:
More recently, Aldous Huxley 's Ninth Philosopher 's Song (1920) approached the proverb differently, stating, "Blood, as all men know, than water 's thicker / But water 's wider, thank the Lord, than blood. ''
"Blood is thicker than water '' is:
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by 1919 what percent of the longshoremen in the new york city area were italian | Hell 's Kitchen, Manhattan - wikipedia
Hell 's Kitchen, also known as Clinton, is a neighborhood on the West Side of Midtown Manhattan in New York City. It is traditionally considered to be bordered by 34th Street to the south, 59th Street to the north, Eighth Avenue to the east, and the Hudson River to the west. The area provides transport, medical, and warehouse - infrastructure support to Midtown 's business district.
Once a bastion of poor and working class Irish Americans, Hell 's Kitchen 's location in Midtown has changed its personality since the 1970s. Though Hell 's Kitchen 's gritty reputation had long held real - estate prices below those of most other areas of Manhattan, by 1969, the City Planning Commission 's Plan for New York City reported that development pressures related to its Midtown location were driving people of modest means from the area. Since the early 1990s, the area has been gentrifying, and rents have risen rapidly. Located close to both Broadway theaters and the Actors Studio training school, Hell 's Kitchen has long been a home to learning and practicing actors, and, in recent years, to young Wall Street financiers.
The name "Hell 's Kitchen '' generally refers to the area from 34th to 59th Streets. Starting west of Eighth Avenue and north of 43rd Street, city zoning regulations generally limit buildings to six stories. As a result, most of the buildings are older, and are often walk - up apartments. For the most part, the neighborhood encompasses the ZIP Codes 10019 and 10036. The post office for 10019 is called Radio City Station, the original name for Rockefeller Center on Sixth Avenue.
To the east, the neighborhood overlaps the Times Square Theater District to the east at Eighth Avenue. On its southeast border, it overlaps the Garment District also on Eighth Avenue. Here, two landmarks reside -- the New Yorker Hotel and the dynamic Manhattan Center building (at the northwest corner of 34th Street and Eighth Avenue). Included in the transition area on Eighth Avenue are the Port Authority Bus Terminal at 42nd Street, the Pride of Midtown fire station (from which an entire shift, 15 firefighters, died at the World Trade Center), several theatres including Studio 54, the original soup stand of Seinfeld 's "The Soup Nazi '' ' and the Hearst Tower.
The northern edge of Hell 's Kitchen borders the southern edge of the Upper West Side. 57th Street is the traditional boundary between the two neighborhoods. However, Hell 's Kitchen is often considered to extend further north to 59th Street, the southern edge of Central Park starting at Eighth Avenue, where the avenue names change; this neighborhood overlaps with the Upper West Side if this is considered to be Hell 's Kitchen 's northern boundary. Included in the 57th to 59th Street transition area are the Time Warner Center at Columbus Circle, Hudson Hotel, Mount Sinai West, where John Lennon died in 1980 after being shot, and John Jay College.
The southern boundary is at Chelsea, but the two neighborhoods overlap and are often lumped together as the "West Side '' since they support the Midtown Manhattan business district. The traditional dividing line is 34th Street. The transition area just north of Madison Square Garden and Pennsylvania Station includes the Jacob K. Javits Convention Center.
The western border of the neighborhood is the Hudson River at the Hudson River Park and West Side Highway.
Several explanations exist for the original name. An early use of the phrase appears in a comment Davy Crockett made about another notorious Irish slum in Manhattan, Five Points. According to the Irish Cultural Society of the Garden City Area:
When, in 1835, Davy Crockett said, "In my part of the country, when you meet an Irishman, you find a first - rate gentleman; but these are worse than savages; they are too mean to swab hell 's kitchen. '' He was referring to the Five Points.
According to an article by Kirkley Greenwell, published online by the Hell 's Kitchen Neighborhood Association:
No one can pin down the exact origin of the label, but some refer to a tenement on 54th Street as the first "Hell 's Kitchen. '' Another explanation points to an infamous building at 39th as the true original. A gang and a local dive took the name as well... a similar slum also existed in London and was known as Hell 's Kitchen.
Local historian Mary Clark explained the name thus:
... first appeared in print on September 22, 1881 when a New York Times reporter went to the West 30s with a police guide to get details of a multiple murder there. He referred to a particularly infamous tenement at 39th Street and Tenth Avenue as "Hell 's Kitchen '' and said that the entire section was "probably the lowest and filthiest in the city. '' According to this version, 39th Street between 9th and 10th Avenues became known as Hell 's Kitchen and the name was later expanded to the surrounding streets. Another version ascribes the name 's origins to a German restaurant in the area known as Heil 's Kitchen, after its proprietors. But the most common version traces it to the story of "Dutch Fred the Cop '', a veteran policeman, who with his rookie partner, was watching a small riot on West 39th Street near Tenth Avenue. The rookie is supposed to have said, "This place is hell itself '', to which Fred replied, "Hell 's a mild climate. This is Hell 's Kitchen. ''
Hell 's Kitchen has stuck as the most - used name of the neighborhood, even though real estate developers have offered alternatives of "Clinton '' and "Midtown West '', or even "the Mid-West ''. The "Clinton '' name, used by the municipality of New York City, originated in 1959 in an attempt to link the area to DeWitt Clinton Park at 52nd and Eleventh Avenue, named after the 19th century New York governor.
On the island of Manhattan as it was when Europeans first saw it, the Great Kill formed from three small streams that united near present - day Tenth Avenue and 40th Street, and then wound through the low - lying Reed Valley, renowned for fish and waterfowl, to empty into the Hudson River at a deep bay on the river at the present 42nd Street. The name was retained in a tiny hamlet called Great Kill, which became a center for carriage - making, while the upland to the south and east became known as Longacre, the predecessor of Longacre Square (now Times Square).
One of the large farms of the colonial era in this neighborhood was that of Andreas Hopper and his descendants, extending from today 's 48th Street nearly to 59th Street and from the river east to what is now Sixth Avenue. One of the Hopper farmhouses, built in 1752 for John Hopper the younger, stood near 53rd Street and Eleventh Avenue; christened "Rosevale '' for its extensive gardens, it was the home of the War of 1812 veteran, Gen. Garrit Hopper Striker, and lasted until 1896, when it was demolished. The site was purchased for the city and naturalistically landscaped by Samuel Parsons Jr. as DeWitt Clinton Park. In 1911 New York Hospital bought a full city block largely of the Hopper property, between 54th and 55th Streets, Eleventh and Twelfth Avenues. Beyond the railroad track, projecting into the river at 54th Street, was Mott 's Point, with an 18th - century Mott family house surrounded by gardens that was inhabited by members of the family until 1884 and survived until 1895.
A lone surviving structure that dates from the time this area was open farmland and suburban villas is a pre-1800s carriage house that once belonged to a villa owned by former Vice President and New York State governor George Clinton, now in a narrow court behind 422 West 46th Street. From 1811 until it was officially de-mapped in 1857, the diminutive Bloomingdale Square was part of the city 's intended future; it extended from 53rd to 57th Streets between Eighth and Ninth Avenues. It was eliminated after the establishment of Central Park, and the name shifted to the junction of Broadway, West End Avenue, and 106th Street, now Straus Park. In 1825, the City purchased for $10 clear title to a right - of - way through John Leake Norton 's farm, "The Hermitage '', to lay out 42nd Street clear to the river. Before long, cattle ferried from Weehawken were being driven along the unpaved route to slaughterhouses on the East Side. Seventy acres of the Leakes ' (later the Nortons ') property, extending north from 42nd to 46th Street and from Broadway to the river, had been purchased before 1807 by John Jacob Astor and William Cutting, who held it before dividing it into building lots as the district became more suburban.
There were multiple changes that helped Hell 's Kitchen integrate with New York City proper. The first was construction of the Hudson River Railroad, whose initial leg -- the 40 miles (64 km) to Peekskill -- was completed on September 29, 1849, By the end of 1849, it stretched to Poughkeepsie and in 1851 it extended to Albany. The track ran at a steep grade up Eleventh Avenue, as far as 60th Street.
The formerly rural riverfront was industrialized by businesses, such as tanneries, that used the river for shipping products and dumping waste. The neighborhood that would later be known as Hell 's Kitchen, started forming in the southern part of the 22nd Ward in the mid-19th century. Irish immigrants -- mostly refugees from the Great Famine -- found work on the docks and railroad along the Hudson River and established shantytowns there.
After the American Civil War, there was an influx of people who moved to New York City. The tenements that were built became overcrowded quickly. Many who lived in this congested, poverty - stricken area turned to gang life. Following Prohibition, implemented in 1919, the district 's many warehouses were ideal locations for bootleg distilleries for the rumrunners who controlled illicit liquor. At the start of the 20th century, the neighborhood was controlled by gangs, including the violent Gopher Gang led by One Lung Curran and later by Owney Madden. Early gangs, like the Hell 's Kitchen Gang, transformed into organized crime entities, around the same time that Owney Madden became one of the most powerful mobsters in New York. It became known as the "most dangerous area on the American Continent ''.
After the repeal of Prohibition, many of the organized crime elements moved into other rackets, such as illegal gambling and union shakedowns. The postwar era was characterized by a flourishing waterfront, and longshoreman work was plentiful. By the end of the 1950s, however, the implementation of containerized shipping led to the decline of the West Side piers and many longshoremen found themselves out of work. In addition, construction of the Lincoln Tunnel, Lincoln Tunnel access roads, and the Port Authority Bus Terminal and ramps destroyed much of Hell 's Kitchen south of 41st Street. -
In 1959, an aborted rumble between rival Irish and Puerto Rican gangs led to the notorious "Capeman '' murders in which two innocent teenagers were killed. By 1965, Hell 's Kitchen was the home base of the Westies, an Irish mob aligned with the Gambino crime family. It was not until the early 1980s that widespread gentrification began to alter the demographics of the longtime working - class Irish American neighborhood. The 1980s also saw an end to the Westies ' reign of terror, when the gang lost all of its power after the RICO convictions of most of its principals in 1986.
Although the neighborhood is immediately west of New York 's main business district, large - scale redevelopment has been kept in check for more than 40 years by strict zoning rules in a Special Clinton District designed to protect the neighborhood 's residents and its low - rise character.
In part to qualify for federal aid, New York developed a comprehensive Plan for New York City in 1969 -- 70. For Hell 's Kitchen, the master plan called for two to three thousand hotel rooms, 25,000 apartments, 25,000,000 square feet (2,300,000 m) of office space, a new super liner terminal, a subway along 48th Street, and a convention center to replace what the plan described as "blocks of antiquated and deteriorating structures of every sort. '' However, outrage at the massive residential displacement that this development project would have caused, and the failure of the City to complete any replacement housing, led to opposition to the first project -- a new convention center to replace the New York Coliseum.
To prevent the convention center from sparking a development boom that would beget the rest of the master plan with its consequent displacement, the Clinton Planning Council and Daniel Gutman, their environmental planner, proposed that the convention center and all major development be located south of 42nd Street where public policy had already left tracts of vacant land.
Nevertheless, in 1973 the Jacob K. Javits Convention Center was approved for a 44th Street site that would replace piers 84 and 86. But in exchange, and after the defeat of a bond issue that would have funded a 48th Street "people mover, '' the City first abandoned the rest of the 1969 -- 70 master plan and then gave the neighborhood a special zoning district to restrict further redevelopment. Since then, limited new development has filled in the many empty lots and rejuvenated existing buildings. Later, in 1978, when the city could not afford to construct the 44th Street convention center, the Mayor and Governor chose the rail yard site originally proposed by the local community. Major office and residential development south of 42nd Street indeed followed, albeit much later, after the City initiated the Hudson Yards Redevelopment Project and started construction on the 7 subway extension
The SCD was originally split into four areas:
Special permits are required for all demolition and construction in the SCD, including demolition of "any sound housing in the District '' and any rehabilitation that increases the number of dwellings in a structure. In the original provisions. no building could be demolished unless it was unsound. New developments, conversions, or alterations that create new units or zero bedroom units must contain at least 20 % two bedroom apartments with a minimum room size of 168 square feet (16 m). Alterations that reduce the percentage of two - bedroom units are not permitted unless the resulting building meets the 20 % two - bedroom requirement. Finally, building height in the Preservation Area can not exceed 66 feet (20 m) or seven stories, whichever is less.
As the gentrification pace increased, there were numerous reports of problems between landlords and tenants. The most extreme example was the eight - story Windermere complex at the southwest corner of Ninth Avenue and 57th Street. Built in 1881, it is the second - oldest large apartment house in Manhattan.
In 1980, the then - owner, Alan B. Weissman, tried to empty the building of its tenants. According to former tenants and court papers, rooms were ransacked, doors were ripped out, prostitutes were moved in, and tenants received death threats in the campaign to empty the building. All the major New York newspapers covered the trials that sent the Windermere 's managers to jail. Although the building 's landlord, Alan B. Weissman, was never linked to the harassment, he and his wife made top billing in the 1985 edition of The Village Voice annual list, "The Dirty Dozen: New York 's Worst Landlords. '' Most of the tenants eventually settled and moved out of the building. As of May 2006, seven tenants remained and court orders protecting the tenants and the building allowed it to remain in derelict condition even as the surrounding neighborhood was experiencing a dramatic burst of demolition and redevelopment. Finally, in September 2007, the fire department evacuated those remaining seven residents from the building, citing dangerous conditions, and padlocked the front door. In 2008 the New York Supreme Court ruled that the owners of the building, who include the TOA Construction Corporation of Japan, must repair it.
By the 1980s the area south of 42nd Street was in decline. Both the state and the city hoped that the Jacob K. Javits Convention Center would renew the area. Hotels, restaurants, apartment buildings, and television studios were proposed. One proposal included apartments and hotels on a 30 acres (12 ha) pier jutting out onto Hudson River, which also included a marina, ferry slip, stores, restaurants, and a performing arts center. At Ninth Avenue and 33rd Street, a 32 - story office tower would be built. Hotels, apartment buildings, and a Madison Square Garden would be built over the tracks west of Pennsylvania Station. North of the Javits Center, a "Television City '' would be developed by Larry Silverstein in conjunction with NBC.
One impediment to development was that there was a lack of mass transit in the area, which is far from Penn Station, and none of the proposals for a link to Penn Station were pursued successfully (for example, the ill - fated West Side Transitway). No changes to the zoning policy happened until 1990, when the city rezoned a small segment of 11th Avenue near the Javits Center. In 1993, part of 9th Avenue between 35th and 41st Streets was also rezoned. However, neither of these rezonings was particularly significant, as most of the area was still zoned as a manufacturing district with low - rise apartment buildings.
By the early 1990s, there was a recession, which scuttled plans for rezoning and severely reduced the amount of development in the area. After the recession was over, developers invested in areas like Times Square, eastern Hell 's Kitchen, and Chelsea, but mostly skipped the Far West Side.
While most fire stations in Manhattan lost firefighters in the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks, the station with the greatest loss of firefighters was Engine 54, Ladder 4, Battalion 9 at 48th Street and Eighth Avenue, which lost 15 firefighters. Given its proximity to Midtown, the station has specialized in skyscraper fires and rescues; in 2007, it was the second - busiest firehouse in New York City, with 9,685 runs between the two companies. Its patch reads "Pride of Midtown '' and "Never Missed a Performance ''. Memorials dot the station 's exterior walls and a granite memorial is in a park to its north. Ladder 21, the "Pride of Hell 's Kitchen '', located on 38th Street between Ninth and Tenth Avenues, and stationed with Engine 34, lost seven firefighters on September 11. In addition, on September 11, Engine 26 was temporarily stationed with Engine 34 / Ladder 21 and lost many firefighters themselves.
Hell 's Kitchen has become an increasingly upscale neighborhood of affluent young professionals as well as residents from the "old days '', with rents in the neighborhood having increased dramatically above the average in Manhattan. It has also acquired a large and diverse community as residents have moved north from Chelsea. Zoning has long restricted the extension of Midtown Manhattan 's skyscraper development into Hell 's Kitchen, at least north of 42nd Street. The David Childs - and Frank Williams - designed Worldwide Plaza established a beachhead when it was built in 1989 at the former Madison Square Garden site, a full city block between 49th and 50th Streets and between Eighth and Ninth Avenues that was exempt from special district zoning rules. This project led a real - estate building boom on Eighth Avenue, including the Hearst Tower at 56th Street and Eighth Avenue. An indication of how fast real estate prices rose in the neighborhood was a 2004 transaction involving the Howard Johnson 's Motel at 52nd and Eighth Avenue. In June, Vikram Chatwal 's Hampshire Hotel Group bought the motel and adjoining SIR (Studio Instrument Rental) building for $9 million. In August, they sold the property to Elad Properties for about $43 million. Elad, which formerly owned the Plaza Hotel, is in the process of building The Link, a luxury 44 - story building.
The most prominent real estate project in the area is the Hudson Yards Redevelopment Project, which will include over 45 million square feet of commercial and residential development, a renovation of the Jacob K. Javits Convention Center, and an extension of the IRT Flushing Line to the 34th Street -- Hudson Yards station at 34th Street and 11th Avenue. This new station for 7 and < 7 > trains opened on September 13, 2015. Hudson Yards includes a mixed - use real estate development by Related Companies and Oxford Properties over the MTA 's West Side Yard which is expected to consist of 16 skyscrapers containing more than 12,700,000 square feet (1,180,000 m) of new office, residential, and retail space. six million square feet (560,000 m) of commercial office space, a 750,000 - square - foot (70,000 m) retail center with two levels of restaurants, cafes, markets and bars, a hotel, a cultural space, about 5,000 residences, a 750 - seat school, and 14 acres (5.7 ha) of public open space. Development on the rail yard site officially broke ground on December 4, 2012, with the first tower, an 895 - foot (273 m) office building in the southeast corner of the site, expected to be complete in 2016.
Based on data from the 2010 United States Census, the population of Hell 's Kitchen (Clinton) was 45,884, an increase of 5,289 (13.0 %) from the 40,595 counted in 2000. Covering an area of 422.45 acres (170.96 ha), the neighborhood had a population density of 108.6 inhabitants per acre (69,500 / sq mi; 26,800 / km).
The racial makeup of the neighborhood was 56.4 % (25,891) White, 6.3 % (2,869) African American, 0.2 % (70) Native American, 15.0 % (6,886) Asian, 0.1 % (31) Pacific Islander, 0.4 % (181) from other races, and 2.4 % (1,079) from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 19.3 % (8,877) of the population.
Hell 's Kitchen 's side streets are mostly lined with trees. The neighborhood does not have many parks or recreational areas, though smaller plots have been converted into green spaces.
One such park is De Witt Clinton Park on Eleventh Avenue between 52nd and 54th streets, across the West Side Highway from Clinton Cove Park. Another is Hell 's Kitchen Park, built in the 1970s on a former parking lot on 10th Avenue between 47th and 48th Streets.
A newer park in Hell 's Kitchen is the Hudson Park and Boulevard, which is part of the Hudson Yards Redevelopment Project.
The Clinton Community Garden, a neighborhood garden, is a result of the actors living in the area. Since they mostly work at night in the local theatres, they took time to create a garden in what was then a rubble - strewn lot on West 48th Street between Ninth and Tenth avenues Eventually it contributed to the area 's gentrification. Although the garden has a gate which requires a key, everyone who lives in Hell 's Kitchen can apply for a membership and get a copy of the key.
Hell 's Kitchen 's gritty reputation had made its housing prices lower than elsewhere in Manhattan. Given the lower costs in the past and its proximity to Broadway theatres, the neighborhood is a haven for aspiring actors. Many famous actors and entertainers have resided there, including Burt Reynolds, Rip Torn, Bob Hope, Charlton Heston, James Dean, Madonna, Jerry Seinfeld, Larry David, Alicia Keys, John Michael Bolger, and Sylvester Stallone. This is due in large part to the Actors Studio on West 44th at which Lee Strasberg taught and developed method acting.
With the opening of the original Improv by Budd Friedman in 1963, the club became a hangout for singers to perform but quickly attracted comedians, as well, turning it into the reigning comedy club of its time. Once located near West 44th Street and Ninth Avenue, it has since shuttered, replaced by a restaurant.
Manhattan Plaza at 43rd Street between Ninth and Tenth Avenues was built in the 1970s to house artists. It consists of two 46 - story towers with 70 % of the apartments set aside for rent discounts for those who work in the arts. The Actors ' Temple and St. Malachy Roman Catholic Church with its Actors ' Chapel also testify to the long - time presence of show business people.
The neighborhood is also home to a number of broadcast and music - recording studios, including the CBS Broadcast Center at 524 West 57th Street, where the CBS television network records many of its news and sports programs such as 60 Minutes and The NFL Today; the former Sony Music Studios at 460 West 54th Street, which closed in 2007; Manhattan Center Studios at 311 West 34th Street; and Right Track Recording 's Studio A509 orchestral recording facility at West 38th Street and Tenth Avenue. The syndicated Montel Williams Show is also taped at the Unitel Studios, 433 West 53rd Street, between Ninth and Tenth Avenues. In 2016, rock music singer and songwriter Sting recorded his album entitled 57th & 9th at Avatar Studios, a music studio located near the intersection of 57th Street and Ninth Avenue in Hell 's Kitchen.
The Comedy Central satirical news program The Daily Show has been taped in Hell 's Kitchen since its debut. In 2005, it moved from its quarters at 54th Street and Tenth Avenue to a new studio in the neighborhood, at 733 Eleventh Avenue, between 51st and 52nd Streets. The 54th and 10th location was used for The Colbert Report throughout its entire run from 2005 until 2014. Until its cancellation, the studio was used for The Nightly Show with Larry Wilmore, following Stephen Colbert 's departure from Comedy Central. Next door at 511 Wesr 54th Street is Ars Nova theater, home to emerging artists Joe Iconis and breakout star Jesse Eisenberg, among others.
The headquarters of Troma studios was located in Hell 's Kitchen before their move to Long Island City in Queens. The Baryshnikov Arts Center opened at 37 Arts on 37th Street in 2005, the Orchestra of St. Luke 's opened the DiMenna Center for Classical Music in the same building in 2011. The Alvin Ailey American Dance Theater opened at 55th Street and Ninth Avenue in 2006. The Metropolitan Community Church of New York, geared toward an LGBTQ membership, is located in Hell 's Kitchen.
Ninth Avenue is noted for its many ethnic restaurants. The Ninth Avenue Association 's International Food Festival stretches through the Kitchen from 42nd to 57th Streets every May, usually on the third weekend of the month. It has been going on since 1974 and is one of the oldest street fairs in the city. There are Caribbean, Chinese, French, German, Greek, Italian, Irish, Mexican, and Thai restaurants as well as multiple Afghan, Argentine, Ethiopian, Peruvian, Turkish, Indian, Pakistani, and Vietnamese restaurants. Restaurant Row, so called because of the abundance of restaurants, is located on West 46th Street between Eighth and Ninth Avenues. Notable establishments on Ninth Avenue include Mickey Spillane 's, part - owned by the mobster 's son, who also owns Mr Biggs on Tenth Avenue / 43rd Street. There are more restaurants and food carts and trucks on Tenth Avenue between 43rd and 47th Streets, including Hallo Berlin.
The Intrepid Sea, Air & Space Museum is located at Hudson River Pier 86, 46th Street. Besides the aircraft carrier USS Intrepid, the museum exhibits the cruise missile submarine USS Growler, a Concorde SST, a Lockheed A-12 supersonic reconnaissance plane, and the Space Shuttle Enterprise.
The Lincoln Tunnel connects New York City to New Jersey. Parking lots dot the neighborhood, but are dwindling in quantity as developments are being built. Eleventh Avenue is lined with car dealerships, many of which claim to have the highest volume among all dealerships for their brands in the country.
The massive Port Authority Bus Terminal is between 40th and 42nd Streets and Eighth and Ninth Avenues. Several New York City Bus routes (such as the M11, M12, M31, M34 SBS, M42, M50) also service the area.
Many of the horse - drawn carriages from Central Park stay in stables just off the West Side Highway. It is not uncommon to hear the sound of horses in the neighborhood. There have been calls for banning horse - drawn carriages, especially from Mayor of New York City Bill de Blasio following a handful of collisions between cars and carriages. The carriage horses live in historic stables originally built in the 19th century, but today boast the latest in barn design, such as fans, misting systems, box stalls, and state - of - the - art sprinkler systems. As horses always have in densely populated urban areas, the carriage horses live upstairs in their stables while the carriages are parked below on the ground floor.
Cruise ships frequently dock at the New York Passenger Ship Terminal in the 48th to 52nd piers called Piers 88, 90, 92. Cruise ship horns are a common sound in the neighborhood. Several French restaurants opened on West 51st Street to accommodate traffic from the French Line. The piers originally built in 1930 are now considered small, and some cruise traffic uses other locations. Other ship operations in the neighborhood include Circle Line Sightseeing Cruises at West 42nd and the NY Waterway ferry service.
Hell 's Kitchen begins northwest of Penn Station. Amtrak trains going into the station run along a sunken corridor west of Tenth Avenue, which feeds into the Freedom Tunnel; it is used by approximately thirty trains daily. During the post-9 / 11 building boom, apartment houses have been built over sections of the train tracks.
Hell 's Kitchen is bounded on the east by the New York City Subway 's IND Eighth Avenue Line (A, C, and E trains). The MTA built the 7 Subway Extension (7 and < 7 > trains) for the aforementioned Hudson Yards development. The extension to 34th Street -- Hudson Yards opened on September 13, 2015, making the IRT Flushing Line the westernmost New York City Subway line within Midtown.
The Success Academy Charter Schools group opened an elementary school, Success Academy Hell 's Kitchen, in the High School of Graphic Communication Arts building in 2013.
Notable current and former residents of Hell 's Kitchen include:
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physician who specializes in the treatment of the gastrointestinal tract | Gastroenterology - wikipedia
Gastroenterology (MeSH heading) is the branch of medicine focused on the digestive system and its disorders.
Diseases affecting the gastrointestinal tract, which include the organs from mouth into anus, along the alimentary canal, are the focus of this speciality. Physicians practicing in this field are called gastroenterologists. They have usually completed about eight years of pre-medical and medical education, a year - long internship (if this is not a part of the residency), three years of an internal medicine residency, and two to three years in the gastroenterology fellowship. Gastroenterologists perform a number of diagnostic and therapeutic procedures including colonoscopy, endoscopy, endoscopic retrograde cholangiancreatography (ERCP), endoscopic ultrasound and liver biopsy. Some gastroenterology trainees will complete a "fourth - year '' (although this is often their seventh year of graduate medical education) in transplant hepatology, advanced endoscopy, inflammatory bowel disease, motility or other topics.
Hepatology, or hepatobiliary medicine, encompasses the study of the liver, pancreas, and biliary tree, while proctology encompasses the fields of anus and rectum diseases. They are traditionally considered sub-specialties of gastroenterology.
Citing from Egyptian papyri, John F. Nunn identified significant knowledge of gastrointestinal diseases among practicing physicians during the periods of the pharaohs. Irynakhty, of the tenth dynasty, c. 2125 B.C., was a court physician specializing in gastroenterology, sleeping, and proctology.
Among ancient Greeks, Hippocrates attributed digestion to concoction. Galen 's concept of the stomach having four faculties was widely accepted up to modernity in the seventeenth century.
Eighteenth century:
Nineteenth century:
Twentieth century:
Twenty - first century:
1. International Classification of Disease (ICD 2007) / WHO classification:
2. MeSH subject Heading:
3. National Library of Medicine Catalogue (NLM classification 2006):
In the United States, gastroenterology is an internal medicine subspecialty certified by the American Board of Internal Medicine (ABIM) and the American Osteopathic Board of Internal Medicine (AOBIM).
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who did the houston rockets beat in the 1994-95 nba championship | 1994 -- 95 Houston Rockets season - wikipedia
The 1994 -- 95 NBA season was the Rockets ' 28th season in the National Basketball Association, and 24th season in Houston. After winning their first championship, the Rockets went on to win their first nine games of the season. However, with increased competition in the West, management felt a change was needed to win another title. On February 14, the Rockets traded Otis Thorpe to the Portland Trail Blazers for All - Star guard Clyde Drexler, a former teammate of Hakeem Olajuwon at the University of Houston. However, after the trade, the Rockets struggled in the second half of the season posting a record of 17 -- 18 on their way to finishing third in the Midwest Division with a 47 -- 35 record. Olajuwon was selected for the 1995 NBA All - Star Game.
In the playoffs, the Rockets faced the 3rd - seeded Utah Jazz in the first round. The Jazz would take a 2 -- 1 series lead, but the Rockets went on to win the series in five games. In the semifinals, they faced the Phoenix Suns for the second consecutive year. The Rockets managed to defeat the 2nd - seeded Suns in seven games to advance to the Western Conference Finals. In the all Texas Western Conference, they faced the top - seeded San Antonio Spurs. Both teams lacked home court advantage in the series, only winning on the road until the Rockets won Game 6 at The Summit and advanced to the NBA Finals. In the Finals, they swept the Orlando Magic in four straight games, and won their second consecutive championship. Following the season, Vernon Maxwell signed as a free agent with the Philadelphia 76ers, and Tracy Murray left in the 1995 NBA Expansion Draft.
Roster
(3) Utah Jazz vs. (6) Houston Rockets: Rockets win series 3 - 2
Last Playoff Meeting: 1994 Western Conference Finals (Houston won 4 - 1)
(2) Phoenix Suns vs. (6) Houston Rockets: Rockets win series 4 - 3
Last Playoff Meeting: 1994 Western Conference Semifinals (Houston won 4 - 3)
(1) San Antonio Spurs vs. (6) Houston Rockets: Rockets win series 4 - 2
Last Playoff Meeting: 1981 Western Conference Semifinals (Houston won 4 - 3)
Head Coach: Rudy Tomjanovich Hakeem Olajuwon Clyde Drexler Kenny Smith Robert Horry Sam Cassell Mario Elie Carl Herrera Vernon Maxwell Chucky Brown Pete Chilcutt Tracy Murray Tim Breaux Žan Tabak Charles Jones Adrian Caldwell
Although both centers played well, Olajuwon is generally considered to have outplayed O'Neal. Olajuwon outscored O'Neal in every game of the series and became one of the few players in NBA history to score at least 30 points in every game of an NBA Finals series:
By winning his second straight NBA Finals MVP award, Hakeem Olajuwon became the sixth player to do so on multiple occasions, joining Willis Reed, Kareem Abdul - Jabbar, Magic Johnson, Larry Bird and Michael Jordan. Olajuwon also joined Jordan as the only two players to win the award consecutively as of that time.
Rockets win series 4 -- 0
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when was the last time father's day was on june 18 | Father 's Day (United States) - wikipedia
Father 's Day is a celebration honoring fathers and celebrating fatherhood, paternal bonds, and the influence of fathers in society. The tradition was said to be started from a memorial service held for a large group of men who died in a mining accident in Monongah, West Virginia in 1907. It was first proposed by Sonora Dodd of Spokane, Washington in 1909. It is currently celebrated in the United States annually on the third Sunday in June.
Father 's Day was inaugurated in the United States in the early 20th century to complement Mother 's Day in celebrating fatherhood and male parenting.
Father 's Day was founded in Spokane, Washington at the YMCA in 1910 by Sonora Smart Dodd, who was born in Arkansas. Its first celebration was in the Spokane YMCA on June 19, 1910. Her father, the Civil War veteran William Jackson Smart, was a single parent who raised his six children there. After hearing a sermon about Jarvis ' Mother 's Day at Central Methodist Episcopal Church in 1909, she told her pastor that fathers should have a similar holiday honoring them. Although she initially suggested June 5, her father 's birthday, the pastors did not have enough time to prepare their sermons, and the celebration was deferred to the third Sunday of June.
It did not have much success initially. In the 1920s, Dodd stopped promoting the celebration because she was studying in the Art Institute of Chicago, and it faded into relative obscurity, even in Spokane. In the 1930s Dodd returned to Spokane and started promoting the celebration again, raising awareness at a national level. She had the help of those trade groups that would benefit most from the holiday, for example the manufacturers of ties, tobacco pipes, and any traditional present to fathers. Since 1938 she had the help of the Father 's Day Council, founded by the New York Associated Men 's Wear Retailers to consolidate and systematize the commercial promotion. Americans resisted the holiday during a few decades, perceiving it as just an attempt by merchants to replicate the commercial success of Mother 's Day, and newspapers frequently featured cynical and sarcastic attacks and jokes. But the trade groups did not give up: they kept promoting it and even incorporated the jokes into their adverts, and they eventually succeeded. By the mid-1980s the Father 's Council wrote that "(...) (Father 's Day) has become a Second Christmas for all the men 's gift - oriented industries. ''
A bill to accord national recognition of the holiday was introduced in Congress in 1913. In 1916, President Woodrow Wilson went to Spokane to speak in a Father 's Day celebration and wanted to make it official, but Congress resisted, fearing that it would become commercialized. US President Calvin Coolidge recommended in 1924 that the day be observed by the nation, but stopped short of issuing a national proclamation. Two earlier attempts to formally recognize the holiday had been defeated by Congress. In 1957, Maine Senator Margaret Chase Smith wrote a proposal accusing Congress of ignoring fathers for 40 years while honoring mothers, thus "(singling) out just one of our two parents ''. In 1966, President Lyndon B. Johnson issued the first presidential proclamation honoring fathers, designating the third Sunday in June as Father 's Day. Six years later, the day was made a permanent national holiday when President Richard Nixon signed it into law in 1972.
In addition to Father 's Day, International Men 's Day is celebrated in many countries on November 19 for men and boys who are not fathers.
A "Father 's Day '' service was held on July 5, 1908, in Fairmont, West Virginia, in the Williams Memorial Methodist Episcopal Church South, now known as Central United Methodist Church. Grace Golden Clayton was mourning the loss of her father when, on December 1907, the Monongah Mining Disaster in nearby Monongah killed 361 men, 250 of them fathers, leaving around a thousand fatherless children. Clayton suggested her pastor Robert Thomas Webb to honor all those fathers. Clayton chose the Sunday nearest to the birthday of her father, Methodist minister Fletcher Golden.
Clayton 's event did not have repercussions outside of Fairmont for several reasons, among them: the city was overwhelmed by other events, the celebration was never promoted outside of the town itself and no proclamation was made in the City Council. Also two events overshadowed this event: the celebration of Independence Day July 4, 1908, with 12,000 attendants and several shows including a hot air balloon event, which took over the headlines in the following days, and the death of a 16 - year - old girl on July 4. The local church and Council were overwhelmed and they did not even think of promoting the event, and it was not celebrated again for many years. The original sermon was not reproduced in press and it was lost. Finally, Clayton was a quiet person, who never promoted the event or even talked to other persons about it.
Clayton also may have been inspired by Anna Jarvis ' crusade to establish Mother 's Day; two months prior, Jarvis had held a celebration for her dead mother in Grafton, West Virginia, a town about 15 miles (24 km) away from Fairmont.
In 1911, Jane Addams proposed a citywide Father 's Day in Chicago, but she was turned down.
In 1912, there was a Father 's Day celebration in Vancouver, Washington, suggested by Methodist pastor J.J. Berringer of the Irvingtom Methodist Church. They believed mistakenly that they had been the first to celebrate such a day. They followed a 1911 suggestion by the Portland Oregonian.
Harry C. Meek, member of Lions Clubs International, claimed that he had first the idea for Father 's Day in 1915. Meek claimed that the third Sunday of June was chosen because it was his birthday (it would have been more natural to choose his father 's birthday). The Lions Club has named him "Originator of Father 's Day ''. Meek made many efforts to promote Father 's Day and make it an official holiday.
The U.S. Open golf tournament is scheduled to finish on Father 's Day, as was the 2016 NBA Finals. The FireKeepers Casino 400 NASCAR auto race at Michigan International Speedway is sometimes held on Father 's Day. On June 16, 2017, Donald Trump proclaimed Father 's Day.
In the United States, Dodd used the "Fathers ' Day '' spelling on her original petition for the holiday, but the spelling "Father 's Day '' was already used in 1913 when a bill was introduced to the U.S. Congress as the first attempt to establish the holiday, and it was still spelled the same way when its creator was commended in 2008 by the U.S. Congress.
(federal) = federal holidays, (state) = state holidays, (religious) = religious holidays, (week) = weeklong holidays, (month) = monthlong holidays, (36) = Title 36 Observances and Ceremonies Bold indicates major holidays commonly celebrated in the United States, which often represent the major celebrations of the month.
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where is pirates of the caribbean supposed to take place | List of locations in Pirates of the Caribbean - wikipedia
This is a list of islands and other locations in the Pirates of the Caribbean film series.
Davy Jones ' Locker is a fictional place featured prominently in At World 's End. It is based on a real superstition of the same name. The arid plain where the Pearl is beached was filmed at the Bonneville Salt Flats in Utah. The shore where the Pearl reenters the ocean was filmed at the Guadalupe - Nipomo Dunes in California.
The Locker is similar to purgatory, and is the destination for souls that die at sea. Davy Jones was entrusted with the task of ferrying the souls of the deceased into the next world by the goddess Calypso. After Jack Sparrow is killed by the Kraken in Dead Man 's Chest, Calypso organizes a mission to rescue his soul from the Locker back to the land of the living.
In the third film, Calypso is accompanied by Elizabeth Swann, Will Turner, and Hector Barbossa, among others. They reach the Locker by the use of magical charts leading to World 's End. Sao Feng, one of the nine Pirate Lords, was the previous owner of these charts.
After the crew reach the Locker, they find Jack and the Black Pearl stranded in the desert. Jack, unable to move the ship, has begun to hallucinate. The ship is transported to the ocean by many crabs under the control of Calypso. While on the ocean, the crew see the ghost of Governor Weatherby Swann, who has been murdered on the orders of Cutler Beckett.
By deciphering the clues on Sao Feng 's charts, Jack discovers the way to escape the Locker. At sunset, the crew capsizes the ship; this triggers a green flash and returns the Pearl to the world of the living, effectively reviving Jack.
Isla Cruces is a fictional island. The ruined church, graveyard, and mill were filmed in Vieille Case, Dominica. The beach where Norrington, Sparrow, and Turner duel was filmed near Little Exuma in The Bahamas.
In Dead Man 's Chest, Isla Cruces is a tropical island where Davy Jones buried the Dead Man 's Chest. This chest contains his beating heart; stabbing the heart is the only way to kill Jones. The island appears to have been abandoned. The previous occupants are unknown, but there are crumbling buildings indicating that it was once inhabited.
On the island, Jack Sparrow, Will Turner, and James Norrington duel for control of the chest. James Norrington escapes with the chest, and gives it to Cutler Beckett in exchange for a full pardon.
It is not revealed in the film why Davy Jones buried the Dead Man 's Chest on Isla Cruces. However, the film 's writers, Ted Elliott and Terry Rossio, imply in the Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Man 's Chest DVD audio commentary, that Jones chose it because it is a plague island that remains deserted.
Isla de Muerta ("Island of Death '') is an island featured in The Curse of the Black Pearl. It is a mysterious land where the Black Pearl 's pirate crew hide their looted treasure. It is the location of the Aztec treasure that has cursed Hector Barbossa and the other members of his crew.
According to Jack Sparrow, Isla de Muerta is an island that can not be found, except by those who already know where it is hidden. From the air, the island resembles a human skull. Mysteriously shrouded in fog, the isle is surrounded by a graveyard of sunken ships; its waters swarm with hammerhead sharks and shoaling fish. The island contains a series of connected caves, which contain the crew 's loot and the Chest of Cortes.
Before the events of the film, Hector Barbossa leads a mutiny against Jack Sparrow and becomes the captain of Black Pearl. Later, the crew finds cursed Aztec treasure on Isla de Muerta. By removing the golden medallions from their chest, the crew become undead and lose the ability to feel physical pleasure. In order to remove the curse, the crew collect the medallions and return them.
Barbossa, believing that Elizabeth Swann is the key to breaking his curse, kidnaps her and brings her to Isla de Muerta. Captain Sparrow uses his magical compass, which points to the thing the user wants most, to follow him. With the help of Will Turner, Elizabeth, and Jack fight against the pirates in the caves under the island. James Norrington and his men fight against Barbossa 's crew in the bay just offshore. By using Will 's blood, the curse is broken and Jack kills Barbossa.
In Dead Man 's Chest, it 's learned that the island was reclaimed by the sea, taking with it both the cursed Aztec treasure and the mountains of gold that Barbossa 's crew had hoarded while they were cursed. It was with this gold that Jack Sparrow had agreed to pay his new crew.
Pelegosto, also known as Cannibal Island, is a fictional island. Scenes set on the island were filmed on Dominica. The Pelegosto tribe 's main village was built south of the island 's capital, Roseau. Other scenes were filmed in Morne Trois Pitons National Park and Indian River.
In Dead Man 's Chest, Bootstrap Bill Turner, acting as Davy Jones 's agent, delivers the Black Spot to Captain Jack Sparrow, a mark indicating that his blood debt to Jones is due. To avoid the monstrous Kraken that is hunting him, Jack commands the crew of the Black Pearl to land as fast as possible. They alight on Pelegosto, a typical Caribbean island with sandy beaches and lush, mountainous jungles. But it is hardly the paradise it appears to be; it is inhabited by a vicious cannibal tribe that captures the Pearl 's crew. They believe Jack Sparrow is a god in human form and intend to eat him to "release him from his fleshy prison ''. Will Turner arrives and helps them escape.
Jack seeks out Tia Dalma, an obeah woman, for help. Dalma lives in shack on the other side of the island. He trades Barbossa 's undead monkey for a jar of dirt, which she claims will protect him from Davy Jones. After Jack 's death at the hands of the Kraken, his crew return to Tia Dalma 's shack on Pelegosto. Tia Dalma reveals that she has resurrected Barbossa, and they will lead a mission to rescue Jack from Davy Jones 's Locker.
Port Royal is a British colony. It is based on the historical Port Royal, a city located at the end of the Palisadoes at the mouth of the Kingston Harbour, in southeastern Jamaica.
Scenes set in the harbor of Port Royal were filmed at Wallilabou Bay, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines. A replica of Fort Charles was built on the Palos Verdes Peninsula near Los Angeles, as was Governor Swann 's mansion. The scenes set inside the mansion were filmed in Manhattan Beach, California.
Port Royal appears in all movies except in On Stranger Tides.
Elizabeth Swann arrives in Port Royal as a child, after her father Weatherby Swann is appointed governor. In the first film, Will Turner works in the town as a blacksmith 's apprentice. Port Royal is attacked by the crew of the Black Pearl after Elizabeth accidentally summons the pirates. Pintel and Ragetti kidnap Elizabeth from her mansion, which is located in the town. Jack is imprisoned in the jail there, but Will Turner helps him escape.
In Dead Man 's Chest, Cutler Beckett uses Port Royal as his base of operations.
The scenes on Rum - runner 's Isle were filmed in Petit Tabac, one of five islands known as the Tobago Cays, in Saint Vincent and the Grenadines.
Before the events of the first film, Barbossa leads a mutiny against Jack and strands him on a small island. He leaves Jack a pistol holding a single shot; he could use this to commit suicide before starving to death. For many years, Barbossa assumes that Jack has died; he is surprised to learn of his survival during the events of the first film. Jack repeatedly claims that he used a raft made of sea turtles and his own back hair to escape the island. In reality, the island was a haven for rum - runners. Jack discovers their stash of liquor, lies on a beach drinking rum for three days, and barters passage off the isle when the bootleggers return.
During The Curse of the Black Pearl, Barbossa captures Elizabeth and Jack. Will Turner barters for their safety. Barbossa uses a loophole in their agreement to maroon Elizabeth and Jack on the same island. Elizabeth burns the stash of rum in order to create a signal fire, and they are rescued by James Norrington.
Shipwreck Cove is an inlet on the fictional Shipwreck Island, appearing in At World 's End. Shipwreck Cove is considered to be an impregnable fortress, well - supplied, and able to withstand nearly any siege. It serves as the meeting place for the Brethren Court, which is a gathering of the world 's nine Pirate Lords.
Scenes set on Shipwreck Island were filmed in Dominica.
The Fourth Brethren Court meet to discuss the threat of the East India Trading Company and the ways in which to combat this threat. Barbossa insists that the Court must free Calypso, a sea goddess who was trapped in human form by the first Brethren Court. Sparrow and Elizabeth prefer to fight directly against the EITC. Elizabeth is elected Pirate King by the Court, and she declares war on Cutler Beckett.
The Pirate 's Code is kept at Shipwreck Cove. This rulebook serves as the source of law for all pirates. Jack Sparrow 's father, Captain Teague, is the Keeper of the Code.
The fictionalised Singapore is filled with bridge - covered waterways and crude wooden buildings, and differs markedly from the actual historical Singapore. The sets for the bathhouse, harbor, and stilt houses were constructed at Universal Studios in Los Angeles.
It appears in At World 's End. Hector Barbossa and Elizabeth Swann visit Sao Feng to steal his navigational charts, which lead to World 's End. They request a ship and a crew to rescue Jack Sparrow from Davy Jones 's Locker. Sao Feng has captured Will Turner, who attempted to steal the charts from Feng. After a tense standoff, the pirates form a temporary alliance when they are attacked by Ian Mercer and the East India Trading Company. After a series of skirmishes and negotiations, Feng grants them a ship and a crew.
Tortuga is an island off the northern coast of Saint - Domingue (Haiti), out of the jurisdiction of the Royal Navy and the East India Trading Company. While it remains a free port where traders can escape the high East India tariffs, it is a dangerous one where illegal transactions are common.
Scenes set in Tortuga were filmed in Wallilabou Bay, St. Vincent and the Grenadines.
In the first film, Captain Jack Sparrow and Will Turner moor their stolen ship, the Interceptor, in Tortuga to recruit a crew. Their crew included Joshamee Gibbs, Anamaria, Cotton, and Marty. Here, Jack Sparrow also encounters Giselle and Scarlett, with whom has he had past romantic relationships.
In Dead Man 's Chest, Will goes to Tortuga to hunt for Jack Sparrow. A denizen tells Will that he saw a ship with black sails (the Black Pearl) beached on Pelegosto. Jack returns to Tortuga to try to enlist ninety - nine unsuspecting sailors to pay off his blood debt to Davy Jones. Although he falls far short of his goal, the new crew proves useful during the final confrontation with the Kraken. Jack is reunited with Elizabeth Swann while in Tortuga and also recruits the disgraced James Norrington, who resigned his commission after losing his ship in a hurricane.
At the conclusion of At World 's End, Barbossa leaves Jack and Gibbs in Tortuga by once again hijacking the Black Pearl. Gibbs remains in Tortuga with Giselle and Scarlett.
At the end of On Stranger Tides, Barbossa is in command of Blackbeard 's ship, the Queen Anne 's Revenge. He yells out that they will travel back to Tortuga, although this is not shown onscreen.
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where did the battle of nashville take place | Battle of Nashville - wikipedia
Union victory
Army of the Cumberland (Dept. of the Cumberland):
The Battle of Nashville was a two - day battle in the Franklin - Nashville Campaign that represented the end of large - scale fighting west of the coastal states in the American Civil War. It was fought at Nashville, Tennessee, on December 15 -- 16, 1864, between the Confederate Army of Tennessee under Lieutenant General John Bell Hood and Federal forces under Major General George H. Thomas. In one of the largest victories achieved by the Union Army during the war, Thomas attacked and routed Hood 's army, largely destroying it as an effective fighting force.
Hood followed up his defeat in the Atlanta Campaign by moving northwest to disrupt the supply lines of Maj. Gen. William T. Sherman from Chattanooga, hoping to challenge Sherman into a battle that could be fought to Hood 's advantage. After a brief period of pursuit, Sherman decided to disengage and to conduct instead his March to the Sea, leaving the matter of Hood 's army and the defense of Tennessee to Thomas. Hood devised a plan to march into Tennessee and defeat Thomas 's force while it was geographically divided. He pursued Maj. Gen. John M. Schofield 's army from Pulaski to Columbia and then attempted to intercept and destroy it at Spring Hill. Because of a series of Confederate command miscommunications in the Battle of Spring Hill (November 29, 1864), Schofield was able to withdraw from Columbia and slip past Hood 's army at Spring Hill relatively unscathed.
Furious at his failure at Spring Hill, Hood pursued Schofield to the north and encountered the Federals at Franklin behind strong fortifications. In the Battle of Franklin on November 30, Hood ordered almost 31,000 of his men to assault the Federal works before Schofield could withdraw across the Harpeth River and escape to Nashville. The Union soldiers repulsed multiple assaults and inflicted over 6,000 casualties on the Confederates, which included a large number of key Confederate generals, doing heavy damage to the leadership of the Army of Tennessee.
Schofield withdrew from Franklin during the night and marched into the defensive works of Nashville on December 1, there coming under the command of Thomas, who now had a combined force of approximately 55,000 men. By and large, his troops were veterans, the IV Corps under Brig. Gen. Thomas J. Wood and Schofield 's XXIII Corps having fought in the Atlanta campaign and Maj. Gen. Andrew J. Smith 's "Detachment of the Army of the Tennessee '' (a part of the recently discontinued XVI Corps had been redesignated with this unusual name on December 6) having fought at Vicksburg, in the Red River Campaign, at the Tupelo against S.D. Lee and Nathan Bedford Forrest, and in Missouri against Sterling Price. While Wilson 's cavalry had combat experience, most of it had been of the wrong kind at the hands of Nathan Bedford Forrest, John Hunt Morgan, or Joe Wheeler. Only Maj. Gen. James B. Steedman 's Division lacked experience. It was composed of garrison troops and railroad guards from Tennessee and Georgia and included eight regiments of United States Colored Troops.
Union forces had been constructing defensive works around Nashville since the time the city was occupied in February 1862. By 1864, a 7 - mile - long semicircular Union defensive line on the south and west sides of the city protected Nashville from attacks from those directions. The line was studded with forts, the largest being Fort Negley. The trench line was extended to the west after December 1. The Cumberland River formed a natural defensive barrier on the north and east sides of the city. Smith 's troops had arrived by river on November 30, and their transports had been escorted by a powerful fleet of tinclad and ironclad gunboats. Thus, the river barrier was well - defended.
From east to west the defensive line was manned by the Steedman 's division, the XXIII Corps, the IV Corps, and Smith 's XVI Corps Detachment. Given the fact that the Federal Army was composed of troops from the Army of the Cumberland, the Army of the Ohio, the Army of the Tennessee, the District of Etowah, and the Post of Nashville, the force in Nashville had no official name.
Hood 's Army of Tennessee arrived south of the city on December 2 and took up positions facing the Union forces within the city. As he was not nearly strong enough to assault the Federal fortifications, Hood opted for the defensive. Rather than repeating his fruitless frontal attack at Franklin, he entrenched and waited, hoping that Thomas would attack him. Then, after Thomas had smashed his army against the Confederate entrenchments, Hood could counterattack and take Nashville.
The Confederate line of about four miles of fortifications faced the southerly facing portion of the Union line (the part occupied by Steedman and Schofield). From right to left were the corps of Maj. Gen. Benjamin F. Cheatham, Lt. Gen. Stephen D. Lee, and Lt. Gen. Alexander P. Stewart. Cavalry commanded by Brig. Gen. James R. Chalmers was off to the southwest of the city. The Confederate left flank was secured by five small detached redoubts, each having two to four guns with garrisons of about 150 men each.
Hood made a serious strategic error before the battle. On December 2, he sent the three brigades of William B. Bate 's Division of Cheatham 's Corps to attack the Nashville & Chattanooga Railroad between Nashville and Murfreesboro as well as the Federal garrison in the latter city. Three days later, he sent an additional two brigades of infantry and two divisions of cavalry, all under Forrest 's command, to reinforce Bate. Hood believed this diversion would draw Thomas out of the Nashville fortifications, allowing Hood to either defeat Thomas in detail or to seize Nashville by a coup de main once its garrison was depleted. While the railroad between Nashville and Murfreesboro was broken in a number of places, the Murfreesboro garrison drove off the Confederates in the Third Battle of Murfreesboro (also called the Battle of the Cedars) on December 7. Furthermore, Thomas was not fooled by this diversion, and remained in his fortifications until he was ready to attack on his own terms. Bate 's Division and one of the two attached infantry brigades returned to Nashville, but Hood had seriously diminished his already outnumbered forces, and he had also deprived his army of its strongest and most mobile unit, Forrest and his cavalry.
The Union force (of about 55,000 men), was a conglomerate of units from several different departments provisionally attached to Maj. Gen. George H. Thomas ' Department of the Cumberland or Army of the Cumberland and consisted of:
The Confederate Army of Tennessee under command of Gen. John B. Hood fielded approximately 30,000 men and consisting of 3 infantry army corps and 1 cavalry corps:
Although Thomas 's forces were much stronger, he could not ignore Hood 's army. Despite the severe beating it had suffered at Franklin, Hood 's Army of Tennessee presented a threat by its mere presence and ability to maneuver. Thomas knew he had to attack, but he prepared cautiously. His cavalry corps, commanded by the energetic young Brig. Gen. James H. Wilson, was poorly armed and mounted, and he did not want to proceed to a decisive battle without effective protection of his flanks. This was particularly important, since Wilson would be facing the horsemen of the formidable Forrest. Refitting the Union cavalry took time.
Meanwhile, Washington fumed at the seeming procrastination. When Sherman proposed his March to the Sea, Ulysses S. Grant and Henry Halleck had objected to it on the grounds that Hood would use the opportunity to invade Tennessee. In response, Sherman airily indicated that this was exactly what he wanted and that if Hood "continues to march North, all the way to Ohio, I will supply him with rations. '' However, when the ever - confident Sherman disappeared into the heart of Georgia, Grant once again became concerned about an invasion of Kentucky or Ohio. Grant later said of the situation, "If I had been Hood, I would have gone to Louisville and on north until I came to Chicago. '' His concern doubtless reflected Abraham Lincoln 's concern. Lincoln had little patience for slow generals and remarked of the situation, "This seems like the McClellan and Rosecrans strategy of do nothing and let the rebels raid the country. ''
While pressure from Washington continued, a bitter ice storm struck Nashville on December 8, which precluded any offensive action. Sub-freezing weather continued through December 12. This was explained to Grant, but when Thomas had still not moved by December 13, Grant directed that Maj. Gen. John A. Logan proceed to Nashville and assume command if, upon his arrival, Thomas had not yet initiated operations. Logan made it as far as Louisville by December 15, but on that day the Battle of Nashville had finally begun. Grant himself left Petersburg on December 14 to take personal command and had only gotten as far as Washington when the battle began. He proceeded no further.
The Confederates set up batteries at Bell 's Bend on the Cumberland River below Nashville on December 2, 1864. They met with immediate success, capturing that day two Federal transports carrying horses, mules and fodder. The Federal naval squadron at Nashville responded on the night of December 3 -- 4. While the bulk of the squadron engaged the upper battery, two ships, the ironclad Carondelet and the tinclad Fairplay, proceeded to the lower battery where they recaptured and brought off the two transports.
The Federal squadron commander, Lt. Cmdr. LeRoy Fitch was ordered to break the river blockade. On December 7 he took his two heaviest ships, the ironclad USS Carondelet and the river monitor Neosho, downstream to engage the batteries. The action was inconclusive, although the Neosho sustained considerable superficial damage. Two Neosho sailors were awarded the Medal of Honor for going out onto the shell swept deck and raising the ship 's flag after it had been shot down.
The Confederate batteries effectively closed the river below Nashville to supply traffic, until they finally were driven off by Federal cavalry on December 15.
Thomas 's plan was to launch a diversionary attack on the Confederate right that would distract them from the main attack on their left and perhaps cause them to divert troops from their left to their right. The attacking force consisted of two brigades drawn from Steedman 's Provisional Division: the First Colored Brigade, consisting of three regiments of United States Colored Troops (who had previously served as garrison troops or railroad guards), and a brigade composed of rear echelon white troops described by their commander as "new conscripts, convalescents, and bounty jumpers. ''
The Confederate right was anchored on the west side of a deep cut on the Nashville & Chattanooga Railroad. A weak skirmish line was posted east of the tracks, and on December 14 this was supplemented by a stout four - gun lunette manned by Granbury 's (Houghton 's after Granbury 's death at Franklin) Texas Brigade. Granbury 's Lunette was well masked by trees and brush.
The two Union brigades advanced and overran the skirmish line. They then came under heavy artillery fire from a Confederate battery on the west side of the railroad. When the brigades passed Granbury 's Lunette, they were struck by very heavy close range enfilading fire. Both brigades retreated in some disorder, but they were reformed and continued for the rest of the day to fire on the Confederate works from the former skirmish line. The attack failed in its purpose, since the Confederates were not distracted and in fact had sent brigades from both Lee 's and Cheatham 's Corps to bolster the threatened left flank.
Thomas planned a huge wheeling movement that would ultimately come down on the Confederates ' exposed left flank. Wilson 's Cavalry Corps moved west on Charlotte Pike once an early morning fog dissipated, driving off the Confederate cavalry patrolling the area between the Confederate left and the Cumberland River. Smith 's XVI Corps detachment followed, turning south after a mile or so towards the Confederate flank. The cavalrymen formed on Smith 's right flank. Schofield 's XXIII followed in reserve, and as the assault moved south a gap opened between Smith and Wilson which Schofield was directed to fill. At about 2: 30 pm the Federals attacked the five redoubts guarding the Confederate left. Four brigades, two of cavalry and two of infantry, overran Redoubt No. 4 and then Redoubt No. 5, notwithstanding the spirited resistance of the defenders of Redoubt No. 4. Another of Smith 's brigades captured Redoubt No. 3; however, its commander, Col. Sylvester G. Hill, was killed by Confederate artillery firing from Redoubt No. 2. He was the highest ranking Federal officer killed in the battle. Smith 's troops proceeded to Redoubt No. 2, which was quickly captured.
In the meantime, the IV Corps had been tasked with making a frontal assault from Granny White and Hillsboro Pikes on the left end of the Confederate line. The assault was to begin once Smith 's troops began their assault on the left flank redoubts. The Confederate line was supposed to lie on Montgomery Hill on the north side of Brown 's Creek. While the Confederates had originally established their line there, they had withdrawn to equally strong positions on the south side of Brown 's Creek, as the original positions were exposed to artillery fire from the Nashville forts. The IV Corps proceeded deliberately up Montgomery Hill, only to find that it was defended by a thin skirmish line. They stopped to reorganize, and at about the same time that Smith 's Detachment was rolling up the Confederate redoubts, they advanced on the main Confederate line.
Thus it happened that Redoubt No. 1, the last bastion on the Confederate left flank, was captured by troops coming from the north, south, and west. Stewart 's corps had been wrecked by the day 's fighting and retreated to a new line of defense a mile or two to the south. Rearguard actions by reinforcements from Lee 's Corps kept the retreat from becoming a rout. With the collapse of the Confederate left, Cheatham 's and Lee 's Corps followed to the new line.
The Confederates ' new line was much stronger and more compact than the first day 's line. It was anchored on the east on Peach Orchard Hill. The western flank ran along a line of hills leading south from Compton 's Hill, which after the day 's battle would be called Shy 's Hill after Col. William M. Shy, the Confederate officer commanding the 20th Tennessee Infantry, who died defending it. The center followed a series of sturdy dry stack stone walls enhanced by entrenching.
Hood put Lee 's Corps on the right flank. With the exception of two brigades, this corps had seen no action on the previous day, and indeed had seen very little action at the bloodletting at Franklin two weeks before. Lee 's line ran from the hill well into the Confederate center. Stewart 's Corps, decimated by heavy casualties at Franklin and in the December 15 actions, occupied the Confederate center. Cheatham 's Corps, badly hurt at Franklin, was on the Confederate left flank, which included Shy 's Hill and the line of hills to its south. Rucker 's cavalry brigade patrolled to the south of Cheatham 's Corps.
The Confederate line defenses atop Shy 's Hill appeared to be quite strong, as the steep hill dominated all of the surrounding terrain. However, appearances were deceiving. First, the defenses at the crest were a salient, and were exposed to Federal artillery fire from all directions except the southeast. Second, the fortifications had been built overnight by tired troops and consisted of shallow trenches with no head logs or abatis. Third, and most fateful, the trenches were constructed on the geographical crest of the hill and not on the military crest commanding the slopes, such that attacking troops could escape fire until they were almost at the crest.
Thomas repeated his tactics of the previous day. An attack would be made on the Confederate right to draw Confederate troops from the left. Then Schofield 's XXIII Corps would deliver a hammer blow on the left flank.
The attacks on Peach Orchard Hill were made in much greater strength than those December 15. Two brigades from Beatty 's division of Wood 's IV Corps and two brigades from Steedman 's Provisional Division made the attack at about 3 p.m. Concentrated musket and artillery fire from the entrenched Confederates quickly broke up the attack. The trailing regiment in the 2nd Colored Brigade of Steedman 's Division, the 13th United States Colored Troops, went in essentially on its own and gained the Confederate parapet, losing one of its flags and 220 officers and men in the process, about 40 % of the regiment 's strength.
The attack on Peach Orchard Hill had the desired effect. Hood sent two of Cheatham 's brigades to reinforce Lee. The thin Confederate line on Shy 's Hill and the surrounding heights got thinner.
During this time Wilson 's cavalry was very active on the Confederate left and rear, reaching past Granny White Pike. In response, Cheatham stretched his corps further and further to the south. Thomas, who was with Schofield, directed Schofield to make an attack on the western face of Shy 's Hill. Schofield, imagining that he was outnumbered and in danger of an attack on his southern flank, demurred, requested that Smith send him additional divisions. Thomas directed Smith to comply with this request. Smith sent a division, and still Schofield did nothing.
Sunset was rapidly approaching, and if no attack was made before then Hood would be in a position to either strengthen his position overnight or safely retreat south.
Brig. Gen. John McArthur, one of Smith 's division commanders, was aware of this. He also saw that the Confederate lines were being badly battered by Federal artillery, which was firing on them from nearly every direction. At about 3: 30 p.m. he sent a message to Smith and Thomas that unless he were given orders to the contrary, in the next five minutes his division was going to attack Shy 's Hill and the Confederate line immediately to its east.
The three brigade attack began on McArthur 's timetable. One brigade went up and over Shy 's Hill. Because of the misplacement of the Confederate trenches, only the regiment on the east sustained significant casualties from Confederates, who were firing from the plain to its left. McArthur 's second brigade hit these Confederates while they were so distracted. The third brigade, attacking to the east of Granny White Pike caught a large body of Confederate skirmishers outside of their lines and went into the Confederate lines with them.
The Confederate left flank suddenly disintegrated. The Confederate line was rolled up west to east. Granny White Pike had been blocked by Wilson 's cavalry. The Confederates retreated to the south by the Franklin Pike and a gap in the Overton Hills through the Otter Creek bottom. A part of Lee 's Corps maintained good order and covered the retreat on Franklin Pike. Rucker 's Confederate cavalry brigade performed the same service in a nighttime melee in the rain on Granny White Pike.
On the night of December 16, what was left of Hood 's army headed south towards Franklin on two roads, Franklin Pike and Granny White Pike. Rucker having blunted for the time being the Federal pursuit on Granny White Pike, the main pursuit was by Federal cavalry on Franklin Pike. Lee 's rearguard held off these attacks.
At this point, the pursuit slowed because Thomas had sent his pontoon bridge train towards Murfreesboro rather than Franklin and Columbia, and his artillery and supply trains could not cross the Harpeth River until the pontoon train arrived. This did not stop Wilson 's cavalry from aggressively pursuing the Confederates as they retreated to Columbia. Wilson badly hurt Carter L. Stevenson 's rear guard division in actions on December 17 and 18, but was forced to stop because of the lack of supplies. Wilson 's problems were compounded when Forrest and his two cavalry divisions arrived in Columbia from Murfreesboro on December 18.
On December 19 the Confederate infantry and artillery crossed the Duck River at Columbia, destroying the bridges behind them. Forrest took charge of the rear guard, attaching an ad hoc infantry division under Brig. Gen. Edward C. Walthall to his Cavalry Corps.
Because of the misdirected pontoon train, Thomas was not able to cross the Duck River until December 23. Wilson continued his vigorous pursuit, but was stymied by Forrest over the next three days in hard - fought rear guard actions at Richland Creek, Anthony 's Hill, and Sugar Creek. Hood was able to get his army across the Tennessee River on a pontoon bridge near Bainbridge, Alabama by December 28. Thomas had asked Rear Admiral S.P. Lee, commanding the Tennessee River naval squadron, to destroy the Confederate bridge. However, low water and Confederate artillery prevented Federal tinclad gunboats from interdicting the crossing.
Steedman 's Provisional Division was sent by rail from Nashville to Chattanooga and from there by river boat to Decatur, Alabama, to cut off Hood 's retreat. His force arrived too late to interfere with the crossing. However, Steedman 's cavalry under the command of Colonel William Jackson Palmer captured the Confederate pontoon train on December 30 along with a large number of supply wagons.
This marked the end of the Federal pursuit.
Federal casualties in the battle totaled 387 killed, 2,562 wounded, and 112 missing.
As only a few of the Confederate units submitted reports on the battle, Confederate casualties are difficult to determine. Thomas reported capturing 4,561 prisoners in the battle itself, with an unknown number captured during the retreat. One historian made an educated guess that 2,500 Confederates were killed and wounded at Nashville.
The Army of Tennessee had gone into Middle Tennessee campaign with approximately 38,000 men, exclusive of Forrest 's cavalry. The Army had sustained severe casualties at Spring Hill, Franklin, and Nashville, and suffered at least 2,000 desertions in the latter part of the campaign. On January 20 Hood reported an effective strength of 18,742, again exclusive of Forrest 's cavalry. Gen. P.G.T. Beauregard, Hood 's nominal superior, advised the Confederate President on January 13 that the Army of Tennessee had fewer than 15,000 men.
The Battle of Nashville marked the effective end of the Army of Tennessee. Historian David Eicher remarked, "If Hood mortally wounded his army at Franklin, he would kill it two weeks later at Nashville. '' Although Hood blamed the entire debacle on his subordinates and the soldiers themselves, his career was over. He retreated with his army to Tupelo, Mississippi, resigned his command on January 13, 1865, and was not given another field command.
The Nashville battlefield is huge by Civil War standards, encompassing almost all of south and west Nashville. Nashvillians who live in the Green Hills, Forest Hills, Oak Hill, Lipscomb, or Brentwood neighborhoods are living on top of a battlefield.
In the earlier part of the twentieth century there was some talk of creating a National Battlefield Park in Nashville. This movement failed, due to lack of support from Nashville 's civic leaders, who as Southerners were not particularly interested in commemorating a battle that was such a profound Confederate defeat. As a result, much like Atlanta, most of the Nashville battlefield has been lost to development. However, the battle is memorialized and small parts of it have been preserved.
A Battle of Nashville monument was created in 1927 by Giuseppe Moretti, who was commissioned by the Ladies Battlefield Association. Erected in the years immediately following World War I, the monument honors the soldiers of both sides and celebrated a united nation. The monument was severely damaged by a tornado in 1974, and during the 1980s interstate highway construction left the monument landlocked on a small plot of ground overlooking the massive highway interchange of I - 65 and I - 440. In 1999 the monument was relocated to the Nashville Battlefield Park at the intersection of Granny White Pike and Clifton Lane, just north of the Confederate line on the first day of the battle.
In 1920 the State of Minnesota erected a large monument in the Nashville National Cemetery honoring its soldiers who were buried there. Minnesota lost more men at the Battle of Nashville than in any other Civil War battle.
In 2006 a group of private citizens erected a monument in the Nashville National Cemetery honoring soldiers of the United States Colored Troops buried there, many of whom fought in the Battle of Nashville.
Erected by the Battle of Nashville Preservation Society, this honors the troops of both sides who fought on and around Shy 's Hill. The memorial consists of three flags, an American flag, a Confederate national flag, and a Minnesota state flag (honoring the four regiments of Minnesotans who were instrumental in capturing the hill).
A marker was placed on the slope of Shy 's Hill in late 2014 in honor of the contributions to the Minnesota regiments that fought in the battle. It was dedicated by members of the Minnesota Civil War Commemoration Task Force and the Battle of Nashville Preservation Society on November 16, 2014.
The Battle of Nashville Preservation Society has published a downloadable self - guided driving tour. Members of the Society provide guided battlefield tours for a fee.
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who created the indian superhero chakra the invisible | Chakra: the Invincible - Wikipedia
Chakra: The Invincible is an Indian animated superhero film based on the main character created by Stan Lee, with Sharad Devarajan and Gotham Chopra. It aired in English and Hindi, but also in Tamil and Telugu. The movie is produced by Graphic India and POW! Entertainment, and was premiered on Cartoon Network on November 30, 2013.
The movie features Raju Rai, a young Indian boy living in Mumbai, India. Raju 's mentor, the scientist Dr. Singh, develops a technological suit that weaponizes all the Chakras in the body. Raju uses its powers to be a superhero and vows to use the suit to protect and serve Mumbai as he battles super-villains.
Stan Lee, in association with Graphic India and POW! Entertainment, is releasing comic books, games and toys based on superhero Chakra.
Two sequels Chakra: The Rise of Infinitus and Chakra: The Revenge of Magnus Flux aired on Toonami (India) on September 25, 2016 and February 15, 2017 respectively.
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where does the filtrate go after it leaves the bowman's capsule | Bowman 's capsule - wikipedia
Bowman 's capsule (or the Bowman capsule, capsula glomeruli, or glomerular capsule) is a cup - like sack at the beginning of the tubular component of a nephron in the mammalian kidney that performs the first step in the filtration of blood to form urine. A glomerulus is enclosed in the sac. Fluids from blood in the glomerulus are collected in the Bowman 's capsule (i.e., glomerular filtrate) and further processed along the nephron to form urine. This process is known as ultrafiltration. The Bowman 's capsule is named after Sir William Bowman, who identified it in 1842.
Outside the capsule, there are two "poles '':
Inside the capsule, the layers are as follows, from outside to inside:
A - Renal corpuscle B - Proximal tubule C - Distal convoluted tubule D - Juxtaglomerular apparatus 1. Basement membrane (Basal lamina) 2. Bowman 's capsule - parietal layer 3. Bowman 's capsule - visceral layer 3a. Pedicels (podocytes) 3b. Podocyte or sometimes called Bowman 's cells 4. Bowman 's space (urinary space) 5a. Mesangium - Intraglomerular cell 5b. Mesangium - Extraglomerular cell 6. Granular cells (Juxtaglomerular cells) 7. Macula densa 8. Myocytes (smooth muscle) 9. Afferent arteriole 10. Glomerulus Capillaries 11. Efferent arteriole
The process of filtration of the blood in the Bowman 's capsule is ultrafiltration (or glomerular filtration), and the normal rate of filtration is 125 ml / min, equivalent to 80 times the daily blood volume.
Any proteins under roughly 30 kilodaltons can pass freely through the membrane, although there is some extra hindrance for negatively charged molecules due to the negative charge of the basement membrane and the podocytes.
Any small molecules such as water, glucose, salt (NaCl), amino acids, and urea pass freely into Bowman 's space, but cells, platelets and large proteins do not.
As a result, the filtrate leaving the Bowman 's capsule is very similar to blood plasma (filtrate or glomerular filtrate is composed of blood plasma minus plasma protein i.e. it contains all the components of blood plasma except the proteins) in composition as it passes into the proximal convoluted tubule.
Measuring the glomerular filtration rate (GFR) is a diagnostic test of kidney function.
A decreased GFR may be a sign of renal failure.
A number of diseases can result in various problems within the glomerulus. Examples include acute proliferative (endocapillary) glomerulonephritis, mesangioproliferative glomerulonephritis, mesangiocapillary (membranoproliferative) glomerulonephritis, acute crescentic glomerulonephritis, focal segmental glomerulonephritis, and diabetic glomerulosclerosis.
Bowman 's capsule is named after Sir William Bowman (1816 -- 1892), a British surgeon and anatomist. However, thorough microscopical anatomy of kidney including the nephronic capsule was described by the Ukrainian surgeon and anatomist from the Russian Empire, Prof. Alexander Shumliansky (1748 -- 1795), in his 1788 doctoral thesis "De structura renum: Tractatus physiologico - anatomicus '' ("About Kidney Structure: an Physiological - Anatomical Treatise '', in Latin); thus, much prior to Bowman.
Together with the glomerulus it is known as a renal corpuscle, or a Malpighian corpuscle, named after Marcello Malpighi (1628 -- 1694), an Italian physician and biologist. This name is not used widely anymore, probably to avoid confusion with Malpighian bodies of the spleen.
Glomerulus.
Distribution of blood vessels in cortex of kidney.
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who sang cry me a river in v for vendetta | V for Vendetta: music from the Motion Picture - Wikipedia
V for Vendetta: Music From The Motion Picture is the soundtrack from the 2006 film V for Vendetta, released by Astralwerks Records on March 21, 2006. Most of the music was written by Dario Marianelli. Other artists include Julie London, Cat Power and Antony and the Johnsons.
The track "Remember, Remember '' uses the "national anthem '' part of the 1812 Overture by Tchaikovsky, and "Knives And Bullets (And Cannons Too) '' incorporates the piece in its final two minutes.
The second track in the ending credits is "BKAB '' by independent producer Ethan Stoller. It features excerpts of speeches by Malcolm X and Gloria Steinem. It also samples two Bollywood songs one of which is "Chura ke dil meraaa... goriya chali '', composed by Anu Malik, a Bollywood music director.
Several songs used in the film were omitted from the soundtrack. These included the first track to be played in the background of the movie 's ending credits, "Street Fighting Man '' by The Rolling Stones. Beethoven 's 5th Symphony, and "Long Black Train '' by Richard Hawley. "Yakety Sax '' by Boots Randolph and James Rich are also omitted. Also the beginning of the eggie in a basket scene the jukebox played "Astrud Gilberto & Stan Getz: The Girl From Ipanema. ''
All tracks written by Dario Marianelli, except where noted.
The track "Evey Reborn '' is used in the second trailer for the film Interstellar.
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who plays m in the james bond movies | Judi Dench - wikipedia
Dame Judith Olivia "Judi '' Dench, CH, DBE, FRSA (born 9 December 1934) is an English actress and author. Dench made her professional debut in 1957 with the Old Vic Company. Over the following few years, she performed in several of Shakespeare 's plays in such roles as Ophelia in Hamlet, Juliet in Romeo and Juliet, and Lady Macbeth in Macbeth. Although most of her work during this period was in theatre, she also branched into film work and won a BAFTA Award as Most Promising Newcomer. She drew strong reviews for her leading role in the musical Cabaret in 1968.
Over the next two decades, Dench established herself as one of the most significant British theatre performers, working for the National Theatre Company and the Royal Shakespeare Company. She achieved success in television during this period, in the series A Fine Romance from 1981 until 1984, and in 1992 with a starring role in the romantic comedy series As Time Goes By. Her film appearances were infrequent and included supporting roles in major films such as A Room with a View (1986) supporting Maggie Smith, before she rose to international fame as M in GoldenEye (1995), a role she continued to play in James Bond films until Skyfall (2012).
A seven - time Oscar nominee, Dench won the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress for her role as Queen Elizabeth I in Shakespeare in Love and has received nominations for her roles in Mrs Brown (1997), Chocolat (2000), Iris (2001), Mrs Henderson Presents (2005), Notes on a Scandal (2006), and Philomena (2013). She has also received many award nominations for her acting in theatre, film and television; her competitive awards include six British Academy Film Awards, four BAFTA TV Awards, seven Olivier Awards, two Screen Actors Guild Awards, two Golden Globes, and a Tony Award. She has also received the BAFTA Fellowship (2001) and the Special Olivier Award (2004). In June 2011, she received a fellowship from the British Film Institute (BFI). Dench is also a Fellow of the Royal Society of Arts (FRSA).
Dench was born in Heworth, North Riding of Yorkshire. Her mother, Eleanora Olive (née Jones), was born in Dublin, Ireland. Her father, Reginald Arthur Dench, a doctor, was born in Dorset, England, and later moved to Dublin, where he was raised. He met Dench 's mother while he was studying medicine at Trinity College, Dublin.
Dench attended The Mount School, a Quaker independent secondary school in York, and became a Quaker. Her brothers, one of whom was actor Jeffery Dench, were born in Tyldesley, Lancashire. Her niece, Emma Dench, is a Roman historian and professor previously at Birkbeck, University of London, and currently at Harvard University.
In Britain, Dench has developed a reputation as one of the greatest actresses of the post-war period, primarily through her work in theatre, which has been her forte throughout her career. She has more than once been named number one in polls for Britain 's best actor.
Through her parents, Dench had regular contact with the theatre. Her father, a physician, was also the GP for the York theatre, and her mother was its wardrobe mistress. Actors often stayed in the Dench household. During these years, Judi Dench was involved on a non-professional basis in the first three productions of the modern revival of the York Mystery Plays in the 1950s. In 1957, in one of the last productions in which she appeared during this period, she played the role of the Virgin Mary, performed on a fixed stage in the Museum Gardens. Though she initially trained as a set designer, she became interested in drama school as her brother Jeff attended the Central School of Speech and Drama. She applied and was accepted by the School, then based at the Royal Albert Hall, London, where she was a classmate of Vanessa Redgrave, graduating with a first class degree in drama and four acting prizes, one being the Gold Medal as Outstanding Student.
In September 1957, she made her first professional stage appearance with the Old Vic Company, at the Royal Court Theatre, Liverpool, as Ophelia in Hamlet. A history of Britain in the years 1957 - 1962, one volume in a series, cites a contemporaneous review of her performance: "... has talent which will be shown to better advantage when she acquires some technique to go with it. '' Dench then made her London debut in the same production at the Old Vic. She remained a member of the company for four seasons, 1957 -- 1961, her roles including Katherine in Henry V in 1958 (which was also her New York debut), and as directed and designed by Franco Zeffirelli. During this period, she toured the United States and Canada and appeared in Yugoslavia and at the Edinburgh Festival. She joined the Royal Shakespeare Company in December 1961 playing Anya in The Cherry Orchard at the Aldwych Theatre in London and made her Stratford - upon - Avon debut in April 1962 as Isabella in Measure for Measure. She subsequently spent seasons in repertory both with the Playhouse in Nottingham from January 1963 (including a West African tour as Lady Macbeth for the British Council) and with the Playhouse Company in Oxford from April 1964. That same year, she made her film debut in The Third Secret.
The 1966 BAFTA Award for Most Promising Newcomer to Leading Film Roles was made to Dench for her performance in Four in the Morning and this was followed in 1968 by a BAFTA Television Best Actress Award for her role in John Hopkins ' 1966 BBC drama Talking to a Stranger.
In 1968, she was offered the role of Sally Bowles in the musical Cabaret. As Sheridan Morley later reported: "At first she thought they were joking. She had never done a musical and she has an unusual croaky voice which sounds as if she has a permanent cold. So frightened was she of singing in public that she auditioned from the wings, leaving the pianists alone on stage ''. But when it opened at the Palace Theatre in February 1968, Frank Marcus, reviewing for Plays and Players, commented that: "She sings well. The title song, in particular, is projected with great feeling. ''
After a long run in Cabaret, she rejoined the RSC making numerous appearances with the company in Stratford and London for nearly twenty years, winning several "best actress '' awards. Among her roles with the RSC, she was the Duchess in John Webster 's The Duchess of Malfi in 1971. In the Stratford 1976 season, and then at the Aldwych in 1977, she gave two comedy performances, first in Trevor Nunn 's musical staging of The Comedy of Errors as Adriana, then partnered with Donald Sinden as Beatrice and Benedick in John Barton 's "British Raj '' revival of Much Ado About Nothing. As Bernard Levin wrote in The Sunday Times: "... demonstrating once more that she is a comic actress of consummate skill, perhaps the very best we have. '' One of her most notable achievements with the RSC was her performance as Lady Macbeth in 1976. Nunn 's acclaimed production of Macbeth was first staged with a minimalist design at The Other Place theatre in Stratford. Its small round stage focused attention on the psychological dynamics of the characters, and both Ian McKellen in the title role, and Dench, received exceptionally favourable notices. "If this is not great acting I do n't know what is '', wrote Michael Billington in The Guardian. "It will astonish me if the performance is matched by any in this actress 's generation '', commented JC Trewin in The Lady. The production transferred to London, opening at the Donmar Warehouse in September 1977, and was adapted for television, later released on VHS and DVD. Dench won the SWET Best Actress Award in 1977.
Dench was nominated for a BAFTA for her role as Hazel Wiles in the 1979 BBC drama On Giant 's Shoulders. In 1989, she was cast as Pru Forrest, the long - time silent wife of Tom Forrest, in the BBC soap opera The Archers on its 10,000 th edition. She had a romantic role in the BBC television film Langrishe, Go Down (1978), with Jeremy Irons and a screenplay by Harold Pinter from the Aidan Higgins novel, directed by David Jones, in which she played one of three spinster sisters living in a fading Irish mansion in the Waterford countryside. Dench made her debut as a director in 1988 with the Renaissance Theatre Company 's touring season, Renaissance Shakespeare on the Road, co-produced with the Birmingham Rep, and ending with a three - month repertory programme at the Phoenix Theatre in London. Dench 's contribution was a staging of Much Ado About Nothing, set in the Napoleonic era, which starred Kenneth Branagh and Emma Thompson as Benedick and Beatrice. She has made numerous appearances in the West End including the role of Miss Trant in the 1974 musical version of The Good Companions at Her Majesty 's Theatre. In 1981, Dench was due to play Grizabella in the original production of Cats, but was forced to pull out due to a torn Achilles tendon, leaving Elaine Paige to play the role. She has acted with the National Theatre in London where she played an unforgettable Cleopatra in Antony and Cleopatra (1987). In September 1995, she played Desiree Armfeldt in a major revival of Stephen Sondheim 's A Little Night Music, for which she won an Olivier Award.
After the long period between James Bond films Licence to Kill (1989) and GoldenEye (1995), the producers brought in Dench to take over as the role of M, James Bond 's boss. The character was reportedly modeled on Dame Stella Rimington, the real - life head of MI5 between 1992 and 1996,; Dench became the first woman to portray M, succeeding Robert Brown. The seventeenth spy film in the series and the first to star Pierce Brosnan as the fictional MI6 officer, GoldenEye marked the first Bond film made after the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War, which provided the plot 's back story. The film earned a worldwide gross of US $350.7 million, with critics viewing the film as a modernisation of the series.
In 1997, Dench appeared in her first starring film role as Queen Victoria in John Madden 's teleplay Mrs Brown, which depicts Victoria 's relationship with her personal servant and favourite John Brown, played by Billy Connolly. Filmed with the intention of being shown on BBC One and on WGBH 's Masterpiece Theatre, it was eventually acquired by Miramax mogul Harvey Weinstein, who felt the drama film should receive a theatrical release after seeing it and took it from the BBC to US cinemas. Released to generally positive reviews and unexpected commercial success, going on to earn more than $13 million worldwide, the film was screened in the Un Certain Regard section at the 1997 Cannes Film Festival. For her performance, Dench garnered universal acclaim by critics and was awarded her fourth BAFTA and first Best Actress nomination at the 70th Academy Awards. In 2011, while accepting a British Film Institute Award in London, Dench commented that the project launched her Hollywood career and joked that "it was thanks to Harvey, whose name I have had tattooed on my bum ever since. ''
Dench 's other film of 1997 was Roger Spottiswoode 's Tomorrow Never Dies, her second film in the James Bond series. The same year, Dench reteamed with director John Madden to film Shakespeare in Love (1998), a romantic comedy - drama that depicts a love affair involving playwright William Shakespeare, played by Joseph Fiennes, while he was writing the play Romeo and Juliet. On her performance as Queen Elizabeth I, The New York Times commented that "Dench 's shrewd, daunting Elizabeth is one of the film 's utmost treats. '' The following year, she was nominated for most of the high - profile awards, winning both the Academy Award and the BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Supporting Role. On her Oscar win, Dench joked on - stage, "I feel for eight minutes on the screen I should only get a little bit of him. ''
Also in 1999, Dench won the Tony Award for her 1999 Broadway performance in the role of Esme Allen in Sir David Hare 's Amy 's View. The same year, she co-starred along with Cher, Joan Plowright, Maggie Smith, and Lily Tomlin in Franco Zeffirelli 's semi-autobiographical period drama Tea with Mussolini which tells the story of young Italian boy Luca 's upbringing by a circle of British and American women, before and during World War II. 1999 also saw the release of Pierce Brosnan 's third Bond film, The World Is Not Enough. This film portrayed M in a larger role with the main villain, Renard, coming back to haunt her when he engineers the murder of her old friend Sir Robert King and seemingly attempts to kill his daughter Electra.
In January 2001, Dench 's husband Michael Williams died from lung cancer. Dench went to Nova Scotia, Canada, almost immediately after Williams 's funeral to begin production on Lasse Hallström 's drama film The Shipping News, a therapy she later credited as her rescue: "People, friends, kept saying, ' You are not facing up to it; you need to face up to it, ' and maybe they were right, but I felt I was -- in the acting. Grief supplies you with an enormous amount of energy. I needed to use that up. '' In between, Dench finished work on Richard Eyre 's film Iris (2001), in which she portrayed novelist Iris Murdoch. Dench shared her role with Kate Winslet, both actresses portraying Murdoch at different phases of her life. Each of them was nominated for an Academy Award the following year, earning Dench her fourth nomination within five years. In addition, she was awarded both an ALFS Award and the Best Leading Actress Award at the 55th British Academy Film Awards.
Following Iris, Dench immediately returned to Canada to finish The Shipping News alongside Kevin Spacey and Julianne Moore. Based on the Pulitzer Prize - winning novel by E. Annie Proulx, the drama revolves around a quiet and introspective typesetter (Spacey) who, after the death of his daughter 's mother, moves to Newfoundland along with his daughter and his aunt, played by Dench, in hopes of starting his life anew in the small town where she grew up. The film earned mixed reviews from critics, and was financially unsuccessful, taking in just US $24 million worldwide with a budget of US $35 million. Dench, however, received BAFTA and SAG Award nominations for her performance.
In 2002, Dench was cast opposite Rupert Everett, Colin Firth, and Reese Witherspoon in Oliver Parker 's The Importance of Being Earnest, a comedy about mistaken identity set in English high society during the Victorian Era. Based on Oscar Wilde 's classic comedy of manners of the same name, she portrayed Lady Bracknell, a role she had repeatedly played before, including a stint at the Royal National Theatre in 1982. The film was released to lukewarm reactions by critics -- who called it "breezy entertainment, helped by an impressive cast '', but felt that it also suffered "from some peculiar directorial choices '' -- and earned just US $17.3 million during its limited release. Dench 's other film of 2002 was Die Another Day, the twentieth installment in the James Bond series. The Lee Tamahori -- directed spy film marked her fourth appearance as MI6 head M and the franchise 's last performance by Pierce Brosnan as Bond. Die Another Day received generally mixed reviews by critics who praised Tamahori 's work on the film, but claimed the plot was damaged by excessive use of CGI. Regardless, it became the highest - grossing James Bond film up to that time. In the 2002 animated children 's series Angelina Ballerina, Dench lent her voice to Miss Lilly, Angelina 's ballet teacher. Her daughter, Finty Williams, provided the voice of Angelina herself.
In 2004, Dench appeared as Aereon, an ambassador of the Elemental race who helps uncover the mysterious past of Richard B. Riddick, played by Vin Diesel, in David Twohy 's science fiction sequel, The Chronicles of Riddick. Selected by Diesel, who prompted writers to re-create the character to fit a female persona because he wanted to work with the actress, she called filming "tremendous fun '', although she "had absolutely no idea what was going on in the plot. '' The film was a critical and box office failure. In his review of the film, James Berardinelli from ReelViews remarked that he felt that Dench 's character served no more "useful purpose than to give (her) an opportunity to appear in a science fiction movie. ''
She followed Riddick with a more traditional role in Charles Dance 's English drama Ladies in Lavender, also starring friend Maggie Smith. In the film, Dench plays one half of a sister duo and takes it upon herself to nurse a washed up stranger to health, eventually finding herself falling for a man many decades younger than she. The specialty release garnered positive reviews from critics, with Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun - Times calling it "perfectly sweet and civilized (and) a pleasure to watch Smith and Dench together; their acting is so natural it could be breathing. '' Also in 2004, Dench provided her voice for several smaller projects. In Walt Disney 's Home on the Range, she, along with Roseanne Barr and Jennifer Tilly, voiced a mismatched trio of dairy cows who must capture an infamous cattle rustler, for his bounty, in order to save their idyllic farm from foreclosure. The film was mildly successful for Disney.
A major hit for Dench came with Joe Wright 's Pride & Prejudice, a 2005 adaptation of the novel by Jane Austen, starring Keira Knightley and Donald Sutherland. Wright persuaded Dench to join the cast as Lady Catherine de Bourgh by writing her a letter that read "I love it when you play a bitch. Please come and be a bitch for me. '' Dench had only one week available to shoot her scenes, forcing Wright to make them his first days of filming. With both a worldwide gross of over US $121 million and several Academy Award and Golden Globe nominations, the film became a critical and commercial success.
Dench, in her role as "M '', was the only cast member carried through from the Brosnan films to appear in Casino Royale (2006), Martin Campbell 's reboot of the James Bond film series, starring Daniel Craig in his debut performance as the fictional MI6 agent. The thriller received largely positive critical response, with reviewers highlighting Craig 's performance and the reinvention of the character of Bond. It earned over US $594 million worldwide, ranking it among the highest - grossing James Bond films ever released.
In April 2006, Dench returned to the West End stage in Hay Fever alongside Peter Bowles, Belinda Lang, and Kim Medcalf. She finished off 2006 with the role of Mistress Quickly in the RSC 's new musical The Merry Wives, a version of The Merry Wives of Windsor.
Dench appeared opposite Cate Blanchett as a London teacher with a dedicated fondness for vulnerable women in Richard Eyre 's 2006 drama film Notes on a Scandal, an adaption from the 2003 novel of the same name by Zoë Heller. A fan of Heller 's book, Dench "was thrilled to be asked to... play that woman, to try to find a humanity in that dreadful person. '' The specialty film opened to generally positive reviews and commercial success, grossing US $50 million worldwide, exceeding its £ 15 million budget. In his review for Chicago Sun - Times, film critic Roger Ebert declared the main actresses "perhaps the most impressive acting duo in any film of 2006. Dench and Blanchett are magnificent. '' The following year, Dench earned her sixth Academy nomination and went on to win a BIFA Award and an Evening Standard Award.
Dench, as Miss Matty Jenkyns, co-starred with Eileen Atkins, Michael Gambon, Imelda Staunton, and Francesca Annis in the BBC One five - part series Cranford. The first season of the series began transmission in November 2007.
Dench became the voice for the narration for the updated Walt Disney World Epcot attraction Spaceship Earth in February 2008. The same month, she was named as the first official patron of the York Youth Mysteries 2008, a project to allow young people to explore the York Mystery Plays through dance, film - making and circus. Her only film of 2008 was Marc Forster 's Quantum of Solace, the twenty - second Eon - produced James Bond film, in which she reprised her role as M along with Daniel Craig. A direct sequel to the 2006 film Casino Royale, Forster felt Dench was underused in the previous films, and wanted to make her part bigger, having her interact with Bond more. The project gathered generally mixed reviews by critics, who mainly felt that Quantum of Solace was not as impressive as the predecessor Casino Royale, but became another hit for the franchise with a worldwide gross of US $591 million. For her performance, Dench was nominated for a Saturn Award the following year.
Dench returned to the West End in mid-2009, playing Madame de Montreuil in Yukio Mishima 's play Madame de Sade, directed by Michael Grandage as part of the Donmar season at Wyndham 's Theatre. The same year, she appeared in Sally Potter 's experimental film Rage, a project that featured 14 actors playing fictional figures in and around the fashion world, giving monologues before a plain backdrop. Attracted to the fact that it was unlike anything she had done before, Dench welcomed the opportunity to work with Potter. "I like to do something that 's not expected, or predictable. I had to learn to smoke a joint, and I set my trousers alight, '' she said about filming. Her next film was Rob Marshall 's musical film Nine, based on Arthur Kopit 's book for the 1982 musical of the same name, itself suggested by Federico Fellini 's semi-autobiographical film 81⁄2. Also starring Daniel Day - Lewis, Marion Cotillard, Penélope Cruz, and Sophia Loren, she played Lilli La Fleur, an eccentric but motherly French costume designer, who performs the song "Folies Bergères '' in the film. Despite mixed to negative reviews, Nine was nominated for four Academy Awards, and awarded both the Satellite Award for Best Film and Best Cast.
Also in 2009, Dench reprised the role of Matilda Jenkyns in Return to Cranford, the two - part second season of a Simon Curtis television series. Critically acclaimed, Dench was nominated for a Golden Globe Award, a Primetime Emmy Award, and a Satellite Award. In 2010, she renewed her collaboration with Peter Hall at the Rose Theatre in Kingston upon Thames in A Midsummer Night 's Dream, which opened in February 2010; she played Titania as Queen Elizabeth I in her later years -- almost 50 years after she first played the role for the Royal Shakespeare Company. In July 2010, Dench performed "Send in the Clowns '' at a special celebratory promenade concert from the Royal Albert Hall as part of the proms season, in honour of composer Stephen Sondheim 's 80th birthday.
In 2011, Dench starred in Jane Eyre, My Week with Marilyn and J. Edgar. In Cary Joji Fukunaga 's period drama Jane Eyre, based on the 1847 novel of the same name by Charlotte Brontë, she played the role of Alice Fairfax, housekeeper to Rochester, the aloof and brooding master of Thornfield Hall, where main character Jane, played by Mia Wasikowska, gets employed as a governess. Dench reportedly signed to the project after she had received a humorous personal note from Fukunaga, in which he "promised her that she 'd be the sexiest woman on set if she did the film. '' Acclaimed among critics, it was a mediocre arthouse success at the box office, grossing US $30.5 million worldwide. In Simon Curtis ' My Week with Marilyn, which depicts the making of the 1957 film The Prince and the Showgirl starring Marilyn Monroe and Laurence Olivier, Dench played actress Sybil Thorndike. The film garnered largely positive reviews, and earned Dench a Best Actress in a Supporting Role nomination at the 65th BAFTA Awards.
Dench 's last film of 2011 was Clint Eastwood 's J. Edgar, a biographical drama film about the career of FBI director J. Edgar Hoover, played by Leonardo DiCaprio, from the Palmer Raids onwards, including an examination of his private life as a closeted homosexual. Hand - picked by Eastwood to play Anna Marie Hoover, Hoover 's mother, Dench initially thought a friend was setting her up upon receiving Eastwood 's phone call request. "I did n't take it seriously to start with. And then I realised it was really him and that was a tricky conversation, '' she stated. Released to mixed reception, both with critics and commercially, the film went on to gross US $79 million worldwide. The same year, Dench reunited with Rob Marshall and Johnny Depp for a cameo appearance in Pirates of the Caribbean: On Stranger Tides, playing a noblewoman who is robbed by Captain Jack Sparrow, played by Depp. She made a second cameo that year in Ray Cooney 's Run for Your Wife.
In 2011, Dench reunited with director John Madden on the set of the comedy - drama The Best Exotic Marigold Hotel (2012), starring an ensemble cast also consisting of Celia Imrie, Bill Nighy, Ronald Pickup, Maggie Smith, Tom Wilkinson, and Penelope Wilton, as a group of British pensioners moving to a retirement hotel in India, run by the young and eager Sonny (Dev Patel). Released to positive reviews by critics, who declared the film a "sweet story about the senior set featuring a top - notch cast of veteran actors, '' it became a surprise box - office hit following its international release, eventually grossing $ US134 million worldwide, mostly from its domestic run. Best Exotic Marigold Hotel was ranked among the highest - grossing specialty releases of the year, and Dench, who Peter Travers from Rolling Stone called "resilient marvel '', garnered a Best Actress nod at both the British Independent Film Awards and Golden Globe Awards.
Also in 2012, Friend Request Pending, an indie short film which Dench had filmed in 2011, received a wide release as part of the feature films Stars in Shorts and The Joy of Six. In the 12 - minute comedy, directed by My Week with Marilyn assistant director Chris Foggin on a budget of just £ 5,000, she portrays a pensioner grappling with a crush on her church choirmaster and the art of cyber-flirting via social networking. Dench made her seventh and final appearance as M in the twenty - third James Bond film, Skyfall (2012), directed by Sam Mendes. In the film, Bond investigates an attack on MI6; it transpires that it is part of an attack on M by former MI6 operative, Raoul Silva (played by Javier Bardem) to humiliate, discredit and kill M as revenge against her for betraying him. Dench 's position as M was subsequently filled by Ralph Fiennes ' character. Coinciding with the 50th anniversary of the James Bond series, Skyfall was positively received by critics and at the box office, grossing over $1 billion worldwide, and became the highest - grossing film of all - time in the UK and the highest - grossing film in the James Bond series. Critics called Dench 's Saturn Awards - nominated performance "compellingly luminous ''.
In 2013, Dench starred as the title character in the Stephen Frears directed film, Philomena, a film inspired by true events of a woman looking for the son which the Catholic Church took from her a half - century before. The film was screened in the main competition section at the 70th Venice International Film Festival, where it was very favorably received by critics. On Dench 's performance, The Times commented that "this is Dench 's triumph. At 78, she has a golden career behind her, often as queens and other frosty matriarchs. So the warmth under pressure she radiates here is nearly a surprise (...) Dench gives a performance of grace, nuance and cinematic heroism. '' She was subsequently nominated for many major acting awards, including a seventh Academy Award nomination.
In 2015, Dench appeared opposite Dustin Hoffman in Dearbhla Walsh 's small screen adaptation of Roald Dahl 's children 's novel Esio Trot (1990), in which a retired bachelor falls in love with his widowed neighbour, played by Dench, who keeps a tortoise as a companion after the death of her husband, First broadcast on BBC One on New Year 's Day 2015, it became one of the most - watched programmes of the week, and earned Dench a her first Best Actress nomination at the 2016 International Emmy Awards. On her performance, Telegraph 's Michael Hogan commented: "We 've grown accustomed to seeing Dench in forbidding roles but here she recalled her footloose, flirtatious side, displayed in sitcoms as A Fine Romance and As Time Goes By. The Dame was sparkly and downright ravishing. ''
As with most of the original cast, Dench reprised the role of Evelyn in John Madden 's The Second Best Exotic Marigold Hotel (2015), the sequel to the 2011 sleeper hit. The comedy - drama was released to lukewarm reviews from critics, who found it "as original as its title -- but with a cast this talented and effortlessly charming, that hardly matters. '' From April to May 2015, Dench played a mother, with her real - life daughter Finty Williams playing her character 's daughter, in The Vote at the Donmar Warehouse. The final performance was broadcast live on More4 at 8: 25 pm; the time when the events in the play take place. The appearance marked her first performance at the theatre since 1976. On 20 September 2015, she was the guest on BBC Radio 4 's Desert Island Discs for the third time, in which she revealed that her first acting performance was as a snail. She reprised her role as M in the 2015 James Bond film, Spectre, in the form of a recording that was delivered to Bond.
In 2016, Dench made Olivier Award history when she won Best Actress in a Supporting Role for her role in The Winter 's Tale, breaking her own record with her eighth win as a performer. Next, she co-starred as Cecily Neville, Duchess of York to Benedict Cumberbatch 's Richard III in the second series of the BBC Two historical series The Hollow Crown. The same year, she was cast alongside Eva Green and Asa Butterfield in Tim Burton 's dark fantasy film Miss Peregrine 's Home for Peculiar Children. Dench played Miss Esmeralda Avocet, a headmistress who can manipulate time and can transform into a bird. The film garnered mixed reviews from critics, who felt it was "on stronger footing as a visual experience than a narrative one. '' Budgeted on US $110 million, it became a commercial hit, grossing nearly US $300 million worldwide.
Dench appeared in several 2017 films. She co-starred in Justin Chadwick 's Tulip Fever, alongside Alicia Vikander and Christoph Waltz, and headlined Stephen Frears 's biographical drama Victoria & Abdul, reprising the role of Queen Victoria, opposite Ali Fazal as Abdul. In addition, she will play Princess Natalia Dragomiroff in Kenneth Branagh 's ensemble mystery film Murder on the Orient Express, based on the 1934 novel of the same name by Agatha Christie.
On 5 February 1971, Dench married British actor Michael Williams. They had their only child, Tara Cressida Frances Williams, an actress known professionally as Finty Williams, on 24 September 1972. Dench and her husband starred together in several stage productions and on the Bob Larbey British television sitcom, A Fine Romance (1981 -- 84). Michael Williams died from lung cancer in 2001, aged 65. They have one grandchild, Finty 's son Sam Williams (born in 1997).
Dench has been in a relationship with conservationist David Mills since 2010. During a 2014 interview with The Times magazine, she discussed how she never expected to find love again after her husband 's death, "I was n't even prepared to be ready for it. It was very, very gradual and grown up... It 's just wonderful. ''
In early 2012, Dench discussed her macular degeneration, with one eye "dry '' and the other "wet '', for which she has been treated with injections into the eye. She said that she needs someone to read scripts to her. She also underwent knee surgery in 2013, but stated that she recovered from the procedure well and "It 's not an issue for me. ''
Dench has been critical of prejudice in the movie industry against older actresses. She stated in 2014, "I 'm tired of being told I 'm too old to try something. I should be able to decide for myself if I ca n't do things and not have someone tell me I 'll forget my lines or I 'll trip and fall on the set ''; and "Age is a number. It 's something imposed on you... It drives me absolutely spare when people say, ' Are you going to retire? Is n't it time you put your feet up? ' Or tell me (my) age. ''
In 2013, she spoke about her personal religious faith. Dench, a Quaker, said "I think it informs everything I do... I could n't be without it ''.
Dench was appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in the 1970 Birthday Honours and Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire (DBE) in the 1988 New Year Honours. She was appointed Member of the Order of the Companions of Honour (CH) in the 2005 Birthday Honours. In June 2011, she became a fellow of the British Film Institute (BFI).
Dench is a patron of the Leaveners, Friends School Saffron Walden, The Archway Theatre, Horley, Surrey and OnePlusOne Marriage and Partnership Research, London. She became president of Mountview Academy of Theatre Arts in London in 2006, taking over from Sir John Mills, and is president of Questors Theatre, Ealing. In May 2006, she became an Honorary Fellow of the Royal Society of Arts (FRSA). She was also patron of Ovingdean Hall School, a special day and boarding school for the deaf and hard of hearing in Brighton, which closed in 2010, and Vice President of The Little Foundation. Dame Judi is also a long - standing and active Vice President of the national disabled people 's charity Revitalise.
Dench is an Honorary Fellow of Lucy Cavendish College, Cambridge. In 1996, she was awarded a DUniv degree from Surrey University and in 2000 -- 2001, she received an honorary DLitt degree from Durham University. On 24 June 2008, she was honoured by the University of St Andrews, receiving an honorary DLitt degree at the university 's graduation ceremony. On 26 June 2013, she was honoured by the University of Stirling, receiving an honorary doctorate at the university 's graduation ceremony in recognition of her outstanding contribution to the Arts, particularly to film.
In March 2013, Dench was listed as one of the fifty best - dressed over 50s by The Guardian. One of the highest - profile actresses in British popular culture, Dench appeared on Debrett 's 2017 list of the most influential people in the UK.
Dench has worked with the non-governmental indigenous organisation, Survival International, campaigning in the defence of the tribal people, the San of Botswana and the Arhuaco of Colombia. She made a small supporting video saying the San are victims of tyranny, greed and racism. Dench is also a patron of the Karuna Trust, a charity that supports work amongst some of India 's poorest and most oppressed people, mainly though not exclusively Dalits.
On 22 July 2010, Dench was awarded an honorary degree of Doctor of Letters (DLitt) by Nottingham Trent University. The Dr. Hadwen Trust announced on 15 January 2011, that Dench had become a patron of the trust, joining, among others, Joanna Lumley and David Shepherd. On 19 March 2012, it was announced that Dench was to become honorary patron of the charity Everton in the Community, the official charity of Everton F.C. and it was revealed that Dench is an Everton supporter.
Dench is an advisor to the American Shakespeare Center. She is a patron of the Shakespeare Schools Festival, a charity that enables school children across the UK to perform Shakespeare in professional theatres. She is also a patron of Shakespeare North, a playhouse project due to be completed in 2019 in the town of Prescot in Knowsley, near Liverpool. She is patron of East Park Riding for the Disabled, a riding school for disabled children at Newchapel, Surrey. Dench is also a Vice-President of national charity Revitalise, that provides accessible holidays for those with disabilities. In 2011, along with musician Sting and billionaire entrepreneur Richard Branson, she publicly urged policy makers to adopt more progressive drug policies by decriminalizing drug use.
Dench was one of 200 celebrities to sign an open letter to the people of Scotland asking them to vote No to independence, published in August 2014, a few weeks before the Scottish referendum.
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cast of the wild wild west tv show | The Wild Wild West - wikipedia
The Wild Wild West is an American weird western television series that ran on the CBS television network for four seasons (104 episodes) from September 17, 1965, to April 4, 1969. Two television movies were made with the original cast in 1979 and 1980, and the series was adapted for a motion picture in 1999.
Developed at a time when the television western was losing ground to the spy genre, this show was conceived by its creator, Michael Garrison, as "James Bond on horseback. '' Set during the administration of President Ulysses Grant (1869 -- 77), the series followed Secret Service agents James West (Robert Conrad) and Artemus Gordon (Ross Martin) as they solved crimes, protected the President, and foiled the plans of megalomaniacal villains to take over all or part of the United States.
The show featured a number of fantasy elements, such as the technologically advanced devices used by the agents and their adversaries. The combination of the Victorian era time - frame and the use of Verne-esque technology has inspired some to give the show credit as being one of the more "visible '' origins of the steampunk subculture. These elements were accentuated even more in the 1999 movie adaptation.
Despite high ratings, the series was cancelled near the end of its fourth season as a concession to Congress over television violence.
The Wild Wild West told the story of two Secret Service agents: the fearless and handsome James T. West (played by Robert Conrad), and Artemus Gordon (played by Ross Martin), a brilliant gadgeteer and master of disguise. Their unending mission was to protect President Ulysses S. Grant and the United States from all manner of dangerous threats. The agents traveled in luxury aboard their own train, the Wanderer, equipped with everything from a stable car to a laboratory. James West had served as an intelligence and cavalry officer in the US Civil War on the staff of Ulysses Grant; his "cover, '' at least in the pilot episode, is that of "a dandy, a high - roller from the East. '' Thereafter, however, there is no pretense, and his reputation as the foremost Secret Service agent often precedes him. According to the TV movies, West retires from the Service by 1880 and lives on a ranch in Mexico. Gordon, who was a captain in the Civil War, had also been in show business. When he retires in 1880 he returns to performing as the head of a Shakespeare traveling players troupe.
The show incorporated classic Western elements with an espionage thriller, science fiction / alternate history ideas (in a similar vein to what would later be called steampunk), in one case horror ("The Night of the Man Eating House '') and plenty of humor. In the tradition of James Bond, there were always beautiful women, clever gadgets, and delusional arch - enemies with half - insane plots to take over the country or the world.
The title of each episode begins with "The Night '' (except for the first - season episode "Night of the Casual Killer '', which omitted the definite article "The ''). This followed other idiosyncratic naming conventions established by shows like Rawhide, where each episode title began with "Incident at '' or "Incident of, '' and The Man from U.N.C.L.E., where episodes were titled "The (Blank) Affair. ''
Robert Conrad starred as James West. Before The Wild Wild West, Conrad played private eye Tom Lopaka in ABC 's Hawaiian Eye for four seasons, 1959 - 63. Conrad claimed to be the 17th actor to test for the role of James West. (Rory Calhoun was initially announced for the part.) Conrad performed nearly all of his own stunts on The Wild Wild West. "For the first few episodes we tried stuntmen, '' Conrad explained, "but the setup time slowed production down, so I volunteered. Things started moving quicker when I took the jumps and the spills. We started meeting the budget. '' Early on he was doubled by Louie Elias or Chuck O'Brien.
On January 24, 1968, however, during filming of "The Night of the Fugitives '', Conrad fell 12 ft (3.7 m) from a chandelier onto a concrete floor and suffered a concussion. As a result, production of the series (then near the end of its third season) ended two weeks early. Conrad spent weeks in the hospital, and had a long convalescence slowed by constant dizziness. The episode was eventually completed and aired during the fourth season, with footage of the fall left in. Conrad later told Percy Shain of the Boston Globe, "I have the whole scene on film. It 's a constant reminder to be careful. It also bolstered my determination to make this my last year with the series. Four seasons are enough of this sort of thing. ''
Artemus Gordon was played by Ross Martin. Prior to The Wild Wild West, Martin co-starred in the CBS series Mr. Lucky from 1959 to 1960, portraying Mr. Lucky 's sidekick, Andamo. The series was created by Blake Edwards, who also cast Martin in his films Experiment in Terror (1962) and The Great Race (1964).
Martin once called his role as Artemus Gordon "a show - off 's showcase '' because it allowed him to portray over 100 different characters during the course of the series, and perform dozens of different dialects. Martin sketched his ideas for his characterizations and worked with the makeup artists to execute the final look. Martin told Percy Shain of the Boston Globe, "In the three years of the show, I have run a wider gamut than even those acknowledged masters of disguise, Paul Muni and Lon Chaney. Sometimes I feel like a one man repertory company. I think I 've proven to myself and to the industry that I am the No. 1 character lead in films today. '' The industry acknowledged Martin 's work with an Emmy nomination in 1969.
Martin broke his leg in a fourth - season episode, "The Night of the Avaricious Actuary ''. He dropped a rifle, stepped on it, and his foot rolled over it. Martin told Percy Shain of the Boston Globe, "In the scene where I was hurt, my stand - in tried to finish it. When the shell ejected from the rifle, it caught him in the eye and burned it. We still have n't finished that scene. It will have to wait until I can move around again. ''
A few weeks later, after completing "The Night of Fire and Brimstone '', Martin suffered a heart attack on August 17, 1968. (This was exactly two years after Michael Garrison died.) Martin 's character was replaced temporarily by other agents played by Charles Aidman (four episodes), Alan Hale, Jr. and William Schallert. Aidman said the producers had promised to rewrite the scripts for his new character, but this simply amounted to scratching out the name "Artemus Gordon '' and penciling in "Jeremy Pike '' (his character 's name). Pat Paulsen is frequently thought of as a Martin substitute, but he in fact appeared in one of Aidman 's episodes, and his character would have been present even if Martin appeared.
The show 's most memorable recurring arch - villain was Dr. Miguelito Quixote Loveless, a brilliant but petulant and megalomaniacal dwarf portrayed by Michael Dunn. Like Professor Moriarty for Sherlock Holmes, Loveless provided West and Gordon with a worthy adversary, whose plans could be foiled but who resisted all attempts to capture him and bring him to justice. Initially he had two constant companions: the huge Voltaire, played by Richard Kiel; and the beautiful Antoinette, played by Dunn 's real - life singing partner, Phoebe Dorin. Voltaire disappeared without explanation after his third episode (although Richard Kiel returned in a different role in "The Night of the Simian Terror ''), and Antoinette after her sixth. According to the TV movie The Wild Wild West Revisited, Loveless eventually dies in 1880 from ulcers, brought on by the frustration of having his plans consistently foiled by West and Gordon. (His son, played by Paul Williams, subsequently seeks revenge on the agents.)
Though several actors appeared in multiple villainous roles, only one other character had a second encounter with West and Gordon: Count Manzeppi (played flamboyantly by Victor Buono, who played another, different villain in the pilot), a diabolical genius of "black magic '' and crime, who -- like Dr. Loveless -- had an escape plan at the end. (Buono eventually returned in More Wild Wild West as "Dr. Henry Messenger '', a parody of Henry Kissinger, who ends up both handcuffed and turning invisible with the villainous Paradine.)
Agnes Moorehead won an Emmy for her role as Emma Valentine in "The Night of The Vicious Valentine ''. Some of the other villains were portrayed by Leslie Nielsen, Martin Landau, Burgess Meredith, Boris Karloff, Ida Lupino, Carroll O'Connor, Ricardo Montalban, Robert Duvall, Ed Asner, and Harvey Korman.
While the show 's writers created their fair share of villains, they frequently started with the nefarious, stylized inventions of these madmen (or madwomen) and then wrote the episodes to capitalize on these devices. Henry Sharp, the series ' story consultant, would sketch the preliminaries of the designs (eccentrically numbering every sketch "fig. 37 ''), and give the sketch to a writer, who would build a story around it. Episodes were also inspired by Edgar Allan Poe, H.G. Wells, and Jules Verne.
In 1954, Michael Garrison and Gregory Ratoff purchased the film rights to Ian Fleming 's first Bond novel, Casino Royale, for $600. CBS bought the TV rights for $1,000, and on October 21, 1954 broadcast an hour - long adaptation on its Climax! series, with Barry Nelson playing American agent ' Jimmy Bond ' and Peter Lorre playing the villain, Le Chiffre. CBS also approached Fleming about developing a Bond TV series. (Fleming later contributed ideas to NBC 's The Man From U.N.C.L.E.)
In 1955 Ratoff and Garrison bought the rights to the novel in perpetuity for an additional $6,000. They pitched the idea for a film to 20th Century Fox, but studio turned them down. After Ratoff died in 1960, his widow and Garrison sold the film rights to Charles K. Feldman for $75,000. Feldman eventually produced the spoof Casino Royale in 1967. By then, Garrison and CBS had brought a James Bond to television in a unique way.
The pilot episode, "The Night of the Inferno '', was produced by Garrison and, according to Robert Conrad, cost $685,000. The episode was scripted by Gilbert Ralston, who had written for numerous episodic TV series in the 1950s and 1960s. In a later deposition, Ralston explained that he was approached by Michael Garrison, who "said he had an idea for a series, good commercial idea, and wanted to know if I could glue the idea of a western hero and a James Bond type together in the same show. '' Ralston said he then created the Civil War characters, the format, the story outline and nine drafts of the pilot script that was the basis for the television series. It was his idea, for example, to have a secret agent named Jim West who would perform secret missions for President Ulysses S. Grant. (Ralston later sued Warner Bros. over the 1999 motion picture Wild Wild West based on the series.)
As indicated by Robert Conrad on his DVD commentary, the show went through several changes in producers in its first season. This was apparently due to conflicts between the network and Garrison, who had no experience producing for television and had trouble staying on budget. At first, Ben Brady was named producer, but he was shifted to Rawhide, which had its own crisis when star Eric Fleming quit at the end of the 1964 - 65 season. (That series lasted for another thirteen episodes before it was cancelled by CBS.)
The network then hired Collier Young. In an interview, Young said he saw the series as The Rogues set in 1870. (The Rogues, which he had produced, was about con men who swindled swindlers, much like the 1970s series Switch.) Young also claimed to have added the wry second "Wild '' to the series title, which had been simply "The Wild West '' in its early stages of production. Young lasted three episodes (2 -- 4). His shows featured a butler named Tennyson who traveled with West and Gordon, but since the episodes were not broadcast in production order, the character popped up at different times during the first season. Conrad was not sorry to see Young go: "I do n't mind. All that guy did creatively was put the second ' wild ' in the title. CBS did the right thing. ''
Young 's replacement, Fred Freiberger, returned the series to its original concept. It was on his watch that writer John Kneubuhl, inspired by a magazine article on Michael Dunn, created the arch - villain Dr. Miguelito Loveless. Phoebe Dorin, who played Loveless ' assistant, Antoinette, recalled: "Michael Garrison came to see (our) nightclub act when he was in New York. Garrison said to himself, ' Michael Dunn would make the most extraordinary villain. People have never seen anything like him before, and he 's a fabulous little actor and he 's funny as hell. ' And, Garrison felt, if Michael Dunn sang on every show, with the girl, it would be an extraordinary running villain. He came backstage and he told us who he was and he said he was going to do a television show called The Wild Wild West and we would be called. We thought, ' Yeah, yeah, we 've heard all that before. ' But he did call us and the show was a fantastic success. And that 's how it started, because he saw the nightclub act. '' Loveless was introduced in the show 's sixth produced, but third televised episode, "The Night the Wizard Shook The Earth. '' The character became an immediate hit and Dunn was contracted to appear in four episodes per season. Because of health problems, Dunn could only appear in 10 episodes instead of 16.
After ten episodes (5 -- 14), Freiberger and executive producer Michael Garrison were, according to Variety, "unceremoniously dumped, '' reputedly due to a behind - the - scenes power struggle. Garrison was replaced by Phillip Leacock, the executive producer of Gunsmoke, and Frieberger was supplanted by John Mantley, an associate producer on Gunsmoke. The exchange stunned both cast and crew. Garrison, who owned 40 % of The Wild Wild West, knew nothing about the changes and had n't been consulted. He turned the matter over to his attorneys. Freiberger said, "I was fired for accomplishing what I had been hired to do. I was hired to pull the show together when it was in chaos. '' Conrad said, "I was totally shocked by it. Let 's face it, the show is healthy. I think Fred Freiberger is totally correct in his concept of the show. It 's an administrative change, for what reason I do n't know. ''
Mantley produced seven (15 -- 21) episodes then returned to his former position on Gunsmoke, and Gene L. Coon took over as associate producer. By then, Garrison 's conflict with CBS was resolved and he returned to the executive producer role. Coon, however, left after six episodes (22 -- 27) to write First to Fight (1967), a Warner Bros. film about the Marines. Garrison produced the last episode of season one and the initial episodes of season two.
Garrison 's return was much to the relief of Ross Martin, who once revealed that he was so disenchanted during the first season that he tried to quit three times. He explained that Garrison "saw the show as a Bond spoof laid in 1870, and we all knew where we stood. Each new producer tried to put his stamp on the show and I had a terrible struggle. I fought them line by line in every script. They knew they could n't change the James West role very much, but it was open season on Artemus Gordon because they had never seen anything like him before. ''
On August 17, 1966, however, during production of the new season 's ninth episode, "The Night of the Ready - Made Corpse '', Garrison fell down a flight of stairs in his home, fractured his skull, and died. CBS brought in Bruce Lansbury, brother of actress Angela Lansbury, to produce the show for the remainder of its run. In the early 1960s Lansbury had been in charge of daytime shows at CBS Television City in Hollywood, then vice president of programming in New York. When he was tapped for The Wild Wild West, Lansbury was working with his twin brother, Edgar, producing legitimate theater on Broadway.
The first season 's episodes were filmed in black and white, and they were darker in tone. Cinematographer Ted Voightlander was nominated for an Emmy Award for his work on one of these episodes, "The Night of the Howling Light. '' Subsequent seasons were filmed in color, and the show became noticeably campier.
The Wild Wild West was filmed at CBS Studio Center on Radford Avenue in Studio City in the San Fernando Valley. The 70 - acre lot was formerly the home of Republic Studios, which specialized in low - budget films including Westerns starring Roy Rogers and Gene Autry and Saturday morning serials (which The Wild Wild West appropriately echoed). CBS had a wall - to - wall lease on the lot starting in May 1963, and produced Gunsmoke and Rawhide there, as well as Gilligan 's Island. The network bought the lot from Republic in February 1967, for $9.5 million. Beginning in 1971, MTM Enterprises (headed by actress Mary Tyler Moore and her then - husband, Grant Tinker) became the Studio Center 's primary tenant. In the mid-1980s the western streets and sets were replaced with new sound stages and urban facades, including the New York streets seen in Seinfeld. In 1995 the lagoon set that was originally constructed for Gilligan 's Island was paved over to create a parking lot.
For the pilot episode, "The Night of the Inferno '', the producers used Sierra Railroad No. 3, a 4 - 6 - 0 locomotive that was, fittingly, an anachronism: Sierra No. 3 was built in 1891, fifteen to twenty years after the series was set. Footage of this train, with a 5 replacing the 3 on its number plate, was shot in Jamestown, California. Best known for its role as the Hooterville Cannonball in the CBS series Petticoat Junction, Sierra No. 3 probably appeared in more films and TV shows than any other locomotive in history. It was built by the Rogers Locomotive and Machine Works in Paterson, New Jersey.
When The Wild Wild West went into series production, however, an entirely different train was employed. The locomotive, a 4 - 4 - 0 named the Inyo, was built in 1875 by the Baldwin Locomotive Works in Philadelphia. Originally a wood - burner, the Inyo was converted to oil in 1910. The Inyo, as well as the express car and the passenger car, originally served the Virginia and Truckee Railroad in Nevada. They were among V&T cars sold to Paramount Pictures in 1937 -- 38. The Inyo appears in numerous films including High, Wide, and Handsome (1938), Union Pacific (1939), The Marx Brothers ' Go West (1940), Meet Me in St. Louis, (1944), Red River (1948), Disney 's The Great Locomotive Chase (1956) and McLintock! (1963). For The Wild Wild West, Inyo 's original number plate was temporarily changed from No. 22 to No. 8 so the train footage could be flopped horizontally without the number appearing reversed. Footage of the Inyo in motion and idling was shot around Menifee, California, and reused in virtually every episode. (Stock footage of Sierra No. 3 occasionally resurfaced as well.)
These trains were used only for exterior shots. The luxurious interior of the passenger car was constructed on Stage 6 at CBS Studio Center. (Neither Stage 6 or the western streets still exist.) Designed by art director Albert Heschong, the set reportedly cost $35,000 in 1965 (approximately $250,000 in 2011 dollars). The interior was redesigned when the show switched to color for the 1966 - 67 season.
The train interior was also used in at least one episode of Gunsmoke ("Death Train, '' aired January 27, 1967), and in at least two episodes of The Big Valley ("Last Train to the Fair, '' aired April 27, 1966, and "Days of Wrath, '' aired January 8, 1968). All three series were filmed at CBS Studio Center and shared other exterior and interior sets. Additionally, the interior was used for an episode of Get Smart ("The King Lives? '', aired January 6, 1968) and the short - lived Barbary Coast ("Funny Money, '' aired September 8, 1975).
After her run on The Wild Wild West, the Inyo participated in the Golden Spike Centennial at Promontory, Utah, in 1969. The following year it appeared as a replica of the Central Pacific 's "Jupiter '' locomotive at the Golden Spike National Historical Site. The State of Nevada purchased the Inyo in 1974; it was restored to 1895 vintage, including a wider smoke stack and a new pilot (cow catcher) without a drop coupler. The Inyo is still operational and displayed at the Nevada State Railroad Museum in Carson City. The express car (No. 21) and passenger car (No. 4) are also at the museum.
Another veteran V&T locomotive, the Reno (built in 1872 by Baldwin), was used in the two The Wild Wild West TV movies. The Reno, which resembles the Inyo, is located at Old Tucson Studios.
The 1999 Wild Wild West motion picture used the Baltimore & Ohio 4 - 4 - 0 No. 25, one of the oldest operating steam locomotives in the U.S. Built in 1856 at the Mason Machine Works in Taunton, Massachusetts, it was later renamed The William Mason in honor of its manufacturer. For its role as "The Wanderer '' in the motion picture, the engine was sent to the steam shops at the Strasburg Railroad for restoration and repainting. The locomotive is brought out for the B&O Train Museum in Baltimore 's "Steam Days ''.
The Inyo and The William Mason both appeared in the Disney film The Great Locomotive Chase (1956).
The Wild Wild West featured numerous, often anachronistic, gadgets. Some were recurring devices, such as James ' sleeve gun or breakaway derringer hidden in his left and right boot heels. Others appeared in only a single episode.
Most of these gadgets are concealed in West 's garments:
Aboard the train:
Other gadgets:
The villains often used equally creative gadgets, including:
The main title theme was written by Richard Markowitz, who previously composed the theme for the TV series The Rebel. He was brought in after the producers rejected two attempts by film composer Dimitri Tiomkin.
In an interview by Susan Kesler (for her book, The Wild Wild West: The Series) included in the first season DVD boxed set, Markowitz recalled that the original Tiomkin theme "was very, kind of, traditional, it just seemed wrong. '' Markowitz explained his own approach: "By combining jazz with Americana, I think that 's what nailed it. That took it away from the serious kind of thing that Tiomkin was trying to do... What I did essentially was write two themes: the rhythmic, contemporary theme, Fender bass and brushes, that vamp, for the cartoon effects and for West 's getting himself out of trouble, and the heraldic western outdoor theme over that, so that the two worked together. ''
Session musicians who played on the theme were Tommy Morgan (harmonica); Bud Shank, Ronnie Lang, Plas Johnson, and Gene Cipriano (woodwinds); Vince DeRosa and Henry Sigismonti (French Horns); Uan Rasey, Ollie Mitchell, and Tony Terran (trumpets); Dick Nash, Lloyd Ulyate, Chauncey Welsch, Kenny Shroyer (trombones). Tommy Tedesco and Bill Pitman (guitars); Carol Kaye (Fender bass); Joe Porcaro (brushes); Gene Estes, Larry Bunker, and Emil Richards (timpani, percussion).
Markowitz, however, was never credited for his theme in any episode; it is believed that this was due to legal difficulties between CBS and Tiomkin over the rejection of the latter 's work. Markowitz did receive "music composed and conducted by '' credits for episodes he 'd scored (such as "The Night of the Bars of Hell '' and "The Night of the Raven '') or where he supplied the majority of tracked - in cues (for example in "The Night of the Grand Emir '' and "The Night of the Gypsy Peril ''). He finally received "theme by '' credit on both of the TV movies, which were scored by Jeff Alexander rather than Markowitz (few personnel from the series were involved with the TV movies).
The animated title sequence was another unique element of the series. Created by Michael Garrison Productions and DePatie - Freleng Enterprises, it was directed by Isadore "Friz '' Freleng and animated by Ken Mundie, who designed the titles for the film The Great Race and the TV series Secret Agent, Rawhide, and Death Valley Days.
The screen was divided into four corner panels surrounding a narrow central panel that contained a cartoon "hero ''. The Hero, who looked more like a traditional cowboy than either West or Gordon, encounters cliché western characters and situations in each of the panels. In the three seasons shot in color, the overall backdrop was an abstracted wash of the flag of the United States, with the upper left panel colored blue and the others containing horizontal red stripes.
The original animation sequence is:
This teaser part of the show was incorporated into The History Channel 's Wild West Tech (2003 -- 5).
Each episode had four acts. At the end of each act, the scene, usually a cliffhanger moment, would freeze, and a sketch or photograph of the scene faded in to replace the cartoon art in one of the four corner panels. The style of freeze - frame art changed over the course of the series. In all first - season episodes other than the pilot, the panels were live - action stills made to evoke 19th - century engravings. In season two (the first in color) the scenes dissolved to tinted stills; from "The Night of the Flying Pie Plate '' on, however, the panels were home to Warhol - like serigraphs of the freeze - frames. The end credits were displayed over each episode 's unique mosaic except in the final season, when a standardized design was used (curiously, in this design the bank robber is unconscious, the cardsharp has no card and the lady is on the ground, but the sixshooter in the upper left - hand panel has returned). The freeze - frame graphics were shot at a facility called Format Animation. The pilot is the only episode in which the center panel of the Hero is replaced by a sketch of the final scene of an act; in the third act he is replaced by the villainous General Cassinello (Nehemiah Persoff).
During the first season, the series title "The Wild Wild West '' was set in the font Barnum, which resembles the newer font P.T. Barnum. In subsequent seasons, the title appeared in a hand - drawn version of the font Dolphin (which resembles newer fonts called Zebrawood, Circus, and Rodeo Clown). Robert Conrad 's name was also set in this font. Ross Martin 's name was set in the font Bracelet (which resembles newer fonts named Tuscan Ornate and Romantiques). All episode titles, writer and director credits, guest cast and crew credits were set in Barnum. During commercial breaks, the title "The Wild Wild West '' also appeared in Barnum.
The series is generally set during the presidency of Ulysses S. Grant, 1869 -- 77; occasional episodes indicate a more precise date:
Some episodes were violent for their time, and that, rather than low ratings, ultimately was the series ' downfall. In addition to gunplay, there were usually two fight sequences per episode. These were choreographed by Whitey Hughes and performed by Conrad and a stock company of stuntmen, including Red West, Dick Cangey, and Bob Herron (who doubled for Ross Martin).
After he suffered a concussion filming "The Night of the Fugitives, '' the network insisted that Conrad defer to a double. (His chair on the set was newly inscribed: "Robert Conrad, ex-stuntman, retired by CBS, Jan. 24, 1968. '') "(W) hen I came back for the fourth season I was limited to what I could do for insurance reasons, '' Conrad explained. "So I agreed and gradually I did all the fights but could n't do anything five feet off the ground and of course that went out the window. '' He was doubled by Jimmy George. Often, George would start a stunt, such as a high fall or a dive through a window, then land behind boxes or off camera, where Conrad was concealed and waiting to seamlessly complete the action. This same ploy was sometimes used by Ross Martin and Bob Herron.
It was hazardous work. Hughes recalled, "We had a lot of crashes. We used to say, ' Roll the cameras and call the ambulances. ' '' Conrad recalled in 1994, "The injuries started at the top. Robert Conrad: 6 - inch fracture of the skull, high temporal concussion, partial paralysis. Ross Martin: broken leg. A broken skull for Red West. Broken leg for Jimmy George. Broken arm for Jack Skelly. And Michael Dunn: head injury and a spinal sprain. He did his own stunts. And on and on. ''
Following the 1968 assassinations of Dr. Martin Luther King and Robert Kennedy, President Lyndon Johnson created the National Commission on the Causes and Prevention of Violence. One of the questions it tackled was whether violence on television was a contributing factor to violence in American society. (This also included graphic news coverage of the Vietnam War.) The television networks, anticipating these allegations, moved to curtail violence on their entertainment programs before the start of the 1968 - 69 season. Television reporter Cynthia Lowrey, in an article published in August 1968, wrote that The Wild Wild West "is one of the action series being watched by network censors for scenes of excessive violence, even if the violence is all in fun. ''
However, despite a CBS mandate to tone down the mayhem, "The Night of the Egyptian Queen '' (aired November 15, 1968) contains perhaps the series ' most ferocious barroom brawl. A later memo attached to the shooting script of "The Night of Miguelito 's Revenge '' (aired December 13, 1968) reads: "Note to Directors: The producer respectfully asks that no violent acts be shot which are not depicted in the script or discussed beforehand.... Most particularly stay away from gratuitous ad - libs, such as slaps, pointing of firearms or other weapons at characters (especially in close quarters), kicks and the use of furniture and other objects in fight scenes. '' Strict limits were placed on the number of so - called "acts of violence '' in the last episodes of the season (and thus the series). James West rarely wears a gun, and rather than the usual fisticuffs, fight sequences involved tossing, tackling or body blocking the villains.
In December 1968, executives from ABC, CBS and NBC appeared before the President 's Commission. The most caustic of the commissioners, Rep. Hale Boggs (D - La.), decried what he called "the Saturday morning theme of children 's cartoon shows '' that permit "the good guy to do anything in the name of justice. '' He also indicted CBS for featuring sadism in its primetime programing (The Wild Wild West was subsequently identified as one example). The Congressman did, however, commend CBS for a 25 % decline in violence programming in prime time compared to the other two networks.
Three months later, in March 1969, Sen. John O. Pastore (D-R. I.) called the same network presidents before his Senate communications subcommittee for a public scolding on the same subject. At Pastore 's insistence, the networks promised tighter industry self - censorship, and the Surgeon General began a $1 million study on the effects of television. Congress 's concern was shared by the public: in a nationwide poll, 67.5 % of 1,554 Americans agreed with the hypothesis that TV and movie violence prompted violence in real life.
Additionally, the National Association for Better Broadcasting (NABB), in a report eventually issued in November 1969, rated The Wild Wild West "as one of the most violent series on television. ''
After being excoriated by two committees, the networks scrambled to expunge violence from their programming. The Wild Wild West received its cancellation notice in mid-February, even before Pastore 's committee convened. Producer Bruce Lansbury always claimed that "It was a sacrificial lamb... It went off with a 32 or 33 share which in those days was virtually break - even, but it always won its time period. '' This is confirmed by an article by Associated Press reporter Joseph Mohbat: "Shows like ABC 's ' Outcasts ' and NBC 's ' Outsider ', which depended heavily on violence, were scrapped. CBS killed ' The Wild, Wild West ' despite high ratings, because of criticism. It was seen by the network as a gesture of good intentions. '' The networks played it safe thereafter: of the 22 new television shows that debuted in the fall of 1969, not one was a western or detective drama; 14 were comedy or variety series.
Conrad denounced Pastore for many years, but in other interviews he admitted that it probably was time to cancel the series because he felt that he and the stunt men were pushing their luck. He also felt the role had hurt his craft. "In so many roles I was a tough guy and I never advanced much, '' Conrad explained. "Wild Wild West was action adventure. I jumped off roofs and spent all my time with the stuntmen instead of other actors. I thought that 's what the role demanded. That role had no dimension other than what it was -- a caricature of a performance. It was a comic strip character. ''
In the summer of 1970, CBS reran several episodes of The Wild Wild West on Mondays at 10 p.m. as a summer replacement for the Carol Burnett Show. These episodes were "The Night of the Bleak Island '' (aired July 6); "The Night of the Big Blackmail '' (July 13); "The Night of the Kraken '' (July 20); "The Night of the Diva '' (July 27); "The Night of the Simian Terror '' (August 3); "The Night of the Bubbling Death '' (August 11); "The Night of the Returning Dead '' (August 17); "The Night of the Falcon '' (August 24); "The Night of the Underground Terror '' (August 31); and "The Night of the Sedgewick Curse '' (September 7). Curiously, none of these featured Dr. Loveless.
TV critic Lawrence Laurent wrote, "The return of Wild Wild West even for a summer re-run is n't surprising. CBS - TV was never really very eager to cancel this series, since over a four - year run that began in 1965 the Wild Wild West had been a solid winner in the ratings. Cancellation came mainly because CBS officials were concerned about the criticism over televised violence and to a lesser degree because Robert Conrad had grown slightly weary of the role of James West. Ever since last fall 's ratings started rolling in, CBS has wished that it had kept Wild Wild West. None of the replacements have done nearly as well and, as a result, all of the Friday programs suffered. ''
That fall, CBS put the program into syndication, giving it new life on local stations across the country. This further antagonized the anti-violence lobby, since the program was now broadcast weekdays and often after school. One group, The Foundation to Improve Television (FIT), filed a suit on November 12, 1970, to prevent WTOP in Washington, D.C., from airing The Wild Wild West weekday afternoons at 4 pm. The suit was brought in Washington, D.C., specifically to gain government and media attention. The suit said the series "contains fictionalized violence and horror harmful to the mental health and well - being of minor children '', and should not air before 9 pm. WTOP 's vice president and general manager, John R. Corporan, was quoted as saying, "Since programs directed specifically at children are broadcast in the late afternoon by three other TV stations, it is our purpose to counter-program with programming not directed specifically at children. '' US District Court Judge John J. Sirica, who later presided over the trial of the Watergate burglars and ordered US President Richard Nixon to turn over White House recordings, dismissed the lawsuit in January 1971, referring FIT to take their complaint to the FCC. FIT appealed, but a year and a half later the U.S. Court of Appeals upheld the district court decision dismissing the suit on the grounds that FIT had not exhausted the administrative remedies available to them. By then, WTOP had stopped broadcasting the series altogether. At that time, the show was in reruns on about 57 other local stations across the country, including WOR in New York and WFLD in Chicago.
In October 1973 the Los Angeles - based National Association for Better Broadcasting (NABB) reached a landmark agreement with KTTV, a local station, to purge 42 violent cartoon programs, including Mighty Mouse, Magilla Gorilla, Speed Racer, and Gigantor. Additionally, the NABB cited 81 syndicated live - action shows that "may have a detrimental influence on some children who are exposed to such programming without parental guidance or perspective '' when they are telecast before 8: 30 p.m. This list included The Wild Wild West, The Avengers, Batman, Man from UNCLE, Roy Rogers, Wanted Dead or Alive, and The Lone Ranger. In Los Angeles, such shows opened with a cautionary announcement: "Parents -- we wish to advise that because of violence or other possible harmful elements, certain portions of the following program may not be suitable for young children. '' The NABB hoped to use the cartoon ban and warning announcement as a model for similar agreements with other local stations.
By then The Wild Wild West was running on 99 local stations. Its ongoing popularity throughout the 1970s prompted two television movies, The Wild Wild West Revisited (1979) and More Wild Wild West (1980) (see below). By the spring of 1985 the original series was still carried on 74 local stations.
In the late 1980s the series was still seen on local stations in Boston, Hartford, Philadelphia, Pittsburgh and Los Angeles, among other cities. Significantly, WGN (Chicago), which carried the show at 10 a.m. on Sundays, became available nationally through cable television.
In 1994, The Wild Wild West began running on Saturdays at 10 a.m. on Turner Network Television (TNT), which preferred the color episodes to the black and white shows. The series was dropped from WGN soon after. Hallmark Channel aired the series in 2005 as part of its slate of Saturday afternoon Westerns but dropped it after only a few weeks. In 2011 the series began running weekdays and / or weekends on MeTV, then Sundays on the Heroes and Icons digital channel. In 2016 The Wild Wild West returned to MeTV on Saturday afternoons. On January 1, 2018, MeTV began running the series weekday afternoons again, starting with second season (color) episodes. It also airs in the United Kingdom (as of 2015) on the Horror Channel on Sky channel 319, Virgin channel 149, Freeview channel 70 and Freesat channel 138.
Conrad and Martin reunited for two television movies, The Wild Wild West Revisited (aired May 9, 1979) and More Wild Wild West (aired October 7 -- 8, 1980). Revisited introduced Paul Williams as Miguelito Loveless Jr., the son of the agents ' nemesis. (Michael Dunn, who played Dr. Loveless in the original show, had died in 1973.) Loveless planned to substitute clones for the crowned heads of Europe and the President of the United States. (This plot is similar to the second - season episode "The Night of the Brain ''.)
Most of the exterior filming took place at Old Tucson Studios where there were still many "Old West '' buildings and a functioning steam train and tracks. Interiors were shot at CBS Studio Center. Ross Martin said, "We worked on a lot of the same sets at the studio, including the interiors of the old train. We used the same guns and gimmicks and wardrobes -- with the waistlines let out a little bit. The script, unlike the old shows, is played strictly for comedy. It calls for us to be ten years older than when we were last seen. There are a lot more laughs than adventure. ''
More Wild Wild West was initially conceived as a rematch between the agents and Miguelito Jr., but Williams was unavailable for the film; his character was changed to Albert Paradine II and played by Jonathan Winters -- this explains why the story begins with various clones of Paradine being murdered (the first film ends with Loveless having cloned himself and placed the doubles around the world). Paradine planned world conquest using a formula for invisibility (recalling the first - season episode "The Night of the Burning Diamond '').
Both TV films were campier than the TV series, although Conrad and Martin played their roles straight. Both films were directed by veteran comedy Western director Burt Kennedy and written by William Bowers (in the latter case with Tony Kayden, from a story by Bowers); neither Kennedy nor Bowers worked on the original series. The Wild Wild West Revisited takes the agents to a town called Wagon Gap. This was a nod to the Abbott and Costello film, The Wistful Widow of Wagon Gap (1947), which was based on a treatment by Bowers and D.D. Beauchamp of a short story by Beauchamp.
Conrad once revealed that CBS intended to do yearly TV revivals of The Wild Wild West. Variety, in its review of the first TV movie, concurred: "A couple of more movies in this vein, sensibly spaced, could work in the future. '' Ross Martin 's death in 1981, however, put an end to the idea.
Conrad was later quoted in Cinefantastique about these films: "We all got along fine with each other when we did these, but I was n't happy with them only because CBS imposed a lot of restrictions on us. They never came up to the level of what we had done before. ''
The first season of The Wild Wild West was released on DVD in North America on June 6, 2006 by CBS Home Entertainment (distributed by Paramount Home Entertainment). Although it was touted as a special 40th anniversary edition, it appeared 41 years after the show 's 1965 debut. Robert Conrad recorded audio introductions for all 28 first - season episodes, plus a commentary track for the pilot. The set also featured audio interviews by Susan Kesler (for her book, The Wild Wild West: The Series), and 1970s era footage of Conrad and Martin on a daytime talk show. The second season was released on DVD on March 20, 2007; the third season was released on November 20, 2007; and the fourth and final season was released on March 18, 2008. None of the later season sets contained bonus material. A 27 - disc complete series set was released on November 4, 2008. It contains all 104 episodes of the series as well as both reunion telefilms.
On May 12, 2015, CBS Home Entertainment released a repackaged version of the complete series set, at a lower price, but did not include the bonus disc that was part of the original complete series set. On June 13, 2016, the bonus disc was released as a standalone item.
In France, where the series (known locally as Les Mystères de l'Ouest) was a big hit, all four seasons were released in a DVD boxed set before their US release. The French set, released by TF1 Video, includes many of the extras on the US season one set, and many others. "The Night of the Inferno '' is presented twice -- as a regular episode in English with Conrad 's audio commentary, and in a French - dubbed version. All of the episodes are presented in English with French subtitles, and several episode titles differ in translation from the original English titles. For example, "The Night of the Gypsy Peril '', "The Night of the Simian Terror '' and "The Night of Jack O'Diamonds '' respectively translate as "The Night of the White Elephant '', "The Night of the Beast '' and "The Night of the Thoroughbred ''. Both TV movies are included as extras, but only in French - dubbed versions. The set also features a 1999 interview with Robert Conrad at the Mirande Country Music Festival in France.
The series spawned several merchandising spin - offs, including a seven - issue comic book series by Gold Key Comics, and a paperback novel, Richard Wormser 's The Wild Wild West, published in 1966 by Signet (ISBN 0 - 451 - 02836 - 8), which adapted the episode "The Night of the Double - Edged Knife ''.
In 1988, Arnett Press published The Wild Wild West: The Series by Susan E. Kesler (ISBN 0 - 929360 - 00 - 1), a thorough production history and episode guide.
In 1998, Berkeley Books published three novels by author Robert Vaughan -- The Wild Wild West (ISBN 0 - 425 - 16372 - 5), The Night of the Death Train (ISBN 0 - 425 - 16449 - 7), and The Night of the Assassin (ISBN 0 - 425 - 16517 - 5).
In 1990, Millennium Publications produced a four - part comic book series ("The Night of the Iron Tyrants '') scripted by Mark Ellis with art by Darryl Banks. A sequel to the TV series, it involved Dr. Loveless in a conspiracy to assassinate President Grant and the President of Brazil and put the Knights of the Golden Circle into power. The characters of Voltaire and Antoinette were prominent here, despite their respective early departures from Dr. Loveless ' side in the original program. A review from the Mile High Comics site states: "This mini-series perfectly captures the fun mixture of western and spy action that marked the ground - breaking 1960s TV series. '' The storyline of the comics mini-series was optioned for motion picture development.
In the 75th volume of the French comic book series Lucky Luke (L'Homme de Washington), published in 2008, both James West and Artemus Gordon have a minor guest appearance, albeit the names have been changed to "James East '' and "Artémius Gin ''.
When Robert Conrad hosted Saturday Night Live on NBC (January 23, 1982), he appeared in a parody of The Wild Wild West. President Lincoln states his famous quip that, if General U.S. Grant is a drunk, he should send whatever he 's drinking to his other less successful generals. Lincoln dispatches West and Gordon (Joe Piscopo) to find out what Grant drinks. They discover that Grant is held captive by Velvet Jones (Eddie Murphy).
On July 11, 2017, La - La Land Records released a limited edition 4 - disc set of music from the series, featuring Richard Markowitz 's theme, episode scores by Markowitz, Robert Drasnin, Dave Grusin, Richard Shores, Harry Geller, Walter Scharf, Jack Pleis and Fred Steiner, and Dimitri Tiomkin 's unused theme music.
In January 1992, Variety reported that Warner Bros. was planning a theatrical version of The Wild Wild West directed by Richard Donner, written by Shane Black, and starring Mel Gibson as James West (Donner directed three episodes of the original series). Finally, in 1999, a theatrical motion picture loosely based on the series was released as Wild Wild West (without the definite article used in the series title). Directed by Barry Sonnenfeld, the film made substantial changes to the characters of the series, reimagining James West as a black man (played by Will Smith), and Artemus Gordon (played by Kevin Kline) as egotistical and bitterly competitive with West. Additionally, significant changes were made to Dr. Loveless (Kenneth Branagh in the film). No longer a dwarf, he was portrayed as a double amputee confined to a steam - powered wheelchair (similar to that employed by the villain in "The Night of the Brain ''). Loveless ' first name was changed from Miguelito to Arliss, and he was given the motive of a bitter Southerner who sought revenge on the North after the Civil War.
Robert Conrad reportedly was offered the role of President Grant, but turned it down. He was outspoken in his criticism of the new film, now little more than a comedic Will Smith showcase with virtually no relationship to the action - adventure series. In a New York Post interview (July 3, 1999), Conrad stated that he disliked the movie and that contractually he was owed a share of money on merchandising that he was not paid. He had a long - standing feud with producer Jon Peters, which may have colored his opinion. He was offended at the racial aspects of the film, as well as the casting of Branagh as a double amputee, rather than a little - person actor, in the role of Loveless.
Conrad took special delight in accepting the Razzie Awards for the motion picture in 1999. It was awarded Worst Picture, Worst Screenplay, and Worst Original Song.
In 2009, Will Smith apologized publicly to Conrad while doing promotion for Seven Pounds:
I made a mistake on Wild Wild West. That could have been better... No, it 's funny because I could never understand why Robert Conrad was so upset with Wild Wild West. And now I get it. It 's like, ' That 's my baby! I put my blood, sweat and tears into that! ' So I 'm going to apologize to Mr. Conrad for that because I did n't realize. I was young and immature. So much pain and joy went into (my series) The Fresh Prince that my greatest desire would be that it 's left alone.
As with many television series, The Wild Wild West had several merchandise tie - ins during its run. These are listed below.
On October 5, 2010, Entertainment Weekly 's website reported that Ron Moore and Naren Shankar were developing a remake of The Wild Wild West for television, but the project apparently stalled. In December 2013, Moore told Wired, "Wild Wild West and Star Trek were two of my great loves. I watched both in syndication in the ' 70s. Wild Wild West was really interesting, that combination of genres -- a Western and secret agent, and they dabbled in the occult and paranormal. I really wanted to do a new version for CBS. I still think it 's a great property. Someday I hope to go back to it. ''
A new fan - produced webseries, Back to the Wild Wild West, began production in November 2011, but apparently has stalled.
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king of prussia mall largest malls in america | List of largest Shopping malls in the United States - wikipedia
List of the shopping malls in the United States of America and its territories greater than or equal to 2,000,000 total square feet of retail space (gross leasable area). The list is based in part on information provided by the International Council of Shopping Centers and by the Department of American Studies at Eastern Connecticut State University as part of its Shopping Mall Studies.
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where was the tank scene in goldeneye filmed | GoldenEye - wikipedia
GoldenEye (1995) is the seventeenth spy film in the James Bond series to be produced by Eon Productions, and the first to star Pierce Brosnan as the fictional MI6 officer James Bond. The film was directed by Martin Campbell and is the first in the series not to take story elements from the works of novelist Ian Fleming. The story was conceived and written by Michael France, with later collaboration by other writers. In the film, Bond fights to prevent an ex-MI6 agent, gone rogue, from using a satellite against London to cause a global financial meltdown.
GoldenEye was released in 1995 after a six - year hiatus in the series caused by legal disputes, during which Timothy Dalton resigned from the role of James Bond and was replaced by Pierce Brosnan. M was also recast, with actress Judi Dench becoming the first woman to portray the character, replacing Robert Brown. The role of Miss Moneypenny was also recast, with Caroline Bliss being replaced by Samantha Bond; Desmond Llewelyn was the only actor to reprise his role, as Q. GoldenEye was the first Bond film made after the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War, which provided a background for the plot.
The film accumulated a worldwide gross of US $350.7 million, considerably better than Dalton 's films, without taking inflation into account. The film received positive reviews, with critics viewing Brosnan as a definite improvement over his predecessor. The film also received award nominations for "Best Achievement in Special Effects '' and "Best Sound '' from the British Academy of Film and Television Arts.
The name "GoldenEye '' pays homage to James Bond 's creator, Ian Fleming. While working for British Naval Intelligence as a lieutenant commander, Fleming liaised with the American OSS to monitor developments in Spain after the Spanish Civil War in an operation codenamed Operation Goldeneye. Fleming used the name of his operation for his estate in Oracabessa, Jamaica.
In 1986, at Arkhangelsk, MI6 agents James Bond and Alec Trevelyan infiltrate a Soviet chemical weapons facility and plant explosives. Trevelyan is captured and gunned down by Colonel Arkady Grigorovich Ourumov, but Bond flees as the facility explodes.
Nine years later, in Monte Carlo, Bond follows Xenia Onatopp, a member of the Janus crime syndicate, who has formed a suspicious relationship with Charles Farrel, a Canadian Navy admiral. As Onatopp crushes the admiral to death with her thighs during sex, his credentials are stolen by Ourumov, who uses them to board a French Navy destroyer with Onatopp to steal a Eurocopter Tiger helicopter. Ourumov and Onatopp later fly the helicopter to a bunker in Severnaya, Siberia, where they massacre the staff and steal the control disk for the GoldenEye satellites, two Soviet electromagnetic weapon satellites from the Cold War. They program the first GoldenEye (Petya) to destroy the complex, and escape with programmer Boris Grishenko. Natalya Simonova, the lone survivor, contacts Boris and arranges to meet him in Saint Petersburg, where he betrays her to Janus.
In London, M assigns Bond to investigate the attack. He flies to Saint Petersburg to meet CIA operative Jack Wade, who suggests that Bond meet with Valentin Zukovsky, a former KGB agent and business rival of Janus. Zukovsky arranges a meeting between Bond and Janus. Onatopp surprises Bond at the Grand Hotel Europe and attempts to kill him, but he overpowers her. She takes Bond to Janus, who reveals himself as Trevelyan; he faked his death at Arkhangelsk but was badly scarred by the explosion. A descendant of the Cossack clans who collaborated with the Nazi forces in the Second World War, Trevelyan had vowed revenge against the British after they betrayed the Cossacks, which drove his father to kill Trevelyan 's mother and himself. Just as Bond is about to shoot Trevelyan, Bond is shot with a tranquilizer dart.
Bond awakens, tied up with Natalya in the helicopter, which has been programmed to self - destruct. They escape but are captured and transported to the Russian military archives, where Minister of Defence Dimitri Mishkin interrogates them. Just as Natalya reveals the existence of a second satellite and Ourumov 's involvement in the Siberian massacre, Ourumov arrives and kills Mishkin. Intending to frame Bond for the murder, he calls the guards, but Bond and Natalya escape. In the ensuing firefight, Natalya is captured. Bond steals a tank and pursues Ourumov through St. Petersburg to Trevelyan 's train, where he kills Ourumov. Trevelyan escapes and locks Bond in the train with Natalya, setting it to self - destruct. As Bond cuts through the floor with his laser watch, Natalya triangulates Boris ' satellite dish to Cuba. The two escape just before the train explodes.
Bond and Natalya meet Wade in the Florida Keys and borrow his plane for the trip to Cuba, where the same night, they make love. The next day, while searching for GoldenEye 's satellite dish, they are shot down. Onatopp rappels down from a helicopter and attacks Bond. After a fight ensues, Bond shoots down the helicopter, which snares Onatopp and crushes her to death against a tree. Bond and Natalya watch water draining out of a lake, uncovering the satellite dish. They infiltrate the control station, and Bond is captured. Trevelyan reveals his plan to rob the Bank of England before erasing all of its financial records with the second GoldenEye (Misha), concealing the theft and destroying Britain 's economy.
Natalya programs the satellite to initiate atmospheric re-entry and destroy itself. As Trevelyan captures Natalya and orders Grishenko to save the satellite, Boris unwittingly triggers an explosion with Bond 's pen grenade (received earlier from Q), which allows Bond to escape to the antenna cradle. Bond sabotages the antenna, preventing Grishenko from regaining control of the satellite. Bond and Trevelyan fight on the antenna 's suspended platform, which finishes with Bond holding a dangling Trevelyan by his foot. Bond releases Trevelyan, who plummets into the dish. Seconds later the cradle explodes, and falls, crushing and killing Trevelyan and destroying the base. Amazingly, Boris survives, but is frozen solid in a cascade of liquid nitrogen. Natalya commandeers a helicopter and rescues Bond. It drops them in a field, where the couple are rescued by Wade and a team of Marines.
Following the release of the previous Bond film, Licence to Kill, in July 1989, pre-production work for the third James Bond film starring Timothy Dalton, fulfilling his three - film contract, began in May 1990. A poster for the then - upcoming movie was even featured on the Carlton Hotel during the 1990 Cannes Film Festival. In August, The Sunday Times reported that producer Albert R. Broccoli had parted company with writer Richard Maibaum, who had worked on the scripts of all but three Bond films so far, and director John Glen, responsible for the previous five instalments of the series. Broccoli listed among the possible directors John Landis, Ted Kotcheff, and John Byrum. Broccoli 's stepson Michael G. Wilson contributed a script, and Wiseguy co-producer Alfonse Ruggiero Jr. was hired to rewrite. Production was set to start in 1990 in Hong Kong for a release in late 1991.
Dalton would declare in a 2010 interview that the script was ready and "we were talking directors '' before the project entered development hell caused by legal problems between Metro - Goldwyn - Mayer, parent company of the series ' distributor United Artists, and Broccoli 's Danjaq, owners of the Bond film rights. In 1990, MGM / UA was purchased by French - Italian broadcasting group Qintex, owner of the French production company Pathé, and merged with Pathé Communications Group to create MGM - Pathé Communications. Pathé CEO Giancarlo Parretti intended to sell off the distribution rights of the studio 's catalogue so he could collect advance payments to finance the buyout. This included international broadcasting rights to the 007 library at cut - rate prices, leading Danjaq to sue, alleging the licensing violated the Bond distribution agreements the company made with United Artists in 1962, while negating Danjaq a share of the profits. The lawsuits were only settled in 1992, while Dalton 's original contract with Danjaq expired in 1993.
In May 1993, MGM announced a seventeenth James Bond film was back in the works, to be based on a screenplay by Michael France. With Broccoli 's health deteriorating (he died seven months after the release of GoldenEye), his daughter Barbara Broccoli described him as taking "a bit of a back seat '' in film 's production. Barbara and Michael G. Wilson took the lead roles in production while Albert Broccoli oversaw the production of GoldenEye as a consulting producer, credited as "presenter ''.
In an interview in 1993, Dalton said that Michael France was writing the screenplay, due to be completed in January or February 1994. Despite France 's screenplay being completed by that January, in April 1994 Dalton officially resigned from the role.
After Michael France delivered the original screenplay, Jeffrey Caine was brought in to rewrite it. Caine kept many of France 's ideas but added the prologue prior to the credits. Kevin Wade polished the script and Bruce Feirstein added the finishing touches. In the film, the writing credit was shared by Caine and Feirstein, while France was credited with only the story, an arrangement he felt was unfair, particularly as he believed the additions made were not an improvement on his original version. Wade did not receive an official credit, but was acknowledged in the naming of Jack Wade, the CIA character he created.
To replace Dalton, the producers cast Irish actor Pierce Brosnan, who had been prevented from succeeding Roger Moore in 1986 because of his contract to star in the Remington Steele television series. Before negotiating with Brosnan, Mel Gibson, Hugh Grant and Liam Neeson passed on the role. Paul McGann was the studio 's original choice for the role. He would have been cast as Bond only if Brosnan had turned down the role. Brosnan was paid $1.2 million for the film, out of a total budget of $60 million. Judi Dench, an English actress, was cast as M replacing Robert Brown, making GoldenEye the first film of the series featuring a female M. The decision is widely believed to be inspired by Stella Rimington becoming head of MI5 in 1992. John Woo was approached as the director, and turned down the opportunity, but said he was honoured by the offer. The producers then chose New Zealander Martin Campbell as the director. Brosnan later described Campbell as "warrior - like in his take on the piece '' and that "there was a huge passion there on both our parts ''.
While the story was not based on a work by Ian Fleming, the title GoldenEye traces its origins to the name of Fleming 's Jamaican estate where he wrote the Bond novels. Fleming gave a number of origins for the name of his estate, including Carson McCullers ' Reflections in a Golden Eye and Operation Goldeneye, a contingency plan Fleming himself developed during World War II in case of a Nazi invasion through Spain.
Although only six years since the release of Licence to Kill, world politics had changed dramatically in the interim. GoldenEye was the first James Bond film to be produced since the fall of the Berlin Wall, the collapse of the Soviet Union, and the end of the Cold War, and therefore it was doubtful whether the character was still relevant in the modern world. Some in the film industry felt it would be "futile '' for the Bond series to make a comeback, and that it was best left as "an icon of the past ''. The producers even thought of new concepts for the series, such as a period piece set in the 1960s, a female 007, or a Black James Bond. Ultimately, they chose to return to the basics of the series, not following the sensitive and caring Bond of the Dalton films or the political correctness that started to permeate the decade. However, when released, the film was considered a successful revitalisation, and it effectively adapted the series for the 1990s. One of GoldenEye 's innovations was the casting of a female M. In the film, the new M quickly establishes her authority, remarking that Bond is a "sexist, misogynist dinosaur '' and a "relic of the Cold War ''. This is an early indication that Bond is portrayed as far less tempestuous than Timothy Dalton 's Bond from 1989.
Principal photography for the film began on 16 January 1995 and continued until 2 June. The producers were unable to film at Pinewood Studios, the usual location for Bond films, because it had been reserved for First Knight. Instead, an old Rolls - Royce factory at Leavesden Aerodrome in Hertfordshire was converted into a new studio, dubbed Leavesden Studios. This process is shown on the 2006 DVD 's special features.
The bungee jump was filmed at the Contra Dam (also known as the Verzasca or Locarno Dam) in Ticino, Switzerland. The film 's casino scenes and the Tiger helicopter 's demonstration were shot in Monte Carlo. Reference footage for the tank chase was shot on location in St. Petersburg and matched to the studio at Leavesden. The climactic scenes on the satellite dish were shot at Arecibo Observatory in Puerto Rico. The actual MI6 headquarters were used for external views of M 's office. Some of the scenes in St. Petersburg were actually shot in London -- the Epsom Downs Racecourse doubled as the airport -- to reduce expenses and security concerns, as the second unit sent to Russia required bodyguards.
The French Navy provided full use of the frigate FS La Fayette and their newest helicopter, the Eurocopter Tiger to the film 's production team. The French government also allowed the use of Navy logos as part of the promotional campaign for the film. However, the producers had a dispute with the French Ministry of Defence over Brosnan 's opposition to French nuclear weapons testing and his involvement with Greenpeace; as a result, the French premiere of the film was cancelled.
The sequences involving the armoured train were filmed on the Nene Valley Railway, near Peterborough in the UK. The train was composed of a British Rail Class 20 diesel - electric locomotive and a pair of BR Mk 1 coaches, all three heavily disguised to resemble a Soviet armoured train.
GoldenEye was the last film of special effects supervisor Derek Meddings, to whom the film was dedicated. Meddings ' major contribution was miniatures. It was also the first Bond film to use computer generated imagery. Among the model effects are most external shots of Severnaya, the scene where Janus ' train crashes into the tank, and the lake which hides the satellite dish, since the producers could not find a round lake in Puerto Rico. The climax in the satellite dish used scenes in Arecibo, a model built by Meddings ' team and scenes shot with stuntmen in Britain.
Stunt car coordinator Rémy Julienne described the car chase between the Aston Martin DB5 and the Ferrari F355 as between "a perfectly shaped, old and vulnerable vehicle and a racecar. '' The stunt had to be meticulously planned as the cars are vastly different. Nails had to be attached to the F355 tyres to make it skid, and during one take of the sliding vehicles, the two cars collided. The largest stunt sequence in the film was the tank chase, which took around six weeks to film, partly on location in St. Petersburg and partly at Leavesden. A Russian T - 54 / 55 tank, on loan from the East England Military Museum, was modified with the addition of fake explosive reactive armour panels. To avoid destroying the pavement on the city streets of St. Petersburg, the steel off - road tracks of the T - 54 / 55 were replaced with the rubber - shoed tracks from a British Chieftain tank. The T - 55 Tank used in the film is now on permanent display at Old Buckenham Airport where the East England Military Museum is based.
For the confrontation between Bond and Trevelyan inside the antenna cradle, director Campbell decided to take inspiration from Bond 's fight with Red Grant in From Russia with Love. Pierce Brosnan and Sean Bean did all the stunts themselves, except for one take where one is thrown against the wall. Brosnan injured his hand while filming the extending ladder sequence, making producers delay his scenes and film the ones in Severnaya earlier.
The opening 220 m (720 ft) bungee jump at Arkhangelsk, shot at the Contra Dam in Switzerland and performed by Wayne Michaels, was voted the best movie stunt of all time in a 2002 Sky Movies poll, and set a record for the highest bungee jump off a fixed structure. The ending of the pre-credits sequence with Bond jumping after the aeroplane features Jacques Malnuit riding the motorcycle to the edge and jumping, and B.J. Worth diving after the plane -- which was a working aircraft, with Worth adding that part of the difficulty of the stunt was the kerosene striking his face.
The fall of Communism in Russia is the main focus of the opening titles, designed by Daniel Kleinman (who took over from Maurice Binder after his death in 1991). They show the collapse and destruction of several structures associated with the Soviet Union, such as the red star, statues of Communist leaders -- notably Joseph Stalin -- and the hammer and sickle. In an interview, Kleinman said they were meant to be "a kind of story telling sequence '' showing that "what was happening in Communist countries was Communism was falling down ''. According to producer Michael G. Wilson, some Communist parties protested against "Socialist symbols being destroyed not by governments, but by bikini - clad women '', especially certain Indian Communist parties, which threatened to boycott the film.
GoldenEye was the first film bound by BMW 's three - picture deal, so the producers were offered BMW 's latest roadster, the BMW Z3. It was featured in the film months before its release, and a limited edition "007 model '' sold out within a day of being available to order. As part of the car 's marketing strategy, several Z3 's were used to drive journalists from a complimentary meal at the Rainbow Room restaurant to GoldenEye 's premiere at Radio City Music Hall.
For the film, a convertible Z3 is equipped with the usual Q refinements, including a self - destruct feature and Stinger missiles behind the headlights. The Z3 does not have much screen time and none of the gadgets are used, which Martin Campbell attributed to the deal with BMW coming in the last stages of production. The Z3 's appearance in GoldenEye is thought to be the most successful promotion through product placement in 1995. Ten years later, The Hollywood Reporter listed it as one of the most successful product placements in recent years. The article quoted Mary Lou Galician, head of media analysis and criticism at Arizona State University 's Walter Cronkite School of Journalism and Mass Communication, as saying that the news coverage of Bond 's switch from Aston Martin to BMW "generated hundreds of millions of dollars of media exposure for the movie and all of its marketing partners. ''
In addition, all computers in the film were provided by IBM, and in some scenes (such as the pen grenade scene towards the end), the OS / 2 Warp splash screen can be seen on computer monitors.
A modified Omega Seamaster Quartz Professional watch features as a major plot device several times in the film. It is shown to contain a remote detonator and a laser. This was the first time James Bond was shown to be wearing a watch by Omega, and the character has since worn Omega watches in every subsequent production.
The theme song, "GoldenEye '', was written by Bono and the Edge, and was performed by Tina Turner. As the producers did not collaborate with Bono or the Edge, the film score did not incorporate any of the theme song 's melodies, as was the case in previous James Bond films. Swedish group Ace of Base had also written a proposed theme song, but label Arista Records pulled the band out of the project fearing the negative impact in case the film flopped. The song was then re-written as their single "The Juvenile ''.
The soundtrack to GoldenEye was composed and performed by Éric Serra. Prolific Bond composer John Barry said that despite an offer by Barbara Broccoli, he turned it down. Serra 's score has been criticised: Richard von Busack, in Metro, wrote that it was "more appropriate for a ride on an elevator than a ride on a roller coaster '', and Filmtracks said Serra "failed completely in his attempt to tie Goldeneye to the franchise 's past. '' The end credits song, Serra 's "The Experience of Love '', was based on a short cue Serra had originally written for Luc Besson 's Léon one year earlier.
Later John Altman provided the music for the tank chase in St. Petersburg. Serra 's original track for that sequence can still be found on the soundtrack as "A Pleasant Drive in St. Petersburg ''. Serra composed and performed a number of synthesiser tracks, including the version of the "James Bond Theme '' that plays during the gun barrel sequence, while Altman and David Arch provided the more traditional symphonic music.
GoldenEye premiered on 13 November 1995, at the Radio City Music Hall in New York City, and went on general release in the USA on 17 November 1995. The UK premiere, attended by Prince Charles, followed on 22 November at the Odeon Leicester Square, with general release two days later. Brosnan boycotted the French premiere to support Greenpeace 's protest against the French nuclear testing program.
The film earned over $26 million during its opening across 2,667 cinemas in the USA. Its worldwide sales were around the equivalent of $350 million. It had the fourth - highest worldwide gross of all films in 1995 and was the most successful Bond film since Moonraker, taking inflation into account.
GoldenEye was edited to be guaranteed a PG - 13 rating from the MPAA and a 12 rating from the BBFC. The cuts included the visible bullet impact to Trevelyan 's head when he is shot in the prologue, several additional deaths during the sequence in which Onatopp guns down the workers at the Severnaya station, more explicit footage and violent behaviour in the Admiral 's death, extra footage of Onatopp 's death, and Bond giving her a rabbit punch in the car. In 2006, the film was re-mastered and re-edited for the James Bond Ultimate Edition DVD in which the BBFC cuts were restored, causing the rating to be changed to 15. However, the original MPAA edits still remain.
The critical reception of the film was mostly positive. Film review collection website Rotten Tomatoes holds it at a 78 % approval rating, while a similar site, Metacritic, holds it at 65 %. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A - '' on an A+ to F scale.
In the Chicago Sun - Times, Roger Ebert gave the film 3 stars out of 4, and said Brosnan 's Bond was "somehow more sensitive, more vulnerable, more psychologically complete '' than the previous ones, also commenting on Bond 's "loss of innocence '' since previous films. James Berardinelli described Brosnan as "a decided improvement over his immediate predecessor '' with a "flair for wit to go along with his natural charm '', but added that "fully one - quarter of Goldeneye is momentum - killing padding. ''
Several reviewers lauded M 's appraisal of Bond as a "sexist, misogynist dinosaur '', with Todd McCarthy in Variety saying GoldenEye "breathes fresh creative and commercial life '' into the series. John Puccio of DVD Town said that GoldenEye was "an eye and ear - pleasing, action - packed entry in the Bond series '' and that the film gave Bond "a bit of humanity, too ''. Ian Nathan of Empire said that GoldenEye "revamps that indomitable British spirit '' and that the Die Hard movies "do n't even come close to 007 ''. Tom Sonne of the Sunday Times considered GoldenEye the best Bond film since The Spy Who Loved Me. Jose Arroyo of Sight & Sound considered the greatest success of the film was in modernising the series.
GoldenEye was also ranked high in Bond - related lists. IGN chose it as the fifth - best movie, while Entertainment Weekly ranked it eighth, and Norman Wilner of MSN as ninth. ET also voted Xenia Onatopp as the sixth-most memorable Bond Girl, while IGN ranked Natalya as seventh in a similar list.
However, the film received several negative reviews. Richard Schickel of Time wrote that after "a third of a century 's hard use '', Bond 's conventions survived on "wobbly knees '', while in Entertainment Weekly, Owen Gleiberman thought the series had "entered a near - terminal state of exhaustion. '' Dragan Antulov said that GoldenEye had a predictable series of scenes, and Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times said that the film was "a middle - aged entity anxious to appear trendy at all costs ''. David Eimer of Premiere wrote that "the trademark humour is in short supply '' and that "Goldeneye is n't classic Bond by any stretch of the imagination. '' Madeleine Williams said that "there are plenty of stunts and explosions to take your mind off the plot. ''
GoldenEye was nominated for two BAFTAs, Best Sound and Special Effects, but lost to Braveheart and Apollo 13, respectively. Éric Serra won a BMI Film Award for the soundtrack and the film also earned nominations for Best Action Film and Actor at the Saturn Awards and Best Fight Scene at the MTV Movie Awards.
GoldenEye was the second and final Bond film to be adapted to a novel by novelist John Gardner. The book closely follows the film 's storyline, but Gardner added a violent sequence prior to the opening bungee jump in which Bond kills a group of Russian guards, a change that the video game GoldenEye 007 retained.
In late 1995, Topps Comics began publishing a three - issue comic book adaptation of GoldenEye. The script was adapted by Don McGregor with art by Rick Magyar. The first issue carried a January 1996 cover date. For unknown reasons, Topps cancelled the entire adaptation after the first issue had been published, and to date the adaptation has not been released in its entirety.
The film was the basis for GoldenEye 007, a video game for the Nintendo 64 developed by Rare (known at the time as Rareware) and published by Nintendo. The game was praised by critics and in January 2000, readers of the British video game magazine Computer and Video Games listed GoldenEye 007 in first place in a list of "the hundred greatest video games ''. In Edge 's 10th anniversary issue in 2003, the game was included as one of their top ten shooters of all time. It is based upon the film, but many of the missions were extended or modified.
GoldenEye 007 was modified into a racing game intended to be released for the Virtual Boy console. However, the game was cancelled before release. In 2004, Electronic Arts released GoldenEye: Rogue Agent, the first game of the James Bond series in which the player does not take on the role of Bond. Instead, the protagonist is an aspiring Double - 0 agent Jonathan Hunter, known by his codename "GoldenEye '' recruited by a villain of the Bond universe, Auric Goldfinger. Except for the appearance of Xenia Onatopp, the game was unrelated to the film, and was released to mediocre reviews. It was excoriated by several critics including Eric Qualls for using the name "GoldenEye '' as an attempt to ride on the success of Rare 's game. In 2010, an independent development team released GoldenEye: Source, a multiplayer only total conversion mod developed using Valve 's Source engine.
Nintendo announced a remake of the original GoldenEye 007 game at their E3 press conference on 15 June 2010. The game is a modernised retelling of the original movie 's story, with Daniel Craig playing the role of Bond. Bruce Feirstein returned to write a modernised version of the script, while Nicole Scherzinger covered Tina Turner 's theme song. The game was developed by Eurocom and published by Activision for the Wii and Nintendo DS and was released in November 2010. Both Wii and DS versions bear little to no resemblance to the locations and weapons of the original N64 release. In 2011 the game was ported to PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 under the name GoldenEye 007: Reloaded.
The malware Petya (also known as "Goldeneye '') is a reference to the film. A Twitter account, suspected by the German newspaper Heise Online to belong to the malware author, used an image of Boris Grishenko as his / her avatar.
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which of these scientist lost their life as a consequence of their on discovery | Marie Curie - wikipedia
Marie Skłodowska Curie (/ ˈkjʊri, kjʊˈriː /; French: (kyʁi); Polish: (kjiˈri); born Maria Salomea Skłodowska (ˈmarja salɔˈmɛa skwɔˈdɔfska); 7 November 1867 -- 4 July 1934) was a Polish and naturalized - French physicist and chemist who conducted pioneering research on radioactivity. She was the first woman to win a Nobel Prize, the first person and only woman to win twice, the only person to win a Nobel Prize in two different sciences, and was part of the Curie family legacy of five Nobel Prizes. She was also the first woman to become a professor at the University of Paris, and in 1995 became the first woman to be entombed on her own merits in the Panthéon in Paris.
She was born in Warsaw, in what was then the Kingdom of Poland, part of the Russian Empire. She studied at Warsaw 's clandestine Flying University and began her practical scientific training in Warsaw. In 1891, aged 24, she followed her older sister Bronisława to study in Paris, where she earned her higher degrees and conducted her subsequent scientific work. She shared the 1903 Nobel Prize in Physics with her husband Pierre Curie and with physicist Henri Becquerel. She won the 1911 Nobel Prize in Chemistry.
Her achievements included the development of the theory of radioactivity (a term that she coined), techniques for isolating radioactive isotopes, and the discovery of two elements, polonium and radium. Under her direction, the world 's first studies into the treatment of neoplasms were conducted using radioactive isotopes. She founded the Curie Institutes in Paris and in Warsaw, which remain major centres of medical research today. During World War I, she developed mobile radiography units to provide X-ray services to field hospitals.
While a French citizen, Marie Skłodowska Curie, who used both surnames, never lost her sense of Polish identity. She taught her daughters the Polish language and took them on visits to Poland. She named the first chemical element that she discovered -- polonium, which she isolated in 1898 -- after her native country.
Marie Curie died in 1934, aged 66, at a sanatorium in Sancellemoz (Haute - Savoie), France, of aplastic anemia from exposure to radiation in the course of her scientific research and in the course of her radiological work at field hospitals during World War I.
Maria Skłodowska was born in Warsaw, in the Russian partition of Poland, on 7 November 1867, the fifth and youngest child of well - known teachers Bronisława, née Boguska, and Władysław Skłodowski. The elder siblings of Maria (nicknamed Mania) were Zofia (born 1862, nicknamed Zosia), Józef (born 1863, nicknamed Józio), Bronisława (born 1865, nicknamed Bronia) and Helena (born 1866, nicknamed Hela).
On both the paternal and maternal sides, the family had lost their property and fortunes through patriotic involvements in Polish national uprisings aimed at restoring Poland 's independence (the most recent had been the January Uprising of 1863 -- 65). This condemned the subsequent generation, including Maria, her elder sisters and her brother, to a difficult struggle to get ahead in life.
Maria 's paternal grandfather, Józef Skłodowski, had been a respected teacher in Lublin, where he taught the young Bolesław Prus, who would become a leading figure in Polish literature. Her father, Władysław Skłodowski, taught mathematics and physics, subjects that Maria was to pursue, and was also director of two Warsaw gymnasia for boys. After Russian authorities eliminated laboratory instruction from the Polish schools, he brought much of the laboratory equipment home, and instructed his children in its use.
The father was eventually fired by his Russian supervisors for pro-Polish sentiments, and forced to take lower - paying posts; the family also lost money on a bad investment, and eventually chose to supplement their income by lodging boys in the house. Maria 's mother Bronisława operated a prestigious Warsaw boarding school for girls; she resigned from the position after Maria was born. She died of tuberculosis in May 1878, when Maria was ten years old. Less than three years earlier, Maria 's oldest sibling, Zofia, had died of typhus contracted from a boarder. Maria 's father was an atheist; her mother a devout Catholic. The deaths of Maria 's mother and sister caused her to give up Catholicism and become agnostic.
When she was ten years old, Maria began attending the boarding school of J. Sikorska; next she attended a gymnasium for girls, from which she graduated on 12 June 1883 with a gold medal. After a collapse, possibly due to depression, she spent the following year in the countryside with relatives of her father, and the next year with her father in Warsaw, where she did some tutoring. Unable to enroll in a regular institution of higher education because she was a woman, she and her sister Bronisława became involved with the clandestine Flying University (sometimes translated as Floating University), a Polish patriotic institution of higher learning that admitted women students.
Maria made an agreement with her sister, Bronisława, that she would give her financial assistance during Bronisława 's medical studies in Paris, in exchange for similar assistance two years later. In connection with this, Maria took a position as governess: first as a home tutor in Warsaw; then for two years as a governess in Szczuki with a landed family, the Żorawskis, who were relatives of her father. While working for the latter family, she fell in love with their son, Kazimierz Żorawski, a future eminent mathematician. His parents rejected the idea of his marrying the penniless relative, and Kazimierz was unable to oppose them. Maria 's loss of the relationship with Żorawski was tragic for both. He soon earned a doctorate and pursued an academic career as a mathematician, becoming a professor and rector of Kraków University. Still, as an old man and a mathematics professor at the Warsaw Polytechnic, he would sit contemplatively before the statue of Maria Skłodowska which had been erected in 1935 before the Radium Institute that she had founded in 1932.
At the beginning of 1890, Bronisława -- who a few months earlier had married Kazimierz Dłuski, a Polish physician and social and political activist -- invited Maria to join them in Paris. Maria declined because she could not afford the university tuition; it would take her a year and a half longer to gather the necessary funds. She was helped by her father, who was able to secure a more lucrative position again. All that time she continued to educate herself, reading books, exchanging letters, and being tutored herself. In early 1889 she returned home to her father in Warsaw. She continued working as a governess, and remained there till late 1891. She tutored, studied at the Flying University, and began her practical scientific training (1890 -- 91) in a chemical laboratory at the Museum of Industry and Agriculture at Krakowskie Przedmieście 66, near Warsaw 's Old Town. The laboratory was run by her cousin Józef Boguski, who had been an assistant in Saint Petersburg to the Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev.
In late 1891, she left Poland for France. In Paris, Maria (or Marie, as she would be known in France) briefly found shelter with her sister and brother - in - law before renting a garret closer to the university, in the Latin Quarter, and proceeding with her studies of physics, chemistry, and mathematics at the University of Paris, where she enrolled in late 1891. She subsisted on her meager resources, suffering from cold winters and occasionally fainting from hunger.
Skłodowska studied during the day and tutored evenings, barely earning her keep. In 1893, she was awarded a degree in physics and began work in an industrial laboratory of Professor Gabriel Lippmann. Meanwhile, she continued studying at the University of Paris, and with the aid of a fellowship she was able to earn a second degree in 1894.
Marie had begun her scientific career in Paris with an investigation of the magnetic properties of various steels, commissioned by the Society for the Encouragement of National Industry (Société d'encouragement pour l'industrie nationale (1)). That same year Pierre Curie entered her life; it was their mutual interest in natural sciences that drew them together. Pierre was an instructor at the School of Physics and Chemistry, the École supérieure de physique et de chimie industrielles de la ville de Paris (ESPCI). They were introduced by the Polish physicist, Professor Józef Wierusz - Kowalski, who had learned that Marie was looking for a larger laboratory space, something that Wierusz - Kowalski thought Pierre had access to. Though Pierre did not have a large laboratory, he was able to find some space for Marie where she was able to begin work.
Their mutual passion for science brought them increasingly closer, and they began to develop feelings for one another. Eventually Pierre proposed marriage, but at first Marie did not accept as she was still planning to go back to her native country. Pierre, however, declared that he was ready to move with her to Poland, even if it meant being reduced to teaching French. Meanwhile, for the 1894 summer break, Marie returned to Warsaw, where she visited her family. She was still laboring under the illusion that she would be able to work in her chosen field in Poland, but she was denied a place at Kraków University because she was a woman. A letter from Pierre convinced her to return to Paris to pursue a Ph. D. At Marie 's insistence, Pierre had written up his research on magnetism and received his own doctorate in March 1895; he was also promoted to professor at the School. A contemporary quip would call Marie, "Pierre 's biggest discovery. '' On 26 July 1895 they were married in Sceaux (Seine); neither wanted a religious service. Marie 's dark blue outfit, worn instead of a bridal gown, would serve her for many years as a laboratory outfit. They shared two pastimes: long bicycle trips, and journeys abroad, which brought them even closer. In Pierre, Marie had found a new love, a partner, and a scientific collaborator on whom she could depend.
In 1895, Wilhelm Roentgen discovered the existence of X-rays, though the mechanism behind their production was not yet understood. In 1896, Henri Becquerel discovered that uranium salts emitted rays that resembled X-rays in their penetrating power. He demonstrated that this radiation, unlike phosphorescence, did not depend on an external source of energy but seemed to arise spontaneously from uranium itself. Influenced by these two important discoveries, Marie decided to look into uranium rays as a possible field of research for a thesis.
She used an innovative technique to investigate samples. Fifteen years earlier, her husband and his brother had developed a version of the electrometer, a sensitive device for measuring electric charge. Using Pierre 's electrometer, she discovered that uranium rays caused the air around a sample to conduct electricity. Using this technique, her first result was the finding that the activity of the uranium compounds depended only on the quantity of uranium present. She hypothesized that the radiation was not the outcome of some interaction of molecules but must come from the atom itself. This hypothesis was an important step in disproving the ancient assumption that atoms were indivisible.
In 1897, her daughter Irène was born. To support her family, Curie began teaching at the École Normale Supérieure. The Curies did not have a dedicated laboratory; most of their research was carried out in a converted shed next to the School of Physics and Chemistry. The shed, formerly a medical school dissecting room, was poorly ventilated and not even waterproof. They were unaware of the deleterious effects of radiation exposure attendant on their continued unprotected work with radioactive substances. The School did not sponsor her research, but she would receive subsidies from metallurgical and mining companies and from various organizations and governments.
Curie 's systematic studies included two uranium minerals, pitchblende and torbernite (also known as chalcolite). Her electrometer showed that pitchblende was four times as active as uranium itself, and chalcolite twice as active. She concluded that, if her earlier results relating the quantity of uranium to its activity were correct, then these two minerals must contain small quantities of another substance that was far more active than uranium. She began a systematic search for additional substances that emit radiation, and by 1898 she discovered that the element thorium was also radioactive. Pierre was increasingly intrigued by her work. By mid-1898 he was so invested in it that he decided to drop his work on crystals and to join her.
The (research) idea (writes Reid) was her own; no one helped her formulate it, and although she took it to her husband for his opinion she clearly established her ownership of it. She later recorded the fact twice in her biography of her husband to ensure there was no chance whatever of any ambiguity. It (is) likely that already at this early stage of her career (she) realized that... many scientists would find it difficult to believe that a woman could be capable of the original work in which she was involved.
She was acutely aware of the importance of promptly publishing her discoveries and thus establishing her priority. Had not Becquerel, two years earlier, presented his discovery to the Académie des Sciences the day after he made it, credit for the discovery of radioactivity, and even a Nobel Prize, would instead have gone to Silvanus Thompson. Curie chose the same rapid means of publication. Her paper, giving a brief and simple account of her work, was presented for her to the Académie on 12 April 1898 by her former professor, Gabriel Lippmann. Even so, just as Thompson had been beaten by Becquerel, so Curie was beaten in the race to tell of her discovery that thorium gives off rays in the same way as uranium; two months earlier, Gerhard Carl Schmidt had published his own finding in Berlin.
At that time, no one else in the world of physics had noticed what Curie recorded in a sentence of her paper, describing how much greater were the activities of pitchblende and chalcolite than uranium itself: "The fact is very remarkable, and leads to the belief that these minerals may contain an element which is much more active than uranium. '' She later would recall how she felt "a passionate desire to verify this hypothesis as rapidly as possible. '' On 14 April 1898, the Curies optimistically weighed out a 100 - gram sample of pitchblende and ground it with a pestle and mortar. They did not realize at the time that what they were searching for was present in such minute quantities that they would eventually have to process tons of the ore.
In July 1898, Curie and her husband published a joint paper announcing the existence of an element which they named "polonium '', in honour of her native Poland, which would for another twenty years remain partitioned among three empires (Russian, Austrian, and Prussian). On 26 December 1898, the Curies announced the existence of a second element, which they named "radium '', from the Latin word for "ray ''. In the course of their research, they also coined the word "radioactivity ''.
To prove their discoveries beyond any doubt, the Curies sought to isolate polonium and radium in pure form. Pitchblende is a complex mineral; the chemical separation of its constituents was an arduous task. The discovery of polonium had been relatively easy; chemically it resembles the element bismuth, and polonium was the only bismuth - like substance in the ore. Radium, however, was more elusive; it is closely related chemically to barium, and pitchblende contains both elements. By 1898 the Curies had obtained traces of radium, but appreciable quantities, uncontaminated with barium, were still beyond reach. The Curies undertook the arduous task of separating out radium salt by differential crystallization. From a ton of pitchblende, one - tenth of a gram of radium chloride was separated in 1902. In 1910, she isolated pure radium metal. She never succeeded in isolating polonium, which has a half - life of only 138 days.
Between 1898 and 1902, the Curies published, jointly or separately, a total of 32 scientific papers, including one that announced that, when exposed to radium, diseased, tumor - forming cells were destroyed faster than healthy cells.
In 1900, Curie became the first woman faculty member at the École Normale Supérieure, and her husband joined the faculty of the University of Paris. In 1902 she visited Poland on the occasion of her father 's death.
In June 1903, supervised by Gabriel Lippmann, Curie was awarded her doctorate from the University of Paris. That month the couple were invited to the Royal Institution in London to give a speech on radioactivity; being a woman, she was prevented from speaking, and Pierre alone was allowed to. Meanwhile, a new industry began developing, based on radium. The Curies did not patent their discovery and benefited little from this increasingly profitable business.
In December 1903, the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences awarded Pierre Curie, Marie Curie, and Henri Becquerel the Nobel Prize in Physics, "in recognition of the extraordinary services they have rendered by their joint researches on the radiation phenomena discovered by Professor Henri Becquerel. '' At first, the Committee intended to honour only Pierre and Becquerel, but one of the committee members and an advocate of women scientists, Swedish mathematician Magnus Goesta Mittag - Leffler, alerted Pierre to the situation, and after his complaint, Marie 's name was added to the nomination. Marie was the first woman to be awarded a Nobel Prize.
Curie and her husband declined to go to Stockholm to receive the prize in person; they were too busy with their work, and Pierre, who disliked public ceremonies, was feeling increasingly ill. As Nobel laureates were required to deliver a lecture, the Curies finally undertook the trip in 1905. The award money allowed the Curies to hire their first laboratory assistant. Following the award of the Nobel Prize, and galvanized by an offer from the University of Geneva, which offered Pierre a position, the University of Paris gave Pierre a professorship and the chair of physics, although the Curies still did not have a proper laboratory. Upon Pierre 's complaint, the University of Paris relented and agreed to furnish a new laboratory, but it would not be ready until 1906.
In December 1904, Curie gave birth to their second daughter, Ève. She hired Polish governesses to teach her daughters her native language, and sent or took them on visits to Poland.
On 19 April 1906, Pierre was killed in a road accident. Walking across the Rue Dauphine in heavy rain, he was struck by a horse - drawn vehicle and fell under its wheels, causing his skull to fracture. Curie was devastated by her husband 's death. On 13 May 1906 the physics department of the University of Paris decided to retain the chair that had been created for Pierre and to offer it to Marie. She accepted it, hoping to create a world - class laboratory as a tribute to Pierre. She was the first woman to become a professor at the University of Paris.
Curie 's quest to create a new laboratory did not end with the University of Paris, however. In her later years, she headed the Radium Institute (Institut du radium, now Curie Institute, Institut Curie), a radioactivity laboratory created for her by the Pasteur Institute and the University of Paris. The initiative for creating the Radium Institute had come in 1909 from Pierre Paul Émile Roux, director of the Pasteur Institute, who had been disappointed that the University of Paris was not giving Curie a proper laboratory and had suggested that she move to the Pasteur Institute. Only then, with the threat of Curie leaving, did the University of Paris relent, and eventually the Curie Pavilion became a joint initiative of the University of Paris and the Pasteur Institute.
In 1910, Curie succeeded in isolating radium; she also defined an international standard for radioactive emissions that was eventually named for her and Pierre: the curie. Nevertheless, in 1911 the French Academy of Sciences did not elect her to be a member by one or two votes. Elected instead was Édouard Branly, an inventor who had helped Guglielmo Marconi develop the wireless telegraph.
A doctoral student of Curie, Marguerite Perey, became the first woman elected to membership in the Academy -- over half a century later, in 1962. Despite Curie 's fame as a scientist working for France, the public 's attitude tended toward xenophobia -- the same that had led to the Dreyfus affair -- which also fueled false speculation that Curie was Jewish. During the French Academy of Sciences elections, she was vilified by the right wing press who criticised her for being a foreigner and an atheist. Her daughter later remarked on the public hypocrisy as the French press often portrayed Curie as an unworthy foreigner when she was nominated for a French honour, but would portray her as a French hero when she received a foreign one such as her Nobel Prizes.
In 1911, it was revealed that in 1910 -- 11 Curie had conducted an affair of about a year 's duration with physicist Paul Langevin, a former student of Pierre 's -- a married man who was estranged from his wife. This resulted in a press scandal that was exploited by her academic opponents. Curie (then in her mid-40s) was five years older than Langevin and was misrepresented in the tabloids as a foreign Jewish home - wrecker. When the scandal broke, she was away at a conference in Belgium; on her return, she found an angry mob in front of her house and had to seek refuge, with her daughters, in the home of her friend, Camille Marbo.
International recognition for her work had been growing to new heights, and the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, overcoming opposition prompted by the Langevin scandal, honored her a second time, with the 1911 Nobel Prize in Chemistry. This award was "in recognition of her services to the advancement of chemistry by the discovery of the elements radium and polonium, by the isolation of radium and the study of the nature and compounds of this remarkable element. '' She was the first person to win or share two Nobel Prizes, and remains alone with Linus Pauling as Nobel laureates in two fields each. A delegation of celebrated Polish men of learning, headed by novelist Henryk Sienkiewicz, encouraged her to return to Poland and continue her research in her native country. Curie 's second Nobel Prize enabled her to persuade the French government into supporting the Radium Institute, built in 1914, where research was conducted in chemistry, physics, and medicine. A month after accepting her 1911 Nobel Prize, she was hospitalised with depression and a kidney ailment. For most of 1912 she avoided public life but did spend time in England with her friend and fellow physicist, Hertha Ayrton. She returned to her laboratory only in December, after a break of about 14 months.
In 1912, the Warsaw Scientific Society offered her the directorship of a new laboratory in Warsaw but she declined, focusing on the developing Radium Institute to be completed in August 1914, and on a new street named Rue Pierre - Curie. She visited Poland in 1913 and was welcomed in Warsaw but the visit was mostly ignored by the Russian authorities. The Institute 's development was interrupted by the coming war, as most researchers were drafted into the French Army, and it fully resumed its activities in 1919.
During World War I, Curie recognised that wounded soldiers were best served if operated upon as soon as possible. She saw a need for field radiological centres near the front lines to assist battlefield surgeons. After a quick study of radiology, anatomy, and automotive mechanics she procured X-ray equipment, vehicles, auxiliary generators, and developed mobile radiography units, which came to be popularly known as petites Curies ("Little Curies ''). She became the director of the Red Cross Radiology Service and set up France 's first military radiology centre, operational by late 1914. Assisted at first by a military doctor and by her 17 - year - old daughter Irène, Curie directed the installation of 20 mobile radiological vehicles and another 200 radiological units at field hospitals in the first year of the war. Later, she began training other women as aides.
In 1915, Curie produced hollow needles containing "radium emanation '', a colorless, radioactive gas given off by radium, later identified as radon, to be used for sterilizing infected tissue. She provided the radium from her own one - gram supply. It is estimated that over a million wounded soldiers were treated with her X-ray units. Busy with this work, she carried out very little scientific research during that period. In spite of all her humanitarian contributions to the French war effort, Curie never received any formal recognition of it from the French government.
Also, promptly after the war started, she attempted to donate her gold Nobel Prize medals to the war effort but the French National Bank refused to accept them. She did buy war bonds, using her Nobel Prize money. She said:
I am going to give up the little gold I possess. I shall add to this the scientific medals, which are quite useless to me. There is something else: by sheer laziness I had allowed the money for my second Nobel Prize to remain in Stockholm in Swedish crowns. This is the chief part of what we possess. I should like to bring it back here and invest it in war loans. The state needs it. Only, I have no illusions: this money will probably be lost.
She was also an active member in committees of Polonia in France dedicated to the Polish cause. After the war, she summarized her wartime experiences in a book, Radiology in War (1919).
In 1920, for the 25th anniversary of the discovery of radium, the French government established a stipend for her; its previous recipient was Louis Pasteur (1822 -- 95). In 1921, she was welcomed triumphantly when she toured the United States to raise funds for research on radium. Mrs. William Brown Meloney, after interviewing Marie, created a Marie Curie Radium Fund and raised money to buy radium, publicising her trip.
In 1921, U.S. President Warren G. Harding received her at the White House to present her with the 1 gram of radium collected in the United States. Before the meeting, recognising her growing fame abroad, and embarrassed by the fact that she had no French official distinctions to wear in public, the French government offered her a Legion of Honour award, but she refused. In 1922 she became a fellow of the French Academy of Medicine. She also travelled to other countries, appearing publicly and giving lectures in Belgium, Brazil, Spain, and Czechoslovakia.
Led by Curie, the Institute produced four more Nobel Prize winners, including her daughter Irène Joliot - Curie and her son - in - law, Frédéric Joliot - Curie. Eventually, it became one of four major radioactivity research laboratories, the others being the Cavendish Laboratory, with Ernest Rutherford; the Institute for Radium Research, Vienna, with Stefan Meyer; and the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Chemistry, with Otto Hahn and Lise Meitner.
In August 1922, Marie Curie became a member of the newly created International Commission for Intellectual Cooperation of the League of Nations. In 1923, she wrote a biography of Pierre, entitled Pierre Curie. In 1925, she visited Poland, to participate in the ceremony that laid foundations for the Radium Institute in Warsaw. Her second American tour, in 1929, succeeded in equipping the Warsaw Radium Institute with radium; it was opened in 1932 and her sister Bronisława became its director. These distractions from her scientific labours and the attendant publicity caused her much discomfort but provided resources needed for her work. In 1930, she was elected a member of the International Atomic Weights Committee where she served until her death.
Curie visited Poland for the last time in early 1934. A few months later, on 4 July 1934, she died at the Sancellemoz sanatorium in Passy, Haute - Savoie, from aplastic anemia believed to have been contracted from her long - term exposure to radiation.
The damaging effects of ionising radiation were not known at the time of her work, which had been carried out without the safety measures later developed. She had carried test tubes containing radioactive isotopes in her pocket, and she stored them in her desk drawer, remarking on the faint light that the substances gave off in the dark. Curie was also exposed to X-rays from unshielded equipment while serving as a radiologist in field hospitals during the war. Although her many decades of exposure to radiation caused chronic illnesses (including near - blindness due to cataracts) and ultimately her death, she never really acknowledged the health risks of radiation exposure.
She was interred at the cemetery in Sceaux, alongside her husband Pierre. Sixty years later, in 1995, in honour of their achievements, the remains of both were transferred to the Panthéon, Paris. She became the first woman to be honoured with interment in the Panthéon on her own merits. In 2015, two other women were also interred on their own merits.
Because of their levels of radioactive contamination, her papers from the 1890s are considered too dangerous to handle. Even her cookbook is highly radioactive. Her papers are kept in lead - lined boxes, and those who wish to consult them must wear protective clothing. In her last year, she worked on a book, Radioactivity, which was published posthumously in 1935.
The physical and societal aspects of the Curies ' work contributed substantially to shaping the world of the twentieth and twenty - first centuries. Cornell University professor L. Pearce Williams observes:
The result of the Curies ' work was epoch - making. Radium 's radioactivity was so great that it could not be ignored. It seemed to contradict the principle of the conservation of energy and therefore forced a reconsideration of the foundations of physics. On the experimental level the discovery of radium provided men like Ernest Rutherford with sources of radioactivity with which they could probe the structure of the atom. As a result of Rutherford 's experiments with alpha radiation, the nuclear atom was first postulated. In medicine, the radioactivity of radium appeared to offer a means by which cancer could be successfully attacked.
If Curie 's work helped overturn established ideas in physics and chemistry, it has had an equally profound effect in the societal sphere. To attain her scientific achievements, she had to overcome barriers, in both her native and her adoptive country, that were placed in her way because she was a woman. This aspect of her life and career is highlighted in Françoise Giroud 's Marie Curie: A Life, which emphasizes Marie 's role as a feminist precursor.
She was known for her honesty and moderate life style. Having received a small scholarship in 1893, she returned it in 1897 as soon as she began earning her keep. She gave much of her first Nobel Prize money to friends, family, students, and research associates. In an unusual decision, Curie intentionally refrained from patenting the radium - isolation process, so that the scientific community could do research unhindered. She insisted that monetary gifts and awards be given to the scientific institutions she was affiliated with rather than to her. She and her husband often refused awards and medals. Albert Einstein reportedly remarked that she was probably the only person who could not be corrupted by fame.
As one of the most famous women scientists to date, Marie Curie has become an icon in the scientific world and has received tributes from across the globe, even in the realm of pop culture. In a 2009 poll carried out by New Scientist, she was voted the "most inspirational woman in science ''. Curie received 25.1 per cent of all votes cast, nearly twice as many as second - place Rosalind Franklin (14.2 per cent).
Poland and France declared 2011 the Year of Marie Curie, and the United Nations declared that this would be the International Year of Chemistry. An artistic installation celebrating "Madame Curie '' filled the Jacobs Gallery at San Diego 's Museum of Contemporary Art. On 7 November, Google celebrated the anniversary of her birth with a special Google Doodle. On 10 December, the New York Academy of Sciences celebrated the centenary of Marie Curie 's second Nobel prize in the presence of Princess Madeleine of Sweden.
Marie Curie was the first woman to win a Nobel prize, the first person to win two Nobel Prizes, the only woman to win in two fields, and the only person to win in multiple sciences. Awards that she received include:
Marie Curie 's 1898 publication with her husband and their collaborator Gustave Bémont. for their discovery of radium and polonium was honored by a Citation for Chemical Breakthrough Award from the Division of History of Chemistry of the American Chemical Society presented to the ESPCI Paris (Ecole supérieure de physique et de chimie industrielles de la Ville de Paris) in 2015.
In 1995, she became the first woman to be entombed on her own merits in the Panthéon, Paris. The curie (symbol Ci), a unit of radioactivity, is named in honour of her and Pierre (although the commission which agreed on the name never clearly stated whether the standard was named after Pierre, Marie or both of them). The element with atomic number 96 was named curium. Three radioactive minerals are also named after the Curies: curite, sklodowskite, and cuprosklodowskite. She received numerous honorary degrees from universities across the world. The Marie Skłodowska - Curie Actions fellowship program of the European Union for young scientists wishing to work in a foreign country is named after her. In Poland, she had received honorary doctorates from the Lwów Polytechnic (1912), Poznań University (1922), Kraków 's Jagiellonian University (1924), and the Warsaw Polytechnic (1926). In 1921, in the U.S., she was awarded membership in the Iota Sigma Pi women scientists ' society.
Her name is included on the Monument to the X-ray and Radium Martyrs of All Nations, erected in Hamburg, Germany in 1936.
Numerous locations around the world are named after her. In 2007, a metro station in Paris was renamed to honour both of the Curies. Polish nuclear research reactor Maria is named after her. The 7000 Curie asteroid is also named after her. A KLM McDonnell Douglas MD - 11 (registration PH - KCC) is named in her honour.
Several institutions bear her name, starting with the two Curie institutes -- the Maria Skłodowska -- Curie Institute of Oncology, in Warsaw; and the Institut Curie in Paris. She is the patron of Maria Curie - Skłodowska University, in Lublin, founded in 1944; and of Pierre and Marie Curie University (Paris VI), France 's pre-eminent science university. In Britain, Marie Curie Cancer Care was organized in 1948 to care for the terminally ill.
Two museums are devoted to Marie Curie. In 1967, the Maria Skłodowska - Curie Museum was established in Warsaw 's "New Town '', at her birthplace on ulica Freta (Freta Street). Her Paris laboratory is preserved as the Musée Curie, open since 1992.
Several works of art bear her likeness. In 1935, Michalina Mościcka, wife of Polish President Ignacy Mościcki, unveiled a statue of Marie Curie before Warsaw 's Radium Institute. During the 1944 Second World War Warsaw Uprising against the Nazi German occupation, the monument was damaged by gunfire; after the war it was decided to leave the bullet marks on the statue and its pedestal. In 1955 Jozef Mazur created a stained glass panel of her, the Maria Skłodowska - Curie Medallion, featured in the University at Buffalo Polish Room.
A number of biographies are devoted to her. In 1938 her daughter, Ève Curie, published Madame Curie. In 1987 Françoise Giroud wrote Marie Curie: A Life. In 2005 Barbara Goldsmith wrote Obsessive Genius: The Inner World of Marie Curie. In 2011 Lauren Redniss published Radioactive: Marie and Pierre Curie, a Tale of Love and Fallout.
Greer Garson and Walter Pidgeon starred in the 1943 U.S. Oscar - nominated film, Madame Curie, based on her life. More recently, in 1997, a French film about Pierre and Marie Curie was released, Les Palmes de M. Schutz. It was adapted from a play of the same name. In the film, Marie Curie was played by Isabelle Huppert.
Curie is the subject of the play False Assumptions by Lawrence Aronovitch, in which the ghosts of three other women scientists observe events in her life. Curie has also been portrayed by Susan Marie Frontczak in her play Manya: The Living History of Marie Curie, a one - woman show performed in 30 US states and nine countries, by 2014.
Curie 's likeness also has appeared on banknotes, stamps and coins around the world. She was featured on the Polish late - 1980s 20,000 - złoty banknote as well as on the last French 500 - franc note, before the franc was replaced by the euro. Curie themed postage stamps from Mali, the Republic of Togo, Zambia, and the Republic of Guinea actually show a picture of Susan Marie Frontczak portraying Curie in a 2001 picture by Paul Schroeder.
On the first centenary of Marie Curie 's second Nobel Prize in 2011, an allegorical mural was painted on the façade of her Warsaw birthplace. It depicts an infant Maria Skłodowska holding a test tube from which emanate the elements that she would discover as an adult: polonium and radium. Also in 2011, a new Warsaw bridge over the Vistula was named in her honor.
a. Poland had been partitioned in the 18th century among Russia, Prussia and Austria, and it was Maria Skłodowska Curie 's hope that naming the element after her native country would bring world attention to Poland 's lack of independence as a sovereign state. Polonium may have been the first chemical element named to highlight a political question.
b. Sources vary concerning the field of her second degree. Tadeusz Estreicher, in the 1938 Polski słownik biograficzny entry, writes that, while many sources state she earned a degree in mathematics, this is incorrect, and that her second degree was in chemistry.
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who served as the general of confederate forces during the civil war | Confederate States Army - Wikipedia
American Indian Wars Cortina Troubles American Civil War
The Confederate States Army (C.S.A.) was the military ground force of the Confederate States of America (Confederacy) during the American Civil War (1861 - 1865). On February 28, 1861, the Provisional Confederate Congress established a provisional volunteer army and gave control over military operations and authority for mustering state forces and volunteers to the newly chosen Confederate president, Jefferson Davis (1808 - 1889), a graduate of the U.S. Military Academy on the Hudson River at West Point, New York, and colonel of a volunteer regiment during the Mexican -- American War (1846 - 1848), later a United States Senator from Mississippi and U.S. Secretary of War in the administration of 14th President Franklin Pierce (1853 - 1857). By March 1861, the Provisional Confederate Congress expanded the provisional forces and established a more permanent Confederate States Army.
An accurate count of the total number of individuals who served in the Confederate Army is not possible due to incomplete and destroyed Confederate records; all but extremely improbable estimates of the total number of Confederate soldiers range between 600,000 and 1,500,000 men. The better estimates of the number of individual Confederate soldiers are between 750,000 and 1,000,000 men. This does not include an unknown number of slaves who were pressed into performing various tasks for the army, such as construction of fortifications and defenses or driving wagons. Since these figures include estimates of the total number of individual soldiers who served at any time during the war, they do not represent the size of the army at any given date. These numbers do not include men who served in Confederate naval forces (Confederate States Navy).
Although most of the soldiers who fought in the American Civil War were volunteers, both sides by 1862 resorted to conscription, primarily as a means to force men to register and to volunteer. In the absence of exact records, estimates of the percentage of Confederate soldiers who were draftees are about double the 6 percent of Union soldiers who were conscripts.
Confederate casualty figures also are incomplete and unreliable. The best estimates of the number of deaths of Confederate soldiers are about 94,000 killed or mortally wounded in battle, 164,000 deaths from disease and between 26,000 and 31,000 deaths in Union prison camps. One estimate of Confederate wounded, which is considered incomplete, is 194,026. These numbers do not include men who died from other causes such as accidents, which would add several thousand to the death toll.
The main Confederate armies, the Army of Northern Virginia under General Robert E. Lee and the remnants of the Army of Tennessee and various other units under General Joseph E. Johnston, surrendered to the U.S. on April 9, 1865 (officially April 12), and April 18, 1865 (officially April 26). Other Confederate forces surrendered between April 16, 1865 and June 28, 1865. By the end of the war, more than 100,000 Confederate soldiers had deserted. The Confederacy 's government effectively dissolved when it fled Richmond in April and exerted no control of the remaining armies.
By the time Abraham Lincoln took office as President of the United States on March 4, 1861, the seven seceding slave states had formed the Confederate States. The Confederacy seized federal property, including nearly all U.S. Army forts, within its borders. Lincoln was determined to hold the forts remaining under U.S. control when he took office, especially Fort Sumter in the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina. By the time Lincoln was sworn in as president, the Provisional Confederate Congress had authorized the organization of a large Provisional Army of the Confederate States (PACS).
Under orders from Confederate President Jefferson Davis, C.S. troops under the command of General P.G.T. Beauregard bombarded Fort Sumter on April 12 -- 13, 1861, forcing its capitulation on April 14. The Northern states were outraged by the Confederacy 's attack and demanded war. It rallied behind Lincoln 's call on April 15, for all the states to send troops to recapture the forts from the secessionists, to put down the rebellion and to preserve the Union intact. Four more slave states then joined the Confederacy. Both the United States and the Confederate States began in earnest to raise large, mostly volunteer, armies with the objectives of putting down the rebellion and preserving the Union, on the one hand, or of establishing independence from the United States, on the other.
The Confederate Congress provided for a Confederate army patterned after the United States Army. It was to consist of a large provisional force to exist only in time of war and a small permanent regular army. The provisional, volunteer army was established by an act of the Provisional Confederate Congress passed on February 28, 1861, one week before the act which established the permanent regular army organization, passed on March 6. Although the two forces were to exist concurrently, very little was done to organize the Confederate regular army.
Members of all the Confederate States military forces (the army, the navy, and the marine corps) are often referred to as "Confederates '', and members of the Confederate army were referred to as "Confederate soldiers ''. Supplementing the Confederate army were the various state militias of the Confederacy:
Control and operation of the Confederate army was administered by the Confederate States War Department, which was established by the Confederate Provisional Congress in an act on February 21, 1861. The Confederate Congress gave control over military operations, and authority for mustering state forces and volunteers to the President of the Confederate States of America on February 28, 1861, and March 6, 1861. On March 8 the Confederate Congress passed a law that authorized Davis to issue proclamations to call up no more than 100,000 men. The War Department asked for 8,000 volunteers on March 9, 20,000 on April 8, and 49,000 on and after April 16. Davis proposed an army of 100,000 men in his message to Congress on April 29.
On August 8, 1861, the Confederacy called for 400,000 volunteers to serve for one or three years. In April 1862, the Confederacy passed the first conscription law in either C.S. or U.S. history, the Conscription Act, which made all able bodied white men between the ages of 18 and 35 liable for a three - year term of service in the PACS. It also extended the terms of enlistment for all one - year soldiers to three years. Men employed in certain occupations considered to be most valuable for the home front (such as railroad and river workers, civil officials, telegraph operators, miners, druggists and teachers) were exempt from the draft. The act was amended twice in 1862. On September 27, the maximum age of conscription was extended to 45. On October 11, the Confederate Congress passed the so - called "Twenty Negro Law '', which exempted anyone who owned 20 or more slaves, a move that caused deep resentment among conscripts who did not own slaves.
The Confederate Congress made several more amendments over the course of the war to address losses suffered in battle as well as the North 's greater supply of manpower. In December 1863, they abolished the practice of allowing a rich drafted man to hire a substitute to take his place in the ranks. Substitution had also been practiced in the Northern states, leading to similar resentment from the lower classes. In February 1864, the age limits were extended to between 17 and 50. Challenges to the subsequent acts came before five state supreme courts; all five upheld them.
In his 2010 book Major Problems in the Civil War, historian Michael Perman says that historians are of two minds on why millions of men seemed so eager to fight, suffer and die over four years:
Some historians emphasize that Civil War soldiers were driven by political ideology, holding firm beliefs about the importance of liberty, Union, or state rights, or about the need to protect or to destroy slavery. Others point to less overtly political reasons to fight, such as the defense of one 's home and family, or the honor and brotherhood to be preserved when fighting alongside other men. Most historians agree that, no matter what he thought about when he went into the war, the experience of combat affected him profoundly and sometimes affected his reasons for continuing to fight.
Educated soldiers drew upon their knowledge of American history to justify their costs. McPherson says:
Religion played a major part in the lives of Confederate soldiers, and there were numerous revivals in the Confederate army 's camps. Some men with a weak religious affiliation became committed Christians, and saw their military service in terms of God 's wishes. Religion strengthened the soldiers ' loyalty to comrades and the Confederacy. Military historian Samuel J. Watson argues that Christian faith was a major factor in combat motivation. The soldiers ' faith was consoling for the loss of comrades; it was a shield against fear; it helped cut down on drinking and fighting; it enlarged the soldiers community of close friends and helped make up for long - term separation from home.
In his 1997 book For Cause and Comrades, which examines the motivations of the American Civil War 's soldiers, historian James M. McPherson contrasts the views of Confederate soldiers regarding slavery to that of the colonial American revolutionaries of the 18th century. He stated that while the American colonists of the 1770s saw an incongruity with slave ownership and proclaiming to be fighting for liberty, Confederacy 's soldiers did not, as the Confederate ideology of white supremacy negated any contradiction between the two:
Unlike many slaveholders in the age of Thomas Jefferson, Confederate soldiers from slaveholding families expressed no feelings of embarrassment or inconsistency in fighting for their own liberty while holding other people in slavery. Indeed, white supremacy and the right of property in slaves were at the core of the ideology for which Confederate soldiers fought.
McPherson states that Confederate soldiers did not discuss the issue of slavery as often as Union soldiers did, because most Confederate soldiers readily accepted as an obvious fact that they were fighting to perpetuate slavery and thus did not feel the need to debate over it:
(O) nly 20 percent of the sample of 429 Southern soldiers explicitly voiced proslavery convictions in their letters or diaries. As one might expect, a much higher percentage of soldiers from slaveholding families than from nonslaveholding families expressed such a purpose: 33 percent, compared with 12 percent. Ironically, the proportion of Union soldiers who wrote about the slavery question was greater, as the next chapter will show. There is a ready explanation for this apparent paradox. Emancipation was a salient issue for Union soldiers because it was controversial. Slavery was less salient for most Confederate soldiers because it was not controversial. They took slavery for granted as one of the Southern ' rights ' and institutions for which they fought, and did not feel compelled to discuss it.
Continuing, McPherson also stated that of the hundreds of Confederate soldiers ' letters he had examined, none of them contained any anti-slavery sentiment whatsoever:
Although only 20 percent of the soldiers avowed explicit proslavery purposes in their letters and diaries, none at all dissented from that view.
But McPherson admits flaws in his sampling of letters. Soldiers from slaveholding families were overrepresented by 100 %:
Nonslaveholding farmers are underrepresented in the Confederate sample. Indeed, while about one - third of all Confederate soldiers belonged to slaveholding families, slightly more than two - thirds of the sample whose slaveholding status is known did so.
In some cases, Confederate men were motivated to join the army in response to the Union 's actions in regards to opposition to slavery. After U.S. President Abraham Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, some Confederate soldiers welcomed the move, as they believed it would strengthen pro-slavery sentiment in the Confederacy and thus, lead to greater enlistment of white men into the Confederate army.
One Confederate soldier from Texas gave his reasons for fighting for the Confederacy, stating that "we are fighting for our property '', contrasting this with the motivations of Union soldiers, whom he claimed were fighting for the "flimsy and abstract idea that a negro is equal to an Anglo ''. One Louisianan artillery soldier stated, "I never want to see the day when a negro is put on an equality with a white person. There is too many free niggers... now to suit me, let alone having four millions. '' A North Carolinian soldier stated, "(A) white man is better than a nigger. ''
In 1894, Virginian and former Confederate soldier John S. Mosby, reflecting back on his role in the war, stated in a letter to a friend that "I 've always understood that we went to war on account of the thing we quarreled with the North about. I 've never heard of any other cause than slavery. ''
At many points during the war, and especially near the end, Confederate armies were very poorly fed. Back home their families were in worsening condition and faced starvation and marauders. Many soldiers went home temporarily ("absent without official leave '') and quietly returned when their family problems had been resolved. By September 1864, however, President Davis publicly admitted that two thirds of the soldiers were absent, "most of them without leave. '' The problem escalated rapidly after that, and fewer and fewer men returned. Soldiers who were fighting in defense of their homes realized that they had to desert to fulfill that duty. Historian Mark Weitz argues that the official count of 103,400 deserters is too low. He concludes that most of the desertions came because the soldier felt he owed a higher duty to his own family than to the Confederacy.
Confederate policies generally were severe. For example, on August 19, 1862 General Stonewall Jackson approved the court - martial sentence of execution for three soldiers for desertion. He rejected pleas for clemency from the soldier 's regimental commander. Jackson 's goal was to maintain discipline in a volunteer army whose homes were under threat of enemy occupation.
Historians have emphasized how soldiers from poor families deserted because they were urgently needed at home. Local pressures mounted as Union forces occupied more and more of the Confederacy, putting more and more families at risk. One Confederate officer at the time noted, "The deserters belong almost entirely to the poorest class of non slave - holders whose labor is indispensable to the daily support of their families '' and that "When the father, husband or son is forced into the service, the suffering at home with them is inevitable. It is not in the nature of these men to remain quiet in the ranks under such circumstances. ''
Some soldiers also deserted from ideological motivations. A growing threat to the solidarity of the Confederacy was dissatisfaction in the Appalachian mountain districts caused by lingering unionism and a distrust of the slave power. Many of their soldiers deserted, returned home, and formed a military force that fought off regular army units trying to punish them. North Carolina lost 23 % of its soldiers (24,122) to desertion. The state provided more soldiers per capita than any other Confederate state, and had more deserters as well.
Young Mark Twain deserted long before he became a famous writer and lecturer, but he often commented upon the episode in comic fashion. Beneath his desertion from a Missouri State Guard unit was his deep unease about losing his personal honor, his fear of facing death as a soldier, and his rejection of a Southern identity as a professional author.
Because of the destruction of any central repository of records in Richmond in 1865 and the comparatively poor record - keeping of the time, there can be no definitive number that represents the strength of the Confederate States Army. Estimates range from 500,000 to 2,000,000 men who were involved at any time during the war. Reports from the War Department began at the end of 1861 (326,768 men), 1862 (449,439), 1863 (464,646), 1864 (400,787), and "last reports '' (358,692). Estimates of enlistments throughout the war were 1,227,890 to 1,406,180.
The following calls for men were issued:
The CSA was initially a (strategically) defensive army, and many soldiers were resentful when Lee led the Army of Northern Virginia in an invasion of the North in the Antietam Campaign.
The army did not have a formal overall military commander, or general - in - chief, until late in the war. The Confederate President, Jefferson Davis, himself a former U.S. Army officer and U.S. Secretary of War, served as commander - in - chief and provided the strategic direction for Confederate land and naval forces. The following men had varying degrees of control:
The lack of centralized control was a strategic weakness for the Confederacy, and there are few instances of multiple armies acting in concert across multiple theaters to achieve a common objective. (An exception to this was in late 1862 when Lee 's invasion of Maryland was coincident with two other actions: Bragg 's invasion of Kentucky and Earl Van Dorn 's advance against Corinth, Mississippi. All three initiatives were unsuccessful, however.) Likewise, an extreme example of "States Rights '' control of C.S. soldiers was Georgia Governor Joseph E. Brown, who not only reportedly tried to keep Georgia troops from leaving the State of Georgia in 1861 but also tried to keep them from C.S. government control when U.S. forces entered Georgia in 1864.
Many of the Confederacy 's senior military leaders (including Robert E. Lee, Albert Sidney Johnston, James Longstreet) and even President Jefferson Davis were former U.S. Army and, in smaller numbers, U.S. Navy officers who had been opposed to, disapproved of, or were at least unenthusiastic about secession but resigned their U.S. commissions upon hearing that their states had left the Union. They felt that they had no choice but to help defend their homes. President Abraham Lincoln was exasperated to hear of such men who professed to love their country but were willing to fight against it.
As in the U.S. Army, the Confederate army 's soldiers were organized by military specialty. The combat arms included infantry, cavalry and artillery.
The Confederate States Army consisted of several field armies. Although fewer soldiers might comprise a squad or platoon, the smallest unit in the Army was a company of 100 soldiers. Ten companies were organized into a regiment, which theoretically had 1,000 men. In reality, as disease and casualties took their toll, most regiments were greatly reduced in strength. Replacements usually went to form new regiments and not often to existing ones.
Regiments, which were the basic units of army organization through which soldiers were supplied and deployed, were raised by individual states. They were generally referred by number and state, for example 1st Texas, 12th Virginia. To the extent the word "battalion '' was used to describe a military unit, it referred to a regiment or a near - regimental size unit.
Four regiments usually formed a brigade, although as the number of men in many regiments became greatly reduced, especially later in the war, more than four were often assigned to a brigade. Occasionally, regiments would be transferred between brigades. Two to four brigades usually formed a division. Two to four divisions usually formed a corps. Two to four corps usually formed an army. Occasionally, a single corps might operate independently as if it were a small army.
Companies were commanded by captains and had two or more lieutenants. Regiments were commanded by colonels. Lieutenant colonels were second in command. At least one major was next in command. Brigades were commanded by brigadier generals although casualties or other attrition sometimes meant that brigades would be commanded by senior colonels or even a lower grade officer. Barring the same type of circumstances which might leave a lower grade officer in temporary command, divisions were commanded by major generals and corps were commanded by lieutenant generals. A few corps commanders were never confirmed as lieutenant generals and exercised corps command for varying periods of time as major generals. Armies of more than one corps were commanded by (full) generals.
Corporal of the Artillery division of the Confederate States of America Army.
Confederate mortar crew at Warrington, Florida in 1861, across from Fort Pickens.
Confederate artillery at Charleston Harbor, 1863.
There were four grades of general officer (general, lieutenant general, major general, and brigadier general), but all wore the same insignia regardless of grade. This was a decision made early in the conflict. The Confederate Congress initially made the rank of brigadier general the highest rank. As the war progressed, the other general - officer ranks were quickly added, but no insignia for them was created. (Robert E. Lee was a notable exception to this. He chose to wear the rank insignia of a colonel.) Only seven men achieved the rank of (full) general; the highest ranking (earliest date of rank) was Samuel Cooper, Adjutant General and Inspector General of the Confederate States Army.
Officers ' uniforms bore a braid design on the sleeves and kepi, the number of adjacent strips (and therefore the width of the lines of the design) denoting rank. The color of the piping and kepi denoted the military branch. The braid was sometimes left off by officers since it made them conspicuous targets. The kepi was rarely used, the common slouch hat being preferred for its practicality in the Southern climate.
Branch colors were used for color of chevrons -- blue for infantry, yellow for cavalry, and red for artillery. This could differ with some units, however, depending on available resources or the unit commander 's desire. Cavalry regiments from Texas, for example, often used red insignia and at least one Texas infantry regiment used black.
The CSA differed from many contemporaneous armies in that all officers under the rank of brigadier general were elected by the soldiers under their command. The Confederate Congress authorized the awarding of medals for courage and good conduct on October 13, 1862, but war time difficulties prevented the procurement of the needed medals. To avoid postponing recognition for their valor, those nominated for the awards had their names placed on a Roll of Honor, which would be read at the first dress parade after its receipt and be published in at least one newspaper in each state.
The C.S. Army was composed of independent armies and military departments that were constituted, renamed, and disbanded as needs arose, particularly in reaction to offensives launched by the Union. These major units were generally named after states or geographic regions (in comparison to the Union 's custom of naming armies after rivers). Armies were usually commanded by full generals (there were seven in the C.S. Army) or lieutenant generals. Some of the more important armies and their commanders were:
Some other prominent Confederate generals who led significant units operating sometimes independently in the CSA included Thomas J. "Stonewall '' Jackson, James Longstreet, J.E.B. Stuart, Gideon Pillow, and A.P. Hill.
The supply situation for most Confederate armies was dismal, even when they were victorious on the battlefield. The central government was short of money so each state government had to supply its own regiments. The lack of central authority and the ineffective railroads, combined with the frequent unwillingness or inability of Southern state governments to provide adequate funding, were key factors in the Confederate army 's demise. The Confederacy early on lost control of most of its major river and ocean ports to capture or blockade. The road system was poor, and it relied more and more on a heavily overburdened railroad system. Union forces destroyed track, engines, cars, bridges and telegraph lines as often as possible, knowing that new equipment was unavailable to the Confederacy. Occasional raids into the North were designed to bring back money and supplies. In 1864, the Confederates burned down Chambersburg, a Pennsylvania city they had raided twice in the years before, due to its failure to pay an extortion demand.
As a result of severe supply problems, as well as the lack of textile factories in the Confederacy and the successful Union naval blockade of Southern ports, the typical Confederate soldier was rarely able to wear the standard regulation uniform, particularly as the war progressed. While on the march or in parade formation, Confederate armies often displayed a wide array of dress, ranging from faded, patched - together regulation uniforms; rough, homespun uniforms colored with homemade dyes such as butternut (a yellow - brown color), and even soldiers in a hodgepodge of civilian clothing. After a successful battle, it was not unusual for victorious Confederate troops to procure Union Army uniform parts from captured supplies and dead Union soldiers; this would occasionally cause confusion in later battles and skirmishes.
Individual states were expected to supply their soldiers, which practice led to lack of uniformity. Some states (such as North Carolina) were able to better supply their soldiers, while other states (such as Texas) were unable for various reasons to adequately supply their troops as the war continued.
Furthermore, each state often had its own uniform regulations and insignia, which meant that the "standard '' Confederate uniform often featured a variety of differences based on the state the soldier came from. For example, uniforms for North Carolina regiments often featured a colored strip of cloth on their shoulders to designate what part of the service the soldier was in. Confederate soldiers also frequently suffered from inadequate supplies of shoes, tents, and other gear, and would be forced to innovate and make do with whatever they could scrounge from the local countryside. While Confederate officers were generally better - supplied and were normally able to wear a regulation officer 's uniform, they often chose to share other hardships -- such as the lack of adequate food -- with their troops.
Confederate soldiers were also faced with inadequate food rations, especially as the war progressed. There was plenty of meat in the Confederacy. The unsolvable problem was shipping it to the armies, especially when Lee 's army in Virginia was at the end of a long, tenuous supply line. Union victory at Vicksburg in 1863 shut off supplies from Texas and the west.
By 1863 Confederate generals such as Robert E. Lee often spent as much time and effort searching for food for their men as they did in planning strategy and tactics. Individual commanders often had to "beg, borrow or steal '' food and ammunition from whatever sources were available, including captured U.S. depots and encampments, and private citizens regardless of their loyalties. Lee 's campaign against Gettysburg and southern Pennsylvania (a rich agricultural region) was driven in part by his desperate need of supplies, especially food.
General Sherman 's total warfare reduced the ability of the South to produce food and ship it to the armies or its cities. Coupled with the Union blockade of all ports the devastation of plantations, farms and railroads meant the Confederacy increasingly lost the capacity to feed its soldiers and civilians.
Native Americans served in both the Union and Confederate military during the American Civil War. They fought knowing they might jeopardize their freedom, unique cultures, and ancestral lands if they ended up on the losing side of the Civil War. During the Civil War 28,693 Native Americans served in the Union and Confederate armies, participating in battles such as Pea Ridge, Second Manassas, Antietam, Spotsylvania, Cold Harbor, and in Federal assaults on Petersburg. Many Native American tribes, such as the Creek and the Choctaw, were slaveholders themselves, and thus, found a political and economic commonality with the Confederacy.
At the beginning of the war, Albert Pike was appointed as Confederate envoy to Native Americans. In this capacity he negotiated several treaties, one such treaty was the Treaty with Choctaws and Chickasaws conducted in July 1861. The treaty covered sixty - four terms covering many subjects like Choctaw and Chickasaw nation sovereignty, Confederate States of America citizenship possibilities, and an entitled delegate in the House of Representatives of the Confederate States of America. The Cherokee, Choctaw, Seminole, Catawba, and Creek tribes were the only tribes to fight on the Confederate side. The Confederacy wanted to recruit Indians east of the Mississippi River in 1862, so they opened up a recruiting camp in Mobile, Alabama "at the foot of Stone Street ''. The Mobile Advertiser and Register would advertise for a chance at military service.
A Chance for Active Service. The Secretary of War has authorized me to enlist all the Indians east of the Mississippi River into the service of the Confederate States, as Scouts. In addition to the Indians, I will receive all white male citizens, who are good marksmen. To each member, Fifty Dollars Bounty, clothes, arms, camp equipage &c: furnished. The weapons shall be Enfield Rifles. For further information address me at Mobile, Ala. (Signed) S.G. Spann, Comm'ing Choctaw Forces.
Stand Watie, along with a few Cherokee, sided with the Confederate army, in which he was made colonel and commanded a battalion of Cherokee. Reluctantly, on October 7, 1861, Chief Ross signed a treaty transferring all obligations due to the Cherokee from the U.S. government to the Confederate States. In the treaty, the Cherokee were guaranteed protection, rations of food, livestock, tools and other goods, as well as a delegate to the Confederate Congress at Richmond.
In exchange, the Cherokee would furnish ten companies of mounted men, and allow the construction of military posts and roads within the Cherokee Nation. However, no Indian regiment was to be called on to fight outside Indian Territory. As a result of the Treaty, the 2nd Cherokee Mounted Rifles, led by Col. John Drew, was formed. Following the Battle of Pea Ridge, Arkansas, March 7 -- 8, 1862, Drew 's Mounted Rifles defected to the Union forces in Kansas, where they joined the Indian Home Guard. In the summer of 1862, Federal troops captured Chief Ross, who was paroled and spent the remainder of the war in Washington and Philadelphia proclaiming Cherokee loyalty to the Union army.
William Holland Thomas, the only white chief of the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians, recruited hundreds of Cherokees for the Confederate army, particularly for Thomas ' Legion. The Legion, raised in September 1862, fought until the end of the War.
Choctaw Confederate battalions were formed in Indian Territory and later in Mississippi in support of the southern cause. The Choctaws, who were expecting support from the Confederates, got little. Webb Garrison, a Civil War historian, describes their response: when Confederate Brigadier General Albert Pike authorized the raising of regiments during the fall of 1860, Creeks, Choctaws, and Cherokees responded with considerable enthusiasm. Their zeal for the Confederate cause, however, began to evaporate when they found that neither arms nor pay had been arranged for them. A disgusted officer later acknowledged that "with the exception of a partial supply for the Choctaw regiment, no tents, clothing, or camp and garrison equipage was furnished to any of them. ''
With so many white males conscripted into the army and roughly 40 % of its population unfree, the work required to maintain a functioning society in the Confederacy ended up largely on the backs of slaves. Even Georgian governor Joseph E. Brown noted that "the country and the army are mainly dependent upon slave labor for support. '' African American slave labor was used in a wide variety of logistical support roles for the Confederacy, from infrastructure and mining, to teamster and medical roles such as hospital attendants and nurses.
The idea of arming the Confederacy 's slaves for use as soldiers was speculated on from the onset of the war, but such proposals were not seriously considered by Jefferson Davis or others in the Confederate administration until late in the war, when it faced severe manpower shortages. Gary Gallagher says, "When Lee publicly advocated arming slaves in early 1865, he did so as a desperate expedient that might prolong Southern military resistance. ''. After acrimonious debate the Confederate Congress agreed in March, 1865. The war was nearly over by then and very few slaves ended up being enlisted before the Confederate armies all surrendered.
As early as November 1864, some Confederates knew that the chance of securing victory against the U.S. was slim. Despite lacking foreign assistance and recognition and facing slim chances of victory against superior U.S. assets, Confederate newspapers such as the Georgian Atlanta Southern Confederacy continued to maintain their position and oppose the idea of armed black men in the Confederate army, even late in the war as January 1865. They stated that it was incongruous with the Confederacy 's goals and views regarding African Americans and slavery. The Georgian newspaper opined that using black men as soldiers would be an embarrassment to Confederates and their children, saying that although African Americans should be used for slave labor, they should not be used as armed soldiers, opining that:
Prominent Confederates such as R.M.T. Hunter and Georgian Democrat Howell Cobb opposed arming slaves, saying that it was "suicidal '' and would run contrary to the Confederacy 's ideology. Opposing such a move, Cobb stated that African Americans were untrustworthy and innately lacked the qualities to make good soldiers, and that using them would cause many Confederates to quit the army.
The overwhelming support most Confederates had for maintaining black slavery was the primary cause of their strong opposition to using African Americans as armed soldiers. Maintaining the institution of slavery was the primary goal of the Confederacy 's existence, and thus, using their slaves as soldiers was incongruous with that goal. According to historian Paul D. Escott:
(F) or a great many of the most powerful southerners the idea of arming and freeing the slaves was repugnant because the protection of slavery had been and still remained the central core of Confederate purpose... Slavery was the basis of the planter class 's wealth, power, and position in society. The South 's leading men had built their world upon slavery and the idea of voluntarily destroying that world, even in the ultimate crisis, was almost unthinkable to them. Such feelings moved Senator R.M.T. Hunter to deliver a long speech against the bill to arm the slaves.
Though most Confederates were opposed to the idea of using black soldiers, a small number suggested the idea. An acrimonious and controversial debate was raised by a letter from Patrick Cleburne urging the Confederacy to raise black soldiers by offering emancipation; Jefferson Davis refused to consider the proposal and issued instructions forbidding the matter from being discussed. It would not be until Robert E. Lee wrote the Confederate Congress urging them that the idea would take serious traction.
On March 13, 1865, the Confederate Congress passed General Order 14 by a single vote in the Confederate senate, and Jefferson Davis signed the order into law. The order was issued March 23, but as it was late in the war, only a few African American companies were raised in the Richmond area before the town was captured by the U.S. Army and placed back under U.S. control.
According to historian James M. McPherson in 1994, "no black soldiers fought in the Confederate army, unless they were passing as white. '' He noted that some Confederates brought along "their body servants, who in many cases had grown up with them '' and that "on occasion some of those body servants were known to have picked up a rifle... But there was no official recruitment of black soldiers in the Confederate army until the very end of the war '', when it was brought about only by a "desperate shortage of manpower. ''
In some cases, the Confederates forced their African American slaves to fire upon U.S. soldiers at gunpoint, such as at the first Battle of Bull Run. According to John Parker, one such slave who was forced by the Confederates to fight U.S. soldiers, "Our masters tried all they could to make us fight... They promised to give us our freedom and money besides, but none of us believed them; we only fought because we had to. '' Parker stated that had he been given an opportunity, he would have turned against his Confederate captors, and "could do it with pleasure ''. According to abolitionist Henry Highland Garnet in 1862, he had met a slave who "had unwillingly fought on the side of Rebellion '', but said slave had since defected to "the side of Union and universal liberty. ''
During the Siege of Yorktown (1862), The Union 's elite sniper unit, the 1st United States Sharpshooters, was devastatingly effective at shooting Confederate artillerymen defending the city. In response, some Confederate artillery crews started forcing slaves to load the cannons. "They forced their negroes to load their cannon, '' reported a Union officer. "They shot them if they would not load the cannon, and we shot them if they did. ''
In other cases, under explicit orders from their commanders, Confederate armies would often forcibly kidnap free African American civilians during their incursions into U.S. territory, sending them south into Confederate territory and thus enslaving them, as was the case with the Army of Northern Virginia when it invaded Pennsylvania in 1863.
The usage of black men as U.S. soldiers by the Union, combined with Abraham Lincoln 's issuing of the Emancipation Proclamation, profoundly angered the Confederacy, with the Confederates calling it uncivilized. As a response, in May 1863 the Confederacy passed a law demanding "full and ample retaliation '' against the Union, stating that any black person captured in "arms against the Confederate States '' or giving aid and comfort to their enemies would be turned over to state authorities, where they could be tried as slave insurrectionists; a capital offense punishable with a sentence of death. However, Confederate authorities feared retaliation, and as such no black prisoner was ever put on trial and executed.
James McPherson states that "Confederate troops sometimes murdered black soldiers and their officers as they tried to surrender. In most cases, though, Confederate officers returned captured black soldiers to slavery or put them to hard labor on southern fortifications. '' African American USCT soldiers were often singled out by the Confederates and suffered extra violence when captured by them. They were often the victims of battlefield massacres and atrocities at the hands of the Confederates, most notably at Fort Pillow in Tennessee and at the Battle of the Crater in Virginia.
The Confederate law declaring black U.S. soldiers as being insurrectionist slaves, combined with the Confederacy 's discriminatory mistreatment of captured black U.S. soldiers, became a stumbling block for prisoner exchanges between the Union and the Confederacy, as the U.S. government in the Lieber Code officially objected to the Confederacy 's discriminatory mistreatment of prisoners of war on basis of color. The Republican Party 's platform of the 1864 presidential election reflected this view, as it too condemned the Confederacy 's discriminatory mistreatment of captured black U.S. soldiers. According to the authors of Liberty, Equality, Power, "Expressing outrage at this treatment, in 1863 the Lincoln administration suspended the exchange of prisoners until the Confederacy agree to treat white and black prisoners alike. The Confederacy refused. ''
Incomplete and destroyed records make an accurate count of the number of men who served in the Confederate army impossible. Historians provide estimates of the actual number of individual Confederate soldiers between 750,000 and 1,000,000 men.
The exact number is unknown. Since these figures include estimates of the total number of individual soldiers who served in each army at any time during the war, they do not represent the size of the armies at any given date. Confederate casualty figures are as incomplete and unreliable as the figures on the number of Confederate soldiers. The best estimates of the number of deaths of Confederate soldiers appear to be about 94,000 killed or mortally wounded in battle, 164,000 deaths from disease and between 26,000 and 31,000 deaths in Union prison camps. In contrast, about 25,000 Union soldiers died as a result of accidents, drowning, murder, killed after capture, suicide, execution for various crimes, execution by the Confederates (64), sunstroke, other and not stated. Confederate casualties for all these reasons are unavailable. Since some Confederate soldiers would have died for these reasons, more total deaths and total casualties for the Confederacy must have occurred. One estimate of Confederate wounded, which is considered incomplete, is 194,026; another is 226,000. At the end of the war 174,223 men of the Confederate forces surrendered to the U.S. Army.
Compared to the U.S. Army at the time, the Confederate army was not very ethnically diverse. Ninety - one percent of Confederate soldiers were native - born white men and only 9 % were foreign - born white men, Irishmen being the largest group with others including Germans, French, Mexicans, and British. A small number of Asian men were forcibly inducted into the Confederate army against their will when they arrived in Louisiana from overseas.
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why is the interdependence of the worms and plants an example of commensalism | Commensalism - wikipedia
Commensalism, in ecology, is a class of relationships between two organisms where one organism benefits from the other without affecting it. This is in contrast with mutualism, in which both organisms benefit from each other, amensalism, where one is harmed while the other is unaffected, and parasitism, where one benefits while the other is harmed. The word "commensalism '' is derived from the word "commensal '', meaning "eating at the same table '' in human social interaction, which in turn comes through French from the Medieval Latin commensalis, meaning "sharing a table '', from the prefix com -, meaning "together '', and mensa, meaning "table '' or "meal ''. Originally, the term was used to describe the use of waste food by second animals, like the carcass eaters that follow hunting animals, but wait until they have finished their meal. Commensality, at Oxford and Cambridge Universities, refers to professors eating at the same table as students (as they live in the same "college '').
Commensalism, in biology, is a relation between individuals of two species in which one species obtains food or other benefits from the other without either harming or benefiting the latter. The commensal (the species that benefits from the association) may obtain nutrients, shelter, support, or locomotion from the host species, which is substantially unaffected. The commensal relation is often between a larger host and a smaller commensal; the host organism is unmodified, whereas the commensal species may show great structural adaptation consonant with its habits, as in the remoras that ride attached to sharks and other fishes. Both remora and pilot fish feed on the leftovers of their hosts ' meals. Numerous birds feed on the insects turned up by grazing mammals, while other birds obtain soil organisms stirred up by the plow. Various biting lice, fleas, and louse flies are commensals in that they feed harmlessly on the feathers of birds and on sloughed - off flakes of skin from mammals.
Pierre - Joseph van Beneden introduced the term "commensalism '' in 1876.
The commensal pathway was traveled by animals that fed on refuse around human habitats or by animals that preyed on other animals drawn to human camps. Those animals established a commensal relationship with humans in which the animals benefited but the humans received little benefit or harm. Those animals that were most capable of taking advantage of the resources associated with human camps would have been the ' tamer ' individuals: less aggressive, with shorter fight or flight distances. Later, these animals developed closer social or economic bonds with humans and lead to a domestic relationship.
The leap from a synanthropic population to a domestic one could only have taken place after the animals had progressed from anthropophily to habituation, to commensalism and partnership, at which point the establishment of a reciprocal relationship between animal and human would have laid the foundation for domestication, including captivity and human - controlled breeding. From this perspective, animal domestication is a coevolutionary process in which a population responds to selective pressure while adapting to a novel niche that includes another species with evolving behaviors.
Commensal pathway animals include dogs, cats, fowl, and possibly pigs.
The dog was the first domesticated animal, and was domesticated and widely established across Eurasia before the end of the Pleistocene, well before the cultivation of crops or the domestication of other animals. The dog is a classic example of a domestic animal that likely traveled a commensal pathway into domestication. Ancient DNA supports the hypothesis that dog domestication preceded the emergence of agriculture and began close to the Last Glacial Maximum when hunter - gatherers preyed on megafauna. The wolves more likely drawn to human camps were the less - aggressive, subdominant pack members with lowered flight response, higher stress thresholds, and less wary around humans, and therefore better candidates for domestication. Proto - dogs might have taken advantage of carcasses left on site by early hunters, assisted in the capture of prey, or provided defense from large competing predators at kills.
The earliest sign of domestication in dogs was the neotonization of skull morphology and the shortening of snout length that results in tooth crowding, reduction in tooth size, and a reduction in the number of teeth, which has been attributed to the strong selection for reduced aggression. This process may have begun during the initial commensal stage of dog domestication, even before humans began to be active partners in the process.
A mitochondrial, microsatellite, and Y - chromosome assessment of two wolf populations in North America combined with satellite telemetry data revealed significant genetic and morphological differences between one population that migrated with and preyed upon caribou and another territorial ecotype population that remained in a boreal coniferous forest. Though these two populations spend a period of the year in the same place, and though there was evidence of gene flow between them, the difference in prey -- habitat specialization has been sufficient to maintain genetic and even coloration divergence.
A different study has identified the remains of a population of extinct Pleistocene Beringian wolves with unique mitochondrial signatures. The skull shape, tooth wear, and isotopic signatures suggested these remains were derived from a population of specialist megafauna hunters and scavengers that became extinct while less specialized wolf ecotypes survived. Analogous to the modern wolf ecotype that has evolved to track and prey upon caribou, a Pleistocene wolf population could have begun following mobile hunter - gatherers, thus slowly acquiring genetic and phenotypic differences that would have allowed them to more successfully adapt to the human habitat.
Numerous genera of bacteria and fungi live on and in the human body as part of its natural flora. The fungal genus Aspergillus is capable of living under considerable environmental stress, and thus is capable of colonising the upper gastrointestinal tract where relatively few examples of the body 's gut flora can survive due to highly acidic or alkaline conditions produced by gastric acid and digestive juices. While Aspergillus normally produces no symptoms, in individuals who are immunocompromised or suffering from existing conditions such as Tuberculosis, a condition called Aspergillosis can occur, in which populations of Aspergillus grow out of control.
Staphylococcus aureus, a common bacterial species, is known best for its numerous pathogenic strains that can cause numerous illnesses and conditions. However, many strains of S. aureus are metabiotic commensals, and are present on roughly 20 to 30 % of the human population as part of the skin flora. S. aureus also benefits from the variable ambient conditions created by the body 's mucous membranes, and as such can be found in the oral and nasal cavities, as well as inside the ear canal. Other Staphylococcus species including S. warneri, S. lugdunensis and S. epidermidis, will also engage in commensalism for similar purposes.
Whether the relationship between humans and some types of gut flora is commensal or mutualistic is still unanswered.
Some biologists argue that any close interaction between two organisms is unlikely to be completely neutral for either party, and that relationships identified as commensal are likely mutualistic or parasitic in a subtle way that has not been detected. For example, epiphytes are "nutritional pirates '' that may intercept substantial amounts of nutrients that would otherwise go to the host plant. Large numbers of epiphytes can also cause tree limbs to break or shade the host plant and reduce its rate of photosynthesis. Similarly, phoretic mites may hinder their host by making flight more difficult, which may affect its aerial hunting ability or cause it to expend extra energy while carrying these passengers.
Like all ecological interactions, commensalisms vary in strength and duration from intimate, long - lived symbioses to brief, weak interactions through intermediaries.
Phoresy is one animal attached to another exclusively for transport, mainly arthropods, examples of which are mites on insects (such as beetles, flies or bees), pseudoscorpions on mammals or beetles, and millipedes on birds. Phoresy can be either obligate or facultative (induced by environmental conditions).
Inquilinism is the use of a second organism for permanent housing. Examples are epiphytic plants (such as many orchids) that grow on trees, or birds that live in holes in trees.
Metabiosis is a more indirect dependency, in which one organism creates or prepares a suitable environment for a second. Examples include maggots, which feast and develop on corpses, and hermit crabs, which use gastropod shells to protect their bodies.
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which part of the world is fiji located | Fiji - Wikipedia
Fiji (/ ˈfiːdʒiː / (listen) FEE - jee; Fijian: Viti (ˈβitʃi); Fiji Hindi: फ़िजी), officially the Republic of Fiji (Fijian: Matanitu Tugalala o Viti; Fiji Hindi: फ़िजी गणराज्य), is an island country in Melanesia in the South Pacific Ocean about 1,100 nautical miles (2,000 km; 1,300 mi) northeast of New Zealand 's North Island. Its closest neighbours are Vanuatu to the west, New Caledonia to the southwest, New Zealand 's Kermadec Islands to the southeast, Tonga to the east, the Samoas and France 's Wallis and Futuna to the northeast, and Tuvalu to the north.
Fiji is an archipelago of more than 330 islands, of which 110 are permanently inhabited, and more than 500 islets, amounting to a total land area of about 18,300 square kilometres (7,100 sq mi). The farthest island is Ono - i - Lau. The two major islands, Viti Levu and Vanua Levu, account for 87 % of the population of almost 860,000. The capital, Suva on Viti Levu, serves as Fiji 's principal cruise port. About three - quarters of Fijians live on Viti Levu 's coasts, either in Suva or in smaller urban centres like Nadi (tourism) or Lautoka (sugar cane industry). Viti Levu 's interior is sparsely inhabited due to its terrain.
Fiji has one of the most developed economies in the Pacific due to an abundance of forest, mineral, and fish resources. Today, the main sources of foreign exchange are its tourist industry and sugar exports. The country 's currency is the Fijian dollar. Fiji 's local government, in the form of city and town councils, is supervised by the Ministry of Local Government and Urban Development.
The majority of Fiji 's islands were formed through volcanic activity starting around 150 million years ago. Today, some geothermal activity still occurs on the islands of Vanua Levu and Taveuni. Fiji has been inhabited since the second millennium BC, and was settled first by Austronesians and later by Melanesians, with some Polynesian influences. Europeans visited Fiji from the 17th century, and, after a brief period as an independent kingdom, the British established the Colony of Fiji in 1874. Fiji was a Crown colony until 1970, when it gained independence as a Commonwealth realm. A republic was declared in 1987, following a series of coups d'état.
In a coup in 2006, Commodore Frank Bainimarama seized power. When the High Court ruled in 2009 that the military leadership was unlawful, President Ratu Josefa Iloilo, whom the military had retained as the nominal Head of State, formally abrogated the Constitution and reappointed Bainimarama. Later in 2009, Iloilo was replaced as President by Ratu Epeli Nailatikau. After years of delays, a democratic election was held on 17 September 2014. Bainimarama 's FijiFirst party won with 59.2 % of the vote, and the election was deemed credible by international observers.
Fiji 's main island is known as Viti Levu and it is from this that the name "Fiji '' is derived, though the common English pronunciation is based on that of their island neighbours in Tonga. Its emergence can be described as follows:
Fijians first impressed themselves on European consciousness through the writings of the members of the expeditions of Cook who met them in Tonga. They were described as formidable warriors and ferocious cannibals, builders of the finest vessels in the Pacific, but not great sailors. They inspired awe amongst the Tongans, and all their Manufactures, especially bark cloth and clubs, were highly valued and much in demand. They called their home Viti, but the Tongans called it Fisi, and it was by this foreign pronunciation, Fiji, first promulgated by Captain James Cook, that these islands are now known.
"Feejee '', the Anglicised spelling of the Tongan pronunciation, was used in accounts and other writings until the late 19th century, by missionaries and other travellers visiting Fiji.
Pottery art from Fijian towns shows that Fiji was settled before or around 3500 to 1000 BC, although the question of Pacific migration still lingers. It is believed that the Lapita people or the ancestors of the Polynesians settled the islands first but not much is known of what became of them after the Melanesians arrived; they may have had some influence on the new culture, and archaeological evidence shows that they would have then moved on to Samoa, Tonga and even Hawai'i.
The first settlements in Fiji were started by voyaging traders and settlers from the west about 5000 years ago. Lapita pottery shards have been found at numerous excavations around the country. Aspects of Fijian culture are similar to the Melanesian culture of the western Pacific but have a stronger connection to the older Polynesian cultures. Trade between Fiji and neighbouring archipelagos long before European contact is testified by the canoes made from native Fijian trees found in Tonga and Tongan words being part of the language of the Lau group of islands. Pots made in Fiji have been found in Samoa and even the Marquesas Islands.
Across 1,000 kilometres (620 mi) from east to west, Fiji has been a nation of many languages. Fiji 's history was one of settlement but also of mobility. Over the centuries, a unique Fijian culture developed. Constant warfare and cannibalism between warring tribes were quite rampant and very much part of everyday life. During the 19th century, Ratu Udre Udre is said to have consumed 872 people and to have made a pile of stones to record his achievement. According to Deryck Scarr, "Ceremonial occasions saw freshly killed corpses piled up for eating. ' Eat me! ' was a proper ritual greeting from a commoner to a chief. '' Scarr also reported that the posts that supported the chief 's house or the priest 's temple would have sacrificed bodies buried underneath them, with the rationale that the spirit of the ritually sacrificed person would invoke the gods to help support the structure, and "men were sacrificed whenever posts had to be renewed ''. Also, when a new boat, or drua, was launched, if it was not hauled over men as rollers, crushing them to death, "it would not be expected to float long ''. Fijians today regard those times as "na gauna ni tevoro '' (time of the devil). The ferocity of the cannibal lifestyle deterred European sailors from going near Fijian waters, giving Fiji the name Cannibal Isles; as a result, Fiji remained unknown to the rest of the world.
The Dutch explorer Abel Tasman visited Fiji in 1643 while looking for the Great Southern Continent. Europeans settled on the islands permanently beginning in the 19th century. The first European settlers to Fiji were beachcombers, missionaries, whalers, and those engaged in the then booming sandalwood and bêche - de-mer trade.
Ratu Seru Epenisa Cakobau was a Fijian chief and warlord from the island of Bau, off the eastern coast of Viti Levu, who united part of Fiji 's warring tribes under his leadership. He then styled himself as Tui Viti or King of Fiji, and then Vunivalu, or Protector, after the cession of Fiji to the United Kingdom. The British subjugated the islands as a colony in 1874, and the British brought over Indian contract labourers to work on the sugar plantations as the first governor of Fiji, Arthur Charles Hamilton - Gordon, adopted a policy disallowing the use of native labour or any interference in their culture or way of life. In 1875 -- 76, an epidemic of measles killed over 40,000 Fijians, about one - third of the Fijian population. The population in 1942 was approximately 210,000 of whom 94,000 were Indians, 102,000 native Fijians, 2,000 Chinese and 5,000 Europeans.
The British granted Fiji independence in 1970. Democratic rule was interrupted by two military coups in 1987 precipitated by a growing perception that the government was dominated by the Indo - Fijian (Indian) community. The second 1987 coup saw both the Fijian monarchy and the Governor General replaced by a non-executive president and the name of the country changed from Dominion of Fiji to Republic of Fiji and then in 1997 to Republic of the Fiji Islands. The two coups and the accompanying civil unrest contributed to heavy Indo - Fijian emigration; the resulting population loss resulted in economic difficulties and ensured that Melanesians became the majority.
In 1990, the new constitution institutionalised ethnic Fijian domination of the political system. The Group Against Racial Discrimination (GARD) was formed to oppose the unilaterally imposed constitution and to restore the 1970 constitution. In 1992 Sitiveni Rabuka, the Lieutenant Colonel who had carried out the 1987 coup, became Prime Minister following elections held under the new constitution. Three years later, Rabuka established the Constitutional Review Commission, which in 1997 wrote a new constitution which was supported by most leaders of the indigenous Fijian and Indo - Fijian communities. Fiji was re-admitted to the Commonwealth of Nations.
The year 2000 brought along another coup, instigated by George Speight, which effectively toppled the government of Mahendra Chaudhry, who in 1997 had become the country 's first Indo - Fijian Prime Minister following the adoption of the new constitution. Commodore Frank Bainimarama assumed executive power after the resignation, possibly forced, of President Ratu Sir Kamisese Mara. Later in 2000, Fiji was rocked by two mutinies when rebel soldiers went on a rampage at Suva 's Queen Elizabeth Barracks. The High Court ordered the reinstatement of the constitution, and in September 2001, to restore democracy, a general election was held which was won by interim Prime Minister Laisenia Qarase 's Soqosoqo Duavata ni Lewenivanua party.
In 2005, the Qarase government amid much controversy proposed a Reconciliation and Unity Commission with power to recommend compensation for victims of the 2000 coup and amnesty for its perpetrators. However, the military, especially the nation 's top military commander, Frank Bainimarama, strongly opposed this bill. Bainimarama agreed with detractors who said that to grant amnesty to supporters of the present government who had played a role in the violent coup was a sham. His attack on the legislation, which continued unremittingly throughout May and into June and July, further strained his already tense relationship with the government.
In late November and early December 2006, Bainimarama was instrumental in the 2006 Fijian coup d'état. Bainimarama handed down a list of demands to Qarase after a bill was put forward to parliament, part of which would have offered pardons to participants in the 2000 coup attempt. He gave Qarase an ultimatum date of 4 December to accede to these demands or to resign from his post. Qarase adamantly refused either to concede or resign, and on 5 December the president, Ratu Josefa Iloilo, was said to have signed a legal order dissolving the parliament after meeting with Bainimarama.
In April 2009, the Fiji Court of Appeal ruled that the 2006 coup had been illegal. This began the 2009 Fijian constitutional crisis. President Iloilo abrogated the constitution, removed all office holders under the constitution including all judges and the governor of the Central Bank. He then reappointed Bainimarama as prime minister under his "New Order '' and imposed a "Public Emergency Regulation '' limiting internal travel and allowing press censorship.
For a country of its size, Fiji has fairly large armed forces, and has been a major contributor to UN peacekeeping missions in various parts of the world. In addition, a significant number of former military personnel have served in the lucrative security sector in Iraq following the 2003 US - led invasion.
Fiji covers a total area of some 194,000 square kilometres (75,000 sq mi) of which around 10 % is land.
Fiji is the hub of the South West Pacific, midway between Vanuatu and Tonga. The archipelago is located between 176 ° 53 ′ east and 178 ° 12 ′ west. The 180 ° meridian runs through Taveuni but the International Date Line is bent to give uniform time (UTC + 12) to all of the Fiji group. With the exception of Rotuma, the Fiji group lies between 15 ° 42 ′ and 20 ° 02 ′ south. Rotuma is located 220 nautical miles (410 km; 250 mi) north of the group, 360 nautical miles (670 km; 410 mi) from Suva, 12 ° 30 ′ south of the equator.
Fiji consists of 332 islands (of which 106 are inhabited) and 522 smaller islets. The two most important islands are Viti Levu and Vanua Levu, which account for about three - quarters of the total land area of the country. The islands are mountainous, with peaks up to 1,324 metres (4,341 ft), and covered with thick tropical forests.
The highest point is Mount Tomanivi on Viti Levu. Viti Levu hosts the capital city of Suva, and is home to nearly three - quarters of the population. Other important towns include Nadi (the location of the international airport), and Lautoka, Fiji 's second city with large sugar cane mills and a seaport.
The main towns on Vanua Levu are Labasa and Savusavu. Other islands and island groups include Taveuni and Kadavu (the third and fourth largest islands, respectively), the Mamanuca Group (just off Nadi) and Yasawa Group, which are popular tourist destinations, the Lomaiviti Group, off Suva, and the remote Lau Group. Rotuma, some 270 nautical miles (500 km; 310 mi) north of the archipelago, has a special administrative status in Fiji. Ceva - i - Ra, an uninhabited reef, is located about 250 nautical miles (460 km; 290 mi) southwest of the main archipelago.
The climate in Fiji is tropical marine and warm year round with minimal extremes. The warm season is from November to April and the cooler season lasts from May to October. Temperatures in the cool season still average 22 ° C (72 ° F). Rainfall is variable, with the warm season experiencing heavier rainfall, especially inland. For the larger islands, rainfall is heavier on the southeast portions of the islands than on the northwest portions, with consequences for agriculture in those areas. Winds are moderate, though cyclones occur about once a year (10 -- 12 times per decade).
On 20 February 2016, Fiji was hit by the full force of Cyclone Winston, the only Category 5 tropical cyclone to make landfall in the nation. Winston destroyed tens of thousands of homes across the island, killing 44 people and causing an estimated FJ $2 billion ($1 billion USD) in damage.
Politics in Fiji normally take place in the framework of a parliamentary representative democratic republic wherein the Prime Minister of Fiji is the head of government and the President the Head of State, and of a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the government, legislative power is vested in both the government and the Parliament of Fiji, and the judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature.
Citing corruption in the government, Commodore Josaia Voreqe (Frank) Bainimarama, Commander of the Republic of Fiji Military Forces, staged a military takeover on 5 December 2006 against the prime minister that he had installed after a 2000 coup. There had also been a military coup in 1987. The commodore took over the powers of the presidency and dissolved the parliament, paving the way for the military to continue the takeover. The coup was the culmination of weeks of speculation following conflict between the elected prime minister, Laisenia Qarase, and Commodore Bainimarama. Bainimarama had repeatedly issued demands and deadlines to the prime minister. A particular issue was previously pending legislation to pardon those involved in the 2000 coup. Bainimarama named Jona Senilagakali as caretaker prime minister. The next week Bainimarama said he would ask the Great Council of Chiefs to restore executive powers to the president, Ratu Josefa Iloilo.
On 4 January 2007, the military announced that it was restoring executive power to president Iloilo, who made a broadcast endorsing the actions of the military. The next day, Iloilo named Bainimarama as the interim prime minister, indicating that the military was still effectively in control. In the wake of the takeover, reports emerged of alleged intimidation of some of those critical of the interim regime.
On 9 April 2009, the Court of Appeal overturned the High Court decision that Cdre. Bainimarama 's takeover of Qarase 's government was lawful and declared the interim government to be illegal. Bainimarama agreed to step down as interim PM immediately, along with his government, and president Iloilo was to appoint "a distinguished person independent of the parties to this litigation as caretaker Prime Minister,... to direct the issuance of writs for an election. ''
On 10 April 2009, President Iloilo suspended the Constitution of Fiji, dismissed the Court of Appeal and, in his own words, "appoint (ed) (him) self as the Head of the State of Fiji under a new legal order ''. As President, Iloilo had been Head of State prior to his abrogation of the Constitution, but that position had been determined by the Constitution itself. The "new legal order '' did not depend on the Constitution, thus requiring a "reappointment '' of the Head of State. "You will agree with me that this is the best way forward for our beloved Fiji '', he said. Bainimarama was re-appointed as Interim Prime Minister; he, in turn, re-instated his previous cabinet.
On 2 May 2009, Fiji became the first nation ever to have been suspended from participation in the Pacific Islands Forum, for its failure to hold democratic elections by the date promised. Nevertheless, it remains a member of the Forum.
On 1 September 2009, Fiji was suspended from the Commonwealth of Nations. The action was taken because Cdre. Bainimarama failed to hold elections by 2010 as the Commonwealth of Nations had demanded after the 2006 coup. Cdre. Bainimarama stated a need for more time to end a voting system that heavily favoured ethnic Fijians at the expense of the multi-ethnic minorities. Critics, however, claimed that he had suspended the constitution and was responsible for human rights violations by arresting and detaining opponents.
In his 2010 New Year 's address, Cdre. Bainimarama announced the lifting of the Public Emergency Regulations (PER). The PER had been put in place in April 2009 when the former constitution was abrogated. The PER had allowed restrictions on speech, public gatherings, and censorship of news media and had given security forces added powers. He also announced a nationwide consultation process leading to a new Constitution under which the 2014 elections will be held.
On 14 March 2014, the Commonwealth Ministerial Action Group voted to change Fiji 's full suspension from the Commonwealth of Nations to a suspension from the councils of the Commonwealth, allowing them to participate in a number of Commonwealth activities, including the 2014 Commonwealth Games. The suspension was lifted in September 2014.
A general election took place on 17 September 2014. Bainimarama 's FijiFirst party won with 59.2 % of the vote, and the election was deemed credible by a group of international observers from Australia, India and Indonesia.
The military consists of the Republic of Fiji Military Forces (RFMF) with a total manpower of 3,500 active soldiers and 6,000 reservists, and includes a Navy Unit of 300 personnel.
The Land Force comprises the Fiji Infantry Regiment (regular and territorial force organised into six light infantry battalions), Fiji Engineer Regiment, Logistic Support Unit and Force Training Group. The two regular battalions are traditionally stationed overseas on peacekeeping duties.
The Law Enforcement branch is composed of:
Fiji is divided into Four Major Divisions which are further divided into 14 provinces. They are:
Fiji was also divided into 3 Confederacies or Governments during the reign of Seru Epenisa Cakobau, though these are not considered political divisions, they are still considered important in the social divisions of the indigenous Fijians:
Endowed with forest, mineral, and fish resources, Fiji is one of the most developed of the Pacific island economies, though still with a large subsistence sector. Some progress was experienced by this sector when Marion M. Ganey, S.J., introduced credit unions to the islands in the 1950s. Natural resources include timber, fish, gold, copper, offshore oil, and hydropower. Fiji experienced a period of rapid growth in the 1960s and 1970s but stagnated in the 1980s. The coup of 1987 caused further contraction.
Economic liberalisation in the years following the coup created a boom in the garment industry and a steady growth rate despite growing uncertainty regarding land tenure in the sugar industry. The expiration of leases for sugar cane farmers (along with reduced farm and factory efficiency) has led to a decline in sugar production despite subsidies for sugar provided by the EU; Fiji has been the second largest beneficiary of sugar subsidies after Mauritius. Fiji 's vital gold mining industry based in Vatukoula, which shut down in 2006, was reactivated in 2008.
Urbanisation and expansion in the service sector have contributed to recent GDP growth. Sugar exports and a rapidly growing tourist industry -- with tourists numbering 430,800 in 2003 and increasing in the subsequent years -- are the major sources of foreign exchange. Fiji is highly dependent on tourism for revenue. Sugar processing makes up one - third of industrial activity. Long - term problems include low investment and uncertain property rights. The political turmoil in Fiji in the 1980s, the 1990s, and 2000 had a severe impact on the economy, which shrank by 2.8 % in 2000 and grew by only 1 % in 2001.
The tourism sector recovered quickly, however, with visitor arrivals reaching pre-coup levels in 2002, resulting in a modest economic recovery which continued into 2003 and 2004 but grew by a mere 1.7 % in 2005 and by 2.0 % in 2006. Although inflation is low, the policy indicator rate of the Reserve Bank of Fiji was raised by 1 % to 3.25 % in February 2006 due to fears of excessive consumption financed by debt. Lower interest rates have so far not produced greater investment in exports.
However, there has been a housing boom due to declining commercial mortgage rates. The tallest building in Fiji is the fourteen - storey Reserve Bank of Fiji Building in Suva, which was inaugurated in 1984. The Suva Central Commercial Centre, which opened in November 2005, was planned to outrank the Reserve Bank building at seventeen stories, but last - minute design changes ensured that the Reserve Bank building remained the tallest.
Trade and investment with Fiji have been criticised due to the country 's military dictatorship. In 2008, Fiji 's interim Prime Minister and coup leader Frank Bainimarama announced election delays and said that Fiji would pull out of the Pacific Islands Forum in Niue, where Bainimarama was to have met with Australian Prime Minister Kevin Rudd and New Zealand Prime Minister Helen Clark.
The South Pacific Stock Exchange (SPSE) is the only licensed securities exchange in Fiji and is based in Suva. Its vision is to become a regional exchange.
Fiji has a significant amount of tourism with the popular regions being Nadi, the Coral Coast, Denarau Island, and Mamanuca Islands. The biggest sources of international visitors by country are Australia, New Zealand and the United States. Fiji has a significant number of soft coral reefs, and scuba diving is a common tourist activity.
Fiji 's main attractions to tourists are primarily white sandy beaches and aesthetically pleasing islands with all - year - round tropical weather. In general, Fiji is a mid-range priced holiday / vacation destination with most of the accommodations in this range. It also has a variety of world class five - star resorts and hotels. More budget resorts are being opened in remote areas, which will provide more tourism opportunities. CNN named Fiji 's Laucala Island Resort as one of the fifteen world 's most beautiful island hotels.
Official statistics show that in 2012, 75 % of visitors stated that they came for a holiday / vacation. Honeymoons are very popular as are romantic getaways in general. There are also family friendly resorts with facilities for young children including kids ' clubs and nanny options.
Fiji has several popular tourism destinations. The Botanical Gardens of Thursten in Suva, Sigatoka Sand Dunes, and Colo - I - Suva Forest Park are three options on the mainland (Viti Levu). A major attraction on the outer islands is scuba diving.
Most visitors arriving to Fiji on short term basis are from the following countries or regions of residence:
The Nadi International Airport is located 9 kilometres (5.6 mi) north of central Nadi and is the largest Fijian hub. Nausori International Airport is about 23 kilometres (14 mi) northeast of downtown Suva and serves mostly domestic traffic. The main airport in the second largest island of Vanua Levu is Labasa Airport located at Waiqele, southwest of Labasa Town. The largest aircraft handled by Labasa Airport is the ATR42. Airports Fiji Limited (AFL) is responsible for the operation of 15 public airports in the Fiji Islands. These include two international airports: Nadi international Airport, Fiji 's main international gateway, and Nausori Airport, Fiji 's domestic hub, and 13 outer island airports. Fiji 's main airline was previously known as Air Pacific, but is now known as Fiji Airways.
Fiji 's larger islands have extensive bus routes that are affordable and consistent in service. There are bus stops, and in rural areas buses are often simply hailed as they approach. Buses are the principal form of public transport and passenger movement between the towns on the main islands. Buses also serve on roll - on - roll - off inter-island ferries. Bus fares and routes are heavily regulated by the Land Transport Authority (LTA). Bus and taxi drivers hold Public Service Licenses (PSVs) issued by the LTA.
Taxis are licensed by the LTA and operate widely all over the country. Apart from urban, town - based taxis, there are others that are licensed to serve rural or semi-rural areas. The flagfall for regular taxis is F $1.50 and tariff is F $0.10 for every 200 meters. For taxis that are allowed to charge Value Added Tax (VAT), the flagfall is F $1.50 and tariff is F $0.30 for the first 200 meters, and F $0.11 for every 200 meters thereafter. Taxis operating out of Fiji 's international airport, Nadi charge a flagfall of F $5. The elderly and Government welfare recipients are given a 20 % discount on their taxi fares.
Inter-island ferries provide services between Fiji 's principal islands and large vessels operate roll - on - roll - off services, transporting vehicles and large amounts of cargo between the main island of Viti Levu and Vanua Levu, and other smaller islands.
Fiji is the only developing Pacific Island country with recent data for gross domestic expenditure on research and development (GERD). The national Bureau of Statistics cites a GERD / GDP ratio of 0.15 % in 2012. Private - sector research and development (R&D) is negligible.
Government investment in R&D tends to favour agriculture. In 2007, agriculture and primary production accounted for just under half of government expenditure on R&D, according to the Fijian National Bureau of Statistics. By 2012, this share had risen to almost 60 %. Scientists publish much more in the field of geosciences and health than in agriculture, though.
The rise in government spending on agricultural research has come to the detriment of research in education, which dropped to 35 % of total research spending between 2007 and 2012. Government expenditure on health research has remained fairly constant, at about 5 % of total government research spending, according to the Fijian National Bureau of Statistics.
The Fijian Ministry of Health is seeking to develop endogenous research capacity through the Fiji Journal of Public Health, which it launched in 2012. A new set of guidelines are now in place to help build endogenous capacity in health research through training and access to new technology.
Fiji is also planning to diversify its energy sector through the use of science and technology. In 2015, the Secretariat of the Pacific Community observed that, ' while Fiji, Papua New Guinea and Samoa are leading the way with large - scale hydropower projects, there is enormous potential to expand the deployment of other renewable energy options such as solar, wind, geothermal and ocean - based energy sources '.
In 2014, the Centre of Renewable Energy became operational at the University of Fiji, with the assistance of the Renewable Energy in Pacific Island Countries Developing Skills and Capacity programme (EPIC) funded by the European Union. Since the programme 's inception in 2013, EPIC has also developed a master 's programmes in renewable energy management for the University of Fiji.
The 2007 census found that the permanent population of Fiji was 837,000. The population density at the time was 45.8 inhabitants per square kilometre. The life expectancy in Fiji was 72.1 years. Since the 1930s the population of Fiji has increased at a rate of 1.1 % per year. The population is dominated by the 15 -- 64 age segment. The median age of the population was 27.9, and the gender ratio was 1.03 males per 1 female.
The population of Fiji is mostly made up of native Fijians, who are Melanesians (54.3 %), although many also have Polynesian ancestry, and Indo - Fijians (38.1 %), descendants of Indian contract labourers brought to the islands by the British colonial powers in the 19th century. The percentage of the population of Indo - Fijian descent has declined significantly over the last two decades due to migration for various reasons. Indo - Fijians suffered reprisals for a period after the Fiji coup of 2000. There is also a small but significant group of descendants of indentured labourers from the Solomon Islands.
About 1.2 % are Rotuman -- natives of Rotuma Island, whose culture has more in common with countries such as Tonga or Samoa than with the rest of Fiji. There are also small but economically significant groups of Europeans, Chinese, and other Pacific island minorities. The total membership of other ethnic groups of Pacific Islanders is about 7,300.
Relationships between ethnic Fijians and Indo - Fijians in the political arena have often been strained, and the tension between the two communities has dominated politics in the islands for the past generation. The level of political tension varies among different regions of the country.
The concept of family and community is of great importance to Fijian culture. Within the indigenous (iTaukei) communities many members of the extended family will adopt particular titles and roles of direct guardians. Kinship is determined through a child 's lineage to a particular spiritual leader, so that a clan is based on traditional customary ties as opposed to actual biological links. These clans, based on the spiritual leader, are known as a matangali. Within the matangali are a number of smaller collectives, known as the mbito. The descent is patrilineal, and all the status is derived from the father 's side.
Within Fiji, the term Fijian refers solely to indigenous Fijians: it denotes an ancestral ethnicity, not a nationality. Constitutionally, citizens of Fiji are referred to as "Fiji Islanders '' though the term Fiji Nationals is used for official purposes. In August 2008, shortly before the proposed People 's Charter for Change, Peace and Progress was due to be released to the public, it was announced that it recommended a change in the name of Fiji 's citizens. If the proposal were adopted, all citizens of Fiji, whatever their ethnicity, would be called "Fijians ''. The proposal would change the English name of indigenous Fijians from "Fijians '' to itaukei, the Fijian language endonym for indigenous Fijians.
Deposed Prime Minister Laisenia Qarase reacted by stating that the name "Fijian '' belonged exclusively to indigenous Fijians, and that he would oppose any change in legislation enabling non-indigenous Fijians to use it. The Methodist Church, to which a large majority of indigenous Fijians belong, also reacted strongly to the proposal, stating that allowing any Fiji citizen to call themselves "Fijian '' would be "daylight robbery '' inflicted on the indigenous population.
In an address to the nation during the constitutional crisis of April 2009, military leader and interim Prime Minister Voreqe Bainimarama, who has been at the forefront of the attempt to change the definition of "Fijian '', stated:
I know we all have our different ethnicities, our different cultures and we should, we must, celebrate our diversity and richness. However, at the same time we are all Fijians. We are all equal citizens. We must all be loyal to Fiji; we must be patriotic; we must put Fiji first.
In May 2010, Attorney - General Aiyaz Sayed - Khaiyum reiterated that the term "Fijian '' should apply to all Fiji nationals, but the statement was again met with protest. A spokesperson for the Viti Landowners and Resource Owners Association claimed that even fourth - generation descendants of migrants did not fully understand "what it takes to be a Fijian '', and added that the term refers to a legal standing, since legislation affords specific rights to "Fijians '' (meaning, in legislation, indigenous Fijians). Fiji academic Brij Lal, although a prominent critic of the Bainimarama government, said he "would not be surprised '' if the new definition of the word "Fijian '' were included in the government 's projected new Constitution, and that he personally saw "no reason the term Fijian should not apply to everyone from Fiji ''.
Fijian is an Austronesian language of the Malayo - Polynesian family spoken in Fiji. It has 350,000 first - language speakers, which is less than half the population of Fiji, but another 200,000 speak it as a second language. The 1997 Constitution established Fijian as an official language of Fiji, along with English and Fiji Hindi,. Fijian is a VOS language.
The Fiji Islands developed many dialects, which may be classified in two major branches -- eastern and western. Missionaries in the 1840s chose an Eastern dialect, the speech of Bau Island off the southeast coast of the main island of Viti Levu, to be the written standard of the Fijian language. Bau Island was home to Seru Epenisa Cakobau, the chief who eventually became the self - proclaimed King of Fiji.
Religion in Fiji (2007)
According to the 2007 census, 64.4 % of the population at the time was Christian, followed by 27.9 % Hindu, 6.3 % Muslim, 0.8 % non-religious, 0.3 % Sikh, and the remaining 0.3 % belonging to other religions. Among Christians, 54 % were counted as Methodist, followed by 14.2 % Catholic, 8.9 % Assemblies of God, 6.0 % Seventh - day Adventist, 1.2 % Anglican with the remaining 16.1 % belonging to other denominations.
The largest Christian denomination is the Methodist Church of Fiji and Rotuma. With 34.6 % of the population (including almost two - thirds of ethnic Fijians), the proportion of the population adhering to Methodism is higher in Fiji than in any other nation. In 2012, permission was granted by the government for Methodists to hold their annual conference, for the first time in four years, with the conditions that the conference not coincide with the national Hibiscus Festival and should only last for three days, and that no political matters were to be discussed, only church matters.
Roman Catholics is headed by the Metropolitan Archdiocese of Suva, whose province also includes the dioceses of Raratonga (on the Cook Islands, for those and Niue, both New Zealand - associated countries) and Tarawa and Nauru (with see at Tarawa on Kiribati, also for Nauru) and the Mission Sui Iuris of Tokelau (again with New Zealand). This reflects that much major Roman Catholic missionary activity was conducted through the former Apostolic Prefecture (created in 1863 from the Apostolic Vicariate of Central Oceania), then Apostolic Vicariate of Fiji, which has since been promoted to Archdiocese of Suva, which spans the whole of Fiji.
Furthermore, the Assemblies of God, the Seventh - day Adventists and The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter - day Saints (LDS Church) are significant. Fiji also is the base for the Anglican Diocese of Polynesia (part of the Anglican Church in Aotearoa, New Zealand and Polynesia). These and other denominations have small numbers of Indo - Fijian members; Christians of all kinds comprise 6.1 % of the Indo - Fijian population.
Hindus belong mostly to the Sanatan sect (74.3 % of all Hindus) or else are unspecified (22 %). The small Arya Samaj sect claims the membership of some 3.7 % of Hindus in Fiji. Muslims are mostly Sunni (96.4 %) following the Hanafi school of jurisprudence, with a small Ahmadiyya minority (3.6 %). The Sikh religion comprises 0.9 % of the Indo - Fijian population, or 0.4 % of the national population in Fiji. Their ancestors originated from the Punjab region of India; they are a fairly recent wave of immigrants who did not live through the indenture system. The Bahá'í Faith has over 21 local Spiritual Assemblies throughout Fiji, and Baha'is live in more than 80 localities. The first Baha'i in the islands was a New Zealander who arrived in 1924. There is a small Congregational presence with the Samoan community in Suva. The Congregational Christian Church of Samoa built a church of Samoan architecture in Suva. A remnant of the LMS presence in Fiji. There is also a small Jewish population of about 60 people. Every year the Israeli Embassy organises a Passover celebration with about 50 - 60 people attending.
Primary school education in Fiji is free; it is compulsory for eight years. As of 2001, attendance was decreasing due to security concerns and the burden of school fees, often due to the cost of transport. Following the government coup in May 2000, more than 5,000 students were reported to have left school.
Fiji 's culture is a rich mosaic of indigenous Fijian, Indo - Fijian, Asian and European traditions, comprising social polity, language, food (coming mainly from the sea, plus casava, dalo (taro) and other vegetables), costume, belief systems, architecture, arts, craft, music, dance, and sports.
While indigenous Fijian culture and traditions are very vibrant and are integral components of everyday life for the majority of Fiji 's population, Fijian society has evolved over the past century with the introduction of traditions such as Indian and Chinese as well as significant influences from Europe and Fiji 's Pacific neighbours, particularly Tonga and Samoa. Thus, the various cultures of Fiji have come together to create a unique multicultural national identity.
Fiji 's culture was showcased at the World Exposition held in Vancouver, Canada, in 1986 and more recently at the Shanghai World Expo 2010, along with other Pacific countries in the Pacific Pavilion.
This is a list of holidays celebrated in Fiji:
The exact dates of public holidays vary from year to year, but the dates for the next year can be found at the Fiji Government Web Site
The following holidays are no longer celebrated in Fiji:
Sports are very popular in Fiji, particularly sports involving physical contact. Fiji 's national sport is Rugby Sevens.
Rugby Union is the most - popular team sport played in Fiji.
The Fiji national sevens side is a popular and successful international rugby sevens team, and has won the Hong Kong Sevens a record fifteen times since its inception in 1976. Fiji has also won the Rugby World Cup Sevens twice -- in 1997 and 2005. The Fiji national rugby union sevens team is the reigning Sevens World Series Champions in World Rugby. In 2016, they won Fiji 's first ever Olympic medal in the Rugby sevens at the Summer Olympics, winning gold by defeating Great Britain 43 - 7 in the final.
The national rugby union team has competed at five Rugby World Cup competitions, the first being in 1987, where they reached the quarter - finals. The Fiji national side did not match that feat again until the 2007 Rugby World Cup when they upset Wales 38 -- 34 to progress to the quarter - finals where they lost to the eventual Rugby World Cup winners, South Africa. Fiji also defeated the British and Irish Lions in 1977.
Fiji competes in the Pacific Tri-Nations and the IRB Pacific Nations Cup. The sport is governed by the Fiji Rugby Union which is a member of the Pacific Islands Rugby Alliance, and contributes to the Pacific Islanders rugby union team. At the club level there are the Skipper Cup and Farebrother Trophy Challenge.
The Fiji national rugby union team is a member of the Pacific Islands Rugby Alliance (PIRA) formerly along with Samoa and Tonga. In 2009, Samoa announced their departure from the Pacific Islands Rugby Alliance, leaving just Fiji and Tonga in the union. Fiji is currently ranked eleventh in the world by the IRB (as of 28 December 2015).
Fiji is one of the few countries where rugby union is the main sport. There are about 80,000 registered players from a total population of around 900,000. One of the problems for Fiji is simply getting their players to play for their home country, as many have contracts in Europe or with Super Rugby teams, where monetary compensation is far more rewarding. The repatriated salaries of its overseas stars have become an important part of some local economies. In addition, a significant number of players eligible to play for Fiji end up representing Australia or New Zealand; notable examples are Fiji - born cousins and former New Zealand All Blacks, Joe Rokocoko and Sitiveni Sivivatu, current All Blacks Waisake Naholo and Seta Tamanivalu as well as Australian Wallabies former winger, Lote Tuqiri and current Wallabies Tevita Kuridrani, Samu Kerevi and Henry Speight. Fiji has won the most Pacific Tri-Nations Championships of the three participating teams.
The Fiji national rugby league team, nicknamed the Bati (pronounced (mˈbatʃi)), represents Fiji in the sport of rugby league football and has been participating in international competition since 1992. It has competed in the Rugby League World Cup on three occasions, with their best results coming when they made consecutive semi-final appearances in the 2008 Rugby League World Cup and 2013 Rugby League World Cup. The team also competes in the Pacific Cup.
Members of the team are selected from a domestic Fijian competition, as well as from competitions held in New Zealand and Australia. For the 2000, 2008 and 2013 World Cups, the Bati were captained by Lote Tuqiri, Wes Naiqama and the legendary Petero Civoniceva respectively. Fiji have also produced stars like Akuila Uate, Jarryd Hayne, Kevin Naiqama, Semi Tadulala, Marika Koroibete, Apisai Koroisau, Sisa Waqa and the Sims brothers Ashton Sims, Tariq Sims and Korbin Sims
The Cibi (pronounced Thimbi) war dance was traditionally performed by the Fiji rugby team before each match. It was replaced in 2012 with the new "Bole '' (pronounced mBolay) war cry.
Tradition holds that the original Cibi was first performed on the rugby field back in 1939 during a tour of New Zealand, when then Fijian captain Ratu Sir George Cakobau felt that his team should have something to match the Haka of the All Blacks. The ' Cibi ' had perhaps been used incorrectly though, as the word actually means "a celebration of victory by warriors, '' whereas ' Bole ' is the acceptance of a challenge.
The Fiji Bati rugby league team also gather in a huddle and perform the noqu masu before each match.
Association football was traditionally a minor sport in Fiji, popular largely amongst the Indo - Fijian community, but with international funding from FIFA and sound local management over the past decade, the sport has grown in popularity in the wider Fijian community. It is now the second most - popular sport in Fiji, after rugby (union 15 's and union 7 's) for men, and after netball for women.
The Fiji Football Association is a member of the Oceania Football Confederation. The national football team defeated New Zealand 2 -- 0 in the 2008 OFC Nations Cup, on their way to a joint - record third - place finish. However, they have never reached a FIFA World Cup to date. Fiji won the Pacific Games football tournament in 1991 and 2003. Fiji qualified for the 2016 Summer Olympics men 's tournament for the first time in history.
Due to the success of Fiji 's national basketball teams, the popularity of basketball in Fiji has experienced rapid growth in recent years. In the past, the country only had few basketball courts, which severely limited Fijians who desired to practice the sport more frequently. Due to recent efforts by the national federation Basketball Fiji and with the support of the Australian government, many schools have been able to construct courts and provide their students with basketball equipment such as shoes, etc.
Netball is the most popular women 's participation sport in Fiji. The national team has been internationally competitive, at Netball World Cup competitions reaching 6th position in 1999, its highest level to date. The team won gold medals at the 2007 and 2015 Pacific Games.
Cricket is a minor sport in Fiji. The Cricket Fiji is an Associate member of International Cricket Council. Fiji U19 cricket team won the 2015 edition of the tournament, and consequently qualified for the 2016 Under - 19 World Cup, becoming the first team outside of Papua New Guinea to qualify from the region.
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who voices the squip in be more chill | Be More Chill (musical) - Wikipedia
Be More Chill is a musical with music and lyrics by Joe Iconis and a book by Joe Tracz, based on the novel Be More Chill by Ned Vizzini. The musical ran during 2015 at the Two River Theater in Red Bank, New Jersey.
Jeremy Heere, a high school junior in suburban New Jersey, heads off to school. Avoiding interaction with his peers he meets up with his best friend for lunch, Michael Mell. Jeremy, pining after his crush Christine Canigula, signs up for the school play in an attempt to get closer to her. He laments his status as a social outcast and begs for someone to teach him how to be cool ("More Than Survive ''). At rehearsal that afternoon, Jeremy strikes up a conversation with Christine, who tells him about her love of the stage ("I Love Play Rehearsal '').
Jeremy runs into school bully Rich Goranski; however, instead of harassing him, Rich tells Jeremy how he became more self - confident and improved his social standing: he took a pill called a "super quantum unit intel processor, '' or "SQUIP. '' The SQUIP is a supercomputer that implants itself in the host 's brain and tells them how to act cool. Rich tells Jeremy that he should get one ("The SQUIP Song '').
While they play video games that night, Jeremy confides in Michael about his conversation with Rich. Michael is skeptical of the SQUIP and reassures Jeremy that he will always be his friend ("Two Player Game ''), but they decide to visit Rich 's dealer. Jeremy purchases a SQUIP and takes it with Mountain Dew as instructed. Not feeling the effects immediately, Jeremy runs into Christine and Jake and attempts to admit his feelings to Christine, right when the SQUIP activates ("The SQUIP Enters '').
The SQUIP immediately sizes up Jeremy and tells him that it will change everything about him -- looks, personality, social standing, because as it stands now, Jeremy is utterly pathetic ("Be More Chill (Pt. 1) ''). While buying a shirt at the SQUIP 's command, Jeremy runs into Brooke Lohst and Chloe Valentine, two popular girls from school, who offer him a ride home from the mall ("Do You Wanna Ride? ''). However, against the SQUIP 's insistence that he take up their offer, Jeremy leaves to find Michael -- only for the SQUIP to tell him that Michael already left the mall. Seeing what happened when he ignored the SQUIP, Jeremy vows to become more obedient ("Be More Chill (Pt. 2) ''). Realizing that he is grateful to have someone helping him out, Jeremy heads to school the next morning with renewed confidence ("More Than Survive (Reprise) '').
At rehearsal that afternoon, Christine is snubbed by Jake, and the students begin to rehearse their zombie - apocalypse - set version of A Midsummer Night 's Dream. During a break, Christine tells Jeremy about her feelings for a guy she knows. While Jeremy initially believes she is talking about him, Christine is actually talking about Jake ("A Guy That I 'd Kinda Be Into ''). After rehearsal, Jeremy 's SQUIP informs him that Christine wo n't consider dating him until his social standing drastically improves. The SQUIP encourages Jeremy to meet up with Brooke, who is interested in him, to use as a stepping stone to popularity. Also at the SQUIP 's recommendation, Jeremy purposefully ignores Michael, who the SQUIP views as a link to "Jeremy 1.0 '' ("Upgrade '').
Act Two begins a few weeks later at Jake 's Halloween party ("Halloween ''). Jeremy, in a cyborg costume, arrives and meets Brooke, who is dressed as a sexy dog. Jealous of Brooke, Chloe (dressed as a sexy baby) takes Jeremy to an upstairs bedroom and tries to seduce him. While Jeremy is clearly not interested, the SQUIP does not let him resist and makes him kiss her ("Do You Wanna Hang? '') The SQUIP suddenly begins trying to warn Jeremy of something, but it can only speak Japanese, a side effect of Jeremy 's alcohol consumption. Jake discovers Chloe (his ex) with Jeremy and explodes with anger, chasing them off.
Jeremy runs into a bathroom to escape and finds Michael, furious at Jeremy 's abandonment of him. Michael says that he has attempted to research the SQUIP and warns Jeremy about how dangerous it is -- Michael discovered that a previous student took one and while it improved his life for a little while, he landed in a mental hospital after "(going) crazy trying to get it out! '' Jeremy, thinking that Michael is just jealous of his newfound popularity, storms out, calling him a loser. Michael locks himself in the bathroom and mourns the loss of his friendship with Jeremy, culminating in a full - blown panic attack ("Michael in the Bathroom '').
Chloe and Jake have reunited, leaving their dates (Jeremy and Christine) to commiserate about their terrible nights in the living room. Jeremy gains the courage to ask Christine out, but she rejects him. Rich searches for Mountain Dew Red, becoming increasingly desperate. The SQUIP, once again functional now that Jeremy has sobered up, reappears and demands that Jeremy leave the party immediately.
The next morning, school gossip Jenna Rolan texts everyone with the news: Jake 's house burned down in a fire during the party -- a fire set by Rich -- and both of them are in the hospital. The news spreads like wildfire throughout the student body ("The Smartphone Hour (Rich Set a Fire) ''). Jeremy asks his SQUIP if it had known that there would be a fire. The SQUIP evades the question, instead revealing its master plan -- to put SQUIPs in the entire student body ("The Pitiful Children ''), starting with Jeremy 's castmates in the play.
At home, Jeremy is confronted by his father. Mr. Heere wants to know why Jeremy 's personality has changed so drastically. Jeremy reprimands his father for acting like he cares, when Mr. Heere 's entire life has been on pause since he and Jeremy 's mother divorced, to the point where Mr. Heere does not even put on pants anymore. Jeremy storms out, and, shaken by his son 's words, Mr. Heere realizes that something is wrong, and that he must take charge and help his son. He tracks down Michael and convinces him to not give up on his friendship with Jeremy ("The Pants Song '').
Meanwhile at the school, the play is beginning. Backstage, Jeremy tells Christine about the SQUIP. Christine tells Jeremy that she does n't need a pill to figure out life for her and storms off. Mr. Reyes, the play 's director, brings out a prop -- a beaker of Mountain Dew, with SQUIP pills already inside of it. Jeremy suddenly realizes that the entire cast, including Mr. Reyes, have been SQUIP'ed without realizing it. Jeremy 's SQUIP tells him that "(it 's) going to improve (Jeremy 's) life, even if (it has) to take over the entire student body to do it! '' Jeremy suddenly remembers Rich 's frantic search for Mountain Dew Red at the party, and realizes what it means -- regular green Mountain Dew activates a SQUIP, and Mountain Dew Red shuts it off. Unfortunately, as Jeremy 's SQUIP informs him, Mountain Dew Red was discontinued in the 1990 's. Michael suddenly appears, holding a bottle of Mountain Dew Red (he buys "old - school '' things, such as drinks). A battle ensues as Jeremy and Michael try to make everyone drink the Mountain Dew, and they are eventually successful in destroying the SQUIPS once and for all ("The Play '').
Jeremy wakes up in the hospital after the play, in the same room as Rich. Rich, in the absence of his SQUIP, has realized that he never really needed it to be happy, and he looks forward to showing the world his true self. Mr. Heere and Michael arrive to visit Jeremy. Jeremy gets advice on how to ask Christine out on a real date and realizes that he will always have voices in his head, but it is up to him to ensure that his own voice -- keeping him true to himself -- must be the loudest ("Voices in My Head '').
Frankie Confalone,
Bridget Hughes
An original cast album was recorded on July 21, 2015 and released later that year.
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who composed the ghana national anthem in twi | Yen Ara Asaase Ni - wikipedia
"Yɛn Ara Asaase Ni '' (English: "This Is Our Own Native Land '') is the national anthem of Ashanti region (Ashanti) inland island successor to the Ashanti Empire. It is sung in the Ashanti language and was originally written and composed by Ephraim Amu in 1929.
The Ashanti Kingdom national anthem, "Yɛn Ara Asaase Ni '' was written by Ephraim Amu and sung in the Akan language and translated into English. The song, means "This Is Our Own Native Land '' evokes a message of Ashanti people nationalism and each generation doing their best to build on the works of the previous generation.
Mogya na nananom hwie gu Nya de to hɔ ma yɛn,
This is our own native land; What a priceless heritage, Acquired with the blood our ancestors shed for us; It is now our turn to continue what our ancestors started,
Ne pɛsɛmenkominya, Adi yɛn bra mu dεm, ama yɛn asaase ho dɔ atomu sɛ.
Chorus 2x: Ɔman no, sɛ ɛbɛ yɛ yie o Ɔman no, sɛ ɛrenyɛ yie o; Ɛyɛ nsɛnnahɔ sɛ, Ɔmanfo bra na ɛkyerɛ.
Ɔman no, sɛ ɛbɛ yɛ yie o! Ɔman no, sɛ ɛrenyɛ yie o!;
Or useless greed for material things, And bad lifestyles are destroying our nation, and disgracing it.
Chorus 2x: Whether or not this nation prospers! Whether or not this nation prospers!; Clearly depends on the character of the citizens of the nation.
Whether or not this nation prospers! Whether or not this nation prospers!;
Ne ɔbrakyew de ɛsɛe, ɔman na ɛbɔ no ahohora; Asoɔmmerɛ ne obu pa, yɔnko yiyɛdi pɛ daa, Ahofama ntetekwaam ' ma onipa biara yiedie; Ɛno mmom na ɛde asomdwee ne nkɔsoɔ pa brɛ ɔman.
Ɔman no, sɛ ɛbɛ yɛ yie o! Ɔman no, sɛ ɛrenyɛ yie o!;
Obedience and respect; Caring for the welfare of one another everyday, Selflessness in the traditional way; Ensures each person 's welfare, That is what will bring peace and prosperity to our nation.
Whether or not this nation prospers! Whether or not this nation prospers!; Clearly depends on the character of the citizens of the nation.
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who rebuilt the kashi vishwanath temple in 16th century | Kashi Vishwanath temple - wikipedia
Kashi Vishvanath Temple is one of the most famous Hindu temples dedicated to Lord Shiva. It is located in Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India. The temple stands on the western bank of the holy river Ganga, and is one of the twelve Jyotirlingas, the holiest of Shiva temples. The main deity is known by the name Vishvanatha or Vishveshvara meaning Ruler of The Universe. Varanasi city is also called Kashi, and hence the temple is popularly called Kashi Vishvanath Temple.
The temple has been referred to in Hindu scriptures for a very long time as a central part of worship in the Shaiva philosophy. It has been destroyed and re-constructed a number of times in history. The last structure was demolished by Aurangzeb, the sixth Mughal emperor who constructed the Gyanvapi Mosque on its site. The current structure was built on an adjacent site by the Maratha ruler, Ahilya Bai Holkar of Indore in 1780.
Since 1983, the temple has been managed by the government of Uttar Pradesh. During the religious occasion of Shivratri, Kashi Naresh (King of Kashi) is the chief officiating priest.
The temple has been mentioned in the Puranas including the Kashi Khanda (section) of Skanda Purana. The original Vishwanath temple was destroyed by the army of Qutb - ud - din Aibak in 1194 CE, when he defeated the Raja of Kannauj as a commander of Mohammad Ghori. The temple was rebuilt by a Gujarati merchant during the reign of Delhi 's Sultan Iltutmish (1211 - 1266 CE). It was demolished again during the rule of either Hussain Shah Sharqi (1447 - 1458) or Sikandar Lodhi (1489 - 1517). Raja Man Singh built the temple during Mughal emperor Akbar 's rule, but orthodox Hindus boycotted it as he had let the Mughals marry within his family. Raja Todar Mal further re-built the temple with Akbar 's funding at its original site in 1585.
In 1669 CE, Emperor Aurangzeb destroyed the temple and built the Gyanvapi Mosque in its place. The remains of the erstwhile temple can be seen in the foundation, the columns and at the rear part of the mosque.
Gyanvapi Mosque, sketched as Temple of Vishveshvur in 1834 by James Prinsep
Plan of the Ancient Temple of Vishveshvur, by James Prinsep
In 1742, the Maratha ruler Malhar Rao Holkar made a plan to demolish the mosque and reconstruct Vishweshwar temple at the site. However, his plan did not materialize, partially because of intervention by the Nawabs of Lucknow, who controlled the territory. Around 1750, the Maharaja of Jaipur commissioned a survey of the land around the site, with the objective of purchasing land to rebuild the Kashi Vishwanath temple. However, his plan to rebuild the temple did not materialize either. In 1780, Malhar Rao 's daughter - in - law Ahilyabai Holkar constructed the present temple adjacent to the mosque. In 1828, Baiza Bai, widow of the Maratha ruler Daulat Rao Scindhia of Gwalior State, built a low - roofed colonnade with over 40 pillars in the Gyan Vapi precinct. During 1833 - 1840 CE, the boundary of Gyanvapi Well, the ghats and other nearby temples were constructed. A 7 - feet high stone statue of Nandi bull, gifted by the Raja of Nepal lies to the east of the colonnade. Many noble families from various ancestral kingdoms of Indian subcontinent and their prior establishments make generous contributions for the operations of the temple. In 1841, the Bhosales of Nagpur donated silver to the temple. In 1835, Maharaja Ranjit Singh donated 1 tonne of gold for plating the temple 's dome.
The temple was managed by a hereditary group of pandas or mahants. After the death of Mahant Devi Dutt, a dispute arose among his successors. In 1900, his brother - in - law Pandit Visheshwar Dayal Tewari filed a lawsuit, which resulted in him being declared the head priest.
As per Shiva Purana, once Brahma (the Hindu God of creation) and Vishnu (the Hindu God of Harmony) had an argument in terms of supremacy of creation. To test them, Shiva pierced the three worlds as a huge endless pillar of light, the jyotirlinga. Vishnu and Brahma split their ways to downwards and upwards respectively to find the end of the light in either directions. Brahma lied that he found out the end, while Vishnu conceded his defeat. Shiva appeared as a second pillar of light and cursed Brahma that he would have no place in ceremonies while Vishnu would be worshiped till the end of eternity. The jyotirlinga is the supreme partless reality, out of which Shiva partly appears. The jyothirlinga shrines, thus are places where Shiva appeared as a fiery column of light. There are 64 forms of Shiva, not to be confused with Jyotirlingas. Each of the twelve jyothirlinga sites take the name of the presiding deity - each considered different manifestation of Shiva. At all these sites, the primary image is lingam representing the beginningless and endless Stambha pillar, symbolizing the infinite nature of Shiva. The twelve jyothirlinga are Somnath in Gujarat, Mallikarjuna at Srisailam in Andhra Pradesh, Mahakaleswar at Ujjain in Madhya Pradesh, Omkareshwar in Madhya Pradesh, Kedarnath in Himalayas, Bhimashankar in Maharashtra, Viswanath at Varanasi in Uttar Pradesh, Triambakeshwar in Maharashtra, Vaidyanath Jyotirlinga, Deogarh in Deoghar, Jharkhand, Nageswar at Dwarka in Gujarat, Rameshwar at Rameswaram in Tamil Nadu and Grishneshwar at Aurangabad in Maharashtra.
The Manikarnika Ghat on the banks of Ganges near to the Kashi Vishwanath Temple is considered as a Shakti Peetha, a revered place of worship for the Shaktism sect. The Daksha Yaga, a Shaivite literature is considered as an important literature which is the story about the origin of Shakti Peethas.
The temple complex consists of a series of smaller shrines, located in a small lane called the Vishwanatha Galli, near the river. The linga of the main deity at the shrine is 60 cm tall and 90 cm in circumference housed in a silver altar. The main temple is quadrangle and is surrounded by shrines of other gods. There are small temples for Kaalbhairav, Dhandapani, Avimukteshwara, Vishnu, Vinayaka, Sanishwara, Virupaksha and Virupaksh Gauri in the complex. There is a small well in the temple called the Jnana Vapi also spelled as Gyaan vapi (the wisdom well). The Jnana Vapi well sites to the north of the main temple and it is believed that the Jyotirlinga was hidden in the well to protect it at the time of invasion. It is said that the main priest of the temple jumped in the well with the Shiv Ling in order to protect the Jyotirlinga from invaders.
According to the structure of the temple, there is a Sabha Griha or Congregation Hall leading to the inner Garbha Griha or Sanctum Sanctorum. The venerable Jyotirlinga is a dark brown colored stone which is enshrined in the Sanctum, placed on a silver platform. Structure of the Mandir is composed of three parts. The first compromises a spire on the Mandir of Lord Vishwanath or Mahadeva. The second is gold dome and the third is the gold spire atop Lord Vishwanath carrying a flag and a trident.
The Kashi Vishwanath temple receives around 3,000 visitors every day. On certain occasions the numbers reach 1,000,000 and more. Noteworthy about the temple is 15.5 metre high gold spire and gold dome. There are three domes each made up of pure gold.
Located on the banks of the holy Ganges, Varanasi is regarded among the holiest of the Hindu cities. The Kashi Vishwanath temple is widely recognized as one of the most important places of worship in Hindu religion. Inside the Kashi Vishvanath Temple is the Jyotirlinga of Shiva, Vishveshvara or Vishvanath. The Vishveshvara Jyotirlinga has a very special and unique significance in the spiritual history of India.
Many leading saints, including Adi Sankaracharya, Ramakrishna Paramhansa, Swami Vivekananda, Bamakhyapa, Goswami Tulsidas, Swami Dayananda Saraswati, Sathya Sai Baba and Gurunanak have visited the site. A visit to the temple and a bath in the river Ganges is one of many methods believed to lead one on a path to Moksha (liberation). Thus, Hindus from all over the world try to visit the place at least once in their lifetime. There is also a tradition that one should give up at least one desire after a pilgrimage the temple, and the pilgrimage would also include a visit to the temple at Rameswaram in Tamil Nadu in Southern India, where people take water samples of the Ganges to perform prayer at the temple and bring back sand from near that temple. Because of the immense popularity and holiness of Kashi Vishwanath temple, hundreds of temples across India have been built in the same architectural style. Many legends record that the true devotee achieves freedom from death and saṃsāra by the worship of Shiva, Shiva 's devotees on death being directly taken to his abode on Mount Kailash by his messengers and not to Yama. The superiority of Shiva and his victory over his own nature -- Shiva is himself identified with death -- is also stated. There is a popular belief that Shiva himself blows the mantra of salvation into the ears of people who die naturally at the Vishwanath temple.
There are 5 aartis of Shree Kashi Vishwanath:
Security arrangements do not allow any cell phones, camera, belts with metal buckle, cigarettes, lighters, etc. inside the temple.
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where did they film once upon a time in the west | Once Upon a Time in the West - wikipedia
Once Upon a Time in the West (Italian: C'era una volta il West) is a 1968 epic Spaghetti Western film co-written and directed by Sergio Leone. It stars Henry Fonda, cast against type, as the villain, Charles Bronson as his nemesis, Claudia Cardinale as a newly widowed homesteader, and Jason Robards as a bandit. The screenplay was written by Sergio Donati and Leone, from a story by Dario Argento, Bernardo Bertolucci and Leone. The widescreen cinematography was by Tonino Delli Colli, and the acclaimed film score was by Ennio Morricone.
After directing The Good, the Bad and the Ugly, Leone decided to retire from Westerns and desired to produce his film based on The Hoods, which eventually became Once Upon a Time in America. However, Leone accepted an offer from Paramount Pictures to provide access to Henry Fonda and to use a budget to produce another Western film. He recruited Bertolucci and Argento to devise the plot of the film in 1966, researching other Western films in the process. After Clint Eastwood turned down an offer to play the movie 's protagonist, Bronson was offered the role. During production, Leone recruited Donati to rewrite the script due to concerns over time limitations.
The original version by the director was 166 minutes (2 hours and 46 minutes) when it was first released on December 21, 1968. This was the version that was to be shown in European cinemas and was a box office success. For the US release on May 28, 1969, Once Upon a Time in the West was edited down to 145 minutes (2 hours and 25 minutes) by Paramount and was a financial flop. The film is considered by some to be the first installment in Leone 's Once Upon a Time Trilogy, followed by Duck, You Sucker!, called Once Upon a Time... the Revolution in parts of Europe, and Once Upon a Time in America, though the films do not share any characters in common.
The film is now generally acknowledged as a masterpiece and one of the greatest films ever made. In 2009, the film was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically or aesthetically significant ''.
The film portrays two conflicts that take place around Flagstone, a fictional town in the American Old West: a land battle related to construction of a railroad, and a mission of vengeance against a cold - blooded killer. A struggle exists for Sweetwater, a piece of land in the desert outside Flagstone which contains the region 's only other water source. The land was bought by Brett McBain (Frank Wolff), who foresaw that the railroad would have to pass through that area to provide water for the steam locomotives. When crippled railroad tycoon Morton (Gabriele Ferzetti) learns of this, he sends his hired gun Frank (Henry Fonda) to intimidate McBain to move off the land, but Frank instead kills McBain and his three children, planting evidence to frame the bandit Cheyenne (Jason Robards). Meanwhile, a former prostitute (Claudia Cardinale) arrives at Flagstone from New Orleans, revealing that she is Brett 's new wife and therefore owner of the land.
The film had opened with a mysterious harmonica - playing gunman (Charles Bronson), whom Cheyenne later dubs ' Harmonica ', shooting three men sent by Frank to kill him. In a roadhouse on the way to Sweetwater, where he also encounters Mrs McBain, ' Harmonica ' informs Cheyenne that the three gunfighters appeared to be posing as Cheyenne 's men. Cheyenne arrives at Sweetwater soon after and both men seem attracted to Mrs McBain. ' Harmonica ' explains that, according to the contract of sale, she will lose Sweetwater unless the station is built by the time the track 's construction crews reach that point, so Cheyenne puts his men to work building it.
Frank turns against Morton, who wants to make a deal with Mrs McBain, and immobilises him under guard on his private train out in the desert. Instead Mrs McBain allows Frank to seduce her, seemingly to save her life, and is then forced to sell her property in an auction where Frank 's men intimidate the other bidders. ' Harmonica ' disrupts Frank 's plan to keep the price down when he arrives, holding Cheyenne at gunpoint, and makes a much higher bid with the reward money for the wanted Cheyenne. But as Cheyenne is placed on a train bound for the Yuma prison, two members of his gang purchase one - way tickets for the train, intending to help him escape.
Morton now pays Frank 's men to turn against him. However, ' Harmonica ' helps Frank kill them by directing his attention to their whereabouts from the room where Mrs McBain is taking a bath -- to her outrage. On Frank 's return to Morton 's train he finds that Morton and his remaining men have been killed in a battle with Cheyenne 's gang. Frank then goes to Sweetwater to confront ' Harmonica '. On two occasions, Frank has asked him who he is, but both times ' Harmonica ' only answered with names of men "who were alive before they knew you ''. This time, ' Harmonica ' says he will reveal who he is "only at the point of dying ''.
As the two prepare for a gun duel, ' Harmonica ' 's motive is revealed in a flashback. A younger Frank forces a boy to support his older brother on his shoulders, while his brother 's neck is in a noose strung from an arch. As the boy struggles to hold his brother 's weight, Frank stuffs a harmonica into the panting boy 's mouth. The older brother curses Frank and the boy (who has grown up to be ' Harmonica ') collapses to the ground. Back in the present, ' Harmonica ' draws first and stuffs his instrument into the dying Frank 's mouth as a reminder.
At the house again, ' Harmonica ' and Cheyenne say goodbye to Mrs McBain, who is supervising construction of the railway station as the track - laying crews reach Sweetwater. As the two men ride off, Cheyenne falls, admitting that he was mortally wounded by Morton during the fight with Frank 's gang. While ' Harmonica ' rides away with Cheyenne 's dead body, the work train arrives and Mrs McBain carries water to the rail workers.
With the death of Gabriele Ferzetti in 2015, Claudia Cardinale is the sole surviving member of the film 's main cast.
After making his American Civil War epic The Good, the Bad and the Ugly, Leone had intended to retire from making Westerns, believing he had said all he wanted to say. He had come across the novel The Hoods by the pseudonymous "Harry Grey '', an autobiographical book based on the author 's own experiences as a Jewish hood during Prohibition, and planned to adapt it into a film (this would eventually, seventeen years later, become his final film, Once Upon a Time in America). Leone though was offered only Westerns by the Hollywood studios. United Artists (who had produced the Dollars Trilogy) offered him the opportunity to make a film starring Charlton Heston, Kirk Douglas and Rock Hudson, but Leone refused. However, when Paramount offered Leone a generous budget along with access to Henry Fonda -- his favorite actor, and one whom he had wanted to work with for virtually all of his career -- Leone accepted the offer.
Leone commissioned Bernardo Bertolucci and Dario Argento -- both of whom were film critics before becoming directors -- to help him develop the film in late 1966. The men spent much of the following year watching and discussing numerous classic Westerns such as High Noon, The Iron Horse, The Comancheros, and The Searchers at Leone 's house, and constructed a story made up almost entirely of "references '' to American Westerns.
Ever since The Good, the Bad and the Ugly, which originally ran for three hours, Leone 's films were usually cut (often quite dramatically) for box office release. Leone was very conscious of the length of Once Upon a Time in the West during filming and later commissioned Sergio Donati, who had worked on several of Leone 's other films, to help him refine the screenplay, largely to curb the length of the film towards the end of production. Many of the film 's most memorable lines of dialogue came from Donati, or from the film 's English dialogue adapter, expatriate American actor Mickey Knox.
For Once Upon a Time in the West, Leone changed his approach over his earlier Westerns. Whereas the "Dollars '' films were quirky and up - tempo, a celebratory yet tongue - in - cheek parody of the icons of the Wild West, this film is much slower in pace and sombre in theme. Leone 's distinctive style, which is very different from, but very much influenced by, Akira Kurosawa 's Sanshiro Sugata (1943), is still present but has been modified for the beginning of Leone 's second trilogy, the so - called Once Upon a Time Trilogy. The characters in this film are also beginning to change markedly over their predecessors in the Dollars Trilogy. They are not quite as defined and, unusual for Leone characters up to this point, they begin to change (or at least attempt to) over the course of the story. This signals the start of the second phase of Leone 's style, which would be further developed in Duck, You Sucker! and Once Upon a Time in America.
The film features long, slow scenes in which there is very little dialogue and little happens, broken by brief and sudden violence. Leone was far more interested in the rituals preceding violence than in the violence itself. The tone of the film is consistent with the arid semi-desert in which the story unfolds, and imbues it with a feeling of realism that contrasts with the elaborately choreographed gunplay.
Sergio Leone liked to tell the story of a cinema in Paris where the film ran uninterrupted for two years. When he visited this theatre, he was surrounded by fans who wanted his autograph, as well as the projectionist, who was less than enthusiastic. Leone claimed the projectionist told him "I kill you! The same movie over and over again for two years! And it 's so SLOW! ''
Most of the film was shot in Cinecittà studios, Rome. The brick arch where Bronson 's character flashbacks to his youth and the original lynching incident was built near a small airport fifteen miles north of Monument Valley, in Utah and two miles from U.S. Route 163 (which links Gouldings Lodge and Mexican Hat). The opening sequence with the three gunmen meeting the train was one of the sequences filmed in Spain. Shooting for scenes at Cattle Corner Station, as the location was called in the story, was scheduled for four days and was filmed at the ' ghost ' train station in the municipality of La Calahorra, county of Gaudix, near Guadix, in the Province of Granada, Spain, as were the scenes of Flagstone, and shooting for the scenes in the middle of the railway were filmed along the Guadix - Hernan Valle railway line.
Fonda did not accept Leone 's first offer to play Frank, so Leone flew to New York to convince him, telling him: "Picture this: the camera shows a gunman from the waist down pulling his gun and shooting a running child. The camera tilts up to the gunman 's face and... it 's Henry Fonda. '' After meeting with Leone, Fonda called his friend Eli Wallach, who had co-starred in The Good, the Bad and the Ugly. Wallach advised Fonda to do the film, telling him "You will have the time of your life. ''
When he accepted the role, Fonda came to the set with brown contacts and facial hair. Fonda felt having dark eyes and facial hair would blend well with his character 's evil and also help the audience to accept this "new '' Fonda as the bad guy, but Leone immediately told him to remove the contacts and facial hair. Leone felt that Fonda 's blue eyes best reflected the cold, icy nature of the killer. It was one of the first times in a Western film where the villain would be played by the lead actor.
Leone originally offered the role of Harmonica to Clint Eastwood; when he turned it down, Leone hired Charles Bronson who had originally been offered and turned down the part of the Man with No Name in A Fistful of Dollars. James Coburn was also approached for Harmonica, but demanded too much money.
Robert Ryan was offered the role of the Sheriff played by Keenan Wynn. Ryan initially accepted, but backed out after being given a larger role in Sam Peckinpah 's The Wild Bunch.
Enrico Maria Salerno and Robert Hossein were both offered the role of Morton before Gabriele Ferzetti was cast; Hossein had accepted, but had to drop out for a theatre commitment. Ferzetti, who considers it one of his best roles, referred to his casting as "Fate, Destiny '' in an interview for the DVD release.
Actor Al Mulock (featured as Knuckles in the opening train sequence, as well as in Leone 's The Good, the Bad and the Ugly) committed suicide during shooting of the film by leaping from his Guadix hotel room in full costume. Frank Wolff, the actor who plays McBain, also committed suicide in a Rome hotel in 1971.
Following the film 's completion, Once Upon a Time in the West was dubbed into several languages, including Italian, French, German, Spanish and English. For the English dub, the voices of much of the American cast, including Fonda, Bronson, Jason Robards, Jack Elam, Wynn, Wolff and Lionel Stander, were used. However, the rest of the cast had to be dubbed by other actors, including Ferzetti, who was dubbed by actor Bernard Grant (who is believed to have voiced Gian Maria Volontè and Aldo Giuffrè in the Dollars Trilogy), and Claudia Cardinale, who was voiced by Grant 's wife, Joyce Gordon.
The music was written by composer Ennio Morricone, Leone 's regular collaborator, who wrote the score under Leone 's direction before filming began. As in The Good, the Bad and the Ugly, the haunting music contributes to the film 's grandeur and, like the music for The Good, the Bad and the Ugly, is considered one of Morricone 's greatest compositions.
The film features leitmotifs that relate to each of the main characters (each with their own theme music) as well as to the spirit of the American West. Especially compelling are the wordless vocals by Italian singer Edda Dell'Orso during the theme music for the Claudia Cardinale character. It was Leone 's desire to have the music available and played during filming. Leone had Morricone compose the score before shooting started and would play the music in the background for the actors on set.
Except for about a minute of the "Judgment '' motif, before Harmonica kills the three outlaws, no soundtrack music is played until at the end of the second scene, when Henry Fonda makes his first entry. During the beginning of the film, Leone instead uses a number of natural sounds, for instance a turning wheel in the wind, sound of a train, grasshoppers, shotguns while hunting, wings of pigeons, etc., in addition to the harmonica played by Bronson 's character, since that sound is "explained '' by the fact that the sound of the harmonica is diegetic rather than a true soundtrack.
Though less popular in the US than the earlier Dollars Trilogy, Once Upon a Time in the West has gained a cult following around the world, particularly among cineastes and filmmakers. In the late 1960s and 1970s, it was re-evaluated by young filmmakers and critics, many of whom called it a masterpiece. Directors including Quentin Tarantino, Martin Scorsese, George Lucas, John Carpenter, Vince Gilligan, and John Boorman have spoken about the influence that the film had on them. It is now considered one of the greatest films ever made and some critics consider it to be the finest Western and Sergio Leone 's finest accomplishment as a director. Review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes retrospectively collected reviews from 56 critics and gave the film a score of 98 %. Once Upon a Time in the West can be found on numerous film polls and ' best of ' lists.
The film is recognized by American Film Institute in these lists:
The movie was a massive hit in France and was easily the most successful film released there in 1969 with 14.8 million admissions, ranking 7th of all time. It sparked a brief fashion trend for duster coats which took such proportions that Parisian department stores such as Au Printemps had to affix signs on escalators warning patrons to keep their "maxis, '' as they were called, clear from the edges of moving steps to prevent jamming.
It was also the most popular film in Germany with admissions of 13 million, ranking third of all time.
In the US, Paramount edited the film to about 145 minutes for the wide release, but the film underperformed at the box office, earning $2.1 M in rentals in North America.
The following scenes were cut for the American release:
Otherwise, one scene was slightly longer in the US version than in the international film release: Following the opening duel (where all four gunmen fire and fall), Charles Bronson 's character stands up again showing that he had only been shot in the arm. This part of the scene had been originally cut by director Sergio Leone for the worldwide theatrical release. It was added again for the U.S. market because the American distributors feared American viewers would not understand the story otherwise, especially since Harmonica 's arm wound is originally shown for the first time in the scene at the trading post which was cut for the shorter U.S. version.
The English - language version was restored to approximately 165 minutes for a re-release in 1984, and for its video release the following year.
In Italy, a 175 - minute director 's cut features a yellow tint filter, and several scenes augmented with additional material. This director 's cut was released on home video until the early 2000s, and still airs on TV, but more recent home video releases have used the international cut.
After years of public requests, Paramount released a 2 - Disc "Special Collector 's Edition '' of Once Upon a Time in the West on November 18, 2003, with a running time of 165 minutes (158 minutes in some regions). This release is the color 2.35: 1 aspect ratio version in anamorphic wide - screen, closed captioned and Dolby. Commentary is also provided by film experts and historians including John Carpenter, John Milius, Alex Cox, film historian and Leone biographer Sir Christopher Frayling, Dr. Sheldon Hall, as well as actors Claudia Cardinale and Gabriele Ferzetti, and director Bernardo Bertolucci, a co-writer of the film.
The second disc has special features, including three recent documentaries on several aspects of the film:
The film was released on Blu - ray on May 31, 2011.
Leone 's intent was to take the stock conventions of the American Westerns of John Ford, Howard Hawks and others, and rework them in an ironic fashion, essentially reversing their intended meaning in their original sources to create a darker connotation. The most obvious example of this is the casting of veteran film good guy Henry Fonda as the villainous Frank, but there are also many other, more subtle reversals throughout the film. According to film critic and historian Christopher Frayling, the film quotes from as many as 30 classic American Westerns.
The major films referenced include:
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what is the name of greg james going home song | Greg James (Radio show) - wikipedia
Chris Sawyer
Greg James is a British weekday radio show hosted on BBC Radio 1 at drivetime, starring Greg James as the main presenter. It is broadcast Monday to Thursday from 4: 00pm until 7: 00pm, including a 15 - minute break for Newsbeat at 5: 45pm. The main focus of the show is music and entertainment in the form of features and celebrity interviews. On Fridays, The Official Chart with Greg James airs between 4: 00pm and 5: 45pm and BBC Radio 1 's Dance Anthems with Greg James airs from 6: 00pm to 7: 00pm. The show is award - winning, achieving a Sony Radio Academy Award in 2014 for ' Best Entertainment Programme ' and an ARIA in 2016 for ' Best Entertainment Production '.
After joining BBC Radio 1 in June 2007 and presenting the early breakfast show from October 2007, on 21 September 2009, a new schedule was launched on Radio 1, and it was announced that James would move to an Early Afternoon slot; 1pm to 4pm - replacing Edith Bowman, who moved to the weekend breakfast slot. It was in this early afternoon slot that the majority of the features in the current show were formed. His early breakfast show was taken over by Dev.
It was announced on 28 February 2012 that James and Scott Mills would swap shows as of 2 April 2012. James currently hosts the ' drive time ' show (4 -- 7pm) weekdays, while Mills took over the weekdays ' early afternoon ' show (1 -- 4pm).
James 's drivetime show was initially produced by Laura Sayers (known as Headmistress Laura), with Sarah Underwood, and later Pippa Taylor as Assistant Producer. After Sayers left the show to go on maternity leave, she was replaced by Taylor, and new Assistant Producer Travis Walby joined. James is joined regularly by newsreader Chris Smith (referred to as Chris Smith With The News), who takes part in a number of segments during the show, when he is free of Newsbeat duties. There used to be a daily handover at 19: 00 with Zane Lowe, prior to his departure from Radio 1. This tradition ended when Annie Mac took over Zane 's show. Dev is the regular cover, who would also involve Smith, Taylor and Walby in the discussions, and continue some of the regular features. In June 2015, Taylor and Walby left the show; Taylor to eventually work on The Chris Moyles Show on Radio X, Walby to produce the weekend shows. Their final show was on 5 June 2015. Ian Chaloner took over producing, with Jenny Keough as assistant producer. It was at this point that Chris Smith 's involvement in the show was reduced somewhat, with him no longer participating in links and features between 4: 30 and 5: 45, including Nerd Alerts and Rage Against the Answer Machine, or regularly speaking to Greg after the news. He now appears only between 6: 10 and 6: 30 on certain days.
The show has over five million listeners, and won a Sony Radio Academy Award in 2014 for ' Best Entertainment Programme '. It won silver the year before. It won the Gold for Best Entertainment Production at the ARIAS 2016.
From 10 December 2012 for a week, James hosted his show from the BFBS Radio Studio in Camp Bastion, Afghanistan. Whilst in Camp Bastion, James met with a large number of troops and invited some personnel to ' shout - out ' to their family and friends, and also invited celebrities to read out messages from the families of serving soldiers from the BBC Radio 1 studios in London.
In the week leading up to T In the Park, Greg often takes the show to Scotland to take part in activities there. In 2012 and 2013, this was ' Sofa Surfing ', where Greg would stay with listeners and take part in activities chosen by them. In 2014, he put on G In the Park, a mini-music festival from the BBC in Glasgow, with tents where he and several listeners would sleep, and music acts would play on a stage. Every night was live streamed online, on Radio 1 's website and on YouTube...
On 24 October 2013, the first episode of the That 's What He Said Podcast was released, featuring Greg and newsreader Chris Smith chatting about what happened on his radio show over the previous week, and playing out the highlights. This has performed well on the iTunes podcast chart.
In March 2015, following changes to the global release day for singles, Radio 1 announced its own changes to the Official Chart Show. From July 2015, it will move to Friday afternoons, between 16: 00 and 17: 45, integrating into James ' current show, with James as host.
In February 2015, Greg took part in the Gregathlon for Comic Relief, in which he completed five triathlons in five days in five cities. This was whilst still doing the show every day at 4pm from the city he had done the triathlon in. During this week, Alice Levine co-hosted the programme from the location.
These features do n't happen regularly, but reappear from time to time, some more frequently than others.
These features may have only appeared once or twice.
A common way in which James promotes his show is his parody videos, in which he dresses up as popular (often female) pop artists and does ridiculous parodies of their music videos. A popular recreation was of Miley Cyrus ' ' Wrecking Ball '. It is one of Radio 1 's most viewed YouTube videos.
He has also done a version of Kiesza 's ' Hideaway ' and recently drove Taylor Swift around London while performing a ' lip - sync ' video for her new song ' Blank Space '.
In 2013, Chris Smith wrote a Christmas parody of the Robin Thicke and Pharrell Williams song, Blurred Lines. Called Mulled Wines, and sung by Father Chris Smith and Pharrelf, the video featured celebrities such as Chris Martin, Fearne Cotton, Charlie Sloth, Jamie Oliver, and Jake Bugg. Zane Lowe said that if the song got more than one million views on YouTube, he would play it on his show. The video can be seen here, and the unofficial lyrics video starring Travis Walby can be seen here.
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what layer does ipsec operate in osi model | List of network protocols (OSI model) - wikipedia
This is a list of network protocols, categorized by their nearest Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model layers. This list is not exclusive to only the OSI protocol family. Many of these protocols are originally based on the Internet Protocol Suite (TCP / IP) and other models and they often do not fit neatly into OSI layers.
This layer, presentation Layer and application layer are combined in TCP / IP model.
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what is the route number for skyline drive | Skyline Drive - wikipedia
Skyline Drive is a 105 - mile (169 km) road that runs the entire length of the National Park Service 's Shenandoah National Park in the Blue Ridge Mountains of Virginia, generally along the ridge of the mountains. The drive 's northern terminus is at an intersection with U.S. Route 340 (US 340) near Front Royal, and the southern terminus is at an interchange with US 250 near Interstate 64 (I - 64) in Rockfish Gap, where the road continues south as the Blue Ridge Parkway. The road has intermediate interchanges with US 211 in Thornton Gap and US 33 in Swift Run Gap.
A park entrance fee is charged at the four access points to the drive. Skyline Drive is a two - lane road that has 75 overlooks providing views of the Shenandoah Valley to the west and the Piedmont to the east. The drive provides access to numerous trails, including the Appalachian Trail, and it is also used for biking and horseback riding. Skyline Drive is the main road through Shenandoah National Park and has access to campgrounds, visitor centers, and resorts such as Skyland Resort and Big Meadows. The scenic drive is particularly popular in the fall for leaf peeping when the leaves are changing colors. Skyline Drive is designated a National Scenic Byway and a National Historic Landmark and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.
Plans for the road date back to 1924 when a national park was planned in the Blue Ridge Mountains of Virginia and the main feature was to be a "sky - line drive '' providing views of the surrounding land. President Herbert Hoover, who had a summer home at Rapidan Camp, called for the construction of the road. Groundbreaking for Skyline Drive took place in 1931. The first section, which originally was to run from Rapidan Camp to Skyland, was extended between Swift Run Gap and Thornton Gap and opened in 1934. Skyline Drive was extended north to Front Royal in 1936 and south to Jarman Gap in 1939. The road between Jarman Gap and Rockfish Gap was built as part of the Blue Ridge Parkway in 1939 and was incorporated into Skyline Drive in 1961. The Civilian Conservation Corps played a large part in constructing Skyline Drive. Improvements have been made to the roadway since it was built. Skyline Drive was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1997, became a National Scenic Byway in 2005, and was designated a National Historic Landmark in 2008.
Skyline Drive takes a winding north -- south path along the mountaintops of the Blue Ridge Mountains east of the Shenandoah River from Front Royal to Rockfish Gap, serving as the only public road through Shenandoah National Park. There are four entrance points to Skyline Drive located at US 340 near I - 66 in Front Royal, US 211 in Thornton Gap, US 33 in Swift Run Gap and US 250 near I - 64 in Rockfish Gap. At the south end in Rockfish Gap it connects to the northern terminus of the Blue Ridge Parkway, a free - access road that continues southward along the Blue Ridge Mountains. On the west side of the drive, mileposts are present. They are numbered from 0 to 105 (north to south) and serve as reference points to directions in the drive. There are 75 overlooks throughout the drive, providing views of the Shenandoah Valley to the west and the Piedmont to the east.
The speed limit is 35 miles per hour (56 km / h), due to curves, wildlife and tourists. Bicycles, motor vehicles, and pedestrians share the road. There are also deer, black bears, turkey, and other wildlife, which may appear and cross the road without warning. These all require extra precautions. The speed limit within the park is strictly enforced by park rangers. Numerous trails can be accessed along the drive, including a portion of the Appalachian Trail, which follows the road 's path.
Biking and horseback riding are other recreational activities that are allowed on the road. The drive is popular in the fall months for leaf peeping to view fall foliage. Skyline Drive is closed from dusk to dawn from November to early January to ensure rangers can control illegal hunting. The drive can also close for a short time following snow or ice storms. Skyline Drive is designated a National Scenic Byway.
Skyline Drive begins at an intersection with US 340 south of Front Royal in Warren County, heading east into dense forests in Shenandoah National Park as a two - lane undivided road. The road curves south and passes through the Front Royal Entrance Station, where a ranger station is located. At this point, the drive winds south and ascends the Blue Ridge Mountains. The roadway heads southwest and comes to the Shenandoah Valley Overlook on the west side of the road.
Skyline Drive winds south and reaches the Dickey Ridge Visitor Center, which has a ranger station, picnic grounds, and restrooms. Farther south, the roadway reaches Dickey Hill. The road continues southerly to the Gooney Knob Overlook facing southwest, at which point it turns to the east and winds through Low Gap. The drive heads east to an overlook at Compton Gap, where it bends south along a winding path, straddling the border of Warren and Rappahannock counties, and runs parallel to the Appalachian Trail, which closely follows Skyline Drive for the remainder of its route. The road curves southwest and reaches the summit of North Marshall. Upon reaching the south - facing Range View Overlook, the roadway turns to the west along a winding path, bending southwest The drive passes the Mount Marshall Overlook on the east side, at which point it heads west.
Skyline Drive reaches the Hogback Overlook on Hogback Mountain that faces northwest and turns southerly. The roadway heads west and straddles the boundary between Page and Rappahannock counties, coming to Mathews Arm, where a campground and ranger station are located. The drive turns to the south and comes to Elkwallow, which hosts restrooms, picnic grounds, a camp store, and food service. Skyline Drive continues along and comes to the Jeremys Run Overlook on the west side of the road before it winds to the east. The roadway comes to the east - facing Thornton Hollow Overlook and heads back to the south, coming to the Beahms Gap Parking on the west side of the road. The drive traverses Pass Mountain as it continues to the south. Skyline Drive comes to an interchange with US 211 at the Thornton Gap Entrance Station, which is located in Thornton Gap to the east of Luray and the west of Sperryville. A ranger station is present at the entrance station.
Past the US 211 interchange, Skyline Drive continues to the southeast past Panorama, which is site of restrooms. The road passes through the Marys Rock Tunnel under Mary 's Rock and winds to the south. The roadway passes west of the Meadow Spring Parking before coming to the south - facing Pinnacles Overlook, where it winds to the west. Skyline Drive reaches the Jewell Hollow Overlook that faces to the west and heads southwest straddling the border of Page and Madison counties. The road passes Pinnacles, where restrooms and picnic grounds are located, and runs through the Hughes River Gap. The drive continues to the south and passes the Stony Man Overlook and the Little Stony Man Parking on the west side of the road, where a trail leads to Stony Man Mountain. Farther along, the roadway bends to the west along a winding stretch. Skyline Drive reaches its highest point at an elevation of 3,680 feet (1,120 m) and continues southwesterly. The road reaches Skyland, where the Skyland Resort is located offering food, lodging, and restrooms. Also located at this point is Whiteoak Canyon Parking on the east side of the road. The drive continues to the south and passes Limberlost Parking on the east side and the west - facing Timber Hollow Overlook. The roadway then winds south past Bettys Rock. Farther to the south, Skyline Drive reaches Hawksbill Gap Parking, where a trail leads to Hawksbill Mountain, the highest peak in Shenandoah National Park at 4,051 feet (1,235 m). The road continues along and comes to the east - facing Old Rag View Overlook, where it turns to the west and passes south of Upper Hawksbill Parking. The drive comes to the west - facing Spitler Knoll Overlook and curves south. The roadway bends to the southwest and passes northwest of Dark Hollow Falls Parking, where a trail leads to the 70 - foot (21 m) high Dark Hollow Falls, the closest waterfall to Skyline Drive. Past here, the road reaches Big Meadows, where there is a ranger station, restrooms, a campground, picnic grounds, food, and lodging. Big Meadows is also site of the Byrd Visitor Center and a wayside with a restaurant, gas station, gift shop, and camp store.
Past here, Skyline Drive continues along a southerly track. At the Milam Gap Parking, a trail leads east to the Rapidan Camp, where President Herbert Hoover had a summer residence from 1929 to 1932. The road passes Hazeltop before it passes through Bootens Gap, where it straddles the boundary of Page and Greene counties. The roadway traverses Bush Mountain before coming to Bearfence Mountain Parking at Bearfence Mountain. Skyline Drive continues to the south to Lewis Mountain, where a campground, picnic grounds, lodging, and restrooms are located. The road heads along the border between Rockingham and Greene counties as it runs southerly. The drive continues to the south - southwest and reaches South River, which is home to restrooms and picnic grounds. The roadway heads southwest and comes to an interchange with US 33 at the Swift Run Gap Entrance Station, which is situated in Swift Run Gap east of Elkton and west of Stanardsville.
Following the US 33 interchange, Skyline Drive heads southwest. The roadway passes through Smith Roach Gap and comes to the Bacon Hollow Overlook to the south, where it curves to the west. The drive heads through Powell Gap and reaches the west - facing Eaton Hollow Overlook, where it turns to the southwest and winds along. The road bends south and comes to a ranger station at Simmonds Gap. Skyline Drive continues southerly to the Loft Mountain Overlook on the east side, where it turns westerly before heading northwest. The roadway then makes a hairpin turn to the southwest. The road straddles the border of Rockingham and Albemarle counties and continues to the south to the Loft Mountain Wayside, which is site of restrooms and food service. Skyline Drive heads southwest and comes to Loft Mountain, where a ranger station, restrooms, campground, and camp store are located. The drive heads past Browns Gap Parking before it comes to Dundo, where an overlook to the northwest, restrooms, picnic grounds, and Dundo Group Camp are located.
From here, the road continues southwesterly and passes to the west of Jones Run Parking, where a trail leads to Jones Run Falls, before heading east of Blackrock Summit Parking. Skyline Drive winds south past Blackrock and turns to the west. The roadway heads north before a hairpin turn to the south at Blackrock Gap, where it closely follows the border between Augusta and Albemarle counties. Further south, Skyline Drive passes the Wildcat Ridge Parking Area before coming to the Crimora Lake Overlook that faces to the west. The roadway continues along past the Turk Mountain Overlook on the west side of the road prior to reaching the Turk Gap Parking to the east. The drive winding south through Jarman Gap before it curves southwest and continues to the west - facing Calf Mountain Overlook, where it turns to the southeast. Skyline Drive passes through Beagle Gap, winding to the south. The roadway heads to the southwest and west to the north - facing McCormick Gap Overlook, where it curves back to the southwest. The drive continues along and passes through the Rockfish Gap Entrance Station, where a ranger station is located. Past here, the road heads south and comes to a bridge over I - 64 before it reaches an interchange with US 250 that provides access to I - 64 in Rockfish Gap in Augusta County, which is located east of Waynesboro and west of Charlottesville. At this interchange, Skyline Drive ends and the road continues to the south as the Blue Ridge Parkway.
Major entry points to Skyline Drive located in Front Royal, Thornton Gap, Swift Run Gap, and Rockfish Gap. Fees are collected at the Skyline Drive 's four access points. The fee is not a toll charged to drive on the road, but rather an entry fee for the park itself. Various passes allow for admission to the park. A $25.00 pass is valid for unlimited entrances within a seven - day period for a private non-commercial vehicle. A seven - day pass costs $15.00 for motorcycles and $10.00 for individuals 16 years of age or older entering by means other than a private non-commercial vehicle. Commercial tours pay between $25.00 and $200.00 for a seven - day pass, depending on the number of passengers. An annual park pass costs $50.00 for a private non-commercial vehicle. Entrance can also be gained through the America the Beautiful: National Parks and Federal Recreational Lands Pass series. In this series, the Annual Pass costs $80.00, the lifetime Senior Pass costs $10.00, the lifetime Access Pass allows free admission for persons with disabilities, and the Volunteer Pass allows free admission for volunteers who work 250 service hours for the following year. A free Annual Pass is also available for members of the United States Armed Forces and fourth graders can get free admission for their whole family through the Every Kid in a Park Pass.
In 1924, the Southern Appalachian National Park Committee was searching for a site for a national park in the Blue Ridge Mountains of Virginia that would be easily accessible from major cities on the East Coast of the United States such as Washington, D.C. and settled on the current site of Shenandoah National Park. As part of the recommendation for the park was the "greatest single feature '' to be a "sky - line drive '' that would provide views of the Shenandoah Valley to the west and the Piedmont to the east. The idea for the roadway was suggested by committee member William C. Gregg to Board of Shenandoah Valley, Inc. member L. Ferdinand Zerkel during a visit to Skyland. In 1929, President Herbert Hoover, who established a summer home in the area, called for the roadway to be built along the Blue Ridge Mountains. The road was proposed to be named Hoover Highway, but would instead become known as Skyline Drive.
Field survey for the roadway began in January 1931. On July 18 of that year, an official groundbreaking for Skyline Drive took place. The first section of the road was to be built from the Rapidan Camp to the Skyland Resort, but would be extended from Swift Run Gap to Thornton Gap. The funds for the first stretch of the drive came from the Federal Drought Relief Administration and employed local farmers and apple pickers who suffered from a severe drought in 1930. In the later part of 1932, Congress approved $1 million (equivalent to $121 million in 2016,) in funds to construct Skyline Drive, which would extend from Front Royal to Swift Run Gap. The Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) was formed in 1933 and would have a hand in the construction of Skyline Drive. President Franklin D. Roosevelt was impressed with the scenery of the mountains and established the first CCC camps along Skyline Drive. These camps were the first to be placed in a national park. The CCC graded the slopes on both sides of the roadway, built guardrails and stone walls, constructed overlooks, and planted thousands of trees and shrubs along the parkway. Three different companies were awarded contracts for bituminous surfacing of the road. The section of Skyline Drive between Thornton Gap and Swift Run Gap opened in the middle part of 1934 and cost $1,570,479 (equivalent to $171 million in 2016,). This section of the roadway included the Marys Rock Tunnel, a tunnel that was bored through Marys Rock. A tunnel was constructed at this location as opposed to a cut. The tunnel was justified as a money - saving measure but was also suggested to challenge Bureau of Public Roads and National Park Service landscape architects. With the official establishment of Shenandoah National Park in 1935, the CCC hired 300 men, most of whom were not local to the area, to continue to build Skyline Drive. On October 1, 1936, the drive was completed between Front Royal and Thornton Gap at a cost of $1,235,177 (equivalent to $107 million in 2016,). The portion of Skyline Drive from Swift Run Gap to Jarman Gap was opened to traffic on August 29, 1939, costing $1,666,528 (equivalent to $134 million in 2016,). The road between Jarman Gap and Rockfish Gap was built as part of the Blue Ridge Parkway and was completed on August 11, 1939, at a cost of $358,636 (equivalent to $28.8 million in 2016,). This section of the Blue Ridge Parkway was given to Shenandoah National Park in 1961 and became the southernmost portion of Skyline Drive. The creation of the park and the construction of Skyline Drive resulted in many people losing their homes either voluntarily or forcibly; several homes within the present - day park were razed.
Skyline Drive was originally lined with miles of chestnut log guardrails. However, the guardrails rotted and were removed in the 1950s and not replaced. The Marys Rock Tunnel was partially lined with concrete in 1958 to prevent icicles in the winter and water seepage in the summer. In 1983, the Federal Highway Administration began work to replace several of the original stone walls on the drive with concrete walls that used the original stone as a veneer. The road was added to the National Register of Historic Places on April 28, 1997. On September 22, 2005, Skyline Drive was designated a National Scenic Byway. Skyline Drive was designated a National Historic Landmark in October 2008 for its pioneering place in the development of national parks in the eastern United States.
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where does the pulmonary vein carry blood to | Pulmonary vein - wikipedia
The pulmonary veins are the veins that transfer oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart. The largest pulmonary veins are the four main pulmonary veins, two from each lung that drain into the left atrium of the heart. The pulmonary veins are part of the pulmonary circulation.
Two main pulmonary veins emerge from each lung hilum, receiving blood from three or four bronchial veins apiece and draining into the left atrium. An inferior and superior main vein drains each lung, so there are four main veins in total.
At the root of the lung, the right superior pulmonary vein lies in front of and a little below the pulmonary artery; the inferior is situated at the lowest part of the lung hilum. Behind the pulmonary artery is the bronchus. The right main pulmonary veins (contains oxygenated blood) pass behind the right atrium and superior vena cava; the left in front of the descending thoracic aorta.
Occasionally the three lobar veins on the right side remain separate, and not infrequently the two left lobar veins end by a common opening into the left atrium. Therefore, the number of pulmonary veins opening into the left atrium can vary between three and five in the healthy population.
The two left lobar veins may be united as a single pulmonary vein in about 25 % of people; the two right veins may be united in about 3 %.
The pulmonary veins play an essential role in respiration, by receiving blood that has been oxygenated in the alveoli and returning it to the left atrium.
As part of the pulmonary circulation they carry oxygenated blood back to the heart, as opposed to the veins of the systemic circulation which carry deoxygenated blood.
A rare genetic defect of the pulmonary veins can cause them to drain into the pulmonary circulation in whole or in part, this is known as a total anomalous pulmonary venous connection, or partial anomalous pulmonary connection, respectively.
Computed tomography of a normal lung, with different levels of pulmonary veins.
Bronchial anatomy
Transverse section of thorax, showing relations of pulmonary artery.
Pulmonary vessels, seen in a dorsal view of the heart and lungs.
This article incorporates text in the public domain from page 642 of the 20th edition of Gray 's Anatomy (1918)
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what does the glycemic index (gi) measure | Glycemic index - wikipedia
The glycemic index or glycaemic index (/ ɡlaɪˈsiːmɪk /; GI) is a number associated with the carbohydrates in a particular type of food that indicates the effect of these carbohydrates on a person 's blood glucose (also called blood sugar) level. A value of 100 represents the standard, an equivalent amount of pure glucose.
The GI represents the rise in a person 's blood sugar level two hours after consumption of the food. The glycemic effects of foods depends on a number of factors, such as the type of carbohydrate, physical entrapment of the carbohydrate molecules within the food, fat and protein content of the food and organic acids or their salts in the meal. The GI is useful for understanding how the body breaks down carbohydrates and takes into account only the available carbohydrate (total carbohydrate minus fiber) in a food. Glycemic index does not predict an individual 's glycemic response to a food, but can be used as a tool to assess the insulin response burden of a food, averaged across a studied population. Individual responses vary greatly.
The glycemic index is usually applied in the context of the quantity of the food and the amount of carbohydrate in the food that is actually consumed. A related measure, the glycemic load (GL), factors this in by multiplying the glycemic index of the food in question by the carbohydrate content of the actual serving. Watermelon has a high glycemic index, but a low glycemic load for the quantity typically consumed. Fructose, by contrast, has a low glycemic index, but can have a high glycemic load if a large quantity is consumed.
GI tables are available that list many types of foods and their GIs. Some tables also include the serving size and the glycemic load of the food per serving.
A practical limitation of the glycemic index is that it does not measure insulin production due to rises in blood sugar. As a result, two foods could have the same glycemic index, but produce different amounts of insulin. Likewise, two foods could have the same glycemic load, but cause different insulin responses. Furthermore, both the glycemic index and glycemic load measurements are defined by the carbohydrate content of food. For example, when eating steak, which has no carbohydrate content but provides a high protein intake, up to 50 % of that protein can be converted to glucose when there is little to no carbohydrate consumed with it. But because it contains no carbohydrate itself, steak can not have a glycemic index. For some food comparisons, the "insulin index '' may be more useful.
Glycemic index charts often give only one value per food, but variations are possible due to
More importantly, the glycemic response is different from one person to another, and also in the same person from day to day, depending on blood glucose levels, insulin resistance, and other factors.
The glycemic index only indicates the impact on glucose level two hours after eating the food. People with diabetes have elevated levels for four hours or longer after eating certain foods.
Foods with carbohydrates that break down quickly during digestion and release glucose rapidly into the bloodstream tend to have a high GI; foods with carbohydrates that break down more slowly, releasing glucose more gradually into the bloodstream, tend to have a low GI. The concept was developed by Dr. David J. Jenkins and colleagues in 1980 -- 1981 at the University of Toronto in their research to find out which foods were best for people with diabetes. A lower glycemic index suggests slower rates of digestion and absorption of the foods ' carbohydrates and can also indicate greater extraction from the liver and periphery of the products of carbohydrate digestion. A lower glycemic response usually equates to a lower insulin demand but not always, and can improve long - term blood glucose control and blood lipids. The insulin index is also useful for providing a direct measure of the insulin response to a food.
The glycemic index of a food is defined as the incremental area under the two - hour blood glucose response curve (AUC) following a 12 - hour fast and ingestion of a food with a certain quantity of available carbohydrate (usually 50 g). The AUC of the test food is divided by the AUC of the standard (either glucose or white bread, giving two different definitions) and multiplied by 100. The average GI value is calculated from data collected in 10 human subjects. Both the standard and test food must contain an equal amount of available carbohydrate. The result gives a relative ranking for each tested food.
The current validated methods use glucose as the reference food, giving it a glycemic index value of 100 by definition. This has the advantages of being universal and producing maximum GI values of approximately 100. White bread can also be used as a reference food, giving a different set of GI values (if white bread = 100, then glucose ≈ 140). For people whose staple carbohydrate source is white bread, this has the advantage of conveying directly whether replacement of the dietary staple with a different food would result in faster or slower blood glucose response. A disadvantage with this system is that the reference food is not well - defined, because there is no universal standard for the carbohydrate content of white bread.
GI values can be interpreted intuitively as percentages on an absolute scale and are commonly interpreted as follows:
A low - GI food will cause blood glucose levels to increase more slowly and steadily, which leads to more suitable postprandial (after meal) blood glucose readings. A high - GI food causes a more rapid rise in blood glucose level and is suitable for energy recovery after exercise or for a person experiencing hypoglycemia.
The glycemic effect of foods depends on a number of factors, such as the type of starch (amylose versus amylopectin), physical entrapment of the starch molecules within the food, fat and protein content of the food and organic acids or their salts in the meal -- adding vinegar, for example, will lower the GI. The presence of fat or soluble dietary fiber can slow the gastric emptying rate, thus lowering the GI. In general, coarse, grainy breads with higher amounts of fiber have a lower GI value than white breads. However, most breads made with 100 % whole wheat or wholemeal flour have a GI not very different from endosperm only (white) bread. Many brown breads are treated with enzymes to soften the crust, which makes the starch more accessible (high GI).
While adding fat or protein will lower the glycemic response to a meal, the relative differences remain. That is, with or without additions, there is still a higher blood glucose curve after a high - GI bread than after a low - GI bread such as pumpernickel.
Fruits and vegetables tend to have a low glycemic index. The glycemic index can be applied only to foods where the test relies on subjects consuming an amount of food containing 50 g of available carbohydrate. But many fruits and vegetables (not potatoes, sweet potatoes, corn) contain less than 50 g of available carbohydrate per typical serving. Carrots were originally and incorrectly reported as having a high GI. Alcoholic beverages have been reported to have low GI values, but beer was initially reported to have a moderate GI due to the presence of maltose. This has been refuted by brewing industry professionals, who say that all maltose sugar is consumed in the brewing process and that packaged beer has little to no maltose present. Recent studies have shown that the consumption of an alcoholic drink prior to a meal reduces the GI of the meal by approximately 15 %. Moderate alcohol consumption more than 12 hours prior to a test does not affect the GI.
Many modern diets rely on the glycemic index, including the South Beach Diet, Transitions by Market America and NutriSystem Nourish Diet. However, others have pointed out that foods generally considered to be unhealthy can have a low glycemic index, for instance, chocolate cake (GI 38), ice cream (37), or pure fructose (19), whereas foods like potatoes and rice have GIs around 100 but are commonly eaten in some countries with low rates of diabetes.
Dietary replacement of saturated fats by carbohydrates with a low glycemic index may be beneficial for weight control, whereas substitution with refined, high glycemic index carbohydrates is not. A Cochrane review found that adoption of low glycemic index (or load) diets by people who are overweight or obese leads to more weight loss (and better fat control) than use of diets involving higher glycemic index / load or other strategies. Benefits were apparent even with low glycemic index / load diets that allow people to eat as much as they like. The authors of the review concluded that "Lowering the glycaemic load of the diet appears to be an effective method of promoting weight loss and improving lipid profiles and can be simply incorporated into a person 's lifestyle. ''
In clinical management of obesity, diets based on a low glycemic index / load appear to provide better glycemic and inflammatory control than ones based on a high glycemic index / load (and therefore could potentially be more effective in preventing obesity - related diseases). In overweight and obese children, adoption of low glycemic index / load diets may not lead to weight loss but might potentially provide other benefits.
Several lines of recent (1999) scientific evidence have shown that individuals who followed a low - GI diet over many years were at a significantly lower risk for developing both type 2 diabetes, coronary heart disease, and age - related macular degeneration than others. High blood glucose levels or repeated glycemic "spikes '' following a meal can promote these diseases by increasing systemic glycative stress, other oxidative stress to the vasculature, and also by the direct increase in insulin level. The glycative stress sets up a vicious cycle of systemic protein glycation, compromised protein editing capacity involving the ubiquitin proteolytic pathway and autophagic pathways, leading to enhanced accumulation of glycated and other obsolete proteins.
Postprandial hyperglycemia is a risk factor associated with diabetes. A 1998 study shows that it also presents an increased risk for atherosclerosis in the non-diabetic population and that high GI diets, high blood - sugar levels more generally, and diabetes are related to kidney disease as well.
Conversely, there are areas such as Peru and Asia where people eat high - glycemic index foods such as potatoes and high - GI rice without a high level of obesity or diabetes. The high consumption of legumes in South America and fresh fruit and vegetables in Asia likely lowers the glycemic effect in these individuals. The mixing of high - and low - GI carbohydrates produces moderate GI values.
A study from the University of Sydney in Australia suggests that having a breakfast of white bread and sugar - rich cereals, over time, can make a person susceptible to diabetes, heart disease, and even cancer.
A study published in 2007 in the American Journal of Clinical Nutrition found that age - related adult macular degeneration (AMD), which leads to blindness, is 42 % higher among people with a high - GI diet, and concluded that eating a lower - GI diet would eliminate 20 % of AMD cases.
The American Diabetes Association supports glycemic index but warns that the total amount of carbohydrate in the food is still the strongest and most important indicator, and that everyone should make their own custom method that works best for them.
The International Life Sciences Institute concluded in 2011 that because there are many different ways of lowering glycemic response, not all of which have the same effects on health, "It is becoming evident that modifying the glycemic response of the diet should not be seen as a stand - alone strategy but rather as an element of an overall balanced diet and lifestyle. ''
A systematic review of few human trials examined the potential of low GI diet to improve pregnancy outcomes. Potential benefits were still seen despite no ground breaking findings in maternal glycemia or pregnancy outcomes. In this regard, more women under low GI diet achieved the target treatment goal for the postprandial glycemic level and reduced their need for insulin treatment. A low GI diet can also provide greater benefits to overweight and obese women. Intervention at an early stage of pregnancy has shown a tendency to lower birth weight and birth centile in infants born to women with GDM.
Depending on quantities, the number of grams of carbohydrate in a food can have a bigger impact on blood sugar levels than the glycemic index does. Consuming less dietary energy, losing weight, and carbohydrate counting can be better for lowering the blood sugar level. Carbohydrates impact glucose levels most profoundly, and two foods with the same carbohydrate content are, in general, comparable in their effects on blood sugar. A food with a low glycemic index can have a high carbohydrate content or vice versa; this can be accounted for with the glycemic load (GL) where GL = GI % x grams of carbohydrate per serving (Louie JCY, et al., 2015). Consuming carbohydrates with a low glycemic index and calculating carbohydrate intake would produce the most stable blood sugar levels.
While the glycemic index of foods is used as a guide to the rise in blood glucose that should follow meals containing those foods, actual increases in blood glucose show considerable variability from person to person, even after consumption of identical meals. This is in part because glycemic index does not take into account other factors besides glycemic response, such as insulin response, which is measured by the insulin index and can be more appropriate in representing the effects from some food contents other than carbohydrates. In particular, since it is based on the area under the curve of the glucose response over time from ingesting a subject food, the shape of the curve has no bearing on the corresponding GI value. The glucose response can rise to a high level and fall quickly, or rise less high but remain there for a longer time, and have the same area under the curve. For subjects with type 1 diabetes who do not have an insulin response, the rate of appearance of glucose after ingestion represents the absorption of the food itself. This glycemic response has been modeled, where the model parameters for the food enable prediction of the continuous effect of the food over time on glucose values, and not merely the ultimate effect that the GI represents.
Although the glycemic index provides some insights into the relative diabetic risk within specific food groups, it contains many counter-intuitive ratings. These include suggestions that bread generally has a higher glycemic ranking than sugar and that some potatoes are more glycemic than glucose. More significantly, studies such as that by Bazzano et al. demonstrate a significant beneficial diabetic effect for fruit compared to a substantial detrimental impact for fruit juice despite these having similar "low GI '' ratings.
From blood glucose curves presented by Brand - Miller et al. the main distinguishing feature between average fruit and fruit juice blood glucose curves is the maximum slope of the leading edge of 4.38 mmol L h for fruit and 6.71 mmol L h for fruit juice. This raises the concept that the rate of increase in blood glucose may be a significant determinant particularly when comparing liquids to solids which release carbohydrates over time and therefore have an inherently greater area under the blood glucose curve.
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loss caused by theft of cash by cashier after business hours is a | Retail loss prevention - wikipedia
Retail loss prevention is a set of practices employed by retail companies to preserve profit. Profit preservation is any business activity specifically designed to reduce preventable losses. A preventable loss is any business cost caused by deliberate or inadvertent human actions, colloquially known as "shrinkage ''. Deliberate human actions that cause loss to a retail company can be theft, fraud, vandalism, waste, abuse, or misconduct. Inadvertent human actions attributable to loss are poorly executed business processes, where employees fail to follow existing policies or procedures - or cases in which business policies and procedures are lacking. Loss prevention is mainly found within the retail sector but also can be found within other business environments.
Since retail loss prevention is geared towards the elimination of preventable loss and the bulk of preventable loss in retail is caused by deliberate human activity, traditional approaches to retail loss prevention have been through visible security measures matched with technology such as CCTV and electronic sensor barriers. Most companies take this traditional approach by either having their own in - house loss prevention team or using external security agencies. Charles A. Sennewald and John H. Christman state, "Four elements are necessary for a successful loss prevention plan: 1) Total support from top management, 2) A positive employee attitude, 3) Maximum use of all available resources, 4) A system which establishes both responsibility and accountability for loss prevention through evaluations that are consistent and progressive. ''
Periodically retail business inventories all of the merchandise in the store. Items that are unaccounted for compared to what the inventory system believes the store should have are losses or "shrink ''. Shrink is caused by operational errors, internal theft, and external theft. Retail loss prevention is responsible for identifying these causes and following up with training, preventing, investigating, responding to and resolving them.
Operational errors are inadvertent human errors. Operational errors occur when associates do not follow existing business best practices and policies or a company lacks the proper best practices and policies to ensure work is performed with minimal human error. Operational errors also occur due to a lack of proper training for associates.
External theft is when customers intentionally cause shrink by theft, fraud, or vandalism. 80 % of customers who steal merchandise are opportunists and do not walk into the store with the intent to steal. They find that one thing they did not expect to find, can not afford to pay for it, and will steal it if they have the opportunity. Others are desperate who will steal essentials for their family, but only if they have the opportunity. A few steal because they like the adrenaline rush and will steal, regardless of how much money they have if they have the opportunity. The remainder are "boosters '' who are thieves for a living, walk in with the full intent to steal and sell their goods for a profit, on their own, or to a "fence '' that sells stolen merchandise.
The vast majority of thieves have one thing in common, they will steal only if they have the opportunity. So theft prevention is fairly easy. Constant and great customer service will eliminate most opportunity to steal. However, there are those who are not as easily deterred. Prevention techniques commonly used are customer service, Electronic Article Surveillance (EAS) with inventory control devices, uninformed or plain - clothed security and / or loss prevention personnel, surveillance systems, dummy cameras, locked display cases, etc.
Retail loss prevention uses several prevention techniques because, like most things, there is no one answer for everything. Once all prevention measures are in place, resolving external theft in many companies includes apprehending shoplifters. State laws vary and allow business owners or representatives of the company to detain shoplifters with "reasonable force '' for a "reasonable amount of time '' until law enforcement arrives. Several companies have designated trained individuals who are allowed to detain shoplifters according to company policy. Modern retail loss prevention teams use surveillance techniques with camera systems or on the sales floor or a combination. Working in teams has its advantages since one person can man the cameras while the rest of the team observes on the sales floor as individual shoppers in disguise or male and female loss prevention agents posing as a couple.
Policy from company to company varies, but are basically the same. There are very specific elements that Loss Prevention must observe before detaining a shoplifter.
Some of the typical elements are:
In some companies, entering a restroom or fitting room is broken surveillance and elements must start over. Observe the subject pass all points of sale. In some states, the point of sale may be the line of cash registers or the front door. One must observe the subject exit the store.
If any of the elements used by the company are not observed, Loss Prevention may not detain the subject according to company policy. The use of force or detain the shoplifter varies from company to company and take local and state laws into consideration.
Detaining an individual who did not take merchandise is referred to as a "bad stop '', and depending on the severity of the situation and if force was used against the innocent business patron will depend on the severity of the consequences for the loss prevention agent. Consequences for a bad stop may include a civil lawsuit, corrective action from the company up to and including termination, criminal prosecution for kidnapping is possible if an innocent customer is moved and detained against their will, etc. So mistakes are not an option and the fear of making mistakes can be very stressful.
Internal theft is when company employees intentionally cause shrink by theft, fraud, vandalism, waste, abuse, or misconduct. Because associates have access to the entire building and during non-business hours, they are capable of creating substantial losses to the company over a longer period of time. Internal theft is typically identified by reporting systems, first - hand visual / CCTV surveillance or tips from coworkers.
Unauthorized marking down prices with a computerized inventory system or dishonest behavior on a computerized cash register will generate on several store reports. Item markdowns, overrides, line item voids, suspended transactions, hand - keyed merchandise, refunds outside of normal transaction perimeters, cash over / shorts, and other reports will identify dishonest behavior if the person viewing the reports knows what to look for. A lot of companies hire a third - party company to run algorithms on their cash register reports to look for specific patterns and behaviors that will identify dishonest behavior. When dishonest behavior is identified, Loss Prevention is notified to investigate if the behavior is intentional theft, policy violation or an inadvertent error that can be solved with additional training.
Associate merchandise theft that does not involve a computer or cash register is more difficult to identify because you typically have to catch them in the act. Whether prompted by suspicious behaviors, a guilty look, anonymous tip, or you "just have a feeling '', internal theft cases are usually investigated with the use of video surveillance systems or plain clothes loss prevention person that the association has not been introduced to. People are creatures of habit and when they find a method of theft that works, they typically stick to it. So the installation of covert cameras in a work area (provided company policy and local / state laws allow it) generally give loss prevention the upper hand in resolving the situation.
Once the internal theft has been proven and all required evidence has been collected or observed and approval given by appropriate Loss Prevention and / or Human Resource Management, Loss Prevention will apprehend or "pull '' the associate to the office for interview or interrogation. There are a few scenarios where a certified Loss Prevention agent will pull an associate based on a tip, rumor or hunch and conduct what is called a "cold interview '' to see if they can get a verbal admission, but most companies do not allow cold interviews because the implementations of the interview may be perceived by the associate to be an accusation of theft and have issues with civil liabilities that may result. It is wiser to wait and complete a thorough investigation before conducting an interview unless you have a Certified Forensic Interrogator (CFI) attached to the name.
Once the interview is complete, Loss Prevention may proceed in several ways depending on the information gathered during the investigation and during the interview. Again, the investigation should identify if the associate 's behavior was intentional theft, a policy violation or an inadvertent error that can be solved with additional training. If intentional theft is discovered, the police may be called and criminal charges filed. The severity of the criminal punishment will depend on the amount of property / cash / merchandise the company has lost due to the associate 's dishonest / illegal behavior. To file criminal charges, the exact dollar amount stolen / lost must be proven beyond a reasonable doubt to hold up in a criminal trial. Termination of employment due to theft will most likely be an outcome of the investigation.
In addition to criminal prosecution, companies have the option to seek civil restitution. In a lot of theft cases, the company loses property that can not be returned or recovered. Since the dishonest associate represented the company, the reputation of the company may have been tarnished, relationships with business partners may suffer or terminate, and the possibility of lost business opportunities with new clients. The company also uses a lot of resources, technology, and payroll to investigate internal theft, and any other possible losses or "damages '' incurred by the company due to the associate 's dishonest behavior allow the company to partner with a legal firm or their own legal department to demand civil restitution from the former associate in the amount determined by a case - by - case basis. Failure of the former associate to pay the civil restitution may result in the company filing a civil lawsuit.
The development of electronic article surveillance (a magnetic device attached to the merchandise that would trigger an alarm if removed from the store, also called EAS) led to an increase in arrests; however, many cases have been dismissed due to lack of observation of the crime. A later effort, called "benefit denial '' by Read Hayes, was intended to reduce the incentives for people to take the items by destroying the usefulness of items that were improperly removed from stores through the use of measures such as exploding dye packs.
Internal loss, as with other forms of shrinkage, can be classified as either "malicious '' or "non-malicious ''.
The malicious internal loss is shrinkage caused by individuals from within the business such as staff members and cleaning staff and anyone else involved internally in the company. Internal shrink accounted for 35 percent of shrink to businesses in 2011. Internal shrink is caused by methods such as staff members stealing products, cashiers not ringing sales through the tills and keeping the payment for themselves, package pilferage, staff selling products to friends and family at discounted prices, "sweethearting '' by giving products for free to friends and family by staff, colluding with maintenance staff or external contractors to steal products, and under - ringing merchandise on the tills for friends or family so they end up paying less for the items.
Internal theft traditionally causes more loss to a business than external theft due to the increased opportunity available to internal staff members. "A well - informed security superintendent of a nationwide chain of retail stores has estimated that it takes between forty and fifty shoplifting incidents to equal the annual loss caused by one dishonest individual inside an organization. ''
Non-malicious shrinkage can result from a number of operational failures within the business structure. The processing of returned and / or damaged stock, for example, can cause articles to be removed from inventory and discarded (which contributes directly to shrinkage) rather than sold at a discount, donated, returned to vendors for credit, or otherwise removed from inventory in a manner that minimizes financial loss.
The image of retail loss prevention has become linked with the controversial practice of civil recovery.
In the United States, laws were enacted in the 1970s allowing merchants to be awarded damages from those who removed merchandise without paying. Some say this law then began the development of departments that focused on retail loss prevention. In more modern times, merchants expanded "recovery '' to include larger monetary damage awards. The controversy surrounds large retailers suing thieves in civil court for up to ten times the replacement cost of the merchandise stolen. These recovery amounts, argued by merchants, are for the costs associated with the detection, prevention, and prosecution of theft. In most cases, these recovery claims are secured voluntarily, in conjunction with criminal charges. Judges like to see a penitent thief repaying merchants for their crimes. The accused as it is more likely that people caught for stealing would voluntarily pay these claims rather than endure them appearing on their credit report as judgments.
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bmp what type of information or data is it | BMP file format - wikipedia
The BMP file format, also known as bitmap image file or device independent bitmap (DIB) file format or simply a bitmap, is a raster graphics image file format used to store bitmap digital images, independently of the display device (such as a graphics adapter), especially on Microsoft Windows and OS / 2 operating systems.
The BMP file format is capable of storing two - dimensional digital images both monochrome and color, in various color depths, and optionally with data compression, alpha channels, and color profiles. The Windows Metafile (WMF) specification covers the BMP file format. Among others wingdi. h defines BMP constants and structures.
Microsoft has defined a particular representation of color bitmaps of different color depths, as an aid to exchanging bitmaps between devices and applications with a variety of internal representations. They called these device - independent bitmaps or DIBs, and the file format for them is called DIB file format or BMP image file format.
According to Microsoft support:
A device - independent bitmap (DIB) is a format used to define device - independent bitmaps in various color resolutions. The main purpose of DIBs is to allow bitmaps to be moved from one device to another (hence, the device - independent part of the name). A DIB is an external format, in contrast to a device - dependent bitmap, which appears in the system as a bitmap object (created by an application...). A DIB is normally transported in metafiles (usually using the StretchDIBits () function), BMP files, and the Clipboard (CF_DIB data format).
The following sections discuss the data stored in the BMP file or DIB in detail. This is the standard BMP file format. Some applications create bitmap image files which are not compliant with the Microsoft documentation. Also, not all fields are used; a value of 0 will be found in these unused fields.
The bitmap image file consists of fixed - size structures (headers) as well as variable - size structures appearing in a predetermined sequence. Many different versions of some of these structures can appear in the file, due to the long evolution of this file format.
Referring to the diagram 1, the bitmap file is composed of structures in the following order:
A bitmap image file loaded into memory becomes a DIB data structure -- an important component of the Windows GDI API. The in - memory DIB data structure is almost the same as the BMP file format, but it does not contain the 14 - byte bitmap file header and begins with the DIB header. For DIBs loaded in memory, the color table can also consist of 16 - bit entries that constitute indexes to the currently realized palette (an additional level of indirection), instead of explicit RGB color definitions. In all cases, the pixel array must begin at a memory address that is a multiple of 4 bytes. In non-packed DIBs loaded in memory, the optional color profile data should be located immediately after the color table and before the gap1 and pixel array (unlike in diag. 1).
When the size of gap1 and gap2 is zero, the in - memory DIB data structure is customarily referred to as "packed DIB '' and can be referred to by a single pointer pointing to the beginning of the DIB header. In all cases, the pixel array must begin at a memory address that is a multiple of 4 bytes. In some cases it may be necessary to adjust the number of entries in the color table in order to force the memory address of the pixel array to a multiple of 4 bytes. For "packed DIBs '' loaded in memory, the optional color profile data should immediately follow the pixel array, as depicted in diag. 1 (with gap1 = 0 and gap2 = 0). "Packed DIBs '' are required by Windows clipboard API functions as well as by some Windows patterned brush and resource functions.
This block of bytes is at the start of the file and is used to identify the file. A typical application reads this block first to ensure that the file is actually a BMP file and that it is not damaged. The first 2 bytes of the BMP file format are the character "B '' then the character "M '' in ASCII encoding. All of the integer values are stored in little - endian format (i.e. least - significant byte first).
This block of bytes tells the application detailed information about the image, which will be used to display the image on the screen. The block also matches the header used internally by Windows and OS / 2 and has several different variants. All of them contain a dword (32 - bit) field, specifying their size, so that an application can easily determine which header is used in the image. The reason that there are different headers is that Microsoft extended the DIB format several times. The new extended headers can be used with some GDI functions instead of the older ones, providing more functionality. Since the GDI supports a function for loading bitmap files, typical Windows applications use that functionality. One consequence of this is that for such applications, the BMP formats that they support match the formats supported by the Windows version being run. See the table below for more information.
An example of such a case is the graphic pal8os2v2 - 16. bmp of the BMP Suite.
Versions after BITMAPCOREHEADER only add fields to the end of the header of the previous version. For example: BITMAPV2INFOHEADER adds fields to BITMAPINFOHEADER, and BITMAPV3INFOHEADER adds fields to BITMAPV2INFOHEADER.
An integrated alpha channel has been introduced with the undocumented BITMAPV3INFOHEADER and with the documented BITMAPV4HEADER (since Windows 95) and is used within Windows XP logon and theme system as well as Microsoft Office (since v2000); it is supported by some image editing software, such as Adobe Photoshop since version 7 and Adobe Flash since version MX 2004 (then known as Macromedia Flash). It is also supported by GIMP, Google Chrome, Microsoft PowerPoint and Microsoft Word.
For compatibility reasons, most applications use the older DIB headers for saving files. With OS / 2 no longer supported after Windows 2000, for now the common Windows format is the BITMAPINFOHEADER header. See next table for its description. All values are stored as unsigned integers, unless explicitly noted.
An OS / 2 2. x OS22XBITMAPHEADER aka BITMAPCOREHEADER2 contains 24 additional bytes not yet explained here. The compression method (offset 30) can be:
The color table (palette) occurs in the BMP image file directly after the BMP file header, the DIB header (and after optional three red, green and blue bitmasks if the BITMAPINFOHEADER header with BI_BITFIELDS option is used). Therefore, its offset is the size of the BITMAPFILEHEADER plus the size of the DIB header (plus optional 12 bytes for the three bit masks). Note: On Windows CE the BITMAPINFOHEADER header can be used with the BI_ALPHABITFIELDS option in the biCompression member.
The number of entries in the palette is either 2 or a smaller number specified in the header (in the OS / 2 BITMAPCOREHEADER header format, only the full - size palette is supported). In most cases, each entry in the color table occupies 4 bytes, in the order blue, green, red, 0x00 (see below for exceptions). This is indexed in the BITMAPINFOHEADER under the function biBitCount.
The color table is a block of bytes (a table) listing the colors used by the image. Each pixel in an indexed color image is described by a number of bits (1, 4, or 8) which is an index of a single color described by this table. The purpose of the color palette in indexed color bitmaps is to inform the application about the actual color that each of these index values corresponds to. The purpose of the color table in non-indexed (non-palettized) bitmaps is to list the colors used by the bitmap for the purposes of optimization on devices with limited color display capability and to facilitate future conversion to different pixel formats and paletization.
The colors in the color table are usually specified in the 4 - byte per entry RGBA32 format. The color table used with the OS / 2 BITMAPCOREHEADER uses the 3 - byte per entry RGB24 format. For DIBs loaded in memory, the color table can optionally consist of 2 - byte entries -- these entries constitute indexes to the currently realized palette instead of explicit RGB color definitions.
Microsoft does not disallow the presence of a valid alpha channel bit mask in BITMAPV4HEADER and BITMAPV5HEADER for 1bpp, 4bpp and 8bpp indexed color images, which indicates that the color table entries can also specify an alpha component using the 8.8. 8. (0 - 8). (0 - 8) format via the RGBQUAD. rgbReserved member. However, some versions of Microsoft 's documentation disallow this feature by stating that the RGBQUAD. rgbReserved member "must be zero ''.
As mentioned above, the color table is normally not used when the pixels are in the 16 - bit per pixel (16bpp) format (and higher); there are normally no color table entries in those bitmap image files. However, the Microsoft documentation (on the MSDN web site as of Nov. 16, 2010) specifies that for 16bpp (and higher), the color table can be present to store a list of colors intended for optimization on devices with limited color display capability, while it also specifies, that in such cases, no indexed palette entries are present in this Color Table. This may seem like a contradiction if no distinction is made between the mandatory palette entries and the optional color list.
The bits representing the bitmap pixels are packed in rows. The size of each row is rounded up to a multiple of 4 bytes (a 32 - bit DWORD) by padding. For images with height > 1, multiple padded rows are stored consecutively, forming a Pixel Array.
The total number of bytes necessary to store one row of pixels can be calculated as:
The total amount of bytes necessary to store an array of pixels in an n bits per pixel (bpp) image, with 2 colors, can be calculated by accounting for the effect of rounding up the size of each row to a multiple of 4 bytes, as follows:
The pixel array is a block of 32 - bit DWORDs, that describes the image pixel by pixel. Usually pixels are stored "upside - down '' with respect to normal image raster scan order, starting in the lower left corner, going from left to right, and then row by row from the bottom to the top of the image. Unless BITMAPCOREHEADER is used, uncompressed Windows bitmaps also can be stored from the top to bottom, when the Image Height value is negative.
In the original OS / 2 DIB, the only four legal values of color depth were 1, 4, 8, and 24 bits per pixel (bpp). Contemporary DIB Headers allow pixel formats with 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 24 and 32 bits per pixel (bpp). GDI+ also permits 64 bits per pixel.
Padding bytes (not necessarily 0) must be appended to the end of the rows in order to bring up the length of the rows to a multiple of four bytes. When the pixel array is loaded into memory, each row must begin at a memory address that is a multiple of 4. This address / offset restriction is mandatory only for Pixel Arrays loaded in memory. For file storage purposes, only the size of each row must be a multiple of 4 bytes while the file offset can be arbitrary. A 24 - bit bitmap with Width = 1, would have 3 bytes of data per row (blue, green, red) and 1 byte of padding, while Width = 2 would have 2 bytes of padding, Width = 3 would have 3 bytes of padding, and Width = 4 would not have any padding at all.
In order to resolve the ambiguity of which bits define which samples, the DIB headers provide certain defaults as well as specific BITFIELDS, which are bit masks that define the membership of particular group of bits in a pixel to a particular channel. The following diagram defines this mechanism:
The sample fields defined by the BITFIELDS bit masks have to be contiguous and non-overlapping, but the order of the sample fields is arbitrary. The most ubiquitous field order is: Alpha, Blue, Green, Red (MSB to LSB). The red, green and blue bit masks are valid only when the Compression member of the DIB header is set to BI_BITFIELDS. The alpha bit mask is valid whenever it is present in the DIB header or when the Compression member of the DIB header is set to BI_ALPHABITFIELDS (Windows CE only).
The BITFIELD mechanism described above allows for the definition of tens of thousands different pixel formats, however only several of them are used in practice, all palettized formats RGB8, RGB4, and RGB1 (marked in yellow in the table above, dshow. h MEDIASUBTYPE names) and:
In version 2.1. 4 FFmpeg supported (in its own terminology) the BMP pixel formats bgra, bgr24, rgb565le, rgb555le, rgb444le, rgb8, bgr8, rgb4_byte, bgr4_byte, gray, pal8, and monob; i.e., bgra was the only supported pixel format with transparency.
Following is an example of a 2 × 2 pixel, 24 - bit bitmap (Windows DIB header BITMAPINFOHEADER) with pixel format RGB24.
Following is an example of a 4 × 2 pixel, 32 - bit bitmap with opacity values in the alpha channel (Windows DIB Header BITMAPV4HEADER) with pixel format ARGB32.
Note that the bitmap data starts with the lower left hand corner of the image.
The simplicity of the BMP file format, and its widespread familiarity in Windows and elsewhere, as well as the fact that this format is relatively well documented and free of patents, makes it a very common format that image processing programs from many operating systems can read and write. ICO and CUR files contain bitmaps starting with a BITMAPINFOHEADER.
Many older graphical user interfaces used bitmaps in their built - in graphics subsystems; for example, the Microsoft Windows and OS / 2 platforms ' GDI subsystem, where the specific format used is the Windows and OS / 2 bitmap file format, usually named with the file extension of. BMP.
While most BMP files have a relatively large file size due to lack of any compression (or generally low - ratio run - length encoding on palletized images), many BMP files can be considerably compressed with lossless data compression algorithms such as ZIP because they contain redundant data. Some formats, such as RAR, even include routines specifically targeted at efficient compression of such data.
The X Window System uses a similar XBM format for black - and - white images, and XPM (pixelmap) for color images. There are also a variety of "raw '' formats, which save raw data with no other information. The Portable Pixmap (PPM) and Truevision TGA formats also exist, but are less often used -- or only for special purposes; for example, TGA can contain transparency information.
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who's guerrera in sing for the moment | Sing for the Moment - wikipedia
"Sing for the Moment '' is a song by American rapper Eminem from his fourth album The Eminem Show (2002). It was released in February 25, 2003, as the fourth single from The Eminem Show and the final single in the United States. The song samples "Dream On '' by American hard rock band Aerosmith.
"Sing for the Moment '' received positive reviews from music critics, with many critics praising Eminem 's rapping ability, the lyrics, and the "Dream On '' sample. "Sing for the Moment '' proved to be successful, peaking inside the Top 10 in twenty countries. In the United States, "Sing for the Moment '' reached number fourteen on the Billboard Hot 100. The song, along with the original "Dream On '', was used in a trailer for the 2016 animated film Sing.
"Sing for the Moment '' contains samples of the song "Dream On '' by the rock band Aerosmith. Joe Perry plays the guitar solo at the end of the song, and a sample of Steven Tyler singing is used as the chorus for this song. Eminem chants "sing '' when Tyler starts to sing the chorus, and Eminem also chants "sing with me '' and "come on ''. Eminem says the words in his live performances as well. The beginning of the song samples the intro of "Dream On ''. "Sing for the Moment '' was later released on Eminem 's greatest hits compilation album Curtain Call: The Hits (2005).
"Sing for the Moment '' deals with the themes of rap music 's effect on society and the misunderstanding Eminem claims critics and parents have towards his message. Eminem uses the song to refute critics who have accused him of promoting violence to young people, saying that committing a crime is ultimately up to the offender in a post-9 / 11 world. He also explains that his music has an advantage for young people, claiming that his music is a relief from boredom and depression. Eminem 's altercation with a bouncer named John Guerra is also referenced in this song.
"That 's why we seize the moment, try to freeze it and own it - Squeeze it and hold it, ' cause we consider these minutes golden ''
The song reached # 14 on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 Singles Chart, # 6 on the UK Singles Chart, and # 5 on the Australian ARIAnet Singles Chart.
David Browne wrote: "In ' Sing for the Moment, ' which includes a tirade against the media and politically motivated prosecutors, the intensity of his delivery overcomes the hoariest of ideas -- incorporating a portion of an overly familiar classic - rock oldie, Aerosmith 's ' Dream On. ' The song becomes a clarion call of suburban kids everywhere, not just an easy route to a hit. ''
DX magazine concluded that in this song Eminem is dealing with his life and called it "guitar - fueled track. '' RapReviews was positive: "' Sing For the Moment ' may throw his fans a curveball though: a song which appears to sample Aerosmith 's ' Dream On ' yet simultaneously features the REAL Joe Perry playing guitar. Obviously not a stretch for the hard rock icons though, who are still remembered for recording ' Walk This Way ' with Run - D.M.C. back in the 1980 's, so it 's an enjoyable diversion from non-stop hardcore hip - hop. ''
The music video, released in 2003, is a collage created with various clips, including shots from the Anger Management Tour. It also contains cameos by various fellow rappers, including Dr. Dre, the members of D12, 50 Cent and Ludacris. Eminem stands in neutral positions and stares at the camera several times in the video. The video is very similar to the 50 Cent music video "If I Ca n't ''. On The Eminem Show, "Sing for the Moment '' segues into "Superman ''. On Curtain Call: The Hits, the segue also fades out as "Superman '', since Superman is not included in the compilation. In a clean version of the video, the word "handguns '' is omitted from the second verse ("any dispute wo n't hesitate to produce handguns '').
shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
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when was the imf and world bank created | World Bank - Wikipedia
The World Bank (French: Banque mondiale) is an international financial institution that provides loans to countries of the world for capital projects. It comprises two institutions: the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), and the International Development Association (IDA). The World Bank is a component of the World Bank Group.
The World Bank 's most recent stated goal is the reduction of poverty.
The World Bank is different from the World Bank Group, an extended family of five international organizations:
The World Bank was created at the 1944 Bretton Woods Conference along with the International Monetary Fund (IMF). The president of the World Bank is, traditionally, an American. The World Bank and the IMF are both based in Washington, D.C., and work closely with each other.
Although many countries were represented at the Bretton Woods Conference, the United States and United Kingdom were the most powerful in attendance and dominated the negotiations. The intention behind the founding of the World Bank was to provide temporary loans to low - income countries which were unable to obtain loans commercially. The Bank may also make loans and demand policy reforms from recipients.
Before 1974, the reconstruction and development loans provided by the World Bank were relatively small. The Bank 's staff were aware of the need to instill confidence in the bank. Fiscal conservatism ruled, and loan applications had to meet strict criteria.
The first country to receive a World Bank loan was France. The Bank 's president at the time, John McCloy, chose France over two other applicants, Poland and Chile. The loan was for US $250 million, half the amount requested, and it came with strict conditions. France had to agree to produce a balanced budget and give priority of debt repayment to the World Bank over other governments. World Bank staff closely monitored the use of the funds to ensure that the French government met the conditions. In addition, before the loan was approved, the United States State Department told the French government that its members associated with the Communist Party would first have to be removed. The French government complied and removed the Communist coalition government - the so - called tripartite. Within hours, the loan to France was approved.
When the Marshall Plan went into effect in 1947, many European countries began receiving aid from other sources. Faced with this competition, the World Bank shifted its focus to non-European countries. Until 1968, its loans were earmarked for the construction of infrastructure works, such as seaports, highway systems, and power plants, that would generate enough income to enable a borrower country to repay the loan. In 1960, the International Development Association was formed (as opposed to a UN fund named SUNFED), providing soft loans to developing countries.
From 1974 to 1980 the bank concentrated on meeting the basic needs of people in the developing world. The size and number of loans to borrowers was greatly increased as loan targets expanded from infrastructure into social services and other sectors.
These changes can be attributed to Robert McNamara, who was appointed to the presidency in 1968 by Lyndon B. Johnson. McNamara implored bank treasurer Eugene Rotberg to seek out new sources of capital outside of the northern banks that had been the primary sources of funding. Rotberg used the global bond market to increase the capital available to the bank. One consequence of the period of poverty alleviation lending was the rapid rise of third world debt. From 1976 to 1980 developing world debt rose at an average annual rate of 20 %.
In 1980 the World Bank Administrative Tribunal was established to decide on disputes between the World Bank Group and its staff where allegation of non-observance of contracts of employment or terms of appointment had not been honored.
In 1980 McNamara was succeeded by US President Jimmy Carter 's nominee, Alden W. Clausen. Clausen replaced many members of McNamara 's staff and crafted a different mission emphasis. His 1982 decision to replace the bank 's Chief Economist, Hollis B. Chenery, with Anne Krueger was an example of this new focus. Krueger was known for her criticism of development funding and for describing Third World governments as "rent - seeking states. ''
During the 1980s the bank emphasized lending to service Third - World debt, and structural adjustment policies designed to streamline the economies of developing nations. UNICEF reported in the late 1980s that the structural adjustment programs of the World Bank had been responsible for "reduced health, nutritional and educational levels for tens of millions of children in Asia, Latin America, and Africa ''.
Beginning in 1989, in response to harsh criticism from many groups, the bank began including environmental groups and NGOs in its loans to mitigate the past effects of its development policies that had prompted the criticism. It also formed an implementing agency, in accordance with the Montreal Protocols, to stop ozone - depletion damage to the Earth 's atmosphere by phasing out the use of 95 % of ozone - depleting chemicals, with a target date of 2015. Since then, in accordance with its so - called "Six Strategic Themes '', the bank has put various additional policies into effect to preserve the environment while promoting development. For example, in 1991 the bank announced that to protect against deforestation, especially in the Amazon, it would not finance any commercial logging or infrastructure projects that harm the environment.
In order to promote global public goods, the World Bank tries to control communicable disease such as malaria, delivering vaccines to several parts of the world and joining combat forces. In 2000 the bank announced a "war on AIDS '' and in 2011 the Bank joined the Stop Tuberculosis Partnership.
Traditionally, based on a tacit understanding between the United States and Europe, the president of the World Bank has always been selected from candidates nominated by the United States. In 2012, for the first time, two non-US citizens were nominated.
On 23 March 2012, U.S. President Barack Obama announced that the United States would nominate Jim Yong Kim as the next president of the Bank. Jim Yong Kim was elected on 27 April 2012.
Various developments had brought the Millennium Development Goals targets for 2015 within reach in some cases. For the goals to be realized, six criteria must be met: stronger and more inclusive growth in Africa and fragile states, more effort in health and education, integration of the development and environment agendas, more as well as better aid, movement on trade negotiations, and stronger and more focused support from multilateral institutions like the World Bank.
To make sure that World Bank - financed operations do not compromise these goals but instead add to their realisation, environmental, social and legal safeguards were defined. However, these safeguards have not been implemented entirely yet. At the World Bank 's annual meeting in Tokyo 2012 a review of these safeguards has been initiated, which was welcomed by several civil society organisations.
The President of the Bank is the president of the entire World Bank Group. The president, currently Jim Yong Kim, is responsible for chairing the meetings of the Boards of Directors and for overall management of the Bank. Traditionally, the President of the Bank has always been a US citizen nominated by the United States, the largest shareholder in the bank (the managing director of the International Monetary Fund having always been a European). The nominee is subject to confirmation by the Board of Executive Directors, to serve for a five - year, renewable term. While most World Bank presidents have had banking experience, some have not.
The vice presidents of the Bank are its principal managers, in charge of regions, sectors, networks and functions. There are two Executive Vice presidents, three Senior Vice presidents, and 24 Vice presidents.
The Boards of Directors consist of the World Bank Group President and 25 Executive Directors. The President is the presiding officer, and ordinarily has no vote except a deciding vote in case of an equal division. The Executive Directors as individuals can not exercise any power nor commit or represent the Bank unless specifically authorized by the Boards to do so. With the term beginning 1 November 2010, the number of Executive Directors increased by one, to 25.
The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) has 189 member countries, while the International Development Association (IDA) has 173 members. Each member state of IBRD should be also a member of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and only members of IBRD are allowed to join other institutions within the Bank (such as IDA).
In 2010 voting powers at the World Bank were revised to increase the voice of developing countries, notably China. The countries with most voting power are now the United States (15.85 %), Japan (6.84 %), China (4.42 %), Germany (4.00 %), the United Kingdom (3.75 %), France (3.75 %), India (2.91 %), Russia (2.77 %), Saudi Arabia (2.77 %) and Italy (2.64 %). Under the changes, known as ' Voice Reform -- Phase 2 ', countries other than China that saw significant gains included South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Singapore, Greece, Brazil, India, and Spain. Most developed countries ' voting power was reduced, along with a few developing countries such as Nigeria. The voting powers of the United States, Russia and Saudi Arabia were unchanged.
The changes were brought about with the goal of making voting more universal in regards to standards, rule - based with objective indicators, and transparent among other things. Now, developing countries have an increased voice in the "Pool Model '', backed especially by Europe. Additionally, voting power is based on economic size in addition to International Development Association contributions.
The following table shows the subscriptions of the top 20 member countries of the World Bank by voting power in the following World Bank institutions as of December 2014 or March 2015: the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), the International Finance Corporation (IFC), the International Development Association (IDA), and the Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA). Member countries are allocated votes at the time of membership and subsequently for additional subscriptions to capital (one vote for each share of capital stock held by the member).
For the poorest developing countries in the world, the bank 's assistance plans are based on poverty reduction strategies; by combining a cross-section of local groups with an extensive analysis of the country 's financial and economic situation the World Bank develops a strategy pertaining uniquely to the country in question. The government then identifies the country 's priorities and targets for the reduction of poverty, and the World Bank aligns its aid efforts correspondingly.
Forty - five countries pledged US $25.1 billion in "aid for the world 's poorest countries '', aid that goes to the World Bank International Development Association (IDA), which distributes the loans to eighty poorer countries. While wealthier nations sometimes fund their own aid projects, including those for diseases, and although IDA is the recipient of criticism, Robert B. Zoellick, the former president of the World Bank, said when the loans were announced on 15 December 2007, that IDA money "is the core funding that the poorest developing countries rely on ''.
World Bank organizes Development Marketplace Awards, a competitive grant program that surfaces and funds innovative, development projects with high potential for development impact that are scalable and / or replicable. The grant beneficiaries are social enterprises with projects that aim to deliver a range of social and public services to the most underserved low - income groups.
The World Bank has been assigned temporary management responsibility of the Clean Technology Fund (CTF), focused on making renewable energy cost - competitive with coal - fired power as quickly as possible, but this may not continue after UN 's Copenhagen climate change conference in December 2009, because of the Bank 's continued investment in coal - fired power plants.
Together with the World Health Organization, the World Bank administers the International Health Partnership (IHP+). IHP+ is a group of partners committed to improving the health of citizens in developing countries. Partners work together to put international principles for aid effectiveness and development cooperation into practice in the health sector. IHP+ mobilizes national governments, development agencies, civil society and others to support a single, country - led national health strategy in a well - coordinated way.
World Bank President Jim Yong Kim said in 2012 that:
The World Bank doubled its aid for climate change adaptation from $2.3 bn (£ 1.47 bn) in 2011 to $4.6 bn in 2012. The planet is now 0.8 ° C warmer than in pre-industrial times. It says that 2 ° C warming will be reached in 20 to 30 years.
The World Bank Institute (WBI) creates learning opportunities for countries, World Bank staff and clients, and people committed to poverty reduction and sustainable development. WBI 's work program includes training, policy consultations, and the creation and support of knowledge networks related to international economic and social development.
The World Bank Institute (WBI) can be defined as a "global connector of knowledge, learning and innovation for poverty reduction ''. It aims to inspire change agents and prepare them with essential tools that can help achieve development results. WBI has four major strategies to approach development problems: innovation for development, knowledge exchange, leadership and coalition building, and structured learning. World Bank Institute (WBI) was formerly known as Economic Development Institute (EDI), established on 11 March 1955 with the support of the Rockefeller and Ford Foundations. The purpose of the institute was to serve as provide an open place where senior officials from developing countries could discuss development policies and programs. Over the years, EDI grew significantly and in 2000, the Institute was renamed as the World Bank Institute. Currently Sanjay Pradhan is the Vice President of the World Bank Institute.
The Global Development Learning Network (GDLN) is a partnership of over 120 learning centers (GDLN Affiliates) in nearly 80 countries around the world. GDLN Affiliates collaborate in holding events that connect people across countries and regions for learning and dialogue on development issues.
GDLN clients are typically NGOs, government, private sector and development agencies who find that they work better together on subregional, regional or global development issues using the facilities and tools offered by GDLN Affiliates. Clients also benefit from the ability of Affiliates to help them choose and apply these tools effectively, and to tap development practitioners and experts worldwide. GDLN Affiliates facilitate around 1000 videoconference - based activities a year on behalf of their clients, reaching some 90,000 people worldwide. Most of these activities bring together participants in two or more countries over a series of sessions. A majority of GDLN activities are organized by small government agencies and NGOs.
The GDLN in the East Asia and Pacific region has experienced rapid growth and Distance Learning Centers now operate, or are planned in 20 countries: Australia, Mongolia, Cambodia, China, Indonesia, Singapore, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Japan, Papua New Guinea, South Korea, Thailand, Laos, Timor Leste, Fiji, Afghanistan, Bangladesh, India, Nepal and New Zealand. With over 180 Distance Learning Centers, it is the largest development learning network in the Asia and Pacific region. The Secretariat Office of GDLN Asia Pacific is located in the Center of Academic Resources of Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand.
GDLN Asia Pacific was launched at the GDLN 's East Asia and Pacific regional meeting held in Bangkok from 22 to 24 May 2006. Its vision is to become "the premier network exchanging ideas, experience and know - how across the Asia Pacific Region ''. GDLN Asia Pacific is a separate entity to The World Bank. It has endorsed its own Charter and Business Plan and, in accordance with the Charter, a GDLN Asia Pacific Governing Committee has been appointed.
The committee comprises China (2), Australia (1), Thailand (1), The World Bank (1) and finally, a nominee of the Government of Japan (1). The organization is currently hosted by Chulalongkorn University in Bangkok, Thailand, founding member of the GDLN Asia Pacific.
The Governing Committee has determined that the most appropriate legal status for the GDLN AP in Thailand is a "Foundation ''. The World Bank is currently engaging a solicitor in Thailand to process all documentation in order to obtain this legal status.
GDLN Asia Pacific is built on the principle of shared resources among partners engaged in a common task, and this is visible in the organizational structures that exist, as the network evolves. Physical space for its headquarters is provided by the host of the GDLN Centre in Thailand -- Chulalongkorn University; Technical expertise and some infrastructure is provided by the Tokyo Development Learning Centre (TDLC); Fiduciary services are provided by Australian National University (ANU) Until the GDLN Asia Pacific is established as a legal entity tin Thailand, ANU, has offered to assist the governing committee, by providing a means of managing the inflow and outflow of funds and of reporting on them. This admittedly results in some complexity in contracting arrangements, which need to be worked out on a case by case basis and depends to some extent on the legal requirements of the countries involved.
A Justice Sector Peer - Assisted Learning (JUSTPAL) Network was launched in April 2011 by the Poverty Reduction and Economic Management (PREM) Department of the World Bank 's Europe and Central Asia (ECA) Region. The JUSTPAL objective is to provide an online and offline platform for justice professionals to exchange knowledge, good practices and peer - driven improvements to justice systems and thereby support countries to improve their justice sector performance, quality of justice and service delivery to citizens and businesses.
The JUSTPAL Network includes representatives of judiciaries, ministries of justice, prosecutors, anti-corruption agencies and other justice - related entities from across the globe. The Network currently has active members from more than 50 countries.
To facilitate fruitful exchange of reform experiences and sharing of applicable good practices, the JUSTPAL Network has organized its activities under (currently) five Communities of Practice (COPs): (i) Budgeting for the Justice Sector; (ii) Information Systems for Justice Services; (iii) Justice Sector Physical Infrastructure; (iv) Court Management and Administration; and (v) Prosecution and Anti-Corruption Agencies.
As a guideline to the World Bank 's operations in any particular country, a Country Assistance Strategy is produced, in cooperation with the local government and any interested stakeholders and may rely on analytical work performed by the Bank or other parties.
Clean Air Initiative (CAI) is a World Bank initiative to advance innovative ways to improve air quality in cities through partnerships in selected regions of the world by sharing knowledge and experiences. It includes electric vehicles. Initiatives like this help address and tackle pollution - related diseases.
Based on an agreement between the United Nations and the World Bank in 1981, Development Business became the official source for World Bank Procurement Notices, Contract Awards, and Project Approvals.
In 1998, the agreement was re-negotiated, and included in this agreement was a joint venture to create an electronic version of the publication via the World Wide Web. Today, Development Business is the primary publication for all major multilateral development banks, United Nations agencies, and several national governments, many of whom have made the publication of their tenders and contracts in Development Business a mandatory requirement.
The World Bank or the World Bank Group is also a sitting observer in the United Nations Development Group.
The World Bank collects and processes large amounts of data and generates them on the basis of economic models. These data and models have gradually been made available to the public in a way that encourages reuse, whereas the recent publications describing them are available as open access under a Creative Commons Attribution License, for which the bank received the SPARC Innovator 2012 award.
The World Bank also endorses the Principles for Digital Development.
The following table lists the top 15 DAC 5 Digit Sectors to which the World Bank has committed funding, as recorded by it in its International Aid Transparency Initiative (IATI) publications. The World Bank states on the IATI Registry website that the amounts "will cover 100 % of IBRD and IDA development flows '' but will not cover other development flows.
The World Bank hosts the Open Knowledge Repository (OKR) as an official open access repository for its research outputs and knowledge products. The World Bank 's repository is listed in the Registry of Research Data Repositories re3data.org.
The World Bank has long been criticized by non-governmental organizations, such as the indigenous rights group Survival International, and academics, including its former Chief Economist Joseph Stiglitz, Henry Hazlitt and Ludwig Von Mises. Henry Hazlitt argued that the World Bank along with the monetary system it was designed within would promote world inflation and "a world in which international trade is State - dominated '' when they were being advocated. Stiglitz argued that the so - called free market reform policies that the Bank advocates are often harmful to economic development if implemented badly, too quickly ("shock therapy ''), in the wrong sequence or in weak, uncompetitive economies. Similarly, Carmine Guerriero notices that these reforms have introduced in developing countries regulatory institutions typical of the common law legal tradition because allegedly more efficient according to the legal origins theory. The latter however has been fiercely criticized since it does not take into account that the legal institutions transplanted during the European colonization have been then reformed. This issue makes the legal origins theory 's inference unreliable and the World Bank reforms detrimental.
One of the strongest criticisms of the World Bank has been the way in which it is governed. While the World Bank represents 188 countries, it is run by a small number of economically powerful countries. These countries (which also provide most of the institution 's funding) choose the leadership and senior management of the World Bank, and their interests dominate the bank. Titus Alexander argues that the unequal voting power of western countries and the World Bank 's role in developing countries makes it similar to the South African Development Bank under apartheid, and therefore a pillar of global apartheid.
In the 1990s, the World Bank and the IMF forged the Washington Consensus, policies that included deregulation and liberalization of markets, privatization and the downscaling of government. Though the Washington Consensus was conceived as a policy that would best promote development, it was criticized for ignoring equity, employment and how reforms like privatization were carried out. Joseph Stiglitz argued that the Washington Consensus placed too much emphasis on the growth of GDP, and not enough on the permanence of growth or on whether growth contributed to better living standards.
The United States Senate Committee on Foreign Relations report criticized the World Bank and other international financial institutions for focusing too much "on issuing loans rather than on achieving concrete development results within a finite period of time '' and called on the institution to "strengthen anti-corruption efforts ''.
James Ferguson has argued that the main effect of many development projects carried out by the World Bank and similar organizations is not the alleviation of poverty. Instead the projects often serve to expand the exercise of bureaucratic state power. Through his case - studies of development projects in Thaba - Tseka he shows that the World Bank 's characterization of the economic conditions in Lesotho was flawed, and the Bank ignored the political and cultural character of the state in crafting their projects. As a result, the projects failed to help the poor, but succeeded in expanding the government bureaucracy.
Criticism of the World Bank and other organizations often takes the form of protesting as seen in recent events such as the World Bank Oslo 2002 Protests, the October Rebellion, and the Battle of Seattle. Such demonstrations have occurred all over the world, even among the Brazilian Kayapo people.
Another source of criticism has been the tradition of having an American head the bank, implemented because the United States provides the majority of World Bank funding. "When economists from the World Bank visit poor countries to dispense cash and advice '', observed The Economist in 2012, "they routinely tell governments to reject cronyism and fill each important job with the best candidate available. It is good advice. The World Bank should take it. '' Jim Yong Kim, a Korean - American, is the most recently appointed president of the World Bank.
The effect of structural adjustment policies on poor countries has been one of the most significant criticisms of the World Bank. The 1979 energy crisis plunged many countries into economic crisis. The World Bank responded with structural adjustment loans, which distributed aid to struggling countries while enforcing policy changes in order to reduce inflation and fiscal imbalance. Some of these policies included encouraging production, investment and labour - intensive manufacturing, changing real exchange rates and altering the distribution of government resources. Structural adjustment policies were most effective in countries with an institutional framework that allowed these policies to be implemented easily. For some countries, particularly in Sub-Saharan Africa, economic growth regressed and inflation worsened. The alleviation of poverty was not a goal of structural adjustment loans, and the circumstances of the poor often worsened, due to a reduction in social spending and an increase in the price of food, as subsidies were lifted.
By the late 1980s, international organizations began to admit that structural adjustment policies were worsening life for the world 's poor. The World Bank changed structural adjustment loans, allowing for social spending to be maintained, and encouraging a slower change to policies such as transfer of subsidies and price rises. In 1999, the World Bank and the IMF introduced the Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper approach to replace structural adjustment loans. The Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper approach has been interpreted as an extension of structural adjustment policies as it continues to reinforce and legitimize global inequities. Neither approach has addressed the inherent flaws within the global economy that contribute to economic and social inequities within developing countries.
Some critics, most prominently the author Naomi Klein, are of the opinion that the World Bank Group 's loans and aid have unfair conditions attached to them that reflect the interests, financial power and political doctrines (notably the Washington Consensus) of the Bank and, by extension, the countries that are most influential within it. Among other allegations, Klein says the Group 's credibility was damaged "when it forced school fees on students in Ghana in exchange for a loan; when it demanded that Tanzania privatise its water system; when it made telecom privatisation a condition of aid for Hurricane Mitch; when it demanded labour ' flexibility ' in Sri Lanka in the aftermath of the Asian tsunami; when it pushed for eliminating food subsidies in post-invasion Iraq ''.
The World Bank requires sovereign immunity from countries it deals with. Sovereign immunity waives a holder from all legal liability for their actions. It is proposed that this immunity from responsibility is a "shield which The World Bank wants to resort to, for escaping accountability and security by the people. '' As the United States has veto power, it can prevent the World Bank from taking action against its interests.
World Bank favored PricewaterhouseCoopers as a consultant in a bid for privatizing the water distribution in Delhi, India
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do canadian citizens need a visa for bolivia | Visa requirements for Canadian citizens - wikipedia
Visa requirements for Canadian citizens are administrative entry restrictions by the authorities of other states placed on citizens of Canada. As of 1 January 2017, Canadian citizens had visa - free or visa on arrival access to 171 countries and territories, ranking the Canadian passport 6th in terms of travel freedom (tied with Greek, Portuguese and Swiss passports) according to the Henley visa restrictions index.
Starting 1 January 2018, reciprocity fee will not be required for entry.
Visa requirements for Canadian citizens for visits to various territories, disputed areas, partially recognized countries, and restricted zones:
Many countries require passports to be valid for at least 6 months upon arrival. Note that some nations have bilateral agreements with other countries to shorten the passport validity cut - off period for each other 's citizens.
Countries requiring passports to be valid at least 6 months on arrival include Afghanistan, Algeria, Anguilla, Bahrain, Bhutan, Botswana, British Virgin Islands, Brunei, Cambodia, Cameroon, Cayman Islands, Central African Republic, Chad, Comoros, Côte d'Ivoire, Curaçao, Ecuador, Egypt, El Salvador, Equatorial Guinea, Fiji, Gabon, Guinea Bissau, Guyana, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq (except when arriving at Basra and Erbil or Sulaimaniyah), Israel, Jordan, Kenya, Kiribati, Laos, Madagascar, Malaysia, Marshall Islands, Micronesia, Myanmar, Namibia, Nicaragua, Nigeria, Oman, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Qatar, Rwanda, Saint Lucia, Samoa, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Solomon Islands, Somalia, Somaliland, Sri Lanka, Suriname, Taiwan, Tanzania, Thailand, Timor - Leste, Tokelau, Tonga, Tuvalu, Uganda, United Arab Emirates, Vanuatu, Venezuela, Vietnam, Yemen and Zimbabwe.
Countries requiring passports valid for at least 4 months on arrival include Micronesia and Zambia.
Countries requiring passports valid for at least 3 months on arrival include European Union countries (except Denmark, Republic of Ireland and the United Kingdom, and except for EU / EEA / Swiss citizens), Albania, Belarus, Georgia, Honduras, Iceland, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Liechtenstein, Moldova, Monaco, Nauru, Panama, Saint Barthélemy, San Marino, Switzerland and the United Arab Emirates.
Bermuda requires passports to be valid for at least 45 days upon entry.
Countries that require a passport validity of at least 1 month on arrival include Eritrea, Hong Kong, Macao, New Zealand and South Africa.
Other countries require either a passport valid on arrival or a passport valid throughout the period of the intended stay.
Many countries require a minimum number of blank pages in the passport being presented, generally one or two pages.
Many African countries, including Angola, Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Republic of the Congo, Côte d'Ivoire, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Ghana, Guinea, Liberia, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Rwanda, São Tomé and Príncipe, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Uganda, and Zambia require all incoming passengers to have a current International Certificate of Vaccination.
Some other countries require vaccination only if the passenger is coming from an infected area.
Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Syria and Yemen do not allow entry to people with passport stamps from Israel or whose passports have either a used or an unused Israeli visa, or where there is evidence of previous travel to Israel such as entry or exit stamps from neighbouring border posts in transit countries such as Jordan and Egypt.
To circumvent this Arab League boycott of Israel, the Israeli immigration services have now mostly ceased to stamp foreign nationals ' passports on either entry to or exit from Israel. Since 15 January 2013, Israel no longer stamps foreign passports at Ben Gurion Airport, giving passengers a card instead: "Since January 2013 a pilot scheme has been introduced whereby visitors are given an entry card instead of an entry stamp on arrival. You should keep this card with your passport until you leave. This is evidence of your legal entry into Israel and may be required, particularly at any crossing points into the Occupied Palestinian Territories. '' Passports are still (as of 22 June 2017) stamped at Erez when travelling into and out of Gaza. Also, passports are still stamped (as of 22 June 2017) at the Jordan Valley / Sheikh Hussein and Yitzhak Rabin / Arava land borders with Jordan.
Due to a state of war existing between Armenia and Azerbaijan, the government of Azerbaijan not only bans entry of citizens from Armenia, but also all citizens and nationals of any other country who are of Armenian descent, to the Republic of Azerbaijan (although there have been exceptions, notably for Armenia 's participation at the 2015 European Games held in Azerbaijan).
Azerbaijan also strictly bans any visit by foreign citizens to the separatist region of Nagorno - Karabakh (the de facto independent Republic of Artsakh), its surrounding territories and the Azerbaijani exclaves of Karki, Yuxarı Əskipara, Barxudarlı and Sofulu which are de jure part of Azerbaijan but under control of Armenia, without the prior consent of the government of Azerbaijan. Foreign citizens who enter these occupied territories, will be permanently banned from entering the Republic of Azerbaijan and will be included in their "list of personae non gratae ''.
Upon request, the Republic of Artsakh authorities may attach their visa and / or stamps to a separate piece of paper in order to avoid detection of travel to their country.
The government of a country can declare a diplomat persona non grata, banning their entry into that country. In non-diplomatic use, the authorities of a country may also declare a foreigner persona non grata permanently or temporarily, usually because of unlawful activity. Attempts to enter the Gaza strip by sea may attract a 10 - year ban on entering Israel.
Some countries (for example, Canada) routinely deny entry to foreigners who have a criminal record.
Several countries including Argentina, Cambodia, Japan, Malaysia, Saudi Arabia, South Korea demand that all passengers be fingerprinted on arrival.
Canada has diplomatic and consular offices (including honorary consuls) in over 270 locations in approximately 180 foreign countries.
According to the statistics these are the numbers of Canadian visitors to various countries per annum in 2015 (unless otherwise noted):
1400 300 1000 100
British Overseas Territories. Open border with Schengen Area. Russia is a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. The majority of its population (80 %) lives in European Russia, therefore Russia as a whole is included as a European country here. Turkey is a transcontinental country in the Middle East and Southeast Europe. Has part of its territory (3 %) in Southeast Europe called Turkish Thrace. Azerbaijan (Artsakh) and Georgia (Abkhazia; South Ossetia) are transcontinental countries. Both have part of their territories in the European part of the Caucasus. Kazakhstan is a transcontinental country. Has part of its territories located west of the Urals in Eastern Europe. Armenia and Cyprus (Northern Cyprus; Akrotiri and Dhekelia) are entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio - political connections with Europe. Egypt is a transcontinental country in North Africa and the Middle East. Has part of its territory in the Middle East called Sinai Peninsula. Part of the Realm of New Zealand. Partially recognized. Unincorporated territory of the United States. Part of Norway, not part of the Schengen Area, special open - border status under Svalbard Treaty
British Overseas Territories. Open border with Schengen Area. Russia is a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. The vast majority of its population (80 %) lives in European Russia. Turkey is a transcontinental country in the Middle East and Southeast Europe. Has a small part of its territory (3 %) in Southeast Europe called Turkish Thrace. Azerbaijan and Georgia (Abkhazia; South Ossetia) are transcontinental countries. Both have a small part of their territories in the European part of the Caucasus. Kazakhstan is a transcontinental country. Has a small part of its territories located west of the Urals in Eastern Europe. Armenia (Artsakh) and Cyprus (Northern Cyprus) are entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio - political connections with Europe. Egypt is a transcontinental country in North Africa and the Middle East. Has a small part of its territory in the Middle East called Sinai peninsula. Partially recognized.
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he was a mass composer of the catholic church in rome | List of Roman Catholic Church musicians - wikipedia
List of Catholic Church musicians is a list of people who perform or compose Catholic music, a branch of Christian music. Names should be limited to those whose Catholicism affected their music and should preferably only include those musicians whose works have been performed liturgically in a Catholic service, or who perform specifically in a Catholic religious context.
Note: The term classical music has been used broadly to describe many eras which do not fit the label. Initially the term specifically meant 1730 -- 1820 (the Classical period), but for this list the period from the Baroque period to the modern era will be included in this section. This is because Renaissance and especially Medieval music tends to be dominated, in the West, by Catholic religious music.
The Roman School is a group of composers strongly linked to the Vatican and the Council of Trent. Many of them were, or became, priests. Although much of their work is too early to be mentioned here it did survive into the early Baroque. Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina is generally seen as the most famous member. As a list of members is in the article on the subject, repetition of names in it should be normally avoided, although Palestrina is notable enough to be in both.
There is a small but growing school of church composers, favoring a return to Catholic music that can be called "classical '', writing original organ, choral, and vocal music that is often based on Gregorian chant. Andrea Amici (b. 1972) has written Gregorian - based music of high quality.
Francis Koerber is composing Roman Catholic organ and choral works including Mass settings.
Contemporary Catholic music takes many forms, from modern hymnody to inculturated sacred works. The genre of modern Catholic music is continuing to grow.
Modern Catholic musicians tend toward two main forms of expression: liturgical and non-liturgical. In a liturgical context, music is performed in a manner intended to heighten the spiritual atmosphere of a liturgical service, such as during Sunday Mass, Eucharistic adoration or Stations of the Cross, and is mandated to follow the musical tradition and decrees of the Church, such as those found in Musical Sacra and Tra le Sollecitudini for the Latin rite. The non-liturgical context, though very much worshipful, usually takes the form of a concert or gathering without the presence of a liturgical service and outside of the Mass. Non-liturgical settings are mainly focused on building Christian fellowship within Catholic communities. Non-liturgical artists find the opportunity to uniquely share their faith through their personal lyrics, and directly to audiences between songs, and these gatherings, since they are not a rite of the Church, but a form of personal and popular devotion, are free from the liturgical requirements that accompany a solemn act of worship in a liturgy. Although Catholic musicians tend toward one expression over the other, many will minister within both expressions with the appropriate music styles for each.
The following popular composers and performers are of note:
Note: The Unity Awards began in 2001 with the intent of being a Catholic - specific equivalent to the GMA Dove Awards. In certain cases the following mentions winners of this award.
Celebrant Singers (www.celebrants.org)
Note: It is difficult to find an existing list of Catholic emcees (rappers) and DJs. This is an attempt to create an exhaustive list of said artists. Some of these artists are listed above under "Non-liturgical Artists ''.
Many composers have contributed to the distinct pop - inspired sound of contemporary Catholic liturgical music, including Marty Haugen, (a non-Catholic,) Dan Schutte, David Hassr, Fr. Michael Joncas, and the St. Louis Jesuits. For more details, see Contemporary Catholic liturgical music. A majority of American Catholic Parishes now use at least some of this style of music in their liturgies. A recent trend has returned to the official music of the Roman Catholic Church, Gregorian chant and to newly composed music based on or inspired by it, and to liturgical projects like the Chabanel Psalms or Adam bartlett 's Simple English Propers.
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what are the famous traditional food items of maharashtra | Maharashtrian cuisine - wikipedia
Maharashtrian or Marathi cuisine is the cuisine of the Marathi people from the Indian state of Maharashtra. It has distinctive attributes, while sharing much with other Indian cuisine s. Traditionally, Maharashtrians have considered their food to be more austere than others.
Maharashtrian cuisine includes mild and spicy dishes. Wheat, rice, jowar, bajri, vegetables, lentils and fruit are dietary staples. Peanuts and cashews are often served with vegetables. Meat is traditionally used sparsely or by the well off until recently, because of economic conditions and culture.
The urban population in metropolitan cities such as Mumbai, Pune and others has been influenced from other parts of India and abroad. For example, the Udupi dishes idli and dosa, as well as Chinese and Western dishes, are quite popular in home cooking and in restaurants.
Distinctly Maharashtrian dishes include ukdiche modak, aluchi patal bhaji and Thalipeeth.
The Marathi people produced a diverse cuisine, which extends to the family level because each family uses its own unique combination of spices. The majority of Maharashtrians eat meat and eggs, but the Brahmin community is mostly lacto - vegetarian. The traditional staple food on Desh (the Deccan plateau) is usually bhakri, spiced cooked vegetables, dal and rice. However, North Maharashtrians and urbanites prefer roti or chapati, which is a plain bread made with wheat flour.
In the coastal Konkan region, rice is the traditional staple food. Wet coconut and coconut milk are used in many dishes. Marathi communities indigenous to Mumbai and North Konkan have their own distinct cuisine. In South Konkan, near Malvan, another independent cuisine developed called Malvani cuisine, which is predominantly non-vegetarian. Kombdi vade, fish preparations and baked preparations are more popular there.
In the Vidarbha region, little coconut is used in daily preparations but dry coconut and peanuts are used in dishes such as spicy savji s, as well as in mutton and chicken dishes.
Lacto - vegetarian dishes are based on six main class of ingredients including grains, legumes, vegetables, dairy products and spices.
Staple dishes are based on a variety of flatbreads and rice. Flatbreads can be wheat - based, such as the traditional trigonal ghadichi poli or the round chapati that is more common in urban areas. Bhakri is an unleavened bread made using from ragi or millet, bajra or bajri or jwari -- and forms part of daily meals in rural areas.
Traditionally, the staple grains of the inland Deccan plateau have been millets, jwari and bajri. These crops grow well in this dry and drought - prone region. In the coastal Konkan region the finger millet called ragi is used for bhakri. The staple meal of the rural poor was traditionally as simple as bajra bhakri accompanied by just a raw onion, a dry chutney, or a gram flour preparation called jhunka. This meal later became fashionable among the urban classes.
Increased urbanization has increased wheat 's popularity. Wheat is used for making flatbreads called chapati, trigonal ghadichi poli the deep - fried version called puri or the thick paratha. One of the ancient sought - after breads was Mande. As with rice, flatbreads accompany a meal of vegetables or dairy items.
Rice is the staple food in the rural areas of coastal Konkan region but is popular in all urban areas. Local varieties such as the fragrant ambemohar have been popular in Western Maharashtra. In most instances, rice is boiled on its own and becomes part of a meal that includes other items. A popular dish is varan bhaat where steamed rice is mixed with plain dal that is prepared with pigeon peas, lemon juice, salt and ghee. Khichdi is a popular rice dish made with rice, mung dal and spices. For special occasions, a dish called masalebhat made with rice, spices and vegetables is popular.
Milk is important as a staple food. Both cow milk and water buffalo milk are popular. Milk is used mainly for drinking, to add to tea or coffee or to make homemade yogurt. The yogurt is used as dressing for many salad or koshimbir dishes, to prepare cultured buttermilk or as a side dish in a thali. Buttermilk is used in a drink called mattha by mixing it with spices. It may also be used in curry preparations.
Until recently, canned or frozen food was not widely available in India. Therefore, the vegetables used in a meal widely depended on the season. For example, spring (March -- May) is the season of cabbages, onions, potatoes, okra, guar tondali, shevgyachya shenga, dudhi, marrow and padwal. Monsoon season (June -- September) for green leafy vegetables, such as aloo (marathi: आळू), or gourds such as karle, dodka and eggplant. Chili peppers, carrots, tomatoes, cauliflower, french beans and peas become available in the cooler climate of October to February.
Vegetables are typically used in making bhaajis. Some bhaajis are made with a particular vegetable, while others are made with a combination. Bhaajis can be "dry '' such as stir fry or "wet '' as in the well - known curry. For example, fenugreek leaves can be used with mung dal to make a dry bhhaji or mixed with besan flour and buttermilk to make a curry preparation. Bhaaji requires the use of goda masala, consisting of a combination of onion, garlic, ginger, red chilli powder, green chillies, turmeric and mustard seeds. Depending on a family 's caste or specific religious tradition, onions and garlic may be excluded. For example, a number of Hindu communities from many parts of India refrain from eating onions and garlic altogether during chaturmas, which broadly equals the monsoon season.
Leafy vegetables such as fenugreek, amaranth, beetroot, radish, dill, colocasia, spinach, ambadi, sorrel (Chuka in Marathi), chakwat, safflower (Kardai in Marathi) and tandulja are either stir - fried (pale bhaaji) or made into a soup (patal bhaaji) using buttermilk and gram flour.
Many vegetables are used in salad preparations called koshimbirs or raita. Most of these have yogurt as the other main ingredient. Koshimbirs popular include those based on radish, cucumber and tomato - onion combinations. Many raita require prior boiling or roasting of the vegetable as in the case of eggplant. Popular raita include those based on carrots, eggplant, pumpkin, dudhi and beetroot respectively.
Along with green vegetables, another class of popular food is various beans, either whole or split. Split beans are called dal and turned into amti or thin soup, added to vegetables such as dudhi. Dal may be cooked with rice to make khichadi. Whole beans are cooked as is or more popularly soaked in water until sprouted. Unlike Chinese cuisine, the beans are allowed to grow for only a day or two. Curries made out of sprouted beans are called usal and form an important source of proteins. The beanspopular in Maharastrian cuisine include peas, chick peas, mung, matki, urid kidney bean, black - eyed peas, kulith and toor (also called pigeon peas). Out of the above toor and chick peas are staples. The urid bean is the base for one of the most popular types of papadum ' '.
Peanut oil and safflower oil are the primary cooking oils, although sunflower oil and cottonseed oil are also used. Clarified butter (called ghee) is often used for its distinct flavor.
Depending on region, religion and caste, Maharashtrian food can be mild to extremely spicy. Common spices include asafoetida, turmeric, mustard seeds, coriander, cumin, dried bay leaves, and chili powder. Other spices used especially for garam masala include cinnamon, cloves, black pepper, cardamom and nutmeg. Common herbs to impart flavor or to garnish a dish include curry leaves, and coriander leaves. Many common curry recipes call for garlic, onion, ginger and green chilli pepper. Ingredients that impart sour flavor to the food include yoghurt, tomatoes, tamarind paste, amsul skin or unripe mangoes.
Chicken and goat are the most popular meats. Eggs are popular and exclusively come from chicken sources. Beef and pork are mainly consumed by Christian minorities and some Dalit communities. However, these do not form part of traditional Maharashtrian cuisine.
Seafood is a staple for many Konkan coastal communities. Most of the recipes are based on marine fish, prawns and crab. A distinct Malvani cuisine of mainly seafood dishes is popular. Popular fish varieties include Bombay duck, pomfret, bangda and surmai (kingfish). Seafood is used in recipes such as curries, pan-fried dishes and pilaf.
Other ingredients include oil seeds such as flax, karale, coconut, peanuts, almonds and cashew nuts. Peanut powder and whole nuts are used in many preparations including, chutney, khosimbir and bhaaji. More - expensive nuts (almonds and cashew) are used for sweet dishes. Flax and karale seeds are used in making dry chutneys. Traditionally, sugar cane based jaggery was used as the sweetening agent, but has been largely replaced by refined cane sugar. Fruit such as mango are used in many preparations including pickles, jams, drinks and sweet dishes. Bananas and jackfruit are also used. Peanut powder is often added to curry recipes.
Urban menus typically have wheat in the form of chapatis and plain rice as the main staples. Traditional rural households would have millet in form of bhakri on the Deccan plains and rice on the coast as respective staples.
Typical breakfast items include misal, pohe, upma, sheera, sabudana khichadi and thalipeeth. In some households leftover rice from the previous night is fried with onions, turmeric and mustard seeds for breakfast, making phodnicha bhat. Typical Western breakfast items such as cereals, sliced bread and eggs, as well as South Indian items such as idli and dosa are also popular. Tea or coffee is served with breakfast.
Vegetarian lunch and dinner plates in urban areas carry a combination of:
Apart from bread, rice, and chutney, other items may be substituted. Families that eat meat, fish and poultry may combine vegetarian and non-vegetarian dishes, with rice and chapatis remaining the staples. Vegetable or non-vegetable items are essentially dips for the bread or for mixing with rice.
Traditional dinner items are arranged in a circular way. With salt placed at 12 o'clock, pickles, koshimbir and condiments are placed anti-clockwise of the salt. Vegetable preparations are arranged in a clockwise fashion with a sequence of leafy greens curry, dry vegetables, sprouted been curry (usal) and dal. Rice is always on the periphery rather than in the center.
In the Konkan coastal area, boiled rice and rice nachni bhakri is the staple, with a combination of the vegetable and non-vegetable dishes described in the lunch and dinner menu.
In other areas of Maharashtra such as Desh, Maharashtra, Khandesh, Marathwada and Vidarbha, the traditional staple was bhakri with a combination of dal, and vegetables. The bhakri is increasingly replaced by wheat - based chapatis.
Open stove cooking is the most commonly used cooking method. The traditional three - stone chulha has largely been replaced by kerosene or gas stove s. A stove may be used for cooking in many different ways:
Other methods of food preparation include:
A number of dishes are made for religious occasions, dinner parties or as restaurant items or street food.
Meat dishes are prepared in a variety of ways:
Seafood is a staple for many communities that hail from the Konkan region. Popular dishes include:
Various vegetable curries or gravies are eaten with rice, usually at both lunch and dinner. Popular dishes include:
A traditional offering (for a guest) used to be water and jaggery. This has been replaced by tea or coffee. These beverages are served with milk and sugar. Occasionally, along with tea leaves, the brew may include spices, freshly grated ginger or lemon grass. Coffee is served with milk and / or ground nutmeg. Other beverages include:
Desserts are an important part of festival and special occasion food. Typical sweets include lentil and jaggery mix, stuffed flatbread called puran poli, a preparation made from strained yogurt, sugar and spices called shrikhand, a sweet milk preparation made with evaporated milk called basundi, semolina and sugar based kheer and steamed dumplings stuffed with coconut and jaggery called modak. In some instances, the modak is deep - fried instead of steamed. Traditionally, these desserts were associated with a particular festival. For example, modak is prepared during the Ganpati Festival.
Other popular sweets include: kaju katli, gulab jamun, jalebi, various kinds of barfi, and rasmalai.
In many metropolitan areas, including Mumbai and Pune, fast food is popular. The most - popular forms are bhaji, vada pav, misalpav and pav bhaji. More - traditional dishes are sabudana khichadi, pohe, upma, sheera and panipuri. Most Marathi fast food and snacks are lacto - vegetarian.
Some dishes, including sev bhaji, misal pav and patodi are regional dishes within Maharashtra.
Maharashtrian snacks and street foods are popular throughout the state, but most especially in Mumbai.
Like most Indian cuisines, Maharashtrian cuisine is laced with lots of fried savories, including:
This festival falls on January 14 of the Gregorian calendar. Maharashtrians exchange tilgul or sweets made of jaggery and sesame seeds along with the customary salutation, tilgul ghya aani god bola, which means "Accept the tilgul and be friendly. '' Tilgul Poli or gulpoli are the main sweet preparations. It is a wheat - based flatbread filled with sesame seeds and jaggery.
Marathi Hindu people fast on this day. Fasting food includes chutney prepared with pulp of the kavath fruit (Limonia).
As part of Holi, a festival that is celebrated on the full moon evening in the month of Falgun (March or April), a bonfire is lit to symbolize the end of winter and the slaying of a demon in Hindu mythology. People make puran poli as a ritual offering to the holy fire. The day after the bonfire night is called Dhulivandan. Marathi people celebrate with colors on the fifth day after the bonfire on Rangpanchami.
Modak is said to be the favorite food of Ganesh. An offering of twenty - one pieces of this sweet preparation is offered on Ganesh Chaturthi and other minor Ganesh - related events.
Diwali is one of the most popular Hindu festivals. In Maharashtrian tradition family members have a ritual bath before dawn and then sit down for a breakfast of fried sweets and savory snacks called as Diwali Faral. These sweets and snacks are offered to visitors and exchanged with neighbors. Typical sweet preparations include ladu, anarse, shankarpali and karanjya. Popular savory treats include chakli, shev and chiwda. High in fat and low in moisture, these snacks can be stored at room temperature for many weeks without spoiling.
Many Maharashtrian communities from all social levels observe the Khandoba Festival or Champa Shashthi in the month of Mārgashirsh. Households perform Ghatasthapana of Khandoba during this festival. The sixth day of the festival is called Champa Sashthi. For many people, the Chaturmas period ends on Champa Sashthi. It is customary for many families not to consume onions, garlic and eggplant during the Chaturmas. Following the festival, the consumption of these foods resumes with ritual preparation of vangyache bharit (baingan bharta) with rodga.
The traditional wedding menu among Maharashtrian Hindu communities used to be a lacto - vegetarian fare with mainly multiple courses of rice dishes with different vegetables and dals. Some menus also included a course with puri s. In some communities, the first course was plain rice and the second was dal with masala rice.) The main meal typically ended with plain rice and mattha. Some of the most - popular curries to go with this menu and with other festivals were those prepared from taro (Marathi: अलउ) leaves. Buttermilk with spices and coriander leaves, called mattha, is served with the meal. Popular sweets for the wedding menu were shreekhand, boondi ladu and jalebi.
Marathi Hindu people fast on days such as Ekadashi, in honour of Lord Vishnu or his Avatars, Chaturthi in honour of Ganesh, Mondays in honour of Shiva, or Saturdays in honour of Maruti or Saturn. Only certain kinds of foods are allowed to be eaten. These include milk and other dairy products (such as yogurt), fruit and Western food items such as sago, potatoes, purple - red sweet potatoes, amaranth seeds, nuts and varyache tandul (shama millet). Popular fasting dishes include Sabudana Khichadi or danyachi amti (peanut soup).
Christian community from Konkan prepare christmas goodies and sweets called as Natal Kuswar which typically includes cakes, kulkul, milk cream, marzipan, doce, perad etc. These sweets are offered to visitors and exchanged with neighbors and friends.
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describe a real world example of when it is necessary that line segments are parallel | Transmission line - wikipedia
In communications and electronic engineering, a transmission line is a specialized cable or other structure designed to conduct alternating current of radio frequency, that is, currents with a frequency high enough that their wave nature must be taken into account. Transmission lines are used for purposes such as connecting radio transmitters and receivers with their antennas (they are then called feed lines or feeders), distributing cable television signals, trunklines routing calls between telephone switching centres, computer network connections and high speed computer data buses.
This article covers two - conductor transmission line such as parallel line (ladder line), coaxial cable, stripline, and microstrip. Some sources also refer to waveguide, dielectric waveguide, and even optical fibre as transmission line, however these lines require different analytical techniques and so are not covered by this article; see Waveguide (electromagnetism).
Ordinary electrical cables suffice to carry low frequency alternating current (AC), such as mains power, which reverses direction 100 to 120 times per second, and audio signals. However, they can not be used to carry currents in the radio frequency range, above about 30 kHz, because the energy tends to radiate off the cable as radio waves, causing power losses. Radio frequency currents also tend to reflect from discontinuities in the cable such as connectors and joints, and travel back down the cable toward the source. These reflections act as bottlenecks, preventing the signal power from reaching the destination. Transmission lines use specialized construction, and impedance matching, to carry electromagnetic signals with minimal reflections and power losses. The distinguishing feature of most transmission lines is that they have uniform cross sectional dimensions along their length, giving them a uniform impedance, called the characteristic impedance, to prevent reflections. Types of transmission line include parallel line (ladder line, twisted pair), coaxial cable, and planar transmission lines such as stripline and microstrip. The higher the frequency of electromagnetic waves moving through a given cable or medium, the shorter the wavelength of the waves. Transmission lines become necessary when the transmitted frequency 's wavelength is sufficiently short that the length of the cable becomes a significant part of a wavelength.
At microwave frequencies and above, power losses in transmission lines become excessive, and waveguides are used instead, which function as "pipes '' to confine and guide the electromagnetic waves. Some sources define waveguides as a type of transmission line; however, this article will not include them. At even higher frequencies, in the terahertz, infrared and visible ranges, waveguides in turn become lossy, and optical methods, (such as lenses and mirrors), are used to guide electromagnetic waves.
The theory of sound wave propagation is very similar mathematically to that of electromagnetic waves, so techniques from transmission line theory are also used to build structures to conduct acoustic waves; and these are called acoustic transmission lines.
Mathematical analysis of the behaviour of electrical transmission lines grew out of the work of James Clerk Maxwell, Lord Kelvin and Oliver Heaviside. In 1855 Lord Kelvin formulated a diffusion model of the current in a submarine cable. The model correctly predicted the poor performance of the 1858 trans - Atlantic submarine telegraph cable. In 1885 Heaviside published the first papers that described his analysis of propagation in cables and the modern form of the telegrapher 's equations.
In many electric circuits, the length of the wires connecting the components can for the most part be ignored. That is, the voltage on the wire at a given time can be assumed to be the same at all points. However, when the voltage changes in a time interval comparable to the time it takes for the signal to travel down the wire, the length becomes important and the wire must be treated as a transmission line. Stated another way, the length of the wire is important when the signal includes frequency components with corresponding wavelengths comparable to or less than the length of the wire.
A common rule of thumb is that the cable or wire should be treated as a transmission line if the length is greater than 1 / 10 of the wavelength. At this length the phase delay and the interference of any reflections on the line become important and can lead to unpredictable behaviour in systems which have not been carefully designed using transmission line theory.
For the purposes of analysis, an electrical transmission line can be modelled as a two - port network (also called a quadripole), as follows:
In the simplest case, the network is assumed to be linear (i.e. the complex voltage across either port is proportional to the complex current flowing into it when there are no reflections), and the two ports are assumed to be interchangeable. If the transmission line is uniform along its length, then its behaviour is largely described by a single parameter called the characteristic impedance, symbol Z. This is the ratio of the complex voltage of a given wave to the complex current of the same wave at any point on the line. Typical values of Z are 50 or 75 ohms for a coaxial cable, about 100 ohms for a twisted pair of wires, and about 300 ohms for a common type of untwisted pair used in radio transmission.
When sending power down a transmission line, it is usually desirable that as much power as possible will be absorbed by the load and as little as possible will be reflected back to the source. This can be ensured by making the load impedance equal to Z, in which case the transmission line is said to be matched.
Some of the power that is fed into a transmission line is lost because of its resistance. This effect is called ohmic or resistive loss (see ohmic heating). At high frequencies, another effect called dielectric loss becomes significant, adding to the losses caused by resistance. Dielectric loss is caused when the insulating material inside the transmission line absorbs energy from the alternating electric field and converts it to heat (see dielectric heating). The transmission line is modelled with a resistance (R) and inductance (L) in series with a capacitance (C) and conductance (G) in parallel. The resistance and conductance contribute to the loss in a transmission line.
The total loss of power in a transmission line is often specified in decibels per metre (dB / m), and usually depends on the frequency of the signal. The manufacturer often supplies a chart showing the loss in dB / m at a range of frequencies. A loss of 3 dB corresponds approximately to a halving of the power.
High - frequency transmission lines can be defined as those designed to carry electromagnetic waves whose wavelengths are shorter than or comparable to the length of the line. Under these conditions, the approximations useful for calculations at lower frequencies are no longer accurate. This often occurs with radio, microwave and optical signals, metal mesh optical filters, and with the signals found in high - speed digital circuits.
The telegrapher 's equations (or just telegraph equations) are a pair of linear differential equations which describe the voltage (V (\ displaystyle V)) and current (I (\ displaystyle I)) on an electrical transmission line with distance and time. They were developed by Oliver Heaviside who created the transmission line model, and are based on Maxwell 's Equations.
The transmission line model represents the transmission line as an infinite series of two - port elementary components, each representing an infinitesimally short segment of the transmission line:
The model consists of an infinite series of the elements shown in the figure, and the values of the components are specified per unit length so the picture of the component can be misleading. R (\ displaystyle R), L (\ displaystyle L), C (\ displaystyle C), and G (\ displaystyle G) may also be functions of frequency. An alternative notation is to use R ′ (\ displaystyle R '), L ′ (\ displaystyle L '), C ′ (\ displaystyle C ') and G ′ (\ displaystyle G ') to emphasize that the values are derivatives with respect to length. These quantities can also be known as the primary line constants to distinguish from the secondary line constants derived from them, these being the propagation constant, attenuation constant and phase constant.
The line voltage V (x) (\ displaystyle V (x)) and the current I (x) (\ displaystyle I (x)) can be expressed in the frequency domain as
When the elements R (\ displaystyle R) and G (\ displaystyle G) are negligibly small the transmission line is considered as a lossless structure. In this hypothetical case, the model depends only on the L (\ displaystyle L) and C (\ displaystyle C) elements which greatly simplifies the analysis. For a lossless transmission line, the second order steady - state Telegrapher 's equations are:
These are wave equations which have plane waves with equal propagation speed in the forward and reverse directions as solutions. The physical significance of this is that electromagnetic waves propagate down transmission lines and in general, there is a reflected component that interferes with the original signal. These equations are fundamental to transmission line theory.
In the general case the loss terms, R (\ displaystyle R) and G (\ displaystyle G), are both included, and the full form of the Telegrapher 's equations become:
where γ (\ displaystyle \ gamma) is the (complex) propagation constant. These equations are fundamental to transmission line theory. They are also wave equations, and have solutions similar to the special case, but which are a mixture of sines and cosines with exponential decay factors. Solving for the propagation constant γ (\ displaystyle \ gamma) in terms of the primary parameters R (\ displaystyle R), L (\ displaystyle L), G (\ displaystyle G), and C (\ displaystyle C) gives:
and the characteristic impedance can be expressed as
The solutions for V (x) (\ displaystyle V (x)) and I (x) (\ displaystyle I (x)) are:
The constants V (±) (\ displaystyle V_ ((\ pm))) must be determined from boundary conditions. For a voltage pulse V i n (t) (\ displaystyle V_ (\ mathrm (in)) (t) \,), starting at x = 0 (\ displaystyle x = 0) and moving in the positive x (\ displaystyle x) direction, then the transmitted pulse V o u t (x, t) (\ displaystyle V_ (\ mathrm (out)) (x, t) \,) at position x (\ displaystyle x) can be obtained by computing the Fourier Transform, V ~ (ω) (\ displaystyle (\ tilde (V)) (\ omega)), of V i n (t) (\ displaystyle V_ (\ mathrm (in)) (t) \,), attenuating each frequency component by e − Re (γ) x (\ displaystyle e ^ (- \ operatorname (Re) (\ gamma) \, x) \,), advancing its phase by − Im (γ) x (\ displaystyle - \ operatorname (Im) (\ gamma) \, x \,), and taking the inverse Fourier Transform. The real and imaginary parts of γ (\ displaystyle \ gamma) can be computed as
where atan2 is the two - parameter arctangent, and
For small losses and high frequencies, the general equations can be simplified: If R ω L ≪ 1 (\ displaystyle (\ tfrac (R) (\ omega \, L)) \ ll 1) and G ω C ≪ 1 (\ displaystyle (\ tfrac (G) (\ omega \, C)) \ ll 1) then
Noting that an advance in phase by − ω δ (\ displaystyle - \ omega \, \ delta) is equivalent to a time delay by δ (\ displaystyle \ delta), V o u t (t) (\ displaystyle V_ (out) (t)) can be simply computed as
The characteristic impedance Z 0 (\ displaystyle Z_ (0)) of a transmission line is the ratio of the amplitude of a single voltage wave to its current wave. Since most transmission lines also have a reflected wave, the characteristic impedance is generally not the impedance that is measured on the line.
The impedance measured at a given distance l (\ displaystyle \ ell) from the load impedance Z L (\ displaystyle Z_ (\ mathrm (L))) may be expressed as
where γ (\ displaystyle \ gamma) is the propagation constant and Γ L = Z L − Z 0 Z L + Z 0 (\ displaystyle (\ mathit (\ Gamma)) _ (\ mathrm (L)) = (\ frac (\, Z_ (\ mathrm (L)) - Z_ (0) \,) (Z_ (\ mathrm (L)) + Z_ (0)))) is the voltage reflection coefficient measured at the load end of the transmission line. Alternatively, the above formula can be rearranged to express the input impedance in terms of the load impedance rather than the load voltage reflection coefficient:
For a lossless transmission line, the propagation constant is purely imaginary, γ = j β (\ displaystyle \ gamma = j \, \ beta), so the above formulas can be rewritten as
where β = 2 π λ (\ displaystyle \ beta = (\ frac (\, 2 \ pi \,) (\ lambda))) is the wavenumber.
In calculating β, (\ displaystyle \ beta,) the wavelength is generally different inside the transmission line to what it would be in free - space. Consequently the velocity constant of the material the transmission line is made of needs to be taken into account when doing such a calculation.
For the special case where β l = n π (\ displaystyle \ beta \, \ ell = n \, \ pi) where n is an integer (meaning that the length of the line is a multiple of half a wavelength), the expression reduces to the load impedance so that
for all n. (\ displaystyle n \,.) This includes the case when n = 0 (\ displaystyle n = 0), meaning that the length of the transmission line is negligibly small compared to the wavelength. The physical significance of this is that the transmission line can be ignored (i.e. treated as a wire) in either case.
For the case where the length of the line is one quarter wavelength long, or an odd multiple of a quarter wavelength long, the input impedance becomes
Another special case is when the load impedance is equal to the characteristic impedance of the line (i.e. the line is matched), in which case the impedance reduces to the characteristic impedance of the line so that
for all l (\ displaystyle \ ell) and all λ (\ displaystyle \ lambda).
For the case of a shorted load (i.e. Z L = 0 (\ displaystyle Z_ (\ mathrm (L)) = 0)), the input impedance is purely imaginary and a periodic function of position and wavelength (frequency)
For the case of an open load (i.e. Z L = ∞ (\ displaystyle Z_ (\ mathrm (L)) = \ infty)), the input impedance is once again imaginary and periodic
A stepped transmission line is used for broad range impedance matching. It can be considered as multiple transmission line segments connected in series, with the characteristic impedance of each individual element to be Z 0, i (\ displaystyle Z_ (\ mathrm (0, i))). The input impedance can be obtained from the successive application of the chain relation
where β i (\ displaystyle \ beta _ (\ mathrm (i))) is the wave number of the i (\ displaystyle \ mathrm (i)) - th transmission line segment and l i (\ displaystyle \ ell _ (\ mathrm (i))) is the length of this segment, and Z i (\ displaystyle Z_ (\ mathrm (i))) is the front - end impedance that loads the i (\ displaystyle \ mathrm (i)) - th segment.
Because the characteristic impedance of each transmission line segment Z 0, i (\ displaystyle Z_ (\ mathrm (0, i))) is often different from that of the input cable Z 0 (\ displaystyle Z_ (0)), the impedance transformation circle is off - centred along the x (\ displaystyle x) axis of the Smith Chart whose impedance representation is usually normalized against Z 0 (\ displaystyle Z_ (0)).
Coaxial lines confine virtually all of the electromagnetic wave to the area inside the cable. Coaxial lines can therefore be bent and twisted (subject to limits) without negative effects, and they can be strapped to conductive supports without inducing unwanted currents in them. In radio - frequency applications up to a few gigahertz, the wave propagates in the transverse electric and magnetic mode (TEM) only, which means that the electric and magnetic fields are both perpendicular to the direction of propagation (the electric field is radial, and the magnetic field is circumferential). However, at frequencies for which the wavelength (in the dielectric) is significantly shorter than the circumference of the cable, transverse electric (TE) and transverse magnetic (TM) waveguide modes can also propagate. When more than one mode can exist, bends and other irregularities in the cable geometry can cause power to be transferred from one mode to another.
The most common use for coaxial cables is for television and other signals with bandwidth of multiple megahertz. In the middle 20th century they carried long distance telephone connections.
A microstrip circuit uses a thin flat conductor which is parallel to a ground plane. Microstrip can be made by having a strip of copper on one side of a printed circuit board (PCB) or ceramic substrate while the other side is a continuous ground plane. The width of the strip, the thickness of the insulating layer (PCB or ceramic) and the dielectric constant of the insulating layer determine the characteristic impedance. Microstrip is an open structure whereas coaxial cable is a closed structure.
A stripline circuit uses a flat strip of metal which is sandwiched between two parallel ground planes. The insulating material of the substrate forms a dielectric. The width of the strip, the thickness of the substrate and the relative permittivity of the substrate determine the characteristic impedance of the strip which is a transmission line.
A coplanar waveguide consists of a center strip and two adjacent outer conductors, all three of them flat structures that are deposited onto the same insulating substrate and thus are located in the same plane ("coplanar ''). The width of the center conductor, the distance between inner and outer conductors, and the relative permittivity of the substrate determine the characteristic impedance of the coplanar transmission line.
A balanced line is a transmission line consisting of two conductors of the same type, and equal impedance to ground and other circuits. There are many formats of balanced lines, amongst the most common are twisted pair, star quad and twin - lead.
Twisted pairs are commonly used for terrestrial telephone communications. In such cables, many pairs are grouped together in a single cable, from two to several thousand. The format is also used for data network distribution inside buildings, but the cable is more expensive because the transmission line parameters are tightly controlled.
Star quad is a four - conductor cable in which all four conductors are twisted together around the cable axis. It is sometimes used for two circuits, such as 4 - wire telephony and other telecommunications applications. In this configuration each pair uses two non-adjacent conductors. Other times it is used for a single, balanced line, such as audio applications and 2 - wire telephony. In this configuration two non-adjacent conductors are terminated together at both ends of the cable, and the other two conductors are also terminated together.
When used for two circuits, crosstalk is reduced relative to cables with two separate twisted pairs.
When used for a single, balanced line, magnetic interference picked up by the cable arrives as a virtually perfect common mode signal, which is easily removed by coupling transformers.
The combined benefits of twisting, balanced signalling, and quadrupole pattern give outstanding noise immunity, especially advantageous for low signal level applications such as microphone cables, even when installed very close to a power cable. The disadvantage is that star quad, in combining two conductors, typically has double the capacitance of similar two - conductor twisted and shielded audio cable. High capacitance causes increasing distortion and greater loss of high frequencies as distance increases.
Twin - lead consists of a pair of conductors held apart by a continuous insulator. By holding the conductors a known distance apart, the geometry is fixed and the line characteristics are reliably consistent. It is lower loss than coaxial cable because the wave propagates mostly in air rather than the thin dielectric. However, it is more susceptible to interference.
Lecher lines are a form of parallel conductor that can be used at UHF for creating resonant circuits. They are a convenient practical format that fills the gap between lumped components (used at HF / VHF) and resonant cavities (used at UHF / SHF).
Unbalanced lines were formerly much used for telegraph transmission, but this form of communication has now fallen into disuse. Cables are similar to twisted pair in that many cores are bundled into the same cable but only one conductor is provided per circuit and there is no twisting. All the circuits on the same route use a common path for the return current (earth return). There is a power transmission version of single - wire earth return in use in many locations.
Electrical transmission lines are very widely used to transmit high frequency signals over long or short distances with minimum power loss. One familiar example is the down lead from a TV or radio aerial to the receiver.
Transmission lines are also used as pulse generators. By charging the transmission line and then discharging it into a resistive load, a rectangular pulse equal in length to twice the electrical length of the line can be obtained, although with half the voltage. A Blumlein transmission line is a related pulse forming device that overcomes this limitation. These are sometimes used as the pulsed power sources for radar transmitters and other devices.
If a short - circuited or open - circuited transmission line is wired in parallel with a line used to transfer signals from point A to point B, then it will function as a filter. The method for making stubs is similar to the method for using Lecher lines for crude frequency measurement, but it is ' working backwards '. One method recommended in the RSGB 's radiocommunication handbook is to take an open - circuited length of transmission line wired in parallel with the feeder delivering signals from an aerial. By cutting the free end of the transmission line, a minimum in the strength of the signal observed at a receiver can be found. At this stage the stub filter will reject this frequency and the odd harmonics, but if the free end of the stub is shorted then the stub will become a filter rejecting the even harmonics.
An acoustic transmission line is the acoustic analogue of the electrical transmission line as a waveguide. It is typically imagined as a rigid - walled tube that is long and thin relative to the wavelength of sound present in it.
Part of this article was derived from Federal Standard 1037C.
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what happened to dr crusher in season 2 | Beverly Crusher - wikipedia
Commander Beverly Crusher (born Beverly Cheryl Howard), played by actress Gates McFadden, is a fictional character on the science fiction television series Star Trek: The Next Generation and its subsequent spin - off films. She was a regular character in the show for all but the second of its seven seasons.
She was the chief medical officer of both the Enterprise - D and Enterprise - E.
Gates McFadden was reluctant to accept the role of Dr. Crusher because of her commitment to appear in the play The Matchmaker at the La Jolla Playhouse. During the second season, the Crusher character was written out of the show, with the explanation that her character "was off heading up Starfleet Medical for the year. '' She was replaced by the louder, more outgoing Dr. Katherine Pulaski (Diana Muldaur). Patrick Stewart was upset by McFadden 's departure from the show and played a large part in bringing about her return to the show for its third season, with her character being reassigned to the Enterprise. Upon her return, the character became more varied and more richly developed, and was not afraid to go head - to - head with Picard. Episodes featuring Beverly Crusher focused on her romantic life, often with unexpected alien lifeforms.
Beverly Crusher was born Beverly Howard on October 13, 2324, in Copernicus City, Luna. Further back, before the colonization of Luna, her ancestors were Scottish - Americans. Following the death of her parents when she was very young, she lived with her grandmother, Felisa Howard on Arvada III, a colony planet until a great moon collision caused the planet to flood, forcing its evacuation. Resourceful Felisa, with her granddaughter 's aid, used herbs, grasses, tree chemicals, and roots as medicines when synthetic medicines ran out for the injured.
During her youth, Beverly was known as quiet, shy, and socially awkward. She was also very self - conscious about her bright red hair, and at the age of thirteen, attempted to dye it dark with disastrous results. She admits to Data later in the episode "Offspring '', that she was often ridiculed and unpopular in school and it had been very painful for her. She also admits that it brought back painful memories of those years when she saw her son Wesley going through similar ridicule as a child.
It was her grandmother 's career as a healer and Beverly 's own caring, high intelligence, and sensitivity that largely sparked Beverly 's lifelong interest in medicine and healing the sick and wounded. The Arvada III disaster solidified Beverly 's decision to be a doctor.
After Arvada III was evacuated, Beverly and Felisa then settled on Caldos II where Beverly lived until she entered Starfleet Academy.
Crusher attended Starfleet Academy from 2342 to 2350 during which she attended medical school. While attending the academy she became romantically involved with cadet Jack Crusher. They were introduced by their friend, Walker Keel. She graduated top of her class and married Jack in 2348. She had also been called "the Dancing Doctor '' when she was at the academy and had won multiple awards at a dance competition in St. Louis, Missouri. In 2350, she started an internship with Dr. Dalen Quaice.
After marrying Jack, she returned to the academy while he left for the USS Stargazer. A year later, she gave birth to a son named Wesley Crusher. Jack died on an away mission when Wesley was 5 years old. Captain Picard, who was commanding the Stargazer at the time, brought home the body of Jack. She never fully recovered from his death. Dr. Crusher and Captain Picard were also acquaintances while the character 's husband was alive, as Picard and Jack Crusher were friends. At the beginning of the series, Picard and Dr. Crusher have not seen or heard from each other since Jack 's death. "Encounter at Farpoint '' is the first time Picard and Dr. Crusher 's son Wesley truly meet face to face. Later in her life she realizes Picard has fallen in love with her.
During the progression of the series, the attraction or affection between the two is made more apparent, though both Crusher and Picard try to conceal their feelings; neither wants to admit to the other how they feel, though they have both been seen on separate occasions talking with other crew members about it, most notably, William Riker and Deanna Troi. The two appear to become closer and closer throughout the series, starting with the first - season episode "The Naked Now ''. Their relationship ultimately takes its biggest leap forward in "Attached '', when the two are linked telepathically, leading to the revelation of deep romantic feelings they share for each other. At the end of this episode, a budding hint of a romantic relationship is slowed down when a blushing Beverly tells Jean - Luc, "Perhaps we should be afraid '', implying that she 's not ready to take that step forward in their relationship.
However, only a handful of episodes later in "Sub Rosa '', it is revealed that neither Beverly or Jean - Luc has been able to let go of those feelings and they are back to where they started, trying to pretend the feelings do n't exist and that they have no problem being "just friends '' with one another.
In the series finale "All Good Things... '', it is revealed that in an alternate future, Dr. Crusher and Captain Picard had been married and then divorced -- still evidently having feelings for each other after so many years. Little information is given about the circumstances of their marriage or separation. In the present, during the episode, the two share a kiss. However that timeline, as well as that version of the future, is destroyed when Picard changes the past.
In the four Next Generation movies, the flirtation between Dr. Crusher and Captain Picard remains, though it is not as obvious as previous episodes and most certainly not part of the substantial movie plots. The most noteworthy moment between the two happens in one of the deleted scenes of the last Next Generation movie, Star Trek Nemesis.
Following the television series and films, the relationship between Dr. Crusher and Captain Picard continued throughout the non-canonical Star Trek: The Next Generation Pocket Books series. Beverly and Jean - Luc have married, but still serve together on the Enterprise - E. They have a son named René Jacques Robert Francois Picard, named after Picard 's older brother (Robert) and nephew (René).
Dr. Crusher was appointed Chief Medical Officer of the Federation starship Enterprise - D in 2364, and joined the ship at Farpoint Station with Wesley, reporting on board on stardate 41154. (TNG: "Encounter At Farpoint '') Picard initially had reservations about her presence, but she assured him that the past would have no effect on her duties and she had no problem serving under his command, as she herself enlisted for the posting.
An energy - based lifeform from the Beta Renner cloud was accidentally trapped aboard the Enterprise later in 2364. It initially inhabited Lieutenant Worf 's body, but next moved to Crusher. It controlled her for a brief period of time, attempting to learn how to use the Enterprise navigational systems in order to return home. The being then transferred itself to the ship 's computer system, then took control of Captain Picard.
In mid 2364, Captain Picard invited Crusher on a holodeck adventure set in the fictional world of Dixon Hill. They were joined by Data and ship 's historian, Whalen. Unfortunately, a malfunction in the holodeck systems due to a Jarada scan caused the safeties to become disengaged, trapping the group at the whim of Cyrus Redblock. They were later freed, but not before Redblock shot Whalen and threatened to kill Beverly.
Doctor Crusher was offered a position as head of Starfleet Medical in 2365 and left the Enterprise during that year. She was replaced by Dr. Katherine Pulaski. While at Starfleet Medical, she decided to return to the ship as soon as it was allowed the following year.
The reason for Beverly 's return was never explicitly stated.
Dr. Quaice retired in 2367 shortly after the death of his wife, and the Enterprise - D picked him up at Starbase 133 to ferry him home. Although he was in good spirits, he was slightly saddened at the prospect of facing the future without many of his friends, a feeling Beverly knew all too well. At the same time, Wesley Crusher was experimenting with a novel warp bubble. Beverly became trapped in this bubble, and her thoughts at the time created a universe where everyone and everything quickly began disappearing. With the assistance of The Traveler, Wesley was able to create a gateway back to the normal universe. Dr. Crusher was able to deduce what was happening in her universe, and escaped just before the bubble collapsed.
Beverly was questioned in connection with the explosion that crippled the Enterprise 's warp core in 2367. Her testimony was twisted by Admiral Norah Satie in order to implicate the quarter - Romulan crewman Simon Tarses in the incident, later determined to be an accident.
When the Enterprise entered a temporal causality loop while exploring the Typhon Expanse, Beverly 's feelings of déjà vu during a poker game and evidence of temporal phenomena lead to a solution which allowed the ship to break the cycle.
The senior staff of the Enterprise traveled back to the late 19th century in order to stop Devidian lifeforms from feeding on the neural energy of humans from that era, and prevent the apparent death of Commander Data in that time. Beverly assumed the guise of a nurse and determined why the Devidians traveled back to that era, and was almost a victim of their energy - draining device.
In 2369, Beverly developed a close friendship when she mentored Amanda Rogers, who was aboard the Enterprise as part of her Starfleet officer 's training. It was later discovered that Rogers was the child of two former members of the Q Continuum who had abandoned the Continuum and had established a new life in Kansas as humans. They were killed when a tornado struck their home. It was later revealed that this was punishment levied by the Continuum. Q appeared on the Enterprise and, in his own way, began to mentor Rogers in the ways of the Continuum. Beverly objected to Q 's interference and was silenced briefly by Q when he transformed her into a dog. Rogers, using her new - found powers, restored Beverly to Human form.
That same year, Admiral Alynna Nechayev assigned Crusher, along with Captain Picard and Lieutenant Worf, to a covert mission to seek out and destroy a Cardassian metagenic weapon on Celtris III. Her purpose was to locate and destroy any biological material related to the weapon. The group went through a rigorous training program for the mission, and it was physically straining on Beverly. She used her charms to get a Ferengi, DaiMon Solok, to secure the team passage to Celtris III, and navigated the dangerous caves of Celtris to what was believed to be the launching point for the weapon. It turned out to be a ruse intended to capture Picard, although Worf and Crusher escaped. As a form of psychological torture under Gul Madred, Picard was offered freedom, but was told Beverly had been captured. Madred said that she would be tortured if Picard left, forcing the captain to stay.
As a fully certified bridge officer, Crusher commanded the Enterprise - D on several occasions, most notably in 2370 while nearly the entire crew was searching for Data on a renegade Borg planet. The ship was attacked by a Borg vessel, but her quick thinking allowed the Enterprise to escape and destroy the Borg ship. She also occasionally commanded night watch shifts in order to stay on top of starship operations.
The character of Beverly Crusher has generally been positively received. Zack Handlen of The A.V. Club praised Gates McFadden 's performance, as well as the inclusion of a strong, likable female character in the series, but lamented that the character 's potential was never fully realized, saying that Crusher "should 've been one of TNG 's best characters '' but that "too often, her character has been relegated to back - up roles, interjecting occasional medical jargon to give color to scenes, or else worrying to one side about whether or not Wesley was getting enough fun in his life. ''
McFadden left the series at the end of the first season and was replaced by Diana Muldaur as Doctor Katherine Pulaski in the second season. An official announcement stated that McFadden had left the series to pursue other career options. McFadden herself got a call from her agent who told her that the producers decided to go in another direction with the character. Like the other cast members, McFadden was surprised. Thanks to a letter - writing campaign, support from Patrick Stewart, and a personal invitation from Rick Berman, McFadden was brought back to the TNG cast for the third and subsequent seasons. McFadden was absent for all episodes of the second season and only appeared in three episodes where stock footage was used from first - season episodes.
In an interview in May 2006 Executive Producer Rick Berman revealed that Gates McFadden was fired at end of the first season of The Next Generation because head writer Maurice Hurley "... had a real bone to pick '' with McFadden and did not like her acting. Berman brought her, and the character of Beverly Crusher, back for third season after Hurley departed the show 's writing staff.
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what state can you get married without a license | Marriage license - wikipedia
A marriage license is a document issued, either by a church or state authority, authorizing a couple to marry. The procedure for obtaining a license varies between countries and has changed over time. Marriage licenses began to be issued in the Middle Ages, to permit a marriage which would otherwise be illegal (for instance, if the necessary period of notice for the marriage had not been given).
Today, they are a legal requirement in some jurisdictions and may also serve as the record of the marriage itself, if signed by the couple and witnessed.
In other jurisdictions, a license is not required. In some jurisdictions, a "pardon '' can be obtained for marrying without a license, and in some jurisdictions, common - law marriages and marriage by cohabitation and representation are also recognized. These do not require a marriage license. There are also some jurisdictions where marriage licenses do not exist at all and a marriage certificate is given to the couple after the marriage ceremony had taken place.
Article 16 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights declares that "Men and women of full age, without any limitation due to race, nationality or religion, have the right to marry and to found a family. They are entitled to equal rights as to marriage, during marriage and at its dissolution. Marriage shall be entered into only with the free and full consent of the intending spouses. ''
For most of Western history, marriage was a private contract between two families. Until the 16th century, Christian churches accepted the validity of a marriage on the basis of a couple 's declarations. If two people claimed that they had exchanged marital vows -- even without witnesses -- the Catholic Church accepted that they were validly married.
Some states in the US hold that public cohabitation can be sufficient evidence of a valid marriage. Marriage license application records from government authorities are widely available starting from the mid-19th century. Some are available dating from the 17th century in colonial America. Marriage licenses have been required since 1639 in Massachusetts, with their use gradually expanding to other jurisdictions.
A requirement for banns of marriage was introduced to England and Wales by the Church in 1215. This required a public announcement of a forthcoming marriage, in the couple 's parish church, for three Sundays prior to the wedding and gave an opportunity for any objections to the marriage to be voiced (for example, that one of the parties was already married or that the couple was related within a prohibited degree), but a failure to call banns did not affect the validity of the marriage.
Marriage licences were introduced in the 14th century, to allow the usual notice period under banns to be waived, on payment of a fee and accompanied by a sworn declaration, that there was no canonical impediment to the marriage. Licences were usually granted by an archbishop, bishop or archdeacon. There could be a number of reasons for a couple to obtain a licence: they might wish to marry quickly (and avoid the three weeks ' delay by the calling of banns); they might wish to marry in a parish away from their home parish; or, because a licence required a higher payment than banns, they might choose to obtain one as a status symbol.
There were two kinds of marriage licences that could be issued: the usual was known as a common licence and named one or two parishes where the wedding could take place, within the jurisdiction of the person who issued the licence. The other was the special licence, which could only be granted by the Archbishop of Canterbury or his officials and allowed the marriage to take place in any church.
To obtain a marriage licence, the couple, or more usually the bridegroom, had to swear that there was no just cause or impediment why they should not marry. This was the marriage allegation. A bond was also lodged with the church authorities for a sum of money to be paid if it turned out that the marriage was contrary to Canon Law. The bishop kept the allegation and bond and issued the licence to the groom, who then gave it to the vicar of the church where they were to get married. There was no obligation for the vicar to keep the licence and many were simply destroyed. Hence, few historical examples of marriage licences, in England and Wales, survive. However, the allegations and bonds were usually retained and are an important source for English genealogy.
Hardwicke 's Marriage Act 1753 affirmed this existing ecclesiastical law and built it into statutory law. From this date, a marriage was only legally valid, if it followed the calling of banns in church or the obtaining of a licence -- the only exceptions being Jewish and Quaker marriages, whose legality was also recognised. From the date of Lord Hardwicke 's Marriage Act up to 1837, the ceremony was required to be performed in a consecrated building.
Since 1 July 1837, civil marriages have been a legal alternative to church marriages under the Marriage Act 1836, which provided the statutory basis for regulating and recording marriages. So, today, a couple has a choice between being married in the Anglican Church, after the calling of banns or obtaining a licence or else, they can give "Notice of Marriage '' to a civil registrar. In this latter case, the notice is publicly posted for 15 days, after which a civil marriage can take place. Marriages may take place in churches other than Anglican churches, but these are governed by civil marriage law and notice must be given to the civil registrar in the same way. The marriage may then take place without a registrar being present if the church itself is registered for marriages and the minister or priest is an Authorised Person for marriages.
The licence does not record the marriage itself, only the permission for a marriage to take place. Since 1837, the proof of a marriage has been by a marriage certificate, issued at the ceremony; before then, it was by the recording of the marriage in a parish register.
The provisions on civil marriage in the 1836 Act were repealed by the Marriage Act 1949. The Marriage Act 1949 re-enacted and re-stated the law on marriage in England and Wales.
Marriage law and practice in Scotland differs from that in England and Wales. Historically, it was always considered legal and binding for a couple to marry by making public promises, without a formal ceremony but this form has not been available since 1940. More recently "marriage by cohabitation with repute '' has also been abolished for any relationship commenced since 2006. Church marriages "without proclamation '' are somewhat analogous to the English "marriages by licence '', although the permission to perform them is not a church matter. Religious marriages in Scotland have never had a restriction on the place in which they are performed. Marriages in Scotland normally require between 2 and 6 weeks ' notice to the district registrar depending on the previous marital status and other procedural matters usually involving the country of residence and the nationality of the parties. Marriages with less than the normal amount of notice require the permission of the Registrar General.
In the United States, until the mid-19th century, common - law marriages were recognized as valid, but thereafter some states began to invalidate common - law marriages. Common - law marriages, if recognized, are valid, notwithstanding the absence of a marriage license. North Carolina and Tennessee (which was originally western North Carolina) never recognized marriage at the common law as valid without a license unless entered into in other states. They have always recognized otherwise valid marriages (except bigamous, polygamous, interracial, or same - sex) entered into in conformity with the law of other states, territories and nations.
The specifications for obtaining a marriage license vary between states. In general, however, both parties must appear in person at the time the license is obtained; be of marriageable age (i.e., over 18 years; lower in some states with the consent of a parent); present proper identification (typically a driver 's license, state ID card, birth certificate or passport; more documentation may be required for those born outside of the United States); and neither must be married to anyone else (proof of spouse 's death or divorce may be required for someone who had been previously married in some states).
The US states of Florida, Connecticut, Wisconsin, Indiana, Oklahoma, Massachusetts, Mississippi, California, New York, and the District of Columbia once required blood tests before issuing a marriage license, but such requirements have since been abolished. The tests were mainly used to check for previous or current bouts of syphilis and rubella (German measles); other diseases that have been screened for before marriage in some cases have included tuberculosis, gonorrhea, and HIV, the last of which is the only one of those three that is detectable using a blood test.
Many states require 1 to 6 days to pass between the granting of the license and the marriage ceremony. After the marriage ceremony, both spouses and the officiant sign the marriage license (some states also require a witness). The officiant or couple then files for a certified copy of the marriage license and a marriage certificate with the appropriate authority. Some states also have a requirement that a license be filed within a certain time after its issuance, typically 30 or 60 days, following which a new license must be obtained.
Marriage licenses in the United States fall under the jurisdiction of the state in which the ceremony is performed; however, the marriage is generally recognized across the country. The state in which they are married holds the record of that marriage. Traditionally, working with law enforcement was the only means of searching and accessing marriage license information across state lines.
Some groups and individuals believe that the requirement to obtain a marriage license is unnecessary or immoral. The Libertarian Party, for instance, believes that marriage should be a matter of personal liberty, not requiring permission from the state. Individuals who align with this libertarian stance argue that marriage is a right, and that by allowing the state to exercise control over marriage, it falsely presupposes that we merely have the privilege, not the right, to marry. As an example of a right (as opposed to a privilege), those that are born in the US receive a birth certificate (certifying that they have been born), not a birth license (which would give them license so they could be born). Some Christian groups also argue that a marriage is a contract between a man and a woman presided over by God, so no authorization from the state is required. Some US states have started citing the state specifically as a party in the marriage contract which is seen by some as an infringement.
Marriage licenses have also been the subject of controversy for affected minority groups. California 's Proposition 8 has been the subject of heavy criticism by advocates of same - sex marriage, including the lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) community whose ability to marry is often limited by the aforementioned state intervention. This changed on June 26, 2015, with the Supreme Court decision in Obergefell v. Hodges. However, the state and federal intervention still continues to limit the ability of members of other minority religious groups from marrying according to the dictates of their religious tenets, as is the case with Islamic polygamy, for example. Polyamorous and polyandrous marriages are, likewise, still prohibited.
In October 2009, Keith Bardwell, a Louisiana justice of the peace, refused to issue a marriage license to an interracial couple, prompting civil liberties groups, such as the NAACP and ACLU, to call for his resignation or firing. Bardwell resigned his office on November 3.
In the state of Pennsylvania, self - uniting marriage licenses are available which require only the signatures of the bride and groom and witnesses. Although this is an accommodation for a Quaker wedding, any couple is able to apply for it.
In the Netherlands and Belgium, couples intending to marry are required to register their intention beforehand, a process called "ondertrouw ''.
In Mexico, only civil marriage is recognized as legal. Persons wishing to do so may also have a religious ceremony, but it has no legal effect and does not replace in any way the legal binding civil marriage. A civil wedding in Mexico is fully valid for legal purpose in the U.S. The Mexican civil registry does not issue marriage licences, it issues marriage certificates, because under Latin law, marriage is a legal right, not requiring a permit, marriages are performed without charge at the premises of the "Registro Civil '' at the municipality hall of most counties and state houses in Mexico.
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how old is pragya from twist of fate | Kumkum Bhagya - Wikipedia
Kumkum Bhagya (Vermilion in my Fate) (International title: Twist of Fate) is a Hindi - language Indian soap opera which premiered on April 15, 2014 and is broadcast on weeknights on Zee TV. The show is loosely based on the novel Sense and Sensibility by Jane Austen.
Kumkum Bhagya follows the love story of a famous musician Abhi who married Pragya, initially thought to be the love interest of the person who was the crush of Abhi 's sister, but ends up knowing the truth and falls in love with her. The pivotal characters of this show are strong, feisty women, living together in an all - female matriarchal family. The series stars Sriti Jha, Shabbir Ahluwalia, Mrunal Thakur, Arjit Taneja / Vin Rana as lead roles. The series is produced by Ekta Kapoor under the banner Balaji Telefilms. Continuing her tradition, Ekta Kapoor has named the series starting with the letter "K '' because she feels it is lucky. The show is directed by Sameer Kulkarni and developed by Ekta Kapoor.
The series started as the story of Pragya and Bulbul and their mother Sarla 's hope to see them married, but as time went by, the show is about Abhi and Pragya.
Due to Kumkum Bhagya 's popularity, a spinoff series has been made titled Kundali Bhagya, which portrays the life of Pragya 's long lost two sisters Preeta and Srishti.
Kumkum Bhagya is the love story of Abhishek Mehra and Pragya Arora. Sarla Arora, who runs a marriage hall, lived with the hope of seeing her two daughters happily married. Pragya, the elder daughter, is practical, hard working and teaches at a college. Bulbul, the younger daughter, has her head in the clouds, has a job but hates her boss Purab. The show follows the lives of the two sisters and their hopes, dreams and aspirations. Initially, the series followed a love triangle between Pragya, Bulbul and Suresh, where Pragya loved Suresh, who had feelings for Bulbul, leading to Pragya and Suresh 's engagement getting cancelled. Simultaneously, Abhishek (Abhi) is a rock star who was in a relationship with a supermodel called Tanushree (Tanu) and Purab happened to be Abhi 's best friend, who was engaged to his sister Aliya. Purab and Bulbul initially had hatred feelings for each other, but the story took a turn when the two fell in love. Aliya misunderstood his affair with Bulbul thinking that he loved Pragya. As a result, Aliya, Tanu together with Abhi planned to get Abhi married to Pragya out of revenge. After the marriage, Pragya got to know the whole situation and for her sister 's protection, lied to Abhi that she indeed was in a relationship with Purab and eventually asked Bulbul to forget Purab, which Bulbul agreed to.
Purab agreed to get married to Aliya as he got to know the whole situation as well, but was unable to forget Bulbul. He escaped on his marriage day with Aliya to marry Bulbul where she revealed to Abhi that she was the girl Purab loved, in order to save her sister from misery. A complicated relation started in everyone 's life. Aliya and Tanu planned conspiracies against Pragya but their plans failed and brought her more close to Abhi, leading them to develop feelings for one another. Abhi got to know Aliya and Tanu 's true intentions, slapped Aliya for her wrongdoings, lead by her developing a grudge for her brother, he eventually improved his relation with Purab and Bulbul. Tanu on the other hand, accidentally got pregnant after a one - night stand with a man called Nikhil. She faked her DNA reports and declared that Abhi was the father in order to get him back, leading to Abhi and Pragya 's separation. Tanu was supported by Nikhil himself who wanted Abhi 's wealth, Aliya who wanted exact revenge against him and Abhi 's cousin brother Raj, who blamed Abhi for his misfortune. Pragya overheard Aliya and Tanu 's conversation but before telling Abhi, suffered an accident and was declared dead.
After one month, Pragya returned with a bold and arrogant appearance, having a new motive of revealing her enemies and getting Abhi back. In the same arc, Bulbul and Purab got married where a sequence of love and jealousy started between Bulbul, Purab and Aliya. Furthermore, to save her sister from Aliya, Bulbul risked her life and died. An infuriated Pragya finally revealed the truth about Aliya, who was then banished from the family. Raj, whose misunderstanding about Abhi was cleared by Pragya, turned positive and complicated his relationship with his wife Mitali for actually being responsible for his problems. Pragya finally discovered Tanu and Nikhil 's relation, decided to expose Tanu, but however failed to do so, but on the other Tanu got a miscarriage in an accident and blamed Pragya. Facing Abhi 's anger, Pragya still proved herself right and finally revealed the truth about Tanu, having gained back his trust. The two proposed to each other in Abhi 's mansion in Lonavla, after which Abhi lost his memory in a car accident meant for Pragya, getting amnesia and forgetting two - and - a-half years of his life, including Pragya. For his protection, Pragya decided to leave him, however did not divorce him.
The show roughly took a two month leap and continued with Pragya overhearing her mother saying that she had lost the Kumkum Bhagya Marriage Hall. Determined to help her family, she enrolled as a receptionist at Love Life Music Company, where she met Abhi who came to record his new album. From there on they slowly became friends where Abhi hired her as his personal assistant. Aliya who took advantage of Abhi 's amnesia returned back and wanted Abhi to marry Tanu in order to keep him away from Pragya. Abhi and Pragya 's boss - employee relationship bloomed into something more and Abhi saw Pragya as his best friend and even something more. After much conspiracies, Pragya challenged Aliya and Tanu that she will bring back Abhi 's memory before his marriage with Tanu, she was supported by Dadi and Purab. Abhi has some unclear flashbacks of his past in his dreams. Purab makes Abhi realize his feelings for Pragya. He later confesses his love to Pragya and she also confesses her love to him. But unknown to them, Tanu 's mum has heard everything. She calls Abhi and lies to him that she is in the last stage of pancreatic cancer and may die anytime and that her last wish is to see her daughter married. Abhi falls for it and decides to continue with his marriage with Tanu, breaking Pragya 's heart in the process. Pragya leaves to go home and decides not to come to the wedding. However, Dadi comes and convinces her saying she has a solution. She tells Pragya she wants to swap her and Tanu so she can marry Abhi. Pragya agrees after some persuasion.
For their plan to work, Purab chloroforms Tanu. When on her way to the mandap, Nikhil discovers that it is Pragya and not Tanu and kidnaps her while he manages to get Tanu conscious with Aliyah 's help. So Tanu goes to sit at the mandap to marry Abhi whiles Nikhil decides to kidnap and take Pragya away. However Sarla witnesses her daughter 's kidnapping and is hit on the head to unconsciousness by Nikhil when she attempts to stop them. They take Pragya away whiles Janki takes Sarla to the hospital.
Meanwhile when Abhi and Tanu are about to take rounds, Tanu slips and her dupatta removes. Dadi, Dasi and Purab realise that it is n't Pragya who is marrying Abhi and gets worried having no way to stop the wedding. Pragya cries at her kidnapped location thinking her husband is marrying another woman and she ca n't do anything but fortunately, Sarla makes it on time to the Mehra house exactly when Abhi and Tanu are going for their last round, to announce her daughter 's kidnapping. Abhi leaves with Purab immediately to rescue Pragya without completely the last round infuriating Tanu who ask Nikhil to kill Pragya but Pragya manages to escape from the goons.
When Pragya finds out that Abhi who had reach the location to save her has also been kidnapped, she goes back to save Abhi too. When Aliya finds out Nikhil has her brother, she goes there to warn him not to hurt Abhi but later discovers that Pragya is back and with Abhi in the room but Nikhil does n't believe her when she tells him. Tanu 's anger increases and she ask Nikhil to now kill both Abhi and Pragya. Nikhil decides to hire a contract killer since he ca n't do it himself. However before the killer arrives, Abhi and Pragya manage to outsmart the goons and ride away on a horse but the Killer catches sight of them. When Nikhil tells him they are the people he wants him to kill, the Killer and Nikhil 's goons chase them. After a lot of cat and dog (chase and run), Abhi and Pragya meet with an accident when Abhi gets distracted whiles driving. Pragya shouts for help when she gets conscious but ca n't revive Abhi. Fortunately, an old man comes to the forest and offers help introducing himself as Raghuvir. Pragya leaves with him. When Abhi gains consciousness, they tell Raghuvir the whole story about the kidnapping and he decides to help them. Abhi, Pragya and Raghuvir manage to outsmart the contract killer and his goons when they come there and they leave without finding them. During a conversation with Raghuvir, Abhi realises Pragya 's worth and decides to marry her immediately. They run to a temple in the forest where they get married. Meanwhile Purab and the police search for Abhi and Pragya. The contract killer and the goons reach Abhi and Pragya and another run and chase begins. Purab and the police reach there also and he tells Abhi and Pragya to leave whiles he fights with the contract killer. Abhi and Pragya find the killer 's car and he manages to start the engine. However a rock which was under the car destroys the breaks and the break oil leaks. Abhi and Pragya realize this when Abhi 's attempts to stop the car is to no avail. They both remince their romantic moments before crashing into a tree. However, the contract killer decides not to give up until he sees their dead bodies. Pragya gains consciousness and manages to drag Abhi on a cart to Raghuvir 's house. Whiles unconscious, Abhi finally regains his memory much to Pragya 's delight. She cries with tear of happiness. Pragya later finds a family photoframe of herself, her mother (Sarla), her sister (Bulbul), Raghuvir and two other girls. She confronts Raghuvir who then realizes that Pragya is his daughter and tells her the whole story about how her mother and himself separated and that the two other girls are her siblings, Preeta and Shristi. Abhi and Pragya convince him to meet Sarla again and seek her forgiveness but wake up the next day to find out that Raghuvir has left leaving a note that says he does n't have the courage to face Sarla. Pragya and Abhi decide to go home but the contract killer and the goons find them. Pragya takes a bullet that was meant for Abhi which infuriates Abhi who attacks the killer and pushes him off the cliff, killing him. Abhi runs back only to find the river taking Pragya away. He tries to save her to no avail and gets unconscious in the process. When he wakes up Purab announces that Pragya is dead but Abhi refuses to accept this. Sarla comes to the house in rage to reveal Tanu and Aliya 's truth to Abhi. Abhi slaps Aliya when she tries to misbehave with Sarla and reveals that he has already regained his memory and kicks Aliya and Tanu out.
The show takes a leap of 1 month and two days where it is Pragya 's birthday and Abhi decides to celebrate it believing that Pragya will return.
There is a new plot where a lookalike (Munni) of Pragya is introduced. Aliya and Tanu ask her to go to the Mehra house and pretend to be Pragya then make everybody hate her. Munni however refuses and goes to Abhi 's concept that he is holding that day. However, she 's unable to tell him when two suicide bombers come to the concert. Abhi, Munni, Rishab, Karan and Purab manage to get hold of the situation but the venue catch fire in the process. Munni falls unconscious due to the smoke. Abhi takes her home thinking her to be Pragya. Deep in the night, Aliya sneaks into Abhi 's room in the Mehra house while Abhi and the rest of the family were distracted by Tanu, and threatens Munni with hurting her niece and nephew if she tells Abhi their truth. Munni finally agrees to pretend to be Pragya when Aliya carries out her threat by kidnapping her niece and nephew. She comes to live in the Mehra house as Pragya. However, some events make the family doubt if she really is Pragya. Aliya and Tanu are able to re-enter the Mehra house with Munni 's help.
On the other hand Purab gets attacked by some goons when he goes to deposit Abhi 's money in the bank but a brave woman called Disha (Ruchi Savarn) saves him. Sangram Singh who is the head of the goons decide to take his revenge on Disha and tries to rape her in the market but Purab saves her. Sangram and his men chase them and they run and hide in the school where Disha teaches where they both fall asleep under a table. Disha returns home the following day to find out that her wedding has been cancelled because Sangram lied to the groom that she slept with Purab the night before. Disha 's father cries saying who will marry his daughter after this. Sangram decides to take advantage and offers to marry her just to take revenge for the slap she gave him. Disha 's father agrees and convinces Disha who was afraid for her father 's health. Purab decides to stop the wedding somehow and fights with Sangram who 's head hits a table and he gets unconscious. Purab wears his cloth to marry Disha instead but Disha 's aunty finds Sangram Singh unconscious and wakes him up. They stop the marriage when Purab and Disha are about to take the last round. Purab and Disha escape from there while Sangram Singh and his men chase them. Purab calls Abhi and tells him everything. Abhi tells the family and decides to get Purab and Disha married when they come. Purab initially disagrees due to the guilt of betraying Bulbul but is later convinced. Sarla gives him her blesses. Aliya gets infuriated when she finds out about the marriage. Dadi spoils her plan of getting Disha unconscious and marrying Purab instead. Unfortunately, Sangram Singh and his men get Abhi 's resident address and come there in desguise of dancers. Sangram holds a knife to Dadi 's neck demanding for Disha who had been hidden by Munni. Afraid of Sangram hurting the family, Munni hands over Disha to Sangram Singh who decides to burn her alive but Abhi tries to defend Disha and Sangram threatens him with a gun.
The real Pragya, who was in a coma all this while, regains consciousness sensing Abhi in danger. Meanwhile at the Mehra house, Munni outsmarts Sangram Singh and his men and they do n't kill Disha. The police arrive but Sangram manages to escape from there vowing to kill Munni, who he thinks to be Pragya. Purab and Disha finally get married. Aliya and Tanu give property papers to Munni to make Abhi sign them but Munni refuses but they blackmail her. Munni still hesitates since she has started having feelings for Abhi and does n't want to betray him. Pragya decides to return to Mumbai in so much eagerness to meet Abhi who must be missing her but her dreams get shattered when she finds the family preparing for pooja for Abhi and his wife (though she did n't see his wife clearly). She gets heartbroken to realize Abhi moved on without her and decides to leave his life. She however returns to the house and follows the family to the temple where Abhi and his wife are doing the pooja. She decides to confront the whole family for moving on without her but wastes enough time for the pooja to be completed. Munni comes to stand beside Pragya to pray and ask forgiveness from God for doing pooja with someone else 's husband without seeing Pragya 's face but after her prayer, she turns and sees Pragya who also sees her. Pragya gets shocked to see that Abhi 's wife is her look alike.
The show premiered at 09: 00 pm (IST) on Tuesday on April 15, 2014 and airs episodes from Monday to Friday.
Talking about introducing a fresh concept on primetime, Zee TV Programming Head, Namit Sharma said, "It takes one epic show to replace another, so you can imagine. It is a passionate drama of love, a far cry from regular saas - bahu soaps and has an ensemble cast of some very talented actors. ''
On this, Ekta Kapoor from Balaji Telefilms added, "While two of my shows (Pavitra Rishta and Jodha Akbar) are already on - air and doing immensely well on Zee TV, it 's a pleasure to extend my partnership with Zee to a third show. Pavitra Rishta has had a run of over Five years now and the journey has been most gratifying for me as a producer. While the audiences who are hooked on to Pavitra Rishta will continue to enjoy the show at 6: 30 PM, Kumkum Bhagya will open at 9 PM, drawing maximum eyeballs. It is so contemporary in its treatment that viewers will be able to instantly spot characters out of their own lives in the show. It 's a story of passionate love that anyone with a soul would be able to easily relate to. ''
Speaking of his comeback as an actor, Shabbir Ahluwalia, the protagonist of the show says, "With me producing shows, it was getting very difficult to manage time for acting assignments. But now, I have decided to concentrate on acting. You ca n't be away from what you love doing for long. The role appealed to me a great deal. This is the first time that I will be playing a rockstar on television and in order to look my part, I had to ensure that I did not just get my costume and look right, but also get that attitude right that is required to portray a rockstar onscreen. ''
The series is a love story produced by Ekta Kapoor and Shobha Kapoor under the banner Balaji Telefilms that airs on Zee TV. Ekta Kapoor considers the letter K to be lucky and has named many of her productions starting with K. Shabbir Ahluwalia, who was also cast in Ekta 's TV Series Kayamath, was selected to portray the lead role of Abhishek Prem Mehra. Ahluwalia made his comeback after Zee 20 Cricket League. Actress Sriti Jha landed in lead role opposite Shabbir Ahluwalia in the show. Mrunal Thakur was selected to portray the second leading role of Bulbul while Arjit Taneja was cast opposite her. In May 2014, Shikha Singh entered the show as the main antagonist Aliya Mehra, while Madhurima Tuli was cast to portray the negative role of Tanu. Later, tuli has to shoot for her film Baby (2015 Hindi film) so, this role was later played by Leena Jumani in September 2014. Actor Faisal Rashid was selected to portray the role of Suresh (Pragya 's fiance) who played an important role in April -- May 2014, but in May 2015 he quit the series. Actress Supriya Shukla was cast to play the role of Sarla Arora, while Madhu Raja played the role of Daljeet Arora. Other supporting cast include Samiksha Bhatnagar, Ankit Mohan and Charu Mehra and Amit Dhawan. Bhatnagar, who portrayed the supporting role of Mitali was replaced by Swati Anand within the month of launch while Anurag Sharma, who also appeared in Ekta Kapoor 's Pavitra Rishta, Bade Achhe Lagte Hain, Yeh Hai Mohabbatein and Itna Karo Na Mujhe Pyaar replaced Amit. In 2015, Neel Motawani (who was also cast in other shows of Ekta) was selected to play the negative role of Neel; while in June 2015 Nikhil Arya entered the series playing the role of main male antagonist Nikhil Sood.
In December 2015, Actress Mrunal Thakur who played the role of Bulbul opted out from the show and was to be replaced by Kajol Shrivastava, however the replacement never occurred and the character of Bulbul was phased out of the series after Mrunal 's departure. In August 2016, Ankit Mohan quit the show and therefore, his character left as well. In September 2016, Arjit Taneja quit the show and was replaced by Vin Rana. In October 2016, Nikhil Arya was replaced by Rujut Dahiya. In July 2017, actress Ruchi Savarn entered the show as Purab 's new love - mate.
Series was released on April 15, 2014 on Zee TV, the series also airs on Zee TV HD and Zee TV Asia. Show was also broadcast internationally on Channel 's international distribution. It airs in U.K., U.S., Malaysia, Canada, Mauritius, Sri Lanka, Ireland, South Africa, Indonesia, Chile, Philippines, Ghana (Adom TV) (where it is very popular) and Singapore on Zee TV and also airs in Pakistan being a part of channel Geo Kahani 's contract with ZEEL, the series airs a 60 - minute episode plus commercials starting from Mondays through Fridays at 22: 30 (PST) and tops rating chart, after Uri - Attack Geo network terminated the broadcast of Kumkum Bhagya along with all Indian shows. From April 2014, show 's episodes were released on YouTube, in mid 2015, the channel stopped its full length episodes and released its episodes on their app DittoTV, a live TV feature was introduced on Ditto where Zee TV 's Live streaming was available on subscription, the show also aired its live episodes in Ditto.
In late 2015, the app introduced their Before TV service where they launched Kumkum Bhagya 's episodes before airing on TV, new episodes where released during 5: 30am (IST), the service was available on a subscription plan. Though YouTube service was terminated, the channel still release their episodes on the Zee TV website and Zee TV app.
It was dubbed in Tamil as Iru Malargal on Polimer TV, which is well known for dubbing serials and gained high TRP Ratings. After that, ZEE Network stopped providing the dubbing rights to Polimer TV and now they are continuing it in Zee Tamizh as Iniya Iru Malrgal. It was also dubbed in Telugu as kumkuma bhagyam in Zee Telugu.
In Sri Lanka it is currently airing on Hiru TV in every week day from 7.30 to 8.00.pm titled as Adarei Man Adarei which is sinhala dubbed. In Mauritius, it is currently airing on Zee TV Africa and on MBC Digital 4 (Mauritius). In Indonesia, it is currently airing on Antv since 5 September 2016 and dubbed in Bahasa Indonesia as Lonceng Cinta (Bells of Love). In Indonesian, it began airing on ANTV from 5 September 2016 under the title Lonceng Cinta.
In Africa, the series is dubbed in English airs as Twist of Fate on Zee World (Zee Africa).
In the Arab world, the series is dubbed in Arabic and airs under the name مكانك في القلب هو القلب كله on Zee Alwan.
Initially started with low ratings, the show climbed to Top 5 most watched shows across all GEC 's and second most watched show of Zee TV after only a few weeks of its launch and was touted as the biggest fiction launch of 2014. The serial is very popular among Indian and Pakistani women.
Launched in Week 16, Kumkum Bhagya opened with 4.9 TVR and averaged to 3.3 TVR. In week 17, It fell further and averaged to 2.7 TVR. In Week 18, It improved and averaged to 3.2 TVR. In the fourth week of its launch i.e., in Week 19, it fell further and averaged to 2.8 TVR. For The Week 21, it improved a bit and averaged to 3.0 TVR but was among top 5 low rated shows on the channel. In Week 22, the show improved its ratings and rated 3.3 TVR. In Week 23, the show maintained its stability and averaged 3.2 TVR.
In Week 24, the show increased from 3.2 TVR to 3.5 TVR. In Week 25, the show jumped from 3.5 TVR to 4.9 TVR thereby being the second most watched show of the channel for the week behind Jodha Akbar. In the Week 26, the show improved its ratings further and averaged 5.7 TVR its highest ever since its launch and was again second most watched show of Zee TV. For the Week 27, the show improved further and averaged to 6.3 TVR and was amongst Top 6 Shows across all GEC 's. It was constistent in Week 28 with 6.3 TVR. In Week 29, it averaged to 6.6 TVR and was amongst Top 10 Shows across all GEC 's.
In week 30, the show broke all its previous records with an average ratings of 7.4 TVR and was touted as the biggest fiction launch of the year. The show also gave tough fight to GEC leader Diya Aur Baati Hum that airs at same slot on Star Plus. On the reception of the show in such a short span of time, Zee TV business head Pradeep Hejmadi announced that he considered the ' wedding track ' a very important inflection point for people to gravitate to the series, believing it to be attracting increasing interest in all parameters. He also added "Each story has its own promise and people who tune in are people who are bought into those promises or are keen to explore the relationships or the characters that stand out speaking to them. We concentrated on bringing out the key inflection points for the show and it was important because it is the core promise of Kumkum Bhagya. In the thirty - first week, Kumkum Bhagya averaged to 7.5 TVR up from 7.4 TVR, taking fourth place across all GEC 's and second among Zee TV shows behind the channel leader Jodha Akbar. One week later, it jumped from 415 GVMs to 453 GVMs. In the February 2015 ratings, Kumkum Bhagya entered the # 1 position with Diya Aur Baati in # 2.
21 August 2014 ratings showed that the channel 's four shows ' Kumkum Bhagya ', ' Jodha Akbar ', ' Qubool Hai ' and ' Doli Armaanon Ki ' did exceptionally well that week. Three of them appeared inside the Top 10 as the most watched shows in India.
In August 2014, BARC ratings stated that ZEE TV was next adding 38 GVMs. It was up from 415 GVMs to 453 GVMs that week. The channel 's four shows ' Kumkum Bhagya ', ' Jodha Akbar ', ' Qubool Hai ' and ' Doli Armaanon Ki ' did exceptionally well this week. Three of them appeared inside the Top 10 as the most watched shows in India. On 12 September 2014, BARC stated that ' Kumkum Bhagya ' topped the ratings in India for the first time scoring 9.4, while ' Saathiya ' on Star Plus and ' Jodha Akbar ' on ZEE TV both recorded 8.8 and ' Diya Aur Baati Hum ' was next with 7.6.
In March 2015, it was declared that the series bought highest ratings to the channel with new year, the channel scored 442 GVMs As of 17 March 2015, Barc stated that Zee TV was scored with 403GVMs As of April 2015, Kumkum Bhagya became India 's most watched Hindi entertainment show with 9.5 TVT In July, the top three Shows based on Ratings were Saath Nibhana Saathiya, Kumkum Bhagya and Yeh Hai Mohabbatein series scored 5537 TVTs According to BARC ratings of September 2015, It was announced that Zee TV 's two series were placed in Top 10 most watched shows list. ' Jodha Akbar ' and ' Kumkum Bhagya ' topped the ratings overall with 8.9 and 8.6 TVMs.
According to BARC Ratings of August 2015, Star Plus ' show Saath Nibhaana Saathiya and ZEE TV 's Kumkum Bhagya tie at the first slot with 3.8 TRPs. while on 6 August 2015 Kumkum Bhagya ranked with 5351 TVTs. According to Barc, show had dominated second position in November and dominated third position in December 2015 with 13.8 and 15.9 TVM respectively. On 11 December 2015, BARC ratings showed that the TV series Naagin (produced by same production) rejuvenated the channel 's weekend slot while Star Plus) series Saath Nibhana Saathiya was at No. 2 with 17.2 TVM, while ' Kumkum Bhagya ' on ZEE TV was in third with 13.8 TVM. While on 17 December 2015, similar listing took place where most watched show on Indian television remained Naagin on Colors with 17819TVM (last week 19576TVM), followed by Saath Nibhana Saathiya on Star Plus with 15344 (last week 17293), ' Kumkum Bhagya ' on ZEE TV was at third position with 13811TVM In the second week in 2016, ratings showed that the series has now dominated 4th Rank
For the whole of January, Kumkum Bhagya was the second most watched series in India after Colors 's Balaji Production TV Series Naagin. According to 14 January 2016 ratings it was seen that Kumkum Bhagya had jumped to the 2nd Rank once again, the top 2 shows were Naagin and Kumkum Bhagya, Naagin pulled 19824 viewers (last week 19847), followed by Kumkum Bhagya ' with 13692 viewers. Again on 21 January 2016, the top 2 Indian TV Shows were Naagin and Kumkum Bhagya. Naagin with 18125 viewers (previous week 19824), fand ' Kumkum Bhagya ' with 14852 viewers (previous week 13692). Next week, it was again announced that Kumkum Bhagya, the No # 2 Positioned show gained 14,244 viewers while Naagin was on Top with 17,199 viewers. With the entire month, Kumkum Bhagya was viewers second choice.
In February 2016, the top two positions were again taken by ' Naagin ' (with 19133 viewers), and Kumkum Bhagya (with 15554 viewers). With February 's second week, Kumkum bhagya became the third most choice with 14.2 viewers Next week, It was shown that the series took Third position lead interns of viewers due to T20 matches, It had a viewer range of 15.7 Million viewers. In The last week of February, Series registered 14.1 Million viewers
In March, three most watched series were Naagin, Kumkum Bhagya and Yeh hai mohabatein respectively. Star plus series Yeh Hai Mohabatein dominated the 3rd Position with 11.8 million viewers, Kumkum Bhagya registered 14.4 million viewers. In second week of March it registered 12.5 million viewers. In second and third weeks it registered a viewership of 12.07 million and 13.1 million impressions. The entire month Kumkum Bhagya dominated the second spot on Top ten shows of 2016. The Next month Ye Hai Mohabbatein dominated the second spot, Kumkum Bhagya took the third place scoring viewership of 10.6 million impressions followed by 11.0 million. With last of July, the viewership raised to 11.5 million impressions (urban + rural), next month the series further raised to 13.5 million impressions (urban + rural) when the production decided to introduce Tannu 's DNA report storyline. Later in the month of August, makers introduced Abhi 's memory loss storyline and dominated the first spot till October. In the month of October, Naagin 2 took the first spot, pushed Kumkum Bhagya to second spot. Recently in the month of May 2017, kumkum Bhagya backed to its first spot continuously for past three week, dethroning the mega success of 2017 Naagin 2.
On October 2015, it was also shown in Ghana - Africa as Kumkum Bhagya and it has been translated in the Akan Language. It won an award for the Best Foreign TV Series at the 2016 Ghana Movie Awards.
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when does the fourth season of flash come out | List of the Flash episodes - wikipedia
The Flash is an American action television series developed by Greg Berlanti, Andrew Kreisberg, and Geoff Johns, airing on The CW. It is based on the DC Comics character Barry Allen / Flash, a costumed crimefighter with the power to move at superhuman speeds. It is a spin - off from Arrow, existing in the same fictional universe. The series follows Barry Allen, portrayed by Grant Gustin, a crime scene investigator who gains superhuman speed, which he uses to fight criminals, including others who have also gained superhuman abilities. The Flash was renewed in March 2016 for a third season, which premiered on October 4, 2016. On January 8, 2017, The CW renewed the series for a fourth season, which premiered on October 10, 2017. As of December 5, 2017, 78 episodes of The Flash have aired.
Eddie proposes a task force to hunt down the Flash. A new metahuman, Roy Bivolo, shows up with the ability to send people into an uncontrollable rage, and uses his ability to rob a bank. Oliver Queen informs Barry that he and his team are tracking a killer who uses lethal boomerangs. Barry and Oliver agree to team - up and catch each other 's targets. Barry decides to go after Bivolo by himself. Bivolo uses his abilities on Barry; but because of Barry 's powers it makes the effects last longer. Oliver tries to stop Barry, and the two engage in a fight until Wells and Joe use colored strobe light to reset Barry 's emotional state. Afterward, Barry and Oliver capture Bivolo and place him in the prison at S.T.A.R. Labs. Eddie 's task force is established after he was beaten by an enraged Flash. Barry confirms Oliver 's belief that he has a lot to learn. Oliver advises him to stay away from Iris, whom Barry is in love with. Iris decides to end her support of the Flash. Oliver asks Barry 's team to keep his alter ego a secret. A new metahuman able to manipulate fire appears in Central City.
Vandal Savage arrives in Central City, seeking to kill Kendra. Barry goes to Star City and enlists the help of Oliver and his team to protect her. The team is visited by Malcolm who informs them that Savage is an immortal. Later, Kendra is kidnapped by Hawkman, but Barry and Oliver rescue her and capture Hawkman, who introducing himself as Carter Hall, tells them he and Kendra are soulmates who have been connected for millennia. The pair are destined to die, be reborn, and find each other in each lifetime. Carter also reveals that Savage has killed the pair several times, each time growing stronger. Savage acquires the Staff of Horus, a deadly weapon. Kendra unlocks her abilities and the team decides to regroup in Central City, where Oliver witnesses Samantha Clayton with her son, who is also his. Meanwhile, Caitlin and Harry create a serum that will temporarily increase Barry 's speed so that he can defeat Zoom. Jay initially refuses to test the serum, but changes his mind to save Harry when the latter is shot by an unaware Patty, whom Joe later informs about the truth. However, Jay advises against using the serum on Barry.
Barry investigates a meteor crash outside Central City that turns out to be a spaceship from which aliens emerge. Lyla tells the team that the "Dominators '' landed previously in the 1950s, but then mysteriously departed. Needing help, Barry assembles the original Team Arrow, Thea, the Legends, and Supergirl of Earth - 38. The team begins training at a S.T.A.R. Labs facility, sparring against Supergirl to prepare for combat against the aliens. Cisco reveals a message to Rip Hunter from Barry 's future self, which exposes Barry 's manipulation of the timeline and how it affected other team members. Oliver, Supergirl, Felicity, Martin, and Jefferson are left as the only ones who still trust Barry. The Dominators abduct the President. Supergirl leads most of the others in a rescue effort, but the Dominators kill the President and ensnare everyone with a mind control device. The controlled heroes return and attack S.T.A.R. Labs. While Oliver holds them off, Barry lures Supergirl to the device and manipulates her into destroying it, freeing everyone. The team decides to trust Barry again. Suddenly, Sara, Ray, Diggle, Thea, and Oliver are teleported away before Barry can intervene.
J'onn J'onzz and Mon - El arrive on Earth - 1 with a comatose Kara. The Music Meister attacks and places Barry in a similar coma. He wakes up in a musical world and finds Kara. Meister tells them that if they follow the script, they will return to the real world. Barry and Kara are forced to work as singers in a nightclub run by Malcolm, with Winn working as a piano player, Cisco as a waiter and Stein and Joe as two gangsters opposing Malcolm. Barry and Kara find Malcolm 's son, Mon - El, and Stein 's and Joe 's daughter, Iris, in a forbidden relationship. Kara and Barry convince the pair to reveal their love, also helping Barry and Kara to realize their own mistakes. Malcolm, Stein and Joe subsequently decide to go to war. Barry and Kara are shot in the crossfire, but the real Cisco, Mon - El and Iris vibe into their world to save them, allowing Barry and Kara to admit their loves for Iris and Mon - El. They wake up in S.T.A.R. Labs, and Meister reveals that he just wanted them to realize their love. Kara 's team returns to Earth - 38, and Barry and Iris move back in together. Barry re-proposes to Iris, who accepts.
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what are the different departments in the fbi | Federal Bureau of Investigation - Wikipedia
The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), formerly the Bureau of Investigation (BOI), is the domestic intelligence and security service of the United States, and its principal federal law enforcement agency. Operating under the jurisdiction of the U.S. Department of Justice, the FBI is also a member of the U.S. Intelligence Community and reports to both the Attorney General and the Director of National Intelligence. A leading U.S. counter-terrorism, counterintelligence, and criminal investigative organization, the FBI has jurisdiction over violations of more than 200 categories of federal crimes.
Although many of the FBI 's functions are unique, its activities in support of national security are comparable to those of the British MI5 and the Russian FSB. Unlike the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), which has no law enforcement authority and is focused on intelligence collection overseas, the FBI is primarily a domestic agency, maintaining 56 field offices in major cities throughout the United States, and more than 400 resident agencies in lesser cities and areas across the nation. At an FBI field office, a senior - level FBI officer concurrently serves as the representative of the Director of National Intelligence.
Despite its domestic focus, the FBI also maintains a significant international footprint, operating 60 Legal Attache (LEGAT) offices and 15 sub-offices in U.S. embassies and consulates across the globe. These overseas offices exist primarily for the purpose of coordination with foreign security services and do not usually conduct unilateral operations in the host countries. The FBI can and does at times carry out secret activities overseas, just as the CIA has a limited domestic function; these activities generally require coordination across government agencies.
The FBI was established in 1908 as the Bureau of Investigation, the BOI or BI for short. Its name was changed to the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) in 1935. The FBI headquarters is the J. Edgar Hoover Building, located in Washington, D.C.
In the fiscal year 2016, the Bureau 's total budget was approximately $8.7 billion.
The FBI 's main goal is to protect and defend the United States, to uphold and enforce the criminal laws of the United States, and to provide leadership and criminal justice services to federal, state, municipal, and international agencies and partners.
Currently, the FBI 's top priorities are:
In 1896, the National Bureau of Criminal Identification was founded, which provided agencies across the country with information to identify known criminals. The 1901 assassination of President William McKinley created a perception that America was under threat from anarchists. The Departments of Justice and Labor had been keeping records on anarchists for years, but President Theodore Roosevelt wanted more power to monitor them.
The Justice Department had been tasked with the regulation of interstate commerce since 1887, though it lacked the staff to do so. It had made little effort to relieve its staff shortage until the Oregon land fraud scandal at the turn of the 20th Century. President Roosevelt instructed Attorney General Charles Bonaparte to organize an autonomous investigative service that would report only to the Attorney General.
Bonaparte reached out to other agencies, including the U.S. Secret Service, for personnel, investigators in particular. On May 27, 1908, the Congress forbade this use of Treasury employees by the Justice Department, citing fears that the new agency would serve as a secret police department. Again at Roosevelt 's urging, Bonaparte moved to organize a formal Bureau of Investigation, which would then have its own staff of special agents.
The Bureau of Investigation (BOI) was created on July 26, 1908, after the Congress had adjourned for the summer. Attorney General Bonaparte, using Department of Justice expense funds, hired thirty - four people, including some veterans of the Secret Service, to work for a new investigative agency. Its first "Chief '' (the title is now known as "Director '') was Stanley Finch. Bonaparte notified the Congress of these actions in December 1908.
The bureau 's first official task was visiting and making surveys of the houses of prostitution in preparation for enforcing the "White Slave Traffic Act, '' or Mann Act, passed on June 25, 1910. In 1932, the bureau was renamed the United States Bureau of Investigation. The following year it was linked to the Bureau of Prohibition and rechristened the Division of Investigation (DOI) before finally becoming an independent service within the Department of Justice in 1935. In the same year, its name was officially changed from the Division of Investigation to the present - day Federal Bureau of Investigation, or FBI.
J. Edgar Hoover served as FBI Director from 1924 to 1972, a combined 48 years with the BOI, DOI, and FBI. He was chiefly responsible for creating the Scientific Crime Detection Laboratory, or the FBI Laboratory, which officially opened in 1932, as part of his work to professionalize investigations by the government. Hoover was substantially involved in most major cases and projects that the FBI handled during his tenure. But as detailed below, his proved to be a highly controversial tenure as Bureau Director, especially in its later years. After Hoover 's death, the Congress passed legislation that limited the tenure of future FBI Directors to ten years.
Early homicide investigations of the new agency included the Osage Indian murders. During the "War on Crime '' of the 1930s, FBI agents apprehended or killed a number of notorious criminals who carried out kidnappings, robberies, and murders throughout the nation, including John Dillinger, "Baby Face '' Nelson, Kate "Ma '' Barker, Alvin "Creepy '' Karpis, and George "Machine Gun '' Kelly.
Other activities of its early decades included a decisive role in reducing the scope and influence of the Ku Klux Klan. Additionally, through the work of Edwin Atherton, the BOI claimed success in apprehending an entire army of Mexican neo-revolutionaries under the leadership of General Enrique Estrada in the mid-1920s, east of San Diego, California.
Hoover began using wiretapping in the 1920s during Prohibition to arrest bootleggers. In the 1927 case Olmstead v. United States, in which a bootlegger was caught through telephone tapping, the United States Supreme Court ruled that FBI wiretaps did not violate the Fourth Amendment as unlawful search and seizure, as long as the FBI did not break into a person 's home to complete the tapping. After Prohibition 's repeal, Congress passed the Communications Act of 1934, which outlawed non-consensual phone tapping, but did allow bugging. In the 1939 case Nardone v. United States, the court ruled that due to the 1934 law, evidence the FBI obtained by phone tapping was inadmissible in court. After the 1967 case Katz v. United States overturned the 1927 case that had allowed bugging, Congress passed the Omnibus Crime Control Act, allowing public authorities to tap telephones during investigations, as long as they obtained warrants beforehand.
Beginning in the 1940s and continuing into the 1970s, the bureau investigated cases of espionage against the United States and its allies. Eight Nazi agents who had planned sabotage operations against American targets were arrested, and six were executed (Ex parte Quirin) under their sentences. Also during this time, a joint US / UK code - breaking effort called "The Venona Project '' -- with which the FBI was heavily involved -- broke Soviet diplomatic and intelligence communications codes, allowing the US and British governments to read Soviet communications. This effort confirmed the existence of Americans working in the United States for Soviet intelligence. Hoover was administering this project, but he failed to notify the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) of it until 1952. Another notable case was the arrest of Soviet spy Rudolf Abel in 1957. The discovery of Soviet spies operating in the US allowed Hoover to pursue his longstanding obsession with the threat he perceived from the American Left, ranging from Communist Party of the United States of America (CPUSA) union organizers to American liberals.
In 1939, the Bureau began compiling a custodial detention list with the names of those who would be taken into custody in the event of war with Axis nations. The majority of the names on the list belonged to Issei community leaders, as the FBI investigation built on an existing Naval Intelligence index that had focused on Japanese Americans in Hawaii and the West Coast, but many German and Italian nationals also found their way onto the secret list. Robert Shivers, head of the Honolulu office, obtained permission from Hoover to start detaining those on the list on December 7, 1941, while bombs were still falling over Pearl Harbor. Mass arrests and searches of homes (in most cases conducted without warrants) began a few hours after the attack, and over the next several weeks more than 5,500 Issei men were taken into FBI custody. On February 19, 1942, President Franklin Roosevelt issued Executive Order 9066, authorizing the removal of Japanese Americans from the West Coast. FBI Director Hoover opposed the subsequent mass removal and confinement of Japanese Americans authorized under Executive Order 9066, but Roosevelt prevailed. The vast majority went along with the subsequent exclusion orders, but in a handful of cases where Japanese Americans refused to obey the new military regulations, FBI agents handled their arrests. The Bureau continued surveillance on Japanese Americans throughout the war, conducting background checks on applicants for resettlement outside camp, and entering the camps (usually without the permission of War Relocation Authority officials) and grooming informants to monitor dissidents and "troublemakers. '' After the war, the FBI was assigned to protect returning Japanese Americans from attacks by hostile white communities.
During the 1950s and 1960s, FBI officials became increasingly concerned about the influence of civil rights leaders, whom they believed either had communist ties or were unduly influenced by communists or "fellow travelers. '' In 1956, for example, Hoover sent an open letter denouncing Dr. T.R.M. Howard, a civil rights leader, surgeon, and wealthy entrepreneur in Mississippi who had criticized FBI inaction in solving recent murders of George W. Lee, Emmett Till, and other blacks in the South. The FBI carried out controversial domestic surveillance in an operation it called the COINTELPRO, a portmanteau derived from "COunter - INTELligence PROgram. '' It was to investigate and disrupt the activities of dissident political organizations within the United States, including both militant and non-violent organizations. Among its targets was the Southern Christian Leadership Conference, a leading civil rights organization whose clergy leadership included the Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., who is addressed in more detail below.
The FBI frequently investigated Martin Luther King, Jr. In the mid-1960s, King began publicly criticizing the Bureau for giving insufficient attention to the use of terrorism by white supremacists. Hoover responded by publicly calling King the most "notorious liar '' in the United States. In his 1991 memoir, Washington Post journalist Carl Rowan asserted that the FBI had sent at least one anonymous letter to King encouraging him to commit suicide. Historian Taylor Branch documents an anonymous November 1964 "suicide package '' sent by the Bureau that combined a letter to the civil rights leader telling him, "You are done. There is only one way out for you... '' with audio recordings of King 's sexual indiscretions.
In March 1971, the residential office of an FBI agent in Media, Pennsylvania was burgled by a group calling itself the Citizens ' Commission to Investigate the FBI. Numerous files were taken and distributed to a range of newspapers, including The Harvard Crimson. The files detailed the FBI 's extensive COINTELPRO program, which included investigations into lives of ordinary citizens -- including a black student group at a Pennsylvania military college and the daughter of Congressman Henry Reuss of Wisconsin. The country was "jolted '' by the revelations, which included assassinations of political activists, and the actions were denounced by members of the Congress, including House Majority Leader Hale Boggs. The phones of some members of the Congress, including Boggs, had allegedly been tapped.
When President John F. Kennedy was shot and killed, the jurisdiction fell to the local police departments until President Lyndon B. Johnson directed the FBI to take over the investigation. To ensure clarity about the responsibility for investigation of homicides of federal officials, the Congress passed a law that included investigations of such deaths of federal officials, especially by homicide, within FBI jurisdiction. This new law was passed in 1965.
In response to organized crime, on August 25, 1953, the FBI created the Top Hoodlum Program. The national office directed field offices to gather information on mobsters in their territories and to report it regularly to Washington for a centralized collection of intelligence on racketeers. After the Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act, or RICO Act, took effect, the FBI began investigating the former Prohibition - organized groups, which had become fronts for crime in major cities and small towns. All of the FBI work was done undercover and from within these organizations, using the provisions provided in the RICO Act. Gradually the agency dismantled many of the groups. Although Hoover initially denied the existence of a National Crime Syndicate in the United States, the Bureau later conducted operations against known organized crime syndicates and families, including those headed by Sam Giancana and John Gotti. The RICO Act is still used today for all organized crime and any individuals who may fall under the Act 's provisions.
In 2003 a congressional committee called the FBI 's organized crime informant program "one of the greatest failures in the history of federal law enforcement. '' The FBI allowed four innocent men to be convicted of the March 1965 gangland murder of Edward "Teddy '' Deegan in order to protect Vincent Flemmi, an FBI informant. Three of the men were sentenced to death (which was later reduced to life in prison), and the fourth defendant was sentenced to life in prison. Two of the four men died in prison after serving almost 30 years, and two others were released after serving 32 and 36 years. In July 2007, U.S. District Judge Nancy Gertner in Boston found that the Bureau had helped convict the four men using false witness accounts given by mobster Joseph Barboza. The U.S. Government was ordered to pay $100 million in damages to the four defendants.
In 1982, the FBI formed an elite unit to help with problems that might arise at the 1984 Summer Olympics to be held in Los Angeles, particularly terrorism and major - crime. This was a result of the 1972 Summer Olympics in Munich, Germany, when terrorists murdered the Israeli athletes. Named the Hostage Rescue Team, or HRT, it acts as the FBI lead for a national SWAT team in related procedures and all counter-terrorism cases. Also formed in 1984 was the Computer Analysis and Response Team, or CART.
From the end of the 1980s to the early 1990s, the FBI reassigned more than 300 agents from foreign counter-intelligence duties to violent crime, and made violent crime the sixth national priority. With reduced cuts to other well - established departments, and because terrorism was no longer considered a threat after the end of the Cold War, the FBI assisted local and state police forces in tracking fugitives who had crossed state lines, which is a federal offense. The FBI Laboratory helped develop DNA testing, continuing its pioneering role in identification that began with its fingerprinting system in 1924.
Between 1993 and 1996, the FBI increased its counter-terrorism role in the wake of the first 1993 World Trade Center bombing in New York City, New York; the 1995 Oklahoma City bombing in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma; and the arrest of the Unabomber in 1996. Technological innovation and the skills of FBI Laboratory analysts helped ensure that the three cases were successfully prosecuted. But Justice Department investigations into the FBI 's roles in the Ruby Ridge and Waco incidents were found to have been obstructed by agents within the Bureau. During the 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta, Georgia, the FBI was criticized for its investigation of the Centennial Olympic Park bombing. It has settled a dispute with Richard Jewell, who was a private security guard at the venue, along with some media organizations, in regard to the leaking of his name during the investigation; this had briefly led to his being wrongly suspected of the bombing.
After Congress passed the Communications Assistance for Law Enforcement Act (CALEA, 1994), the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA, 1996), and the Economic Espionage Act (EEA, 1996), the FBI followed suit and underwent a technological upgrade in 1998, just as it did with its CART team in 1991. Computer Investigations and Infrastructure Threat Assessment Center (CITAC) and the National Infrastructure Protection Center (NIPC) were created to deal with the increase in Internet - related problems, such as computer viruses, worms, and other malicious programs that threatened US operations. With these developments, the FBI increased its electronic surveillance in public safety and national security investigations, adapting to the telecommunications advancements that changed the nature of such problems.
During the September 11, 2001, attacks on the World Trade Center, FBI agent Leonard W. Hatton Jr. was killed during the rescue effort while helping the rescue personnel evacuate the occupants of the South Tower, and he stayed when it collapsed. Within months after the attacks, FBI Director Robert Mueller, who had been sworn in a week before the attacks, called for a re-engineering of FBI structure and operations. He made countering every federal crime a top priority, including the prevention of terrorism, countering foreign intelligence operations, addressing cyber security threats, other high - tech crimes, protecting civil rights, combating public corruption, organized crime, white - collar crime, and major acts of violent crime.
In February 2001, Robert Hanssen was caught selling information to the Russian government. It was later learned that Hanssen, who had reached a high position within the FBI, had been selling intelligence since as early as 1979. He pleaded guilty to treason and received a life sentence in 2002, but the incident led many to question the security practices employed by the FBI. There was also a claim that Hanssen might have contributed information that led to the September 11, 2001, attacks.
The 9 / 11 Commission 's final report on July 22, 2004, stated that the FBI and Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) were both partially to blame for not pursuing intelligence reports that could have prevented the September 11, 2001, attacks. In its most damning assessment, the report concluded that the country had "not been well served '' by either agency and listed numerous recommendations for changes within the FBI. While the FBI did accede to most of the recommendations, including oversight by the new Director of National Intelligence, some former members of the 9 / 11 Commission publicly criticized the FBI in October 2005, claiming it was resisting any meaningful changes.
On July 8, 2007, The Washington Post published excerpts from UCLA Professor Amy Zegart 's book Spying Blind: The CIA, the FBI, and the Origins of 9 / 11. The Post reported, from Zegart 's book, that government documents showed that both the CIA and the FBI had missed 23 potential chances to disrupt the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001. The primary reasons for the failures included: agency cultures resistant to change and new ideas; inappropriate incentives for promotion; and a lack of cooperation between the FBI, CIA and the rest of the United States Intelligence Community. The book blamed the FBI 's decentralized structure, which prevented effective communication and cooperation among different FBI offices. The book suggested that the FBI had not evolved into an effective counter-terrorism or counter-intelligence agency, due in large part to deeply ingrained agency cultural resistance to change. For example, FBI personnel practices continued to treat all staff other than special agents as support staff, classifying intelligence analysts alongside the FBI 's auto mechanics and janitors.
For over 40 years, the FBI crime lab in Quantico had believed that lead alloys used in bullets had unique chemical signatures. It was analyzing the bullets with the goal of matching them chemically, not only to a single batch of ammunition coming out of a factory, but also to a single box of bullets. The National Academy of Sciences conducted an 18 - month independent review of comparative bullet - lead analysis. In 2003, its National Research Council published a report whose conclusions called into question 30 years of FBI testimony. It found the analytic model used by the FBI for interpreting results was deeply flawed, and the conclusion, that bullet fragments could be matched to a box of ammunition, was so overstated that it was misleading under the rules of evidence. One year later, the FBI decided to stop conducting bullet lead analyses.
After a 60 Minutes / Washington Post investigation in November 2007, two years later, the Bureau agreed to identify, review, and release all pertinent cases, and notify prosecutors about cases in which faulty testimony was given.
The FBI is organized into functional branches and the Office of the Director, which contains most administrative offices. An executive assistant director manages each branch. Each branch is then divided into offices and divisions, each headed by an assistant director. The various divisions are further divided into sub-branches, led by deputy assistant directors. Within these sub-branches there are various sections headed by section chiefs. Section chiefs are ranked analogous to special agents in charge.
Four of the branches report to the deputy director while two report to the associate director. The functions branches of the FBI are:
The Office of the Director serves as the central administrative organ of the FBI. The office provides staff support functions (such as finance and facilities management) to the five function branches and the various field divisions. The office is managed by the FBI associate director, who also oversees the operations of both the Information and Technology and Human Resources Branches.
The following is a listing of the rank structure found within the FBI (in ascending order):
The FBI 's mandate is established in Title 28 of the United States Code (U.S. Code), Section 533, which authorizes the Attorney General to "appoint officials to detect and prosecute crimes against the United States. '' Other federal statutes give the FBI the authority and responsibility to investigate specific crimes.
The FBI 's chief tool against organized crime is the Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations (RICO) Act. The FBI is also charged with the responsibility of enforcing compliance of the United States Civil Rights Act of 1964 and investigating violations of the act in addition to prosecuting such violations with the United States Department of Justice (DOJ). The FBI also shares concurrent jurisdiction with the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) in the enforcement of the Controlled Substances Act of 1970.
The USA PATRIOT Act increased the powers allotted to the FBI, especially in wiretapping and monitoring of Internet activity. One of the most controversial provisions of the act is the so - called sneak and peek provision, granting the FBI powers to search a house while the residents are away, and not requiring them to notify the residents for several weeks afterwards. Under the PATRIOT Act 's provisions, the FBI also resumed inquiring into the library records of those who are suspected of terrorism (something it had supposedly not done since the 1970s).
In the early 1980s, Senate hearings were held to examine FBI undercover operations in the wake of the Abscam controversy, which had allegations of entrapment of elected officials. As a result, in following years a number of guidelines were issued to constrain FBI activities.
A March 2007 report by the inspector general of the Justice Department described the FBI 's "widespread and serious misuse '' of national security letters, a form of administrative subpoena used to demand records and data pertaining to individuals. The report said that between 2003 and 2005, the FBI had issued more than 140,000 national security letters, many involving people with no obvious connections to terrorism.
Information obtained through an FBI investigation is presented to the appropriate U.S. Attorney or Department of Justice official, who decides if prosecution or other action is warranted.
The FBI often works in conjunction with other federal agencies, including the U.S. Coast Guard (USCG) and U.S. Customs and Border Protection (CBP) in seaport and airport security, and the National Transportation Safety Board in investigating airplane crashes and other critical incidents. Immigration and Customs Enforcement Homeland Security Investigations (ICE - HSI) has nearly the same amount of investigative manpower as the FBI, and investigates the largest range of crimes. In the wake of the September 11 attacks, then - Attorney General Ashcroft assigned the FBI as the designated lead organization in terrorism investigations after the creation of the U.S. Department of Homeland Security. ICE - HSI and the FBI are both integral members of the Joint Terrorism Task Force.
The federal government has the primary responsibility for investigating and prosecuting serious crime on Indian reservations.
There are 565 federally recognized American Indian Tribes in the United States, and the FBI has federal law enforcement responsibility on nearly 200 Indian reservations. This federal jurisdiction is shared concurrently with the Bureau of Indian Affairs, Office of Justice Services (BIA - OJS). Located within the FBI 's Criminal Investigative Division, the Indian Country Crimes Unit (ICCU) is responsible for developing and implementing strategies, programs, and policies to address identified crime problems in Indian Country (IC) for which the FBI has responsibility.
The FBI does not specifically list crimes in Native American land as one of its priorities. Often serious crimes have been either poorly investigated or prosecution has been declined. Tribal courts can impose sentences of up to three years, under certain restrictions.
The FBI is headquartered at the J. Edgar Hoover Building in Washington, D.C., with 56 field offices in major cities across the United States. The FBI also maintains over 400 resident agencies across the United States, as well as over 50 legal attachés at United States embassies and consulates. Many specialized FBI functions are located at facilities in Quantico, Virginia, as well as a "data campus '' in Clarksburg, West Virginia, where 96 million sets of fingerprints "from across the United States are stored, along with others collected by American authorities from prisoners in Saudi Arabia and Yemen, Iraq and Afghanistan. '' The FBI is in process of moving its Records Management Division, which processes Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) requests, to Winchester, Virginia.
According to The Washington Post, the FBI "is building a vast repository controlled by people who work in a top - secret vault on the fourth floor of the J. Edgar Hoover Building in Washington. This one stores the profiles of tens of thousands of Americans and legal residents who are not accused of any crime. What they have done is appear to be acting suspiciously to a town sheriff, a traffic cop or even a neighbor. ''
The FBI Laboratory, established with the formation of the BOI, did not appear in the J. Edgar Hoover Building until its completion in 1974. The lab serves as the primary lab for most DNA, biological, and physical work. Public tours of FBI headquarters ran through the FBI laboratory workspace before the move to the J. Edgar Hoover Building. The services the lab conducts include Chemistry, Combined DNA Index System (CODIS), Computer Analysis and Response, DNA Analysis, Evidence Response, Explosives, Firearms and Tool marks, Forensic Audio, Forensic Video, Image Analysis, Forensic Science Research, Forensic Science Training, Hazardous Materials Response, Investigative and Prospective Graphics, Latent Prints, Materials Analysis, Questioned Documents, Racketeering Records, Special Photographic Analysis, Structural Design, and Trace Evidence. The services of the FBI Laboratory are used by many state, local, and international agencies free of charge. The lab also maintains a second lab at the FBI Academy.
The FBI Academy, located in Quantico, Virginia, is home to the communications and computer laboratory the FBI utilizes. It is also where new agents are sent for training to become FBI Special Agents. Going through the 21 - week course is required for every Special Agent. First opened for use in 1972, the facility located on 385 acres (1.6 km) of woodland. The Academy trains state and local law enforcement agencies, which are invited to the law enforcement training center. The FBI units that reside at Quantico are the Field and Police Training Unit, Firearms Training Unit, Forensic Science Research and Training Center, Technology Services Unit (TSU), Investigative Training Unit, Law Enforcement Communication Unit, Leadership and Management Science Units (LSMU), Physical Training Unit, New Agents ' Training Unit (NATU), Practical Applications Unit (PAU), the Investigative Computer Training Unit and the "College of Analytical Studies. ''
In 2000, the FBI began the Trilogy project to upgrade its outdated information technology (IT) infrastructure. This project, originally scheduled to take three years and cost around $380 million, ended up over budget and behind schedule. Efforts to deploy modern computers and networking equipment were generally successful, but attempts to develop new investigation software, outsourced to Science Applications International Corporation (SAIC), were not. Virtual Case File, or VCF, as the software was known, was plagued by poorly defined goals, and repeated changes in management. In January 2005, more than two years after the software was originally planned for completion, the FBI officially abandoned the project. At least $100 million (and much more by some estimates) was spent on the project, which never became operational. The FBI has been forced to continue using its decade - old Automated Case Support system, which IT experts consider woefully inadequate. In March 2005, the FBI announced it was beginning a new, more ambitious software project, code - named Sentinel, which they expected to complete by 2009.
Carnivore was an electronic eavesdropping software system implemented by the FBI during the Clinton administration; it was designed to monitor email and electronic communications. After prolonged negative coverage in the press, the FBI changed the name of its system from "Carnivore '' to "DCS1000. '' DCS is reported to stand for "Digital Collection System ''; the system has the same functions as before. The Associated Press reported in mid-January 2005 that the FBI essentially abandoned the use of Carnivore in 2001, in favor of commercially available software, such as NarusInsight.
The Criminal Justice Information Services (CJIS) Division is located in Clarksburg, West Virginia. Organized beginning in 1991, the office opened in 1995 as the youngest agency division. The complex is the length of three football fields. It provides a main repository for information in various data systems. Under the roof of the CJIS are the programs for the National Crime Information Center (NCIC), Uniform Crime Reporting (UCR), Fingerprint Identification, Integrated Automated Fingerprint Identification System (IAFIS), NCIC 2000, and the National Incident - Based Reporting System (NIBRS). Many state and local agencies use these data systems as a source for their own investigations and contribute to the database using secure communications. FBI provides these tools of sophisticated identification and information services to local, state, federal, and international law enforcement agencies.
FBI is in charge of National Virtual Translation Center, which provides "timely and accurate translations of foreign intelligence for all elements of the Intelligence Community. ''
As of December 31, 2009, the FBI had a total of 33,852 employees. That includes 13,412 special agents and 20,420 support professionals, such as intelligence analysts, language specialists, scientists, information technology specialists, and other professionals.
The Officer Down Memorial Page provides the biographies of 69 FBI agents who have died in the line of duty from 1925 to July 2017.
To apply to become an FBI agent, one must be between the ages of 23 and 37. Due to the decision in Robert P. Isabella v. Department of State and Office of Personnel Management, 2008 M.S.P.B. 146, preference - eligible veterans may apply after age 37. In 2009, the Office of Personnel Management issued implementation guidance on the Isabella decision. The applicant must also hold American citizenship, be of high moral character, have a clean record, and hold at least a four - year bachelor 's degree. At least three years of professional work experience prior to application is also required. All FBI employees require a Top Secret (TS) security clearance, and in many instances, employees need a TS / SCI (Top Secret / Sensitive Compartmented Information) clearance. To obtain a security clearance, all potential FBI personnel must pass a series of Single Scope Background Investigations (SSBI), which are conducted by the Office of Personnel Management. Special Agents candidates also have to pass a Physical Fitness Test (PFT), which includes a 300 - meter run, one - minute sit - ups, maximum push - ups, and a 1.5 - mile (2.4 km) run. Personnel must pass a polygraph test with questions including possible drug use. Applicants who fail polygraphs may not gain employment with the FBI.
FBI Directors are appointed (nominated) by the President of the United States and must be confirmed by the United States Senate to serve a term of office of ten years, subject to resignation or removal by the President at his / her discretion before their term ends. Additional terms are allowed following the same procedure
J. Edgar Hoover, appointed by President Calvin Coolidge in 1924, was by far the longest - serving director, serving until his death in 1972. In 1968, Congress passed legislation, as part of the Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act of 1968, requiring Senate confirmation of appointments of future Directors. As the incumbent, this legislation did not apply to Hoover. The last FBI Director was James B. Comey, who was appointed in 2013 by President Barack Obama. In 2017 he was fired by President Donald J. Trump.
The FBI director is responsible for the day - to - day operations at the FBI. Along with the Deputy Director, the director makes sure cases and operations are handled correctly. The director also is in charge of making sure the leadership in any one of the FBI field offices is manned with qualified agents. Before the Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act was passed in the wake of the September 11 attacks, the FBI director would directly brief the President of the United States on any issues that arise from within the FBI. Since then, the director now reports to the Director of National Intelligence (DNI), who in turn reports to the President.
Upon qualification, an FBI special agent is issued a full - size Glock 22 or compact Glock 23 semi-automatic pistol, both of which are chambered in the. 40 S&W cartridge. In May 1997, the FBI officially adopted the Glock, in. 40 S&W, for general agent use, and first issued it to New Agent Class 98 - 1 in October 1997. At present, the Glock 23 "FG&R '' (finger groove and rail; either 3rd generation or "Gen4 '') is the issue sidearm. New agents are issued firearms, on which they must qualify, on successful completion of their training at the FBI Academy. The Glock 26 (subcompact 9mm Parabellum), Glock 23 and Glock 27 (. 40 S&W compact and subcompact, respectively) are authorized as secondary weapons. Special agents are also authorized to purchase and qualify with the Glock 21 in. 45 ACP.
Special agents of the FBI Hostage Rescue Team (HRT) and regional SWAT teams are issued the Springfield Armory Professional Model 1911 pistol in. 45 ACP.
In June 2016, the FBI awarded Glock a contract for new handguns. Unlike the currently issued. 40 S&W chambered Glock pistols, the new Glocks will be chambered for 9mm Parabellum. The contract is for the full - size Glock 17M and the compact Glock 19M. The "M '' means the Glocks have been modified to meet government standards specified by a 2015 government request for proposal.
The FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin is published monthly by the FBI Law Enforcement Communication Unit, with articles of interest to state and local law enforcement personnel. First published in 1932 as Fugitives Wanted by Police, the FBI Law Bulletin covers topics including law enforcement technology and issues, such as crime mapping and use of force, as well as recent criminal justice research, and Vi - CAP alerts, on wanted suspects and key cases.
The FBI also publishes some reports for both law enforcement personnel as well as regular citizens covering topics including law enforcement, terrorism, cybercrime, white - collar crime, violent crime, and statistics. However, the vast majority of federal government publications covering these topics are published by the Office of Justice Programs agencies of the United States Department of Justice, and disseminated through the National Criminal Justice Reference Service.
In the 1920s, the FBI began issuing crime reports by gathering numbers from local police departments. Due to limitations of this system found during the 1960s and 1970s -- victims often simply did not report crimes to the police in the first place -- the Department of Justice developed an alternate method of tallying crime, the victimization survey.
The Uniform Crime Reports (UCR) compile data from over 17,000 law enforcement agencies across the country. They provide detailed data regarding the volume of crimes to include arrest, clearance (or closing a case), and law enforcement officer information. The UCR focuses its data collection on violent crimes, hate crimes, and property crimes. Created in the 1920s, the UCR system has not proven to be as uniform as its name implies. The UCR data only reflect the most serious offense in the case of connected crimes and has a very restrictive definition of rape. Since about 93 % of the data submitted to the FBI is in this format, the UCR stands out as the publication of choice as most states require law enforcement agencies to submit this data.
Preliminary Annual Uniform Crime Report for 2006 was released on June 4, 2006. The report shows violent crime offenses rose 1.3 %, but the number of property crime offenses decreased 2.9 % compared to 2005.
The National Incident - Based Reporting System (NIBRS) crime statistics system aims to address limitations inherent in UCR data. The system is used by law enforcement agencies in the United States for collecting and reporting data on crimes. Local, state, and federal agencies generate NIBRS data from their records management systems. Data is collected on every incident and arrest in the Group A offense category. The Group A offenses are 46 specific crimes grouped in 22 offense categories. Specific facts about these offenses are gathered and reported in the NIBRS system. In addition to the Group A offenses, eleven Group B offenses are reported with only the arrest information. The NIBRS system is in greater detail than the summary - based UCR system. As of 2004, 5,271 law enforcement agencies submitted NIBRS data. That amount represents 20 % of the United States population and 16 % of the crime statistics data collected by the FBI.
eGuardian is the name of an FBI system, launched in January 2009, to share tips about possible terror threats with local police agencies. The program aims to get law enforcement at all levels sharing data quickly about suspicious activity and people.
eGuardian enables near real - time sharing and tracking of terror information and suspicious activities with local, state, tribal, and federal agencies. The eGuardian system is a spin - off of a similar but classified tool called Guardian that has been used inside the FBI, and shared with vetted partners since 2005.
Throughout its history, the bureau has been the subject of a number of controversial cases, both at home and abroad.
The FBI has maintained files on numerous people, including celebrities such as Elvis Presley, Frank Sinatra, John Denver, John Lennon, Jane Fonda, Groucho Marx, Charlie Chaplin, the band MC5, Lou Costello, Sonny Bono, Bob Dylan, Michael Jackson, and Mickey Mantle. The files were collected for various reasons. Some of the subjects were investigated for alleged ties to the Communist party (Charlie Chaplin and Groucho Marx), or in connection with antiwar activities during the Vietnam War (John Denver, John Lennon, and Jane Fonda). Numerous celebrity files concern threats or extortion attempts against them (Sonny Bono, John Denver, John Lennon, Elvis Presley, Michael Jackson, Mickey Mantle, Groucho Marx, and Frank Sinatra).
COINTELPRO tactics have been alleged to include discrediting targets through psychological warfare; smearing individuals and groups using forged documents and by planting false reports in the media; harassment; wrongful imprisonment; and illegal violence. The FBI 's stated motivation was "protecting national security, preventing violence, and maintaining the existing social and political order. ''
FBI records show that 85 % of COINTELPRO resources targeted groups and individuals that the FBI deemed "subversive '', including communist and socialist organizations; organizations and individuals associated with the Civil Rights Movement, including Martin Luther King, Jr. and others associated with the Southern Christian Leadership Conference, the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, and the Congress of Racial Equality and other civil rights organizations; black nationalist groups (e.g., Nation of Islam and the Black Panther Party); the American Indian Movement; a broad range of organizations labeled "New Left '', including Students for a Democratic Society and the Weathermen; almost all groups protesting the Vietnam War, as well as individual student demonstrators with no group affiliation; the National Lawyers Guild; organizations and individuals associated with the women 's rights movement; nationalist groups such as those seeking independence for Puerto Rico, United Ireland, and Cuban exile movements including Orlando Bosch 's Cuban Power and the Cuban Nationalist Movement. The remaining 15 % of COINTELPRO resources were expended to marginalize and subvert white hate groups, including the Ku Klux Klan and the National States ' Rights Party.
The FBI also spied upon and collected information on Puerto Rican independence leader Pedro Albizu Campos and his Nationalist political party in the 1930s. Abizu Campos was convicted three times in connection with deadly attacks on US government officials: in 1937 (Conspiracy to overthrow the government of the United States), in 1950 (attempted murder), and in 1954 (after an armed assault on the US House of Representatives while in session; although not present, Abizu Campos was considered the mastermind). The FBI operation was covert and did not become known until U.S. Congressman Luis Gutierrez had it made public via the Freedom of Information Act in the 1980s.
In the 2000s, researchers obtained files released by the FBI under the Freedom of Information Act revealing that the San Juan FBI office had coordinated with FBI offices in New York, Chicago and other cities, in a decades - long surveillance of Albizu Campos and Puerto Ricans who had contact or communication with him. The documents available are as recent as 1965.
From the 1950s to the 1980s, the governments of many Latin American and Caribbean countries were infiltrated by the FBI.
During the period from 1993 to 2011, FBI agents fired their weapons on 289 occasions; FBI internal reviews found the shots justified in all but 5 cases, in none of the 5 cases were people wounded. Samuel Walker, a professor of criminal justice at the University of Nebraska Omaha said the number of shots found to be unjustified was "suspiciously low. '' In the same time period, the FBI wounded 150 people, 70 of whom died; the FBI found all 150 shootings to be justified. Likewise, during the period from 2011 to the present, all shootings by FBI agents have been found to be justified by internal investigation. In a 2002 case in Maryland, an innocent man was shot, and later paid $1.3 million by the FBI after agents mistook him for a bank robber; the internal investigation found that the shooting was justified, based on the man 's actions.
The FBI has been criticized for its handling of Boston organized crime figure Whitey Bulger. Beginning in 1975, Bulger served as an informant for the FBI. As a result, the Bureau largely ignored his organization in exchange for information about the inner workings of the Italian American Patriarca crime family.
In December 1994, after being tipped off by his former FBI handler about a pending indictment under the Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act, Bulger fled Boston and went into hiding. For 16 years, he remained at large. For 12 of those years, Bulger was prominently listed on the FBI Ten Most Wanted Fugitives list. Beginning in 1997, the New England media exposed criminal actions by federal, state, and local law enforcement officials tied to Bulger. The revelation caused great embarrassment to the FBI. In 2002, Special Agent John J Connolly was convicted of federal racketeering charges for helping Bulger avoid arrest. In 2008, Special Agent Connolly completed his term on the federal charges and was transferred to Florida where he was convicted of helping plan the murder of John B Callahan, a Bulger rival. In 2014, that conviction was overturned on a technicality. Connolly was the agent leading the investigation of Bulger.
In June 2011, the 81 - year - old Bulger was arrested in Santa Monica, California. Bulger was tried on 32 counts of racketeering, money laundering, extortion, and weapons charges; including complicity in 19 murders. In August 2013, the jury found him guilty on 31 counts, and having been involved in 11 murders. Bulger was sentenced to two consecutive life terms plus five years.
On 20 February 2001, the bureau announced that a special agent, Robert Hanssen (born 1944) had been arrested for spying for the Soviet Union and then Russia from 1979 to 2001. He is serving 15 consecutive life sentences without the possibility of parole at ADX Florence, a federal supermax prison near Florence, Colorado. Hanssen was arrested on February 18, 2001, at Foxstone Park near his home in Vienna, Virginia, and was charged with selling US secrets to the USSR and subsequently Russia for more than US $1.4 million in cash and diamonds over a 22 - year period. On July 6, 2001, he pleaded guilty to 15 counts of espionage in the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Virginia. His spying activities have been described by the US Department of Justice 's Commission for the Review of FBI Security Programs as "possibly the worst intelligence disaster in U.S. history ''.
In 2005, fugitive Puerto Rican Nationalist leader Filiberto Ojeda Ríos died in a gun battle with FBI agents that some charged was an assassination. Puerto Rico Governor Aníbal Acevedo Vilá criticized the FBI assault as "improper '' and "highly irregular '' and demanded to know why his government was not informed of it. The FBI refused to release information beyond the official press release, citing security and agent privacy issues. The Puerto Rico Justice Department filed suit in federal court against the FBI and the US Attorney General, demanding information crucial to the Commonwealth 's own investigation of the incident. The case was dismissed by the U.S Supreme Court. Ojeda Rios ' funeral was attended by a long list of dignitaries, including the highest authority of the Roman Catholic Church in Puerto Rico, Archbishop Roberto Octavio González Nieves, ex-Governor Rafael Hernández Colón, and numerous other personalities.
In the aftermath of his death, the United Nations Special Committee on Decolonization approved a draft resolution urging a "probe of (the) pro-independence killing, human rights abuses '', after "Petitioner after petitioner condemned the assassination of Mr. Ojeda Rios by agents of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) ''.
In August 2007 Virgil Griffith, a Caltech computation and neural - systems graduate student, created WikiScanner, a searchable database that linked changes made by anonymous Wikipedia editors to companies and organizations from which the changes were made. The database cross-referenced logs of Wikipedia edits with publicly available records pertaining to the Internet IP addresses edits were made from. Griffith was motivated by the edits from the United States Congress, and wanted to see if others were similarly promoting themselves. The tool was designed to detect conflict of interest edits. Among his findings were that FBI computers were used to edit the FBI article on Wikipedia. Although the edits correlated with known FBI IP addresses, there was no proof that the changes actually came from a member or employee of the FBI, only that someone who had access to their network had edited the FBI article on Wikipedia. Wikipedia spokespersons received Griffith 's "WikiScanner '' positively, noting that it helped prevent conflicts of interest from influencing articles as well as increasing transparency and mitigating attempts to remove or distort relevant facts.
On July 5, 2016, FBI Director Comey announced the bureau 's recommendation that the United States Department of Justice file no criminal charges relating to the Hillary Clinton email controversy. During an unusual 15 minute press conference in the J. Edgar Hoover Building, Comey called Secretary Clinton 's and her top aides ' behavior "extremely careless '', but concluded that "no reasonable prosecutor would bring such a case ''. Comey 's public comments came after Attorney General Loretta Lynch announced that she would "fully '' accept the recommendation of the FBI regarding the probe. It was the first time the FBI disclosed its prosecutorial recommendation to the Department of Justice publicly. On July 7, 2016, Comey was questioned by a Republican - led House committee during a hearing regarding the FBI 's recommendation.
On October 28, 2016, less than two weeks before the presidential election, Director Comey, a long - time Republican, announced in a letter to Congress that additional emails potentially related to the Clinton email controversy had been found and that the FBI will investigate "to determine whether they contain classified information as well as to assess their importance to our investigation. '' At the time Comey sent his letter to Congress, the FBI had still not obtained a warrant to review any of the e-mails in question and was not aware of the content of any of the e-mails in question. Comey 's announcement was inconsistent with Justice Department policy and he was warned by lawyers at the Department of Justice against proceeding with his letter to Congress. Both Republican and Democrat lawmakers, as well as both the Clinton and Trump campaigns have called on Comey to provide additional details.
After Comey 's letter to Congress, commentator Paul Callan of CNN and Niall O'Dowd of Irish Central compared Comey to J. Edgar Hoover in attempting to influence and manipulate elections. On October 30, 2016, Richard Painter, chief White House ethics lawyer in the George W. Bush Administration, published an op - ed piece in the NY Times, stating that he had filed a complaint against the FBI with the Office of Special Counsel, which investigates possible violations of the Hatch Act of 1939, and with the Office of Government Ethics with respect to the sending of the letter. In the days after the FBI intervention, Rudy Giuliani indicated that the Trump campaign was briefed by the FBI days before Comey 's letter was sent to Congress.
On November 6, 2016, in the face of constant pressure from both Republicans and Democrats, Comey conceded in a second letter to Congress that through the FBI 's review of the new e-mails, there was no wrongdoing by Clinton. Comey conceded, "Based on our review, we have not changed our conclusions that we expressed in July. '' While the e-mail matter is resolved, legal questions on Comey 's actions remain. Comey and the FBI have been broadly criticized on the editorial pages from both the right and the left, with headlines reading: "James Comey should be fired '' (Chicago Tribune); "FBI chief James Comey should resign '' (The Washington Times); and "FBI Director James Comey is Unfit for Public Service '' (Newsweek). On November 12, 2016, unsuccessful presidential candidate Hillary Clinton directly attributed her election loss to FBI Director James Comey.
On January 12, 2017, the Department of Justice 's Office of Inspector General announced a formal investigation into whether the FBI followed proper procedures in its investigation of Clinton or whether "improper considerations '' were made by FBI personnel.
On May 9, 2017, President Trump dismissed FBI Director Comey after Comey had misstated several key findings of the email investigation in his testimony to the Senate Judiciary Committee. Some question whether the dismissal was in response to Comey 's request for more resources to expand the probe into Russian interference into the Presidential election. Following Comey 's dismissal, Deputy Director Andrew G. McCabe became Acting Director. On August 1, 2017, President Trump 's nominee for FBI director Christopher A. Wray was officially confirmed by the Senate in a 92 -- 5 vote and was sworn in as Director the next day.
The FBI has been frequently depicted in popular media since the 1930s. The bureau has participated to varying degrees, which has ranged from direct involvement in the creative process of film or TV series development, to providing consultation on operations and closed cases. A few of the notable portrayals of the FBI on television are the 1993 -- 2002 series The X-Files, which concerned investigations into paranormal phenomena by five fictional Special Agents, and the fictional Counter Terrorist Unit (CTU) agency in the TV drama 24, which is patterned after the FBI Counterterrorism Division. The 1991 movie Point Break is based on the true story of an undercover FBI agent who infiltrated a gang of bank robbers. The 1997 movie Donnie Brasco is based on the true story of undercover FBI agent Joseph D. Pistone infiltrating the Mafia. The 2015 TV series Quantico, titled after the location of the Bureau 's training facility, deals with Probationary and Special Agents, not all of whom, within the show 's format, may be fully reliable or even trustworthy.
Coordinates: 38 ° 53 ′ 43 '' N 77 ° 01 ′ 30 '' W / 38.8952 ° N 77.0251 ° W / 38.8952; - 77.0251
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ok google what is the capital of belgium | Belgium - Wikipedia
Coordinates: 50 ° 50 ′ N 4 ° 00 ′ E / 50.833 ° N 4.000 ° E / 50.833; 4.000
-- in Europe (green & dark grey) -- in the European Union (green)
Belgium, officially the Kingdom of Belgium, is a country in Western Europe bordered by France, the Netherlands, Germany and Luxembourg. A small and densely populated country, it covers an area of 30,528 square kilometres (11,787 sq mi) and has a population of more than 11 million. Straddling the cultural boundary between Germanic and Latin Europe, Belgium is home to two main linguistic groups: the Dutch - speaking, mostly Flemish community, which constitutes about 59 percent of the population, and the French - speaking, mostly Walloon population, which comprises about 40 percent of all Belgians. Additionally, there is a small group of German speakers, numbering around one percent, who live in the East Cantons. The capital and largest city is Brussels; other major cities are Antwerp, Ghent, Charleroi and Liège.
Historically, Belgium was part of an area known as the Low Countries, a somewhat larger region than the current Benelux group of states that also included parts of northern France and western Germany. Its name is derived from the Latin word Belgica, after the Roman province of Gallia Belgica. From the end of the Middle Ages until the 17th century, the area of Belgium was a prosperous and cosmopolitan centre of commerce and culture. Between the 16th and early 19th centuries, Belgium served as the battleground between many European powers, earning the moniker the "Battlefield of Europe '', a reputation strengthened by both world wars. The country emerged in 1830 following the Belgian Revolution when it seceded from the Netherlands.
Belgium is a federal constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. It is divided into three highly autonomous regions and three communities: the Dutch - speaking region of Flanders in the north, the mostly French - speaking Wallonia region in the south, and the German - speaking cantons in the east. The Brussels - Capital Region is an officially bilingual (French and Dutch) enclave within the Flemish Region, though French is the dominant language. A German - speaking Community exists in eastern Wallonia. Belgium 's linguistic diversity and related political conflicts are reflected in its political history and complex system of governance, made up of six different governments.
Belgium participated in the Industrial Revolution and, during the course of the 20th century, possessed a number of colonies in Africa. The second half of the 20th century was marked by rising tensions between the Dutch - speaking and the French - speaking citizens fueled by differences in language and culture and the unequal economic development of Flanders and Wallonia. This continuing antagonism has led to several far - reaching reforms, resulting in a transition from a unitary to a federal arrangement during the period from 1970 to 1993. Despite the reforms, tensions between the groups have remained, if not increased; there is significant separatism particularly among the Flemish; controversial language laws exist such as the municipalities with language facilities; and the formation of a coalition government took 18 months following the June 2010 federal election, a world record. Unemployment in Wallonia is more than double that of Flanders, which boomed after the war.
Belgium is one of the six founding countries of the European Union and hosts the official seats of the European Commission, the Council of the European Union, and the European Council, as well as a seat of the European Parliament in the country 's capital, Brussels. Belgium is also a founding member of the Eurozone, NATO, OECD, and WTO, and a part of the trilateral Benelux Union and the Schengen Area. Brussels hosts several of the EU 's official seats as well as the headquarters of many major international organizations such as NATO.
Belgium is a developed country, with an advanced high - income economy. The country achieves very high standards of living, life quality, healthcare, education, and is categorized as "very high '' in the Human Development Index. It also ranks as one of the safest or most peaceful countries in the world.
-- Julius Caesar, De Bello Gallico, Book I, Ch. 1
The name "Belgium '' is derived from Gallia Belgica, a Roman province in the northernmost part of Gaul that before Roman invasion in 100 BC, was inhabited by the Belgae, a mix of Celtic and Germanic peoples. A gradual immigration by Germanic Frankish tribes during the 5th century brought the area under the rule of the Merovingian kings. A gradual shift of power during the 8th century led the kingdom of the Franks to evolve into the Carolingian Empire.
The Treaty of Verdun in 843 divided the region into Middle and West Francia and therefore into a set of more or less independent fiefdoms which, during the Middle Ages, were vassals either of the King of France or of the Holy Roman Emperor.
Many of these fiefdoms were united in the Burgundian Netherlands of the 14th and 15th centuries. Emperor Charles V extended the personal union of the Seventeen Provinces in the 1540s, making it far more than a personal union by the Pragmatic Sanction of 1549 and increased his influence over the Prince - Bishopric of Liège.
The Eighty Years ' War (1568 -- 1648) divided the Low Countries into the northern United Provinces (Belgica Foederata in Latin, the "Federated Netherlands '') and the Southern Netherlands (Belgica Regia, the "Royal Netherlands ''). The latter were ruled successively by the Spanish (Spanish Netherlands) and the Austrian Habsburgs (Austrian Netherlands) and comprised most of modern Belgium. This was the theatre of most Franco - Spanish and Franco - Austrian wars during the 17th and 18th centuries.
Following the campaigns of 1794 in the French Revolutionary Wars, the Low Countries -- including territories that were never nominally under Habsburg rule, such as the Prince - Bishopric of Liège -- were annexed by the French First Republic, ending Austrian rule in the region. The reunification of the Low Countries as the United Kingdom of the Netherlands occurred at the dissolution of the First French Empire in 1815, after the defeat of Napoleon.
In 1830, the Belgian Revolution led to the separation of the Southern Provinces from the Netherlands and to the establishment of a Catholic and bourgeois, officially French - speaking and neutral, independent Belgium under a provisional government and a national congress. Since the installation of Leopold I as king on 21 July 1831, now celebrated as Belgium 's National Day, Belgium has been a constitutional monarchy and parliamentary democracy, with a laicist constitution based on the Napoleonic code. Although the franchise was initially restricted, universal suffrage for men was introduced after the general strike of 1893 (with plural voting until 1919) and for women in 1949.
The main political parties of the 19th century were the Catholic Party and the Liberal Party, with the Belgian Labour Party emerging towards the end of the 19th century. French was originally the single official language adopted by the nobility and the bourgeoisie. It progressively lost its overall importance as Dutch became recognized as well. This recognition became official in 1898 and in 1967 the parliament accepted a Dutch version of the Constitution.
The Berlin Conference of 1885 ceded control of the Congo Free State to King Leopold II as his private possession. From around 1900 there was growing international concern for the extreme and savage treatment of the Congolese population under Leopold II, for whom the Congo was primarily a source of revenue from ivory and rubber production. Many Congolese were killed by Leopold 's agents for failing to meet production quotas for ivory and rubber. It is estimated that nearly 10 million were killed during the Leopold period. In 1908, this outcry led the Belgian state to assume responsibility for the government of the colony, henceforth called the Belgian Congo. A Belgian commission in 1919 estimated that Congo 's population was half what it was in 1879.
Germany invaded Belgium in August 1914 as part of the Schlieffen Plan to attack France, and much of the Western Front fighting of World War I occurred in western parts of the country. The opening months of the war were known as the Rape of Belgium due to German excesses. Belgium assumed control of the German colonies of Ruanda - Urundi (modern - day Rwanda and Burundi) during the war, and in 1924 the League of Nations mandated them to Belgium. In the aftermath of the First World War, Belgium annexed the Prussian districts of Eupen and Malmedy in 1925, thereby causing the presence of a German - speaking minority.
German forces again invaded the country in May 1940, and 40,690 Belgians, over half of them Jews, were killed during the subsequent occupation and The Holocaust. From September 1944 to February 1945 the Allies liberated Belgium. After World War II, a general strike forced King Leopold III to abdicate in 1951, since many Belgians felt he had collaborated with Germany during the war. The Belgian Congo gained independence in 1960 during the Congo Crisis; Ruanda - Urundi followed with its independence two years later. Belgium joined NATO as a founding member and formed the Benelux group of nations with the Netherlands and Luxembourg.
Belgium became one of the six founding members of the European Coal and Steel Community in 1951 and of the European Atomic Energy Community and European Economic Community, established in 1957. The latter has now become the European Union, for which Belgium hosts major administrations and institutions, including the European Commission, the Council of the European Union and the extraordinary and committee sessions of the European Parliament.
Belgium shares borders with France (620 km), Germany (167 km), Luxembourg (148 km) and the Netherlands (450 km). Its total surface, including water area, is 30,528 square kilometres from which land area alone 30,278 km. It lies between latitudes 49 ° 30 and 51 ° 30 N, and longitudes 2 ° 33 and 6 ° 24 E.
Belgium has three main geographical regions; the coastal plain in the northwest and the central plateau both belong to the Anglo - Belgian Basin, and the Ardennes uplands in the southeast to the Hercynian orogenic belt. The Paris Basin reaches a small fourth area at Belgium 's southernmost tip, Belgian Lorraine.
The coastal plain consists mainly of sand dunes and polders. Further inland lies a smooth, slowly rising landscape irrigated by numerous waterways, with fertile valleys and the northeastern sandy plain of the Campine (Kempen). The thickly forested hills and plateaux of the Ardennes are more rugged and rocky with caves and small gorges. Extending westward into France, this area is eastwardly connected to the Eifel in Germany by the High Fens plateau, on which the Signal de Botrange forms the country 's highest point at 694 metres (2,277 ft).
The climate is maritime temperate with significant precipitation in all seasons (Köppen climate classification: Cfb), like most of northwest Europe. The average temperature is lowest in January at 3 ° C (37.4 ° F) and highest in July at 18 ° C (64.4 ° F). The average precipitation per month varies between 54 millimetres (2.1 in) for February and April, to 78 mm (3.1 in) for July. Averages for the years 2000 to 2006 show daily temperature minimums of 7 ° C (44.6 ° F) and maximums of 14 ° C (57.2 ° F) and monthly rainfall of 74 mm (2.9 in); these are about 1 ° C and nearly 10 millimetres above last century 's normal values, respectively.
Phytogeographically, Belgium is shared between the Atlantic European and Central European provinces of the Circumboreal Region within the Boreal Kingdom. According to the World Wide Fund for Nature, the territory of Belgium belongs to the ecoregion of Atlantic mixed forests. Because of its high population density, industrialization and its location in the centre of Western Europe, Belgium still faces some environmental problems. However, due to consistent efforts by the various levels of government in Belgium, the state of the environment in Belgium is gradually improving. This led to Belgium being ranked as one of the top 10 countries (9 out of 132) in terms of environmental protection trends, and to Belgium being ranked in 2012 as the 24th country out of 132 for environmental protection. Belgium moreover has one of Europe 's highest waste recycling rates. In particular, the Flemish region of Belgium has the highest waste diversion rate in Europe. Almost 75 percent of the residential waste produced there is reused, recycled, or composted.
Polders along the Yser river
Campine landscape
The Meuse river between Dinant and Hastière
High Fens landscape near the German border
The territory of Belgium is divided into three Regions, two of which, the Flemish Region and Walloon Region, are in turn subdivided into provinces; the third Region, the Brussels Capital Region, is neither a province nor a part of a province.
Belgium is a constitutional, popular monarchy and a federal parliamentary democracy. The bicameral federal parliament is composed of a Senate and a Chamber of Representatives. The former is made up of 50 senators appointed by the parliaments of the communities and regions and 10 co-opted senators. Prior to 2014, most of the Senate 's members were directly elected. The Chamber 's 150 representatives are elected under a proportional voting system from 11 electoral districts. Belgium has compulsory voting and thus maintains one of the highest rates of voter turnout in the world.
The King (currently Philippe) is the head of state, though with limited prerogatives. He appoints ministers, including a Prime Minister, that have the confidence of the Chamber of Representatives to form the federal government. The Council of Ministers is composed of no more than fifteen members. With the possible exception of the Prime Minister, the Council of Ministers is composed of an equal number of Dutch - speaking members and French - speaking members. The judicial system is based on civil law and originates from the Napoleonic code. The Court of Cassation is the court of last resort, with the Court of Appeal one level below.
Belgium 's political institutions are complex; most political power is organized around the need to represent the main cultural communities. Since about 1970, the significant national Belgian political parties have split into distinct components that mainly represent the political and linguistic interests of these communities. The major parties in each community, though close to the political centre, belong to three main groups: Christian Democrats, Liberals, and Social Democrats. Further notable parties came into being well after the middle of last century, mainly around linguistic, nationalist, or environmental themes and recently smaller ones of some specific liberal nature.
A string of Christian Democrat coalition governments from 1958 was broken in 1999 after the first dioxin crisis, a major food contamination scandal. A "rainbow coalition '' emerged from six parties: the Flemish and the French - speaking Liberals, Social Democrats and Greens. Later, a "purple coalition '' of Liberals and Social Democrats formed after the Greens lost most of their seats in the 2003 election.
The government led by Prime Minister Guy Verhofstadt from 1999 to 2007 achieved a balanced budget, some tax reforms, a labour - market reform, scheduled nuclear phase - out and instigated legislation allowing more stringent war crime and more lenient soft drug usage prosecution. Restrictions on withholding euthanasia were reduced and same - sex marriage legalized. The government promoted active diplomacy in Africa and opposed the invasion of Iraq. It is the only country that does not have age restrictions on euthanasia.
Verhofstadt 's coalition fared badly in the June 2007 elections. For more than a year, the country experienced a political crisis. This crisis was such that many observers speculated on a possible partition of Belgium. From 21 December 2007 until 20 March 2008 the temporary Verhofstadt III Government was in office. This coalition of the Flemish and Francophone Christian Democrats, the Flemish and Francophone Liberals together with the Francophone Social Democrats was an interim government until 20 March 2008.
On that day a new government, led by Flemish Christian Democrat Yves Leterme, the actual winner of the federal elections of June 2007, was sworn in by the king. On 15 July 2008 Leterme announced the resignation of the cabinet to the king, as no progress in constitutional reforms had been made. In December 2008 he once more offered his resignation to the king after a crisis surrounding the sale of Fortis to BNP Paribas. At this juncture, his resignation was accepted and Christian Democratic and Flemish Herman Van Rompuy was sworn in as Prime Minister on 30 December 2008.
After Herman Van Rompuy was designated the first permanent President of the European Council on 19 November 2009, he offered the resignation of his government to King Albert II on 25 November 2009. A few hours later, the new government under Prime Minister Yves Leterme was sworn in. On 22 April 2010, Leterme again offered the resignation of his cabinet to the king after one of the coalition partners, the OpenVLD, withdrew from the government, and on 26 April 2010 King Albert officially accepted the resignation.
The Parliamentary elections in Belgium on 13 June 2010 saw the Flemish nationalist N - VA become the largest party in Flanders, and the Socialist Party PS the largest party in Wallonia. Until December 2011, Belgium was governed by Leterme 's caretaker government awaiting the end of the deadlocked negotiations for formation of a new government. By 30 March 2011 this set a new world record for the elapsed time without an official government, previously held by war - torn Iraq. Finally, in December 2011 the Di Rupo Government led by Walloon socialist Prime Minister Elio Di Rupo was sworn in.
The 2014 federal election (coinciding with the regional elections) resulted in a further electoral gain for the Flemish nationalist N - VA, although the incumbent coalition (composed of Flemish and French - speaking Social Democrats, Liberals, and Christian Democrats) maintains a solid majority in Parliament and in all electoral constituencies. On 22 July 2014, King Philippe nominated Charles Michel (MR) and Kris Peeters (CD&V) to lead the formation of a new federal cabinet composed of the Flemish parties N - VA, CD&V, Open Vld and the French - speaking MR, which resulted in the Michel Government. It is the first time N - VA is part of the federal cabinet, while the French - speaking side is represented only by the MR, which achieved a minority of the public votes in Wallonia.
Following a usage which can be traced back to the Burgundian and Habsburg courts, in the 19th century it was necessary to speak French to belong to the governing upper class, and those who could only speak Dutch were effectively second - class citizens. Late that century, and continuing into the 20th century, Flemish movements evolved to counter this situation.
While the people in Southern Belgium spoke French or dialects of French, and most Brusselers adopted French as their first language, the Flemings refused to do so and succeeded progressively in making Dutch an equal language in the education system. Following World War II, Belgian politics became increasingly dominated by the autonomy of its two main linguistic communities. Intercommunal tensions rose and the constitution was amended to minimise the potential for conflict.
Based on the four language areas defined in 1962 -- 63 (the Dutch, bilingual, French and German language areas), consecutive revisions of the country 's constitution in 1970, 1980, 1988 and 1993 established a unique form of a federal state with segregated political power into three levels:
The constitutional language areas determine the official languages in their municipalities, as well as the geographical limits of the empowered institutions for specific matters. Although this would allow for seven parliaments and governments, when the Communities and Regions were created in 1980, Flemish politicians decided to merge both. Thus the Flemings just have one single institutional body of parliament and government is empowered for all except federal and specific municipal matters.
The overlapping boundaries of the Regions and Communities have created two notable peculiarities: the territory of the Brussels - Capital Region (which came into existence nearly a decade after the other regions) is included in both the Flemish and French Communities, and the territory of the German - speaking Community lies wholly within the Walloon Region. Conflicts about jurisdiction between the bodies are resolved by the Constitutional Court of Belgium. The structure is intended as a compromise to allow different cultures to live together peacefully.
The Federal State 's authority includes justice, defence, federal police, social security, nuclear energy, monetary policy and public debt, and other aspects of public finances. State - owned companies include the Belgian Post Group and Belgian Railways. The Federal Government is responsible for the obligations of Belgium and its federalized institutions towards the European Union and NATO. It controls substantial parts of public health, home affairs and foreign affairs. The budget -- without the debt -- controlled by the federal government amounts to about 50 % of the national fiscal income. The federal government employs around 12 % of the civil servants.
Communities exercise their authority only within linguistically determined geographical boundaries, originally oriented towards the individuals of a Community 's language: culture (including audiovisual media), education and the use of the relevant language. Extensions to personal matters less directly connected with language comprise health policy (curative and preventive medicine) and assistance to individuals (protection of youth, social welfare, aid to families, immigrant assistance services, and so on.).
Regions have authority in fields that can be broadly associated with their territory. These include economy, employment, agriculture, water policy, housing, public works, energy, transport, the environment, town and country planning, nature conservation, credit and foreign trade. They supervise the provinces, municipalities and intercommunal utility companies.
In several fields, the different levels each have their own say on specifics. With education, for instance, the autonomy of the Communities neither includes decisions about the compulsory aspect nor allows for setting minimum requirements for awarding qualifications, which remain federal matters. Each level of government can be involved in scientific research and international relations associated with its powers. The treaty - making power of the Regions ' and Communities ' Governments is the broadest of all the Federating units of all the Federations all over the world.
Because of its location at the crossroads of Western Europe, Belgium has historically been the route of invading armies from its larger neighbours. With virtually defenceless borders, Belgium has traditionally sought to avoid domination by the more powerful nations which surround it through a policy of mediation. The Belgians have been strong advocates of European integration. Both the European Union and NATO are headquartered in Belgium.
The Belgian Armed Forces have about 47,000 active troops. In 2010, Belgium 's defence budget totaled € 3.95 billion (representing 1.12 % of its GDP). They are organized into one unified structure which consists of four main components: Land Component, or the Army; Air Component, or the Air Force; Naval Component, or the Navy; Medical Component. The operational commands of the four components are subordinate to the Staff Department for Operations and Training of the Ministry of Defence, which is headed by the Assistant Chief of Staff Operations and Training, and to the Chief of Defence.
The effects of the Second World War made collective security a priority for Belgian foreign policy. In March 1948 Belgium signed the Treaty of Brussels, and then joined NATO in 1948. However the integration of the armed forces into NATO did not begin until after the Korean War. The Belgians, along with the Luxembourg government, sent a detachment of battalion strength to fight in Korea known as the Belgian United Nations Command. This mission was the first in a long line of UN missions which the Belgians supported. Currently, the Belgian Naval Component is working closely together with the Dutch Navy under the command of the Admiral Benelux.
Belgium 's strongly globalized economy and its transport infrastructure are integrated with the rest of Europe. Its location at the heart of a highly industrialized region helped make it the world 's 15th largest trading nation in 2007. The economy is characterized by a highly productive work force, high GNP and high exports per capita. Belgium 's main imports are raw materials, machinery and equipment, chemicals, raw diamonds, pharmaceuticals, foodstuffs, transportation equipment, and oil products. Its main exports are machinery and equipment, chemicals, finished diamonds, metals and metal products, and foodstuffs.
The Belgian economy is heavily service - oriented and shows a dual nature: a dynamic Flemish economy and a Walloon economy that lags behind. One of the founding members of the European Union, Belgium strongly supports an open economy and the extension of the powers of EU institutions to integrate member economies. Since 1922, through the Belgium - Luxembourg Economic Union, Belgium and Luxembourg have been a single trade market with customs and currency union.
Belgium was the first continental European country to undergo the Industrial Revolution, in the early 19th century. Liège and Charleroi rapidly developed mining and steelmaking, which flourished until the mid-20th century in the Sambre and Meuse valley and made Belgium among one of the three most industrialized nations in the world from 1830 to 1910. However, by the 1840s the textile industry of Flanders was in severe crisis, and the region experienced famine from 1846 to 1850.
After World War II, Ghent and Antwerp experienced a rapid expansion of the chemical and petroleum industries. The 1973 and 1979 oil crises sent the economy into a recession; it was particularly prolonged in Wallonia, where the steel industry had become less competitive and experienced serious decline. In the 1980s and 1990s, the economic centre of the country continued to shift northwards and is now concentrated in the populous Flemish Diamond area.
By the end of the 1980s, Belgian macroeconomic policies had resulted in a cumulative government debt of about 120 % of GDP. As of 2006, the budget was balanced and public debt was equal to 90.30 % of GDP. In 2005 and 2006, real GDP growth rates of 1.5 % and 3.0 %, respectively, were slightly above the average for the Euro area. Unemployment rates of 8.4 % in 2005 and 8.2 % in 2006 were close to the area average. By October 2010, this had grown to 8.5 % compared to an average rate of 9.6 % for the European Union as a whole (EU 27). From 1832 until 2002, Belgium 's currency was the Belgian franc. Belgium switched to the euro in 2002, with the first sets of euro coins being minted in 1999. The standard Belgian euro coins designated for circulation show the portrait of the monarch (first King Albert II, since 2013 King Philippe).
Despite an 18 % decrease observed from 1970 to 1999, Belgium still had in 1999 the highest rail network density within the European Union with 113.8 km / 1 000 km. On the other hand, the same period of time, 1970 -- 1999, has seen a huge growth (+ 56 %) of the motorway network. In 1999, the density of km motorways per 1000 km and 1000 inhabitants amounted to 55.1 and 16.5 respectively and were significantly superior to the EU 's means of 13.7 and 15.9.
Belgium experiences some of the most congested traffic in Europe. In 2010, commuters to the cities of Brussels and Antwerp spent respectively 65 and 64 hours a year in traffic jams. Like in most small European countries, more than 80 % of the airways traffic is handled by a single airport, the Brussels Airport. The ports of Antwerp and Zeebrugge (Bruges) share more than 80 % of Belgian maritime traffic, Antwerp being the second European harbour with a gross weight of goods handled of 115 988 000 t in 2000 after a growth of 10.9 % over the preceding five years. In 2016, the port of Antwerp handled 214 million tons after a year - on - year growth of 2.7 %.
There is a large economic gap between Flanders and Wallonia. Wallonia was historically wealthy compared to Flanders, mostly due to its heavy industries, but the decline of the steel industry post-World War II led to the region 's rapid decline, whereas Flanders rose swiftly. Since then, Flanders has been prosperous, among the wealthiest regions in Europe, whereas Wallonia has been languishing. As of 2007, the unemployment rate of Wallonia is over double that of Flanders. The divide has played a key part in the tensions between the Flemish and Walloons in addition to the already - existing language divide. Pro-independence movements have gained high popularity in Flanders as a consequence. The separatist New Flemish Alliance (N - VA) party for instance is the largest party in Belgium.
Contributions to the development of science and technology have appeared throughout the country 's history. The 16th century Early Modern flourishing of Western Europe included cartographer Gerardus Mercator, anatomist Andreas Vesalius, herbalist Rembert Dodoens and mathematician Simon Stevin among the most influential scientists.
Chemist Ernest Solvay and engineer Zenobe Gramme (École Industrielle de Liège) gave their names to the Solvay process and the Gramme dynamo, respectively, in the 1860s. Bakelite was developed in 1907 -- 1909 by Leo Baekeland. Ernest Solvay also acted as a major philanthropist and gave its name to the Solvay Institute of Sociology, the Solvay Brussels School of Economics and Management and the International Solvay Institutes for Physics and Chemistry which are now part of the Université libre de Bruxelles. In 1911, he started a series of conferences, the Solvay Conferences on Physics and Chemistry, which have had a deep impact on the evolution of quantum physics and chemistry. A major contribution to fundamental science was also due to a Belgian, Monsignor Georges Lemaître (Catholic University of Leuven), who is credited with proposing the Big Bang theory of the origin of the universe in 1927.
Three Nobel Prizes in Physiology or Medicine were awarded to Belgians: Jules Bordet (Université libre de Bruxelles) in 1919, Corneille Heymans (University of Ghent) in 1938 and Albert Claude (Université Libre de Bruxelles) together with Christian de Duve (Université Catholique de Louvain) in 1974. François Englert (Université Libre de Bruxelles) was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2013. Ilya Prigogine (Université Libre de Bruxelles) was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1977. Two Belgian mathematicians have been awarded the Fields Medal: Pierre Deligne in 1978 and Jean Bourgain in 1994.
As of 1 January 2015, the total population of Belgium according to its population register was 11,190,845. Almost all of the population is urban, at 97 % in 2004. The population density of Belgium is 365 per square kilometre (952 per square mile) as of March 2013. The most densely inhabited area is Flanders. The Ardennes have the lowest density. As of 1 January 2015, the Flemish Region had a population of 6,437,680, its most populous cities being Antwerp (511,771), Ghent (252,274) and Bruges (117,787). Wallonia had 3,585,214 with Charleroi (202,021), Liège (194,937) and Namur (110,447), its most populous cities. Brussels has 1,167,951 inhabitants in the Capital Region 's 19 municipalities, three of which have over 100,000 residents.
As of 2007, nearly 92 % of the population had Belgian citizenship, and other European Union member citizens account for around 6 %. The prevalent foreign nationals were Italian (171,918), French (125,061), Dutch (116,970), Moroccan (80,579), Portuguese (43,509), Spanish (42,765), Turkish (39,419) and German (37,621). In 2007, there were 1.38 million foreign - born residents in Belgium, corresponding to 12.9 % of the total population. Of these, 685,000 (6.4 %) were born outside the EU and 695,000 (6.5 %) were born in another EU Member State.
At the beginning of 2012, people of foreign background and their descendants were estimated to have formed around 25 % of the total population i.e. 2.8 million new Belgians. Of these new Belgians, 1,200,000 are of European ancestry and 1,350,000 are from non-Western countries (most of them from Morocco, Turkey, and the DR Congo). Since the modification of the Belgian nationality law in 1984 more than 1.3 million migrants have acquired Belgian citizenship. The largest group of immigrants and their descendants in Belgium are Moroccans. 89.2 % of inhabitants of Turkish origin have been naturalized, as have 88.4 % of people of Moroccan background, 75.4 % of Italians, 56.2 % of the French and 47.8 % of Dutch people.
Belgium has three official languages: Dutch, French and German. A number of non-official minority languages are spoken as well. As no census exists, there are no official statistical data regarding the distribution or usage of Belgium 's three official languages or their dialects. However, various criteria, including the language (s) of parents, of education, or the second - language status of foreign born, may provide suggested figures. An estimated 60 % of the Belgian population speaks Dutch (often referred to as Flemish), and 40 % of the population speaks French. French - speaking Belgians are often referred to as Walloons, although the French speakers in Brussels are not Walloons.
Total Dutch speakers are 6.23 million, concentrated in the northern Flanders region, while French speakers number 3.32 million in Wallonia and an estimated 870,000 (or 85 %) in the officially bilingual Brussels - Capital Region. The German - speaking Community is made up of 73,000 people in the east of the Walloon Region; around 10,000 German and 60,000 Belgian nationals are speakers of German. Roughly 23,000 more German speakers live in municipalities near the official Community.
Both Belgian Dutch and Belgian French have minor differences in vocabulary and semantic nuances from the varieties spoken respectively in the Netherlands and France. Many Flemish people still speak dialects of Dutch in their local environment. Walloon, considered either as a dialect of French or a distinct Romance language, is now only understood and spoken occasionally, mostly by elderly people. Walloon is divided into four dialects, which along with those of Picard, are rarely used in public life and have largely been replaced by French.
Since the country 's independence, Roman Catholicism, counterbalanced by strong freethought movements, has had an important role in Belgium 's politics. However Belgium is largely a secular country as the laicist constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the government generally respects this right in practice. During the reigns of Albert I and Baudouin, the monarchy had a reputation of deeply rooted Catholicism.
Roman Catholicism has traditionally been Belgium 's majority religion; being especially strong in Flanders. However, by 2009 Sunday church attendance was 5 % for Belgium in total; 3 % in Brussels, and 5.4 % in Flanders. Church attendance in 2009 in Belgium was roughly half of the Sunday church attendance in 1998 (11 % for the total of Belgium in 1998). Despite the drop in church attendance, Catholic identity nevertheless remains an important part of Belgium 's culture.
According to the Eurobarometer 2010, 37 % of Belgian citizens responded that they believe there is a God. 31 % answered that they believe there is some sort of spirit or life - force. 27 % answered that they do not believe there is any sort of spirit, God, or life - force. 5 % did not respond. According to the Eurobarometer 2015, 60.7 % of the total population of Belgium adhered to Christianity, with Roman Catholicism being the largest denomination with 52.9 %. Protestants comprised 2.1 % and Orthodox Christians were the 1.6 % of the total. Non religious people comprised the 32.0 % of the population and were divided between atheists (14.9 %) and agnostics (17.1 %). A further 5.2 % of the population was Muslim and 2.1 % were believers in other religions. The same survey held in 2012 found that Christianity was the largest religion in Belgium accounting 65 % of Belgians.
Symbolically and materially, the Roman Catholic Church remains in a favourable position. Belgium officially recognises three religions: Christianity (Catholic, Protestantism, Orthodox churches and Anglicanism), Islam and Judaism.
In the early 2000s there were approximately 42,000 Jews in Belgium. The Jewish Community of Antwerp (numbering some 18,000) is one of the largest in Europe, and one of the last places in the world where Yiddish is the primary language of a large Jewish community (mirroring certain Orthodox and Hasidic communities in New York, New Jersey, and Israel). In addition most Jewish children in Antwerp receive a Jewish education. There are several Jewish newspapers and more than 45 active synagogues (30 of which are in Antwerp) in the country. A 2006 inquiry in Flanders, considered to be a more religious region than Wallonia, showed that 55 % considered themselves religious and that 36 % believed that God created the universe. On the other hand, Wallonia has become one of Europe 's most secular / least religious regions. Most of the French - speaking region 's population does not consider religion an important part of their lives, and as much as 45 % of the population identifies as irreligious. This is particularly the case in eastern Wallonia and areas along the French border.
A 2008 estimate found that approximately 6 % of the Belgian population (628,751 people) is Muslim. Muslims constitute 23.6 % of the population of Brussels, 4.9 % of Wallonia and 5.1 % of Flanders. The majority of Belgian Muslims live in the major cities, such as Antwerp, Brussels and Charleroi. The largest group of immigrants in Belgium are Moroccans, with 400,000 people. The Turks are the third largest group, and the second largest Muslim ethnic group, numbering 220,000.
The Belgians enjoy good health. According to 2012 estimates, the average life expectancy is 79.65 years. Since 1960, life expectancy has, in line with the European average, grown by two months per year. Death in Belgium is mainly due to heart and vascular disorders, neoplasms, disorders of the respiratory system and unnatural causes of death (accidents, suicide). Non-natural causes of death and cancer are the most common causes of death for females up to age 24 and males up to age 44.
Healthcare in Belgium is financed through both social security contributions and taxation. Health insurance is compulsory. Health care is delivered by a mixed public and private system of independent medical practitioners and public, university and semi-private hospitals. Health care service are payable by the patient and reimbursed later by health insurance institutions, but for ineligible categories (of patients and services) so - called 3rd party payment systems exist. The Belgian health care system is supervised and financed by the federal government, the Flemish and Walloon Regional governments; and the German Community also has (indirect) oversight and responsibilities.
For the first time in Belgian history, the first child was euthanized following the 2 year mark of the removal of the euthanization age restrictions. The child had been euthanized due to an incurable disease that was inflicted upon the child. Although there may have been some support for the euthanization there is a possibility of controversy due to the issue revolving around the subject of assisted suicide.
Education is compulsory from 6 to 18 years of age for Belgians. Among OECD countries in 2002, Belgium had the third highest proportion of 18 - to 21 - year - olds enrolled in postsecondary education, at 42 %. Though an estimated 99 % of the adult population is literate, concern is rising over functional illiteracy. The Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), coordinated by the OECD, currently ranks Belgium 's education as the 19th best in the world, being significantly higher than the OECD average. Education being organized separately by each, the Flemish Community scores noticeably above the French and German - speaking Communities.
Mirroring the dual structure of the 19th - century Belgian political landscape, characterized by the Liberal and the Catholic parties, the educational system is segregated within a secular and a religious segment. The secular branch of schooling is controlled by the communities, the provinces, or the municipalities, while religious, mainly Catholic branch education, is organized by religious authorities, although subsidized and supervised by the communities.
Despite its political and linguistic divisions, the region corresponding to today 's Belgium has seen the flourishing of major artistic movements that have had tremendous influence on European art and culture. Nowadays, to a certain extent, cultural life is concentrated within each language Community, and a variety of barriers have made a shared cultural sphere less pronounced. Since the 1970s, there are no bilingual universities or colleges in the country except the Royal Military Academy and the Antwerp Maritime Academy, no common media and no single large cultural or scientific organization in which both main communities are represented.
Contributions to painting and architecture have been especially rich. The Mosan art, the Early Netherlandish, the Flemish Renaissance and Baroque painting and major examples of Romanesque, Gothic, Renaissance and Baroque architecture are milestones in the history of art. While the 15th century 's art in the Low Countries is dominated by the religious paintings of Jan van Eyck and Rogier van der Weyden, the 16th century is characterized by a broader panel of styles such as Peter Breughel 's landscape paintings and Lambert Lombard 's representation of the antique. Though the Baroque style of Peter Paul Rubens and Anthony van Dyck flourished in the early 17th century in the Southern Netherlands, it gradually declined thereafter.
During the 19th and 20th centuries many original romantic, expressionist and surrealist Belgian painters emerged, including James Ensor and other artists belonging to the Les XX group, Constant Permeke, Paul Delvaux and René Magritte. The avant - garde CoBrA movement appeared in the 1950s, while the sculptor Panamarenko remains a remarkable figure in contemporary art. Multidisciplinary artists Jan Fabre, Wim Delvoye and the painters Guy Huygens and Luc Tuymans are other internationally renowned figures on the contemporary art scene.
Belgian contributions to architecture also continued into the 19th and 20th centuries, including the work of Victor Horta and Henry van de Velde, who were major initiators of the Art Nouveau style.
The vocal music of the Franco - Flemish School developed in the southern part of the Low Countries and was an important contribution to Renaissance culture. In the 19th and 20th centuries, there was an emergence of major violinists, such as Henri Vieuxtemps, Eugène Ysaÿe and Arthur Grumiaux, while Adolphe Sax invented the saxophone in 1846. The composer César Franck was born in Liège in 1822. Contemporary popular music in Belgium is also of repute. Jazz musician Toots Thielemans and singer Jacques Brel have achieved global fame. Nowadays, singer Stromae has been a musical revelation in Europe and beyond, having great success. In rock / pop music, Telex, Front 242, K 's Choice, Hooverphonic, Zap Mama, Soulwax and dEUS are well known. In the heavy metal scene, bands like Machiavel, Channel Zero and Enthroned have a worldwide fan - base.
Belgium has produced several well - known authors, including the poets Emile Verhaeren, Robert Goffin and novelists Hendrik Conscience, Georges Simenon, Suzanne Lilar, Hugo Claus, Joseph Weterings and Amélie Nothomb. The poet and playwright Maurice Maeterlinck won the Nobel Prize in literature in 1911. The Adventures of Tintin by Hergé is the best known of Franco - Belgian comics, but many other major authors, including Peyo (The Smurfs), André Franquin (Gaston Lagaffe), Dupa (Cubitus), Morris (Lucky Luke), Greg (Achille Talon), Lambil (Les Tuniques Bleues), Edgar P. Jacobs and Willy Vandersteen brought the Belgian cartoon strip industry a worldwide fame.
Belgian cinema has brought a number of mainly Flemish novels to life on - screen. Other Belgian directors include André Delvaux, Stijn Coninx, Luc and Jean - Pierre Dardenne; well - known actors include Jean - Claude Van Damme, Jan Decleir and Marie Gillain; and successful films include Bullhead, Man Bites Dog and The Alzheimer Affair. In the 1980s, Antwerp 's Royal Academy of Fine Arts produced important fashion trendsetters, known as the Antwerp Six.
Folklore plays a major role in Belgium 's cultural life: the country has a comparatively high number of processions, cavalcades, parades, ' ommegangs ' and ' ducasses ', ' kermesse ' and other local festivals, nearly always with an originally religious or mythological background. The Carnival of Binche with its famous Gilles and the ' Processional Giants and Dragons ' of Ath, Brussels, Dendermonde, Mechelen and Mons are recognized by UNESCO as Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity.
Other examples are the Carnival of Aalst; the still very religious processions of the Holy Blood in Bruges, Virga Jesse Basilica in Hasselt and Basilica of Our Lady of Hanswijk in Mechelen; 15 August festival in Liège; and the Walloon festival in Namur. Originated in 1832 and revived in the 1960s, the Gentse Feesten have become a modern tradition. A major non-official holiday is the Saint Nicholas Day, a festivity for children and, in Liège, for students.
Many highly ranked Belgian restaurants can be found in the most influential restaurant guides, such as the Michelin Guide. Belgium is famous for beer, chocolate, waffles and french fries with mayonnaise. Contrary to their name, french fries are claimed to have originated in Belgium, although their exact place of origin is uncertain. The national dishes are "steak and fries with salad '', and "mussels with fries ''.
Brands of Belgian chocolate and pralines, like Côte d'Or, Neuhaus, Leonidas and Godiva are famous, as well as independent producers such as Burie and Del Rey in Antwerp and Mary 's in Brussels. Belgium produces over 1100 varieties of beer. The Trappist beer of the Abbey of Westvleteren has repeatedly been rated the world 's best beer. The biggest brewer in the world by volume is Anheuser - Busch InBev, based in Leuven.
Since the 1970s, sports clubs and federations are organized separately within each language community. Association football is the most popular sport in both parts of Belgium; also very popular are cycling, tennis, swimming, judo and basketball.
Belgians hold the most Tour de France victories of any country except France. They have also the most victories on the UCI Road World Championships. Philippe Gilbert is the 2012 world champion. Another modern well - known Belgian cyclist is Tom Boonen. With five victories in the Tour de France and numerous other cycling records, Belgian cyclist Eddy Merckx is regarded as one of the greatest cyclists of all time. Jean - Marie Pfaff, a former Belgian goalkeeper, is considered one of the greatest in the history of association football.
Belgium hosted the 1972 European Football Championships, and co-hosted the 2000 European Championships with the Netherlands. The Belgium national football team reached first place in the FIFA World Rankings for the first time in November 2015.
Kim Clijsters and Justine Henin both were Player of the Year in the Women 's Tennis Association as they were ranked the number one female tennis player. The Spa - Francorchamps motor - racing circuit hosts the Formula One World Championship Belgian Grand Prix. The Belgian driver, Jacky Ickx, won eight Grands Prix and six 24 Hours of Le Mans and finished twice as runner - up in the Formula One World Championship. Belgium also has a strong reputation in, motocross with the rider Stefan Everts. Sporting events annually held in Belgium include the Memorial Van Damme athletics competition, the Belgian Grand Prix Formula One, and a number of classic cycle races such as the Tour of Flanders and Liège -- Bastogne -- Liège. The 1920 Summer Olympics were held in Antwerp. The 1977 European Basketball Championship was held in Liège and Ostend.
(Several editions in English, incl. (1997) 7th ed.)
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how many times has south africa won miss world | List of Miss World titleholders - wikipedia
The following is a list of women who have won the Miss World title.
Note: Now deceased
Note: Marjorie Wallace, the 1973 winner, became the first titleholder not to complete her reign, when in March 1974, she was fired for "failing to fulfill the basic requirements of the job ''. Organisers extended an offer to first runner - up Evangeline Pascual of the Philippines to complete the duties of Miss World for the remainder of the year, but without holding the title; when Pascual turned down that offer, organisers next turned to second runner - up Patsy Yuen of Jamaica, who accepted.
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who played cindy van alden in jesse stone | Jesse Stone: Innocents Lost - wikipedia
Jesse Stone: Innocents Lost is a 2011 American television crime drama film directed by Dick Lowry and starring Tom Selleck, Kathy Baker, and Kohl Sudduth. Based on the characters from the Jesse Stone novels created by Robert B. Parker, the film is about the retired police chief of a small New England town who investigates the suspicious death of a young friend while the police force deals with the arrogant new police chief who is the son - in - law of a town councilman. Filmed on location in Nova Scotia, the story is set in the fictitious town of Paradise, Massachusetts. Jesse Stone: Innocents Lost is the seventh in a series of nine television films based on the characters of Parker 's Jesse Stone novels. The film first aired on the CBS television network on May 22, 2011.
After being replaced as the chief of police in Paradise, Massachusetts by the town council president 's son - in - law, William Butler (Jeff Geddis), Jesse Stone is still without a full - time job (though he vows to one day be reinstated). Nevertheless, he continues to find ways to pursue investigations into two separate murders: one involves a friend with whom he had lost contact, and the other has him working as a consulting investigator for the Massachusetts State Police Homicide Division on a case involving a robbery and murder suspect. Both Jesse and his friend, State Police Captain Healy (Stephen McHattie), have doubts as to the robbery / murder suspect 's guilt. All the while, Jesse deals with tensions between Butler, who expects him to give up his "concealed carry '' gun permit, but who is informed, by Rose Gammon (Kathy Baker), that as a retired (not fired) police officer that he has a federally mandated right to "concealed carry '' for life. His problems with his ex-wife, and drinking issues are still present.
Unlike the first four films in the Jesse Stone series, Jesse Stone: Innocents Lost is not based on one of Robert B. Parker 's novels. The screenplay was written by Tom Selleck and Michael Brandman. This was their second collaboration on an original Jesse Stone screenplay.
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who has struck out the most in major league history | List of Major League Baseball career strikeouts by batters leaders - wikipedia
In baseball, a strikeout (or strike - out) occurs when a batter accumulates three strikes during a time at bat (i.e. the batter fails to hit the ball in three successive pitches). It usually means the batter is out. A strikeout is a statistic recorded for both pitchers and batters, and is denoted by K.
Reggie Jackson holds the record for the most career strikeouts by a batter with 2,597. Jim Thome (2,548), Adam Dunn (2,379), Sammy Sosa (2,306), Alex Rodriguez (2,287) and Andres Galarraga (2,003) are the only other hitters to strikeout over 2,000 times.
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total seats of bjp in lok sabha state wise | Results of the Indian general election, 2014 - wikipedia
-- -- -- -- -- -- --
-- -- -- -- -- -- -- Executive:
-- -- -- -- -- -- -- Legislature:
Judiciary:
-- -- -- -- -- -- -- Political parties
National coalitions:
-- -- -- -- -- -- -- State governments
Legislatures:
-- -- -- -- -- -- -- Local governments: Rural bodies:
Urban bodies:
To constitute India 's 16th Lok Sabha, general elections were held in April -- May 2014. The result was announced on 16 May 2014. The main contenders were two alliance groups of the Incumbent United Progressive Alliance and the Opposition National Democratic Alliance; led by Indian National Congress and Bharatiya Janata Party respectively.
This article describes the performance of various political parties. For the performance of individual candidates, please see List of members of the 16th Lok Sabha.
Seat Share of different parties in the election.
Vote Share of different parties in the election.
National Democratic Alliance
United Progressive Alliance
Others (Non-Allied)
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who wrote hallelujah and what is it about | Hallelujah (Leonard Cohen song) - wikipedia
"Hallelujah '' is a song written by Canadian singer Leonard Cohen, originally released on his album Various Positions (1984). Achieving little initial success, the song found greater popular acclaim through a recording by John Cale, which inspired a recording by Jeff Buckley. It is considered as the "baseline '' of secular hymns.
Following its increased popularity after being featured in the film Shrek (2001), many other arrangements have been performed by many and various singers, both in recordings and in concert, with over 300 versions known. The song has been used in film and television soundtracks and televised talent contests. "Hallelujah '' experienced renewed interest following Cohen 's death in November 2016 and appeared on multiple international singles charts, including entering the American Billboard Hot 100 for the first time.
"Hallelujah '', in its original version, is in time, which evokes both early rock and roll and gospel music. Written in the key of C major, the chord progression matches lyrics from the song: "goes like this, the fourth, the fifth, the minor fall, and the major lift '': C, F, G, A minor, F.
Cohen wrote around 80 draft verses for "Hallelujah '', with one writing session at the Royalton Hotel in New York where he was reduced to sitting on the floor in his underwear, banging his head on the floor. His original version, as recorded on his Various Positions album, contains several biblical references, most notably evoking the stories of Samson and treacherous Delilah from the Book of Judges ("she cut your hair '') as well as King David and Bathsheba ("you saw her bathing on the roof, her beauty and the moonlight overthrew you '').
Following his original 1984 studio - album version, Cohen performed the original song on his world tour in 1985, but live performances during his 1988 and 1993 tours almost invariably contained a quite different set of lyrics, with only the last verse being common to the two versions. Numerous singers mix lyrics from both versions, and occasionally make direct lyric changes; for example, in place of Cohen 's "holy dove '', Canadian - American singer Rufus Wainwright substituted "holy dark '', while Canadian singer - songwriter Allison Crowe sang "holy ghost ''.
Cohen 's lyrical poetry and his view that "many different hallelujahs exist '' is reflected in wide - ranging covers with very different intents or tones, allowing the song to be "melancholic, fragile, uplifting (or) joyous '' depending on the performer: The Welsh singer - songwriter John Cale, the first person to record a cover version of the song (in 1991), promoted a message of "soberness and sincerity '' in contrast to Cohen 's dispassionate tone; the cover by Jeff Buckley, an American singer - songwriter, is more sorrowful and was described by Buckley as "a hallelujah to the orgasm ''; Crowe interpreted the song as a "very sexual '' composition that discussed relationships; Wainwright offered a "purifying and almost liturgical '' interpretation; and Guy Garvey of the British band Elbow made the hallelujah a "stately creature '' and incorporated his religious interpretation of the song into his band 's recordings.
Canadian singer k.d. lang said in an interview shortly after Cohen 's death that she considered the song to be about "the struggle between having human desire and searching for spiritual wisdom. It 's being caught between those two places. '' Former Barenaked Ladies frontman Steven Page, who sang the song at Canadian politician Jack Layton 's funeral, described the song as being "about disappointing (other) people ''.
shipments figures based on certification alone
Since 1991, "Hallelujah '' has been performed by a wide variety of singers: over 300, and in various languages. Statistics from the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), the Canadian Recording Industry Association, the Australian Recording Industry Association, and the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry, show that, by late 2008, more than five million copies of the song sold in CD format. It has been the subject of a BBC Radio documentary and been in the soundtracks of numerous films and television programs. Different interpretations of the song may include different verses, out of the over 80 verses Cohen originally wrote.
In an April 2009 CBC Radio interview, Cohen said he found the number of covers of his song "ironic and amusing '', given that his record label refused to release it when he first wrote it; however, he then claimed the song could benefit from a break in exposure:
I was just reading a review of a movie called Watchmen that uses it and the reviewer said -- "Can we please have a moratorium on ' Hallelujah ' in movies and television shows? '' And I kind of feel the same way... I think it 's a good song, but I think too many people sing it.
Conversely, in early 2012, while promoting his then - current album, Old Ideas, Cohen stated he was n't tired of the song being covered:
There 's been a couple of times when other people have said can we have a moratorium please on "Hallelujah ''? Must we have it at the end of every single drama and every single Idol? And once or twice I 've felt maybe I should lend my voice to silencing it but on second thought no, I 'm very happy that it 's being sung.
John Cale 's cover first appeared on I 'm Your Fan (1991), a Leonard Cohen tribute album, and later on his live album Fragments of a Rainy Season (1992). Cale 's version has vocals, piano, and different lyrics that Cohen had only performed live such as "I used to live alone before I knew you '' and "All I ever learned from love was how to shoot at someone who outdrew you ''. Cale had watched Cohen perform the song and asked Cohen to send him the lyrics. Cohen then faxed Cale fifteen pages of lyrics. Cale claims that he "went through and just picked out the cheeky verses. ''
Cale 's version forms the basis of most subsequent performances, including Cohen 's performances during his 2008 -- 09 world tour. It was the version used in the film Shrek (2001), although it is Rufus Wainwright 's version that is used on the soundtrack album. It also appears on the first soundtrack album for the TV series Scrubs and as the ending song of the Cold Case episode "Death Penalty, Final Appeal ''.
Jeff Buckley, inspired by Cale 's earlier cover, recorded one of the most acclaimed versions of "Hallelujah '' for his only complete album, Grace, in 1994. It was posthumously released as a single in 2007, ten years after Buckley 's death.
In 2004, Buckley 's version was ranked number 259 on Rolling Stone 's "The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time ''. The same year Time called Buckley 's version "exquisitely sung, '' observing "Cohen murmured the original like a dirge, but... Buckley treated the... song like a tiny capsule of humanity, using his voice to careen between glory and sadness, beauty and pain... It 's one of the great songs. ''
In September 2007, a poll of fifty songwriters conducted by the magazine Q listed "Hallelujah '' among the all - time "Top 10 Greatest Tracks '' with John Legend calling Buckley 's version "as near perfect as you can get. The lyrics to ' Hallelujah ' are just incredible and the melody 's gorgeous and then there 's Jeff 's interpretation of it. It 's one of the most beautiful pieces of recorded music I 've ever heard. '' In July 2009, the Buckley track was ranked number three on the 2009 Triple J Hottest 100 of All Time, a listener poll held every decade by the Australian radio station Triple J. In 2017, The International Observer named Buckley 's version of "Hallelujah '' the greatest song of all time.
On 2 April 2014, it was announced that Buckley 's version of the song will be inducted into the Library of Congress 's National Recording Registry.
Buckley 's version was not an instant hit, nor did Buckley live to see the full measure of the reception his recording would ultimately have; he died in 1997. The album on which it appeared did not go Gold in the U.S. until 2002, nine years after its release. In fact, like Cohen 's original, the Buckley version was not released as a single, until much later, and it did n't chart until 2006, posthumously for Buckley. In March of that year, Buckley had his first national top 10 best - seller when "Hallelujah '' was at number seven in Norway. In 2007, it made the top 3 on the Swedish charts. In March 2008, it topped Billboard 's Hot Digital Songs in the U.S. after a performance of the song by Jason Castro in the seventh season of American Idol. The sudden resurgence of interest provided both Gold and Platinum status, the RIAA certifying the digital track on 22 April 2008. It has sold 1,144,000 digital copies in the US as of May 2010. It also hit number one in France in March 2008.
The Buckley version has been widely used in film and television dramas, including the series The West Wing, Crossing Jordan, Without a Trace, The O.C., House, Dirt, Criminal Minds, ER, Third Watch, Ugly Betty, LAX, NCIS, Justiça and Sense8 and the films Feast of Love, The Edukators, Vinterkyss and Lord of War. "Hallelujah can be joyous or bittersweet, depending on what part of it you use '', Time quoted Buckley 's publisher as saying, and the magazine opined that its liberal use in some cases was "a tacit admission that neither the writers nor the actors could convey their characters ' emotions as well as Buckley. ''
On 20 April 2013, Buckley 's version of the song was played at Fenway Park during a tribute honoring the victims of the Boston Marathon bombing before the Red Sox played their first home game following the tragedy.
Canadian - American musician and singer Rufus Wainwright had briefly met Jeff Buckley and recorded a tribute to him after his 1997 death. That song, "Memphis Skyline '', referenced Buckley 's version of "Hallelujah '', which Wainwright would later record, though using piano and a similar arrangement to Cale 's. Wainwright 's version is included on the album Shrek: Music from the Original Motion Picture, although it was Cale 's version that was used in the film itself. The Shrek soundtrack, containing Wainwright 's cover, was certified 2 × Platinum in the United States in 2003 as selling over two million copies.
Rufus Wainwright, his sister Martha Wainwright, and Joan Wasser performed the song in the film Leonard Cohen: I 'm Your Man.
In 2004, k.d. lang recorded a version of "Hallelujah '' on her album Hymns of the 49th Parallel. She has since sung it at several major events, such as at the Canadian Juno Awards of 2005, where it "brought the audience to its feet for a two - minute ovation. '' Lang also sang it at the 2006 Canadian Songwriters Hall of Fame when Cohen was inducted into the Hall of Fame. Cohen 's partner, singer Anjani Thomas, said: "After hearing k.d. lang perform that song at the Canadian Songwriter 's Hall of Fame in 2006 we looked at each other and said, ' well, I think we can lay that song to rest now! It 's really been done to its ultimate blissful state of perfection '. '' Lang sang it at the opening ceremony of the 2010 Winter Olympic Games in Vancouver, before a claimed TV audience of three billion.
shipments figures based on certification alone
In 2006, the Norwegian quartet of Espen Lind, Kurt Nilsen, Alejandro Fuentes and Askil Holm released a cover of the song. After debuting at number 8 on the Norwegian VG - lista, the single reached number one in January 2007. The song remained listed on the Norwegian top 20 for 37 (non-consecutive) weeks between 2006 and 2007.
The song also appears on the 2006 album Hallelujah Live, credited to Espen Lind with Kurt Nilsen, Alejandro Fuentes and Askil Holm, which also reached the top of the Norwegian VG - lista.
Alexandra Burke, the winner of the fifth series of the reality television show The X Factor, released a condensed cover version of the song as a prize for her victory. It reached Christmas number one on the UK Singles Chart on 21 December 2008.
The release of Burke 's cover created interest in the previous versions of the song, including a Buckley fan campaign to take Buckley 's cover to the top of the Christmas chart and therefore deny Burke the top spot. The campaign was fuelled by Buckley fans ' dislike of The X Factor 's commercialism and the song 's arrangement, as well as their desire to introduce younger people to Buckley 's version. Burke herself was not enamoured of the choice of song, remarking "It just did n't do anything for me. ''
Burke 's version broke a European sales record after selling over 105,000 digital downloads in just one day, breaking the previous record set by Leona Lewis. The song sold 576,000 copies in its first week, becoming the fastest - selling single released by a woman in the United Kingdom and the 2008 Christmas number one, while Buckley 's cover charted at number two and Cohen 's original version at number 36.
On 28 December 2008, the UK Singles Chart listed Burke 's version as the biggest - selling single of the year, with NME announcing sales of over one million copies since its release. This also made Burke the first ever female British artist to have a million - selling single in the UK. It has sold 1.297 million as of August 2016, making it the biggest - selling X Factor winner 's single to date.
shipments figures based on certification alone
The a cappella group Pentatonix covered the song in the quintet 's 2016 album, A Pentatonix Christmas. On 21 October 2016, Pentatonix also released a music video for its cover.
shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
Bob Dylan was among the first to perform Cohen 's song in concert with his earliest noted performance being in Montreal on 8 July 1988. Other notable singers who have covered "Hallelujah '' include Brandi Carlile, Regina Spektor, Willie Nelson, Susan Boyle, Tim Minchin, Alter Bridge, (Myles Kennedy), and Bono. Bono 's version, which is mostly spoken, was included in Tower of Song, an all - star tribute to Cohen in 1995. Bon Jovi has covered the song several times in concert, including on their 2008 Live at Madison Square Garden DVD.
International group Il Divo released a Spanish - language adaptation with different lyrics on their album The Promise (2008), which topped the charts in the UK. The song was performed by recording artist Damien Rice at the 2008 Rock and Roll Hall of Fame inductions when Cohen was inducted. That same year Welsh mezzo - soprano Katherine Jenkins recorded a classical - crossover version for her album Sacred Arias. Kate Voegele performed it in character as Mia Catalano in the U.S. teen drama One Tree Hill. Also appearing on an album, her version made the Hot 100 Billboard charts and reached number 53 in the UK shortly after airing of the episode there. Also in 2008, the Welsh band Brigyn released a version in Welsh.
The song has become a staple of television talent shows. Jason Castro, an American Idol season 7 contestant, performed a version on 4 March 2008, which propelled Jeff Buckley 's version of the song to the top of the Billboard digital song chart. His version was included in his self - titled debut album and his second studio album, Who I Am. Lisa Hordijk, winner of the 2009 Dutch X Factor, released "Hallelujah '' as her debut single, which went double platinum and remained at the top of the Dutch charts for ten weeks.
A 2009 hit by Orthodox Jewish singer Ohad Moskowitz, "Bo'i Kala '', featuring the words of the traditional tune accompanying a Jewish bride to the chuppah, is a musical adaptation of "Hallelujah ''.
On 22 January 2010, American musicians Justin Timberlake, Matt Morris, and Charlie Sexton performed a live cover version of "Hallelujah '' during the Hope for Haiti Now telethon in support of those affected by the 2010 Haiti earthquake. A recorded version was released the following day on the Hope for Haiti Now soundtrack album and reached a peak of No. 13 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart.
On 16 April 2010, the Edmonton Symphony Orchestra and the Richard Eaton Singers conducted by Jack Everly premiered a new arrangement for orchestra and chorus by Claude Lapalme. Also in 2010, the Maccabeats of Yeshiva University released Voices from the Heights, with an a cappella version of "Hallelujah '' set to the Hebrew words of the Shabbat liturgical poem "Lecha Dodi ''.
Steven Page performed the song live at the state funeral of Canadian Opposition Leader Jack Layton on 27 August 2011.
Raul Esparza performed the song live at the Kennedy Center 's 11 September Memorial Concert on 8 September 2011.
In May 2012, Canada 's Royal Winnipeg Ballet presented the World Premiere of The Doorway -- Scenes from Leonard Cohen, created and choreographed by Jorden Morris -- with "Hallelujah '' performed by Allison Crowe (voice and piano) and ballerinas Sophia Lee and Jo - Ann Gudilin dancing alternate dates.
On the third season of the American version of The Voice, contestant Nicole Nelson sang "Hallelujah '' in the "Blind Audition '' stages, and all four coaches selected Nelson for their team. Later in the season, the show recorded a shortened version in honor of the victims of the Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting. All four coaches -- Adam Levine, Blake Shelton, CeeLo Green and Christina Aguilera -- performed, with hosts Carson Daly and Christina Milian along with the show contestants singing background vocals. Each person in the ensemble held up a card that displayed the name and age of one of the people lost in the tragedy.
American entertainer Adam Sandler performed an off - color parody of "Hallelujah '' in December 2012 at Madison Square Garden in New York City as part of 12 - 12 - 12: The Concert for Sandy Relief. Sandler 's version contained numerous references to Hurricane Sandy and contemporary events in local culture, sports and politics.
On 31 May 2015, a 167 - piece operatic choir, Côr Glanaethwy, sang a rendition in Welsh in the final of Britain 's Got Talent (series 9). They came third in the competition.
Singer Tori Kelly recorded a cover of "Hallelujah '' for the animated film Sing and has done two notable live performances of the song: during the "In Memoriam '' portion of the 68th Primetime Emmy Awards, and alongside Luis Fonsi during the 2017 Hand in Hand: A Benefit for Hurricane Relief telethon.
On 12 November 2016, an episode of Saturday Night Live opened with cast member Kate McKinnon as Hillary Clinton performing a rendition of the song in tribute to both Cohen and Clinton; the preceding week had seen both Cohen 's death and Clinton 's unexpected loss to Donald Trump in the 2016 U.S. presidential election.
Multiple orchestral and instrumental versions of the song have also been performed. Violinist Lindsey Stirling recorded an arrangement of the song in accordance with the A Savior is Born campaign, created by the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter - day Saints. Stirling uploaded a video of her performing the piece in a New York City Subway station to her YouTube channel. During the performance, not one person stopped to listen.
Notes
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who made the first lens in the world | History of optics - wikipedia
Optics began with the development of lenses by the ancient Egyptians and Mesopotamians, followed by theories on light and vision developed by ancient Greek philosophers, and the development of geometrical optics in the Greco - Roman world. The word optics is derived from the Greek term τα ὀπτικά meaning "appearance, look ''. Optics was significantly reformed by the developments in the medieval Islamic world, such as the beginnings of physical and physiological optics, and then significantly advanced in early modern Europe, where diffractive optics began. These earlier studies on optics are now known as "classical optics ''. The term "modern optics '' refers to areas of optical research that largely developed in the 20th century, such as wave optics and quantum optics.
The earliest known lenses were made from polished crystal, often quartz, and have been dated as early as 750 BC for Assyrian lenses such as the Nimrud / Layard lens. There are many similar lenses from ancient Egypt, Greece and Babylon. The ancient Romans and Greeks filled glass spheres with water to make lenses. However, glass lenses were not thought of until the Middle Ages.
Some lenses fixed in ancient Egyptian statues are much older than those mentioned above. There is some doubt as to whether or not they qualify as lenses, but they are undoubtedly glass and served at least ornamental purposes. The statues appear to be anatomically correct schematic eyes.
In ancient India, the philosophical schools of Samkhya and Vaisheshika, from around the 6th -- 5th century BC, developed theories on light. According to the Samkhya school, light is one of the five fundamental "subtle '' elements (tanmatra) out of which emerge the gross elements.
In contrast, the Vaisheshika school gives an atomic theory of the physical world on the non-atomic ground of ether, space and time. (See Indian atomism.) The basic atoms are those of earth (prthivı), water (apas), fire (tejas), and air (vayu), that should not be confused with the ordinary meaning of these terms. These atoms are taken to form binary molecules that combine further to form larger molecules. Motion is defined in terms of the movement of the physical atoms. Light rays are taken to be a stream of high velocity of tejas (fire) atoms. The particles of light can exhibit different characteristics depending on the speed and the arrangements of the tejas atoms. Around the first century BC, the Vishnu Purana refers to sunlight as "the seven rays of the sun ''.
In the fifth century BC, Empedocles postulated that everything was composed of four elements; fire, air, earth and water. He believed that Aphrodite made the human eye out of the four elements and that she lit the fire in the eye which shone out from the eye making sight possible. If this were true, then one could see during the night just as well as during the day, so Empedocles postulated an interaction between rays from the eyes and rays from a source such as the sun.
In his Optics Greek mathematician Euclid observed that "things seen under a greater angle appear greater, and those under a lesser angle less, while those under equal angles appear equal ''. In the 36 propositions that follow, Euclid relates the apparent size of an object to its distance from the eye and investigates the apparent shapes of cylinders and cones when viewed from different angles. Pappus believed these results to be important in astronomy and included Euclid 's Optics, along with his Phaenomena, in the Little Astronomy, a compendium of smaller works to be studied before the Syntaxis (Almagest) of Ptolemy.
In 55 BC, Lucretius, a Roman who carried on the ideas of earlier Greek atomists, wrote:
The light and heat of the sun; these are composed of minute atoms which, when they are shoved off, lose no time in shooting right across the interspace of air in the direction imparted by the shove.
Despite being similar to later particle theories of light, Lucretius 's views were not generally accepted and light was still theorized as emanating from the eye.
In his Catoptrica, Hero of Alexandria showed by a geometrical method that the actual path taken by a ray of light reflected from a plane mirror is shorter than any other reflected path that might be drawn between the source and point of observation.
In the second century Claudius Ptolemy, in his Optics undertook studies of reflection and refraction. He measured the angles of refraction between air, water, and glass, and his published results indicate that he adjusted his measurements to fit his (incorrect) assumption that the angle of refraction is proportional to the angle of incidence.
The Indian Buddhists, such as Dignāga in the 5th century and Dharmakirti in the 7th century, developed a type of atomism that is a philosophy about reality being composed of atomic entities that are momentary flashes of light or energy. They viewed light as being an atomic entity equivalent to energy, similar to the modern concept of photons, though they also viewed all matter as being composed of these light / energy particles.
The early writers discussed here treated vision more as a geometrical than as a physical, physiological, or psychological problem. The first known author of a treatise on geometrical optics was the geometer Euclid (c. 325 BC -- 265 BC). Euclid began his study of optics as he began his study of geometry, with a set of self - evident axioms.
Euclid did not define the physical nature of these visual rays but, using the principles of geometry, he discussed the effects of perspective and the rounding of things seen at a distance.
Where Euclid had limited his analysis to simple direct vision, Hero of Alexandria (c. AD 10 -- 70) extended the principles of geometrical optics to consider problems of reflection (catoptrics). Unlike Euclid, Hero occasionally commented on the physical nature of visual rays, indicating that they proceeded at great speed from the eye to the object seen and were reflected from smooth surfaces but could become trapped in the porosities of unpolished surfaces. This has come to be known as emission theory.
Hero demonstrated the equality of the angle of incidence and reflection on the grounds that this is the shortest path from the object to the observer. On this basis, he was able to define the fixed relation between an object and its image in a plane mirror. Specifically, the image appears to be as far behind the mirror as the object really is in front of the mirror.
Like Hero, Ptolemy in his Optics (preserved only in the form of a Latin translation of a gravely defective Arabic version) considered the visual rays as proceeding from the eye to the object seen, but, unlike Hero, considered that the visual rays were not discrete lines, but formed a continuous cone. Ptolemy extended the study of vision beyond direct and reflected vision; he also studied vision by refracted rays (dioptrics), when we see objects through the interface between two media of different density. He conducted experiments to measure the path of vision when we look from air to water, from air to glass, and from water to glass and tabulated the relationship between the incident and refracted rays.
His tabulated results have been studied for the air water interface, and in general the values he obtained reflect the theoretical refraction given by modern theory, but the outliers are distorted to represent Ptolemy 's a priori model of the nature of refraction.
Al - Kindi (c. 801 -- 873) was one of the earliest important optical writers in the Islamic world. In a work known in the west as De radiis stellarum, al - Kindi developed a theory "that everything in the world... emits rays in every direction, which fill the whole world. ''
This theory of the active power of rays had an influence on later scholars such as Ibn al - Haytham, Robert Grosseteste and Roger Bacon.
Ibn Sahl, a mathematician active in Baghdad during the 980s, is the first Islamic scholar known to have compiled a commentary on Ptolemy 's Optics. His treatise Fī al - ' āla al - muḥriqa "On the burning instruments '' was recontructed from fragmentary manuscripts by Rashed (1993). The work is concerned with how curved mirrors and lenses bend and focus light. Ibn Sahl also describes a law of refraction mathematically equivalent to Snell 's law. He used his law of refraction to compute the shapes of lenses and mirrors that focus light at a single point on the axis.
Ibn al - Haytham (known in as Alhacen or Alhazen in Western Europe), writing in the 1010s, received both Ibn Sahl 's treatise and a partial Arabic translation of Ptolemy 's Optics. He produced a comprehensive and systematic analysis of Greek optical theories. Ibn al - Haytham 's key achievement was twofold: first, to insist, against the opinion of Ptolemy, that vision occurred because of rays entering the eye; the second was to define the physical nature of the rays discussed by earlier geometrical optical writers, considering them as the forms of light and color. He then analyzed these physical rays according to the principles of geometrical optics. He wrote many books on optics, most significantly the Book of Optics (Kitab al Manazir in Arabic), translated into Latin as the De aspectibus or Perspectiva, which disseminated his ideas to Western Europe and had great influence on the later developments of optics.
Avicenna (980 - 1037) agreed with Alhazen that the speed of light is finite, as he "observed that if the perception of light is due to the emission of some sort of particles by a luminous source, the speed of light must be finite. '' Abū Rayhān al - Bīrūnī (973 - 1048) also agreed that light has a finite speed, and he was the first to discover that the speed of light is much faster than the speed of sound.
Abu ' Abd Allah Muhammad ibn Ma'udh, who lived in Al - Andalus during the second half of the 11th century, wrote a work on optics later translated into Latin as Liber de crepisculis, which was mistakenly attributed to Alhazen. This was a "short work containing an estimation of the angle of depression of the sun at the beginning of the morning twilight and at the end of the evening twilight, and an attempt to calculate on the basis of this and other data the height of the atmospheric moisture responsible for the refraction of the sun 's rays. '' Through his experiments, he obtained the value of 18 °, which comes close to the modern value.
In the late 13th and early 14th centuries, Qutb al - Din al - Shirazi (1236 -- 1311) and his student Kamāl al - Dīn al - Fārisī (1260 -- 1320) continued the work of Ibn al - Haytham, and they were the first to give the correct explanations for the rainbow phenomenon. Al - Fārisī published his findings in his Kitab Tanqih al - Manazir (The Revision of (Ibn al - Haytham 's) Optics).
The English bishop, Robert Grosseteste (c. 1175 -- 1253), wrote on a wide range of scientific topics at the time of the origin of the medieval university and the recovery of the works of Aristotle. Grosseteste reflected a period of transition between the Platonism of early medieval learning and the new Aristotelianism, hence he tended to apply mathematics and the Platonic metaphor of light in many of his writings. He has been credited with discussing light from four different perspectives: an epistemology of light, a metaphysics or cosmogony of light, an etiology or physics of light, and a theology of light.
Setting aside the issues of epistemology and theology, Grosseteste 's cosmogony of light describes the origin of the universe in what may loosely be described as a medieval "big bang '' theory. Both his biblical commentary, the Hexaemeron (1230 x 35), and his scientific On Light (1235 x 40), took their inspiration from Genesis 1: 3, "God said, let there be light '', and described the subsequent process of creation as a natural physical process arising from the generative power of an expanding (and contracting) sphere of light.
His more general consideration of light as a primary agent of physical causation appears in his On Lines, Angles, and Figures where he asserts that "a natural agent propagates its power from itself to the recipient '' and in On the Nature of Places where he notes that "every natural action is varied in strength and weakness through variation of lines, angles and figures. ''
The English Franciscan, Roger Bacon (c. 1214 -- 1294) was strongly influenced by Grosseteste 's writings on the importance of light. In his optical writings (the Perspectiva, the De multiplicatione specierum, and the De speculis comburentibus) he cited a wide range of recently translated optical and philosophical works, including those of Alhacen, Aristotle, Avicenna, Averroes, Euclid, al - Kindi, Ptolemy, Tideus, and Constantine the African. Although he was not a slavish imitator, he drew his mathematical analysis of light and vision from the writings of the Arabic writer, Alhacen. But he added to this the Neoplatonic concept, perhaps drawn from Grosseteste, that every object radiates a power (species) by which it acts upon nearby objects suited to receive those species. Note that Bacon 's optical use of the term "species '' differs significantly from the genus / species categories found in Aristotelian philosophy.
Another English Franciscan, John Pecham (died 1292) built on the work of Bacon, Grosseteste, and a diverse range of earlier writers to produce what became the most widely used textbook on Optics of the Middle Ages, the Perspectiva communis. His book centered on the question of vision, on how we see, rather than on the nature of light and color. Pecham followed the model set forth by Alhacen, but interpreted Alhacen 's ideas in the manner of Roger Bacon.
Like his predecessors, Witelo (c. 1230 -- 1280 x 1314) drew on the extensive body of optical works recently translated from Greek and Arabic to produce a massive presentation of the subject entitled the Perspectiva. His theory of vision follows Alhacen and he does not consider Bacon 's concept of species, although passages in his work demonstrate that he was influenced by Bacon 's ideas. Judging from the number of surviving manuscripts, his work was not as influential as those of Pecham and Bacon, yet his importance, and that of Pecham, grew with the invention of printing.
Johannes Kepler (1571 -- 1630) picked up the investigation of the laws of optics from his lunar essay of 1600. Both lunar and solar eclipses presented unexplained phenomena, such as unexpected shadow sizes, the red color of a total lunar eclipse, and the reportedly unusual light surrounding a total solar eclipse. Related issues of atmospheric refraction applied to all astronomical observations. Through most of 1603, Kepler paused his other work to focus on optical theory; the resulting manuscript, presented to the emperor on January 1, 1604, was published as Astronomiae Pars Optica (The Optical Part of Astronomy). In it, Kepler described the inverse - square law governing the intensity of light, reflection by flat and curved mirrors, and principles of pinhole cameras, as well as the astronomical implications of optics such as parallax and the apparent sizes of heavenly bodies. Astronomiae Pars Optica is generally recognized as the foundation of modern optics (though the law of refraction is conspicuously absent).
Willebrord Snellius (1580 -- 1626) found the mathematical law of refraction, now known as Snell 's law, in 1621. Subsequently, René Descartes (1596 -- 1650) showed, by using geometric construction and the law of refraction (also known as Descartes ' law), that the angular radius of a rainbow is 42 ° (i.e. the angle subtended at the eye by the edge of the rainbow and the rainbow 's centre is 42 °). He also independently discovered the law of reflection, and his essay on optics was the first published mention of this law.
Christiaan Huygens (1629 -- 1695) wrote several works in the area of optics. These included the Opera reliqua (also known as Christiani Hugenii Zuilichemii, dum viveret Zelhemii toparchae, opuscula posthuma) and the Traité de la lumière.
Isaac Newton (1643 -- 1727) investigated the refraction of light, demonstrating that a prism could decompose white light into a spectrum of colours, and that a lens and a second prism could recompose the multicoloured spectrum into white light. He also showed that the coloured light does not change its properties by separating out a coloured beam and shining it on various objects. Newton noted that regardless of whether it was reflected or scattered or transmitted, it stayed the same colour. Thus, he observed that colour is the result of objects interacting with already - coloured light rather than objects generating the colour themselves. This is known as Newton 's theory of colour. From this work he concluded that any refracting telescope would suffer from the dispersion of light into colours, and invented a reflecting telescope (today known as a Newtonian telescope) to bypass that problem. By grinding his own mirrors, using Newton 's rings to judge the quality of the optics for his telescopes, he was able to produce a superior instrument to the refracting telescope, due primarily to the wider diameter of the mirror. In 1671 the Royal Society asked for a demonstration of his reflecting telescope. Their interest encouraged him to publish his notes On Colour, which he later expanded into his Opticks. Newton argued that light is composed of particles or corpuscles and were refracted by accelerating toward the denser medium, but he had to associate them with waves to explain the diffraction of light (Opticks Bk. II, Props. XII - L). Later physicists instead favoured a purely wavelike explanation of light to account for diffraction. Today 's quantum mechanics, photons and the idea of wave - particle duality bear only a minor resemblance to Newton 's understanding of light.
In his Hypothesis of Light of 1675, Newton posited the existence of the ether to transmit forces between particles. In 1704, Newton published Opticks, in which he expounded his corpuscular theory of light. He considered light to be made up of extremely subtle corpuscles, that ordinary matter was made of grosser corpuscles and speculated that through a kind of alchemical transmutation "Are not gross Bodies and Light convertible into one another,... and may not Bodies receive much of their Activity from the Particles of Light which enter their Composition? ''
The effects of diffraction of light were first carefully observed and characterized by Francesco Maria Grimaldi, who also coined the term diffraction, from the Latin diffringere, ' to break into pieces ', referring to light breaking up into different directions. The results of Grimaldi 's observations were published posthumously in 1665. Isaac Newton studied these effects and attributed them to inflexion of light rays. James Gregory (1638 -- 1675) observed the diffraction patterns caused by a bird feather, which was effectively the first diffraction grating. In 1803 Thomas Young did his famous experiment observing interference from two closely spaced slits in his double slit interferometer. Explaining his results by interference of the waves emanating from the two different slits, he deduced that light must propagate as waves. Augustin - Jean Fresnel did more definitive studies and calculations of diffraction, published in 1815 and 1818, and thereby gave great support to the wave theory of light that had been advanced by Christiaan Huygens and reinvigorated by Young, against Newton 's particle theory.
The earliest known lenses were made from polished crystal, often quartz, and have been dated as early as 750 BC for Assyrian lenses such as the Layard / Nimrud lens. There are many similar lenses from ancient Egypt, Greece and Babylon. The ancient Romans and Greeks filled glass spheres with water to make lenses.
The earliest historical reference to magnification dates back to ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs in the 5th century BC, which depict "simple glass meniscal lenses ''. The earliest written record of magnification dates back to the 1st century AD, when Seneca the Younger, a tutor of Emperor Nero, wrote: "Letters, however small and indistinct, are seen enlarged and more clearly through a globe or glass filled with water ''. Emperor Nero is also said to have watched the gladiatorial games using an emerald as a corrective lens.
Ibn al - Haytham (Alhacen) wrote about the effects of pinhole, concave lenses, and magnifying glasses in his Book of Optics. Roger Bacon used parts of glass spheres as magnifying glasses and recommended them to be used to help people read. Roger Bacon got his inspiration from Alhacen in the 11th century. He discovered that light reflects from objects rather than emanating from them.
Between the 11th and 13th century "reading stones '' were invented. Often used by monks to assist in illuminating manuscripts, these were primitive plano - convex lenses initially made by cutting a glass sphere in half. As the stones were experimented with, it was slowly understood that shallower lenses magnified more effectively. Around 1286, possibly in Pisa, Italy, the first pair of eyeglasses were made, although it is unclear who the inventor was.
The earliest known working telescopes were the refracting telescopes that appeared in the Netherlands in 1608. Their inventor is unknown: Hans Lippershey applied for the first patent that year followed by a patent application by Jacob Metius of Alkmaar two weeks later (nether was granted since examples of the device seemed to be numerous at the time). Galileo greatly improved upon these designs the following year. Isaac Newton is credited with constructing the first functional reflecting telescope in 1668, his Newtonian reflector.
The earliest known examples of compound microscopes, which combine an objective lens near the specimen with an eyepiece to view a real image, appeared in Europe around 1620. The design is very similar to the telescope and, like that device, its inventor is unknown. Again claims revolve around the spectacle making centers in the Netherlands including claims it was invented in 1590 by Zacharias Janssen and / or his father, Hans Martens, claims it was invented by rival spectacle maker, Hans Lippershey, and claims it was invented by expatriate Cornelis Drebbel who was noted to have a version in London in 1619. Galileo Galilei (also sometimes cited as a compound microscope inventor) seems to have found after 1609 that he could close focus his telescope to view small objects and, after seeing a compound microscope built by Drebbel exhibited in Rome in 1624, built his own improved version. The name "microscope '' was coined by Giovanni Faber, who gave that name to Galileo Galilei 's compound microscope in 1625.
Light is made up of particles called photons and hence inherently is quantized. Quantum optics is the study of the nature and effects of light as quantized photons. The first indication that light might be quantized came from Max Planck in 1899 when he correctly modelled blackbody radiation by assuming that the exchange of energy between light and matter only occurred in discrete amounts he called quanta. It was unknown whether the source of this discreteness was the matter or the light. In 1905, Albert Einstein published the theory of the photoelectric effect. It appeared that the only possible explanation for the effect was the quantization of light itself. Later, Niels Bohr showed that atoms could only emit discrete amounts of energy. The understanding of the interaction between light and matter following from these developments not only formed the basis of quantum optics but also were crucial for the development of quantum mechanics as a whole. However, the subfields of quantum mechanics dealing with matter - light interaction were principally regarded as research into matter rather than into light and hence, one rather spoke of atom physics and quantum electronics.
This changed with the invention of the maser in 1953 and the laser in 1960. Laser science -- research into principles, design and application of these devices -- became an important field, and the quantum mechanics underlying the laser 's principles was studied now with more emphasis on the properties of light, and the name quantum optics became customary.
As laser science needed good theoretical foundations, and also because research into these soon proved very fruitful, interest in quantum optics rose. Following the work of Dirac in quantum field theory, George Sudarshan, Roy J. Glauber, and Leonard Mandel applied quantum theory to the electromagnetic field in the 1950s and 1960s to gain a more detailed understanding of photodetection and the statistics of light (see degree of coherence). This led to the introduction of the coherent state as a quantum description of laser light and the realization that some states of light could not be described with classical waves. In 1977, Kimble et al. demonstrated the first source of light which required a quantum description: a single atom that emitted one photon at a time. Another quantum state of light with certain advantages over any classical state, squeezed light, was soon proposed. At the same time, development of short and ultrashort laser pulses -- created by Q - switching and mode - locking techniques -- opened the way to the study of unimaginably fast ("ultrafast '') processes. Applications for solid state research (e.g. Raman spectroscopy) were found, and mechanical forces of light on matter were studied. The latter led to levitating and positioning clouds of atoms or even small biological samples in an optical trap or optical tweezers by laser beam. This, along with Doppler cooling was the crucial technology needed to achieve the celebrated Bose -- Einstein condensation.
Other remarkable results are the demonstration of quantum entanglement, quantum teleportation, and (recently, in 1995) quantum logic gates. The latter are of much interest in quantum information theory, a subject which partly emerged from quantum optics, partly from theoretical computer science.
Today 's fields of interest among quantum optics researchers include parametric down - conversion, parametric oscillation, even shorter (attosecond) light pulses, use of quantum optics for quantum information, manipulation of single atoms, Bose -- Einstein condensates, their application, and how to manipulate them (a sub-field often called atom optics), and much more.
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describe the cause(s) for the ring of fire | Ring of Fire - wikipedia
The Ring of Fire is a major area in the basin of the Pacific Ocean where many earthquakes and volcanic eruptions occur. In a 40,000 km (25,000 mi) horseshoe shape, it is associated with a nearly continuous series of oceanic trenches, volcanic arcs, and volcanic belts and plate movements. It has 452 volcanoes (more than 75 % of the world 's active and dormant volcanoes). The Ring of Fire is sometimes called the circum - Pacific belt.
About 90 % of the world 's earthquakes and 81 % of the world 's largest earthquakes occur along the Ring of Fire. The next most seismically active region (5 -- 6 % of earthquakes and 17 % of the world 's largest earthquakes) is the Alpide belt, which extends from Java to the northern Atlantic Ocean via the Himalayas and southern Europe.
All but three of the world 's 25 largest volcanic eruptions of the last 11,700 years occurred at volcanoes in the Ring of Fire.
The Ring of Fire is a direct result of plate tectonics: the movement and collisions of lithospheric plates. The eastern section of the ring is the result of the Nazca Plate and the Cocos Plate being subducted beneath the westward - moving South American Plate. The Cocos Plate is being subducted beneath the Caribbean Plate, in Central America. A portion of the Pacific Plate and the small Juan de Fuca Plate are being subducted beneath the North American Plate. Along the northern portion, the northwestward - moving Pacific plate is being subducted beneath the Aleutian Islands arc. Farther west, the Pacific plate is being subducted along the Kamchatka Peninsula arcs on south past Japan. The southern portion is more complex, with a number of smaller tectonic plates in collision with the Pacific plate from the Mariana Islands, the Philippines, Bougainville, Tonga, and New Zealand; this portion excludes Australia, since it lies in the center of its tectonic plate. Indonesia lies between the Ring of Fire along the northeastern islands adjacent to and including New Guinea and the Alpide belt along the south and west from Sumatra, Java, Bali, Flores, and Timor. The famous and very active San Andreas Fault zone of California is a transform fault which offsets a portion of the East Pacific Rise under southwestern United States and Mexico. The motion of the fault generates numerous small earthquakes, at multiple times a day, most of which are too small to be felt. The active Queen Charlotte Fault on the west coast of the Haida Gwaii, British Columbia, has generated three large earthquakes during the 20th century: a magnitude 7 event in 1929; a magnitude 8.1 in 1949 (Canada 's largest recorded earthquake); and a magnitude 7.4 in 1970.
The presence of a belt of volcanic activity surrounding the Pacific Ocean was observed in the 19th century. "They (the Japanese Islands) are in the line of that immense circle of volcanic development which surrounds the shores of the Pacific from Tierra del Fuego around to the Moluccas. '' (Matthew Perry, Narrative of the Expedition of an American Squadron to the China Seas and Japan, 1852 - 54, Introduction, Section I, "Name, Extent, and Geography '')
Bolivia hosts numerous active and extinct volcanoes across its territory. The active volcanoes are located in western Bolivia where they make up the Cordillera Occidental, the western limit of the Altiplano plateau. Many of the active volcanoes are international mountains shared with Chile. All Cenozoic volcanoes of Bolivia are part of the Central Volcanic Zone (CVZ) of the Andean Volcanic Belt that results due to processes involved in the subduction of the Nazca Plate under the South American Plate. The Central Volcanic Zone is a major upper Cenozoic volcanic province. Apart from Andean volcanoes, the geology of Bolivia hosts the remnants of ancient volcanoes around the Precambrian Guaporé Shield in the eastern part of the country.
The volcanoes in Chile are monitored by the National Geology and Mining Service (SERNAGEOMIN)
Earthquake activity in Chile is related to subduction of the Nazca Plate to the east. Chile notably holds the record for the largest earthquake ever recorded, the 1960 Valdivia earthquake. Villarrica, one of Chile 's most active volcanoes, rises above Villarrica Lake and the town of Villarrica. It is the westernmost of three large stratovolcanoes that trend perpendicular to the Andean chain. A 6 - km - wide caldera formed during the late Pleistocene, more than 0.9 million years ago.
A 2 - km - wide postglacial caldera is located at the base of the presently active, dominantly basaltic - to - andesitic cone at the northwest margin of the Pleistocene caldera. About 25 scoria cones dot Villarica 's flanks. Plinian eruptions and pyroclastic flows have been produced during the Holocene from this dominantly basaltic volcano, but historical eruptions have consisted of largely mild - to - moderate explosive activity with occasional lava effusion. Lahars from the glacier - covered volcanoes have damaged towns on its flanks.
The Llaima Volcano is one of the largest and most active volcanoes in Chile. It is situated 82 km northeast of Temuco and 663 km southeast of Santiago, within the borders of Conguillío National Park. Llaima 's activity has been documented since the 17th century, and consists of several separate episodes of moderate explosive eruptions with occasional lava flows. The last major eruption occurred in 1994.
Chile has experienced numerous volcanic eruptions from 60 volcanoes, including Llaima Volcano and the Chaitén Volcano. More recently, a magnitude - 8.8 earthquake struck central Chile on February 27, 2010, the Puyehue - Cordón Caulle volcano erupted in 2011, and a M8. 2 earthquake struck northern Chile on April 1, 2014. The main shock was preceded by a number of moderate to large shocks and was followed by a large number of moderate to very large aftershocks, including a magnitude - 7.6 event on 2 April.
Lascar is a stratovolcano, is the most active volcano of the northern Chilean Andes. The largest eruption of Lascar took place about 26,500 years ago, and following the eruption of the Tumbres scoria flow about 9,000 years ago, activity shifted back to the eastern edifice, where three overlapping craters were formed. Frequent small - to - moderate explosive eruptions have been recorded from Lascar in historical time since the mid-19th century, along with periodic larger eruptions that produced ash and tephra fall up to hundreds of kilometers away from the volcano. The largest eruption of Lascar in recent history took place in 1993, producing pyroclastic flows as far as 8.5 km (5 mi) northwest of the summit and ash fall in Buenos Aires, Argentina, more than 1,600 km (994 mi) to the southeast. The latest series of eruptions began on 18 April 2006 and was continuing as of 2011.
Chiliques is a stratovolcano located in the Antofagasta Region of Chile, immediately north of Cerro Miscanti. Laguna Lejía lies to the north of the volcano and has been dormant for at least 10,000 years, but is now showing signs of life. A January 6, 2002, nighttime thermal infrared image from ASTER revealed a hot spot in the summit crater, as well as several others along the upper flanks of the volcano 's edifice, indicating new volcanic activity. Examination of an earlier nighttime thermal infrared image from May 24, 2000, showed no such hot spots.
Calbuco is a stratovolcano in southern Chile, located southeast of Llanquihue Lake and northwest of Chapo Lake, in Los Lagos Region. The volcano and the surrounding area are protected within Llanquihue National Reserve. It is a very explosive andesite volcano that underwent edifice collapse in the late Pleistocene, producing a volcanic debris avalanche that reached the lake. At least nine eruptions occurred since 1837, with the latest one in 1972. One of the largest historical eruptions in southern Chile took place there in 1893 -- 1894. Violent eruptions ejected 30 - cm bombs to distances of 8 km from the crater, accompanied by voluminous hot lahars. Strong explosions occurred in April 1917, and a lava dome formed in the crater accompanied by hot lahars. Another short explosive eruption in January 1929 also included an apparent pyroclastic flow and a lava flow. The last major eruption of Calbuco, in 1961, sent ash columns 12 -- 15 km high and produced plumes that dispersed mainly to the southeast and two lava flows were also emitted. A minor, four - hour eruption happened on August 26, 1972. Strong fumarolic emission from the main crater was observed on August 12, 1996.
Lonquimay is a stratovolocano of late - Pleistocene to dominantly Holocene age, with the shape of a truncated cone. The cone is largely andesitic, though basaltic and dacitic rocks are present. It is located in La Araucanía Region of Chile, immediately southeast of Tolhuaca volcano. Sierra Nevada and Llaima are their neighbors to the south. The snow - capped volcano lies within the protected area Malalcahuello - Nalcas. The volcano last erupted in 1988, ending in 1990. The VEI was 3. The eruption was from a flank vent and involved lava flows and explosive eruptions. Some fatalities occurred.
Antuco Volcano is a stratovolocano located in the Bío Bío Region of Chile, near Sierra Velluda and on the shore of Laguna del Laja, with its last eruption in 1869.
Villarrica is one of Chile 's most active volcanoes, rising above the lake and town of the same name. The volcano is also known as Rucapillán, a Mapuche word meaning "House of the Pillán ''. It is the westernmost of three large stratovolcanoes that trend perpendicular to the Andes along the Gastre Fault. Villarrica, along with Quetrupillán and the Chilean portion of Lanín, are protected within Villarrica National Park. Ascents of the volcano are popular with several guided ascents reaching the top during summer.
Villarrica, with its lava of basaltic - andesitic composition, is one of only five volcanoes worldwide known to have an active lava lake within its crater. The volcano usually generates strombolian eruptions, with ejection of incandescent pyroclasts and lava flows. Melting of snow and glacier ice, as well as rainfall, often causes massive lahars, such as during the eruptions of 1964 and 1971.
In Ecuador, EPN monitors the volcanic activity in this andean nation.
Cotopaxi is a stratovolcano in the Andes, located about 50 km (31 mi) south of Quito, Ecuador, South America. It is the second - highest summit in the country, reaching a height of 5,897 m (19,347 ft). Some consider it the world 's highest active volcano, and it is one of Ecuador 's most active volcanoes. Since 1738, Cotopaxi has erupted more than 50 times, resulting in the creation of numerous valleys formed by mudflows around the volcano.
In October 1999, Pichincha Volcano erupted in Quito and covered the city with several inches of ash. Prior to that, the last major eruptions were in 1553 and in 1660, when about 30 cm of ash fell on the city.
At 5,230 m, Sangay Volcano is an active stratovolcano in central Ecuador, and is one of the highest active volcanoes in the world and one of Ecuador 's most active ones, erupting three times in recorded history. It exhibits mostly strombolian activity; the most recent eruption, which started in 1934, is still going on. Geologically, Sangay marks the southern bound of the Northern Volcanic Zone, and its position straddling two major pieces of crust accounts for its high level of activity. Sangay 's roughly 500,000 - year history is one of instability; two previous versions of the mountain were destroyed in massive flank collapses, evidence of which still litters its surroundings today. Sangay is one of two active volcanoes located within the namesake Sangay National Park, the other being Tungurahua to the north. As such, it has been listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1983.
Reventador is an active stratovolcano which lies in the eastern Andes of Ecuador. Since 1541, it has erupted over 25 times, with its most recent eruption in 2009, but the largest historical eruption occurred in 2002. During that eruption, the plume from the volcano reached a height of 17 km, and pyroclastic flows went up to 7 km from the cone. On March 30, 2007, the mountain spewed ash again. The ash reached a height of about two miles (3 km, 11,000 ft).
Cotopaxi, outside of Quito, started activity in April 2015. A large increase in earthquakes (including harmonic tremors) and SO emissions began. IGPEN reported slight deformation of the edifice, suggesting an intrusion of magma under the volcano. As of 25 July, the unrest continued, and the most recent major eruption was an ash and steam eruption that occurred on August 14 and 15, 2015.
Volcanoes in Peru are monitored by the Peruvian Geophysical Institute.
Sabancaya is an active 5,976 - metre (19,606 ft) stratovolcano in the Andes of southern Peru, about 100 kilometres (62 mi) northwest of Arequipa. It is the most active volcano in Peru, with an ongoing eruption that started in August 2014.
Ubinas is another active volcano 5,672 - metre (18,609 ft) in southern Peru with an ongoing eruption. Until 2006, this stratovolcano had not erupted for about 40 years. On April 23, 2006, Peru declared a state of emergency in towns near the volcano. On April 28, 2014, despite a recent decline in earthquakes, Ubinas Volcano erupted an ash plume on April 28, 2014.
The Volcanological and Seismological Observatory of Costa Rica (OVSICORI) at the National University of Costa Rica, in Spanish Observatorio Vulcanológico y Sismológico de Costa Rica (OVSICORI) have a dedicated team in charge of researching and monitoring the volcanoes, earthquakes, and other tectonic processes in the Central America Volcanic Arc. In 1984, the OVSICORI - A initiated the operation of a seismographic network designed to monitor seismic and volcanic activity throughout the national territory. Currently, the seismographic network has an analog and a digital registration system. The latter enables online analysis of seismic signals, allowing to expedite the analysis of signals and the study using modern computerized methods. Poás Volcano is an active 2,708 - metre (8,885 ft) stratovolcano located in central Costa Rica; it has erupted 39 times since 1828. On February 25, 2014, a webcam from the OVSICORI captured the moment a dark cloud exploded about 1,000 feet (300 m) in the air from a massive crater of the Poás Volcano.
In 1902, the Santa Maria Volcano erupted violently in Guatemala, with the largest explosions occurring over two days, ejecting an estimated 5.5 km (1.3 mi) of magma. The eruption was one of the largest of the 20th century, only slightly less in magnitude to that of Mount Pinatubo in 1991. The eruption had a volcanic explosivity index of 6. Today Santiaguito is one of the world 's most active volcanoes. (1) (2)
Volcanoes of Mexico are related to subduction of the Cocos and Rivera plates to the east, which has produced large, explosive eruptions. Most active volcanoes in Mexico occur in the Trans - Mexican Volcanic Belt, which extends 900 kilometres (559 mi) from west to east across central - southern Mexico. A few other active volcanoes in northern Mexico are related to extensional tectonics of the Basin and Range Province, which splits the Baja California peninsula from the mainland. Popocatépetl, lying in the eastern half of the Trans - Mexican Volcanic Belt, is the second - highest peak in Mexico after the Pico de Orizaba. It is one of the most active volcanoes in Mexico, having had more than 20 major eruptions since the arrival of the Spanish in 1519. The 1982 eruption of El Chichón, which killed about 2,000 people who lived near the volcano, created a 1 - km - wide caldera that filled with an acidic crater lake. Prior to 2000, this relatively unknown volcano was heavily forested and of no greater height than adjacent nonvolcanic peaks.
The United States Geological Survey and the National Earthquake Information Center (NEIC) are located on the campus of the Colorado School of Mines in Golden, Colorado. Both monitor volcanos in the United States; in the western United States lies the Cascade Volcanic Arc. It includes nearly 20 major volcanoes, among a total of over 4,000 separate volcanic vents including numerous stratovolcanoes, shield volcanoes, lava domes, and cinder cones, along with a few isolated examples of rarer volcanic forms such as tuyas. Volcanism in the arc began about 37 million years ago, but most of the present - day Cascade volcanoes are less than 2,000,000 years old, and the highest peaks are less than 100,000 years old. The arc formed by the subduction of the Gorda and Juan de Fuca plates at the Cascadia subduction zone. This is a 680 - mi - long fault, running 50 mi (80 km) off the coast of the Pacific Northwest from northern California to Vancouver Island, British Columbia. The plates move at a relative rate over 0.4 in (10 mm) per year at a somewhat oblique angle to the subduction zone.
Because of the very large fault area, the Cascadia subduction zone can produce very large earthquakes, magnitude 9.0 or greater, if rupture occurred over its whole area. When the "locked '' zone stores energy for an earthquake, the "transition '' zone, although somewhat plastic, can rupture. Thermal and deformation studies indicate that the locked zone is fully locked for 60 km (about 40 mi) down - dip from the deformation front. Further down - dip, a transition from fully locked to aseismic sliding occurs.
Unlike most subduction zones worldwide, no oceanic trench is present along the continental margin in Cascadia. Instead, terranes and the accretionary wedge have been lifted up to form a series of coast ranges and exotic mountains. A high rate of sedimentation from the outflow of the three major rivers (Fraser River, Columbia River, and Klamath River) which cross the Cascade Range contributes to further obscuring the presence of a trench. However, in common with most other subduction zones, the outer margin is slowly being compressed, similar to a giant spring. When the stored energy is suddenly released by slippage across the fault at irregular intervals, the Cascadia subduction zone can create very large earthquakes such as the magnitude - 9 Cascadia earthquake of 1700. Geological evidence indicates that great earthquakes may have occurred at least seven times in the last 3,500 years, suggesting a return time of 400 to 600 years. Also, evidence of accompanying tsunamis with every earthquake is seen, as the prime reason these earthquakes are known is through "scars '' the tsunami left on the coast, and through Japanese records (tsunami waves can travel across the Pacific).
The 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens was the most significant to occur in the contiguous 48 U.S. states in recorded history (VEI = 5, 0.3 cu mi, 1.2 km of material erupted), exceeding the destructive power and volume of material released by the 1915 eruption of California 's Lassen Peak. The eruption was preceded by a two - month series of earthquakes and steam - venting episodes caused by an injection of magma at shallow depth below the mountain that created a huge bulge and a fracture system on Mount St. Helens ' north slope. An earthquake at 8: 32 am on May 18, 1980, caused the entire weakened north face to slide away, suddenly exposing the partly molten, gas - and steam - rich rock in the volcano to lower pressure. The rock responded by exploding into a very hot mix of pulverized lava and older rock that sped toward Spirit Lake so fast that it quickly passed the avalanching north face.
Alaska is known for its seismic and volcanic activity, holding the record for the second - largest earthquake in the world, the Good Friday earthquake, and having more than 50 volcanoes which have erupted since about 1760. Volcanoes can be found not only in the mainland, but also in the Aleutian Islands.
The most recent activity in the American portion of the Ring of Fire occurred in early 2009 when Mount Redoubt in Alaska became active and finally erupted late in the evening of March 22. The eruption ended in May 2009.
The Public Safety Geo - science Program at the Natural Resources Canada undertakes research to support risk reduction from the effects of space weather, earthquakes, tsunamis, volcanoes, and landslides.
British Columbia and Yukon are home to a vast region of volcanoes and volcanic activity in the Pacific Ring of Fire. Several mountains that many British Columbians look at every day are dormant volcanoes. Most of them erupted during the Pleistocene and Holocene. Although none of Canada 's volcanoes are currently erupting, several volcanoes, volcanic fields, and volcanic centers are considered potentially active. Hot springs are at some volcanoes, while 10 volcanoes in British Columbia appear related to seismic activity since 1975, including: the Silverthrone Caldera, Mount Meager massif, Wells Gray - Clearwater volcanic field, Mount Garibaldi, Mount Cayley, Castle Rock, The Volcano, Mount Edziza, Hoodoo Mountain, Crow Lagoon, and Nazko Cone. The volcanoes are grouped into five volcanic belts with different tectonic settings.
The Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province (sometimes known as the Stikine Volcanic Belt) is the most active volcanic region in Canada. It formed due to extensional cracking, faulting, and rifting of the North American Plate, as the Pacific Plate grinds and slides past the Queen Charlotte Fault, unlike subduction that produces the volcanoes in Japan, the Philippines, and Indonesia. The region has Canada 's largest volcanoes, much larger than the minor stratovolcanoes found in the Canadian portion of the Cascade Volcanic Arc. Several eruptions are known to have occurred within the last 400 years. Mount Edziza is a huge volcanic complex that erupted several times in the past several thousand years and has formed several cinder cones and lava flows. The complex comprises the Mount Edziza Plateau, a large volcanic plateau (65 km long and 20 km wide) made of predominantly basaltic lava flows with four large stratovolcanoes built on top of the plateau. The associated lava domes and satellite cones were constructed over the past 7.5 million years during five magmatic cycles beginning with eruption of alkali basalts and ending with felsic and basaltic eruptions as late as 1,340 years ago. The blocky lava flows still maintain their original forms. Hoodoo Mountain is a tuya in northwestern British Columbia, which has had several periods of subglacial eruptions. The oldest eruptions occurred about 100,000 years ago and the most recent about 7000 years ago. Hoodoo Mountain is also considered active, so could erupt in the future. The nearby Tseax Cone and The Volcano produced some of Canada 's youngest lava flows, about 150 years old.
Canada 's worst known geophysical disaster came from the Tseax Cone during the 18th century at the southernmost end of the volcanic belt. The eruption produced a 22.5 - km - long lava flow, destroying the Nisga'a villages and the death of at least 2000 Nisga'a people by volcanic gases and poisonous smoke. The Nass River valley was inundated by the lava flows and contains abundant tree molds and lava tubes. The event happened at the same time as the arrival of the first European explorers to penetrate the uncharted coastal waters of northern British Columbia. Today, the basaltic lava deposits are a draw to tourists and are part of the Nisga'a Memorial Lava Beds Provincial Park.
The Garibaldi Volcanic Belt in southwestern British Columbia is the northern extension of the Cascade Volcanic Arc in the United States (which includes Mount Baker and Mount St. Helens) and contains the most explosive young volcanoes in Canada. It formed as a result of subduction of the Juan de Fuca Plate (a remnant of the much larger Farallon Plate) under the North American Plate along the Cascadia subduction zone. The Garibaldi Volcanic Belt includes the Bridge River Cones, Mount Cayley, Mount Fee, Mount Garibaldi, Mount Price, Mount Meager massif, the Squamish Volcanic Field, and more smaller volcanoes. The eruption styles in the belt range from effusive to explosive, with compositions from basalt to rhyolite. Morphologically, centers include calderas, cinder cones, stratovolcanoes and small isolated lava masses. Due to repeated continental and alpine glaciations, many of the volcanic deposits in the belt reflect complex interactions between magma composition, topography, and changing ice configurations. The most recent major catastrophic eruption in the Garibaldi Volcanic Belt was an explosive eruption of the Mount Meager massif about 2,350 years ago. It was similar to the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens, sending an ash column about 20 km into the stratosphere.
The Chilcotin Group is a north - south range of volcanoes in southern British Columbia running parallel to the Garibaldi Volcanic Belt. The majority of the eruptions in this belt happened either 6 -- 10 million years ago (Miocene) or 2 -- 3 million years ago (Pliocene), although with some slightly more recent eruptions (in the Pleistocene). It is thought to have formed as a result of back - arc extension behind the Cascadia subduction zone. Volcanoes in this belt include Mount Noel, the Clisbako Caldera Complex, Lightning Peak, Black Dome Mountain, and many lava flows.
The Anahim Volcanic Belt is a line of volcanoes stretching from just north of Vancouver Island to near Quesnel, British Columbia. These volcanoes were formed 8 to 1 million years ago, and the Nazko Cone last erupted only 7,200 years ago. The volcanoes generally get younger moving from the coast to the interior. These volcanoes are thought to have formed as a result of the North American Plate sliding westward over a small hotspot, called the Anahim hotspot. The hotspot is considered similar to the one feeding the Hawaiian Islands. The belt is defined by three large shield volcanoes (Rainbow, Ilgachuz and the Itcha Ranges) and 37 Quaternary basalt centers.
Eruptions of basaltic to rhyolitic volcanoes and hypabyssal rocks of the Alert Bay Volcanic Belt in northern Vancouver Island are probably linked with the subducted margin flanked by the Explorer and Juan de Fuca Plates at the Cascadia subduction zone. It appears to have been active during the Pliocene and Pleistocene. However, no Holocene eruptions are known, and volcanic activity in the belt has likely ceased.
The Kamchatka Peninsula in the Russian Far East is one of the most various and active volcanic areas in the world, with an area of 472,300 km. It lies between the Pacific Ocean to the east and the Okhotsk Sea to the west. Immediately offshore along the Pacific coast of the peninsula runs the 10,500 - m - deep Kuril - Kamchatka Trench, where rapid subduction of the Pacific Plate fuels the intense volcanism. Almost all types of volcanic activity are present, from stratovolcanoes and shield volcanoes to Hawaiian - style fissure eruptions.
Over 30 active volcanoes and hundreds of dormant and extinct volcanoes are in two major volcanic belts. The most recent activity takes place in the eastern belt, starting in the north at the Shiveluch volcanic complex, which lies at the junction of the Aleutian and Kamchatka volcanic arcs. Just to the south is the famous Klyuchi volcanic group, comprising the twin volcanic cones of Kliuchevskoi and Kamen, the huge volcanic complexes of Tolbachik and Ushkovsky, and a number of other large stratovolcanoes. The only active volcano in the central belt is found west of here, the huge remote Ichinsky. Farther south, the eastern belt continues to the southern slope of Kamchatka, topped by loads of stratovolcanoes, continuing onto the Kuril Islands, and southwards into Japan.
About 10 % of the world 's active volcanoes are found in Japan, which lies in a zone of extreme crustal instability. They are formed by subduction of the Pacific Plate and the Philippine Sea Plate. As many as 1,500 earthquakes are recorded yearly, and magnitudes of 4 to 6 are not uncommon. Minor tremors occur almost daily in one part of the country or another, causing some slight shaking of buildings. Major earthquakes occur infrequently; the most famous in the 20th century were: the Great Kantō earthquake of 1923, in which 130,000 people died; and the Great Hanshin earthquake of 17 January 1995, in which 6,434 people died. On March 11, 2011 a magnitude 9.0 earthquake hit Japan, the country 's biggest ever and the fifth largest on record, according to US Geological Survey data. Undersea earthquakes also expose the Japanese coastline to danger from tsunamis.
Mount Bandai, one of Japan 's most noted volcanoes, rises above the north shore of Lake Inawashiro. Mount Bandai is formed of several overlapping stratovolcanoes, the largest of which is O - Bandai forming a complex volcano. O - Bandai volcano was constructed within a horseshoe - shaped caldera that formed about 40,000 years when an earlier volcano collapsed, forming the Okinajima debris avalanche, which traveled to the southwest and was accompanied by a plinian eruption. Four major phreatic eruptions have occurred during the past 5,000 years, two of them in historical time, in 806 and 1888. Seen from the south, Bandai presents a conical profile, but much of the north side of the volcano is missing as a result of the collapse of Ko - Bandai volcano during the 1888 eruption, in which a debris avalanche buried several villages and formed several large lakes.
Nearly a century ago, the north flank of Mount Bandai collapsed during an eruption quite similar to the May 18, 1980, eruption of Mount St. Helens. After a week of seismic activity, a large earthquake on July 15, 1888, was followed by a tremendous noise and a large explosion. Eyewitnesses heard about 15 to 20 additional explosions and observed that the last one was projected almost horizontally to the north.
Mount Fuji is Japan 's highest and most noted volcano. The modern postglacial stratovolcano is constructed above a group of overlapping volcanoes, remnants of which form irregularities on Fuji 's profile. Growth of the younger Mount Fuji began with a period of voluminous lava flows from 11,000 to 8,000 years ago, accounting for four - fifths of the volume of the younger Mount Fuji. Minor explosive eruptions dominated activity from 8,000 to 4,500 years ago, with another period of major lava flows occurring from 4,500 to 3,000 years ago. Subsequently, intermittent major explosive eruptions occurred, with subordinate lava flows and small pyroclastic flows. Summit eruptions dominated from 3,000 to 2,000 years ago, after which flank vents were active. The extensive basaltic lava flows from the summit and some of the more than 100 flank cones and vents blocked drainage against the Tertiary Misaka Mountains on the north side of the volcano, forming the Fuji Five Lakes. The last eruption of this dominantly basaltic volcano in 1707 ejected andesitic pumice and formed a large new crater on the east flank. Some minor volcanic activity may occur in the next few years.
The 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo is the world 's second - largest terrestrial eruption of the 20th century. Successful predictions of the onset of the climactic eruption led to the evacuation of tens of thousands of people from the surrounding areas, saving many lives, but as the surrounding areas were severely damaged by pyroclastic flows, ash deposits, and later, lahars caused by rainwater remobilising earlier volcanic deposits, thousands of houses were destroyed.
Mayon Volcano is the Philippines ' most active volcano. It has steep upper slopes that average 35 -- 40 ° and is capped by a small summit crater. The historical eruptions of this basaltic - andesitic volcano date back to 1616 and range from Strombolian to basaltic Plinian eruptions. Eruptions occur predominately from the central conduit and have also produced lava flows that travel far down the flanks. Pyroclastic flows and mudflows have commonly swept down many of the roughly 40 ravines that radiate from the summit and have often devastated populated lowland areas.
Taal Volcano has had 33 recorded eruptions since 1572. A devastating eruption occurred in 1911, which claimed more than a thousand lives. The deposits of that eruption consist of a yellowish, fairly decomposed (nonjuvenile) tephra with a high sulfur content. The most recent period of activity lasted from 1965 to 1977, and was characterized by the interaction of magma with the lake water, which produced violent phreatic and phreatomagmatic eruptions. Although the volcano has been dormant since 1977, it has shown signs of unrest since 1991, with strong seismic activity and ground - fracturing events, as well as the formation of small mud geysers on parts of the island.
Kanlaon Volcano, the most active volcano in the central Philippines, has erupted 25 times since 1866. Eruptions are typically phreatic explosions of small - to - moderate size that produce minor ash falls near the volcano. On August 10, 1996, Kanlaon erupted without warning, killing British student Julian Green and Filipinos Noel Tragico and Neil Perez, who were among 24 mountain climbers who were trapped near the summit.
The volcanoes in Indonesia are among the most active of the Pacific Ring of Fire. They are formed due to subduction zones of three main active tectonic plates namely the Eurasian Plate, Pacific Plate, and Indo - Australian Plate. Some of the volcanoes are notable for their eruptions, for instance, Krakatau for its global effects in 1883, Lake Toba for its supervolcanic eruption estimated to have occurred 74,000 BP, which was responsible for six years of volcanic winter, and Mount Tambora, for the most violent eruption in recorded history in 1815. The eruption of Mount Tambora caused widespread harvest failures in Northern Europe, the Northeastern United States, and eastern Canada in 1816, which was known as the Year Without a Summer.
The most active volcanoes are Kelud and Mount Merapi on Java island, which have been responsible for thousands of deaths in the region. Since AD 1000, Kelud has erupted more than 30 times, of which the largest eruption was at scale 5 on the Volcanic Explosivity Index, while Merapi has erupted more than 80 times. The International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth 's Interior has named Merapi as a Decade Volcano since 1995 because of its high volcanic activity. Another active volcano is Sinabung which erupted since 2013 until now.
GNS Science was known as the Institute of Geological and Nuclear Sciences from 1992 to 2005. GNS Science was partially commercialised, and now operates as a government - owned company rather than as a government department.
Originally part of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research (DSIR), it was established as an independent organisation when the Crown Research Institutes were created in 1992.
As well as undertaking basic research, and operating the national geological hazards monitoring network, GNS Science is employed, both in New Zealand and overseas, by various private groups (notably energy companies), as well as central and local government agencies, to provide scientific advice and information.
GNS Science is based in Avalon, Lower Hutt, with facilities in Dunedin and Wairakei.
New Zealand contains the world 's strongest concentration of youthful rhyolitic volcanoes, and voluminous sheets blanket much of the North Island. The earliest historically - dated eruption was at Whakaari / White Island in 1826, followed in 1886 by the country 's largest historical eruption at Mount Tarawera. Much of the region north of New Zealand 's North Island is made up of seamounts and small islands, including 16 submarine volcanoes. In the last 1.6 million years, most of New Zealand 's volcanism is from the Taupo Volcanic Zone.
Mount Ruapehu, at the southern end of the Taupo Volcanic Zone, is one of the most active volcanoes. It began erupting at least 250,000 years ago. In recorded history, major eruptions have been about 50 years apart, in 1895, 1945, and 1995 -- 1996. Minor eruptions are frequent, with at least 60 since 1945. Some of the minor eruptions in the 1970s generated small ash falls and lahars that damaged ski fields. Between major eruptions, a warm acidic crater lake forms, fed by melting snow. Major eruptions may completely expel the lake water. Where a major eruption has deposited a tephra dam across the lake 's outlet, the dam may collapse after the lake has refilled and risen above the level of its normal outlet, the outrush of water causing a large lahar. The most notable lahar caused the Tangiwai disaster on December 24, 1953, when 151 people aboard a Wellington to Auckland express train were killed after the lahar destroyed the Tangiwai rail bridge just moments before the train was due. In 2000, the ERLAWS system was installed on the mountain to detect such a collapse and alert the relevant authorities.
The Auckland volcanic field on the North Island of New Zealand has produced a diverse array of explosive craters, scoria cones, and lava flows. Currently dormant, the field is likely to erupt again with the next "hundreds to thousands of years '', a very short timeframe in geologic terms. The field contains at least 40 volcanoes, most recently active about 600 years ago at Rangitoto Island, erupting 2.3 km of lava.
The Pacific Ring of Fire is completed in the south by the continent of Antarctica, which includes many large volcanoes. The makeup and structure of the volcanoes in Antarctica change largely from the other places around the ring. In contrast, the Antarctic Plate is almost completely surrounded by extensional zones, with several mid-ocean ridges which encircle it, with only a small subduction zone at the tip of the Antarctic Peninsula, reaching eastward to the remote South Sandwich Islands. The most well known volcano in Antarctica is Mount Erebus, which is also the world 's southernmost active volcano. In many respects the geology of the Antarctic Peninsula is an extension of the Andes, hence the name sometimes used by geologists: "Antarctandes ''. At the opposite side of the continent, the volcanoes of Victoria Land may be seen as the ' other end ' of the Antarctandes, thus completing the Pacific Ring of Fire and continuing up through the Balleny Islands to New Zealand.
Mount Erebus is the second - highest volcano in Antarctica (after Mount Sidley) and the southernmost active volcano on earth. It is the sixth - highest ultra mountain on an island. With a summit elevation of 3,794 m (12,448 ft), it is located on Ross Island, which is also home to three inactive volcanoes, Mount Terror, Mount Bird, and Mount Terra Nova.
The volcano has been observed to be continuously active since 1972 and is the site of the Mount Erebus Volcano Observatory run by the New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology. Mount Erebus is currently the most active volcano in Antarctica and is the current eruptive zone of the Erebus hotspot.
The volcanoes of the Victoria Land area are the most well known in Antarctica, most likely because they are the most accessible. Much of Victoria Land is mountainous, developing the eastern section of the Transantarctic Mountains, and the several scattered volcanoes include Mount Overlord and Mount Melbourne in the northern part. Farther south are two more well - known volcanoes, Mount Discovery and Mount Morning, which are on the coast across from Mount Erebus and Mount Terror on Ross Island. The volcanism in this area is caused by rifting along a number of rift zones increasing mainly north - south similar to the coast.
Marie Byrd Land contains the largest volcanic region in Antarctica, covering a length of almost 600 mi (970 km) along the Pacific coast. The volcanism is the result of rifting along the vast West Antarctic Rift, which extends from the base of the Antarctic Peninsula to the surrounding area of Ross Island, and the volcanoes are found along the northern edge of the rift. Protruding up through the ice are a large number of major shield volcanoes, including Mount Sidley, which is the highest volcano in Antarctica. Although a number of the volcanoes are relatively young and are potentially active (Mount Berlin, Mount Takahe, Mount Waesche, and Mount Siple), others such as Mount Andrus and Mount Hampton are over 10 million years old, yet maintain uneroded constructional forms. The desert - like surroundings of the Antarctic interior, along with a very thick and stable ice sheet which encloses and protects the bases of the volcanoes, which decreases the speed of erosion by an issue of perhaps a thousand relative to volcanoes in moist temperate or tropical climates.
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when and where did the harappan civilization flourished | Indus Valley Civilisation - wikipedia
The Indus Valley Civilisation (IVC), or Harappan Civilisation, was a Bronze Age civilisation (3300 -- 1300 BCE; mature period 2600 -- 1900 BCE) mainly in the northwestern regions of South Asia, extending from what today is northeast Afghanistan to Pakistan and northwest India. Along with Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia, it was one of three early cradles of civilisations of the Old World, and of the three, the most widespread.
Aridification of this region during the 3rd millennium BCE may have been the initial spur for the urbanisation associated with the civilisation, but eventually also reduced the water supply enough to cause the civilisation 's demise, and to scatter its population eastward.
At its peak, the Indus Civilisation may have had a population of over five million. Inhabitants of the ancient Indus River valley developed new techniques in handicraft (carnelian products, seal carving) and metallurgy (copper, bronze, lead, and tin). The Indus cities are noted for their urban planning, baked brick houses, elaborate drainage systems, water supply systems, and clusters of large non-residential buildings. Children 's toys were found in the cities, with few weapons of war, suggesting peace and prosperity. Their trade seals, decorated with animals and mythical beings, indicate they conducted thriving trade with lands as far away as Sumer in southern Mesopotamia.
The Indus Valley Civilisation is also named the Harappan civilisation after Harappa, the first of its sites to be excavated in the 1920s, in what was then the Punjab province of British India. The discovery of Harappa, and soon afterwards Mohenjo - daro, was the culmination of work beginning in 1861 with the founding of the Archaeological Survey of India in the British Raj. Excavation of Harappan sites has been ongoing since 1920, with important breakthroughs occurring as recently as 1999. This Harappan civilisation is sometimes called the Mature Harappan culture to distinguish it from the cultures immediately preceding and following it. Of these, the earlier is often called the Early Harappan culture, while the later one may be referred to as the Late Harappan, both of which existed in the same area as the Mature Harappan Civilisation. The early Harappan cultures were preceded by local Neolithic agricultural villages, from which the river plains were populated.
A total of 1,022 cities and settlements had been found by 2008, mainly in the general region of the Indus and Ghaggar - Hakra Rivers, and their tributaries; of which 406 sites are in Pakistan and 616 sites in India; of these 96 have been excavated. Among the settlements were the major urban centres of Harappa, Mohenjo - daro (UNESCO World Heritage Site), Dholavira, Ganeriwala and Rakhigarhi.
The Harappan language is not directly attested, and its affiliation is uncertain since the Indus script is still undeciphered. A relationship with the Dravidian or Elamo - Dravidian language family is favoured by a section of scholars.
The Indus Valley Civilisation is named after the Indus Valley, where the first remains were found. The Indus Valley Civilisation is also named the Harappan civilisation after Harappa, the first of its sites to be excavated in the 1920s, in what was then the Punjab province of British India.
The Indus Valley Civilisation has also been called by some the "Sarasvati culture '', the "Sarasvati Civilisation '', the "Indus - Sarasvati Civilisation '' or the "Sindhu - Saraswati Civilisation '', as the Ghaggar - Hakra river is identified by some with the mythological Sarasvati river, suggesting that the Indus Valley Civilisation was the Vedic civilisation as perceived by traditional Hindu beliefs.
The Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) encompassed much of Pakistan, western India, and northeastern Afghanistan; extending from Pakistani Balochistan in the west to Uttar Pradesh in the east, northeastern Afghanistan in the north and Maharashtra in the south. Shortugai to the north is on the Oxus River, the Afghan border with Tajikistan, and in the west Sutkagan Dor is close to the Iranian border. The Kulli culture of Balochistan, of which more than 100 settlement sites are known, can be regarded as a local variant of the IVC, or a related culture.
The geography of the Indus Valley put the civilisations that arose there in a highly similar situation to those in Egypt and Peru, with rich agricultural lands being surrounded by highlands, desert, and ocean. Recently, Indus sites have been discovered in Pakistan 's Khyber Pakhtunkhwa as well. Other IVC colonies can be found in Afghanistan while smaller isolated colonies can be found as far away as Turkmenistan and in Maharashtra. The largest number of colonies are in the Punjab, Sindh, Rajasthan, Haryana, and Gujarat belt Coastal settlements extended from Sutkagan Dor in Western Baluchistan to Lothal in Gujarat. An Indus Valley site has been found on the Oxus River at Shortughai in northern Afghanistan, in the Gomal River valley in northwestern Pakistan, at Manda, Jammu on the Beas River near Jammu, India, and at Alamgirpur on the Hindon River, only 28 km from Delhi. Indus Valley sites have been found most often on rivers, but also on the ancient seacoast, for example, Balakot, and on islands, for example, Dholavira.
It flourished along the system of monsoon - fed perennial rivers in the basins of the Ghaggar - Hakra River in northwest India, and the Indus River flowing through the length of Pakistan. There is evidence of dry river beds overlapping with the Ghaggar River in India and Hakra channel in Pakistan.
616 sites have been discovered along the dried up river beds of the Ghaggar - Hakra River and its tributaries, while 406 sites have been found along the Indus and its tributaries. According to Shereen Ratnagar the Ghaggar - Hakra desert area has more remaining sites than the alluvium of the Indus Valley, since the Ghaggar - Hakra desert area has been left untouched by settlements and agriculture since the end of the Indus Valley Civilisation.
The ruins of Harappa were described in 1842 by Charles Masson in his Narrative of Various Journeys in Balochistan, Afghanistan, and the Punjab, where locals talked of an ancient city extending "thirteen cosses '' (about 25 miles or 41 km).
In 1856, Alexander Cunningham, later director - general of the archaeological survey of northern India, visited Harappa where the British engineers John and William Brunton were laying the East Indian Railway Company line connecting the cities of Karachi and Lahore. John wrote, "I was much exercised in my mind how we were to get ballast for the line of the railway ''. They were told of an ancient ruined city near the lines, called Harappa. Visiting the city, he found it full of hard well - burnt bricks, and, "convinced that there was a grand quarry for the ballast I wanted '', the city of Harappa was reduced to ballast. A few months later, further north, John 's brother William Brunton 's "section of the line ran near another ruined city, bricks from which had already been used by villagers in the nearby village of Harappa at the same site. These bricks now provided ballast along 93 miles (150 km) of the railroad track running from Karachi to Lahore ''.
In 1872 -- 75, Cunningham published the first Harappan seal (with an erroneous identification as Brahmi letters). More Harappan seals were discovered in 1912 by John Faithfull Fleet, prompting an archaeological campaign under Sir John Hubert Marshall. Marshall, Rai Bahadur Daya Ram Sahni and Madho Sarup Vats began excavating Harappa in 1921, finding buildings and artefacts indicative of an ancient civilisation. These were soon complemented by discoveries at Mohenjo - daro by Rakhal Das Banerjee, Ernest J.H. Mackay, and Marshall. By 1931, much of Mohenjo - daro had been excavated, but excavations continued, such as that led by Sir Mortimer Wheeler, director of the Archaeological Survey of India in 1944. Among other archaeologists who worked on IVC sites before the independence in 1947 were Ahmad Hasan Dani, Brij Basi Lal, Nani Gopal Majumdar, and Sir Marc Aurel Stein.
Following independence, the bulk of the archaeological finds were inherited by Pakistan where most of the IVC was based; however with more recent discoveries India now has 50 % more sites than Pakistan. Outposts of the Indus Valley civilisation were excavated as far west as Sutkagan Dor in Pakistani Balochistan, as far north as at Shortugai on the Amu Darya (the river 's ancient name was Oxus) in current Afghanistan, as far east as at Alamgirpur, Uttar Pradesh, India and as far south as at Malwan, in modern - day Surat, Gujarat, India.
In 2010, heavy floods hit Haryana in India and damaged the archaeological site of Jognakhera, where ancient copper smelting furnaces were found dating back almost 5,000 years. The Indus Valley Civilisation site was hit by almost 10 feet of water as the Sutlej Yamuna link canal overflowed.
The cities of the Indus Valley Civilisation had "social hierarchies, their writing system, their large planned cities and their long - distance trade (which) mark them to archaeologists as a full - fledged ' civilisation. ' '' The mature phase of the Harappan civilisation lasted from c. 2600 to 1900 BCE. With the inclusion of the predecessor and successor cultures -- Early Harappan and Late Harappan, respectively -- the entire Indus Valley Civilisation may be taken to have lasted from the 33rd to the 14th centuries BCE. It is part of the Indus Valley Tradition, which also includes the pre-Harappan occupation of Mehrgarh, the earliest farming site of the Indus Valley.
Several periodisations are employed for the periodisation of the IVC. The most commonly used classifies the Indus Valley Civilisation into Early, Mature and Late Harappan Phase. An alternative approach by Shaffer divides the broader Indus Valley Tradition into four eras, the pre-Harappan "Early Food Producing Era, '' and the Regionalisation, Integration, and Localisation eras, which correspond roughly with the Early Harappan, Mature Harappan, and Late Harappan phases.
According to Rao, Hakra Ware has been found at Bhirrana, and is pre-Harappan, dating to the 8th -- 7th millennium BCE. Hakra Ware culture is a material culture which is contemporaneous with the early Harappan Ravi phase culture (3300 -- 2800 BCE) of the Indus Valley. According to Dikshit and Rami, the estimation for the antiquity of Bhirrana as pre-Harappan is based on two calculations of charcoal samples, giving two dates of respectively 7570 -- 7180 BCE, and 6689 -- 6201 BCE.
Mehrgarh is a Neolithic (7000 BCE to c. 2500 BCE) site to the west of the Indus River valley, near the capital of the Kachi District in Pakistan, on the Kacchi Plain of Balochistan, near the Bolan Pass. According to Ahmad Hasan Dani, professor emeritus at Quaid - e-Azam University, Islamabad, the discovery of Mehrgarh "changed the entire concept of the Indus civilisation (...) There we have the whole sequence, right from the beginning of settled village life. '' Mehrgarh is one of the earliest sites with evidence of farming and herding in South Asia. According to Parpola, the culture migrated into the Indus Valley and became the Indus Valley Civilisation.
Mehrgarh was influenced by the Near Eastern Neolithic, with similarities between "domesticated wheat varieties, early phases of farming, pottery, other archaeological artefacts, some domesticated plants and herd animals. '' Gallego Romero et al. (2011) notice that "(t) he earliest evidence of cattle herding in south Asia comes from the Indus River Valley site of Mehrgarh and is dated to 7,000 YBP. ''
Lukacs and Hemphill suggest an initial local development of Mehrgarh, with a continuity in cultural development but a change in population. According to Lukacs and Hemphill, while there is a strong continuity between the neolithic and chalcolithic (Copper Age) cultures of Mehrgarh, dental evidence shows that the chalcolithic population did not descend from the neolithic population of Mehrgarh, which "suggests moderate levels of gene flow. '' Mascarenhas et al. (2015) note that "new, possibly West Asian, body types are reported from the graves of Mehrgarh beginning in the Togau phase (3800 BCE). '' According to Narasimhan et al. (2018), the IVC - population likely resulted from a mixture of Iranian agriculturalists and South Asian hunter - gatherers, and came into being between ca. 4700 -- 3000 BCE.
The Early Harappan Ravi Phase, named after the nearby Ravi River, lasted from c. 3300 BCE until 2800 BCE. It is related to the Hakra Phase, identified in the Ghaggar - Hakra River Valley to the west, and predates the Kot Diji Phase (2800 -- 2600 BCE, Harappan 2), named after a site in northern Sindh, Pakistan, near Mohenjo - daro. The earliest examples of the Indus script date to the 3rd millennium BCE.
The mature phase of earlier village cultures is represented by Rehman Dheri and Amri in Pakistan. Kot Diji represents the phase leading up to Mature Harappan, with the citadel representing centralised authority and an increasingly urban quality of life. Another town of this stage was found at Kalibangan in India on the Hakra River.
Trade networks linked this culture with related regional cultures and distant sources of raw materials, including lapis lazuli and other materials for bead - making. By this time, villagers had domesticated numerous crops, including peas, sesame seeds, dates, and cotton, as well as animals, including the water buffalo. Early Harappan communities turned to large urban centres by 2600 BCE, from where the mature Harappan phase started. The latest research shows that Indus Valley people migrated from villages to cities.
The final stages of the Early Harappan period are characterised by the building of large walled settlements, the expansion of trade networks, and the increasing integration of regional communities into a "relatively uniform '' material culture in terms of pottery styles, ornaments, and stamp seals with Indus script, leading into the transition to the Mature Harappan phase.
According to Giosan et al. (2012), the slow southward migration of the monsoons across Asia initially allowed the Indus Valley villages to develop by taming the floods of the Indus and its tributaries. Flood - supported farming led to large agricultural surpluses, which in turn supported the development of cities. The IVC residents did not develop irrigation capabilities, relying mainly on the seasonal monsoons leading to summer floods. Brooke further notes that the development of advanced cities coincides with a reduction in rainfall, which may have triggered a reorganisation into larger urban centers.
According to J.G. Shaffer and D.A. Lichtenstein, the Mature Harappan Civilisation was "a fusion of the Bagor, Hakra, and Kot Diji traditions or ' ethnic groups ' in the Ghaggar - Hakra valley on the borders of India and Pakistan ''.
By 2600 BCE, the Early Harappan communities turned into large urban centres. Such urban centres include Harappa, Ganeriwala, Mohenjo - daro in modern - day Pakistan, and Dholavira, Kalibangan, Rakhigarhi, Rupar, and Lothal in modern - day India. In total, more than 1,052 cities and settlements have been found, mainly in the general region of the Indus Rivers and their tributaries.
A sophisticated and technologically advanced urban culture is evident in the Indus Valley Civilisation making them the first urban centre in the region. The quality of municipal town planning suggests the knowledge of urban planning and efficient municipal governments which placed a high priority on hygiene, or, alternatively, accessibility to the means of religious ritual.
As seen in Harappa, Mohenjo - daro and the recently partially excavated Rakhigarhi, this urban plan included the world 's first known urban sanitation systems: see hydraulic engineering of the Indus Valley Civilisation. Within the city, individual homes or groups of homes obtained water from wells. From a room that appears to have been set aside for bathing, waste water was directed to covered drains, which lined the major streets. Houses opened only to inner courtyards and smaller lanes. The house - building in some villages in the region still resembles in some respects the house - building of the Harappans.
The ancient Indus systems of sewerage and drainage that were developed and used in cities throughout the Indus region were far more advanced than any found in contemporary urban sites in the Middle East and even more efficient than those in many areas of Pakistan and India today. The advanced architecture of the Harappans is shown by their impressive dockyards, granaries, warehouses, brick platforms, and protective walls. The massive walls of Indus cities most likely protected the Harappans from floods and may have dissuaded military conflicts.
The purpose of the citadel remains debated. In sharp contrast to this civilisation 's contemporaries, Mesopotamia and ancient Egypt, no large monumental structures were built. There is no conclusive evidence of palaces or temples -- or of kings, armies, or priests. Some structures are thought to have been granaries. Found at one city is an enormous well - built bath (the "Great Bath ''), which may have been a public bath. Although the citadels were walled, it is far from clear that these structures were defensive. They may have been built to divert flood waters.
Most city dwellers appear to have been traders or artisans, who lived with others pursuing the same occupation in well - defined neighbourhoods. Materials from distant regions were used in the cities for constructing seals, beads and other objects. Among the artefacts discovered were beautiful glazed faïence beads. Steatite seals have images of animals, people (perhaps gods), and other types of inscriptions, including the yet un-deciphered writing system of the Indus Valley Civilisation. Some of the seals were used to stamp clay on trade goods and most probably had other uses as well.
Although some houses were larger than others, Indus Civilisation cities were remarkable for their apparent, if relative, egalitarianism. All the houses had access to water and drainage facilities. This gives the impression of a society with relatively low wealth concentration, though clear social levelling is seen in personal adornments.
Toilets that used water were used in the Indus Valley Civilisation. The cities of Harappa and Mohenjo - daro had a flush toilet in almost every house, attached to a sophisticated sewage system.
Archaeological records provide no immediate answers for a centre of power or for depictions of people in power in Harappan society. But, there are indications of complex decisions being taken and implemented. For instance, the majority of the cities were constructed in a highly uniform and well - planned grid pattern, suggesting they were planned by a central authority; extraordinary uniformity of Harappan artefacts as evident in pottery, seals, weights and bricks; presence of public facilities and monumental architecture; heterogeneity in the mortuary symbolism and in grave goods (items included in burials).
These are the major theories:
The people of the Indus Civilisation achieved great accuracy in measuring length, mass, and time. They were among the first to develop a system of uniform weights and measures. A comparison of available objects indicates large scale variation across the Indus territories. Their smallest division, which is marked on an ivory scale found in Lothal in Gujarat, was approximately 1.704 mm, the smallest division ever recorded on a scale of the Bronze Age. Harappan engineers followed the decimal division of measurement for all practical purposes, including the measurement of mass as revealed by their hexahedron weights.
These chert weights were in a ratio of 5: 2: 1 with weights of 0.05, 0.1, 0.2, 0.5, 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 200, and 500 units, with each unit weighing approximately 28 grams, similar to the English Imperial ounce or Greek uncia, and smaller objects were weighed in similar ratios with the units of 0.871. However, as in other cultures, actual weights were not uniform throughout the area. The weights and measures later used in Kautilya 's Arthashastra (4th century BCE) are the same as those used in Lothal.
Harappans evolved some new techniques in metallurgy and produced copper, bronze, lead, and tin. The engineering skill of the Harappans was remarkable, especially in building docks.
In 2001, archaeologists studying the remains of two men from Mehrgarh, Pakistan, discovered that the people of the Indus Valley Civilisation, from the early Harappan periods, had knowledge of proto - dentistry. Later, in April 2006, it was announced in the scientific journal Nature that the oldest (and first early Neolithic) evidence for the drilling of human teeth in vivo (i.e., in a living person) was found in Mehrgarh. Eleven drilled molar crowns from nine adults were discovered in a Neolithic graveyard in Mehrgarh that dates from 7,500 -- 9,000 years ago. According to the authors, their discoveries point to a tradition of proto - dentistry in the early farming cultures of that region.
A touchstone bearing gold streaks was found in Banawali, which was probably used for testing the purity of gold (such a technique is still used in some parts of India).
Various sculptures, seals, bronze vessels pottery, gold jewellery, and anatomically detailed figurines in terracotta, bronze, and steatite have been found at excavation sites.
A number of gold, terracotta and stone figurines of girls in dancing poses reveal the presence of some dance form. These terracotta figurines included cows, bears, monkeys, and dogs. The animal depicted on a majority of seals at sites of the mature period has not been clearly identified. Part bull, part zebra, with a majestic horn, it has been a source of speculation. As yet, there is insufficient evidence to substantiate claims that the image had religious or cultic significance, but the prevalence of the image raises the question of whether or not the animals in images of the IVC are religious symbols.
Sir John Marshall reacted with surprise when he saw the famous Indus bronze statuette of a slender - limbed dancing girl in Mohenjo - daro:
When I first saw them I found it difficult to believe that they were prehistoric; they seemed to completely upset all established ideas about early art, and culture. Modeling such as this was unknown in the ancient world up to the Hellenistic age of Greece, and I thought, therefore, that some mistake must surely have been made; that these figures had found their way into levels some 3000 years older than those to which they properly belonged... Now, in these statuettes, it is just this anatomical truth which is so startling; that makes us wonder whether, in this all - important matter, Greek artistry could possibly have been anticipated by the sculptors of a far - off age on the banks of the Indus.
Many crafts including, "shell working, ceramics, and agate and glazed steatite bead making '' were practised and the pieces were used in the making of necklaces, bangles, and other ornaments from all phases of Harappan culture. Some of these crafts are still practised in the subcontinent today. Some make - up and toiletry items (a special kind of combs (kakai), the use of collyrium and a special three - in - one toiletry gadget) that were found in Harappan contexts still have similar counterparts in modern India. Terracotta female figurines were found (ca. 2800 -- 2600 BCE) which had red colour applied to the "manga '' (line of partition of the hair).
Seals have been found at Mohenjo - daro depicting a figure standing on its head, and another sitting cross-legged in what some call a yoga - like pose (see image, the so - called Pashupati, below). This figure, sometimes known as a Pashupati, has been variously identified. Sir John Marshall identified a resemblance to the Hindu god, Shiva. If this can be validated, it would be evidence that some aspects of Hinduism predate the earliest texts, the Veda.
A harp - like instrument depicted on an Indus seal and two shell objects found at Lothal indicate the use of stringed musical instruments. The Harappans also made various toys and games, among them cubical dice (with one to six holes on the faces), which were found in sites like Mohenjo - Daro.
The Indus civilisation 's economy appears to have depended significantly on trade, which was facilitated by major advances in transport technology. The IVC may have been the first civilisation to use wheeled transport. These advances may have included bullock carts that are identical to those seen throughout South Asia today, as well as boats. Most of these boats were probably small, flat - bottomed craft, perhaps driven by sail, similar to those one can see on the Indus River today; however, there is secondary evidence of sea - going craft. Archaeologists have discovered a massive, dredged canal and what they regard as a docking facility at the coastal city of Lothal in western India (Gujarat state). An extensive canal network, used for irrigation, has however also been discovered by H. - P. Francfort.
During 4300 -- 3200 BCE of the chalcolithic period (copper age), the Indus Valley Civilisation area shows ceramic similarities with southern Turkmenistan and northern Iran which suggest considerable mobility and trade. During the Early Harappan period (about 3200 -- 2600 BCE), similarities in pottery, seals, figurines, ornaments, etc. document intensive caravan trade with Central Asia and the Iranian plateau.
Judging from the dispersal of Indus civilisation artefacts, the trade networks, economically, integrated a huge area, including portions of Afghanistan, the coastal regions of Persia, northern and western India, and Mesopotamia. Studies of tooth enamel from individuals buried at Harappa suggest that some residents had migrated to the city from beyond the Indus Valley. There is some evidence that trade contacts extended to Crete and possibly to Egypt.
There was an extensive maritime trade network operating between the Harappan and Mesopotamian civilisations as early as the middle Harappan Phase, with much commerce being handled by "middlemen merchants from Dilmun '' (modern Bahrain and Failaka located in the Persian Gulf). Such long - distance sea trade became feasible with the development of plank - built watercraft, equipped with a single central mast supporting a sail of woven rushes or cloth.
Several coastal settlements like Sotkagen - dor (astride Dasht River, north of Jiwani), Sokhta Koh (astride Shadi River, north of Pasni), and Balakot (near Sonmiani) in Pakistan along with Lothal in western India, testify to their role as Harappan trading outposts. Shallow harbours located at the estuaries of rivers opening into the sea allowed brisk maritime trade with Mesopotamian cities.
It is generally assumed that most trade between the Indus Valley (ancient Meluhha?) and western neighbors proceeded up the Persian Gulf rather than overland. Although there is no incontrovertible proof that this was indeed the case, the distribution of Indus - type artifacts on the Oman peninsula, on Bahrain and in southern Mesopotamia makes it plausible that a series of maritime stages linked the Indus Valley and the Gulf region.
In the 1980s, important archaeological discoveries were made at Ras al - Jinz (Oman), demonstrating maritime Indus Valley connections with the Arabian Peninsula.
According to Gangal et al. (2014), there is strong archeological and geographical evidence that neolithic farming spread from the Near East into north - west India, but there is also "good evidence for the local domestication of barley and the zebu cattle at Mehrgarh. ''
According to Jean - Francois Jarrige, farming had an independent origin at Mehrgarh, despite the similarities which he notes between Neolithic sites from eastern Mesopotamia and the western Indus valley, which are evidence of a "cultural continuum '' between those sites. Nevertheless, Jarrige concludes that Mehrgarh has an earlier local background, '' and is not a "' backwater ' of the Neolithic culture of the Near East. '' Archaeologist Jim G. Shaffer writes that the Mehrgarh site "demonstrates that food production was an indigenous South Asian phenomenon '' and that the data support interpretation of "the prehistoric urbanisation and complex social organisation in South Asia as based on indigenous, but not isolated, cultural developments ''.
Jarrige notes that the people of Mehrgarh used domesticated wheats and barley, while Shaffer and Liechtenstein note that the major cultivated cereal crop was naked six - row barley, a crop derived from two - row barley. Gangal agrees that "Neolithic domesticated crops in Mehrgarh include more than 90 % barley, '' noting that "there is good evidence for the local domestication of barley. '' Yet, Gangal also notes that the crop also included "a small amount of wheat, '' which "are suggested to be of Near - Eastern origin, as the modern distribution of wild varieties of wheat is limited to Northern Levant and Southern Turkey. ''
The cattle that are often portrayed on Indus seals are humped Indian aurochs, which are similar to Zebu cattle. Zebu cattle is still common in India, and in Africa. It is different from the European cattle, and had been originally domesticated on the Indian subcontinent, probably in the Baluchistan region of Pakistan.
Research by J. Bates et al. (2016) confirms that Indus populations were the earliest people to use complex multi-cropping strategies across both seasons, growing foods during summer (rice, millets and beans) and winter (wheat, barley and pulses), which required different watering regimes. J. Bates et al. (2016) also found evidence for an entirely separate domestication process of rice in ancient South Asia, based around the wild species Oryza nivara. This led to the local development of a mix of "wetland '' and "dryland '' agriculture of local Oryza sativa indica rice agriculture, before the truly "wetland '' rice Oryza sativa japonica arrived around 2000 BCE.
It has often been suggested that the bearers of the IVC corresponded to proto - Dravidians linguistically, the break - up of proto - Dravidian corresponding to the break - up of the Late Harappan culture. Finnish Indologist Asko Parpola concludes that the uniformity of the Indus inscriptions precludes any possibility of widely different languages being used, and that an early form of Dravidian language must have been the language of the Indus people. Today, the Dravidian language family is concentrated mostly in southern India and northern and eastern Sri Lanka, but pockets of it still remain throughout the rest of India and Pakistan (the Brahui language), which lends credence to the theory.
According to Heggarty and Renfrew, Dravidian languages may have spread into the Indian subcontinent with the spread of farming. According to David McAlpin, the Dravidian languages were brought to India by immigration into India from Elam. In earlier publications, Renfrew also stated that proto - Dravidian was brought to India by farmers from the Iranian part of the Fertile Crescent, but more recently Heggarty and Renfrew note that "a great deal remains to be done in elucidating the prehistory of Dravidian. '' They also note that "McAlpin 's analysis of the language data, and thus his claims, remain far from orthodoxy. '' Heggarty and Renfrew conclude that several scenarios are compatible with the data, and that "the linguistic jury is still very much out. '' ((refn group = note Nevertheless, Kivisild et al. (1999) note that "a small fraction of the West Eurasian mtDNA lineages found in Indian populations can be ascribed to a relatively recent admixture. '' at ca. 9,300 ± 3,000 years before present, which coincides with "the arrival to India of cereals domesticated in the Fertile Crescent '' and "lends credence to the suggested linguistic connection between the Elamite and Dravidic populations. '' According to Kumar (2004), referring to Quintan - Murci et al. (2001), "microsatellite variation of Hgr9 among Iranians, Pakistanis and Indians indicate an expansion of populations to around 9000 YBP in Iran and then to 6,000 YBP in India. This migration originated in what was historically termed Elam in south - west Iran to the Indus valley, and may have been associated with the spread of Dravidian languages from south - west Iran. '' According to Palanichamy et al. (2015), "The presence of mtDNA haplogroups (HV14 and U1a) and Y - chromosome haplogroup (L1) in Dravidian populations indicates the spread of the Dravidian language into India from west Asia. '')
Between 400 and as many as 600 distinct Indus symbols have been found on seals, small tablets, ceramic pots and more than a dozen other materials, including a "signboard '' that apparently once hung over the gate of the inner citadel of the Indus city of Dholavira.
Typical Indus inscriptions are no more than four or five characters in length, most of which (aside from the Dholavira "signboard '') are tiny; the longest on a single surface, which is less than 1 inch (2.54 cm) square, is 17 signs long; the longest on any object (found on three different faces of a mass - produced object) has a length of 26 symbols.
While the Indus Valley Civilisation is generally characterised as a literate society on the evidence of these inscriptions, this description has been challenged by Farmer, Sproat, and Witzel (2004) who argue that the Indus system did not encode language, but was instead similar to a variety of non-linguistic sign systems used extensively in the Near East and other societies, to symbolise families, clans, gods, and religious concepts. Others have claimed on occasion that the symbols were exclusively used for economic transactions, but this claim leaves unexplained the appearance of Indus symbols on many ritual objects, many of which were mass - produced in moulds. No parallels to these mass - produced inscriptions are known in any other early ancient civilisations.
In a 2009 study by P.N. Rao et al. published in Science, computer scientists, comparing the pattern of symbols to various linguistic scripts and non-linguistic systems, including DNA and a computer programming language, found that the Indus script 's pattern is closer to that of spoken words, supporting the hypothesis that it codes for an as - yet - unknown language.
Farmer, Sproat, and Witzel have disputed this finding, pointing out that Rao et al. did not actually compare the Indus signs with "real - world non-linguistic systems '' but rather with "two wholly artificial systems invented by the authors, one consisting of 200,000 randomly ordered signs and another of 200,000 fully ordered signs, that they spuriously claim represent the structures of all real - world non-linguistic sign systems ''. Farmer et al. have also demonstrated that a comparison of a non-linguistic system like medieval heraldic signs with natural languages yields results similar to those that Rao et al. obtained with Indus signs. They conclude that the method used by Rao et al. can not distinguish linguistic systems from non-linguistic ones.
The messages on the seals have proved to be too short to be decoded by a computer. Each seal has a distinctive combination of symbols and there are too few examples of each sequence to provide a sufficient context. The symbols that accompany the images vary from seal to seal, making it impossible to derive a meaning for the symbols from the images. There have, nonetheless, been a number of interpretations offered for the meaning of the seals. These interpretations have been marked by ambiguity and subjectivity.
Photos of many of the thousands of extant inscriptions are published in the Corpus of Indus Seals and Inscriptions (1987, 1991, 2010), edited by Asko Parpola and his colleagues. The final, third, volume, republished photos taken in the 1920s and 1930s of hundreds of lost or stolen inscriptions, along with many discovered in the last few decades. Formerly, researchers had to supplement the materials in the Corpus by study of the tiny photos in the excavation reports of Marshall (1931), MacKay (1938, 1943), Wheeler (1947), or reproductions in more recent scattered sources.
Edakkal Caves in Wayanad district of Kerala contain drawings that range over periods from as early as 5000 BCE to 1000 BCE. The youngest group of paintings have been in the news for a possible connection to the Indus Valley Civilisation.
The religion and belief system of the Indus Valley people have received considerable attention, especially from the view of identifying precursors to deities and religious practices of Indian religions that later developed in the area. However, due to the sparsity of evidence, which is open to varying interpretations, and the fact that the Indus script remains undeciphered, the conclusions are partly speculative and largely based on a retrospective view from a much later Hindu perspective. An early and influential work in the area that set the trend for Hindu interpretations of archaeological evidence from the Harappan sites was that of John Marshall, who in 1931 identified the following as prominent features of the Indus religion: a Great Male God and a Mother Goddess; deification or veneration of animals and plants; symbolic representation of the phallus (linga) and vulva (yoni); and, use of baths and water in religious practice. Marshall 's interpretations have been much debated, and sometimes disputed over the following decades.
One Indus Valley seal shows a seated figure with a horned headdress, possibly tricephalic and possibly ithyphallic, surrounded by animals. Marshall identified the figure as an early form of the Hindu god Shiva (or Rudra), who is associated with asceticism, yoga, and linga; regarded as a lord of animals; and often depicted as having three eyes. The seal has hence come to be known as the Pashupati Seal, after Pashupati (lord of all animals), an epithet of Shiva. While Marshall 's work has earned some support, many critics and even supporters have raised several objections. Doris Srinivasan has argued that the figure does not have three faces, or yogic posture, and that in Vedic literature Rudra was not a protector of wild animals. Herbert Sullivan and Alf Hiltebeitel also rejected Marshall 's conclusions, with the former claiming that the figure was female, while the latter associated the figure with Mahisha, the Buffalo God and the surrounding animals with vahanas (vehicles) of deities for the four cardinal directions. Writing in 2002, Gregory L. Possehl concluded that while it would be appropriate to recognise the figure as a deity, its association with the water buffalo, and its posture as one of ritual discipline, regarding it as a proto - Shiva would be going too far. Despite the criticisms of Marshall 's association of the seal with a proto - Shiva icon, it has been interpreted as the Tirthankara Rishabhanatha by Jains and Vilas Sangave or an early Buddha by Buddhists. Historians such as Heinrich Zimmer and Thomas McEvilley believe that there is a connection between first Jain Tirthankara Rishabhanatha and the Indus Valley civilisation.
Marshall hypothesised the existence of a cult of Mother Goddess worship based upon excavation of several female figurines, and thought that this was a precursor of the Hindu sect of Shaktism. However the function of the female figurines in the life of Indus Valley people remains unclear, and Possehl does not regard the evidence for Marshall 's hypothesis to be "terribly robust ''. Some of the baetyls interpreted by Marshall to be sacred phallic representations are now thought to have been used as pestles or game counters instead, while the ring stones that were thought to symbolise yoni were determined to be architectural features used to stand pillars, although the possibility of their religious symbolism can not be eliminated. Many Indus Valley seals show animals, with some depicting them being carried in processions, while others show chimeric creations. One seal from Mohenjo - daro shows a half - human, half - buffalo monster attacking a tiger, which may be a reference to the Sumerian myth of such a monster created by goddess Aruru to fight Gilgamesh.
In contrast to contemporary Egyptian and Mesopotamian civilisations, Indus Valley lacks any monumental palaces, even though excavated cities indicate that the society possessed the requisite engineering knowledge. This may suggest that religious ceremonies, if any, may have been largely confined to individual homes, small temples, or the open air. Several sites have been proposed by Marshall and later scholars as possibly devoted to religious purpose, but at present only the Great Bath at Mohenjo - daro is widely thought to have been so used, as a place for ritual purification. The funerary practices of the Harappan civilisation are marked by their diversity, with evidence of supine burial, fractional burial (in which the body is reduced to skeletal remains by exposure to the elements before final interment), and even cremation.
Around 1900 BCE signs of a gradual decline began to emerge, and by around 1700 BCE most of the cities had been abandoned. Recent examination of human skeletons from the site of Harappa has demonstrated that the end of the Indus civilisation saw an increase in inter-personal violence and in infectious diseases like leprosy and tuberculosis.
According to historian Upinder Singh, "the general picture presented by the late Harappan phase is one of a breakdown of urban networks and an expansion of rural ones. ''
During the period of approximately 1900 to 1700 BCE, multiple regional cultures emerged within the area of the Indus civilisation. The Cemetery H culture was in Punjab, Haryana, and Western Uttar Pradesh, the Jhukar culture was in Sindh, and the Rangpur culture (characterised by Lustrous Red Ware pottery) was in Gujarat. Other sites associated with the Late phase of the Harappan culture are Pirak in Balochistan, Pakistan, and Daimabad in Maharashtra, India.
The largest Late Harappan sites are Kudwala in Cholistan, Bet Dwarka in Gujarat, and Daimabad in Maharashtra, which can be considered as urban, but they are smaller and few in number compared with the Mature Harappan cities. Bet Dwarka was fortified and continued to have contacts with the Persian Gulf region, but there was a general decrease of long - distance trade. On the other hand, the period also saw a diversification of the agricultural base, with a diversity of crops and the advent of double - cropping, as well as a shift of rural settlement towards the east and the south.
The pottery of the Late Harappan period is described as "showing some continuity with mature Harappan pottery traditions, '' but also distinctive differences. Many sites continued to be occupied for some centuries, although their urban features declined and disappeared. Formerly typical artifacts such as stone weights and female figurines became rare. There are some circular stamp seals with geometric designs, but lacking the Indus script which characterized the mature phase of the civilisation. Script is rare and confined to potsherd inscriptions. There was also a decline in long - distance trade, although the local cultures show new innovations in faience and glass making, and carving of stone beads. Urban amenities such as drains and the public bath were no longer maintained, and newer buildings were "poorly constructed ''. Stone sculptures were deliberately vandalised, valuables were sometimes concealed in hoards, suggesting unrest, and the corpses of animals and even humans were left unburied in the streets and in abandoned buildings.
During the later half of the 2nd millennium BCE, most of the post-urban Late Harappan settlements were abandoned altogether. Subsequent material culture was typically characterised by temporary occupation, "the campsites of a population which was nomadic and mainly pastoralist '' and which used "crude handmade pottery. '' However, there is greater continuity and overlap between Late Harappan and subsequent cultural phases at sites in Punjab, Haryana, and western Uttar Pradesh, primarily small rural settlements.
In 1953 Sir Mortimer Wheeler proposed that the invasion of an Indo - European tribe from Central Asia, the "Aryans '', caused the decline of the Indus Civilisation. As evidence, he cited a group of 37 skeletons found in various parts of Mohenjo - daro, and passages in the Vedas referring to battles and forts. However, scholars soon started to reject Wheeler 's theory, since the skeletons belonged to a period after the city 's abandonment and none were found near the citadel. Subsequent examinations of the skeletons by Kenneth Kennedy in 1994 showed that the marks on the skulls were caused by erosion, and not by violence.
In the Cemetery H culture (the late Harappan phase in the Punjab region), some of the designs painted on the funerary urns have been interpreted through the lens of Vedic literature: for instance, peacocks with hollow bodies and a small human form inside, which has been interpreted as the souls of the dead, and a hound that can be seen as the hound of Yama, the god of death. This may indicate the introduction of new religious beliefs during this period, but the archaeological evidence does not support the hypothesis that the Cemetery H people were the destroyers of the Harappan cities.
Suggested contributory causes for the localisation of the IVC include changes in the course of the river, and climate change that is also signalled for the neighbouring areas of the Middle East. As of 2016 many scholars believe that drought and a decline in trade with Egypt and Mesopotamia caused the collapse of the Indus Civilisation.
The Ghaggar - Hakra system was rain - fed, and water - supply depended on the monsoons. The Indus Valley climate grew significantly cooler and drier from about 1800 BCE, linked to a general weakening of the monsoon at that time. The Indian monsoon declined and aridity increased, with the Ghaggar - Hakra retracting its reach towards the foothills of the Himalaya, leading to erratic and less extensive floods that made inundation agriculture less sustainable.
Aridification reduced the water supply enough to cause the civilisation 's demise, and to scatter its population eastward. According to Giosan et al. (2012), the IVC residents did not develop irrigation capabilities, relying mainly on the seasonal monsoons leading to summer floods. As the monsoons kept shifting south, the floods grew too erratic for sustainable agricultural activities. The residents then migrated towards the Ganges basin in the east, where they established smaller villages and isolated farms. The small surplus produced in these small communities did not allow development of trade, and the cities died out.
Archaeological excavations indicate that the decline of Harappa drove people eastward. According to Possehl, after 1900 BCE the number of sites in today 's India increased from 218 to 853. According to Andrew Lawler, "excavations along the Gangetic plain show that cities began to arise there starting about 1200 BCE, just a few centuries after Harappa was deserted and much earlier than once suspected. '' According to Jim Shaffer there was a continuous series of cultural developments, just as in most areas of the world. These link "the so - called two major phases of urbanisation in South Asia ''.
At sites such as Bhagwanpura (in Haryana), archaeological excavations have discovered an overlap between the final phase of Late Harappan pottery and the earliest phase of Painted Grey Ware pottery, the latter being associated with the Vedic Culture and dating from around 1200 BCE. This site provides evidence of multiple social groups occupying the same village but using different pottery and living in different types of houses: "over time the Late Harappan pottery was gradually replaced by Painted Grey ware pottery, '' and other cultural changes indicated by archaeology include the introduction of the horse, iron tools, and new religious practices.
There is also a Harappan site called Rojdi in Rajkot district of Saurashtra. Its excavation started under an archaeological team from Gujarat State Department of Archaeology and the Museum of the University of Pennsylvania in 1982 -- 83. In their report on archaeological excavations at Rojdi, Gregory Possehl and M.H. Raval write that although there are "obvious signs of cultural continuity '' between the Harappan Civilisation and later South Asian cultures, many aspects of the Harappan "sociocultural system '' and "integrated civilization '' were "lost forever, '' while the Second Urbanisation of India (beginning with the Northern Black Polished Ware culture, c. 600 BCE) "lies well outside this sociocultural environment ''.
Previously, scholars believed that the decline of the Harappan civilisation led to an interruption of urban life in the Indian subcontinent. However, the Indus Valley Civilisation did not disappear suddenly, and many elements of the Indus Civilisation appear in later cultures. The Cemetery H culture may be the manifestation of the Late Harappan over a large area in the region of Punjab, Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh, and the Ochre Coloured Pottery culture its successor. David Gordon White cites three other mainstream scholars who "have emphatically demonstrated '' that Vedic religion derives partially from the Indus Valley Civilisations.
As of 2016, archaeological data suggests that the material culture classified as Late Harappan may have persisted until at least c. 1000 -- 900 BCE and was partially contemporaneous with the Painted Grey Ware culture. Harvard archaeologist Richard Meadow points to the late Harappan settlement of Pirak, which thrived continuously from 1800 BCE to the time of the invasion of Alexander the Great in 325 BCE.
In the aftermath of the Indus Civilisation 's localisation, regional cultures emerged, to varying degrees showing the influence of the Indus Civilisation. In the formerly great city of Harappa, burials have been found that correspond to a regional culture called the Cemetery H culture. At the same time, the Ochre Coloured Pottery culture expanded from Rajasthan into the Gangetic Plain. The Cemetery H culture has the earliest evidence for cremation; a practice dominant in Hinduism today.
The mature (Harappan) phase of the IVC is contemporary to the Early and Middle Bronze Age in the Ancient Near East, in particular the Old Elamite period, Early Dynastic to Ur III Mesopotamia, Prepalatial Minoan Crete and Old Kingdom to First Intermediate Period Egypt.
The IVC has been compared in particular with the civilisations of Elam (also in the context of the Elamo - Dravidian hypothesis) and with Minoan Crete (because of isolated cultural parallels such as the ubiquitous goddess worship and depictions of bull - leaping). The IVC has been tentatively identified with the toponym Meluhha known from Sumerian records; the Sumerians called them Meluhhaites.
Shahr - i - Sokhta, located in southeastern Iran shows trade route with Mesopotamia. A number of seals with Indus script have been also found in Mesopotamian sites.
After the discovery of the IVC in the 1920s, it was immediately associated with the indigenous Dasyu inimical to the Rigvedic tribes in numerous hymns of the Rigveda. Mortimer Wheeler interpreted the presence of many unburied corpses found in the top levels of Mohenjo - daro as the victims of a warlike conquest, and famously stated that "Indra stands accused '' of the destruction of the IVC. The association of the IVC with the city - dwelling Dasyus remains alluring because the assumed timeframe of the first Indo - Aryan migration into India corresponds neatly with the period of decline of the IVC seen in the archaeological record. The discovery of the advanced, urban IVC however changed the 19th - century view of early Indo - Aryan migration as an "invasion '' of an advanced culture at the expense of a "primitive '' aboriginal population to a gradual acculturation of nomadic "barbarians '' on an advanced urban civilisation, comparable to the Germanic migrations after the Fall of Rome, or the Kassite invasion of Babylonia. This move away from simplistic "invasionist '' scenarios parallels similar developments in thinking about language transfer and population movement in general, such as in the case of the migration of the proto - Greek speakers into Greece, or the Indo - Europeanisation of Western Europe.
Proto - Munda (or Para-Munda) and a "lost phylum '' (perhaps related or ancestral to the Nihali language) have been proposed as other candidates for the language of the IVC. Michael Witzel suggests an underlying, prefixing language that is similar to Austroasiatic, notably Khasi; he argues that the Rigveda shows signs of this hypothetical Harappan influence in the earliest historic level, and Dravidian only in later levels, suggesting that speakers of Austroasiatic were the original inhabitants of Punjab and that the Indo - Aryans encountered speakers of Dravidian only in later times.
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standard operating procedures can be linked to which of the 5s | Standard operating procedure - wikipedia
A standard operating procedure, or SOP, is a set of step - by - step instructions compiled by an organization to help workers carry out complex routine operations. SOPs aim to achieve efficiency, quality output and uniformity of performance, while reducing miscommunication and failure to comply with industry regulations.
The military (e.g. in the U.S. and U.K.) sometimes uses the term standing -- rather than standard -- operating procedure, because a military SOP refers to a unit 's unique procedures, which are not necessarily standard to another unit. "Standard '' could imply that there is one (standard) procedure to be used across all units.
In clinical research, the International Council for Harmonisation (ICH) defines SOPs as "detailed, written instructions to achieve uniformity of the performance of a specific function ''. SOPs usually get applied in pharmaceutical processing and for related clinical studies. There the focus is always set on repeated application of unchanged processes and procedures and its documentation, hence supporting the segregation of origins, causes and effects. Further application is with triage, when limited resources get used according to an assessment on ranking, urgence and staffing possibilities. Study director is mainly responsible for SOPs. The Quality Assurance Unit are individuals who are responsible for monitoring whether the study report and tests are meeting the SOP. SOPs can also provide employees with a reference to common business practices, activities, or tasks. New employees use a SOP to answer questions without having to interrupt supervisors to ask how an operation is performed. The international quality standard ISO 9001 essentially requires the determination of processes (documented as standard operating procedures) used in any manufacturing process that could affect the quality of the product.
Procedures are extensively employed to assist with working safely. They are sometimes called safe work methods statements (SWMS). They are usually preceded by various methods of analyzing tasks or jobs to be performed in a workplace, including an approach called job safety analysis, in which hazards are identified and their control methods described. Procedures must be suited to the literacy levels of the user, and as part of this, the readability of procedures is important.
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who was the first indian actor in hollywood | Aamir Khan - wikipedia
Aamir Khan (pronounced (ˈaːmɪr ˈxaːn); born Mohammed Aamir Hussain Khan on 14 March 1965) is an Indian film actor, producer, director and television talk show host. Through his career in Hindi films, Khan has established himself as one of the most popular and influential actors of Indian cinema. He is the recipient of numerous awards, including nine Filmfare Awards, four National Film Awards, and an AACTA Award, as well as an Academy Award nomination. He was honoured by the Government of India with the Padma Shri in 2003 and the Padma Bhushan in 2010, and received an honorary title from China in 2017. With a large global following, particularly in India and China, he has been described by Newsweek as one of the most successful film stars in the world.
Khan first appeared on screen as a child actor in his uncle Nasir Hussain 's film Yaadon Ki Baaraat (1973). As an adult, his first feature film role was in the experimental film Holi (1984), and he began a full - time acting career with a leading role in the tragic romance Qayamat Se Qayamat Tak (1988). His performance in the film and in the thriller Raakh (1989) earned him a National Film Award in the Special Mention category. He established himself as a leading actor of Hindi cinema in the 1990s by appearing in a number of commercially successful films, including the romantic dramas Dil (1990) and Raja Hindustani (1996), for which he won his first Filmfare Award for Best Actor, and the thriller Sarfarosh (1999). He was also noted for playing against type, in a negative role, in the internationally acclaimed Canadian - Indian art house film Earth (1998).
In 1999 he founded Aamir Khan Productions, whose first film, Lagaan (2001), was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film, and earned him a National Film Award for Best Popular Film and two more Filmfare Awards (Best Actor and Best Film). After a four - year absence from the screen, Khan returned to portray leading roles, notably in the 2006 box - office hits Fanaa and Rang De Basanti. He made his directorial debut with Taare Zameen Par (2007), a major success that garnered him the Filmfare Awards for Best Film and Best Director. Khan 's greatest commercial successes came with the psychological thriller Ghajini (2008), the comedy - drama 3 Idiots (2009), the action film Dhoom 3 (2013), the satire PK (2014), and the sports biopic Dangal (2016), each having held the record for being the highest - grossing Indian film ever. Khan won his third Best Actor award at Filmfare for Dangal, as well as Australia 's AACTA Award for Best Asian Film. His films are often known for dealing with social issues in Indian society.
Within and beyond the film industry, Khan is an activist and humanitarian, and has participated and spoken out for various social causes, some of which have sparked political controversy. He has created and hosted the television talk show Satyamev Jayate, through which he highlights sensitive social issues in India. His work as a social reformer, tackling issues ranging from poverty and education to abuse and discrimination, earned him an appearance on the Time 100 list of most influential people in the world. Khan was married to his first wife, Reena Dutta, for fifteen years, after which he married the film director Kiran Rao. He has three children -- two with Dutta, and one with Rao through surrogacy.
Khan was born on 14 March 1965 in Mumbai to Tahir Hussain, a film producer, and Zeenat Hussain. Several of his relatives were members of the Hindi film industry, including his late paternal uncle, the producer - director Nasir Hussain. He is related to the Indian philosopher Abul Kalam Azad through his grandmother. Khan is the eldest of four siblings; he has a brother, the actor Faisal Khan, and two sisters, Farhat and Nikhat Khan (married to Santosh Hegde). His nephew, Imran Khan, is a contemporary Hindi film actor.
As a child actor, Khan appeared on screen in two minor roles. At the age of eight, he appeared in a highly popular song in the Nasir Hussain - directed film Yaadon Ki Baaraat (1973), which was the first Bollywood masala film. The following year, he portrayed the younger version of Mahendra Sandhu 's character in his father 's production Madhosh. Khan attended J.B. Petit School for his pre-primary education, later switching to St. Anne 's High School, Bandra till the eighth grade, and completed his ninth and tenth grade at the Bombay Scottish School, Mahim. He played tennis in state level championships, and has professed being "much more into sports than studies ''. He completed his twelfth grade from Mumbai 's Narsee Monjee College. Khan described his childhood as "tough '' due to the financial problems faced by his father, whose film productions were mostly unsuccessful. He said, "There would be at least 30 calls a day from creditors calling for their money. '' He was always at risk of being expelled from school for non-payment of fees.
At the age of sixteen, Khan was involved in the experimental process of making a 40 - minute silent film, Paranoia, which was directed by his school friend Aditya Bhattacharya. The film was funded by the filmmaker Shriram Lagoo, an acquaintance of Bhattacharya, who provided them with a few thousand rupees. Khan 's parents did not want him to make films, wishing that he would instead pursue a "steady '' career as an engineer or doctor. For that reason, the shooting schedule of Paranoia was a clandestine one. In the film, he played the lead role alongside actors Neena Gupta and Victor Banerjee, while simultaneously assisting Bhattacharya. He said that the experience of working on it encouraged him to pursue a career in film.
Khan subsequently joined a theatre group called Avantar, where he performed backstage activities for over a year. He made his stage debut with a small role in the company 's Gujarati play, Kesar Bina, at Prithvi Theatre. He went on to two of their Hindi plays, and one English play, which was titled Clearing House. After completing high school, Khan decided to discontinue studying, choosing instead to work as an assistant director to Nasir Hussain on the Hindi films Manzil Manzil (1984) and Zabardast (1985).
In addition to assisting Hussain, Khan acted in documentaries directed by the students of FTII, Pune. The director Ketan Mehta noticed Khan in those films, and he offered him a role in the low - budget experimental film Holi (1984). Featuring an ensemble cast of newcomers, Holi was based on a play by Mahesh Elkunchwar, and dealt with the practice of ragging in India. The New York Times said that the film was "melodramatic '' but "very decently and exuberantly performed by the nonprofessional actors ''. Khan 's role was that of a rowdy college student, an "insignificant '' role that was described by CNN - IBN as "lack (ing) in finesse ''.
Holi failed to garner a broad audience, but Nasir Hussain and his son Mansoor signed him as the leading man in Mansoor 's directorial debut Qayamat Se Qayamat Tak (1988) alongside Juhi Chawla. The film was a tale of unrequited love and parental opposition, with Khan portraying Raj, a "clean - cut, wholesome boy - next - door ''. The plot was a modern - day take on classic tragic romance stories such as Layla and Majnun, Heer Ranjha, and Romeo and Juliet. Qayamat Se Qayamat Tak proved to be a major commercial success, catapulting both Khan and Chawla to stardom. It received seven Filmfare Awards including a Best Male Debut trophy for Khan. The film has since attained cult status, with Bollywood Hungama crediting it as a "path - breaking and trend setting film '' for Indian cinema. Qayamat Se Qayamat Tak was a milestone in the history of Hindi cinema, setting the template for Bollywood musical romance films that defined Hindi cinema in the 1990s.
The year 1989 saw the release of Raakh, a crime thriller from Aditya Bhattacharya that was filmed before the production of Qayamat Se Qayamat Tak. The film tells the story of a young man avenging the rape of his ex-girlfriend (played by Supriya Pathak). Despite a poor reception at the box office, the film was critically acclaimed. Khan was awarded a National Film Award -- Special Jury Award / Special Mention for his performances in both Qayamat Se Qayamat Tak and Raakh. Later that year, he reunited with Chawla for the romantic comedy Love Love Love, a commercial failure.
Khan had five film releases in 1990. He found no success in the sport film Awwal Number with Aditya Pancholi and Dev Anand, the mythological thriller Tum Mere Ho, the romance Deewana Mujh Sa Nahin and the social drama Jawani Zindabad. However, the Indra Kumar - directed romantic drama Dil (opposite Madhuri Dixit) was a major success. A tale of parental opposition to teenage love, Dil was highly popular among the youth, and emerged as the highest - grossing Hindi film of the year. He followed this success with a leading role alongside Pooja Bhatt in the romantic comedy Dil Hai Ke Manta Nahin (1991), a remake of the Hollywood film It Happened One Night (1934), which proved to be a box office hit.
Khan appeared in several other films in the early 1990s, including Jo Jeeta Wohi Sikandar (1992), Hum Hain Rahi Pyar Ke (1993) (for which he also wrote the screenplay), and Rangeela (1995). Most of these films were successful critically and commercially. Other successes include Andaz Apna Apna, co-starring Salman Khan. At the time of its release, the movie was reviewed unfavorably by critics, but over the years has gained cult status.
Khan continued to act in just one or two films a year, then an unusual trait for a mainstream Hindi cinema actor. His only release in 1996 was the Dharmesh Darshan - directed commercial blockbuster Raja Hindustani, in which he was paired opposite Karisma Kapoor. The film earned him his first Filmfare Award for Best Actor, after seven previous nominations, and went on to become the biggest hit of the year, as well as the third - highest grossing Indian film of the 1990s. Khan 's career seemed to hit a plateau at this point of time, and most of the films to follow for the next few years were only partially successful. In 1997, he co-starred alongside Ajay Devgn, Kajol and Juhi Chawla in Ishq, which performed well at the box office. The following year, Khan appeared in the moderately successful Ghulam, for which he also did playback singing.
John Mathew Matthan 's Sarfarosh, Khan 's first release in 1999, was also moderately successful, gaining an above average box office verdict. The film and Khan 's role in it were highly appreciated by movie critics, as was his role in Deepa Mehta 's Canadian - Indian art house film Earth (1998). Set during the 1947 partition of India, Earth was internationally acclaimed, by critics such as Roger Ebert, with Khan 's negative portrayal of Dil Nawaz ("Ice Candy Man '') considered his best performance up until then. His first release for the new millennium, Mela, in which he acted alongside his real - life brother Faisal Khan, was both a box office and critical bomb.
He produced and starred in Lagaan (2001), which was a major critical and commercial success, and received a nomination for Best Foreign Language Film at the 74th Academy Awards. Additionally, the film gathered critical acclaim at several international film festivals, in addition to winning numerous Indian awards, including a National Film Award. Khan also won his second Filmare Award for Best Actor.
The success of Lagaan was followed by Dil Chahta Hai later that year, in which Khan co-starred with Saif Ali Khan and Akshaye Khanna, with Preity Zinta playing his love interest. The film was written and directed by the then - debutant Farhan Akhtar. The film won the 2001 Filmare Critics Award for Best Film. Khan then took a four - year break from Bollywood after divorce from his wife Reena Dutta.
Khan made a comeback in 2005 with Ketan Mehta 's Mangal Pandey: The Rising playing the title role of the real - life sepoy and martyr who helped spark the Indian Rebellion of 1857. The film was screened at the Cannes Film Festival.
Rakeysh Omprakash Mehra 's award - winning Rang De Basanti was Khan 's first release in 2006. His performance was critically acclaimed, earning him a Filmfare Critics Award for Best Actor and various nominations for Best Actor. The film went on to become one of the highest - grossing films of the year, and was selected as India 's official entry to the Oscars. Although the film was not shortlisted as a nominee for the Oscar, it received a nomination for BAFTA Award for Best Film Not in the English Language at the BAFTA Awards in England. In his next movie, Fanaa (2006), Khan co-starred with Kajol. Playing the role of a Kashmiri insurgent terrorist, his second negative role after Earth, the role offered him creative possibilities to try something different. Fanaa became one of the highest - grossing Indian films of 2006.
His 2007 film, Taare Zameen Par, was also produced by him and marked his directorial debut. The film, which was the second offering from Aamir Khan Productions, starred Khan in a supporting role as a teacher who befriends and helps a dyslexic child. It opened to excellent responses from critics and audiences. Khan 's performance was well - received, although he was particularly applauded for his directing. Khan received the Filmfare Awards for Best Director and Best Film of 2007, as well as the National Film Award for Best Film on Family Welfare. The film won other awards, including the 2008 Zee Cine Awards and 4th Apsara Film & Television Producers Guild Awards. The film was initially acclaimed as India 's official entry for the 2009 Academy Awards Best Foreign Film.
In 2008, Khan appeared in the movie Ghajini. The film was a major commercial success and became the highest - grossing Bollywood movie of that year. For his performance in the film, Khan received several Best Actor nominations at various award ceremonies as well as his fifteenth Filmfare Best Actor nomination.
In 2009, Khan appeared in the commercially and critically acclaimed film 3 Idiots as Ranchodas Chanchad. 3 Idiots became the highest - grossing Bollywood film ever at the time, breaking the previous record set by Ghajini, which also starred Khan. 3 Idiots was one of the few Indian films to become a success in East Asian markets such as China and Japan, at the time making it the highest - grossing Bollywood film ever in overseas markets. It was expected to be the first Indian film to be officially released on YouTube, within 12 weeks of releasing in theatres on 25 March 2010, but finally got officially released on YouTube in May 2012. The film won six Filmfare Awards (including Best Film and Best Director), ten Star Screen Awards, eight IIFA Awards, and three National Film Awards, and received a Japanese Academy Award nomination for Best Outstanding Foreign Language Film.
Khan has been credited with opening up the Chinese markets for Indian films. His father Tahir Hussain previously had success in China with Caravan (1971), but Indian films declined in the country afterwards, before Aamir Khan opened up the Chinese market for Indian films in the early 21st century. His Academy Award nominated Lagaan (2001) became the first Indian film to have a nationwide release there. When 3 Idiots released in China, the country was only the 15th largest film market, partly due to China 's widespread pirate DVD distribution at the time. However, it was the pirate market that introduced 3 Idiots to most Chinese audiences, becoming a cult hit in the country. It became China 's 12th favourite film of all time, according to ratings on Chinese film review site Douban, with only one domestic Chinese film (Farewell My Concubine) ranked higher. Aamir Khan gained a large growing Chinese fanbase as a result. After 3 Idiots went viral, several of his other films, such as Taare Zameen Par (2007) and Ghajini (2008), also gained a cult following. By 2013, China grew to become the world 's second largest film market (after the United States), paving the way for Aamir Khan 's Chinese box office success, with Dhoom 3 (2013), PK (2014) and especially Dangal (2016).
It was reported that Khan had disagreements with director Reema Kagti over the issue of his 2012 film Talaash, causing significant delays in the film 's release. However, Khan said that the claims were baseless. The film was a hit in India and overseas markets.
Khan 's next venture was Dhoom 3 with Yash Raj Films. He has considered this to be the most difficult role of his career. The film was released worldwide on 20 December 2013. Box Office India declared Dhoom 3 "the biggest hit of 2013 '' after two days of release, with the film grossing ₹ 2 billion (US $31 million) worldwide in three days and ₹ 4 billion (US $62 million) worldwide in ten days, making it the highest - grossing Bollywood film of all time.
In 2014, Khan appeared as the eponymous alien in Rajkumar Hirani 's comedy - drama PK. It also starred Anushka Sharma, Sushant Singh Rajput, Boman Irani and Sanjay Dutt in pivotal roles. The film received critical acclaim and emerged as the highest - grossing Bollywood film of all time (the fourth time Khan achieved this feat). Khan 's performance was unanimously praised by critics. Raja Sen called the film a "triumph '' and said: "Aamir Khan is exceptional in PK, creating an irresistibly goofy character and playing him with absolute conviction. '' The film won two Filmfare Awards, and in Japan received a top award at the 9th Tokyo Newspaper Film Awards event held by Tokyo Shimbun newspaper.
Khan produced and starred in Dangal (2016), directed by Nitesh Tiwari, with Khan portraying wrestler Mahavir Singh Phogat. He played him at several different ages, from 20 to 60 years old, gaining 30 kg and weighing 98 kg to play the older Phogat, then losing the weight to play the younger version. The film received positive reviews from critics and emerged as the highest - grossing Bollywood film of all time domestically, surpassing PK, making it the fifth time Khan had achieved this feat. Dangal also became an overseas blockbuster success in China, where it was the 16th highest - grossing film of all time, the 8th highest - grossing foreign film, and the highest - grossing non-Hollywood foreign film. Worldwide, it became the fifth highest - grossing non-English language film of all time, earning Khan one of the highest salaries for a non-Hollywood actor, at $42 million. Dangal has also been watched over 328 million times on Chinese streaming platforms. Dangal won him two more Filmfare Awards (Best Film and his third Best Actor award) as well as Australia 's AACTA Award for Best Asian Film.
In October 2017, Khan appeared in an extended cameo in Secret Superstar, with his Dangal co-star Zaira Wasim playing the lead role. Khan is currently filming Thugs of Hindostan, working with Amitabh Bachchan. The film is being directed by Dhoom 3 's director Vijay Krishna Acharya. It will also star Fatima Sana Shaikh and Katrina Kaif. Shaikh also appeared in Dangal while Kaif appeared alongside Khan in Dhoom 3.
Khan co-wrote the screenplay and script for the 1993 hit romantic comedy film Hum Hain Rahi Pyar Ke, where he also starred in the lead role. Khan began working as a producer after he set up his own production company, Aamir Khan Productions, in 1999. Its first film was Lagaan, which was released in 2001, starring Khan as the lead actor. The film was selected as India 's official entry to the 74th Academy Awards in the Best Foreign Language Film category, for which it became India 's third nominee ever; it eventually lost the award to Bosnian film No Man 's Land. Lagaan won numerous awards at several Indian award functions such as Filmfare and IIFA, and won the National Film Award for Most Popular Film, an award shared between Khan and the film 's director, Ashutosh Gowariker. For producing the documentary Madness in the Desert on the making of Lagaan, Khan and director Satyajit Bhatkal were awarded the National Film Award for Best Exploration / Adventure Film at the 51st National Film Awards ceremony.
In 2007, he directed and produced the drama Taare Zameen Par, which marked his directorial debut. Khan also played a supporting role in the film, sharing the screen with new child actor Darsheel Safary. The film was conceived of and developed by the husband and wife team of Amole Gupte and Deepa Bhatia. It is the story of a young child who suffers in school until a teacher identifies him as dyslexic. The movie was critically acclaimed, as well as a box office success. Taare Zameen Par won the 2008 Filmfare Best Movie Award as well as a number of other Filmfare and Star Screen Awards. Khan 's work also won him the Best Director. In 2008, Khan launched his nephew Imran Khan 's debut in the film Jaane Tu... Ya Jaane Na under his production house. The film was a big hit in India, and earned Khan another nomination for Best Film at Filmfare. He also co-wrote the blockbuster film Ghajini (2008), which he starred in; Khan made alterations to the original 2005 Tamil film and rewrote the climax. In 2010, he released his production Peepli Live, which was selected as India 's official entry for the 83rd Academy Awards ' Best Foreign Film category.
In 2011, Khan released his home production Dhobi Ghat, an art house film directed by his wife Kiran Rao. In same year, Khan co-produced the English language black comedy film Delhi Belly with UTV Motion Pictures, starring Imran Khan, Kunaal Roy Kapur and Vir Das. The film opened to critical acclaim and was a commercial success, with a domestic revenue of over ₹ 550 million (US $8.6 million). In 2012, Khan starred in Reema Kagti 's neo-noir mystery film Talaash, which was a joint production of Excel Entertainment and Aamir Khan Productions. The film was declared a semi-hit in India and accumulated a worldwide gross of ₹ 1.74 billion (US $27 million).
Khan, who debuted as a child actor in the first masala film, his uncle Nasir Hussain 's Yaadon Ki Baraat (1973), has been credited with redefining and modernizing the masala film with his own distinct brand of cinema in the early 21st century, earning both commercial success and critical acclaim.
Around August 2011, Khan started talks with Siddhartha Basu 's BIG Synergy to host a talk show similar to The Oprah Winfrey Show.
Khan made his television debut with his talk show, Satyamev Jayate. The show dealt with social issues. It started airing on 6 May 2012. Aamir was paid Rs. 30 million rupees per episode to host the Satyamev Jayate, and it made him the highest paid host in Indian television industry as of June 2012. Aamir, speaking on a radio channel, said that in view of phenomenal public response, he may come up with a second season of the show. The show went live simultaneously on Star Plus, STAR World and national broadcaster Doordarshan on the 11 am Sunday slot in eight languages, being the first to do so in India.
Satyamev Jayate opened to positive reviews and feedback from social activists, media houses, doctors, and film and television personalities. Khan was also praised for his effort. In her review, Ritu Singh of IBN Live stated: "Aamir Khan deserves an applause for bringing up such a sensitive issue and presenting it in a hard hitting way. The amount of research Aamir and his team has put into the show was clearly visible with the facts and figures presented. Every aspect of the issue was covered with great diligence. '' Parmita Uniyal from Hindustan Times praised the content and Khan for "step (ing) in to do what journalists are supposed to do -- make a difference. The show is a classic example of that. '' Despite the initial hype and being labelled as the channel 's most ambitious project till date, the initial viewership figures were not very encouraging; the show received an average television rating of 2.9 (with a reach of 14.4 million, it was watched by only 20 % of TV viewers) in the six metros in its debut episode on 6 May. The rating was far lower than those of most other celebrity - hosted shows at the time.
Ratings for the show eventually picked up, and it became very successful. The first season of Satyamev Jayate garnered over a billion digital impressions from 165 countries. The second season of Satyamev Jayate drew an audience of 600 million viewers in India. The issues discussed on the show garnered national attention, with several being discussed in parliament and influencing politicians and lawmakers to take action. After the first episode, for example, Rajasthan Chief Minister, Ashok Gehlot, urged public representatives and non-governmental organisations to take actions to stop the illegal practice of female foeticide. Khan met Gehlot over the issue, and Gehlot accepted the request to set up fast track court to deal the case of the sting operation featured on the show. Following the second episode, the helpline for children received an increased number of calls from across the country, reporting child abuse. The legislation to protect children below 18 years from sexual abuse became a reality with the Lok Sabha passing the bill.
Khan has made a number of appearances on other TV shows. In October 2013, Khan appeared as a guest celebrity contestant in the show Kaun Banega Crorepati for the promotion of his film Dhoom 3. In early 2016, following the intolerance controversy, he made an appearance on Aap Ki Adalat, where he clarified his remarks and views.
In a 2009 interview, Khan stated that he tends to take an independent approach to the world of filmmaking, noting that he does not "do different things; I try to do it in a different manner. I think every person should follow his / her dream and try and make it possible to create an ability to achieve it backed by its practicality. '' He has also indicated that he is more interested in the process of filmmaking than in the end result: "For me, the process is more important, more joyful. I would like to have my entire concentration on the process right from the first step. ''
Khan has a reputation for avoiding award ceremonies and not accepting any popular Indian film awards. Though nominated many times, Khan has not attended any Indian film award ceremonies and has stated that "Indian film awards lack credibility ''. When asked about the selection procedure and authenticity of popular Indian film awards, Aamir Khan said, "Fact is that I have no objections to film awards per se. I just feel that if I do n't value a particular film award, then I wo n't attend it either. Apart from the National Film Awards, I do n't see any other award ceremony that I should give value to. My personal experience about these award ceremonies is that I do n't trust them. I have no faith in them so I would prefer to stay away. ''
In 2007, Khan was invited to have a wax imitation of himself put on display at Madame Tussauds in London. Khan declined, saying, "It 's not important to me... people will see my films if they want to. Also, I can not deal with so many things, I have bandwidth only for that much. '' Khan also endorsed brands including Coca - Cola, Godrej, Titan Watches, Tata Sky, Toyota Innova, Samsung, Monaco Biscuits and Snapdeal.
In April 2013, he was among Time magazine 's list of the 100 Most Influential People in the World. Khan was featured on the cover of Time magazine Asia edition in the September 2012 issue with title "Khan 's Quest '' -- "He is breaking the Bollywood mold by tackling India 's social evils. Can an actor change a nation? '' In addition to being highly popular in India, he is also highly popular overseas, particularly in China, the second largest movie market. He is the most followed Indian national on Chinese social media site Sina Weibo, above Indian prime minister Narendra Modi. Khan is also popular in Turkey, Hong Kong, and Singapore, among many other countries.
In February 2015, Khan stated his views at a popular online comedy group All India Bakchod for its celebrity Roast episode. He said, "I completely believe in freedom of speech, no issues. But we have to understand that we all have a certain responsibility. When I heard what was being described to me I felt it was a violent event. '' He further said violence is not just physical but it has verbal aspects to it. Calling the roast a shameless act, Khan did not spare even his friends from the film industry Karan, Ranveer and Arjun.
In Chinese media, Aamir Khan is often referred to as a "national treasure of India '' or "conscience of India '', due to much of his work tackling various social issues that are pervasive in Indian society, some of which are also relevant to Chinese society, in a way that domestic Chinese films often do n't. His work is highly regarded in China, with films such as Taare Zameen Par (2007), 3 Idiots (2009) and Dangal (2016) as well as his television show Satyamev Jayate (2012 -- 2014) being some of the highest - rated productions on popular Chinese site Douban. In China, Khan is known for being associated with quality films and committed to social causes.
In April 2006, Khan participated in the demonstrations put up by the Narmada Bachao Andolan committee with their leader Medha Patkar after the Gujarat government 's decision to raise the height of the Narmada dam. He quoted to support adivasis (tribes), who might be displaced from their homes. Later he faced protests and a partial ban on his film Fanaa, but the Prime Minister of India, Manmohan Singh, supported him by saying, "Everyone has the freedom of expression. If someone says something on a particular subject, that does n't mean you should start protesting. '' Aamir also lent his support to the Janlokpal Bill Movement led by Anna Hazare in August 2011.
He has been supporting common causes; when asked about views on the entertainment tax in the 2012 budget, Khan said, "I do n't want any reduction in that, all I expect is focus on education and nutrition. '' He quit the GOI 's copyrights panels in February 2010 after facing sharp differences with other members. During the promotion of 3 Idiots, he journeyed to diverse parts of India, mostly to small towns, noting that "film makers from Mumbai do n't understand small - town India. '' This experience of reaching out to "regional India '' was extended in his debut TV show, Satyamev Jayate. On 16 July 2012, Khan met the prime minister and the minister for social justice and empowerment and discussed the plight of manual scavengers and sought eradication of manual scavenging in the country.
On 30 November 2011, Khan was appointed national brand ambassador of UNICEF to promote child nutrition. He is part of the government - organised IEC campaign to raise awareness about malnutrition. He is also known for supporting causes such as feminism and improved education in India, which are themes in several of his films.
In 2006, Aamir Khan lent his support to the Narmada Bachao Andolan movement, led by activist Medha Patkar, in their actions against raising the height of Sardar Sarovar Dam. While promoting his film Fanaa in Gujarat, he made some comments regarding the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) Gujarat chief minister Narendra Modi 's handling of the Narmada Dam and the necessity to rehabilitate the displaced villagers. These comments were met with outrage from the BJP, with the government of Gujarat demanding an apology from Khan. He refused to apologise, saying "I am saying exactly what the Supreme Court has said. I only asked for rehabilitation of poor farmers. I never spoke against the construction of the dam. I will not apologise for my comments on the issue. '' An unofficial ban of Fanaa was put in place for the entire state of Gujarat. Protests occurred against the film and Khan which included the burning of posters of the star in effigy. As a result, several multiplex owners stated that they could not provide security to customers. Thus, all theatre owners in Gujarat refused to screen the film.
In November 2015, Khan expressed the feelings that he and his wife Kiran Rao had about rising intolerance in India at an event in New Delhi hosted by The Indian Express newspaper. This was in response to recent political events in India, including violent attacks against Muslims and intellectuals, along with the absence of swift or strong condemnation from the country 's ruling BJP Modi government. Khan remarked that his wife Kiran, fearing for her family, suggested to "move out of India '', to his surprise. Khan 's remark about intolerance in India and his wife suggesting to "move out of India '' sparked political controversy, referred to as the "intolerance row '' in the Indian media, and started a debate on social media. Khan faced intense backlash for his comments, with certain sections of society branding him "anti-national '', while others voiced their agreement about his concerns and applauded him.
Much of the backlash against Khan, an Indian Muslim with a Hindu wife, came from Hindu nationalist groups. The far - right political party Shiv Sena sharply criticised Khan 's statement, labelling it "the language of treachery ''. Ruling political party Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) remarked the incident a "Moral Offence ''. In the wake of the controversy, burning of posters took place in Ludhiana by the Sena party. Punjab 's Shiv Sena chief Rajeev Tandon also made a violent threat, offering a ₹ 1 lakh (US $1,600) reward to anyone who slaps Aamir Khan. As a result, the Khan family was given additional police protection. Khan responded to the backlash and threats by stating, "it saddens me to say you are only proving my point ''.
In response to the backlash, Khan received support from a number of celebrities and public figures, including Indian National Congress leader Rahul Gandhi, as well as Hrithik Roshan, Shah Rukh Khan, Mamata Banerjee, Rajkumar Hirani, Kabir Khan, Farah Khan, A.R. Rahman and Priyanka Chopra. Several, on the other hand, criticised Khan 's remark about intolerance, including Shatrughan Sinha, Anupam Kher, Raveena Tandon and Vivek Oberoi.
Aamir Khan later stated that he was not leaving the country. A lawsuit was filed against Khan and Rao at Jaunpur in ACJM II court. Khan was dropped as brand ambassador of the government 's official Incredible India tourism campaign. A company that Khan was endorsing, Snapdeal, faced backlash from Khan 's critics for being associated with him, before the company distanced themselves from his comments.
Khan later clarified his comments in January 2016, saying that he never said India was intolerant or that he thought about leaving the country, saying he was "born in India and will die in India. '' He said that his comments were taken out of context and the media was responsible for it to some extent. Despite this, he continued to face backlash later in the year, with calls for protests and boycotts against his film Dangal. In October 2016, the Vishva Hindu Parishad called for protests against the film. Following its release in December 2016, # BoycottDangal was trending on Twitter, and BJP general secretary Kailash Vijayvargiya called for protests against the film. Despite calls to boycott the film, Dangal surprisingly turned out to be a massive hit, grossing more than ₹ 500 crore (US $78 million) in India.
Khan married Reena Dutta, who had a small part in Qayamat Se Qayamat Tak, on 18 April 1986. They have two children, a son named Junaid and a daughter, Ira. Reena was involved briefly in Khan 's career when she worked as a producer for Lagaan. In December 2002, Khan filed for divorce. Reena took custody of both children.
On 28 December 2005, Khan married Kiran Rao, who had been an assistant director to Ashutosh Gowariker during the filming of Lagaan. On 5 December 2011, Khan and his wife announced the birth of their son, Azad Rao Khan, through a surrogate mother. In 2007, Khan lost a custody battle for his younger brother Faisal to their father, Tahir Hussain. His father died on 2 February 2010.
A practising Muslim, Khan along with his mother Zeenat, performed Hajj, an annual Islamic pilgrimage to Mecca, Saudi Arabia, and a mandatory religious duty for Muslims, in 2013. His wife Kiran Rao is a Hindu. In March 2015, Khan stated that he has quit non-vegetarian food and has adopted a vegan lifestyle after being inspired by his wife.
Khan won 9 Filmfare Awards, out of 30 nominations, including the Best Actor award for Raja Hindustani (1996), Lagaan (2001), and Dangal (2016), the Best Actor (Critics) award for Rang De Basanti (2006), the Best Film award for Lagaan, Taare Zameen Par (2007), and Dangal, and the Best Director award for Taare Zameen Par. He has also won four National Film Awards, as an actor in Qayamat Se Qayamat Tak (1988) and Raakh (1989), as the producer of Lagaan and Madness in the Desert (2004), and as the director and producer of Taare Zameen Par.
Overseas, Lagaan earned an Oscar nomination for Best Foreign Language Film at the 74th Academy Awards in 2002. This made it one of only three Indian films to receive an Oscar nomination, along with Mehboob Khan 's Mother India (1957) and Mira Nair 's Salaam Bombay! (1988). This also makes Aamir Khan one of the few Indian filmmakers to ever receive an Oscar nomination. Khan later commented on the loss of Lagaan at the Oscars: "Certainly we were disappointed. But the thing that really kept us in our spirits was that the entire country was behind us ''. In addition to an Oscar nomination, Lagaan received a European Film Award nomination for Best Non-European Film, and won awards at a number of international film festivals, including the Bergen International Film Festival, Leeds International Film Festival, Locarno International Film Festival, NatFilm Festival, and Portland International Film Festival. Taare Zameen Par was also India 's submission to the Oscars, but did not receive a nomination. Another Aamir Khan production, Peepli Live (2010), was India 's submission to the Oscars, while Dhobi Ghat (2011) was longlisted for the BAFTA Award for Best Film Not in the English Language, though neither were nominated. In 2017, Dangal won him the inaugral Best Asian Film award at Australia 's 7th AACTA Awards.
In addition, Khan has received honorary accolades, including the Government of India 's Padma Shri in 2003 and Padma Bhushan in 2010, and an Honorary Doctorate by the Maulana Azad National Urdu University (MANUU) for his distinguished contributions to the Indian cinema and entertainment industry. In 2011, he accepted an invitation from the Berlin Film Festival to be a member of the jury, after having previously turned down their offer three times since 2008. In 2012, he appeared on the Time 100 list of most influential people in the world. In 2017, the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences invited Khan for its membership, and he received an award for "National Treasure of India '' from the Government of China.
Despite having won numerous awards and honours, Aamir Khan is known for refusing to attend, or accept awards from, Indian film award ceremonies. This has occasionally led to controversy, notably at the 2017 National Film Awards, where Khan was snubbed from the Best Actor award for his performance in Dangal. Committee member Priyadarshan explained that they did not want to award him because of his refusal to attend the award ceremony. Despite avoiding Indian award ceremonies, he had made an exception for the 2002 Academy Awards; his reasoning was that he saw it as an opportunity for his film Lagaan to reach a wider audience, but did not care much about the award itself.
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who appoints the members of the conference committee | United States Congressional conference committee - wikipedia
A conference committee is a committee of the United States Congress appointed by the House of Representatives and Senate to resolve disagreements on a particular bill. A conference committee is usually composed of senior Members of the standing committees of each House that originally considered the legislation.
The use of the conference committee process has steadily declined in recent decades. 67 conference reports were produced as recently as the 104th Congress (1995 - 96), falling to just 3 conference reports in the 113th Congress (2013 - 14).
Conference committees operate after the House and the Senate have passed different versions of a bill. Conference committees exist to draft a compromise bill that both houses can accept. Both houses of Congress must eventually pass identical legislation for the bill to be presented to the President. The two houses can reach that point through the process of amendments between Houses, where the House passes the Senate bill with a House amendment, or vice versa, but this process can be cumbersome. Thus, some bills pass both Houses through the use of a conference committee.
After one house passes a bill, the second house often passes the same bill, with an amendment representing the second house 's work product. The second house then sends a message to the first house, asking the first house to concur with the second house 's amendment. If the first house does not like the second house 's amendment, then the first house can disagree with the amendment of the second house, request a conference, appoint conferees, and send a message to that effect to the second house. The second house then insists on its amendment, agrees to a conference, and appoints conferees.
Each house determines the number of conferees from its house. The number of conferees need not be equal. To conclude its business, a majority of both House and Senate delegations to the conference must indicate their approval by signing the conference report.
The authority to appoint conferees lies in the entire House, and the entire Senate can appoint conferees by adopting a debatable motion to do so. But leadership have increasingly exercised authority in the appointment of conferees.
The House and Senate may instruct conferees, but these instructions are not binding.
Conference committees can be extremely contentious, particularly if the houses are controlled by different parties. House rules require that one conference meeting be open to the public, unless the House, in open session, votes to close a meeting to the public. Apart from this one open meeting, conference committees usually meet in private, and are dominated by the chairs of the House and Senate committees.
House and Senate rules forbid conferees from inserting in their report matter not committed to them by either House. But conference committees sometimes do introduce new matter. In such a case, the rules of each House let a member object through a point of order, though each House has procedures that let other members vote to waive the point of order. The House provides a procedure for striking the offending provision from the bill. Formerly, the Senate required a Senator to object to the whole bill as reported by the conference committee. If the objection was well - founded, the Presiding Officer ruled, and a Senator could appeal the ruling of the Chair. If the appeal was sustained by a majority of the Senate, it had precedential effect, eroding the rule on the scope of conference committees. From fall 1996 through 2000, the Senate had no limit on the scope of conference reports, and some argued that the majority abused the power of conference committees. In December 2000, the Senate reinstated the prohibition of inserting matters outside the scope of conference. The rule changed again with the Honest Leadership and Open Government Act, enacted in September 2007. Now any single Senator may raise a point of order against subject matter newly inserted by the conference committee without objecting to the rest of the bill. Proponents of the measure may move to waive the rule. The affirmative vote of 60 Senators is required to waive the rule. If the point of order is not waived and the Chair rules that the objection is well - founded, only the offending provision is stricken from the measure, and the Senate votes on sending the balance of the measure back to the House.
Most times, the conference committee produces a conference report melding the work of the House and Senate into a final version of the bill. A conference report proposes legislative language as an amendment to the bill committed to conference. The conference report also includes a joint explanatory statement of the conference committee. This statement provides one of the best sources of legislative history on the bill. Chief Justice William Rehnquist once observed that the joint conference report of both Houses of Congress is considered highly reliable legislative history when interpreting a statute.
Once a bill has been passed by a conference committee, it goes directly to the floor of both houses for a vote, and is not open to further amendment. In the first house to consider the conference report, a Member may move to recommit the bill to the conference committee. But once the first house has passed the conference report, the conference committee is dissolved, and the second house to act can no longer recommit the bill to conference.
Conference reports are privileged. In the Senate, a motion to proceed to a conference report is not debatable, although Senators can generally filibuster the conference report itself. The Congressional Budget Act of 1974 limits debate on conference reports on budget resolutions and budget reconciliation bills to ten hours in the Senate, so Senators can not filibuster those conference reports.
The conference report must be approved by both the House and the Senate before the final bill is sent to the President.
The use of the formal conference process has steadily declined in recent decades. The number of conference reports produced is shown below from the 104th Congress (1995 - 96) through the 115th Congress (2017 - 18) as of 12 / 14 / 2017:
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sean connery dragonheart i am the last one | Dragonheart - wikipedia
DragonHeart is a 1996 British - American fantasy action - adventure film directed by Rob Cohen. It stars Dennis Quaid, David Thewlis, Pete Postlethwaite, Dina Meyer, and the voice of Sean Connery. It was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Visual Effects and various other awards in 1996 and 1997.
An English knight, Bowen (Dennis Quaid), mentors a Saxon prince, Einon (David Thewlis), in the ideals of chivalry, in the hope that he will become a better king than his tyrannical father Freyne (Peter Hric). When the king is killed while suppressing a peasant rebellion, Einon is mortally, though accidentally, wounded by the peasant girl Kara (Sandra Kovacikova). Einon 's mother, Queen Aislinn (Julie Christie), has him taken before a dragon whom she implores to save the boy 's life. The dragon replaces Einon 's wounded heart with half of its own on the promise that Einon will rule with justice and virtue. However, Einon soon becomes more tyrannical than his father, enslaving the former rebels and forcing them to rebuild a Roman castle. Bowen believes that the dragon 's heart has twisted Einon, and swears vengeance on all dragons.
Twelve years later, an adult Einon (David Thewlis) has his castle rebuilt. Kara (Dina Meyer) asks the king to pardon her father after years of slavery, but Einon instead kills him in order to "free '' him. As for Bowen, he has become a very skilled dragonslayer. Brother Gilbert (Pete Postlethwaite), a monk and aspiring poet, observes Bowen slaying a dragon and follows him to record his exploits. Bowen stalks another dragon (voiced by Sean Connery) to its cave, but the confrontation ends in a stalemate. The dragon states that he is the last of his kind, and thus if Bowen kills him, he will be out of a job. The two form a partnership to defraud local villagers with staged dragonslayings. Bowen calls the dragon Draco, after the constellation. Unknown to Bowen, Draco is the dragon who shared his heart with Einon, and through this connection, any pain inflicted upon one is also felt by the other.
Meanwhile, Kara, seeking revenge on Einon for murdering her father, is imprisoned after a failed assassination attempt. Einon recognizes her as the one responsible for his near - death and attempts to seduce her and make her his queen. Disgusted by what her son has become, Aislinn helps Kara escape. Kara returns to her village and tries to rally the villagers there against Einon, but they instead offer her as a sacrifice to Draco, who takes her to his lair. Einon arrives to recapture her and fights Bowen, declaring that he never believed in Bowen 's ideals, and only told Bowen what he wanted to hear so he would teach him how to fight. He eventually gains the upper hand and nearly kills Bowen, but Draco intervenes, reveals his half - heart to Einon, and the king flees. Kara asks Bowen to help overthrow Einon, but the disillusioned knight refuses.
After meeting Gilbert by chance at another village, Bowen and Draco 's next staged dragonslaying goes poorly, and their con is exposed (after Kara, disgusted by their actions, unsuccessfully attempts to expose the con herself). While Draco is playing dead, the villagers see him as potential meat and attempt to carve him up, but hearing their intentions makes him flee, subsequently alerting the villagers to the con. Angered, they surround Bowen, Kara, and Gilbert, now deciding to make them their meat instead. Draco, however, rescues the three and takes them to Avalon, where they take shelter among the tombs of the Knights of the Round Table. Draco reveals the connection between himself and Einon, stating that he hoped giving the prince a piece of his heart would change Einon 's nature and reunite the races of Man and Dragon. Through this action Draco hoped to earn a place in the stars, where dragons who prove their worth go after they die. He fears that his failure will cost him his soul, and agrees to help Kara and Gilbert against Einon. After experiencing a vision of King Arthur (voiced by John Gielgud) that reminds him of his knightly code, Bowen agrees to help, as well.
With Bowen and Draco on their side, the villagers are organized into a formidable fighting force. Aislinn presents Einon with a group of dragonslayers, secretly knowing that killing Draco will cause Einon to die as well. The villagers are on the verge of victory against Einon 's cavalry when Gilbert strikes Einon in the heart with an arrow. Draco falls from the sky and is captured. Einon realizes that he is effectively immortal as long as Draco remains alive, and determines to keep the dragon imprisoned. Aislinn attempts to kill Draco during the night, but Einon stops and kills her instead.
The rebels invade Einon 's castle to rescue Draco as Bowen battles Einon. Draco begs Bowen to kill him as it is the only way to end Einon 's reign, but Bowen ca n't bring himself to kill his friend. Einon charges at Bowen with a dagger, but Bowen reluctantly throws an axe into Draco 's exposed half - heart. Einon and Draco both die, and Draco 's body dissipates as his soul becomes a new star in the constellation. Bowen and Kara go on to lead the kingdom into an era of justice and brotherhood.
Patrick Read Johnson, who wrote the story for Dragonheart, first proposed the idea for the film to producer Raffaella de Laurentiis. Johnson describes it as "The Skin Game with a dragon in it... or Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Dragon '', and that he wanted "the idea of a dragon and a knight conning villages for money '' because he thought that the concept was "not only funny, but kind of sweet ''. Johnson went on to pitch the idea to screenplay writer Charles Edward Pogue, and he agreed to work on the film. De Laurentiis originally intended for John Badham, Rob Cohen 's then - partner, to work on Dragonheart. According to Cohen, Badham "did n't respond '' to the material, so Johnson was then asked to direct the film.
To be able to stay within the budget that Universal Studios was willing to shell out with Johnson directing, the developers approached Jim Henson 's Creature Shop to create the dragon through traditional means. The dragon model was done within eight weeks time, and the crew then went to Shepperton Studios in England to begin shooting the film, starting with the campfire scene. The crew faced difficulties in keeping within the budget.
After working with de Laurentiis on Dragon: The Bruce Lee Story in 1993, Rob Cohen agreed to take over as director for the film. He approached Universal Studios with his new ideas, including the addition of computer - generated imagery (CGI) to animate the dragons similar to how the dinosaurs were created for Jurassic Park.
The principal cast members of Dragonheart were:
Phil Tippett, a visual effects producer specializing in creature design and character animation, and Industrial Light & Magic (ILM) were hired to work on animating Draco for Dragonheart. Tippett states that the responsibilities that his studio had for Dragonheart differed from what they did for Jurassic Park in that they were mostly responsible for the actual look and design of the dragon as well as the storyboards, blocking, and the timing of action sequences.
Tippett worked closely with sculptor Pete Konig in designing Draco. Konig crafted several maquettes that they showed to Cohen, and they worked on improving the ones that Cohen said "(felt) right ''. Cohen 's ideas for Draco 's design stemmed from the traditional Chinese guardian lion, which Cohen describes as having "a lion - like elegance, a fierceness '', and that it is "ultimately a proud... visually powerful creature ''. He also drew ideas from nature, such as the boa constrictor 's jaw structure and the musculature of horses. Tippett also took into consideration how the scenes with Draco in it would be framed, the size difference between Draco and the human actors, and what he would actually be doing throughout the film. Draco 's hide and wings were originally going to have an iridescent quality and his eyes were to be more detailed such as being able to dilate, but those design elements were dropped due to software issues and running out of time.
Tippett and his crew created a five - foot model of Draco for lighting reference, and an articulated model that could be used for as a reference for Draco 's poses. Because Draco would have more screen time than the CGI dinosaurs in Jurassic Park (23 minutes for Draco, as opposed to six and a half for the dinosaurs), visual effects producer Julie Weaver and her team did a screen test for Dragonheart six to eight months before actual storyboarding, using a "stretched out '' version of the Tyrannosaurus rex from Jurassic Park.
The film is notably the first to use ILM 's Caricature software, as it was developed to help lip - sync Draco 's animation to Sean Connery 's voiceover work.
Actual filming began in July 1994 in Slovakia. During sequences with Draco and Bowen in them, visual effects supervisor Scott Squires and his teams used what they called a "monster stick '' -- a pole with a bar and two red circles at the top -- as an indicator for where Draco 's eyes would be for Quaid 's reference. They also set up speakers through which Cohen would read Draco 's lines for Quaid, which Quaid said "helped (him) out a lot. ''
While filming the scenes involving Draco in flight, the crew used a microlight as reference, and then edited the footage to "put Draco over the top of that and remove any traces of the aircraft. ''
Although Draco is fully rendered in CGI, full - sized models of some of Draco 's body parts were used for some of the scenes. One of them was Draco 's foot, which was used to pin Bowen to the ground, and the other was Draco 's jaw during the scene where Bowen gets trapped inside it. While the foot was a non-moving prop, the jaw had moving parts and was operated by a puppeteer.
According to Cohen, they spent an additional thirteen months working on the film after making the final cut of the film. He was in Rome to shoot Daylight on - location during this period, and had to review animation sequences with ILM and give them his comments and instructions through a satellite hookup.
The score was composed by Randy Edelman. The main theme song, "The World of the Heart '' and "To the Stars '', were used in film trailers such as Two Brothers, Mulan, and Seven Years in Tibet, clip montages at the Academy Awards, numerous other film trailers, and the closing credits of the U.S. broadcasts of the Olympic Games, making it a well known film score. MCA Records released the film 's soundtrack album on May 28, 1996, which contains 15 music tracks.
The film was released in the US and Canada on May 31, 1996, and earned $15,027,150 during its opening weekend.
Dragonheart was released on VHS on April 8, 1997, and on DVD as a "Collector 's Edition '' on March 31, 1998. The film was later released on HD DVD on May 29, 2007. Dragonheart and Dragonheart: A New Beginning were released together on a one - disc print known as "2 Legendary Tales '' on March 2, 2004. Dragonheart was released on Blu - ray Disc on March 27, 2012.
Charles Edward Pogue wrote a novelization of DragonHeart based on his screenplay, which was published by The Berkley Publishing Group in June 1996. It has been released in several languages and in five editions in the U.S. to widespread critical acclaim, with readers praising Pogue 's writing, how the book develops the story, setting, and characters more than the film, also noting its darker and more serious tone compared to that of the film. In 1999, the film was adapted as a junior novelization by Adriana Gabriel.
Some of the notable differences from the film are:
Based on reviews from 30 critics compiled retrospectively, Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a score of 50 % with an average rating of 5.7 out of 10. Critics praised the premise, visual effects, and character development but panned the script as confusing and clichéd.
Roger Ebert gave the film 3 stars out of 4, saying "While no reasonable person over the age of 12 would presumably be able to take it seriously, it nevertheless has a lighthearted joy, a cheerfulness, an insouciance, that recalls the days when movies were content to be fun. Add that to the impressive technical achievement that went into creating the dragon, and you have something to acknowledge here. It is n't great cinema, but I 'm glad I saw it. '' Jami Bernard of The New York Daily News described the film as "a movie for people young enough to keep dragons in the menageries of their imaginations '', and went on to say that "the dragon is the most believable part of the whole movie. '' Ken Tucker of Entertainment Weekly gave the movie a positive review, but criticized the fact that Sean Connery provided the voice for Draco, saying that "If only Sean Connery did n't have such a wonderfully distinctive voice, Draco might live and breathe as his own creature. ''
After its release, Dragonheart spawned a spin - off 2D hack and slash game for the PlayStation and Saturn called Dragonheart: Fire & Steel, made by Acclaim Entertainment. The game does not use the film 's music, instead featuring an original score by Thomas Egeskov Peterson. It was met with overwhelmingly negative reviews due to simplistic gameplay, poor controls, and jerky animation. Though the graphics were praised, particularly the rendered backgrounds, critics agreed that the gameplay problems were an overriding issue. In late 1996, Acclaim ported a PC version of the game, which received similar criticism.
There was also an original Game Boy game based on the film, titled simply Dragonheart. The four reviewers of Electronic Gaming Monthly, while remarking that the Game Boy game is rather simple and lacking in challenge, especially the "anticlimactic '' combat, concluded that it offers decent entertainment and longevity for a portable game. They especially praised the storyline, with Sushi X going so far as to say it was the main reason he kept playing the game.
In the years following its release and strong home media sales, Dragonheart gained a following and is now considered a cult classic. The character of Draco also gained popularity, often being ranked as one of cinema 's most memorable dragons, with fans noting him as ILM 's best work on the heels of Jurassic Park and praising Sean Connery 's vocal performance. In 2006, Draco was ranked no. 6 on a Top 10 list of movie dragons by Karl Heitmueller for MTV Movie News. In 2013, WatchMojo.com ranked Draco no. 8 on their list of "Top 10 Dragons from Movies and TV '' and, in 2015, listed him as an Honorable Mention on their list of "Another Top 10 Movie Characters We Did n't Want to Die. ''
On various days throughout the year in Toronto, a fully restored "20th anniversary edition '' of Dragonheart with never - before - seen footage, enhanced visual effects, and a digitally remastered soundtrack is screened at the AMC Yonge & Dundas 24 theatre. On May 31, 2016, in celebration of the film 's 20th anniversary, a retrospective article was published on the making of DragonHeart featuring Scott Squires and Phil Tippett among others who worked on the film.
A direct - to - video sequel to the film called Dragonheart: A New Beginning was released in 2000. A prequel called Dragonheart 3: The Sorcerer 's Curse was released in 2015, and a second DTV prequel, Dragonheart: Battle for the Heartfire, was released in 2017.
In a 2013 MTV interview about his then - upcoming film 5 - 25 - 77, DragonHeart creator Patrick Read Johnson expressed a desire to remake the film with Sean Connery and Liam Neeson, who was the original choice for the role of Bowen before Johnson was fired from the project. In April 2016, Matthew Feitshans, screenwriter of Dragonheart 3 and Dragonheart 4, stated that Universal wants to use the prequels to keep up the film series ' momentum, mentioning the possibility and the hopes of them leading to a big - budget remake of the original film. In 2017, Dragonheart was listed as no. 8 on WatchMojo. com 's list of "Top 10 Movie Remakes We Actually WANT To See. ''
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how long in seconds is a shot clock in the nba | Shot clock - wikipedia
A shot clock is used in some sports to quicken the pace of the game. It is normally associated with basketball, but is also used in snooker, pro lacrosse, water polo, korfball, and ten - pin bowling. It is analogous with the play clock used in American and Canadian football.
In basketball, the shot clock is a timer designed to increase the game 's pace and scoring. The offensive team must attempt to get the ball into the basket by the ball leaving the player 's hand before the shot clock expires, and the shot must either touch the rim or enter the basket. If the offensive team fails to register a field goal attempt within the time limit, they are assessed a violation resulting in a turnover to their opponents; if the ball hits or enters the rim after the clock expires, it is not a violation so long as it left the player 's hand before expiration. The maximum time limit of the shot clock varies by level of play and league: The National Basketball Association has had a 24 - second limit since first introducing the clock in the 1950s; and college basketball for both men and women has a 30 - second limit. The WNBA had a 30 - second clock originally; since 2006 the limit is 24 seconds, just like in the NBA.
The NBA (National Basketball Association) had problems attracting fans (and positive media coverage) before the shot clock 's inception. This was due to teams running out the clock once they were leading in a game; without the shot clock, teams passed the ball nearly endlessly without penalty. If one team chose to stall, the other team (especially if behind) would often commit fouls to get the ball back following the free throw. Very low - scoring games with many fouls were common, which bored fans. The most extreme case occurred on November 22, 1950, when the Fort Wayne Pistons defeated the Minneapolis Lakers by a record - low score of 19 -- 18, including 3 -- 1 in the fourth quarter. The Pistons held the ball for minutes at a time without shooting (they attempted 13 shots for the game) in order to limit the impact of the Lakers ' dominant George Mikan. The Pistons ' performance led the St. Paul Dispatch to write "(The Pistons) gave pro basketball a great black eye. '' NBA President Maurice Podoloff said, "In our game, with the number of stars we have, we of necessity run up big scores. '' A few weeks after the Pistons / Lakers game, the Rochester Royals and Indianapolis Olympians played a six - overtime game with only one shot in each overtime - in each overtime period, the team who had the ball first held the ball for the entirety of the period before attempting a last - second shot. The NBA tried several rule changes in the early 1950s to speed up the game and reduce fouls before eventually adopting the shot clock.
The shot clock first came to use in 1954 in Syracuse, New York, where Syracuse Nationals (now the Philadelphia 76ers) owner Danny Biasone and general manager Leo Ferris experimented using a 24 - second version during a scrimmage game. According to Biasone, "I looked at the box scores from the games I enjoyed, games where they did n't screw around and stall. I noticed each team took about 60 shots. That meant 120 shots per game. So I took 2,880 seconds (48 minutes) and divided that by 120 shots. The result was 24 seconds per shot. '' Biasone and Ferris then convinced the NBA to adopt it for the 1954 -- 55 season, a season in which the Nationals won the NBA Championship.
Syracuse Nationals General Manager Leo Ferris has emerged in the discussion as one of those involved in the creation and development of the shot clock. Along with Danny Biasone and Emil Barboni, a scout for the Nats, Leo Ferris was a key figure in developing the 24 - second clock. Jack Andrews, longtime basketball writer for The Syracuse Post-Standard, often recalled how Ferris would sit at Danny Biasone 's Eastwood bowling alley, scribbling potential shot clock formulas onto a napkin. Ferris, who loved mathematics, ended up dividing the number of seconds in a 48 - minute game (2,880) by the average number of shots taken in a game (120) to get to the 24 - second time limit per possession. While he and Biasone often share in the credit for the shot clock, it was Ferris who was singled out by business manager Bob Sexton at the 1954 team banquet for pushing the shot clock rule.
When it was first introduced by the NBA, the 24 - second shot clock made players so nervous that it hardly came into play, as players were taking fewer than 20 seconds to shoot. According to Syracuse star Dolph Schayes, "We thought we had to take quick shots -- a pass and a shot was it -- maybe 8 -- 10 seconds... But as the game went on, we saw the inherent genius in Danny 's 24 seconds -- you could work the ball around (the offensive zone) for a good shot. ''
The shot clock, together with some rule changes concerning fouls, revolutionized NBA basketball. In the last pre-clock season (1953 -- 54), teams averaged 79 points per game; in the first year with the clock (1954 -- 55), the average was 93 points, which went up to 107 points by its fourth year in use (1957 -- 58). The advent of the shot clock (and the resulting increase in scoring) coincided with an increase in attendance, which increased 40 % within a few years to an average of 4,800 per game.
The shot clock received near - universal praise for its role in improving the style of play in the NBA. Coach and referee Charley Eckman said, "Danny Biasone saved the NBA with the 24 - second rule. '' Boston Celtic all - star Bob Cousy said, "Before the new rule, the last quarter could be deadly. The team in front would hold the ball indefinitely, and the only way you could get it was by fouling somebody. In the meantime, nobody dared take a shot and the whole game slowed up. With the clock, we have constant action. I think it saved the NBA at that time. It allowed the game to breathe and progress. '' League president Maurice Podoloff called the adoption of the shot clock "the most important event in the NBA. '' The league itself states, "Biasone 's invention rescue (d) the league. ''
Two later pro leagues that rivaled the NBA adopted a modified version of the shot clock. The American Basketball League used a 30 - second shot clock for its two years in existence (1961 -- 1963). The American Basketball Association also adopted a 30 - second clock when it launched in 1967 -- 68, switching to the NBA 's 24 - second length for its final season (1975 -- 76).
In the 1969 -- 70 season, women 's collegiate basketball (at the time sanctioned by the Commission on Intercollegiate Athletics for Women) used a 30 - second shot clock on an experimental basis, officially adopting it for the 1970 -- 71 season. Unlike the women 's side, there was initial resistance to the implementation of a shot clock for men 's NCAA basketball, due to fears that smaller colleges would be unable to compete with powerhouses in a running game. However, after extreme results like an 11 -- 6 Tennessee win over Temple in 1973, support for a men 's shot clock began to build. The NCAA introduced a 45 - second shot clock for the men 's game in the 1985 -- 86 season, reducing it to 35 seconds in the 1993 -- 94 season and 30 seconds in the 2015 -- 16 season. The NAIA also reduced the shot clock to 30 seconds for men 's basketball starting in 2015 -- 16.
From its inception in 1975, the Philippine Basketball Association adopted a 25 - second shot clock. This was because the shot clocks then installed at the league 's main venues, the Araneta Coliseum and Rizal Memorial Coliseum (the latter no longer used by the league), could only be set at 5 - second intervals. The league later adopted a 24 - second clock starting from the 1995 season. The Metropolitan Basketball Association in the Philippines used the 23 - second clock from its maiden season in 1998. In Filipino college basketball, the NCAA Basketball Championship (Philippines) and the UAAP Basketball Championship adopted a 30 - second clock; they switched to 24 seconds starting with the 2001 -- 02 season, the first season to start after the FIBA rule change in 2001.
In the NBA (since 1954), Women 's National Basketball Association (since 2006), and FIBA play (since 2000; 30 - second from 1956 to 2000), the shot clock counts down 24 seconds, thus often being called the "24 - second clock. '' If a shot is attempted and hits or enters the rim, or if the defensive team gains possession via a rebound, steal, or out - of - bounds play, the shot clock resets. Failure by the offense to attempt a shot that hits the rim within the prescribed time results in a "shot clock violation '' and a loss of possession to the other team. Three signals indicate when the shot clock expires -- a shot clock signal, illuminated lights on the shot clock (NBA, FIBA, Euroleague, and many venues using an NBA - style transparent shot clock), and in the NBA and FIBA play (starting in July 2018), a yellow LED light strip on the backboard. In the 2011 -- 12 NBA season and 2014 -- 15 Euroleague, the last five seconds of the shot clock were modified to include tenths of a second, allowing offensive players to see precisely how much time they have to shoot and officials to determine any last - second shots easily. The rule has been adopted by FIBA starting in 2018. In the 2016 - 17 NBA season, a new ' official timekeeper ' deal for the NBA with Swiss watch manufacturer Tissot introduced a new united official game clock / shot clock system, putting both timing systems under the same system for the first time. Tissot also became official timekeeper for the WNBA in the 2017 season.
Furthermore, the shot clock is not reset on a foul in the frontcourt. Rule changes in the NBA since 1998, and in FIBA after 2010 state the shot clock will be reset only if 13 seconds or fewer are on the shot clock, after which it is reset to 14 seconds.
The NBA and Euroleague have different rules on the shot clock reset on jump balls; while both leagues have jump balls retained by the offense are reset to 14 seconds (if 13 seconds or fewer are on the shot clock), in the NBA, if the defense causes the jump ball, the shot clock is not reset if the offense keeps control of the ball unless under 5.0 seconds of time remain, where it is reset to 5.0 seconds.
Also in FIBA / WNBA play, if the offence retains control of a ball following a rebound, the shot clock is reset to 14 seconds.
Since the 2015 -- 16 season, all American college basketball uses a 30 - second shot clock, while Canadian university basketball uses a 24 - second clock. The American women 's game has used a 30 - second clock since the 1970s, but the men 's game did not adopt a shot clock until 1985. The men 's limit was originally 45 seconds, and was shortened to 35 seconds in 1993 before going to 30 seconds in 2015. The National Federation of State High School Associations (NFHS), which sets rules for high school basketball in the U.S., does not mandate the use of a shot clock, instead leaving the choice to use a clock and its duration up to each individual state association. Proposals to adopt a national shot clock for high school basketball have been voted down by the NFHS as recently as 2011. Currently, eight U.S. states require the use of a shot clock of 30 / 35 seconds in high school competition: California, Maryland, Massachusetts, New York, North Dakota, Rhode Island, South Dakota, and Washington.
The shot clock and its enforcement is used in concert with the rule that requires an offensive team to advance the ball across half - court and into the offensive zone (or front court) within a referee 's count (this rule was first introduced in 1933, predating the shot clock by over 2 decades). In men 's college basketball, the offense must advance the ball to the front court within 10 seconds, the same length used by FIBA and the NBA until they adopted an 8 - second limit in 2000 and 2001, respectively. Failure by the offense to advance the ball to the front court within the time limit results in a turnover to the other team.
Generally, the 10 - second (or 8 - second) count is independent from the shot clock 's operation; in fact, a referee may count the 8 or 10 seconds through a visible motion of his hand or arm. Women 's college basketball introduced the 10 - second limit in 2013 -- 2014, and provided that officials will not count the ten seconds but "will use the shot clock to determine if a 10 - second violation has occurred. '' As a general reference, it refers to the shot clock reaching 15 (FIBA / (W) NBA; because the NBA shot clock registers tenths in the final five seconds, the violation occurs once the clock registers 15.9 seconds on the console, which is posted as 15 on the clock) or 20 (college) before a violation can be called.
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what is the adoption and safe families act | Adoption and Safe families Act - wikipedia
The Adoption and Safe Families Act (ASFA, Public Law 105 - 89) was signed into law by President Bill Clinton on November 19, 1997, after having been approved by the United States Congress earlier in the month.
ASFA was enacted in an attempt to correct problems inherent within the foster care system that deterred the adoption of children with special needs. Many of these problems had stemmed from an earlier bill, the Adoption Assistance and Child Welfare Act of 1980, although they had not been anticipated when that law was passed, as states decided to interpret that law as requiring biological families be kept together no matter what. The biggest change to the law was how ASFA amended Title IV - E of the Social Security Act regarding funding.
Moreover, ASFA marked a fundamental change to child welfare thinking, shifting the emphasis towards children 's health and safety concerns and away from a policy of reuniting children with their birth parents without regard to prior abusiveness. As such, ASFA was considered the most sweeping change to the U.S. adoption and foster care system in some two decades. One of ASFA 's lead sponsors, Republican Senator John H. Chafee of Rhode Island, said, "We will not continue the current system of always putting the needs and rights of the biological parents first... It 's time we recognize that some families simply can not and should not be kept together. ''
Ideas for the bill originated with both Democrats and Republicans. First Lady of the United States Hillary Clinton originally voiced interest in the issue of orphaned children in an article she wrote in 1995. She then held public events to bring the issue exposure, and met with U.S. Department of Health and Human Services officials and private foundation executives over policy questions and recommendations. She cited the Act as the achievement which she initiated and shepherded that provided her with the greatest satisfaction. The bill began in Congress with bipartisan support, then became contentious over issues of terminating birth parents ' rights to children and funding levels for programs to keep children out of foster care. Hillary Clinton played a key role in finding a compromise between Republicans and Democrats on the latter issue after negotiations first broke down.
In greeting the final measure, Bill Clinton stated that the bill "makes clear that children 's health and safety are the paramount concerns. ''
The major provisions of the law include:
The law required individual states to be in compliance with it in order to continue receiving federal funds for child welfare. Thus, each state had to pass legislation compatible with ASFA; in practice, those legislative actions varied widely. As a result, some states have relied upon the three exceptions in the law more as part of stressing reunification, while other states have stressed adoption.
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which of the following is not a feature of a good wiring design | Wiring diagram - wikipedia
A wiring diagram is a simplified conventional pictorial representation of an electrical circuit. It shows the components of the circuit as simplified shapes, and the power and signal connections between the devices.
A wiring diagram usually gives information about the relative position and arrangement of devices and terminals on the devices, to help in building or servicing the device. This is unlike a schematic diagram, where the arrangement of the components ' interconnections on the diagram usually does not correspond to the components ' physical locations in the finished device. A pictorial diagram would show more detail of the physical appearance, whereas a wiring diagram uses a more symbolic notation to emphasize interconnections over physical appearance.
A wiring diagram is often used to troubleshoot problems and to make sure that all the connections have been made and that everything is present.
Architectural wiring diagrams show the approximate locations and interconnections of receptacles, lighting, and permanent electrical services in a building. Interconnecting wire routes may be shown approximately, where particular receptacles or fixtures must be on a common circuit.
Wiring diagrams use standard symbols for wiring devices, usually different from those used on schematic diagrams. The electrical symbols not only show where something is to be installed, but also what type of device is being installed. For example, a surface ceiling light is shown by one symbol, a recessed ceiling light has a different symbol, and a surface fluorescent light has another symbol. Each type of switch has a different symbol and so do the various outlets. There are symbols that show the location of smoke detectors, the doorbell chime, and thermostat. On large projects symbols may be numbered to show, for example, the panel board and circuit to which the device connects, and also to identify which of several types of fixture are to be installed at that location.
A set of wiring diagrams may be required by the electrical inspection authority to approve connection of the residence to the public electrical supply system.
Wiring diagrams will also include panel schedules for circuit breaker panelboards, and riser diagrams for special services such as fire alarm or closed circuit television or other special services.
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when did beauty and the beast come out on broadway | Beauty and the Beast (musical) - wikipedia
Beauty and the Beast is a musical with music by Alan Menken, lyrics by Howard Ashman and Tim Rice, and book by Linda Woolverton. Adapted from Walt Disney Pictures ' Academy Award - winning 1991 animated musical film of the same name -- which in turn had been based on the classic French fairy tale by Jeanne - Marie Leprince de Beaumont -- Beauty and the Beast tells the story of a cold - blooded prince who has been magically transformed into an unsightly creature as punishment for his selfish ways. To revert into his true human form, the Beast must first earn the love of a bright, beautiful young woman whom he has imprisoned in his enchanted castle before it is too late.
Critics, who hailed it as one of the year 's finest musicals, immediately noted the film 's Broadway musical potential when it was first released in 1991, encouraging Disney CEO Michael Eisner to venture into Broadway. All eight songs from the animated film were reused in the musical, including a resurrected musical number which had been cut from the motion picture. Original songwriter Menken composed six new songs for the production alongside lyricist Rice, replacing Ashman who had died during production of the film. Woolverton, who had written the film 's screenplay, adapted her own work into the musical 's libretto, and specifically expanded upon the characterization of the Beast. Woolverton also expanded the storylines of the castle staff from servants who had already been transformed into household objects into humans who were gradually turning into inanimate objects. Costumes were designed by Ann Hould - Ward, who based her creations on both the animators ' original designs as well as the Rococo art movement after researching how clothing and household objects looked during the 18th century.
After completing tryouts in Houston, Beauty and the Beast premiered on Broadway on April 18, 1994, starring Susan Egan and Terrence Mann as the eponymous Belle and Beast, respectively. The musical opened to mixed reviews from theatre critics, but was a massive commercial success and well received by audiences. Beauty ran on Broadway for 5,461 performances for thirteen years (1994 - 2007), becoming Broadway 's tenth longest - running production in history. The musical has grossed more than $1.4 billion worldwide and played in thirteen countries and 115 cities. It has also become a popular choice for high school productions.
Still recovering from Walt Disney 's demise, Disney 's animated films continued to experience a noticeable decline in quality while struggling to attain critical and commercial success during the 1970s and 1980s. The Walt Disney Company CEO Michael Eisner was hired to ensure the performance of the studio 's next animated projects, despite having virtually no animation experience. Eisner himself had been a theatre major in college. Eisner 's first hire as Disney 's CEO was theatrical producer Peter Schneider, who subsequently became responsible for hiring more artists who shared similar theatrical backgrounds to contribute to the studio 's next animated releases, among them lyricist Howard Ashman and his long - time collaborator, composer Alan Menken. Ashman and Menken had previously amassed great live musical success with their Off - Broadway production Little Shop of Horrors, but the performance of Ashman 's first Broadway venture Smile had been disappointing. Eager to redeem himself, Ashman agreed to work on Disney 's animated film The Little Mermaid (1989), which he and Menken would famously decide to approach as though they were scoring a Broadway musical. Upon release, The Little Mermaid was a massive critical and commercial success, garnering two Academy Awards, both of them for Ashman and Menken 's original music. Disney established a successful renaissance period, during which Ashman and Menken became responsible for teaching the art of transforming traditional animated films into animated musicals.
Inspired by Mermaid 's success, production on an animated musical adaptation of the "Beauty and the Beast '' fairy tale began shortly afterward, during which Ashman finally confessed to Menken that he was dying of AIDS, a secret he had been keeping from the studio in fear of being discriminated against or fired. Before the film had even been completed, executive vice president Ron Logan suggested to Eisner that he consider adapting Beauty and the Beast for Broadway, an idea Eisner quickly deflected. While the film, written by screenwriter Linda Woolverton, was premiering at the New York Film Festival, an ailing Ashman was being cared for at St. Vincent 's Hospital; the lyricist succumbed to his disease four days later on March 14, 1991, dying eight months before the film 's November release. Beauty and the Beast became the last project on which Menken worked with Ashman. The film was released to immediate critical acclaim and commercial success, outperforming The Little Mermaid by becoming the highest - grossing animated film in history, as well as the first animated film to be nominated for an Academy Award for Best Picture. Once again, Academy Awards were won for Ashman and Menken 's music. Several critics noticed the film 's live musical potential, among them prolific New York Times theatre critic Frank Rich. Lamenting the Broadway selection at the time, Rich famously praised the songwriting duo for having written "(t) he best Broadway musical score of 1991 '', while hailing the film as a "better (musical)... than anything he had seen on Broadway '' in 1991. Rich 's review would ultimately provide Eisner and Katzenberg with the confidence needed to seriously consider the film as a potential Broadway project. Disney was also inspired by the successes of Broadway musicals such as Cats, Les Misérables and The Phantom of the Opera, strongly believing their production could be just as profitable.
Virtually unknown at the time, Robert Jess Roth was appointed the production 's director based on his various successes directing live shows at the Disney theme parks. Eisner and Katzenberg had opted against hiring a more established director in order to retain creative control over the project, believing that an A-list director would likely feel more inclined to challenge their vision. Roth himself had previously pursued Eisner about investing in a Broadway show -- originally suggesting a stage adaptation of Mary Poppins (1964) -- only to have his idea declined, citing cost of investment and time concerns. However, Eisner invited Roth to ask him about pursuing Broadway again in the future once he had finished directing three additional Disney theme park shows. Ultimately impressed with Roth 's adaptation of The Nutcracker, Eisner finally suggested an adaptation of Beauty and the Beast, inspired by the success of a condensed stage version of the film at Disneyland, although briefly discouraged by the idea of having humans instantly transformed into inanimate objects live. Since the film had not yet been released on home video, Roth spent an entire day re-watching Beauty and the Beast in theaters while brainstorming how to present its fantastical elements onstage, and eventually worked with choreographer Matt West and set designer Stan Meyer on their own proposal, with contributions from Menken and Woolverton. In a hotel in Aspen, Roth convinced Eisner and Katzenberg to green - light a Broadway adaptation of Beauty and the Beast using a combination of 140 storyboards, costume sketches, fabric swatches and demonstrating one illusion. Eisner retained final approval over all creative elements of the production, "from the lowest chorus swing performer to the director, stars and design team. '' Menken was initially skeptical of Roth 's qualifications, as he had never directed a Broadway show before. Meanwhile, the producers were concerned that audiences might not be interested in seeing the same story that they had enjoyed on film on Broadway. Among the skeptics was theatrical producer Steven Suskin, author of Opening Night and Broadway, who argued that the production was more likely to be successful in reverse: "(The movie is) basically written as a theater piece. I 'm sure it would 've worked in the theater first, and it then would 've worked in the movies, '' believing audiences would have difficulties accepting a new version of such an immensely popular work.
Beauty and the Beast became Disney 's first Broadway venture, although a stage adaptation of Disney 's animated film Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937) had premiered in New York in 1979, produced by Radio City Music Hall Productions, Inc. Theatre Under the Stars ' executive director Frank Young campaigned heavily to have the show open in Houston, even getting Governor Ann Richards involved in order to secure the stage rights.
Roth summarized Beauty and the Beast as a story about "seeing past the exterior of a person and into his or her heart ''. Woolverton learned that Disney had commissioned her to adapt the animated film she had written into a Broadway musical while she was vacationing with her family in Maui, and her initial response to the idea was "Yikes. '' In the process of adapting her own animated screenplay into a full - length, two - act libretto for the stage, Woolverton contributed several distinct changes to the material, specifically instilling more emotional "depth '' into each main character. The writer expanded the story by both "fleshing out '' each character and allowing room for new musical numbers. Namely, Woolverton made the Beast a more threatening yet sympathetic figure; the writer expanded upon his characterization by developing the Beast into "a fuller character '', aided by the addition of his own song, "If I Ca n't Love Her ''. Meanwhile, the book - loving Belle was adapted into a more headstrong and determined heroine. Belle and the Beast 's relationship benefits from a new scene Woolverton wrote specifically for the stage, during which the couple read in the castle 's library; Belle introduces the Beast to the tale of King Arthur and reads the book to him, to which the Beast responds by showing genuine vulnerability for the first time.
In 1993, Woolverton explained to the Los Angeles Times that "the mythology in the story would be changed to explain, for example, a 6 - foot - tall candelabra. '' Perhaps Woolverton 's most significant modification involves the enchanted objects, and the decision to have the enchantress ' spell gradually transform the castle 's staff of loyal servants into household objects throughout the entire duration of the musical, as opposed to having already done so immediately at the beginning. Essentially, becoming completely inanimate if the spell is not broken in time would equate to each character dying, which ultimately augments the story 's drama. Consequently, this plot decision enhanced the story into a tale about people being forced to make difficult decisions, as opposed to solely a story of a man struggling to retain his humanity, in turn providing the audience with an opportunity to care about the supporting characters dramatically.
Generally, Woolverton 's book remained quite faithful to the original text; the plot is essentially the same, but particular detail has been added in order to "flesh out '' the story. The feather duster and wardrobe characters -- only minor characters in the animated film -- were broadened into fully realized supporting characters and named for the first time; Woolverton named them Babette and Madame de la Grande Bouche, respectively. Taking her job seriously, Woolverton worked relentlessly on revising the script, and often took the cast 's suggestions into consideration (though not always yielding to their opinions). Despite the musical having been based on a pre-existing story by Jeanne - Marie Leprince de Beaumont, Woolverton retains a sole writing credit for her work.
Broadway producers are usually eager to cast big - named performers in their musicals, but Katzenberg, famous at the time for avoiding working with actors of such caliber, decided against this practice for Beauty and the Beast. Eisner concluded that most of the film 's original voice actors would be too busy to reprise their roles onstage. In her Broadway debut, then - 22 - year - old actress Susan Egan was cast as the musical 's original Belle. Egan, who had not yet seen the film, had been auditioning for several other Broadway projects at the time -- namely My Fair Lady, Carousel and Grease -- in which she was much more interested. Despite longing to originate a Broadway role, the actress was initially reluctant to audition for Beauty and the Beast because she thought that "it was a terrible idea for Disney to put a cartoon on Broadway. '' Additionally, Egan felt she was not attractive enough to play a character touted "the most beautiful girl in the village '', but her agent managed to convince her otherwise. Without any film to reference, Egan determined that Belle is supposed to be a "quirky '' character and approached her funnier than how she is depicted in the film, in turn garnering laughs from the producers -- who were amused by her unique interpretation -- and eventually earning several callbacks. Meanwhile, her competition of 500 actresses, many of whom were simply offering imitations of voice actress Paige O'Hara 's original performance, continued to be eliminated.
Egan 's final week of auditions, during which she sang for Menken for the first time, was particularly challenging. On her last day of auditioning, Egan auditioned opposite several different actors trying out for the roles of the Beast and Gaston. As the day concluded, Roth directed Egan to approach the role as "a straight ingénue '', and she was ultimately cast upon proving capable of playing Belle both straight and comically. Only afterward did Egan celebrate by finally renting and watching the entire film for the first time. Although Egan did not feel particularly pressured about the role, she was grateful to be surrounded by a supporting cast of veteran Broadway performers.
Actor Terrence Mann was cast as the Beast. Mann had previously performed as Javert in Les Misérables, for which he was nominated for a Tony Award. For his final audition for Disney management, Mann performed for a large audience comprising Disney executives and secretaries in a theatre located on 42nd Street, which he felt was in stark contrast to the usual method of auditioning for six to eight people in a dark theatre. Actor Gary Beach was cast as Lumiere. Beach had seen Beauty and the Beast premiere at the El Capitan Theatre, prior to which he had watched a stage rendition of the film, and thoroughly enjoyed both. Beach was particularly drawn to Jerry Orbach 's rendition of "Be Our Guest '' in his role as Lumiere, thinking, "Now why ca n't I get a part like that ''. Two years later, Beach received a call from casting director Jay Binder inviting him to play Lumiere during their workshop of Beauty and the Beast, but kept turning down the offer due to having prior commitments to an upcoming show starring comedian Carol Burnett. It was only at Burnett 's insistence that Beach finally accepted. Amidst a cast of relatively obscure actors, Tom Bosley, famous for his roles on the television series Happy Days and Murder, She Wrote, became the show 's most recognizable performer when he was cast as Belle 's father Maurice.
All eight of the film 's original songs were retained for the Broadway adaptation. The song "Human Again '' had originally been written for the film, but it was ultimately abandoned due to time and story constraints; the musical number was finally resurrected for and included in the production. Composer Alan Menken, who had both scored and written the film 's songs alongside lyricist Howard Ashman, returned to the project to write six new songs for the musical. Lyricist Tim Rice joined Menken to co-write the new numbers, replacing Ashman who had died in 1991, before the film was released. Both Menken and Rice initially approached the project with some resistance; Menken 's emotional attachment to the music he had written with Ashman made him fear Disney 's vision of a Broadway musical would transform Beauty and the Beast into an attraction too similar to what one would find at Walt Disney World. Meanwhile, Rice, who had previously worked as composer Andrew Lloyd Webber 's lyricist on the Broadway musicals Jesus Christ Superstar and Evita, was hesitant to replace Ashman in fear of worsening Beauty and the Beast. Notably, Rice had similarly replaced Ashman to write the remaining songs for Disney 's Aladdin (1992) after the lyricist died. Ultimately, the collaboration resulted in approximately half of the Broadway score having co-writing credits by Menken and Ashman, while the remaining half are Menken and Rice compositions. The Menken - Rice songs are sometimes billed as "additional songs composed by (Alan) Menken and lyrics by Tim Rice. '' On working on the musical without Ashman, Menken explained that "The main challenge... was blending the lyrics of Tim Rice with those of Howard. In the end, the finished score has a quality all its own; a hybrid between '' Ashman and Rice 's styles. Elaborating on the main difference between writing songs for the stage as opposed to film, Menken stated that the lack of close - ups and montages in a live musical production creates a requirement for more singing material in order "to provide the same kind of illumination that intimate facial expression provides. ''
Most of the new material focused on character development, such as Gaston 's "Me '', Belle 's "Home '' and the Beast 's "If I Ca n't Love Her ''. Some new songs, Maurice 's fatherly ballad "No Matter What '' and Gaston, Lefou, and Monseuir 's D'Arque villainous number "Maison des Lunes '', for example, were written to serve as "time - servers ''. In 1998, a seventh song entitled "A Change in Me '' was written four years into production 's run specifically for R&B singer Toni Braxton when she joined the cast to play Belle, and appears during the show 's second act. The idea for the song originated while Braxton was still in negotiations with Disney to appear in the show for a total of three months, but various circumstances led to the singer constantly delaying signing the contract. It was not until Braxton had dinner with Menken, Rice and West that she finally agreed to sign the contract under the condition that a brand new song be written specifically for her, which an intoxicated Rice had drunkenly offered and promised. When confronted by Roth about his promise upon learning of it from Braxton a few days later, within 24 hours Rice successfully discovered a location within the musical in which to include a new song, specifically "Where Belle tells Maurice about how the time that she spent with the Beast in his castle has changed her. '' That song ultimately became the ballad "A Change in Me '', which lyrically addresses the ways in which Belle 's initial motivations have ultimately changed during her imprisonment, explaining to Maurice that she has matured and no longer longs for what she originally cited in "Belle (Reprise) ''. Braxton premiered the song in the form of a live performance on The Rosie O'Donnell Show. Both the song and Braxton 's performance were well received, and "A Change in Me '' has been included in the musical ever since. Eisner especially enjoyed the song, demanding that it be included in international productions as well, to which he personally traveled in order to teach it to the cast.
Music supervision was handled by Michael Kosarin, with sound design by John Petrafesa Jr. Unlike in the film, Belle actually performs and dances alongside the enchanted objects during "Be Our Guest '', which resembles "a high - energy Vegas number '' similar to the musical Ziegfeld Follies. The original Broadway cast recording of Beauty and the Beast was released by Walt Disney Records in 1994. Similar cast albums followed suit, including Australian and Japanese recordings in 1994 and 1996, respectively. "A Change in Me '' has yet to be included on any official English - language cast recordings.
Stanley Meyer designed the production 's set. Following Disney 's instructions "to make the animated film come to life '', Meyer 's set was very much a literal interpretation of the film. Meyer found it "tricky '' to translate two - dimensional environments into a three - dimensional world. The West Wing 's appearance mirrors that of its resident the Beast, being hideous on the outside but beautiful when the audience is finally taken inside of it. In stark contrast to popular musicals The Phantom of the Opera and Into the Woods, Beauty and the Beast 's set resembles a hybrid of Gothic Victorian and Louis Quinze. Disney hired costume designer Ann Hould - Ward to design the musical 's costumes because the studio enjoyed a "certain aesthetic '' she had used in her previous work, and thus allowed her much creative freedom. Roth was particularly impressed with the designer 's contributions to the musicals Sunday in the Park With George and Into the Woods. Hould - Ward accepted Disney 's offer because she was interested in seeing exactly how a corporate company producing a Broadway musical for the first time would "change the Broadway world. '' Conceptualization began in summer 1992. For research purposes, Disney encouraged Hould - Ward to reference the animated film; she also researched clothing worn throughout the late 18th century, during which the original fairy tale was written, and spent one year discovering how household items looked during the mid-1700s. Additionally, Hould - Ward visited with Beauty and the Beast 's original animators, spending one week learning how they created their characters to ensure that they would be recognizable to those who had seen the film. However, the designer also decided that her own creations would not exactly replicate the film 's. Basing the costumes on the Rococo art movement, Hould - Ward presented her initial ideas to Eisner and then - Disney president Frank Wells. Once approved, Hould - Ward and her team spent the following year creating prototypes of each major costume. With an unusually long work schedule of two years, Hould - Ward recalled that "this kind of timeline... was n't the norm in a Broadway musical '' at the time.
The process of designing Beauty and the Beast 's costumes was more collaborative between designer and actor than most other Broadway productions Hould - Ward had previously worked on, and she frequently sought input from the cast to make sure they were able to move. Designing Belle 's costumes was an "easy '' task for Hould - Ward; the character is initially dressed in standard Disney heroine attire until replaced by more elaborate costumes once Belle meets the Beast. Hould - Ward based the character 's famous yellow ballgown on several historic portraits. The gown became the first costume built for the production in order to accommodate Disney 's mandate to market the dress in photoshoots and commercials starring Egan and Mann, six months prior to rehearsals. Weighing 45 pounds, the dress is a combination of various patterns and materials, including a hoop skirt, silk, brocade, beading, flowers and bows. Too large to fit inside Egan 's dressing room after the ballroom sequence, undressing required assistance from three backstage crew members who used wires to hoist the dress up into the rafters, where it would be stored until the next performance. A lot of time was spent designing the Beast 's costume, the creation of which was especially challenging due to requirements to "allow enough of the performer to show through. '' Hould - Ward 's initial designs for the Beast were constantly rejected by Katzenberg, who reiterated that she "put the movie onstage '' until the producer realized that the excessive prosthetics were limiting Mann 's vocal performance. A wire frame was also used to maintain the costume 's shape, which evokes heavy metal fashion until ultimately substituted for a black Oscar de la Renta - inspired velvet suit when the Beast finally transforms back into a prince. Hould - Ward designed the leads ' costumes from the perspective of her daughter Leah, explaining, "when Leah comes to see it, she remembers from the movie that the Beast was in that blue jacket. Leah expects that blue jacket, and if you do n't give it to her, she and a lot of other ten - year - olds are going to be sad ''. At the same time, the designer wanted her creations to be equally as interesting on an intellectual level for parents to enjoy also.
The challenge of designing Belle and the Beast 's costumes paled in comparison to the difficulty of creating the enchanted objects, a combination of intricate wiring, prosthetics and pyrotechnics. Scale was the most prominent "obstacle '' for Hould - Ward 's to overcome: "The problem was the presentation of an actor as a life - sized teapot when the characters in the film were so little in comparison ''. Because the castle 's enchanted staff is slowly transforming into objects, shown at various stages of transformation without ever completely becoming the objects themselves, Hould - Ward was required to create several different costumes for each character in order to depict the transformation as the show progresses. Meanwhile, the costume of Lumiere alone was built by a team of forty people, including a creator of the prosthetic candle, hair and Vacuform specialist; the pyrotechnician, man responsible for equipping the costume 's pyro unit with butane and man operating the butane tank were each separate people. While transforming animation into real life, Hould - Ward also worked on incorporating the human body each costume, explaining, "I wanted the reality of the real person rather than the fantasy of the object... The essence of my job is to allow my real actors to take you to this fantastical place. '' A system of wired frames was used to help the actors support their characters ' heavy garments. Such elaborate costumes had never been designed for a Broadway production before. Cogsworth 's costume features a fully functioning clock on his face. Meanwhile, Madame de la Grande Bouche was the production 's most expensive costume.
The musical originally relied on heavy prosthetics and elaborate costumes in an attempt to make the musical resemble the film as closely as possible. In an attempt to replicate the film 's famous movie poster, Egan was dressed in flats while Mann was positioned on stilts to establish a more dramatic height difference. According to Egan, the studio "did n't trust the audience 's ability to suspend disbelief, something theater - goers are routinely asked to do. '' However, the company finally began to relent as the production neared Houston tryouts after a final run - through during which the actors did not wear costumes; thus, the prosthetics were gradually lessened and replaced by make up for the Beast and enchanted objects during 1993 previews. The elaborate costumes resulted in their fair share of technical difficulties, malfunctions and performance restrictions, many of which manifested during the seven - week tryouts in Houston. The costumes left little room for the performers to change between scenes, and air conditioners were fastened to them to regulate their temperatures. In general, the weight of the enchanted objects ' costumes limited their dancing. Chiropractors and therapists remained on standby to assist Fowler, whose Mrs. Potts costume required her to always keep one arm in the air. Beach compared holding up the two propane tanks used to represent Lumiere 's candles to carrying two hams around a grocery store two and a half hours. To build his stamina, Beach would carry the tanks during rehearsal. Beach 's hand caught fire during one performance, which he did not notice until Mann subtly pointed it out using "furtive head nods ''. While dancing, the inertia of Egan 's heavy ballgown caused its skirt to constantly pull her in the opposite direction of whichever way she turned. Mann likened performing in the Beast 's costume to wearing several heavy winter coats, comparing the wig to "four Angora cats and gaffer taping them to your head and then running around the block 10 or 12 times. '' Disney was outraged when, after their first performance at the Palace Theatre, The New York Times published caricaturist Al Hirschfeld 's line drawing interpretation of Belle and the Beast 's pose, in which Belle 's yellow gown was colored pink, and the Beast 's tuxedo appeared greenish as opposed to royal blue. When Disney confronted Hirschfeld, the artist defended his work, explaining, "The costumes may have been blue and yellow, but they made me feel green and pink. '' Hould - Ward adjusted the costumes to accommodate the locations as the production traveled to various theaters.
Lighting designer Natasha Katz was hired to work on Beauty and the Beast. When Disney first approached Katz to offer her the job, several of Katz 's cohorts -- specifically other lighting designers -- attempted to discourage her from accepting in fear of changing the appearance of musical theatre forever. In hindsight, Katz defended Disney 's work, explaining, "Beauty and the Beast did n't bring theatre back to New York, but it did change the dynamic, no question about it, of the business. '' Known for assisting David Copperfield with his illusions, Roth hired Jim Steinmeyer to work on Beauty and the Beast. Steinmeyer had previously contributed to the musical Merlin. The Beast 's transformation sequence during the second act was much - discussed. It took about 11 weeks to set the design.
On a cold winter 's night, an old beggar woman comes to a young spoiled prince 's castle, offering him a single rose in return for shelter. But the prince turns her away solely for her appearance. The old woman warns him not to be fooled by appearances, as true beauty lies within, only to be rejected again. She then transforms into a beautiful enchantress and turns the prince into a hideous Beast and his servants into various household objects. She gives him the rose to use as an hour - glass. The only way he can break the spell is to learn to love another and earn her love in return by the time the last petal falls ("Prologue '').
Ten years later, a beautiful young girl named Belle makes her way into town one morning in order to get a book from the local bookseller. On the way she expresses her wish to live in a world like her books, full of adventure, while the townspeople note her unparalleled beauty but find her love of books odd ("Belle ''). Belle has also attracted the attention of Gaston (the local hunter and town hero), who admires her only for her beauty.
Belle, however, is not oblivious to her peers ' views of her. She voices her concerns about it to her eccentric father and inventor, Maurice who assures her that she is anything but strange ("No Matter What ''). The two then put the finishing touches on his invention and Maurice heads off to an invention fair donning a scarf knitted for him by Belle ("No Matter What (Reprise) ''), but becomes lost in the woods and attacked by a pack of wolves. After surviving a wolf attack, he enters the Beast 's castle where the servants, including Lumière, a maître d ' turned into a candelabra, Cogsworth, the head of household turned into a clock, Babette, a maid turned into a feather duster that still seems to retain her flirtatious tendencies, Mrs. Potts, the head of the kitchen turned into a teapot, and Chip, her son turned into a teacup. They welcome him, but the horrid Beast arrives and locks Maurice away in the dungeon for trespassing.
Back in town, Gaston proposes to Belle, which she politely rejects ("Me ''). Appalled by Gaston 's forwardness, Belle once again voices her need for a life outside this provincial life ("Belle (Reprise) ''). Gaston 's sidekick, LeFou, returns from the woods wearing the scarf Belle knitted for Maurice. Belle realizes her father is in danger and heads into the woods to look for him. She ends up at the castle where she finds her father locked away in a dungeon. She makes a deal with the Beast, Maurice goes free but she remains instead. They agree and Maurice is sent back to town without being allowed to say goodbye. Belle is given a guest room and ordered by the Beast to join him for dinner. She mourns her situation ("Home ''), but Mrs. Potts and Madame de la Grande Bouche, an operatic wardrobe, attempt to cheer her up ("Home (Reprise) '').
Back in town, at the local tavern, Gaston sulks at his loss of a bride. LeFou and the patrons attempt to cheer him up ("Gaston ''), when Maurice rushes in claiming a Beast has Belle locked away, they laugh at him but Gaston formulates a plan ("Gaston (Reprise) ''). Back at the castle, the Beast grows impatient as Belle has yet to join him for dinner. Cogsworth informs him she refuses to come, after a shouting match between Belle and the Beast (which ends in a victory for Belle) he tells her if she can not eat with him then she will not eat at all. In his quarters, he sulks and notes his fate should the spell not break ("How Long Must This Go On? ''). Eventually, Belle does become hungry and ventures into the kitchen where the servants offer her dinner despite their master 's orders. They treat her to an amazing cabaret show ("Be Our Guest '').
After dinner, Belle gets a tour of the castle courtesy of Cogsworth and Lumière, her curiosity leads her to enter the West Wing, a place the Beast told her was forbidden. Mesmerized by a mysterious rose floating in a bell jar, she reaches out to touch it but before she can, the Beast stops her and orders her to get out accidentally shoving her in the process. Fearing for her life, Belle flees from the castle. Realizing his deadly mistake, the Beast knows he will be a monster forever if he can not learn to love her ("If I Ca n't Love Her '').
In the woods, Belle is attacked by wolves and is only rescued when the Beast comes to her aid, but he is injured during the fight and collapses ("Entr'acte / Wolf Chase ''). Instead of taking the chance to run home Belle helps him back to the castle. She cleans his injuries and after a brief argument about whose fault this is, the Beast thanks her for her kindness and thus their friendship is born. Wanting to give her a thank - you gift, the Beast gives Belle his huge library, which excites her. She notes a change in the Beast 's personality as the servants note a change in Belle and the Beast 's relationship ("Something There ''). They express their hope of being human once more ("Human Again '') while Belle asks the Beast to accompany her to dinner that night.
Back in the village, Gaston meets with the asylum owner Monsieur D'Arque. They plan to lock Maurice away to blackmail Belle into marrying Gaston ("Maison des Lunes ''). In the castle, the Beast and Belle attend a lovely dinner and personal ball, where they dance together in the ballroom ("Beauty and the Beast ''). The Beast, who plans to tell Belle he loves her, asks Belle if she is happy here, to which she responds positively but notes that she misses her father. He offers her his Magic Mirror to view him. She sees that Maurice is sick and lost in the woods and fears for his life. But even though the Beast knows there 's only a few hours left till the last petal falls from the rose, he allows Belle to leave in order to save her father; she departs after a tearful goodbye ("If I Ca n't Love Her (Reprise) '').
Belle finds her father and brings him back to their house in the village. After she is able to nurse him back to health, she explains the transformation she seems to have gone through while she was with the Beast ("A Change in Me ''). A mob arrives, led by Gaston to take Maurice to the asylum. Belle proves her father 's sanity by showing the townspeople the Beast is real using the Magic Mirror, but does n't realize the error in her gesture. The townspeople immediately fear the Beast, but Belle insists he 's gentle and kind. Gaston catches her tone and recognizes the Beast as his rival for Belle 's affections and organizes the mob to kill the Beast ("Mob Song ''). In order to warn the Beast, Belle and Maurice decide to beat the mob to the castle. However, Gaston and the mob had already reached the castle before Belle and Maurice did.
At the castle, the servants are able to keep the lynch mob at bay, but Gaston breaks through and finds the Beast in his tower. He engages in a fight with him, mercilessly beating and taunting him ("Battle ''). The Beast has lost the will to live at Belle 's departure. As Gaston moves in for the killing blow, Belle arrives. The Beast immediately turns on Gaston and is prepared to kill him, but spares his life after seeing the fear in his eyes. The Beast and Belle are reunited, but this reunion is cut short as Gaston fatally stabs the Beast. This act of violence causes Gaston to lose his footing and he falls to his death.
On the balcony, Belle assures the Beast he 'll live but they both know she is helpless to save him. She begs him not to leave her because she has found home in his company ("End Duet ''), but despite this, he dies; Belle sobs on his body and says she loves him just before the last rose petal falls. A transformation takes place ("Transformation '') and the Beast is alive and human once more. Though Belle does n't recognize him for the first time, she looks into his eyes and sees the Beast within and they kiss. The two of them sing of how their lives have changed because of love and they dance once more as the company, now changed back to their human form, gathers in the ballroom ("Beauty and the Beast (Reprise) '').
Beauty and the Beast premiered in a joint production of Theatre Under The Stars and Disney Theatrical at the Music Hall, Houston, Texas, from November 28, 1993, through December 26, 1993.
The musical opened on Broadway at the Palace Theatre on April 18, 1994, and ran there until September 5, 1999. The show then transferred to the Lunt - Fontanne Theatre on November 11, 1999, with an official opening date of November 16, 1999. The musical closed on July 29, 2007, after 46 previews and 5,461 performances, and is Broadway 's tenth - longest running production in history (as of January 2017). The production holds the record of being the longest running production at both the Palace Theatre, where it opened, and the Lunt - Fontanne Theatre, where it closed its Broadway run. The production cost an estimated $12 million, arguably higher, becoming the most costly Broadway musical at the time. However, some analysists estimate the cost to be closer to $20 million.
Directed by Robert Jess Roth with choreography by Matt West and assisted by Dan Mojica, the original Broadway cast included Susan Egan as Belle, Terrence Mann as the Beast, Burke Moses as Gaston, Gary Beach as Lumière and Beth Fowler as Mrs. Potts. Orchestrations were by Danny Troob (after his own orchestrations and arrangements of the film), scenic designer was Stan Meyer, costume designer Ann Hould - Ward, lighting designer Natasha Katz, sound was by T. Richard Fitzgerald, hair designer David H. Lawrence, and prosthetics were by John Dods. Illusions were by Jim Steinmeyer and John Gaughan, and pyrotechnic design was by Tyler Wymer.
The Broadway production closed to make way for Disney 's next musical venture, The Little Mermaid. With Disney set to open its Broadway version of The Little Mermaid on November 3, 2007, at the time, it was believed that having two Disney princess films on Broadway at the same time would divide audiences and cause competition between the two shows. At this point, Disney also had three other shows running at the same time: The Lion King, Tarzan, and Mary Poppins. It was reported that Disney Theatrical planned to revive the show on Broadway for the 2008 holiday season, but Disney did not pursue this.
The West End production opened at London 's Dominion Theatre on April 29, 1997, starring Julie - Alanah Brighten as Belle and Alasdair Harvey as the Beast. It also featured Burke Moses as Gaston, Derek Griffiths as Lumiere, Mary Millar as Mrs. Potts, Norman Rossington as Maurice, Barry James as Cogsworth, Di Botcher as Madame de la Grande Bouche, Richard Gauntlett as LeFou, and Rebecca Thornhill as Babette.
Over the course of the production, notable replacements included Michelle Gayle and Annalene Beechey as Belle, John Barrowman and Earl Carpenter as the Beast, Alex Bourne as Gaston, and Billy Boyle and Terry Doyle as Maurice. The production ended on December 11, 1999.
The production won the 1998 American Express Award for Best New Musical Olivier Award, against other nominees Enter the Guardsman, The Fix and Lady in the Dark.
The show had four US national tours. The first opened on November 15, 1995, and closed in 1999. It featured Kim Huber as Belle, Fred Inkley as the Beast, Patrick Page as Lumiere and Paige Davis as Babette. Patrick Page and Paige Davis met and fell in love during the tour. A second national tour opened in 1999 with Susan Owen as Belle and Grant Norman as The Beast. This production closed in 2003. The third national tour opened in 2001 and closed in 2003. This production starred Jennifer Shraeder as Belle and Roger Befeler as the Beast with Marc G. Dalio as Gaston. Notable replacements on the tours have included Sarah Litzsinger, Erin Dilly and Danyelle Bossardet as Belle. The three touring companies visited 137 venues in 90 North American cities. About 5.5 million people in the United States and Canada saw these tours. The fourth national tour of Beauty and the Beast began February 2010, opening in Providence, Rhode Island, starring Liz Shivener as Belle and Justin Glaser as the Beast. Under the direction of the original Broadway creative team, the show featured all new sets and costumes. The tour was the longest in the show 's history, running until July 2016.
The UK National tour (prior to the closure of the West End Production in 1999) began on November 2, 2001, at the Empire Theatre in Liverpool with stops in Bristol, Birmingham, Dublin, Southampton, Manchester and ended on April 12, 2003, at the Playhouse Theatre in Edinburgh. The tour starred Annalene Beechey (reprising her role from the London production) as Belle, Alistair Robins as the Beast, Ben Harlow as Gaston, Julia Goss as Mrs. Potts, Stephen Matthews as Lumiere Barry James (reprising his role from the London production) as Cogsworth, Billy Boyle (reprising his role from the London production) as Maurice, Karen Davies as Madame de la Grande Bouche, Kate Graham (reprising her role from the London production) as Babette, Anthony Clegg as LeFou, and Oliver Taylor (reprising his role from the London production) and Sion Eifion sharing the role of Chip. Notable replacements included Dianne Pilkington as Belle, Alex Bourne as the Beast, Earl Carpenter as Gaston, Marilyn Cutts as Mrs. Potts, Richard Tate as Maurice, and Drew Varley as LeFou. Madison Sqaure Garden Starrs Alan Bosley as Gaston
A Los Angeles production opened at the Shubert Theatre on April 12, 1995, and closed on September 29, 1996. Most of the original Broadway cast, including Susan Egan, Terrence Mann, Gary Beach, Beth Fowler, Burke Moses and Tom Bosley reprised their roles. Notable replacements included James Stacy Barbour as the Beast. The sets in this production were widely considered to be the largest out of all the musical 's productions in the world. After the show closed in Los Angeles, all of the sets were transferred for the production in Mexico City in 1997.
The Toronto production opened at the Princess of Wales Theatre on August 8, 1995, and closed in 1998. The production starred Kerry Butler as Belle and Chuck Wagner as the Beast, and Terry Doyle as Maurice. Notable replacements included Melissa Thomson as Belle and Steve Blanchard as the Beast. The lesser known Halifax production at the Neptune Theatre was the longest running production in the theatre 's history.
Beauty and the Beast has been performed in more than 30 countries, including Argentina, Australia, Austria, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, China, Egypt, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, India, Indonesia, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Japan, Lebanon, Mexico, Netherlands, Norway, Philippines, Qatar, Romania, Russia, Singapore, South Africa, South Korea, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Taiwan, Thailand, Turkey, United Arab Emirates, United Kingdom, and United States. Over 35 million people have seen the show worldwide and it has grossed more than $1.7 billion.
On July 15, 1995, the musical began its original Australian run in Melbourne at The Princess Theatre, before moving on to Sydney. The original Australian cast included Michael Cormick as The Beast, Rachael Beck as Belle, Hugh Jackman as Gaston, and Ernie Bourne as Maurice.
In 1995, the musical opened in Japan and is performed by the Shiki Theatre Company. The musical continues to tour Japan.
In December 1997, the musical opened in Stuttgart at the Palladium Theatre, Stuttgart and played there until December 22, 2000. Leah Delos Santos played Belle and Uwe Kröger played the Beast and Marc G. Dalio played Gaston.
In 1999, the musical opened in China.
On March 4, 2005, Beauty and the Beast had its Scandinavian premiere at The Göteborg Opera with Fred Johanson as the Beast and Annica Edstam as Belle.
On June 16, 2005, the musical began its Philippine run at the Meralco Theater. Produced by Atlantis Productions, it featured KC Concepcion alternating with Karel Marquez as Belle, Jett Pangan as the Beast, and Calvin Millado as Gaston.
In South America, Argentina was the first country to produce it, with Marisol Otero as Belle, Juan Rodó as Beast, Diego Jaraz as Gaston, Gustavo Monje as LeFou, Pablo Lizaso as Lumière, Mónica Nuñez as Mrs. Potts, Omar Pini as Cogsworth, Alejandra Radano as Babette and Rodolfo Valss as Maurice. It ran from November 26, 1998, at the Teatro Ópera in Buenos Aires until August 15, 1999, before opening again in 2010. Brazil was the second country to host the musical. Disney had plans to bring it to the country in 1999, after the success in Argentina, but nobody really knew if it would work. Three years later, in 2002, Beauty and the Beast finally opened in Brazil at Teatro Abril, one of the biggest theaters in the country. It was a huge hit, for more than one and a half years, it was presented with Kiara Sasso playing Belle and Saulo Vasconcelos playing the Beast. In 2009, a new Belle and a new Beast were cast, Lissah Martins and Ricardo Vieira, as the musical came back to Brazil, Kiara Sasso was playing Maria in The Sound of Music. Beauty and the Beast remained for six months at Teatro Abril. Even though the play was brought back as a way to try to recoup some of the money lost in Brazil 's version of Miss Saigon, this second incarnation of Beauty and the Beast failed to create any critical buzz, or to be a box office success.
In Spain there have been three productions of the show. The first one, based on the original Broadway production, had its Madrid debut on December 2, 1999, at Teatro Lope de Vega. The original cast included Xenia Reguant (later replaced by Julia Möller) as Belle, Carlos Marín (later replaced by Joe Luciano) as Beast, Lisardo Guarinos (later replaced by Manuel Bandera) as Gaston, Víctor Ullate Roche as LeFou, Germán Torres as Lumière, Kirby Navarro as Mrs. Potts, David Venancio Muro as Cogsworth, Dulcinea Juárez as Babette, Laura Inclán as Madame de la Grande Bouche and Miguel de Grandy as Maurice. After a successful run of 27 months and about 900 performances, the production finally closed on March 3, 2002, becoming the longest - running musical ever in Madrid at that time. In 2007, a second version produced by Stage Entertainment premiered on October 3, at Teatro Coliseum, Madrid, for a limited run of six months, but the closing was postponed due to a successful season. The original cast included Julia Möller reprising her role as Belle (later replaced by María Adamuz), David Ordinas as Beast, Pablo Puyol as Gaston, Raúl Peña as LeFou, Armando Pita as Lumière, Angels Jiménez as Mrs. Potts (later replaced by Rita Barber), Esteban Oliver as Cogsworth, Silvia Luchetti as Babette, María José Oquendo as Madame de la Grande Bouche and Lorenzo Valverde as Maurice. The production closed on January 11, 2009, and was transferred to Barcelona, where it ran from February 26, 2009, to January 10, 2010, at BTM, with some changes in the cast, including Mercè Martínez as Mrs. Potts, Marta Capel as Babette, Patricia Paisal as Madame de la Grande Bouche and Albert Muntanyola as Maurice. In 2012, the Stage Entertainment version was relaunched as a touring production, beginning performances on September 6, at Teatro Calderón, Valladolid. The original cast of this third Spanish production included Talía del Val as Belle, Ignasi Vidal as Beast, Daniel Diges as Gaston, Raúl Peña as LeFou, Diego Rodríguez as Lumière, Mone as Mrs. Potts, Frank Capdet as Cogsworth, Marta Capel as Babette, Eva Diago as Madame de la Grande Bouche and Enrique R. del Portal as Maurice.
In 2005, Disney and Stage Entertainment produced a new version of the show using brand new sets and costumes. After touring the Netherlands and playing in Antwerp, Belgium, Disney and Stage Entertainment brought the show to Berlin, Germany, in 2006 after a (approx.) one - year run at the Metronom Theater in Oberhausen. This production opened in 2007 in Madrid, Spain, and in 2009 in Milan, Italy, with Arianna as Belle and Michel Altieri as the Beast. The Broadway production played a second time in Mexico City beginning in September 2007 and in Hiroshima, Japan, beginning in February 2008. The Broadway production opened in South Africa in September 2008 and ran until March 2009. In 2004, Disney began to license the show to other companies for touring, and the show has been performed by professional and amateur companies in many countries.
On October 24, 2013, Beauty and the Beast opened at Théâtre Mogador in Paris, France.
Beginning October 2014, Disney Theatrical Productions, NETworks and Broadway Entertainment Group launched an international tour in celebration of Beauty and the Beast 's 20th anniversary on stage. The tour opened at the Zorlu Center in Istanbul, Turkey, and closed in January 2016 at Dubai World Trade Centre, having visited Turkey, United Arab Emirates, Greece, Italy, Philippines, Thailand, Singapore, Indonesia, China, Taiwan, Egypt, Lebanon, Romania, and Qatar.
In December 2015, Beauty and the Beast came back to the Netherlands for a run at Circustheater in The Hague.
In 2016, Disney and Marmelade produced an updated version for the Flemish Region of Belgium. The original cast included Josje Huisman as Belle, Jan Schepens as Beast, Dieter Troubleyn as Gaston, Peter Van de Velde as Lumière, Frank Hoelen as Maurice, Ivan Pecnik as Cogsworth (called Tickens), Eline De Munck as Babette, Peter Thyssen as LeFou, Barbara Dex as Mrs. Potts and Saskia Schäfer as Madame de la Grande Bouche (called La Commodia). The show premiered on December 10, 2016, at Flanders Expo in Ghent.
The show 's rights became available (in association with Josef Weinberger Ltd.) to amateur performing groups and regional musical societies. The show has been performed in numerous countries, by theatre companies of both an amateur and professional level. In 2010 Tipperary Musical Society staged the Irish amateur premiere of Disney 's Beauty and the Beast, for which it was nominated for 4 AIMS Awards (Association of Irish Musical Societies) including Best Overall Show in Ireland and winning one, Best Actor in a Supporting Role (John Murphy for the part of Gaston). Belle was played by Bridget Nolan and Beast was played by Derek Ryan.
* New song or instrumental cue
† Expanded vocal or instrumental content, using either cut lyrics by Ashman or dance arrangements by Glen Kelly, or both.
‡ "Human Again '' was written by Menken and Ashman for the movie, but was cut, due to the complications it made on the film 's timeline. It was repurposed for the Broadway play, and on account of the musical 's great success, an entirely new animated sequence based on the Broadway version was set to this song and inserted into 2002 's Special Edition DVD release.
§ "A Change in Me '' was written into the show in 1998 for the debut of Toni Braxton and was retained thereafter.
# not in the Junior Broadway show
Music Theatre International offers two orchestrations for Beauty and the Beast.
The principal, larger orchestration is based on the original Broadway orchestration. It is scored for three synthesizers, a drum kit, a percussion section, double bass, three woodwind players, three French horns in F, two trumpets in B - flat, trombone, divided violins, cellos, and harp. The first woodwind player doubles on flute and piccolo, the second on English horn and oboe, and the third on clarinet, bass clarinet, and flute. The trombonist doubles on bass trombone and tuba.
The original Broadway orchestration featured two additional woodwind players. The first played flute and piccolo, the second oboe and English horn, the third piccolo, flute and clarinet in B - flat, the fourth piccolo, flute, clarinet in B - flat and bass clarinet in B - flat, and the fifth on bassoon and contrabassoon. The excised reed parts were used for the synthesizer parts upon their removal for the licensed orchestration.
The optional reduced orchestration is scored for two synthesizers, a percussion section, double bass, three woodwind players, a trumpet, a French horn, and solo violin and cello.
Notable Broadway cast replacements (approximate dates given where available)
The Original Broadway Cast Recording was released on April 26, 1994. The CD included Susan Egan as Belle, Terrence Mann as Beast, Burke Moses as Gaston, Gary Beach as Lumière and Beth Fowler as Mrs. Potts.
The Original Australian Cast Recording was released in 1995. The principal cast included Rachael Beck as Belle, Michael Cormick as Beast, Hugh Jackman as Gaston, Ernie Bourne as Maurice, Toni Lamond as Madame de la Grande Bouche, Grant Smith as Lumière, Robyn Arthur as Mrs. Potts and Bert Newton as Cogsworth.
The Original Vienna Cast Recording was released in 1996. The principal cast included Ethan Freeman as Beast, Caroline Vasicek as Belle, Kevin Tarte as Gaston, Viktor Gernot as Lumière, Ann Mandrella as Babette, and Rosita Mewis as Mrs. Potts.
The Original London Cast Recording was released in 1997. The principal cast included Julie - Alanah Brighten as Belle, Alasdair Harvey as Beast, Burke Moses as Gaston, Derek Griffiths as Lumière and Mary Millar as Mrs. Potts.
The Original Stuttgart Cast Recording was released in 1998. The principal cast included Uwe Kroger as Beast and Leah Delos Santos as Belle and Ann Mandrella as Babette.
The Original Madrid Cast Recording was released in 1999. The principal cast included Xenia Reguant as Belle, Carlos Marín as Beast, Lisardo Guarinos as Gaston, Víctor Ullate Roche as LeFou, Germán Torres as Lumière, David Venancio Muro as Cogsworth and Kirby Navarro as Mrs. Potts. A second cast recording for the new production was released in May 2008, starring Julia Möller as Belle, David Ordinas as Beast, Pablo Puyol as Gaston, Raúl Peña as LeFou, Armando Pita as Lumière, Esteban Oliver as Cogsworth and Angels Jiménez as Mrs. Potts.
A "junior '' version of the musical for middle and high school students was published by MTI. This version only included a selected number of the songs, including "Belle '', "Belle (Reprise) '', "Home '', "Home (Tag) '', "Gaston '', "Gaston (Reprise) '', "Be Our Guest '', "Something There '', "Human Again '', "Beauty and the Beast '', "The Mob Song '', "Home (Reprise) '', and "Beauty and the Beast (Reprise) ''. Also in "Belle (Reprise) '', The Silly Girls take Belle 's part in the beginning of the song instead of Belle having to sing the whole song. Also in "Something There '', Madame de la Grande Bouche and Babette sing as well.
Reception towards the tryouts in Houston were so enthusiastic that the production was extended for two weeks. Jerome Weeks of Variety responded to the show with a positive review, praising the performances of Egan, Mann and Moses, as well as the Beast 's new song "If I Ca n't Love Her ''. At the same time, Weeks felt that the production "gets close to slipping into a big - budget kiddie show or magic act with its overdone showbiz glitz and sparkly stage - illusion effects '' at times, but in the end predicted that "' Beauty and the Beast ' could well be the big new musical hit this Broadway season has been waiting for. '' However, in 1994, Beauty and the Beast finally premiered on Broadway to reviews that ranged from mixed to negative, leaving critics mostly unimpressed. Reactions from the New York theatre community and Broadway producers were particularly harsh, ridiculing Disney for deciding to produce the musical themselves as opposed to enlisting traditional theatre companies. Egan recalled that "the same five families (had) produced Broadway shows for a hundred years and Disney shook that up. ''
Nearly universally panned by theatre critics, they concurred that Beauty and the Beast was a "great spectacle, but not great theater ''. Likening the musical to the Empire State Building, David Richards of The New York Times called the show "hardly a triumph of art, but it 'll probably be a whale of a tourist attraction. '' While awarding specific praise towards its musical numbers, choreography, costumes and cast -- particularly Mann 's ability to "convey the delicacy of awakening love '' despite the physical demands of his costume, at the same time Richards criticized the production 's set and special effects for lacking subtlety, ultimately accusing them of leaving little "to the imagination ''. Richards concluded, "The result is a sightseer 's delight, which is n't the same thing as a theatergoer 's dream. '' Also writing for The New York Times, Vincent Canby disparaged the musical entirely as "relentlessly bland, busy, upbeat and robotlike '', criticizing the production for resembling "a dinner theater. '' Canby felt that the new Menken - Rice songs were "inferior '' to the originals, likened the special effects to Fourth of July sparklers, criticized the sound engineering for ranging from too loud to barely audible, and panning Woolverton 's book for failing to supplement her screenplay. Minor praise was awarded to the performances of Lamberts, Beach and Fowler, as well as Mann 's climactic beast - to - prince transformation. In addition to predicting that Beauty and the Beast would be derided by traditional Broadway theatre - goers and critics alike, Variety writer Jeremy Gerard was largely negative in his own review. While admitting that the production "boasts several real pluses '', Gerard criticized the show for appearing "bloated, padded, gimmick - ridden, tacky and... utterly devoid of imagination. '' The critic voiced his strong disapproval of the costumes while dismissing the set as "something designed to be seen by people in moving seats, maybe at Disneyland '', panning West 's choreography and ultimately deriding Roth 's directing and blocking of actors who "look generally like they 're following dotted lines on the stage. '' Critics agreed that Roth 's direction and West 's were equally uninspired. In a mixed review with a headline reading "Beauty and the Beast is n't magical in the least, even if it does bristle with magic tricks '', New York 's John Simon wrote that the production resembles "a belated infomercial '' for the film by which he was bored, yet impressed by its special effects and illusions. Simon also felt that the actors struggled to resemble their animated counterparts despite Hould - Ward 's, criticizing Egan 's acting, Woolverton 's dialogue and the new Menken - Rice numbers while praising Moses ', Beach 's and Fowler 's performances.
Audiences did not share critics ' negative opinions, and the musical famously resonated with the public and families. Children were especially delighted by the idea of their favorite movie performed on stage by live actors. Subsequent productions have gradually attracted kinder remarks; the national tours in particular have been well received. Reviewing a performance of the musical at the Shubert Theatre in Los Angeles in 1995, Tom Jacobs of Variety wrote, "Born in Hollywood as an animated film, Disney 's version of ' Beauty and the Beast ' has returned home as an opulent stage musical, a year after its Broadway bow. Both good and bad choices have been made in adapting the 1991 film, but with its outstanding performances, fantastic production values and memorable score, this show should warm the hearts of all but the most curmudgeonly theatergoers. '' However, Jacobs felt that the production suffered from the lack of danger felt watching the film. After having been left unimpressed upon viewing the original Broadway production, Variety 's Matt Wolf was pleasantly surprised by the musical 's West End debut one year later.
"Be Our Guest '' was used as the commercial for the 1994 Tony Awards. Michael Goldstein of New York correctly predicted that Mann would earn a Tony Award nomination for his performance. Despite having been nominated for a total of nine individual awards, Beauty and the Beast was ultimately shunned at the ceremony, winning only one award -- Best Costume Design -- for Hould - Ward. Nominated for the Tony Award for Best Musical, the production famously lost to Stephen Sondheim 's Passion, which is considered to be his own version of the "Beauty and the Beast '' fairy tale. In 1995, some of Hould - Ward 's costumes, namely Lumiere, were put on display in Nordstrom stores. Meanwhile, Belle and the Beast 's ballroom costumes were exhibited at Westside Pavilion, and Mrs. Potts and LeFou appeared at South Coast Plaza.
Largely due to audience reception, Beauty and the Beast remains one of Broadway 's biggest successes of the current era. Beauty and the Beast established itself as a musical that could survive on Broadway despite its unenthusiastic reviews. Several detractors had thought that musicals like Beauty and the Beast would be a one - time event, but the results ultimately turned out to be quite the opposite. According to theatrical producer Stuart Oken, Disney 's success with Beauty and the Beast is responsible for today 's biggest Broadway hits and making the medium "better than it has ever been ''. The groundbreaking performance of Beauty and the Beast inspired other major Hollywood studios to produce Broadway renditions of some of their own films. Disney soon began to commission Broadway adaptations of several of the studio 's most popular musical films, namely The Lion King (1997), Mary Poppins (2004), Tarzan (2006), The Little Mermaid (2008), Newsies (2012) and Aladdin (2014), in addition to producing the musical Aida. After completing her run in Beauty and the Beast, Egan would famously go on to voice Meg in Disney 's animated musical Hercules (1997), establishing herself as a popular voice and film actress. Following the success of "Human Again '', the song was later incorporated into reissues of the animated film in the form of an animated musical sequence.
Beauty and the Beast is considered to be Broadway 's first legitimate family show, responsible for birthing an entirely new generation of young theatregoers. The family demographic of the musical established inspired international productions of Aladdin and Matilda. According to The Complete Book of 1990s Broadway Musicals author Dan Dietz, "the show 's resounding success opened the floodgates for a spate of... productions based on Disney and other family - oriented films '', transforming Broadway into "a theme park with a parade of musicals aimed at kids and teenagers. '' Dietz believes that the plethora of Broadway musicals that came after Beauty and the Beast have unfortunately resembled "feel - good family show (s) whose goal was to emulate its film source. '' Additionally, the success of the musical inspired a legion of Broadway productions geared towards young women, including Hairspray (2002), Wicked (2003), Legally Blonde (2007), Matilda (2013) and Rodgers and Hammerstein 's Cinderella (2013). While these musicals flourished on Broadway, it seems as though more serious, adult - oriented fare struggled to perform as well. New York theatre critic Howard Kissel famously despised "the Kiddy Komponent of New York theatergoing '' spearheaded by the successful 13 - year Broadway run of Beauty and the Beast. The success of Beauty and the Beast inspired Eisner invest in his own theatre to house future stage adaptations of the studio 's animated classics.
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when did tv stop going off the air | Sign - on and sign - off - wikipedia
A sign - on (or start - up) is the beginning of operations for a radio or television station, generally at the start of each day. It is the opposite of a sign - off (or closedown), which is the sequence of operations involved when a radio or television station shuts down its transmitters and goes off the air for a predetermined period; generally, this occurs during the overnight hours.
Sign - ons, like sign - offs, vary from country to country, from station to station, and from time to time; however, most follow a similar general pattern. Many stations follow the reverse process to their sign - off sequence at the close of the day. It is common for sign - ons to be followed by a network 's early morning newscast, or their morning or breakfast show.
While both sign - ons and sign - offs have become less common with the increasing prevalence of twenty - four - hour - a-day, seven - day - a-week broadcasting, they are still conducted by a number of stations around the world. For broadcasters that do still close for a period each day, this station close is most often during the early hours of the morning, with the daily sign - on typically occurring between 5: 00 a.m. and 7: 00 a.m. However, in some countries with more limited broadcast coverage, such as North Korea, sign - on may be as late as 5: 00 p.m. A particular type of AM radio station known as a daytimer usually only operates during daytime hours, and will therefore run a sign - on sequence each day.
The sign - on sequence may include some or all of the following stages, but not necessarily in this order:
While most of these sign - on steps are done as a service to the public, or for advertising reasons, some of them may be required by the government of the country.
Sign - offs, like sign - ons, vary from country to country, from station to station, and from time to time; however, most follow a similar general pattern. Many stations follow the reverse process to their sign - on sequence at the start of the day. Sign - off messages can be initiated by a broadcast automation system just as for other television programming, and automatic transmission systems can cut off the carrier signal and trigger the actual shutdown of the transmitter by remote control. Generally, after the carrier signal is cut, the viewer only sees or hears static after an analog television station signs off. Digital stations will likely display a message after the sign off; however, they may simply cut to a black screen with no sound (as other digital subchannel networks on the same channel space space may broadcast 24 / 7, requiring the station to remain powered up; consideration after 2017 in the United States is now also given to channel sharing partners who may do the same). Occasionally, the signal is cut off entirely, causing digital broadcast receivers (cable / satellite boxes, digital TVs / converter boxes) to display error messages.
Both sign - offs and sign - ons have become less common with the increasing prevalence of twenty - four hours a day, seven days a week broadcasting. They are, however, still conducted by a number of stations around the world, often by stations catering to small - markets or those in less -- developed countries, or when stations need to shut down for transmitter maintenance. Another consideration for whether providers shutdown is power consumption; aerial signals, such as those for UHF analog TV transmissions, can require tens of thousands of watts of power, making electricity a major expense, while power consumption would usually be considerably lower for cable and satellite providers. In relation to costs, viewer numbers are also a consideration. Another consideration is the licence issued by the government which indicates when their transmitters can be operated.
For broadcasters which do still close for a period each day, the station close most often takes place overnight or during the early hours of the morning. The daily sign - off typically occurs between around 11: 00 p.m. and 2: 00 a.m. and the station will remain closed until about 5: 00 a.m. to 7: 00 a.m., although in countries with limited broadcast coverage, sign - off may occur at earlier times, and sign - on later. Sign - off may also vary depending on the day of the week; for example some broadcasters may run for 24 hours on Saturday nights, but sign - off and close during the week when there are lower viewer numbers. Seasonality is also a consideration where some stations / networks stay open for 24 hours, while rarely few go off the air completely during peak times of religious observances.
Many stations, while no longer conducting a sign - off and being off air for a period of time each day, instead run low -- cost programming during those times of low viewer numbers. This may include infomercials, movies, television shows, simple weather forecasts, low cost news or infotainment programming from other suppliers, or feeds of local cable TV companies ' programming via a fiber optic line to the cable headend. Other broadcasters that are part of a radio or television network may run an unedited feed of the network 's overnight programming from a central location, without local advertising. Some stations, after doing a sign - off, nonetheless continue to transmit throughout the off - air period on cable / satellite; this transmission may involve a test pattern or static image that is accompanied by music or a local weather radio service.
The sign - off sequence may include some or all of the following stages, but not necessarily in this order:
While most of these sign - off steps are done as a service to the public, or for advertising reasons, some of them may be required by the government of the country. For example, in the U.S. or in the Philippines, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) regulations, or the National Telecommunications Commission require stations to identify themselves before leaving the air, which usually means they must announce their calls, city of license, and broadcast frequency or channel number.
For those stations that now operate 24 hours daily, some broadcast an abbreviated version of the sign - on / off information, usually around 6: 00 a.m. local time, or earlier, before the start of their morning newscast. (In the USA, the broadcast logging day begins at 0600 local time.)
In a number of countries closedowns formerly took place during the daytime as well as overnight. In the United Kingdom this was initially due to Government - imposed restrictions on daytime broadcasting hours, and later, due to budgetary constraints. The eventual relaxation of these rules meant that afternoon closedowns ceased permanently on the ITV network in October 1972, but the BBC maintained the practice until Friday 24 October 1986, before commencing a full daytime service on the following Monday. Afternoon closedowns continued in South Korea until December 2005. Hong Kong 's broadcasting networks (particularly the English - speaking channels) also practiced this until mid 2008. In these cases, the station 's transmitters later did not actually shut - down for the afternoon break; either a test - card was played or a static schedule was posted telling viewers of the programming line - up once broadcasting resumes.
During the start of the new millennium 2000 in the Philippines, the GMA Network, due to its corporate affiliation with 2000 Today, continued broadcasting while other TV and radio networks signed off immediately after the new year countdown.
During religious holidays or occasions, Doordarshan and Akashvani will broadcast a prayer of any religion will play through the day, a week or a month (e.g. During Ramadan, a reading from the Quran, a Muslim quote, or a call for Azan and Fajr prayer will be broadcast. During Lent, a Christian prayer, a hymn or a responsorial psalm will be broadcast).
During Ramadan, Malaysian public broadcaster RTM operates TV1 24 hours a day instead of signing off, but TV1 becomes 24 hours during the London Olympics in 2012, but later became permanent in August 2012, to coincide with their sister channel, TV2 by showing reruns of their old programmes shown on this broadcaster and telemovies on early - mornings before start - up.
During the Holy Week in the Philippines, terrestrial TV and radio stations continue their respective broadcast schedules from Palm Sunday until Holy Wednesday. From the midnight of Holy Thursday until the early hours of Easter Sunday (before 4 AM PST), most of the aforementioned outlets are off - the - air while other non-religious TV and radio networks commence transmission much later in the morning or at midday and close down at an earlier time. Catholic Media Network member stations also follow the same pattern, broadcasting Easter Triduum services and other similar programming.
Campus radio stations ' operations during this time are left to the discretion of their respective schools by either closing down on the afternoon of Holy Wednesday or remain off - air the entirety of the week.
On cable and satellite, most international networks fed to the country continue to broadcast their 24 / 7 regular programming service week - long, while a few continue with specially - arranged schedules from Holy Thursday to Black Saturday. For Philippine - exclusive channels, major commercial operators also follow an altered schedule during the same timeframe while specialty channels dedicated to broadcasting horse races, cockfights and the like sign - off and remain dormant during the Easter Triduum.
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who wrote the song battle of new orleans | The Battle of New Orleans - wikipedia
"The Battle of New Orleans '' is a song written by Jimmy Driftwood. The song describes the 1812 Battle of New Orleans from the perspective of an American soldier; the song tells the tale of the battle with a light tone and provides a rather comical version of what actually happened at the battle. It has been recorded by many artists, but the singer most often associated with this song is Johnny Horton. His version scored number 1 on the Billboard Hot 100 in 1959 (see 1959 in music). Billboard ranked it as the No. 1 song for 1959, it was very popular with teenagers in the late 50 's / early 60 's in an era mostly dominated by rock and roll music.
In Billboard magazine 's rankings of the top songs in the first 50 years of the Billboard Hot 100 chart, "The Battle of New Orleans '' was ranked as the 28th song overall and the number - one country music song to appear on the chart.
Members of the Western Writers of America chose it as one of the Top 100 Western songs of all time.
The melody is based on a well - known American fiddle tune "The 8th of January, '' which was the date of the Battle of New Orleans. Jimmy Driftwood, a school principal in Arkansas with a passion for history, set an account of the battle to this music in an attempt to get students interested in learning history. It seemed to work, and Driftwood became well known in the region for his historical songs. He was "discovered '' in the late 1950s by Don Warden, and eventually was given a recording contract by RCA, for whom he recorded 12 songs in 1958, including "The Battle of New Orleans. ''
"The Battle of New Orleans '' is often played during North American sporting events, and is commonly heard during home games of the National Hockey League 's Calgary Flames. Original Horton 45 rpm discs of the song are now worth many times the original cost, partly because the price is inflated. It was regarded with derision in Britain as the British forces withdrew from the battle after heavy losses had put victory out of the question. The British lost 2,036 men, while the Americans under command of future president Andrew Jackson lost only 71.
As noted, Johnny Horton 's 1959 version is the best - known recording of the song, which omits the mild expletives and many of the historical references of the original. Horton also recorded an alternative version for release in British Commonwealth countries, avoiding the unfavorable lyrics concerning the British: the word "British '' was replaced with "Rebels, '' along with a few other differences.
Many other artists have recorded this song. Notable versions include the following:
Country music parodists Homer and Jethro had a hit when they parodied "The Battle of New Orleans '' with their song "The Battle of Kookamonga ''. The single was released in 1959 and featured production work by Chet Atkins. In this version, the scene shifts from a battleground to a campground, with the combat being changed to the Boy Scouts chasing after the Girl Scouts.
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in what order are the percy jackson books | Percy Jackson & the Olympians - wikipedia
Percy Jackson & the Olympians, often shortened to Percy Jackson, is a pentalogy of fantasy adventure novels written by American author Rick Riordan, and the first book series in the Camp Half - Blood Chronicles. Five supplementary books, along with three graphic novels, have also been released. More than 45 million copies of the books have been sold in more than 35 countries.
As of October 28, 2011, the series has been on The New York Times Best Seller list for children 's book series for 245 weeks. The first book was adapted into a film titled Percy Jackson & the Olympians: The Lightning Thief in 2010, which was commercially successful, but received mixed reviews. An adaptation of the second book, titled Percy Jackson: Sea of Monsters, was released in 2013.
Development for both The Lightning Thief and the Percy Jackson series commenced when Rick Riordan began making stories for his son Haley Riordan, who had at the time been diagnosed with ADHD and dyslexia. His son, Haley, had been studying Greek mythology in second grade and requested that his father tell him bedtime stories based on Greek myths. When Riordan ran out of myths, his son suggested that he make up new stories using existing mythological characters and new ones. This led Riordan to create the fictional character of Percy Jackson and create the story of how he travels across the United States to recover Zeus 's lightning - bolt. Haley suggested that he should turn that story into a book, and Riordan wrote the book over the next year despite being busy at that time.
Leaving his manuscript with his agent and editor for review, Riordan presented the book to a group of 6th, 7th, and 8th graders to read and critique. He gained their approval, and with their help, came up with the name of the book and created the way Percy 's sword works. In 2004, the book was sold to Miramax Books for enough money for Riordan to quit his job and focus on writing. After it was released on 28 June 2005, it sold over 1.2 million copies. The book was released in multiple versions, including hardcover, paperback and audio editions. It has been translated into multiple languages and published all over the world.
The Lightning Thief is the first book in the series and was released on July 1, 2005.
After a harrowing experience at his school trip, Percy Jackson returns home for the summer vacation, wherein him and his mother Sally Jackson, travel to their cabin in Montauk to take their mind off things. However, the trip is cut short after a series of harrowing incidents, such as being attacked by the Minotaur. Percy finds himself at Camp Half - Blood, a training camp for demigods like him. He discovers that he is a demigod, son of Poseidon, the Greek god of the sea, earthquakes, and father of all horses, (which he made from sea foam). Percy also learns that his best friend, Grover Underwood, is actually a satyr, and that the Greek gods are accusing Percy of having stolen Zeus ' master lightning bolt, the most powerful weapon in the world. To clear his name and save the world from another war between the Olympian gods, Percy sets out to retrieve the lightning bolt from Hades, who is suspected of being the real thief. Thus, Percy, Grover, and Annabeth Chase, a daughter of Athena, start on a journey to the underworld, facing numerous mythological monsters on the way. After confronting an innocent Hades, they learn that their friend Luke Castellan, son of Hermes, is the real thief who stole the bolt to allow Kronos, the defeated king of the Titans, a chance to rise again.
The book was adapted into a film by Chris Columbus and 20th Century Fox, under the title Percy Jackson & the Olympians: The Lightning Thief, and was released on February 12, 2010.
The Sea of Monsters is the second installment in the series, released on April 1, 2006.
Camp Half - Blood is under attack when Thalia 's tree, which guards the borders of the camp, is poisoned and slowly begins to die. In order to save the tree and the camp, someone must recover the Golden Fleece, which is somewhere in the Sea of Monsters. At the same time, Percy finds out that Grover, who has left on a quest to find the missing god Pan, has been captured by the cyclops Polyphemus and that the Fleece is on Polyphemus ' island. Together with Annabeth and his half - brother Tyson, a cyclops, Percy sets out to rescue Grover. Meanwhile, Clarisse La Rue, daughter of Ares, is sent on an official quest by Camp Half - Blood to retrieve the Fleece. The trip to the Sea of Monsters is long and hazardous and along the way the heroes encounter several dangers including Scylla and Charybdis, the sorceress Circe, the Sirens and their former friend Luke Castellan. Percy also learns about a prophecy from the Oracle about a child of one of the three most important gods (Zeus, Poseidon and Hades), playing a vital part in the success or failure of the resurrection of Kronos the Titan - King. The heroes eventually retrieve the Fleece and restore Thalia 's tree but also unknowingly revive Thalia herself, daughter of Zeus, who had been turned into the tree by her father when she died.
The book was adapted into a film by Thor Freudenthal and 20th Century Fox, under the title Percy Jackson: Sea of Monsters, and was released on August 7, 2013.
The Titan 's Curse is the third installment in the series. It was released on May 11, 2007.
On a mission to rescue half - bloods Bianca and Nico di Angelo; Percy, Annabeth, Thalia and Grover are attacked by a manticore and rescued by the goddess Artemis and her Hunters. However, Annabeth falls off a cliff whilst trying to fight the manticore and is said to be captured. Later, Artemis is captured by Luke 's army while on the hunt for the Ophiotaurus, a cow - serpent monster that was foretold to bring the downfall of Olympus when its entrails are sacrificed to a fire. Her lieutenant Zoe Nightshade, daughter of Atlas, leads Bianca, Thalia and Grover on a quest to save her. Percy, who was not invited to join the party, follows them on behalf of Nico Di Angelo, promising that he will do his best to protect his sister, Bianca. The others eventually find Percy, and he joins their group. They become the prey of skeletons, who chase them across the country. Bianca is able to kill one, which leaves the others mystified. Bianca later dies as they make their way across a godly junkyard. They find Annabeth with Luke and Artemis, who is holding up the sky. Percy then takes it from Artemis and they trick Atlas into his original position under the sky. Thalia replaces Zoe, who dies, as Artemis ' lieutenant. Thalia 's induction as a lieutenant of Artemis ensures that she will become immortal, never aging to 16, thus escaping the Great Prophecy and leaving Percy to fulfill it. They return to camp and Percy informs Nico about Bianca 's death during the journey. Nico blames Percy for failing to protect her and runs away, only after killing skeletons that invade the camp, so that Percy realizes that Hades is Nico 's father.
The Battle of the Labyrinth is the fourth installment in the series. It was released on May 6, 2008.
After being attacked by monsters, Percy returns to Camp Half - Blood and learns about the Labyrinth. Annabeth and Percy find an entrance into the Labyrinth in camp. Percy soon learns that Luke will use the entrance to lead his army through the Labyrinth straight into the heart of camp. Annabeth is chosen to lead a quest to prevent it, and chooses to bring Tyson, Percy, and Grover, even though it was traditional to bring only two companions on a quest, as explained by Chiron. While in the Labyrinth, Percy and Annabeth become separated from Grover and Tyson. They encounter Nico, who begins to forgive Percy. Percy and Annabeth arrive under Mount St. Helens. Percy accidentally causes St. Helens to erupt and washes ashore on Calypso 's island, Ogygia. He returns to Camp Half - Blood, rather than staying with her, stating that "she would always be his biggest ' what - if ' ''. Then he and Annabeth recruit a mortal girl, Rachel Dare to be a guide in the Labyrinth, using her sight through the Mist, the magical veil that separates the mythological world from the mortal world, and her knowledge for the quest. Daedalus is shown to be alive and to have given Ariadne 's string to Luke. They find Grover and Tyson and discover Pan, and Grover tells him that he must return to the world. But Pan says that he can not come and before dying tells Grover to tell those who will listen that he has died. Grover does what he is told. Percy also finds Luke 's body in Kronos ' coffin. A final demigod joins the Titans ' cause, and Kronos fully rises, using Luke 's body. They flee to camp, trying to stop the invasion. Kronos ' forces attack the camp, but they are defeated. The book ends with Daedalus sacrificing himself after the battle to destroy the Labyrinth, as it is tied to his life force, and Nico Di Angelo fully forgiving Percy and proposing a dangerous plan for defeating the Titans.
The Last Olympian, the fifth and final book in the Percy Jackson series, was released on May 5, 2009.
Percy Jackson learns that Kronos ' forces are preparing to attack Olympus. Poseidon, Percy 's father, decides that it is time for Percy to now fulfill the Great Prophecy. Seeking to defeat Kronos, like Achilles did, Percy bathes in the River Styx, making his body invulnerable except one small chosen part of his body (the small of his back). Kronos leads a siege of New York City and puts its citizens to sleep. Percy leads the campers, Hunters, nature spirits, and centaurs to protect Mount Olympus from Kronos and his forces. While they protect Olympus, the gods hold down the monster Typhon as he makes his way to New York. Kronos, possessing Luke 's body, forces his way into Olympus and battles Percy in Olympus ' throne room. Typhon reaches New York but is defeated after the arrival of Poseidon 's forces, led by Tyson. Annabeth is able to make Luke come back to his senses, and Percy gives him Annabeth 's knife. Luke stabs himself in his mortal spot (as he also was invulnerable from bathing in the River Styx) to destroy Kronos and save Mount Olympus, but Luke dies. The gods reward Percy and his friends, and offer him immortality. He rejects the offer, but instead requests the gods to claim all their children and to have cabins for all the gods, including the minor ones. Rachel Elizabeth Dare becomes the Oracle and recites the next Great Prophecy. The book finishes with Percy and Annabeth becoming a couple, and ominous clouds looming over Rachel 's next Great Prophecy.
The Demigod Files, also written by Rick Riordan, is the first companion book to the series. It was released February 10, 2009, featuring three short stories, interviews with the campers, puzzles and pictures. It is set between The Battle of the Labyrinth and The Last Olympian. The book received mixed reviews, with some reviewers criticizing the lack of substantial material and others commenting on the writing of the short stories. The stories are Percy Jackson and the Stolen Chariot, Percy Jackson and the Bronze Dragon, The Camper Interviews, and Percy Jackson and the Sword of Hades. At the end of the book, there are portraits on the characters of the series.
The Ultimate Guide is a companion book, second to the series, released on January 19, 2010. This book has a magnetic cover and holographic character pictures that change into four different characters. Its 156 pages include trading cards, full - color diagrams and maps. It also includes a dictionary of almost every monster Percy faces in the series, with pictures beside some, as well as various activities. The book tells of Percy Jackson 's starting life as a half - blood, a tour of the Underworld by Nico di Angelo, the story of Sally Jackson 's parents, and items used throughout the series. There is also a paperback version.
A graphic novel based on The Lightning Thief was published on October 12, 2010. It follows a shortened version of Percy 's adventures in The Lightning Thief with full color drawings. A graphic novel based on the second book in the series, The Sea of Monsters was released on July 2, 2013. Another graphic novel based on the third book, The Titan 's Curse was released on October 8, 2013.
Demigods and Monsters is an unofficial companion book and was released on February 11, 2009. With an introduction by Riordan, it features essays written by various young adult authors that explore, discuss and provide further insight into the Percy Jackson series. At 196 pages, it also contains information on the places and characters of the series, as well as a glossary of Greek myths.
The Demigod Diaries contains four new stories with character interviews, illustrations of characters and more, puzzles, and a quiz. The four stories include the adventures of Thalia, Luke, and Annabeth, and others which precede the Percy Jackson and the Olympians series and a first - person narrative from Percy 's viewpoint. Set a month after the events of The Last Olympian and before he goes missing in The Lost Hero, Percy and Annabeth retrieve Hermes ' stolen staff. One of the stories is written by Riordan 's son, Haley, and revolves around one of the demigods who fought for Kronos during the Second Titan War and survived the battle in Manhattan. As a part of the spin - off The Heroes of Olympus series, The Demigod Diaries contain a story involving Jason, Leo, and Piper that recounts their time spent at Camp Half - Blood between The Lost Hero and The Son of Neptune.
The Lightning Thief received mostly positive reviews and won awards including the School Library Journal Best Book of 2005. The New York Times praised The Lightning Thief as "perfectly paced, with electrifying moments chasing each other like heartbeats ''. Author Rick Riordan said of the various awards:
"The ultimate compliment for a children 's writer is when the kids like it. ''
Like its predecessor, The Sea of Monsters won several prizes and received generally positive reviews as well. It sold over 100,000 copies in hardcover by the time it was released in paperback and reviewers have praised the storyline, themes and the author 's style of writing. Matt Berman, of Common Sense Media, praised the book, saying "The Percy Jackson series continues to be pure fun, with the author doing nearly everything right to produce a book that few kids will be able to resist. '' Kirkus reviewed The Battle of the Labyrinth as, "This volume can stand alone, but no one will be able to read just one (...) look no further for the next Harry Potter, meet Percy Jackson as legions of fans already have. '' As of February 13, 2016, it has been on the New York Times Children 's Series Best Seller List for 379 weeks.
Some critics, especially Christian critics of Riordan have disapproved of the emphasis on pagan gods in his books. Riordan responds to these complaints by reminding his readers that first and foremost, "The Lightning Thief explores Greek mythology in a modern setting, but it does so as a humorous work of fantasy. I 'm certainly not interested in changing or contradicting anyone 's religious beliefs. Early in the book, the character Chiron makes a distinction between God, capital - G, the creator of the universe, and the Greek gods (lower - case g). Chiron says he does n't want to delve into the issue of God, but he has no qualms about discussing the Olympians because they are a "much smaller matter. ''
Critics such as The Calico Critic have also disagreed with the fusion of Greek mythology and modern American culture. They have stated that it is difficult to believe "the reality of the tale '', claiming that "monsters in the St. Louis Arch '' and "the entrance to Olympus in New York '' were unimaginable, despite Riordan 's explanations of why he chose these certain locations.
However studies show that overall, readers appreciated the mundane language, witty tone and aesthetic plot of the novels, as well as how it introduced Greek mythology to them.
These films have been made from the books:
Chris Columbus directed and produced Percy Jackson & the Olympians: The Lightning Thief for 20th Century Fox through 1492 Pictures. The film was released in 2010 in the United States, Canada and in the United Kingdom on February 12 and in Australia on February 11. Columbus has stated that he was drawn to directing the Percy Jackson movie because it gave him the "opportunity to do a movie that we have n't really seen before for this generation. When I was a kid, there were movies that dealt with Greek mythology, which in terms of visual effects was really primitive. So I thought this was an opportunity to deal with Greek mythology which children and adults all over the world are fascinated by and it was not a new genre but a new avenue, dealing with mythological creatures in a contemporary setting. ''
The second film in the series, Percy Jackson: Sea of Monsters, was released on August 7, 2013. Filming began in April 2012.
Chris Columbus stated that there will not be a third movie any time soon.
To accompany the film, a video game was produced. Michael Splechta gave it a 6 / 10, saying Percy Jackson & the Olympians might not make a splash when it comes to movie tie - in games, but fans of turn - based combat might find some redeeming qualities in this otherwise bare - bones game. ''
On January 12, 2017, A Series of Unfortunate Events story editor Joe Tracz wrote a new Off Broadway musical adaptation of Percy Jackson tale "The Lightning Thief.
The Heroes of Olympus is a sequel series, also based on Camp Half - Blood and the Greek and Roman mythologies. The first book The Lost Hero was released on October 12, 2010. Like the first series, there are five books. The official website requires a password, later revealed as newhero. On December 1, 2010, the site went live.
The second book in The Heroes of Olympus, The Son of Neptune, was released in October 2011. The third book, The Mark of Athena, was released on October 2, 2012. The fourth book, The House of Hades, was released on October 8, 2013. The fifth and final book of The Heroes of Olympus series, The Blood of Olympus, was released on October 7, 2014.
Riordan is currently at work on yet another follow - up series to The Heroes of Olympus book series titled The Trials of Apollo is a sequel series to both Percy Jackson & the Olympians and The Heroes of Olympus. The first installment titled, The Hidden Oracle (2016), features Apollo and his journey after being cast down from Olympus. The second book titled The Dark Prophecy was released in May 2017. The third book titled The Burning Maze was released on May 1, 2018.
The novels are set within the same fictional universe as the three previous book series, and is narrated alternately in first - person by the two protagonist - siblings Carter and Sadie Kane. The siblings are descended from the two pharaohs Narmer and Ramses the Great and are powerful magicians. They and their friends are forced to contend with Egyptian gods and goddesses who still interact with the real world. The series includes a trilogy consisting of The Red Pyramid (2010), The Throne of Fire (2011), and The Serpent 's Shadow (2012), as well as three crossover books with the Percy Jackson & the Olympians series.
The main protagonist Magnus Chase, son of the Vanir god of fertility Frey, narrates the novel in first person. He is a cousin of Annabeth Chase, a main character of the Percy Jackson and the Olympians and The Heroes of Olympus series, who links the two series together. The series consists of a trilogy of books, The Sword of Summer (2015), The Hammer of Thor (2016), and The Ship of the Dead (2017).
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where were most of william shakespeare's plays performed | Shakespeare in performance - wikipedia
Thousands (perhaps even millions) of performances of William Shakespeare 's plays have been staged since the end of the 16th century. While Shakespeare was alive, many of his greatest plays were performed by the Lord Chamberlain 's Men and King 's Men acting companies at the Globe and Blackfriars Theatres. Among the actors of these original performances were Richard Burbage (who played the title role in the first performances of Hamlet, Othello, Richard III and King Lear), Richard Cowley, and William Kempe.
Shakespeare 's plays continued to be staged after his death until the Interregnum (1642 -- 1660), when most public stage performances were banned by the Puritan rulers. After the English Restoration, Shakespeare 's plays were performed in playhouses, with elaborate scenery, and staged with music, dancing, thunder, lightning, wave machines, and fireworks. During this time the texts were "reformed '' and "improved '' for the stage, an undertaking which has seemed shockingly disrespectful to posterity.
Victorian productions of Shakespeare often sought pictorial effects in "authentic '' historical costumes and sets. The staging of the reported sea fights and barge scene in Antony and Cleopatra was one spectacular example. Such elaborate scenery for the frequently changing locations in Shakespeare 's plays often led to a loss of pace. Towards the end of the 19th century, William Poel led a reaction against this heavy style. In a series of "Elizabethan '' productions on a thrust stage, he paid fresh attention to the structure of the drama. In the early 20th century, Harley Granville - Barker directed quarto and folio texts with few cuts, while Edward Gordon Craig and others called for abstract staging. Both approaches have influenced the variety of Shakespearean production styles seen today.
The troupe for which Shakespeare wrote his earliest plays is not known with certainty; the title page of the 1594 edition of Titus Andronicus reveals that it had been acted by three different companies. After the plagues of 1592 -- 3, Shakespeare 's plays were performed by the Lord Chamberlain 's Men, a new company of which Shakespeare was a founding member, at The Theatre and the Curtain in Shoreditch, north of the Thames. Londoners flocked there to see the first part of Henry IV, Leonard Digges recalling, "Let but Falstaff come, Hal, Poins, the rest... and you scarce shall have a room ''. When the landlord of the Theatre announced that he would not renew the company 's lease, they pulled the playhouse down and used the timbers to construct the Globe Theatre, the first London playhouse built by actors for actors, on the south bank of the Thames at Southwark. The Globe opened in autumn 1599, with Julius Caesar one of the first plays staged. Most of Shakespeare 's greatest post-1599 plays were written for the Globe, including Hamlet, Othello and King Lear.
The Globe, like London 's other open - roofed public theatres, employed a thrust - stage, covered by a cloth canopy. A two - storey facade at the rear of the stage hid the tiring house and, through windows near the top of the facade, opportunities for balcony scenes such as the one in Romeo and Juliet. Doors at the bottom of the facade may have been used for discovery scenes like that at the end of The Tempest. A trap door in the stage itself could be used for stage business, like some of that involving the ghost in Hamlet. This trapdoor area was called "hell '', as the canopy above was called "heaven ''
Less is known about other features of staging and production. Stage props seem to have been minimal, although costuming was as elaborate as was feasible. The "two hours ' traffic '' mentioned in the prologue to Romeo and Juliet was not fanciful; the city government 's hostility meant that performances were officially limited to that length of time. Though it is not known how seriously companies took such injunctions, it seems likely either that plays were performed at near - breakneck speed or that the play - texts now extant were cut for performance, or both.
The other main theatre where Shakespeare 's original plays were performed was the second Blackfriars Theatre, an indoor theatre built by James Burbage, father of Richard Burbage, and impresario of the Lord Chamberlain 's Men. However, neighborhood protests kept Burbage from using the theater for the Lord Chamberlain 's Men performances for a number of years. After the Lord Chamberlain 's Men were renamed the King 's Men in 1603, they entered a special relationship with the new court of King James. Performance records are patchy, but it is known that the King 's Men performed seven of Shakespeare 's plays at court between 1 November 1604 and 31 October 1605, including two performances of The Merchant of Venice. In 1608 the King 's Men (as the company was then known) took possession of the Blackfriars Theatre. After 1608, the troupe performed at the indoor Blackfriars Theatre during the winter and the Globe during the summer. The indoor setting, combined with the Jacobean vogue for lavishly staged masques, created new conditions for performance which enabled Shakespeare to introduce more elaborate stage devices. In Cymbeline, for example, Jupiter descends "in thunder and lightning, sitting upon an eagle: he throws a thunderbolt. The ghosts fall on their knees. '' Plays produced at the indoor theater presumably also made greater use of sound effects and music.
A fragment of the naval captain William Keeling 's diary survives, in which he details his crew 's shipboard performances of Hamlet (off the coast of Sierra Leone, 5 September 1607, and at Socotra, 31 March 1608), and Richard II (Sierra Leone, 30 September 1607). For a time after its discovery, the fragment was suspected of being a forgery, but is now generally accepted as genuine. These are the first recorded amateur performances of any Shakespeare plays.
On 29 June 1613, the Globe Theatre went up in flames during a performance of Henry VIII. A theatrical cannon, set off during the performance, misfired, igniting the wooden beams and thatching. According to one of the few surviving documents of the event, no one was hurt except a man who put out his burning breeches with a bottle of ale. The event pinpoints the date of a Shakespeare play with rare precision. Sir Henry Wotton recorded that the play "was set forth with many extraordinary circumstances of pomp and ceremony ''. The theatre was rebuilt but, like all the other theatres in London, the Globe was closed down by the Puritans in 1642.
The actors in Shakespeare 's company included Richard Burbage, Will Kempe, Henry Condell and John Heminges. Burbage played the leading role in the first performances of many of Shakespeare 's plays, including Richard III, Hamlet, Othello, and King Lear. The popular comic actor Will Kempe played Peter in Romeo and Juliet and Dogberry in Much Ado About Nothing, among other parts. He was replaced around the turn of the 16th century by Robert Armin, who played roles such as Touchstone in As You Like It and the fool in King Lear. Little is certainly known about acting styles. Critics praised the best actors for their naturalness. Scorn was heaped on ranters and on those who "tore a passion to tatters '', as Hamlet has it. Also with Hamlet, playwrights complain of clowns who improvise on stage (modern critics often blame Kemp in particular in this regard). In the older tradition of comedy which reached its apex with Richard Tarlton, clowns, often the main draw of a troupe, were responsible for creating comic by - play. By the Jacobean era, that type of humor had been supplanted by verbal wit.
Shakespeare 's plays continued to be staged after his death until the Interregnum (1642 -- 1660), when most public stage performances were banned by the Puritan rulers. While denied the use of the stage, costumes and scenery, actors still managed to ply their trade by performing "drolls '' or short pieces of larger plays that usually ended with some type of jig. Shakespeare was among the many playwrights whose works were plundered for these scenes. Among the drolls taken from Shakespeare were Bottom the Weaver (Bottom 's scenes from A Midsummer Night 's Dream) and The Grave - makers (the gravedigger 's scene from Hamlet).
At the Restoration in 1660, Shakespeare 's plays were divided between the two newly licensed companies: the King 's Company of Thomas Killigrew and the Duke 's Men of William Davenant. The licensing system prevailed for two centuries; from 1660 to 1843, only two main companies regularly presented Shakespeare in London. Davenant, who had known early - Stuart actors such as John Lowin and Joseph Taylor, was the main figure establishing some continuity with earlier traditions; his advice to his actors is thus of interest as possible reflections of original practices.
On the whole, though, innovation was the order of the day for Restoration companies. John Downes reports that the King 's Men initially included some Caroline actors; however, the forced break of the Interregnum divided both companies from the past. Restoration actors performed on proscenium stages, often in the evening, between six and nine. Set - design and props became more elaborate and variable. Perhaps most noticeably, boy players were replaced by actresses. The audiences of comparatively expensive indoor theaters were richer, better educated, and more homogeneous than the diverse, often unruly crowds at the Globe. Davenant 's company began at the Salisbury Court Theatre, then moved to the theater at Lincoln 's Inn Fields, and finally settled in the Dorset Garden Theatre. Killigrew began at Gibbon 's Tennis Court before settling into Christopher Wren 's new theatre in Drury Lane. Patrons of both companies expected fare quite different from what had pleased Elizabethans. For tragedy, their tastes ran to heroic drama; for comedy, to the comedy of manners. Though they liked Shakespeare, they seem to have wished his plays to conform to these preferences.
Restoration writers obliged them by adapting Shakespeare 's plays freely. Writers such as William Davenant and Nahum Tate rewrote some of Shakespeare 's plays to suit the tastes of the day, which favoured the courtly comedy of Beaumont and Fletcher and the neo-classical rules of drama. In 1681, Tate provided The History of King Lear, a modified version of Shakespeare 's original tragedy with a happy ending. According to Stanley Wells, Tate 's version "supplanted Shakespeare 's play in every performance given from 1681 to 1838, '' when William Charles Macready played Lear from a shortened and rearranged version of Shakespeare 's text. "Twas my good fortune '', Tate said, "to light on one expedient to rectify what was wanting in the regularity and probability of the tale, which was to run through the whole a love betwixt Edgar and Cordelia that never changed words with each other in the original ''.
Tate 's Lear remains famous as an example of an ill - conceived adaptation arising from insensitivity to Shakespeare 's tragic vision. Tate 's genius was not in language - many of his interpolated lines do n't even scan - but in structure; his Lear begins brilliantly with the Edmund the Bastard 's first attention - grabbing speech, and ends with Lear 's heroic saving of Cordelia in the prison and a restoration of justice to the throne. Tate 's worldview, and that of the theatrical world that embraced (and demanded) his "happy ending '' versions of the Bard 's tragic works (such as King Lear and Romeo and Juliet) for over a century, arose from a profoundly different sense of morality in society and of the role that theatre and art should play within that society. Tate 's versions of Shakespeare see the responsibility of theatre as a transformative agent for positive change by holding a moral mirror up to our baser instincts. Tate 's versions of what we now consider some of the Bard 's greatest works dominated the stage throughout the 18th century precisely because the Ages of Enlightenment and Reason found Shakespeare 's "tragic vision '' immoral, and his tragic works unstageable. Tate is seldom performed today, though in 1985, the Riverside Shakespeare Company mounted a successful production of The History of King Lear at The Shakespeare Center, heralded by some as a "Lear for the Age of Ronald Reagan. ''
Perhaps a more typical example of the purpose of Restoration revisions is Davenant 's The Law Against Lovers, a 1662 comedy combining the main plot of Measure for Measure with subplot of Much Ado About Nothing. The result is a snapshot of Restoration comic tastes. Beatrice and Benedick are brought in to parallel Claudio and Hero; the emphasis throughout is on witty conversation, and Shakespeare 's thematic focus on lust is steadily downplayed. The play ends with three marriages: Benedick 's to Beatrice, Claudio 's to Hero, and Isabella 's to an Angelo whose attempt on Isabella 's virtue was a ploy. Davenant wrote many of the bridging scenes and recast much of Shakespeare 's verse as heroic couplets.
A final feature of Restoration stagecraft impacted productions of Shakespeare. The taste for opera that the exiles had developed in France made its mark on Shakespeare as well. Davenant and John Dryden worked The Tempest into an opera, The Tempest, or The Enchanted Island; their work featured a sister for Miranda, a man, Hippolito, who has never seen a woman, and another paired marriage at the end. It also featured many songs, a spectacular shipwreck scene, and a masque of flying cupids. Other of Shakespeare 's works given operatic treatment included A Midsummer Night 's Dream (as The Fairy - Queen in 1692) and Charles Gildon 's Measure for Measure (by way of an elaborate masque.)
However ill - guided such revisions may seem now, they made sense to the period 's dramatists and audiences. The dramatists approached Shakespeare not as bardolators, but as theater professionals. Unlike Beaumont and Fletcher, whose "plays are now the most pleasant and frequent entertainments of the stage '', according to Dryden in 1668, "two of theirs being acted through the year for one of Shakespeare 's or Jonson 's '', Shakespeare appeared to them to have become dated. Yet almost universally, they saw him as worth updating. Though most of these revised pieces failed on stage, many remained current on stage for decades; Thomas Otway 's Roman adaptation of Romeo and Juliet, for example, seems to have driven Shakespeare 's original from the stage between 1680 and 1744. It was in large part the revised Shakespeare that took the lead place in the repertory in the early 18th century, while Beaumont and Fletcher 's share steadily declined.
The 18th century witnessed three major changes in the production of Shakespeare 's plays. In England, the development of the star system transformed both acting and production; at the end of the century, the Romantic revolution touched acting as it touched all the arts. At the same time, actors and producers began to return to Shakespeare 's texts, slowly weeding out the Restoration revisions. Finally, by the end of the century Shakespeare 's plays had been established as part of the repertory outside of Great Britain: not only in the United States but in many European countries.
In the 18th century, Shakespeare dominated the London stage, while Shakespeare productions turned increasingly into the creation of star turns for star actors. After the Licensing Act of 1737, one fourth of the plays performed were by Shakespeare, and on at least two occasions rival London playhouses staged the very same Shakespeare play at the same time (Romeo and Juliet in 1755 and King Lear the next year) and still commanded audiences. This occasion was a striking example of the growing prominence of Shakespeare stars in the theatrical culture, the big attraction being the competition and rivalry between the male leads at Covent Garden and Drury Lane, Spranger Barry and David Garrick. In the 1740s, Charles Macklin, in roles such as Malvolio and Shylock, and David Garrick, who won fame as Richard III in 1741, helped make Shakespeare truly popular. Garrick went on to produce 26 of the plays at Drury Lane Theatre between 1747 and 1776, and he held a great Shakespeare Jubilee at Stratford in 1769. He freely adapted Shakespeare 's work, however, saying of Hamlet: "I had sworn I would not leave the stage till I had rescued that noble play from all the rubbish of the fifth act. I have brought it forth without the grave - digger 's trick, Osrick, & the fencing match. '' Apparently no incongruity was perceived in having Barry and Garrick, in their late thirties, play adolescent Romeo one season and geriatric King Lear the next. 18th century notions of verisimilitude did not usually require an actor to be physically appropriate for a role, a fact epitomized by a 1744 production of Romeo and Juliet in which Theophilus Cibber, then forty, played Romeo to the Juliet of his teenaged daughter Jennie.
Some of Shakespeare 's work was performed in continental Europe even during his lifetime; Ludwig Tieck pointed out German versions of Hamlet and other plays, of uncertain provenance, but certainly quite old. but it was not until after the middle of the next century that Shakespeare appeared regularly on German stages. In Germany Lessing compared Shakespeare to German folk literature. Goethe organised a Shakespeare jubilee in Frankfurt in 1771, stating that the dramatist had shown that the Aristotelian unities were "as oppressive as a prison '' and were "burdensome fetters on our imagination ''. Herder likewise proclaimed that reading Shakespeare 's work opens "leaves from the book of events, of providence, of the world, blowing in the sands of time. '' This claim that Shakespeare 's work breaks though all creative boundaries to reveal a chaotic, teeming, contradictory world became characteristic of Romantic criticism, later being expressed by Victor Hugo in the preface to his play Cromwell, in which he lauded Shakespeare as an artist of the grotesque, a genre in which the tragic, absurd, trivial and serious were inseparably intertwined.
Theatres and theatrical scenery became ever more elaborate in the 19th century, and the acting editions used were progressively cut and restructured to emphasize more and more the soliloquies and the stars, at the expense of pace and action. Performances were further slowed by the need for frequent pauses to change the scenery, creating a perceived need for even more cuts in order to keep performance length within tolerable limits; it became a generally accepted maxim that Shakespeare 's plays were too long to be performed without substantial cuts. The platform, or apron, stage, on which actors of the 17th century would come forward for audience contact, was gone, and the actors stayed permanently behind the fourth wall or proscenium arch, further separated from the audience by the orchestra (see image at right).
Victorian productions of Shakespeare often sought pictorial effects in "authentic '' historical costumes and sets. The staging of the reported sea fights and barge scene in Antony and Cleopatra was one spectacular example. Too often, the result was a loss of pace. Towards the end of the century, William Poel led a reaction against this heavy style. In a series of "Elizabethan '' productions on a thrust stage, he paid fresh attention to the structure of the drama.
Through the 19th century, a roll call of legendary actors ' names all but drown out the plays in which they appear: Sarah Siddons (1755 -- 1831), John Philip Kemble (1757 -- 1823), Henry Irving (1838 -- 1905), and Ellen Terry (1847 -- 1928). To be a star of the legitimate drama came to mean being first and foremost a "great Shakespeare actor '', with a famous interpretation of, for men, Hamlet, and for women, Lady Macbeth, and especially with a striking delivery of the great soliloquies. The acme of spectacle, star, and soliloquy of Shakespeare performance came with the reign of actor - manager Henry Irving and his co-star Ellen Terry in their elaborately staged productions, often with orchestral incidental music, at the Lyceum Theatre, London from 1878 to 1902. At the same time, a revolutionary return to the roots of Shakespeare 's original texts, and to the platform stage, absence of scenery, and fluid scene changes of the Elizabethan theatre, was being effected by William Poel 's Elizabethan Stage Society.
In the early 20th century, Harley Granville - Barker directed quarto and folio texts with few cuts, while Edward Gordon Craig and others called for abstract staging. Both approaches have influenced the variety of Shakespearean production styles seen today.
The 20th century also saw a multiplicity of visual interpretations of Shakespeare 's plays.
Gordon Craig 's design for Hamlet in 1911 was groundbreaking in its Cubist influence. Craig defined space with simple flats: monochrome canvases stretched on wooden frames, which were hinged together to be self - supporting. Though the construction of these flats was not original, its application to Shakespeare was completely new. The flats could be aligned in many configurations and provided a technique of simulating architectural or abstract lithic structures out of supplies and methods common to any theater in Europe or the Americas.
The second major shift of 20th - century scenography of Shakespeare was in Barry Vincent Jackson 's 1923 production of Cymbeline at the Birmingham Rep. This production was groundbreaking because it reintroduced the idea of modern dress back into Shakespeare. It was not the first modern - dress production since there were a few minor examples before World War I, but Cymbeline was the first to call attention to the device in a blatant way. Iachimo was costumed in evening dress for the wager, the court was in military uniforms, and the disguised Imogen in knickerbockers and cap. It was for this production that critics invented the catch phrase "Shakespeare in plus - fours ''. The experiment was moderately successful, and the director, H.K. Ayliff, two years later staged Hamlet in modern dress. These productions paved the way for the modern - dress Shakespearean productions that we are familiar with today.
In 1936, Orson Welles was hired by the Federal Theatre Project to direct a groundbreaking production of Macbeth in Harlem with an all African American cast. The production became known as the Voodoo Macbeth, as Welles changed the setting to a 19th - century Haiti run by an evil king thoroughly controlled by African magic. Initially hostile, the black community took to the production thoroughly, ensuring full houses for ten weeks at the Lafayette Theatre and prompting a small Broadway success and a national tour.
Other notable productions of the 20th century that follow this trend of relocating Shakespeare 's plays are H.K. Ayliff 's Macbeth of 1928 set on the battlefields of World War I, Welles ' Julius Caesar of 1937 based on the Nazi rallies at Nuremberg, and Thacker 's Coriolanus of 1994 costumed in the manner of the French Revolution.
In 1978, a deconstructive version of The Taming of the Shrew was performed at the Royal Shakespeare Theatre. The main character walked through the audience toward the stage, acting drunk and shouting sexist comments before he proceeded to tear down (i.e., deconstruct) the scenery. Even after press coverage, some audience members still fled from the performance, thinking they were witnessing a real assault.
The Royal Shakespeare Company in the UK has produced two major Shakespeare festivals in the twenty - first century. The first was the Complete Works (RSC festival) in 2006 -- 2007, which staged productions of all of Shakespeare 's plays and poems. The second is the World Shakespeare Festival in 2012, which is part of the London 2012 Cultural Olympiad, and features nearly 70 productions involving thousands of performers from across the world. More than half of these productions are part of the Globe to Globe Festival. Each of the productions in this festival has been reviewed by Shakespeare academics, theatre practitioners, and bloggers in a project called Year of Shakespeare.
In May 2009, Hamlet opened with Jude Law in the title role at the Donmar Warehouse West End season at Wyndham 's. He was joined by Ron Cook, Peter Eyre, Gwilym Lee, John MacMillan, Kevin R McNally, Gugu Mbatha - Raw, Matt Ryan, Alex Waldmann and Penelope Wilton. The production officially opened on 3 June and ran through 22 August 2009. The production was also mounted at Elsinore Castle in Denmark from 25 -- 30 August 2009 and on Broadway at the Broadhurst Theatre in New York.
The Propeller company have taken all - male cast productions around the world. Phyllida Lloyd has continually staged all - female cast versions of Shakespeare in London.
More than 420 feature - length film versions of Shakespeare 's plays have been produced since the early 20th century, making Shakespeare the most filmed author ever. Some of the film adaptations, especially Hollywood movies marketed to teenage audiences, use his plots rather than his dialogue, while others are simply filmed versions of his plays.
For centuries there had been an accepted style of how Shakespeare was to be performed which was erroneously labeled "Elizabethan '' but actually reflected a trend of design from a period shortly after Shakespeare 's death. Shakespeare 's performances were originally performed in contemporary dress. Actors were costumed in clothes that they might wear off the stage. This continued into the 18th century, the Georgian period, where costumes were the current fashionable dress. It was not until centuries after his death, primarily the 19th Century, that productions started looking back and tried to be "authentic '' to a Shakespearean style. The Victorian era had a fascination with historical accuracy and this was adapted to the stage in order to appeal to the educated middle class. Charles Kean was particularly interested in historical context and spent many hours researching historical dress and setting for his productions. This faux - Shakespearean style was fixed until the 20th century. As of the twenty - first century, there are very few productions of Shakespeare, both on stage and on film, which are still performed in "authentic '' period dress, while as late as 1990, virtually every true film version of a Shakespeare play was performed in correct period costume. The first film in English to break this pattern was 1995 's Richard III which updated the setting to the 1930s but changed none of Shakespeare 's dialogue.
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who played football for scotland and cricket for england | List of Scottish cricket and football players - wikipedia
This is a list of sportsmen who have played both first - class cricket and professional football in Scotland or England. The list includes four sportsmen who are dual internationals, having represented Scotland 's national team at both sports.
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who was most affected by the stamp act | Stamp Act 1765 - wikipedia
The Stamp Act of 1765 (short title Duties in American Colonies Act 1765; 5 George III, c. 12) was an Act of the Parliament of Great Britain that imposed a direct tax on the colonies of British America and required that many printed materials in the colonies be produced on stamped paper produced in London, carrying an embossed revenue stamp. Printed materials included legal documents, magazines, playing cards, newspapers, and many other types of paper used throughout the colonies. Like previous taxes, the stamp tax had to be paid in valid British currency, not in colonial paper money. The purpose of the tax was to help pay for troops stationed in North America after the British victory in the Seven Years ' War and its North American theater of the French and Indian War. However, the Colonists had never feared a French invasion to begin with, and they contended that they had already paid their share of the expenses. They suggested that it was actually a matter of British patronage to surplus British officers and career soldiers who should be paid by London.
The Stamp Act was very unpopular among colonists. A consensus considered it a violation of their rights as Englishmen to be taxed without their consent -- consent that only the colonial legislatures could grant. Their slogan was "No taxation without representation. '' Colonial assemblies sent petitions and protests. The Stamp Act Congress held in New York City was the first significant joint colonial response to any British measure; it petitioned Parliament and the King.
One member of the British Parliament argued that the colonials were no different from the 90 % residents of Great Britain who did not own property (and thus could not vote), but who were nevertheless "virtually '' represented by land - owning electors and representatives who had common interests with the nonvoters. An American attorney refuted this by pointing out that while electors in Great Britain could conceivably have enough in common with nonvoting residents of that country to justify "virtually '' representing nonvoters, "the relation between the British Americans, and the English electors, is a knot too infirm to be relied on. '' (i.e. not enough in common between Parliament and the Colonials to justify imposing the law without the consent of the Colonials).
Local protest groups led by colonial merchants and landowners established connections through Committees of Correspondence, creating a loose coalition that extended from New England to Maryland. Protests and demonstrations initiated by a new secret organization called the Sons of Liberty often turned violent and destructive as the masses became involved. Very soon, all stamp tax distributors were intimidated into resigning their commissions, and the tax was never effectively collected.
Opposition to the Stamp Act was not limited to the colonies. British merchants and manufacturers, whose exports to the colonies were threatened by colonial boycotts, pressured Parliament. The Act was repealed on 18 March 1766 as a matter of expedience, but Parliament affirmed its power to legislate for the colonies "in all cases whatsoever '' by also passing the Declaratory Act. There followed a series of new taxes and regulations, likewise opposed by the colonists.
The episode played a major role in defining the grievances that were clearly stated within the text of the Indictment of George III section of the Declaration of Independence, and enabling the organized colonial resistance that led to the American Revolution in 1775.
The British victory in the Seven Years ' War (1756 -- 1763), known in America as the French and Indian War, had been won only at a great financial cost. During the war, the British national debt nearly doubled, rising from £ 72,289,673 in 1755 to almost £ 129,586,789 by 1764. Post-war expenses were expected to remain high because the Bute ministry decided in early 1763 to keep ten thousand British regular soldiers in the American colonies, which would cost about £ 225,000 per year, equal to £ 30 million today. The primary reason for retaining such a large force was that demobilizing the army would put 1,500 officers out of work, many of whom were well - connected in Parliament. This made it politically prudent to retain a large peacetime establishment, but Britons were averse to maintaining a standing army at home so it was necessary to garrison most of the troops elsewhere.
Stationing 10,000 troops to separate American Indians and frontiersmen was one role. The outbreak of Pontiac 's Rebellion in May 1763 apparently reinforced the logic of this decision, as it was an American Indian uprising against the British expansion. The main reason to send 10,000 troops deep into the wilderness was to provide billets for the officers who were part of the British patronage system. John Adams said, "Revenue is still demanded from America, and appropriated to the maintenance of swarms of officers and pensioners in idleness and luxury. ''
George Grenville became prime minister in April 1763 after the failure of the short - lived Bute Ministry, and he had to find a way to pay for this large peacetime army. Raising taxes in Britain was out of the question, since there had been virulent protests in England against the Bute ministry 's 1763 cider tax, with Bute being hanged in effigy. The Grenville ministry therefore decided that Parliament would raise this revenue by taxing the American colonists without their consent. This was something new; Parliament had previously passed measures to regulate trade in the colonies, but it had never before directly taxed the colonies to raise revenue.
Politicians in London had always expected American colonists to contribute to the cost of their own defense. So long as a French threat existed, there was little trouble convincing colonial legislatures to provide assistance. Such help was normally provided through the raising of colonial militias, which were funded by taxes raised by colonial legislatures. Also, the legislatures were sometimes willing to help maintain regular British units defending the colonies. So long as this sort of help was forthcoming, there was little reason for the British Parliament to impose its own taxes on the colonists. But after the peace of 1763, colonial militias were quickly stood down. Militia officers were tired of the disdain shown to them by regular British officers, and were frustrated by the near - impossibility of obtaining regular British commissions; they were unwilling to remain in service once the war was over. In any case, they had no military role, as the Indian threat was minimal and there was no foreign threat. Colonial legislators saw no need for the British troops.
The Sugar Act of 1764 was the first tax in Grenville 's program to raise a revenue in America, which was a modification of the Molasses Act of 1733. The Molasses Act had imposed a tax of 6 pence per gallon (equal to £ 3.81 today) on foreign molasses imported into British colonies. The purpose of the Molasses Act was not actually to raise revenue, but instead to make foreign molasses so expensive that it effectively gave a monopoly to molasses imported from the British West Indies. It did not work; colonial merchants avoided the tax by smuggling or, more often, bribing customs officials. The Sugar Act reduced the tax to 3 pence per gallon (equal to £ 1.63 today) in the hope that the lower rate would increase compliance and thus increase the amount of tax collected. The Act also taxed additional imports and included measures to make the customs service more effective.
American colonists initially objected to the Sugar Act for economic reasons, but before long they recognized that there were constitutional issues involved. The British Constitution guaranteed that British subjects could not be taxed without their consent, which came in the form of representation in Parliament. The colonists elected no members of Parliament, and so it was seen as a violation of the British Constitution for Parliament to tax them. There was little time to raise this issue in response to the Sugar Act, but it came to be a major objection to the Stamp Act the following year.
Parliament announced in April 1764 when the Sugar Act was passed that they would also consider a stamp tax in the colonies. Opposition from the colonies was soon forthcoming to this possible tax, but neither members of Parliament nor American agents in Great Britain (such as Benjamin Franklin) anticipated the intensity of the protest that the tax generated.
Stamp acts had been a very successful method of taxation within Great Britain; they generated over £ 100,000 in tax revenue with very little in collection expenses. By requiring an official stamp on most legal documents, the system was almost self - regulating; a document would be null and void under British law without the required stamp. Imposition of such a tax on the colonies had been considered twice before the Seven Years ' War and once again in 1761. Grenville had actually been presented with drafts of colonial stamp acts in September and October 1763, but the proposals lacked the specific knowledge of colonial affairs to adequately describe the documents subject to the stamp. At the time of the passage of the Sugar Act in April 1764, Grenville made it clear that the right to tax the colonies was not in question, and that additional taxes might follow, including a stamp tax.
The Glorious Revolution had established the principle of parliamentary supremacy. Control of colonial trade and manufactures extended this principle across the ocean. This belief had never been tested on the issue of colonial taxation, but the British assumed that the interests of the thirteen colonies were so disparate that a joint colonial action was unlikely to occur against such a tax -- an assumption that had its genesis in the failure of the Albany Conference in 1754. By the end of December 1764, the first warnings of serious colonial opposition were provided by pamphlets and petitions from the colonies protesting both the Sugar Act and the proposed stamp tax.
For Grenville, the first issue was the amount of the tax. Soon after his announcement of the possibility of a tax, he had told American agents that he was not opposed to the Americans suggesting an alternative way of raising the money themselves. However, the only other alternative would be to requisition each colony and allow them to determine how to raise their share. This had never worked before, even during the French and Indian War, and there was no political mechanism in place that would have ensured the success of such cooperation. On 2 February 1765, Grenville met to discuss the tax with Benjamin Franklin, Jared Ingersoll from New Haven, Richard Jackson, agent for Connecticut, and Charles Garth, the agent for South Carolina (Jackson and Garth were also members of Parliament). These colonial representatives had no specific alternative to present; they simply suggested that the determination be left to the colonies. Grenville replied that he wanted to raise the money "by means the most easy and least objectionable to the Colonies ''. Thomas Whately had drafted the Stamp Act, and he said that the delay in implementation had been "out of Tenderness to the colonies '', and that the tax was judged as "the easiest, the most equal and the most certain. ''
The debate in Parliament began soon after this meeting. Petitions submitted by the colonies were officially ignored by Parliament. In the debate, Charles Townshend said, "and now will these Americans, children planted by our care, nourished up by our Indulgence until they are grown to a degree of strength and opulence, and protected by our arms, will they grudge to contribute their mite to relieve us from heavy weight of the burden which we lie under? '' This led to Colonel Isaac Barré 's response:
They planted by your care? No! Your oppression planted ' em in America. They fled from your tyranny to a then uncultivated and unhospitable country where they exposed themselves to almost all the hardships to which human nature is liable, and among others to the cruelties of a savage foe, the most subtle, and I take upon me to say, the most formidable of any people upon the face of God 's earth....
They nourished by your indulgence? They grew by your neglect of ' em. As soon as you began to care about ' em, that care was exercised in sending persons to rule over ' em, in one department and another, who were perhaps the deputies of deputies to some member of this house, sent to spy out their liberty, to misrepresent their actions and to prey upon ' em; men whose behaviour on many occasions has caused the blood of those sons of liberty to recoil within them....
They protected by your arms? They have nobly taken up arms in your defence, have exerted a valour amidst their constant and laborious industry for the defence of a country whose frontier while drenched in blood, its interior parts have yielded all its little savings to your emolument... The people I believe are as truly loyal as any subjects the king has, but a people jealous of their liberties and who will vindicate them if ever they should be violated; but the subject is too delicate and I will say no more. ''
The Stamp Act was passed by Parliament on 22 March 1765 with an effective date of 1 November 1765. It passed 205 -- 49 in the House of Commons and unanimously in the House of Lords. Historians Edmund and Helen Morgan describe the specifics of the tax:
The highest tax, £ 10, was placed... on attorney licenses. Other papers relating to court proceedings were taxed in amounts varying from 3d. to 10s. Land grants under a hundred acres were taxed 1s. 6d., between 100 and 200 acres 2s., and from 200 to 320 acres 2s. 6d., with an additional 2s 6d. for every additional 320 acres (1.3 km). Cards were taxed a shilling a pack, dice ten shillings, and newspapers and pamphlets at the rate of a penny for a single sheet and a shilling for every sheet in pamphlets or papers totaling more than one sheet and fewer than six sheets in octavo, fewer than twelve in quarto, or fewer than twenty in folio (in other words, the tax on pamphlets grew in proportion to their size but ceased altogether if they became large enough to qualify as a book).
The high taxes on lawyers and college students were designed to limit the growth of a professional class in the colonies. The stamps had to be purchased with hard currency, which was scarce, rather than the more plentiful colonial paper currency. To avoid draining currency out of the colonies, the revenues were to be expended in America, especially for supplies and salaries of British Army units who were stationed there.
Two features of the Stamp Act involving the courts attracted special attention. The tax on court documents specifically included courts "exercising ecclesiastical jurisdiction. '' These type of courts did not currently exist in the colonies and no bishops were currently assigned to the colonies, who would preside over the courts. Many colonists or their ancestors had fled England specifically to escape the influence and power of such state - sanctioned religious institutions, and they feared that this was the first step to reinstating the old ways in the colonies. Some Anglicans in the northern colonies were already openly advocating the appointment of such bishops, but they were opposed by both southern Anglicans and the non-Anglicans who made up the majority in the northern colonies.
The Stamp Act allowed admiralty courts to have jurisdiction for trying violators, following the example established by the Sugar Act. However, admiralty courts had traditionally been limited to cases involving the high seas. The Sugar Act seemed to fall within this precedent, but the Stamp Act did not, and the colonists saw this as a further attempt to replace their local courts with courts controlled by England.
Grenville started appointing Stamp Distributors almost immediately after the Act passed Parliament. Applicants were not hard to come by because of the anticipated income that the positions promised, and he appointed local colonists to the post. Benjamin Franklin even suggested the appointment of John Hughes as the agent for Pennsylvania, indicating that even Franklin was not aware of the turmoil and impact that the tax was going to generate on American - British relations or that these distributors would become the focus of colonial resistance.
Debate in the colonies had actually begun in the spring of 1764 over the Stamp Act when Parliament passed a resolution that contained the assertion, "That, towards further defraying the said Expences, it may be proper to charge certain Stamp Duties in the said Colonies and Plantations. '' Both the Sugar Act and the proposed Stamp Act were designed principally to raise revenue from the colonists. The Sugar Act, to a large extent, was a continuation of past legislation related primarily to the regulation of trade (termed an external tax), but its stated purpose was entirely new: to collect revenue directly from the colonists for a specific purpose. The novelty of the Stamp Act was that it was the first internal tax (a tax based entirely on activities within the colonies) levied directly on the colonies by Parliament. It was judged by the colonists to be a more dangerous assault on their rights than the Sugar Act was, because of its potential wide application to the colonial economy.
The theoretical issue that soon held center stage was the matter of taxation without representation. Benjamin Franklin had raised this as far back as 1754 at the Albany Congress when he wrote, "That it is suppos 'd an undoubted Right of Englishmen not to be taxed but by their own Consent given thro ' their Representatives. That the Colonies have no Representatives in Parliament. '' The counter to this argument was the theory of virtual representation. Thomas Whately enunciated this theory in a pamphlet that readily acknowledged that there could be no taxation without consent, but the facts were that at least 75 % of British adult males were not represented in Parliament because of property qualifications or other factors. Members of Parliament were bound to represent the interests of all British citizens and subjects, so colonists were the recipients of virtual representation in Parliament, like those disenfranchised subjects in the British Isles. This theory, however, ignored a crucial difference between the unrepresented in Britain and the colonists. The colonists enjoyed actual representation in their own legislative assemblies, and the issue was whether these legislatures, rather than Parliament, were in fact the sole recipients of the colonists ' consent with regard to taxation.
In May 1764, Samuel Adams of Boston drafted the following that stated the common American position:
For if our Trade may be taxed why not our Lands? Why not the Produce of our Lands & every thing we possess or make use of? This we apprehend annihilates our Charter Right to govern & tax ourselves -- It strikes our British Privileges, which as we have never forfeited them, we hold in common with our Fellow Subjects who are Natives of Britain: If Taxes are laid upon us in any shape without our having a legal Representation where they are laid, are we not reduced from the Character of free Subjects to the miserable State of tributary Slaves.
Massachusetts appointed a five - member Committee of Correspondence in June 1764 to coordinate action and exchange information regarding the Sugar Act, and Rhode Island formed a similar committee in October 1764. This attempt at unified action represented a significant step forward in colonial unity and cooperation. The Virginia House of Burgesses sent a protest of the taxes to London in December 1764, arguing that they did not have the specie required to pay the tax. Massachusetts, New York, New Jersey, Rhode Island, and Connecticut also sent protest to England in 1764. The content of the messages varied, but they all emphasized that taxation of the colonies without colonial assent was a violation of their rights. By the end of 1765, all of the Thirteen Colonies except Georgia and North Carolina had sent some sort of protest passed by colonial legislative assemblies.
The Virginia House of Burgesses reconvened in early May 1765 after news was received of the passage of the Act. By the end of May, it appeared that they would not consider the tax, and many legislators went home, including George Washington. Only 30 out of 116 Burgesses remained, but one of those remaining was Patrick Henry who was attending his first session. Henry led the opposition to the Stamp Act; he proposed his resolutions on 30 May 1765, and they were passed in the form of the Virginia Resolves. The Resolves stated:
Resolved, That the first Adventurers and Settlers of this his majesty 's colony and Dominion of Virginia brought with them, and transmitted to their Posterity, and all other his Majesty 's subjects since inhabiting in this his Majesty 's said Colony, all the Liberties, privileges, Franchises, and Immunities that have at any Time been held, enjoyed, and possessed, by the People of Great Britain.
Resolved, That by the two royal Charters, granted by King James the First, the Colonists aforesaid are declared entitled to all Liberties, Privileges, and Immunities of Denizens and natural Subjects, to all Intents and Purposes, as if they had been abiding and born within the Realm of England.
Resolved, That the Taxation of the People by themselves, or by Persons chosen by themselves to represent them, who could only know what Taxes the People are able to bear, or the easiest method of raising them, and must themselves be affected by every Tax laid on the People, is the only Security against a burdensome Taxation, and the distinguishing characteristick of British Freedom, without which the ancient Constitution can not exist.
Resolved, That his majesty 's liege people of this his most ancient and loyal Colony have without interruption enjoyed the inestimable Right of being governed by such Laws, respecting their internal Polity and Taxation, as are derived from their own Consent, with the Approbation of their Sovereign, or his Substitute; and that the same hath never been forfeited or yielded up, but hath been constantly recognized by the King and People of Great Britain.
On 6 June 1765, the Massachusetts Lower House proposed a meeting for the 1st Tuesday of October in New York City:
That it is highly expedient there should be a Meeting as soon as may be, of Committees from the Houses of Representatives or Burgesses in the several Colonies on this Continent to consult together on the present Circumstances of the Colonies, and the difficulties to which they are and must be reduced by the operation of the late Acts of Parliament for levying Duties and Taxes on the Colonies, and to consider of a general and humble Address to his Majesty and the Parliament to implore Relief.
There was no attempt to keep this meeting a secret; Massachusetts promptly notified Richard Jackson of the proposed meeting, their agent in England and a member of Parliament.
While the colonial legislatures were acting, the ordinary citizens of the colonies were also voicing their concerns outside of this formal political process. Historian Gary B. Nash wrote:
Whether stimulated externally or ignited internally, ferment during the years from 1761 to 1766 changed the dynamics of social and political relations in the colonies and set in motion currents of reformist sentiment with the force of a mountain wind. Critical to this half decade was the colonial response to England 's Stamp Act, more the reaction of common colonists than that of their presumed leaders.
Both loyal supporters of English authority and well - established colonial protest leaders underestimated the self - activating capacity of ordinary colonists. By the end of 1765... people in the streets had astounded, dismayed, and frightened their social superiors.
Early street protests were most notable in Boston. Andrew Oliver was a distributor of stamps for Massachusetts who was hanged in effigy on 14 August 1765 "from a giant elm tree at the crossing of Essex and Orange Streets in the city 's South End. '' Also hung was a jackboot painted green on the bottom ("a Green - ville sole ''), a pun on both Grenville and the Earl of Bute, the two people most blamed by the colonists. Lieutenant Governor Thomas Hutchinson ordered sheriff Stephen Greenleaf to take down the effigy, but he was opposed by a large crowd. All day the crowd detoured merchants on Orange Street to have their goods symbolically stamped under the elm tree, which later became known as the "Liberty Tree ''.
Ebenezer MacIntosh was a veteran of the Seven Years ' War and a shoemaker. One night, he led a crowd which cut down the effigy of Andrew Oliver and took it in a funeral procession to the Town House where the legislature met. From there, they went to Oliver 's office -- which they tore down and symbolically stamped the timbers. Next, they took the effigy to Oliver 's home at the foot of Fort Hill, where they beheaded it and then burned it -- along with Oliver 's stable house and coach and chaise. Greenleaf and Hutchinson were stoned when they tried to stop the mob, which then looted and destroyed the contents of Oliver 's house. Oliver asked to be relieved of his duties the next day. This resignation, however, was not enough. Oliver was ultimately forced by MacIntosh to be paraded through the streets and to publicly resign under the Liberty Tree.
As news spread of the reasons for Andrew Oliver 's resignation, violence and threats of aggressive acts increased throughout the colonies, as did organized groups of resistance. Throughout the colonies, members of the middle and upper classes of society formed the foundation for these groups of resistance and soon called themselves the Sons of Liberty. These colonial groups of resistance burned effigies of royal officials, forced Stamp Act collectors to resign, and were able to get businessmen and judges to go about without using the proper stamps demanded by Parliament.
On 16 August, a mob damaged the home and official papers of William Story, the deputy register of the Vice-Admiralty, who then moved to Marblehead, Massachusetts. Benjamin Hallowell, the comptroller of customs, suffered the almost total loss of his home.
On 26 August, MacIntosh led an attack on Hutchinson 's mansion. The mob evicted the family, destroyed the furniture, tore down the interior walls, emptied the wine cellar, scattered Hutchinson 's collection of Massachusetts historical papers, and pulled down the building 's cupola. Hutchinson had been in public office for three decades; he estimated his loss at £ 2,218 (in today 's money, at nearly $250,000). Nash concludes that this attack was more than just a reaction to the Stamp Act:
But it is clear that the crowd was giving vent to years of resentment at the accumulation of wealth and power by the haughty prerogative faction led by Hutchinson. Behind every swing of the ax and every hurled stone, behind every shattered crystal goblet and splintered mahogany chair, lay the fury of a plain Bostonian who had read or heard the repeated references to impoverished people as "rable '' and to Boston 's popular caucus, led by Samuel Adams, as a "herd of fools, tools, and synchophants. ''
Governor Francis Bernard offered a £ 300 reward for information on the leaders of the mob, but no information was forthcoming. MacIntosh and several others were arrested, but were either freed by pressure from the merchants or released by mob action.
The street demonstrations originated from the efforts of respectable public leaders such as James Otis, who commanded the Boston Gazette, and Samuel Adams of the "Loyal Nine '' of the Boston Caucus, an organization of Boston merchants. They made efforts to control the people below them on the economic and social scale, but they were often unsuccessful in maintaining a delicate balance between mass demonstrations and riots. These men needed the support of the working class, but also had to establish the legitimacy of their actions to have their protests to England taken seriously. At the time of these protests, the Loyal Nine was more of a social club with political interests but, by December 1765, it began issuing statements as the Sons of Liberty.
Rhode Island also experienced street violence. A crowd built a gallows near the Town House in Newport on 27 August, where they carried effigies of three officials appointed as stamp distributors: Augustus Johnson, Dr. Thomas Moffat, and lawyer Martin Howard. The crowd at first was led by merchants William Ellery, Samuel Vernon, and Robert Crook, but they soon lost control. That night, the crowd was led by a poor man named John Weber, and they attacked the houses of Moffat and Howard, where they destroyed walls, fences, art, furniture, and wine. The local Sons of Liberty were publicly opposed to violence, and they refused at first to support Weber when he was arrested. They were persuaded to come to his assistance, however, when retaliation was threatened against their own homes. Weber was released and faded into obscurity.
Howard became the only prominent American to publicly support the Stamp Act in his pamphlet "A Colonist 's Defence of Taxation '' (1765). After the riots, Howard had to leave the colony, but he was rewarded by the Crown with an appointment as Chief Justice of North Carolina at a salary of ₤ 1,000.
In New York, James McEvers resigned his distributorship four days after the attack on Hutchinson 's house. The stamps arrived in New York Harbor on 24 October for several of the northern colonies. Placards appeared throughout the city warning that "the first man that either distributes or makes use of stamped paper let him take care of his house, person, and effects. '' New York merchants met on 31 October and agreed not to sell any English goods until the Act was repealed. Crowds took to the streets for four days of demonstrations, uncontrolled by the local leaders, culminating in an attack by two thousand people on Governor Cadwallader Colden 's home and the burning of two sleighs and a coach. Unrest in New York City continued through the end of the year, and the local Sons of Liberty had difficulty in controlling crowd actions.
In Frederick, Maryland, a court of 12 magistrates ruled the Stamp Act invalid on 23 November 1765, and directed that businesses and colonial officials proceed in all matters without use of the stamps. A week later, a crowd conducted a mock funeral procession for the act in the streets of Frederick. The magistrates have been dubbed the "12 Immortal Justices, '' and 23 November has been designated "Repudiation Day '' by the Maryland state legislature. On 1 October 2015, Senator Cardin (D - MD) read into the Congressional Record a statement noting 2015 as the 250th anniversary of the event. Among the 12 magistrates was William Luckett, who later served as lieutenant colonel in the Maryland Militia at the battle of Germantown.
Other popular demonstrations occurred in Portsmouth, New Hampshire, Annapolis, Maryland, Wilmington and New Bern, North Carolina, and Charleston, South Carolina. In Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, demonstrations were subdued but even targeted Benjamin Franklin 's home, although it was not vandalized. By 16 November, twelve of the stamp distributors had resigned. The Georgia distributor did not arrive in America until January 1766, but his first and only official action was to resign.
The overall effect of these protests was to both anger and unite the American people like never before. Opposition to the Act inspired both political and constitutional forms of literature throughout the colonies, strengthened the colonial political perception and involvement, and created new forms of organized resistance. These organized groups quickly learned that they could force royal officials to resign by employing violent measures and threats.
The main issue was constitutional rights of Englishmen, so the French in Quebec did not react. Some English - speaking merchants were opposed, but were in a fairly small minority. The Quebec Gazette ceased publication until the act was repealed, apparently over the unwillingness to use stamped paper. In neighboring Nova Scotia a number of former New England residents objected, but recent British immigrants and London - oriented business interests based in Halifax, the provincial capital were more influential. The only major public protest was the hanging in effigy of the stamp distributor and Lord Bute. The act was implemented in both provinces, but Nova Scotia 's stamp distributor resigned in January 1766, beset by ungrounded fears for his safety. Authorities there were ordered to allow ships bearing unstamped papers to enter its ports, and business continued unabated after the distributors ran out of stamps. The Act occasioned some protests in Newfoundland, and the drafting of petitions opposing not only the Stamp Act, but the existence of the customhouse at St. John 's, based on legislation dating back to the reign of Edward VI forbidding any sort of duties on the importation of goods related to its fisheries.
Violent protests were few in the Caribbean colonies. Political opposition was expressed in a number of colonies, including Barbados and Antigua, and by absentee landowners living in Britain. The worst political violence took place on St. Kitts and Nevis. Riots took place on 31 October 1765, and again on 5 November, targeting the homes and offices of stamp distributors; the number of participants suggests that the percentage of St. Kitts ' white population involved matched that of Bostonian involvement in its riots. The delivery of stamps to St. Kitts was successfully blocked, and they were never used there. Montserrat and Antigua also succeeded in avoiding the use of stamps; some correspondents thought that rioting was prevented in Antigua only by the large troop presence. Despite vocal political opposition, Barbados used the stamps, to the pleasure of King George. In Jamaica there was also vocal opposition, which included threats of violence. There was much evasion of the stamps, and ships arriving without stamped papers were allowed to enter port. Despite this, Jamaica produced more stamp revenue (£ 2,000) than any other colony.
It was during this time of street demonstrations that locally organized groups started to merge into an inter-colonial organization of a type not previously seen in the colonies. The term "sons of liberty '' had been used in a generic fashion well before 1765, but it was only around February 1766 that its influence extended throughout the colonies as an organized group using the formal name "Sons of Liberty '', leading to a pattern for future resistance to the British that carried the colonies towards 1776. Historian John C. Miller noted that the name was adopted as a result of Barre 's use of the term in his February 1765 speech.
The organization spread month by month after independent starts in several different colonies. By 6 November, a committee was set up in New York to correspond with other colonies, and in December an alliance was formed between groups in New York and Connecticut. In January, a correspondence link was established between Boston and Manhattan, and by March, Providence had initiated connections with New York, New Hampshire, and Newport. By March, Sons of Liberty organizations had been established in New Jersey, Maryland, and Norfolk, Virginia, and a local group established in North Carolina was attracting interest in South Carolina and Georgia.
The officers and leaders of the Sons of Liberty "were drawn almost entirely from the middle and upper ranks of colonial society, '' but they recognized the need to expand their power base to include "the whole of political society, involving all of its social or economic subdivisions. '' To do this, the Sons of Liberty relied on large public demonstrations to expand their base. They learned early on that controlling such crowds was problematical, although they strived to control "the possible violence of extra-legal gatherings. '' The organization professed its loyalty to both local and British established government, but possible military action as a defensive measure was always part of their considerations. Throughout the Stamp Act Crisis, the Sons of Liberty professed continued loyalty to the King because they maintained a "fundamental confidence '' that Parliament would do the right thing and repeal the tax.
Colonial newspapers were a major source of public unrest after the passage of the Stamp Act. Some of the earliest forms of American propaganda appeared in these printings in response to the law. The articles written in colonial newspapers were particularly critical of the act because of the Stamp Act 's disproportionate effect on printers. David Ramsay, a patriot and historian from South Carolina, wrote of this phenomenon shortly after the American Revolution:
It was fortunate for the liberties of America, that newspapers were the subject of a heavy stamp duty. Printers, when influenced by government, have genereally arranged themselves on the side of liberty, nor are they less remarkable for attention to the profits of their profession. A stamp duty, which openly invaded the first, and threatened a great diminution of the last, provoked their united zealous opposition.
Most printers were critical of the Stamp Act, although a few Loyalist voices did exist. Some of the more subtle Loyalist sentiments can be seen in publications such as The Boston Evening Post, which was run by British sympathizers John and Thomas Fleet. The article detailed a violent protest that occurred in New York in December, 1765, then described the riot 's participants as "imperfect '' and labeled the group 's ideas as "contrary to the general sense of the people. '' These Loyalists beliefs can be seen in some of the early newspaper articles about the Stamp Act, but the anti-British writings were more prevalent and seem to have had a more powerful effect.
Many papers assumed a relatively conservative tone before the act went into effect, implying that they might close if it was n't repealed. However, as time passed and violent demonstrations ensued, the authors became more vitriolic. Several newspaper editors were involved with the Sons of Liberty, such as William Bradford of The Pennsylvania Journal and Benjamin Edes of The Boston Gazette, and they echoed the group 's sentiments in their publications. The Stamp Act went into effect that November, and many newspapers ran editions with imagery of tombstones and skeletons, emphasizing that their papers were "dead '' and would no longer be able to print because of the Stamp Act. However, most of them returned in the upcoming months, defiantly appearing without the stamp of approval that was deemed necessary by the Stamp Act. Printers were greatly relieved when the law was nullified in the following spring, and the repeal asserted their positions as a powerful voice (and compass) for public opinion.
The Stamp Act Congress was held in New York in October 1765. Twenty - seven delegates from nine colonies were the members of the Congress, and their responsibility was to draft a set of formal petitions stating why Parliament had no right to tax them. Among the delegates were many important men in the colonies. Historian John Miller observes, "The composition of this Stamp Act Congress ought to have been convincing proof to the British government that resistance to parliamentary taxation was by no means confined to the riffraff of colonial seaports. ''
The youngest delegate was 26 - year - old John Rutledge of South Carolina, and the oldest was 65 - year - old Hendrick Fisher of New Jersey. Ten of the delegates were lawyers, ten were merchants, and seven were planters or land - owning farmers; all had served in some type of elective office, and all but three were born in the colonies. Four died before the colonies declared independence, and four signed the Declaration of Independence; nine attended the first and second Continental Congresses, and three were Loyalists during the Revolution.
New Hampshire declined to send delegates, and North Carolina, Georgia, and Virginia were not represented because their governors did not call their legislatures into session, thus preventing the selection of delegates. Despite the composition of the congress, each of the Thirteen Colonies eventually affirmed its decisions. Six of the nine colonies represented at the Congress agreed to sign the petitions to the King and Parliament produced by the Congress. The delegations from New York, Connecticut, and South Carolina were prohibited from signing any documents without first receiving approval from the colonial assemblies that had appointed them.
Massachusetts governor Francis Bernard believed that his colony 's delegates to the Congress would be supportive of Parliament. Timothy Ruggles in particular was Bernard 's man, and was elected chairman of the Congress. Ruggles ' instructions from Bernard were to "recommend submission to the Stamp Act until Parliament could be persuaded to repeal it. '' Many delegates felt that a final resolution of the Stamp Act would actually bring Britain and the colonies closer together. Robert Livingston of New York stressed the importance of removing the Stamp Act from the public debate, writing to his colony 's agent in England, "If I really wished to see America in a state of independence I should desire as one of the most effectual means to that end that the stamp act should be enforced. ''
The Congress met for 12 consecutive days, including Sundays. There was no audience at the meetings, and no information was released about the deliberations. The meeting 's final product was called "The Declaration of Rights and Grievances '', and was drawn up by delegate John Dickinson of Pennsylvania. This Declaration raised fourteen points of colonial protest. It asserted that colonists possessed all the rights of Englishmen in addition to protesting the Stamp Act issue, and that Parliament could not represent the colonists since they had no voting rights over Parliament. Only the colonial assemblies had a right to tax the colonies. They also asserted that the extension of authority of the admiralty courts to non-naval matters represented an abuse of power.
In addition to simply arguing for their rights as Englishmen, the congress also asserted that they had certain natural rights solely because they were human beings. Resolution 3 stated, "That it is inseparably essential to the freedom of a people, and the undoubted right of Englishmen, that no taxes be imposed on them, but with their own consent, given personally, or by their representatives. '' Both Massachusetts and Pennsylvania brought forth the issue in separate resolutions even more directly when they respectively referred to "the Natural rights of Mankind '' and "the common rights of mankind ''.
Christopher Gadsden of South Carolina had proposed that the Congress ' petition should go only to the king, since the rights of the colonies did not originate with Parliament. This radical proposal went too far for most delegates and was rejected. The "Declaration of Rights and Grievances '' was duly sent to the king, and petitions were also sent to both Houses of Parliament.
Grenville was replaced by Lord Rockingham as Prime Minister on 10 July 1765. News of the mob violence began to reach England in October. Conflicting sentiments were taking hold in Britain at the same time that resistance was building and accelerating in America. Some wanted to strictly enforce the Stamp Act over colonial resistance, wary of the precedent that would be set by backing down. Others felt the economic effects of reduced trade with America after the Sugar Act and an inability to collect debts while the colonial economy suffered, and they began to lobby for a repeal of the Stamp Act. The colonial protest had included various non-importation agreements among merchants who recognized that a significant portion of British industry and commerce was dependent on the colonial market. This movement had also spread through the colonies; 200 merchants had met in New York City and agreed to import nothing from England until the Stamp Act was repealed.
When Parliament met in December 1765, it rejected a resolution offered by Grenville that would have condemned colonial resistance to the enforcement of the Act. Outside of Parliament, Rockingham and his secretary Edmund Burke, a member of Parliament himself, organized London merchants who started a committee of correspondence to support repeal of the Stamp Act by urging merchants throughout the country to contact their local representatives in Parliament. When Parliament reconvened on 14 January 1766, the Rockingham ministry formally proposed repeal. Amendments were considered that would have lessened the financial impact on the colonies by allowing colonists to pay the tax in their own scrip, but this was viewed to be too little and too late.
William Pitt stated in the Parliamentary debate that everything done by the Grenville ministry "has been entirely wrong '' with respect to the colonies. He further stated, "It is my opinion that this Kingdom has no right to lay a tax upon the colonies. '' Pitt still maintained "the authority of this kingdom over the colonies, to be sovereign and supreme, in every circumstance of government and legislature whatsoever, '' but he made the distinction that taxes were not part of governing, but were "a voluntary gift and grant of the Commons alone. '' He rejected the notion of virtual representation, as "the most contemptible idea that ever entered into the head of man. ''
Grenville responded to Pitt:
Protection and obedience are reciprocal. Great Britain protects America; America is bound to yield obedience. If, not, tell me when the Americans were emancipated? When they want the protection of this kingdom, they are always ready to ask for it. That protection has always been afforded them in the most full and ample manner. The nation has run itself into an immense debt to give them their protection; and now they are called upon to contribute a small share towards the public expence, and expence arising from themselves, they renounce your authority, insult your officers, and break out, I might also say, into open rebellion.
Pitt 's response to Grenville included, "I rejoice that America has resisted. Three millions of people, so dead to all the feelings of liberty as voluntarily to submit to be slaves, would have been fit instruments to make slaves of the rest. ''
Between 17 and 27 January, Rockingham shifted the attention from constitutional arguments to economic by presenting petitions complaining of the economic repercussions felt throughout the country. On 7 February, the House of Commons rejected a resolution by 274 -- 134, saying that it would back the King in enforcing the Act. Henry Seymour Conway, the government 's leader in the House of Commons, introduced the Declaratory Act in an attempt to address both the constitutional and the economic issues, which affirmed the right of Parliament to legislate for the colonies "in all cases whatsoever '', while admitting the inexpediency of attempting to enforce the Stamp Act. Only Pitt and three or four others voted against it. Other resolutions passed which condemned the riots and demanded compensation from the colonies for those who suffered losses because of the actions of the mobs.
The House of Commons heard testimony between 11 and 13 February, the most important witness being Benjamin Franklin on the last day of the hearings. He responded to the question about how the colonists would react if the Act was not repealed: "A total loss of the respect and affection the people of America bear to this country, and of all the commerce that depends on that respect and affection. '' A Scottish journalist observed Franklin 's answers to Parliament and his affect on the repeal; he later wrote to Franklin, "To this very Examination, more than to any thing else, you are indebted to the speedy and total Repeal of this odious Law. ''
A resolution was introduced on 21 February to repeal the Stamp Act, and it passed by a vote of 276 -- 168. The King gave royal assent on 18 March 1766.
Some aspects of the resistance to the act provided a sort of rehearsal for similar acts of resistance to the 1767 Townshend Acts, particularly the activities of the Sons of Liberty and merchants in organizing opposition. The Stamp Act Congress was a predecessor to the later Continental Congresses, notably the Second Continental Congress which oversaw the establishment of American independence. The Committees of Correspondence used to coordinate activities were revived between 1772 and 1774 in response to a variety of controversial and unpopular affairs, and the colonies that met at the 1774 First Continental Congress established a non-importation agreement known as the Continental Association in response to Parliamentary passage of the Intolerable Acts.
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who was the first person to be baptised | Baptism in early Christianity - wikipedia
Baptism has been part of Christianity from the start, as shown by the many mentions in the Acts of the Apostles and the Pauline epistles.
Although the term "baptism '' is not today used to describe the Jewish rituals (in contrast to New Testament times, when the Greek word baptismos did indicate Jewish ablutions or rites of purification), the purification rites (or mikvah -- ritual immersion) in Jewish law and tradition have some similarity to baptism, and the two have been linked. In the Hebrew Bible and other Jewish texts, immersion in water for ritual purification was established for restoration to a condition of "ritual purity '' in specific circumstances. For example, Jews who (according to the Law of Moses) became ritually defiled by contact with a corpse had to use the mikvah before being allowed to participate in the Temple in Jerusalem. Immersion was not required for converts to Judaism as part of their conversion, although many mistakenly believe otherwise. Immersion in the mikvah represents a change in status in regards to purification, restoration, and qualification for full religious participation in the life of the community, ensuring that the cleansed person will not impose uncleanness on property or its owners.
The New Testament includes several references to baptism as an important practice among early Christians and, while giving no actual account of its institution by Jesus, portrays him as giving instructions, after his resurrection, for his followers to perform the rite (see Great Commission). It also gives interpretations by the Apostle Paul and in the First Epistle of Peter of the significance of baptism.
Truly, truly, I say to you, unless one is born of water and the Spirit, he can not enter the kingdom of God
Christ loved the church and gave himself up for her, that he might sanctify her by the washing of water with the word, that he might present the church to himself in splendor, without spot or wrinkle or any such thing, that she might be holy and without blemish.
God 's patience waited in the days of Noah, during the building of the ark, in which a few, that is, eight persons, were saved through water. Baptism, which corresponds to this, now saves you
The baptism of Jesus is described in the gospels of Matthew, Mark and Luke. John 's gospel does not directly describe Jesus ' baptism.
John the Baptist was a 1st - century mission preacher on the banks of the River Jordan. He baptized Jews for repentance in the River Jordan.
At the start of his ministry, Jesus was baptized by John the Baptist. Critical scholars broadly agree that the baptism of Jesus is one of the most authentic, or historically likely, events in the life of the historical Jesus. Christian baptism has its origin in the baptism of Jesus, in both a direct and historical sense. Many of the earliest followers of Jesus were people who, like him, were baptized in the Jordan by John the Baptist.
The Gospel of John states that Jesus at an early stage led a mission of baptism that drew crowds. John 4: 2, considered by many scholars to be a later editorial insertion, denies that Jesus himself baptized and states that he did so only through his disciples.
Some prominent scholars conclude that Jesus did not baptize. Gerd Theissen and Annette Merz assert that Jesus did not baptize, detached the notion of repentance from baptism, recognized John 's baptism, and put forward a purity ethic in tension with baptism. The Oxford Dictionary of World Religions also states that Jesus did not baptize as part of his ministry.
E.P. Sanders omits John 's account of Jesus ' baptizing mission from his portrait of Jesus as a historical figure.
Robert W. Funk considers the account of Jesus ' baptism ministry in John to have internal difficulties: that, for instance, it reports Jesus coming to Judea even though he is already in Jerusalem and thus in Judea. John 3: 22 actually speaks of Jesus and his disciples coming, not "εἰς τὴν Ἰουδαίαν '' (into Judea), but "εἰς τὴν Ἰουδαίαν γῆν '' (into the Judean countryside), which some interpret as contrasted with Jerusalem, the scene of the encounter with Nicodemus described immediately before. According to the Jesus Seminar, the passage about Jesus "coming to Judea '' (as they interpret "εἰς τὴν Ἰουδαίαν γῆν '') to lead a mission of baptism probably preserves no historical information (a "black '' rating).
On the other hand, the Cambridge Companion to Jesus takes a different view. According to this source, Jesus accepted and made his own John the Baptist 's message of repentance, forgiveness and baptism; taking over from John, when the latter was imprisoned, he called for repentance and for baptism as a first step in accepting the imminent Kingdom of God; and the central place of baptism in his message is confirmed by the passage in John about Jesus baptizing. After John 's execution, Jesus ceased baptizing, through he may have occasionally returned to the practice; accordingly, while baptism played an important part in Jesus ' ministry before John 's death and again among his followers after his resurrection, it had no such prominence in between.
New Testament scholar Raymond E. Brown, a specialist in the Johannine writings, considers that the parenthetic editorial remark of John 4: 2 that Jesus baptized only through his disciples was intended to clarify or correct the twice repeated statement in the preceding verses that Jesus did baptize, and that the reason for its insertion may have been that the author considered the baptism that the disciples administered to be a continuation of the Baptist 's work, not baptism in the Holy Spirit.
Other New Testament scholars also accept the historical value of this passage in John. This is the view expressed by Joel B. Green, Scot McKnight, I. Howard Marshall. Another states that there is "no a priori reason to reject the report of Jesus and his disciples ' conducting a ministry of baptism for a time '', and mentions that report as one of the items in John 's account "that are likely to be historical and ought to be given due weight ''.
In his book on the relationship between John the Baptist and Jesus of Nazareth, Daniel S. Dapaah says that John 's account "may be a snippet of historical tradition '', and comments that the silence of the Synoptic Gospels does not mean that the information in John was invented, and that Mark 's account also suggests that Jesus worked with John at first, before moving to Galilee. Frederick J. Cwiekowski agrees that the account in John "gives the impression '' that Jesus baptized.
The Joseph Smith Translation of the Bible says that "though he (Christ) himself baptized not so many as his disciples; ' For he suffered them for an example, preferring one another. '
The Gospel of John remarks, in John 3: 32, that, though Jesus drew many people to his baptism, they still did not accept his testimony, and the Jesus Seminar concludes, on the basis of Josephus 's accounts, that John the Baptist likely had a larger presence in the public mind than Jesus.
In the Pauline epistles baptism effects and represents the believer 's union with Christ, a union by which the believer shares in Christ 's death and resurrection; cleanses of sin; incorporates into the Body of Christ and makes one "drink of the Spirit. ''
The conception of a sacramental principle, widespread not only in the Greco - Roman world, but even in pre-Columbian America and in preliterate societies, took on a unique significance, and to Paul 's influence is attributed an interpretation given to the Christian rite in terms of the Greco - Roman mysteries but little weight can be attached to the counterparts of baptism in mystery religions as an explanation of the Christian practice.
Matthew begins with the "generation '' of Jesus as Son of David, followed by the visit of the gentile Magi, and the flight into Egypt to escape Herod, after whose death the holy family returns into the land of Israel, then moves to Nazareth, and then includes a detailed version of the preaching of John the Baptist, followed by the baptism of Jesus. John protests to Jesus that he needs to be baptized by Jesus, but Jesus tells him to let it be so now, saying that it is fitting for the two of them ("for us '') to thus "fulfill all righteousness. '' When Jesus is baptized, he goes up immediately out of the water, the heavens open and John sees the Spirit of God descend upon him like a dove, alighting on him, and he hears a voice from heaven say, "This is my beloved Son, with whom I am well pleased. ''
Later, at the request of the mother of James and John, who prompted her to present their request to him to declare that they are to sit one at his right hand and the other at his left, Jesus speaks of the "cup '' he is to drink, and he tells them that they too will drink of his cup, but in Matthew 's gospel Jesus does not explicitly state that the baptism with which he must be baptized is also the "cup '' that he must drink.
The Gospel of Matthew also includes the most famous version of the Great Commission. Here, the resurrected Jesus appears to the apostles and commissions them to make disciples of all nations, to baptize, and teach. This commission reflects the program adopted by the infant Christian movement.
This gospel, today generally believed by scholars to be the first and to have been used as a basis for Matthew and Luke, begins with Jesus ' baptism by John, who preached a baptism of repentance for forgiveness of sins. John says of Jesus that he will baptize not with water but with the Holy Spirit. At Jesus ' baptism, he hears God 's voice proclaiming him to be his Son, and he sees the spirit like a dove descend on him.
During Jesus ' ministry, when James and John ask Jesus for seats of honor in the coming kingdom, Jesus likens his fate to the cup that he will drink and to the baptism with which he must be baptized, the very cup and baptism in store for John and James (that is, martyrdom).
The traditional ending of Mark is thought to have been compiled early in the 2nd century, and initially appended to the gospel by the middle of that century. It says that those who believe and are baptized will be saved, "but he who does not believe will be condemned. '' Mark 's gospel does not explicitly state that baptized persons who believe will be saved from the "wrath to come, '' the wrath to which John the Baptist refers in Matthew 's gospel, but readers can infer that being "condemned '' includes the "wrath to come ''.
This gospel begins with a statement that it contains reliable information obtained directly from the original eyewitnesses and servants of the word. It introduces the conception of John the Baptist, the annunciation of Gabriel to Mary the virgin, the birth of the Baptist who will be called the prophet of the Most High, and then the birth of Jesus, in the days of Herod, king of Judea, and of Caesar Augustus, emperor of the Roman Empire. There follows the account of Jesus in the Temple among the teachers; and then the calling and preaching of the prophet John the Baptist in the days of Tiberius Caesar, emperor, of Herod and Philip, tetrarchs, of Annas and Caiaphas, high priests; and then by far the briefest account in the canonical Gospels of the baptism of Jesus.
The baptism of John is different from the baptism of the one who is to come after him. Jesus declares later that he has another baptism to be baptized with, and that he is under constraint (he is straitened) until it is accomplished. (The petition of the mother of James and John, the personal request of James and John, and Jesus ' declaration to them that they will be baptized as he will be baptized, and will drink the cup that he will drink, is not in Luke 's gospel.)
In the Gospel of Luke, the risen Jesus appears to the disciples and the eleven apostles gathered together with them in Jerusalem and gives them the Great Commission without explicitly speaking of baptism, but readers can infer that "the forgiveness of sins '' here includes "baptism '' according to the preaching of the apostles at the time of Luke 's gospel.
The Gospel of John mentions John the Baptist 's baptizing activity, in particular his baptism of Jesus,, and his statement that Jesus would baptize with the Holy Spirit. It also mentions baptizing activity by Jesus, specifying that the baptizing was not done by Jesus himself but by his disciples.
Some references to water in John 's Gospel have been interpreted as referring to baptism, in particular, the phrase "born of water and the Spirit '' and the account of blood and water coming out of the side of Jesus when pierced after crucifixion
Acts of the Apostles, written c. 85 -- 90, states that about 3,000 people in Jerusalem were baptized in one day on Pentecost. It further relates baptisms of men and women in Samaria, of an Ethiopian eunuch, of Saul of Tarsus, of the household of Cornelius, of Lydia 's household, of the Philippi jailer 's household, of many Corinthians and of certain Corinthians baptized by Paul personally.
In Acts, the prerequisites of baptism are faith and repentance, but in certain cases (like Cornelius ' household) the reception of the Spirit also precedes baptism.
Also in Acts, some twelve men who had undergone John 's baptism, a "baptism of repentance '' that John administered, "telling the people to believe in the one who was to come after him, that is, Jesus '', were baptized "in the name of the Lord Jesus '', whereupon they received the Holy Spirit.
Acts 2: 38, Acts 10: 48 and Acts 19: 5 speak of baptism "in the name of Jesus '' or "in the name of the Lord Jesus Christ '', but whether this was a formula that was used has been questioned.
There is a scholarly consensus that the earliest Christian baptism was by immersion. Thomas Schreiner likewise states that "Most scholars agree that immersion was practiced in the NT '', identifying submersion as the form of immersion practiced. Heyler says most New Testament scholars generally agree that Christian baptism in the New Testament era was by immersion. Everett Ferguson similarly speaks of "general scholarly agreement '' that the baptism commanded by Jesus was immersion in water by dipping, in the form of a "full bath ''. He describes medieval depictions of Jesus standing in water while John poured water over him as a "strange fantasy '' deriving from later church practice. Di Berardino describes the baptism of the New Testament era as generally requiring total immersion, Tischler says that total immersion seems to have been most commonly used, and Lang says "Baptism in the Bible was by immersion, that is, the person went fully under the waters ''. Sookey says it is "almost certain '' that immersion was used. The Global Dictionary of Theology says that it is probable that immersion was the early church 's normal mode of baptism, but that it was not seen as an important issue.
The Didache or Teaching of the Twelve Apostles, an anonymous book of 16 short chapters, is probably the earliest known written instructions, outside of the Bible, for administering baptism. The first version of it was written c. 60 -- 80 AD. The second, with insertions and additions, was written c. 100 -- 50 AD. This work, rediscovered in the 19th century, provides a unique look at Christianity in the Apostolic Age and is the first explicit reference to baptism by pouring, although the New Testament does not exclude the possibility of this practice. '' Its instructions on baptism are as follows:
Now about baptism: this is how to baptize. Give public instruction on all these points, and then baptize in running water, in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit... If you do not have running water, baptize in some other. If you can not in cold, then in warm. If you have neither, then pour water on the head three times in the name of the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. Before the baptism, moreover, the one who baptizes and the one being baptized must fast, and any others who can. And you must tell the one being baptized to fast for one or two days beforehand.
Commentaries typically understand that the Didache indicates a preference for baptizing by immersion. in "living water '' (i.e., running water, seen as symbolic of life). Furthermore, in cases of insufficient water it permits pouring (affusion), which it differentiates from immersion, using the Greek word ekcheō, ("pour '', in the English translation) and not baptizō ("baptize '', in the English translation), while at the same time considering the action done by pouring to be a baptism, giving no hint that this form made the baptism any less valid, and showing that immersion was not the only baptismal practice then acceptable. Barclay observes the Didache shows that baptism in the early church was by total immersion, if possible, Barton describes the immersion of the Didache as "ideally by total immersion '', and Welch says it was by "complete immersion ''.
James V. Brownson notes that the Didache does not specify either immersion or pouring when using running water, and Sinclair B. Ferguson argues that really the only mode that the Didache mentions is affusion. Martin and Davids say the Didache envisages "some form of immersion '', and the Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church refers its readers to its entry on immersion, which it distinguishes from submersion and affusion.
The theology of baptism attained precision in the 3rd and 4th centuries. While instruction was at first given after baptism, believers were given increasingly specific instructions before being baptized, especially in the face of heresies in the 4th century. By the 4th and 5th centuries, a series of rites spread over several weeks led up to the actual baptism at Easter: catechumens attended several meetings of intensive catechetical instruction, often by the bishop himself, and often accompanied by special prayers, exorcisms, and other rites. Catechumens recited the Creed on Holy Saturday to show that they had completed their catechetical instruction. At dawn following the Paschal Vigil starting the night of Holy Saturday, they were taken to the baptistry where the bishop consecrated the water with a long prayer recounting the types of baptisms. The catechumens disrobed, were anointed with oil, renounced the devil and his works, confessed their faith in the Trinity, and were immersed in the font. They were then anointed with chrism, received the laying on of hands, clothed in white, and led to join the congregation in the Easter celebration. By then, postponement of baptism had become general, and a large proportion of believers were merely catechumens (Constantine was not baptized until he was dying); but as baptisms of the children of Christians, using an adaptation of the rite intended for adults, became more common than baptisms of adult converts, the number of catechumens decreased.
As baptism was believed to forgive sins, the issue of sins committed after baptism arose. Some insisted that apostasy, even under threat of death, and other grievous sins cut one off forever from the Church. As indicated in the writings of Saint Cyprian, others favoured readmitting the "lapsi '' easily. The rule that prevailed was that they were readmitted only after undergoing a period of penance that demonstrated sincere repentance.
What is now generally called the Nicene Creed, longer than the text adopted by the First Council of Nicaea of 325, and known also as the Niceno - Constantinopolitan Creed because of its adoption in that form by the First Council of Constantinople in 381, was probably the baptismal creed then in use in Constantinople, the venue of the 381 Council.
Scholars "generally agree that the early church baptized by immersion '', but sometimes used other forms. Howard Marshall says that immersion was the general rule, but affusion and even sprinkling were also practised, His presentation of this view has been described by Porter and Cross as "a compelling argument ''. Laurie Guy says immersion was probably the norm, but that at various times and places full immersion, partial immersion and affusion were probably in use.
It is disputed where immersion was necessarily total. Tischler and the Encyclopedia of Catholicism say that the immersion was total. The same encyclopedia of Roman Catholicism notes that the preference of the Early Church was total immersion in a stream or the sea or, if these were not available, in a fountain or bath - sized tank, and Eerdman 's Handbook to the History of Christianity says that baptism was normally by immersion, without specifying whether total or partial. The Dictionary of the Bible (2004) says "Archaeological evidence from the early centuries shows that baptism was sometimes administered by submersion or immersion... but also by affusion from a vessel when water was poured on the candidate 's head... ''. In one form of early Christian baptism, the candidate stood in water and water was poured over the upper body. Baptism of the sick or dying usually used means other than even partial immersion and was still considered valid. Internet - available illustrations of ancient Christian representations of baptism from as early as the 2nd century include those in CF Rogers, Baptism and Christian Archeology, the chapter "The Didache and the Catacombs '' of Philip Schaff 's The Oldest Church Manual Called the Teaching of the Twelve Apostles, and Wolfrid Cote 's The Archaeology of Baptism.
In The Archaeology of Baptism (1876) Wolfrid Cote, quoting Prudentius, who in his Psychomachia spoke of the "bathed chests '' of the baptized, and the views of two earlier Italian archaeologists, stated that "the primitive mode appears to have been this: The administrator and candidate both standing in the water the former placed his right hand on the head of the candidate, and, pronouncing the baptismal words, gently bowed him forward, till he was completely immersed in the water ''. He included in his book a woodcut of a fresco in the Catacomb of San Callisto (a photographic reproduction appears in this article), and reported that one archaeologist interpreted it as a youth being baptized by affusion, while for another the youth standing in the water was "immersed in a cloud of water ''. Cote described this painting as of great antiquity, probably of the 4th or 5th century, while remarking that it is impossible to ascertain the precise age of the pictures in the catacombs of Rome. The other paintings that Cote described are of much later periods, while the mosaic in the Baptistery of San Giovanni in Fonte, in Ravenna (erected in the 4th century), which shows John baptizing Jesus by pouring water on his head from a cup, Cote explained as the product of later restoring. The font in this baptistery Cote described as ten feet in diameter and three and a half feet deep. Cote listed 67 still existing Italian baptisteries dating from the 4th to the 14th centuries, all of which he understood to have been used for total immersion. He made no mention of any pre-Constantine evidence.
In 1903 Clement F Rogers published "Baptism and Christian Archaeology ''. This was a study of the archaeological evidence, both the positive evidence that paintings and carvings on sarcophagi etc. provide about how baptism actually was conferred, and the negative evidence given by the structure of baptismal fonts on how it could not have been conferred. He used literary sources plentifully but merely for illustration. For the first three centuries (i.e. before the time of Constantine) direct archaeological evidence is limited to pictures of baptism in the catacombs of Rome. Rogers concluded that "the direct evidence from archaeology alone may not be conclusive to show that in pre-Constantinian times baptism by affusion only was practiced generally or indeed in any one single case; but it does show that there was nothing repugnant in it to the general mind, that no stress was laid on total immersion, that the most important moments were held to be those when water was poured over the catchumen, and when the minister laid his hand on his head. This, taken in connexion with the known customs of later ages, make it more than probable that the usual method of administration was by affusion only. '' Taking into account the positive archaeological evidence of post-Constantinian times, Roger concludes: "All the evidence of archaeology goes to prove that the essential part of baptism was considered in the early Church to be the pouring of water over the candidate 's head by the bishop, or the guiding his head under a descending stream, followed by the laying on of hands ''; he adds: "There remains the question, whether this was preceded by a self - immersion ''. To answer this question, he examines the negative evidence of ancient baptismal fonts, especially those found in archaeological sites, providing on pp. 347 -- 49 a Synoptic Table of Fonts, with date, shape, diameter and depth, showing that some of them could not have been intended for full immersion.
In his "Churches Separated from Rome '' (1907), Louis Duchesne responded to accusations by Eastern Orthodox that the Roman Catholic was corrupted because of "the Filioque, baptism by affusion, unleavened bread, &c. '', by pointing to the absence of any ancient representation of baptism that showed the neophyte actually being immersed totally.
Alois Stenzel 's 1958 study of baptism with a focus on liturgy argued that both immersion and affusion were practised by the early Church, since some baptismal pools which have been uncovered were too shallow for baptism and pictorial evidence favoured affusion.
"Baptism in the Early Church '' by George Rice (1981), in "Bible and Spade '', cited Cote with favour and claimed that archaeology "overwhelmingly testifies to immersion as the normal mode of baptism in the Christian church during the first ten to fourteen centuries ''. Rice cites in particular imagery in the Catacomb of San Ponziano and a crypt in the catacomb of Santa Lucina, as well as a 9th - or 10th - century fresco in the basilica of San Clemente he also states that "pictures of Jesus standing in water while John pours water over His head are of a much later date than those depicting immersion and they demonstrate the change in the mode of baptism that came into the church ''. He mentions a 4th - century baptistery sufficiently large for immersion, Rice says that archaeological evidence demonstrates some early baptismal fonts large enough for adult immersion were later made smaller or replaced, to accommodate affusion baptism of infants, leading to mistakes in the dating of art works by 20th - century studies.
In his contribution to the 1986 11th International Archaeology Congress on "What do the texts teach us on the equipment and furnishings needed for baptism in southern Gaul and northern Italy? '' Jean - Charles Picard concluded that the texts speak only of immersion and that the area has no archaeological images of baptism by pouring water on the head.
In 1987, on the basis of archaeology and parallels with Jewish practice, Sanford La Sor considered it likely that total immersion was also Christian practice.
In the same year, Lothar Heiser, in his study of baptism in the Orthodox Church, concluded on the basis of the literary and pictorial evidence in that field that "the water customarily reached the hips of the baptizand; after calling on the triune God, the priest bent the baptizand under so as to dip him in water over the head; in the cases of pouring in the Didache and in sickbed baptism the baptized did not stand in the font ''; but acknowledges that in present Greek practice the priest places the infant being baptized as far down in the water as possible and scoops water over the head so as to cover the child fully with water.
In 1995, Renate Pillinger concluded from the evidence provided by images and buildings and by some literary sources that it was usual for the baptizand to stand in water no more than hip - deep and for the baptizer to pour water over him.
With regard to the shallow baptismal fonts that archaeologists had discovered, Malka Ben Pechat expressed in 1999 the view that full immersion was possible even in small fonts with a mere 60 centimetres (2 feet) of water, while the fonts that were even shallower were intended for the baptism of infants.
In the close of his comprehensive 2009 study, Baptism in the Early Church, Everett Ferguson devoted four pages (457 -- 60) to summarizing his position on the mode of baptism, expressed also in his The Church of Christ of 1996, that the normal early - Christian mode of baptism was by full immersion.
He observed that "those who approach the study of baptism from the standpoint of archaeology tend to find greater probability that affusion, or perfusion was a normal practice; those who come from the literary evidence see a greater likelihood of immersion, or submersion, being the normal practice ''; but he intended his own comprehensive survey to give coherence to the evidence (p. 857). Ferguson dismissed Rogers ' 1903 study as dated with regard to both the depictions of baptism and his survey of the baptismal fonts.
Like Rice, whom he did not mention, Ferguson said that the size of the baptismal fonts was progressively reduced in connection with the prevalence of infant baptism, although there are a few cases where larger fonts are later than the smaller ones. Ferguson also stated: "The predominant number of baptismal fonts permitted immersion, and many were so large as to defy any reason for their existence other than immersion ''.
Robin Jensen writes: "Historians have sometimes assumed that baptism was usually accomplished by full immersion -- or submersion -- of the body (dunking). However, the archaeological and iconographic evidence is ambiguous on this point. Many -- if not most -- surviving baptismal fonts are too shallow to have allowed submersion. In addition, a significant number of depictions show baptismal water being poured over the candidate 's head (affusion), either from a waterfall, an orb or some kind of liturgical vessel. '' Eerdman 's Dictionary of the Bible also casts doubt on "the usual assumption that all NT baptisms were by immersion '', stating that some early baptisteries were deep enough to stand in but not broad enough to lie down in, and mentioning that ancient representation of Christ at his baptism show him standing in waist - deep water. The immersion used by early Christians in baptizing "need not have meant full submersion in the water '' and, while it may have been normal practice, it was not seen as a necessary mode of baptism, so that other modes also may have been used. Submersion, as opposed to partial immersion, may even have been a minority practice in early Christianity.
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where did the soil from the london underground go | History of the London Underground - wikipedia
The history of the London Underground began in the 19th century with the construction of the Metropolitan Railway, the world 's first underground railway. The Metropolitan Railway, which opened in 1863 using gas - lit wooden carriages hauled by steam locomotives, worked with the District Railway to complete London 's Circle line in 1884. Both railways expanded, the Metropolitan eventually extending as far as Verney Junction in Buckinghamshire, more than 50 miles (80 km) from Baker Street and the centre of London. The first deep - level tube line, the City and South London Railway, opened in 1890 with electric trains. This was followed by the Waterloo & City Railway in 1898, the Central London Railway in 1900, and the Great Northern and City Railway in 1904. The Underground Electric Railways Company of London (UERL) was established in 1902 to fund the electrification of the District Railway and to complete and operate three tube lines, the Baker Street and Waterloo Railway, the Charing Cross, Euston and Hampstead Railway and the Great Northern, Piccadilly and Brompton Railway, which opened in 1906 -- 07. By 1907 the District and Metropolitan Railways had electrified the underground sections of their lines.
Under a joint marketing agreement between most of the companies in the early years of the 20th century, UNDERGROUND signs appeared outside stations in central London. World War I delayed extensions of the Bakerloo and Central London Railways, and people used the tube stations as shelters during air raids in 1915. After the war, government - backed financial guarantees were used to expand the network, and the tunnels of the City and South London and Charing Cross, Euston and Hampstead Railways were linked at Euston and Kennington, although the combined service was not named the Northern line until later. The Piccadilly line was extended north to Cockfosters and took over District line branches to Harrow (later Uxbridge) and Hounslow. In 1933, the underground railways and all London area tram and bus operators were merged into the London Passenger Transport Board (LPTB). The outlying branches of the Metropolitan were closed; various upgrades were planned. The Bakerloo line 's extension to take over the Metropolitan 's Stanmore branch, and extensions of the Central and Northern lines, formed part of the 1930s New Works Programme. The outbreak of World War II in 1939 halted or interrupted some of this work, and many tube stations were used as air - raid shelters.
The LPTB was nationalised in 1948, and the reconstruction of the mainline railways was given priority over the maintenance of the Underground. In 1953 an unpainted aluminium train entered service on the District line, and this became the standard for new trains. In the early 1960s the Metropolitan line was electrified as far as Amersham, and steam locomotives no longer hauled passenger trains. The Victoria line, a new tube line across central London, opened in 1968 -- 71 with trains driven automatically. In 1976 the isolated Northern City Line was taken over by British Rail and linked up with the mainline railway at Finsbury Park. In 1979 another new route, the Jubilee line, took over part of the Bakerloo line; it was extended through the Docklands to Stratford in 1999.
Under the control of the Greater London Council, London Transport introduced in 1981 a system of fare zones for buses and underground trains that cut the average fare. Fares increased following a legal challenge but the fare zones were retained, and in the mid-1980s the Travelcard and the Capitalcard were introduced. In the early years of the 21st century, London Underground was reorganised in a public -- private partnership where private companies upgraded and maintained the infrastructure. In 2003 control passed to Transport for London (TfL), which had been opposed to the arrangement and, following financial failure of the infrastructure companies, had taken full responsibility by 2010. The contactless Oyster card first went on sale in 2003. The East London line closed in 2007 to be converted into a London Overground line, and in December 2009 the Circle line changed from serving a closed loop around the centre of London to a spiral also serving Hammersmith. Currently there is an upgrade programme to increase capacity on several Underground lines, and work is under way on a Northern line extension to Battersea.
In the first half of the 19th century, London had grown greatly and the development of a commuting population arriving by train each day led to traffic congestion with carts, cabs and omnibuses filling the roads. By 1850 there were seven railway termini located around the urban centre of London and the concept of an underground railway linking the City of London with these stations was first proposed in the 1830s. Charles Pearson, Solicitor to the City of London, was a leading promoter of several schemes, and he contributed to the creation of the City Terminus Company to build such a railway from Farringdon to King 's Cross in 1852. Although the plan was supported by the City of London, the railway companies were not interested and the company struggled to proceed. In 1854 the Metropolitan Railway (also known as the Met) was granted permission to build an underground line at an estimated cost of £ 1 million. With the Crimean War under way, the Met found it hard to raise the capital, and construction did not start until March 1860. The railway was mostly built using the "cut - and - cover '' method from Paddington to King 's Cross; east of King 's Cross it was built by tunnelling and then followed the culverted River Fleet in an open cutting to the new meat market at Smithfield. The 3.75 - mile (6 km) railway opened to the public on 10 January 1863, using steam locomotives hauling wooden carriages. It was hailed as a success, carrying 38,000 passengers on the opening day, borrowing trains from other railways to supplement the service. In the first twelve months 9.5 million passengers were carried and in the second twelve months this increased to 12 million.
The Met 's early success prompted a flurry of applications to parliament in 1863 for new railways in London, many competing for similar routes. The House of Lords established a select committee that recommended an "inner circuit of railway that should abut, if not actually join, nearly all of the principal railway termini in the Metropolis ''. Proposals to extend the Met were accepted, and the committee agreed a proposal that a new company, the Metropolitan District Railway (commonly known as the District Railway), be formed to complete the circuit. Initially, the District and the Met were closely associated and it was intended that they would merge. The Met 's chairman and three other directors were on the board of the District, John Fowler was the engineer of both companies. The construction works for the extensions were let as a single contract and the Met initially operated all the services. Struggling under the burden of high construction costs, the District 's level of debt meant that merger was no longer attractive to the Met and its directors resigned from the District 's board. To improve its finances, the District terminated the operating agreement and began operating its own trains. Conflict between the Met and the District and the expense of construction delayed further progress on the completion of the inner circle. In 1879, the Met now wishing to access the South Eastern Railway via the East London Railway (ELR), an Act of Parliament was obtained to complete the circle and link to the ELR. After an official opening ceremony on 17 September and trial running, a complete Circle line service started on 6 October 1884.
The Metropolitan Railway had been extended soon after opening, reaching Hammersmith with the Great Western Railway in 1864 and Richmond over the tracks of the London and South Western Railway (L&SWR) in 1877. The Metropolitan & St John 's Wood Railway opened as a single track branch from Baker Street to Swiss Cottage, and this was to become the Met 's most important route as it expanded north into the Middlesex countryside, where it stimulated the development of new suburbs. Harrow was reached in 1880, and the line eventually extended as far as Verney Junction in Buckinghamshire, more than 50 miles (80 kilometres) from Baker Street and the centre of London. From the end of the 19th century, the railway shared tracks with the Great Central Railway route out of Marylebone.
By 1871, when the District began operating its own trains, the railway had extended to West Brompton and a terminus at Mansion House. Hammersmith was reached from Earl 's Court and services reached Richmond, Ealing, Hounslow and Wimbledon. As part of the project that completed the Circle line in October 1884, the District began to serve Whitechapel. Services began running to Upminster in 1902, after a link to the London, Tilbury & Southend Railway had been built.
In 1869, a passage was dug through the London Clay under the Thames from Great Tower Hill to Pickle Herring Stairs near Vine Street (now Vine Lane). A circular 7 - foot - diameter (2.1 m) tunnel was dug 1,340 feet (410 m), using a wrought iron shield, a method that had been patented in 1864 by Peter William Barlow. A railway was laid in the tunnel and from August 1870 a wooden carriage conveyed passengers from one side to the other. This was uneconomic and the company went bankrupt by the end of the year and the tunnel was converted to pedestrian use, becoming known as the Tower Subway. Construction of the City and South London Railway (C&SLR) was started in 1886 by James Henry Greathead using a development of Barlow 's shield. Two 10 - foot - 2 - inch (3.10 m) circular tunnels were dug between King William Street (close to today 's Monument station) and Elephant and Castle. From Elephant and Castle, the tunnels were a slightly larger 10 feet 6 inches (3.20 m) to Stockwell. This was a legacy of the original intention to haul the trains by cable. The tunnels were bored under the roads to avoid the need for agreement with owners of property on the surface. The original intention to cable - haul the trains changed to electric power when the cable company went bankrupt. A conductor rail energised with + 500 volts DC conductor rail for the northbound tunnel and − 500 volts for the southbound laid between the running rails, though offset from the centreline, powered the electric locomotives that hauled the carriages. The carriages were fitted with small windows and consequently were nicknamed padded cells. By 1907, the C&SLR had extended from both ends, south to Clapham Common and north to Euston.
In 1898, the Waterloo & City Railway was opened between London & South Western Railway 's terminus at Waterloo station and a station in the City. Operated by the L&SWR, the short electrified line used four - car electric multiple units. Two 11 feet 8 ⁄ inches (3.562 m) diameter tunnels were dug beneath the roads between Shepherd 's Bush and Bank for the Central London Railway (CLR). In 1900 this opened, charging a flat fare of 2 d (approximately 83p today), becoming known as the "Twopenny tube '' and by the end of the year carrying nearly 15 million passengers. Initially electric locomotives hauled carriages, but the heavy locomotives caused vibrations that could be felt on the surface. In 1902 -- 03 the carriages were reformed into multiple units using a control system developed by Frank Sprague in Chicago. The CLR was extended to Wood Lane (near White City) in 1908 and Liverpool Street in 1912. The Great Northern & City Railway was built to take main line trains from the Great Northern Railway (GNR) at Finsbury Park to the City at a terminus at Moorgate. However the GNR refused permission for trains to use its Finsbury Park station, so platforms were built beneath the station instead and public service on the line, using electric multiple units, began in 1904.
On the District and Metropolitan Railways, the use of steam locomotives led to smoke - filled stations and carriages that were unpopular with passengers and electrification was seen as the way forward. Electric traction was still in its infancy and agreement would be needed between the two companies because of the shared ownership of the inner circle. In 1901 a Metropolitan and District joint committee recommended the Ganz three - phase AC system with overhead wires. Initially this was accepted by both parties, until the District found an investor, the American Charles Yerkes, to finance the upgrade. Yerkes raised £ 1 million (1901 pounds adjusted by inflation are £ 99.6 million) and soon had control of the District Railway. His experiences in the United States led him to favour DC similar to that in use on the City & South London Railway and Central London Railway. The Metropolitan Railway protested about the change of plan, but after arbitration by the Board of Trade the DC system was adopted.
The Metropolitan electrified its new line from Harrow to Uxbridge and the route to the inner circle at Baker Street, using separate positive and negative conductor rails energised at 550 -- 600 V. The District electrified its unopened line from Mill Hill Park (now Acton Town) to South Harrow and used this line to test its new trains and train drivers. Electric multiple units began running on the Metropolitan in January 1905 and by March all local services between Baker Street and Harrow were electric. Electric services began on the District Railway in June 1905 between Hounslow and South Acton. In July 1905 the District began running electric trains from Ealing to Whitechapel and on the same day the Met and the District both introduced electric units on the inner circle until later that day an incompatibility was found between the way the shoe - gear was mounted on the Met trains and the District track. The Met trains were withdrawn from the District lines and modified, full electric service starting on the circle line in September. In the same month, after withdrawing services over the un-electrified East London Railway and east of East Ham, the District were running electric services on all remaining routes. The GWR electrified the line between Paddington and Hammersmith and the branch from Latimer Road to Kensington (Addison Road). An electric service with jointly owned rolling stock started on the route in November 1906. In the same year, the Met suspended running on the East London Railway, terminating instead at the District 's station at Whitechapel. The Metropolitan Railway beyond Harrow was not electrified so services were hauled by an electric locomotive from Baker Street and changed for a steam locomotive en route.
The Charing Cross, Euston and Hampstead Railway, was authorised from Charing Cross to Hampstead and Highgate in 1893, but had not found financial backing. Yerkes bought the rights in 1900, and obtained additional approval for a branch from Camden Town to Golders Green. The Baker Street and Waterloo Railway had been authorised to run from Baker Street to Waterloo station. Work began in 1898, and extensions to Paddington station and Elephant & Castle were authorised in 1900, but came to a halt when the collapse of their financial backers in 1901. Yerkes bought the rights to this railway in 1902. The District had permission for a deep - level tube from Earl 's Court to Mansion House and in 1898 had bought the Brompton and Piccadilly Circus Railway that had authority for a tube from South Kensington to Piccadilly Circus. The District 's plans were combined by Yerkes with those of the Great Northern and Strand Railway, a tube railway with permission to build a line from Strand to Finsbury Park, to create the Great Northern, Piccadilly and Brompton Railway. In April 1902, the Underground Electric Railways Company of London (UERL) was established, with Yerkes as chairman, to control these companies and manage the planned works.
On 8 June 1902, the UERL took over the Metropolitan District Traction Company. The UERL built a large power station that would be capable of providing power for the District and underground lines under construction. Work began in 1902 at Lots Road, by Chelsea Creek, and in February 1905 Lots Road Power Station began generating electricity. For the three lines similar electric multiple units were purchased, known as "Gate Stock '' as access to the cars was via lattice gates at each end operated by gatemen. As on the District Railway the track was provided with separate positive and negative conductor rails, in what was to become a London Underground standard. A number of the surface buildings, with an exterior of glazed dark red bricks, were designed by Leslie Green and 140 electric lifts were imported from America from the Otis Elevator Company. A length of the Baker Street & Waterloo between Baker Street and Kennington Road (now Lambeth North) opened in March 1906, and the line reached Edgware Road the following year. It was named the ' Bakerloo ' in July 1906, called an undignified "gutter title '' by The Railway Magazine. The Great Northern, Piccadilly & Brompton Railway (the Piccadilly) opened from Finsbury Park to Hammersmith in December 1906, the Aldwych branch opening the following year. "Moving staircases '' or escalators were first installed at Earl 's Court between the District and Piccadilly line platforms, and at all deep level tube stations after 1912. The last, the Charing Cross, Euston & Hampstead (the Hampstead) opened in 1907, and ran from Charing Cross to Camden Town, before splitting into two branches going to Golders Green and Highgate (now Archway).
To promote travel by the underground railways in London a joint marketing arrangement was agreed that included maps, joint publicity and through ticketing. UNDERGROUND signs were used outside stations in Central London. The UERL acquired London bus and tram companies in 1912 and the following year the City & South London and Central London Railway joined the company. That year the Great Northern & City was taken over by the Met. Suggestions of merger with the Underground Group were rejected by the Metropolitan, a press release of November 1912 noting its interests in areas outside London, its relationships with main line railways and its freight business. Further coordination in the form of a General Managers ' Conference faltered after the Metropolitan withdrew in 1911 when the Central London Railway, without any reference to the conference, set its season ticket prices significantly lower than those on the Met 's competitive routes. The UERL introduced station name boards with a red disc and a blue bar and the Met responded with station boards showing a blue bar on a red diamond.
In 1913 the Bakerloo line reached Paddington, and the following year the Hampstead line was extended south of its Charing Cross terminus to an expanded interchange station (currently known as Embankment) with the Bakerloo and District lines. The Bakerloo line was extended north to Queen 's Park to link up with the London & North Western Railway 's new electric line from Euston to Watford Junction. The start of World War I in 1914 delayed construction, trains reaching Queen 's Park in 1915 and Watford Junction in 1917. An extension of the Central line west to Ealing was started in 1913 and, also delayed by the war, was completed in 1920. The war saw growth in traffic and a shortage of men, so women were recruited as temporary replacements in traditional men 's jobs such as guards, clerks, painters and cleaners. London saw its first air raids in 1915, and people used the tube stations as bomb shelters.
After the war new trains were purchased to run on the Metropolitan, District, Bakerloo and Piccadilly lines, the Piccadilly line trains having air - operated sliding doors. In the 1920s, taking advantage of government backed financial guarantees for capital projects that promoted employment, there were major extensions of the City & South London and the Hampstead lines. The tunnels of the City & South London Railway were rebuilt to have the same diameter of the other tubes, and the extended north from Euston to a junction with the Hampstead line at Camden Town, and south to Morden. The Hampstead line was extended to the north from Golders Green to Edgware and south to another junction with the City & South London at Kennington, this opening in 1926. Although physically connected, the lines were still officially named the City Railway and Hampstead & Highgate line. The lines were to be known as the Edgware, Highgate and Morden and the Morden - Edgware until finally renamed the Northern line in 1937. Also during the 1920s the original tube gate stock was replaced with 1,460 cars of Standard Stock with air - operating sliding doors, except for the Central line where the cars were refurbished. Busy central London stations were modernised with escalators replacing lifts.
Unlike other railway companies in the London area, the Met was able to develop land for housing. After World War I they promoted housing estates near the railway with the "Metro - land '' brand and nine housing estates were built near stations on the line. Taking advantage of the Treasury guarantees electrification was extended north from Harrow to Rickmansworth and a short branch opened from Rickmansworth to Watford in 1925. In the 1920s more powerful electric and steam locomotives were purchased and Metropolitan Railway stations were redesigned by their architect Charles W Clark.
With finance guaranteed by the government the Piccadilly lines and Metropolitan were extended in the early 1930s. The Metropolitan opened a line from Wembley Park to Stanmore, and the Piccadilly line was to extend north from Finsbury Park to Cockfosters and west from Hammersmith and took over the District line Harrow and Hounslow branches. Several stations were rebuilt in a Modernist style influenced or designed by Charles Holden, who called them his ' brick boxes with concrete lids '. Piccadilly line trains took over the District service to South Harrow in 1932, reaching Uxbridge the following year. Piccadilly trains reached Cockfosters and Hounslow West in 1933, although District line services to Hounslow continued until 1964.
In 1933, Harry Beck 's diagrammatic tube map appeared for the first time. On 1 July 1933, the London Passenger Transport Board (LPTB), was created as a public corporation and the Metropolitan, the UERL underground railways, tramway companies and bus operators were merged into one organisation. On the former Metropolitan Railway the Brill Branch closed in 1935, followed by the line from Quainton Road to Verney Junction in 1936. It was proposed to electrify to Amersham with additional tracks from Harrow to Rickmansworth and to extend the Bakerloo line to Stanmore to relieve the bottleneck on the Metropolitan from Baker Street to Finchley. Before any work was started on the Met, the 1935 -- 1940 New Works Programme was announced. This included extending the Central line to Stratford and then onto Epping and Ongar and the Northern line was to be extended north to High Barnet, Alexandra Palace and Bushey Heath and link up with the isolated Great Northern & City Railway, renamed the Northern City Line, which was to be extended beyond Finsbury Park to link up at Highgate.
New trains were delivered before the outbreak of World War II in 1939, including 573 cars for the District and Metropolitan lines and 1,121 new cars (1938 Stock) for the tube lines. Following the outbreak of war, services on the Northern line between Strand (now Charing Cross) and Kennington were suspended as the tunnels under the Thames were blocked as a defence against flooding. The Metropolitan Pullman cars were placed into store and first class was removed from London Underground services. The New Works Programme continued, albeit at a reduced pace, the Bakerloo line taking over the Stanmore branch from the Metropolitan in November 1939. The Northern line reached Mill Hill East in May 1941, but by then work on the other Northern and Central line extensions had been suspended. The bombing of London and especially the Blitz led to the use of many tube stations as air - raid shelters, with 175,000 people arriving every night in August 1940. Six stations were breached by a direct hit, and in March 1943, 173 people died in a crowd crush accident at the unfinished Bethnal Green station. In the 1940s a depot built for the Northern line extension and an unfinished stretch of the Central line extension, the underground section between Newbury Park and Leytonstone, was turned into aircraft factory. The closed Brompton Road station was used as an anti-aircraft control room. The closed Down Street station was used by Winston Churchill and the War Cabinet and the Railway Emergency Committee.
Before the war, the Olympia exhibition centre had been served by the Metropolitan line and by a service from Earl 's Court to Willesden Junction. Following bombing in 1940 passenger services over the West London Line were suspended. This left the exhibition centre without a railway service, so after the war the station was renamed Kensington (Olympia) and served by a District line shuttle from Earl 's Court. The Central line extensions in east and west London were completed, tube trains running to Epping from 1949.
Britain 's railways were nationalised on 1 January 1948, and London Transport placed under the authority of the British Transport Commission (BTC). The BTC prioritised the reconstruction of the main line railways over the maintenance of the Underground and most of the unfinished plans of the 1935 -- 40 New Works Programme were shelved or postponed. For the tube lines new cars (1949 Stock) were built to run with the 1938 stock. Some of the cars on the District line were in need of replacement, and in 1953 an unpainted aluminium train (R Stock) entered service, and this became the standard for new trains, and was followed by 1959 tube stock. After experiments with an AEC lightweight diesel multiple unit in 1952, steam trains were removed from the Central line following the electrification of the Epping -- Ongar section in 1957.
Between 1963 and 1970, London Transport reported directly to the Minister of Transport, before control passed to the Greater London Council. Electrification work on the Metropolitan line, suspended due to the war, had restarted in 1959. The line was electrified to Amersham and the unpainted aluminium (A Stock) replaced steam trains, British Rail providing services for the former Metropolitan line stations between Amersham and Aylesbury.
The Victoria line was recommended in a 1949 report as it would reduce congestion on other lines. After some experimental tunnelling in 1959, construction began in 1963 and, unlike the earlier tubes, the tunnels did not have to follow the roads above. The line was originally approved to run from Walthamstow to Victoria station, the extension to Brixton being authorised later. As part of the works, Oxford Circus station was rebuilt to allow interchange with the Central and Bakerloo lines. Cross platform interchanges were built at Euston, Highbury & Islington and Finsbury Park. After running trains from Walthamstow, first to Finsbury Park and then to Warren Street in 1968, the line to Victoria was officially opened in March 1969. The extension to Brixton opened in 1971. Designed for automatic train operation, access to the platforms was by using magnetically encoded tickets collected by automatic gates.
The Moorgate tube crash occurred on 28 February 1975 on the isolated Northern City Line when a southbound train failed to stop at the Moorgate terminus and crashed into the wall at end of the tunnel, killing forty - four people. No fault was found with the train equipment, the subsequent report found that there was insufficient evidence to determine the cause. Following the incident, a system that stops a train automatically if the driver fails to brake was introduced at dead - ends on the London Underground. The Northern City Line was connected to British Rail tracks at Finsbury Park in the 1970s. The last tube train ran in October 1975, and British Rail services began in 1976. In 1977, the Piccadilly line was extended from Hounslow to Heathrow Airport, and in 1986 a platform serving Terminal 4 opened on a loop line.
The Fleet line through central London was first proposed in 1965, taking over the Bakerloo line 's Stanmore branch at Baker Street and then running via Fleet Street to Lewisham. To simplify planning the construction was divided into stages, and the first stage from Baker Street to Charing Cross had all the necessary approvals by 1971. Work began the following year and tunnelling had been completed in 1976. After the line had been renamed the Jubilee line in honour of Queen Elizabeth 's Silver Jubilee in 1977, the line opened in April 1979 using trains that had been running on the Bakerloo line.
In 1981, the Greater London Council (GLC) introduced the ' Fares Fair ' scheme, a system of fare zones for bus and underground trains, cutting the average fare by 32 per cent. This was challenged in court, the GLC lost and fares doubled in 1982. The fare zones were retained and fares dropped slightly the following year. In 1983 the Travelcard allowed travel within the specified zones on buses and underground trains, and was followed in Capitalcard in 1985 that included British Rail services. In 1984 control of London Buses and the London Underground passed to London Regional Transport (LRT), which reported directly to Secretary of State for Transport.
By the early 1980s, the pre-war trains had been replaced by new unpainted aluminium trains. One person operation had been planned in 1968, but conflict with the trade unions delayed introduction. The Metropolitan, East London, District and Circle lines were converted in 1985 -- 86, the Piccadilly, Jubilee and Bakerloo lines following in 1987 -- 88. One Person Operation was introduced on the Central and Northern lines after they received new trains in the early 1990s.
The King 's Cross fire killed 31 people in November 1987 when a lit match set fire to a wooden escalator. In the subsequent report London Underground was strongly criticised for its attitude to fires and its publication led to resignations of senior management in both London Underground and London Regional Transport and to the introduction of new fire safety regulations. A Fire Safety Code of Practice was drawn up for rolling stock and this led to internal refurbishment of the trains that included replacing the interior panelling and fitting or improving the public address systems.
At the same time, the exterior of the trains were painted as it had proved difficult to remove graffiti from unpainted aluminium. The first refurbished trains were presented to the media in September 1989, and the project launched in July 1991. In 1994 LRT took over control of the Waterloo and City line. The Epping -- Ongar branch of the Central line and the Aldwych branch of the Piccadilly line closed in the same year. Options were considered to link the Docklands with central London and an extension of the Jubilee line to Stratford was chosen. Approved in 1993, the stations were built to be fully accessible and with platform edge doors. There was pressure on London Transport to get the line open in time for the opening of the Millennium Dome on 1 January 2000 and the extension opened in stages from Stratford, with through running from 22 November 1999, when the Charing Cross terminus closed.
Transport for London (TfL) was created in 2000 as part of the Greater London Authority by the Greater London Authority Act 1999.
In 1999, before control was passed to TfL, London Underground was split up so that a public -- private partnership (PPP) arrangement could be put in place, with London Underground remaining a public company running the trains while private companies were responsible for upgrading the railway. Three packages of 30 - year franchises were drawn up, covering the Jubilee, Northern and Piccadilly lines (JNP), the Bakerloo, Central Victoria and Waterloo and City lines (BCV) and the sub-surface lines, the Metropolitan, District, Circle, East London and Hammersmith & City lines (SSL). In 2003 the BCV and SSL contracts were won by Metronet (a consortium of Balfour Beatty, WS Atkins, Bombardier, EDF Energy and Thames Water), while JNP was won by Tube Lines; these were known as the "infracos '' (infrastructure companies). In 2000 overall control of the system passed to TfL, which had been opposed to the arrangement. Metronet went into administration in 2007, and TfL took over responsibilities, and TfL also took over Tube Lines in 2010.
The Mayor of London, Ken Livingstone, was sceptical about the practicality of the PPP plan, and brought in the American Bob Kiley as London 's Transport Commissioner to repeat his success with the New York City Subway using public bond finance. Taking office in 2000 as London 's first directly elected mayor, it was difficult for Livingstone to block the PPP process, which was entirely in the national Government 's hands as it still owned London Underground, which was not transferred to local control until July 2003. Kiley was fired from the board of London Regional Transport (of which he had been chairman) in 2001 over his attempts to block the PPP scheme. Livingstone mounted a legal challenge, but eventually dropped it as it was unlikely to succeed, and Tube Lines and Metronet reached financial close on the contracts in December 2002 and March 2003 respectively. It was later revealed that the legal challenge had cost £ 4.2 million directly, as well as £ 36 million reimbursed to the bidders for costs incurred because of the six - month delay. In April 2005 TfL criticised Metronet, saying it had given capital construction work to its shareholders, whilst Tube Lines, which had competitively tendered its work, was performing much better. TfL also said that new technology promised by Metronet had yet to be seen -- "We were supposed to be getting private sector expertise and technology with the PPP (Public Private Partnership) but instead they are just using the same old kit. ''
In March 2005, the House of Commons Public Accounts Committee, charged with ensuring value for money in public spending, published a report concluding that it was "impossible to determine '' whether the PPP was better value than a publicly run investment programme, primarily because of the untested periodic review structure of the 30 - year contracts. These were to be revised every 7.5 years, meaning that the ultimate price for the promised £ 15.7 billion of investment was still unknown. It noted that using public bond finance would have saved £ 90 million a year in financing costs, even though the Government guaranteed repayment of 95 % of costs in the event of premature termination, and the contracts placed limits and exemptions on financial risk transferred to the infrastructure companies. The system still received an annual public subsidy of £ 1 billion, but its spending was now determined entirely by the infracos ' interpretation of their 2000 - page PPP contracts. Although the private operators were expected to receive at least 18 -- 20 % returns on capital (for Metronet), for the type of risk associated with major upgrades, most of the work was low - risk maintenance and replacement. The public - sector procurement option (using private companies for specific major projects) would also have saved the £ 455 million cost of concluding the PPP contracts, not to mention the five years ' delay the contract negotiations caused.
In April 2005, Bob Kiley pressed for an urgent review of the PPP, describing its performance as "bordering on disaster ''. A week later the chief executive of Metronet was sacked, after complaints that it had made £ 50m profit despite being behind on all its major works. By April 2005, it had started work on only 13 station refurbishments (instead of 32 as scheduled), and was more than a year behind on the refurbishment of 78 District line trains. It was also behind on its track replacement programme, having completed 28 km instead of the scheduled 48 km.
In March 2005, the House of Commons Transport Select Committee noted that "Availability is the most important factor for Tube travellers. All the infracos needed to do to meet their availability benchmarks was to perform only a little worse than in the past. On most lines, they did not even manage that. ''
Metronet was also declared at fault by an accident investigators ' report into a May 2004 derailment at White City, for failing to implement sufficient safety checks despite being ordered to do so by TfL.
Metronet, using its shareholders as its main contractors, was unable to meet its targets and track replacement and station refurbishments fell behind schedule. With increased costs it went into administration in 2007 and TfL took over responsibilities.
The UK government tried to find another private firm to fill the vacuum left by the liquidation of Metronet. However, only TfL expressed a viable interest in taking over Metronet 's responsibilities. The case for PPP was also weakened in 2008 when it was revealed that the demise of Metronet had cost the UK government £ 2bn. The five private companies that made up the Metronet alliance had to pay £ 70m each towards paying off the debts acquired by the consortium. But due to a deal struck with the government in 2003, when the PPP scheme began operating, the companies were protected from any further liability. The UK taxpayer therefore had to foot the rest of the bill. This undermined the argument that PPP would place the risks involved in running the network into the hands of the private sector.
By 2010, Tube Lines was behind schedule on the Jubilee line upgrade and after conflict arose over costs of future work in that year 's PPP review, TfL bought Tube Lines for £ 310m ($458 m).
The Oyster card, a stored - value contactless smart card that can be used on Transport for London services instead of a ticket, first went on sale in 2003. The scheme was originally managed as a PPP by TranSys; TfL bought the rights to the Oyster card name in 2008. On 7 July 2005 three bombs exploded on underground trains, two on the Circle line at Aldgate and Edgware Road and the third on the Piccadilly line between King 's Cross and Russell Square. Later the same day a bomb exploded on a bus in Woburn Place. Four suicide bombers had killed themselves and fifty - two other people, and it took over a month before underground services had been restored. In 2007 the East London line, operated as an isolated shuttle since 1939, closed so that it could be converted into a London Overground line. In December 2009 the Circle line changed from serving a closed loop around the centre of London on the north side of the River Thames to a spiral serving Hammersmith. On the Jubilee line a seventh car was added to all trains, in 2006 and a new signalling system allowing automatic operation was commissioned in 2011. On the Victoria line, new trains were introduced between July 2009 and June 2011, and a new signalling system has allowed 33 trains per hour from January 2013. The sub-surface (Metropolitan, District, Circle and Hammersmith & City) lines are being upgraded, with new air - conditioned S Stock in use on the Metropolitan and due to replace the current C and D stock trains on the other lines by 2017. Also, the sub-surface track, electrical supply and signalling systems are being upgraded in a programme designed to increase peak - hour capacity by the end of 2018. A single control room for the sub-surface network is to be established in Hammersmith and an automatic train control (ATC) system will replace signalling equipment installed from the 1940s.
Goods trains ran over Metropolitan tracks from 1866 when the Great Northern Railway (GNR) and then the Midland Railways began a service to south of the Thames via Farringdon and Snow Hill tunnel. Goods depots were opened in the Farringdon area, accessed from the City Widened Lines. The GWR opened Smithfield Market Sidings in 1869, the GNR opened its depot in 1874, and the Midland in 1878. The Midland also negotiated running rights over the District Railway from the London & South Western Railway at Hammersmith to South Kensington in 1876 and in 1878 it opened coal depots at Kensington High Street and West Kensington.
Goods traffic was to play an important part of Metropolitan traffic on the extension line out of Baker Street. In 1880, the Met started conveying coal from Finchley Road to Harrow. Goods and coal depots were provided at most of the stations on the extension line as they were built. Goods for London were initially handled at Willesden, with delivery by road or by transfer to the Midland. In 1909, the Met opened Vine Street goods depot near Farringdon with a regular service from West Hampstead. Coal for the steam locomotives, the company 's electric power station at Neasden and local gasworks were brought in via Quainton Road. Milk was delivered to the London suburbs and foodstuffs from Vine Street to Uxbridge. Fish to Billingsgate Market via the Met and the District joint station at Monument caused some complaints, leaving the station approaches in an "indescribably filthy condition ''. The District suggested a separate entrance for the fish, but nothing was done. The traffic reduced significantly when road transport was introduced from to Marylebone, but the problem remained until 1936, being one reason the LPTB gave for abolishing the carrying of parcels on trains. The LPTB was also not interested in running the Metropolitan goods services. Vine Street goods station closed in 1936, and the London and North Eastern Railway (LNER) took over all freight traffic from in 1937.
When the Northern line was extended over the lines of the LNER to High Barnet and Mill Hill East in 1940, the stations retained their goods service. Starting at midnight trains would leave Highbury every five to ten minutes and access the line from Finsbury Park via Highgate High Level. The Central line stations also kept their goods service, worked from Temple Mills and accessed via Leytonstone, the Hainault loop stations being served via Woodford.
Goods services were withdrawn in the 1950s and ' 60s. The GNR goods depot on the City Widened Lines closed in 1956 and Smithfield Market was last served by train in 1962. Goods yards on the Uxbridge branch closed in 1964, and Northern line stations saw their last goods train in the same year. The closure of West Kensington yard the following year meant the withdrawal of goods trains from District and Piccadilly tracks. On the Central line, Hainault loop stations lost their goods service in 1965, and in 1966 the rest of the line followed.
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the 2010 united states census collected data using which approach | Census - wikipedia
A census is the procedure of systematically acquiring and recording information about the members of a given population. The term is used mostly in connection with national population and housing censuses; other common censuses include agriculture, business, and traffic censuses. The United Nations defines the essential features of population and housing censuses as "individual enumeration, universality within a defined territory, simultaneity and defined periodicity '', and recommends that population censuses be taken at least every 10 years. United Nations recommendations also cover census topics to be collected, official definitions, classifications and other useful information to co-ordinate international practice.
The word is of Latin origin: during the Roman Republic, the census was a list that kept track of all adult males fit for military service. The modern census is essential to international comparisons of any kind of statistics, and censuses collect data on many attributes of a population, not just how many people there are but now census takes its place within a system of surveys where it typically began as the only national demographic data collection. Although population estimates remain an important function of a census, including exactly the geographic distribution of the population, statistics can be produced about combinations of attributes e.g. education by age and sex in different regions. Current administrative data systems allow for other approaches to enumeration with the same level of detail but raise concerns about privacy and the possibility of biasing estimates.
A census can be contrasted with sampling in which information is obtained only from a subset of a population; typically main population estimates are updated by such intercensal estimates. Modern census data are commonly used for research, business marketing, and planning, and as a baseline for designing sample surveys by providing a sampling frame such as an address register. Census counts are necessary to adjust samples to be representative of a population by weighting them as is common in opinion polling. Similarly, stratification requires knowledge of the relative sizes of different population strata which can be derived from census enumerations. In some countries, the census provides the official counts used to apportion the number of elected representatives to regions (sometimes controversially -- e.g., Utah v. Evans). In many cases, a carefully chosen random sample can provide more accurate information than attempts to get a population census.
A census is often construed as the opposite of a sample as its intent is to count everyone in a population rather than a fraction. However, population censuses rely on a sampling frame to count the population. This is the only way to be sure that everyone has been included as otherwise those not responding would not be followed up on and individuals could be missed. The fundamental premise of a census is that the population is not known and a new estimate is to be made by the analysis of primary data. The use of a sampling frame is counterintuitive as it suggests that the population size is already known. However, a census is also used to collect attribute data on the individuals in the nation. This process of sampling marks the difference between historical census, which was a house to house process or the product of an imperial decree, and the modern statistical project. The sampling frame used by census is almost always an address register. Thus it is not known if there is anyone resident or how many people there are in each household. Depending on the mode of enumeration, a form is sent to the householder, an enumerator calls, or administrative records for the dwelling are accessed. As a preliminary to the dispatch of forms, census workers will check any address problems on the ground. While it may seem straightforward to use the postal service file for this purpose, this can be out of date and some dwellings may contain a number of independent households. A particular problem is what are termed ' communal establishments ' which category includes student residences, religious orders, homes for the elderly, people in prisons etc. As these are not easily enumerated by a single householder, they are often treated differently and visited by special teams of census workers to ensure they are classified appropriately.
Individuals are normally counted within households and information is typically collected about the household structure and the housing. For this reason international documents refer to censuses of population and housing. Normally the census response is made by a household, indicating details of individuals resident there. An important aspect of census enumerations is determining which individuals can be counted from which can not be counted. Broadly, three definitions can be used: de facto residence; de jure residence; and, permanent residence. This is important to consider individuals who have multiple or temporary addresses. Every person should be identified uniquely as resident in one place but where they happen to be on Census Day, their de facto residence, may not be the best place to count them. Where an individual uses services may be more useful and this is at their usual, or de jure, residence. An individual may be represented at a permanent address, perhaps a family home for students or long term migrants. It is necessary to have a precise definition of residence to decide whether visitors to a country should be included in the population count. This is becoming more important as students travel abroad for education for a period of several years. Other groups causing problems of enumeration are new born babies, refugees, people away on holiday, people moving home around census day, and people without a fixed address. People having second homes because of working in another part of the country or retaining a holiday cottage are difficult to fix at a particular address sometimes causing double counting or houses being mistakenly identified as vacant. Another problem is where people use a different address at different times e.g. students living at their place of education in term time but returning to a family home during vacations or children whose parents have separated who effectively have two family homes. Census enumeration has always been based on finding people where they live as there is no systematic alternative - any list you could use to find people is derived from census activities in the first place. Recent UN guidelines provide recommendation on enumerating such complex households.
Historical censuses used crude enumeration assuming absolute accuracy. Modern approaches take into account the problems of overcount and undercount, and the coherence of census enumerations with other official sources of data. This reflects a realist approach to measurement, acknowledging that under any definition of residence there is a true value of the population but this can never be measured with complete accuracy. An important aspect of the census process is to evaluate the quality of the data.
Many countries use a post-enumeration survey to adjust the raw census counts. This works in a similar manner to capture - recapture estimation for animal populations. In census circles this method is called dual system enumeration (DSE). A sample of households are visited by interviewers who record the details of the household as at census day. These data are then matched to census records and the number of people missed can be estimated by considering the number missed in the census or survey but counted in the other. This way counts can be adjusted for non-response varying between different demographic groups. An explanation using a fishing analogy can be found in "Trout, Catfish and Roach... '' which won an award from the Royal Statistical Society for excellence in official statistics in 2011.
Triple system enumeration has been proposed as an improvement as it would allow evaluation of the statistical dependence of pairs of sources. However, as the matching process is the most difficult aspect of census estimation this has never been implemented for a national enumeration. It would also be difficult to identify three different sources that were sufficiently different to make the triple system effort worthwhile. The DSE approach has another weakness in that it assumes there is no person counted twice (over count). In de facto residence definitions this would not be a problem but in de jure definitions individuals risk being recorded on more than one form leading to double counting. A particular problem here are students who often have a term time and family address.
Several countries have used a system which is known as short form / long form. This is a sampling strategy which randomly chooses a proportion of people to send a more detailed questionnaire to (the long form). Everyone receives the short form questions. Thereby more data are collected but not imposing a burden on the whole population. This also reduces the burden on the statistical office. Indeed, in the UK all residents were required to fill in the whole form but only a 10 % sample were coded and analysed in detail, until 2001. New technology means that all data are now scanned and processed. Recently there has been controversy in Canada about the cessation of the long form with the head, Munir Sheikh resigning.
The use of alternative enumeration strategies is increasing but these are not so simple as many people assume and only occur in developed countries. The Netherlands has been most advanced in adopting a census using administrative data. This allows a simulated census to be conducted by linking several different administrative databases at an agreed time. Data can be matched and an overall enumeration established accounting for where the different sources are discrepant. A validation survey is still conducted in a similar way to the post enumeration survey employed in a traditional census. Other countries which have a population register use this as a basis for all the census statistics needed by users. This is most common amongst Nordic countries but requires a large number of different registers to be combined including population, housing, employment and education. These registers are then combined and brought up to the standard of a statistical register by comparing the data in different sources and ensuring the quality is sufficient for official statistics to be produced. A recent innovation is the French instigation of a rolling census programme with different regions enumerated each year such that the whole country is completely enumerated every 5 to 10 years. In Europe, in connection with the 2010 census round, a large number of countries adopted alternative census methodologies, often based on the combination of data from registers, surveys and other sources.
Censuses have evolved in their use of technology with the latest censuses, the 2010 round, using many new types of computing. In Brazil, handheld devices were used by enumerators to locate residences on the ground. In many countries, census returns could be made via the Internet as well as in paper form. DSE is facilitated by computer matching techniques which can be automated, such as propensity score matching. In the UK, all census formats are scanned and stored electronically before being destroyed, replacing the need for physical archives. The record linking to perform an administrative census would not be possible without large databases being stored on computer systems.
New technology is not without problems in its introduction. The US census had intended to use the handheld computers but cost escalated and this was abandoned, with the contract being sold to Brazil. Online response is a good idea but one of the functions of census is to make sure everyone is counted accurately. A system which allowed people to enter their address without verification would be open to abuse. Therefore, households have to be verified on the ground, typically by an enumerator visit or post out. Paper forms are still necessary for those without access to Internet connections. It is also possible that the hidden nature of an administrative census means that users are not engaged with the importance of contributing their data to official statistics.
Alternatively, population estimations may be carried out remotely with GIS and remote sensing technologies.
According to UNFPA, "The information generated by a population and housing census -- numbers of people, their distribution, their living conditions and other key data -- is critical for development. '' This is because this type of data is essential for policymakers so that they know where to invest. Unfortunately, many countries have outdated or inaccurate data about their populations and therefore, without accurate data are unable to address the needs of their population.
UNFPA stated that,
"The unique advantage of the census is that it represents the entire statistical universe, down to the smallest geographical units, of a country or region. Planners need this information for all kinds of development work, including: assessing demographic trends; analysing socio - economic conditions; designing evidence - based poverty - reduction strategies; monitoring and evaluating the effectiveness of policies; and tracking progress toward national and internationally agreed development goals. ''
In addition to making policymakers aware about population issues, it is also an important tool for identifying forms of social, demographic or economic exclusions, such as inequalities relating to race, ethics and religion as well as disadvantaged groups such as those with disabilities and the poor.
An accurate census can empower local communities by providing them with the necessary information to participate in local decision - making and ensuring they are represented.
In the nineteenth century, the first censuses collected paper enumerations that had to be collated by hand so the statistical uses were very basic. The government owned the data and were able to publish statistics themselves on the state of the nation. Uses were to measure changes in the population and apportion representation. Population estimates could be compared to those of other countries.
By the beginning of the twentieth century, censuses were recording households and some indications of their employment. In some countries, census archives are released for public examination after many decades, allowing genealogists to track the ancestry of interested people. Archives provide a substantial historical record which may challenge established notions of tradition. It is also possible to understand the societal history through job titles and arrangements for the destitute and sick.
There are a lot of politics that surround the census in many countries. In Canada in 2010 for example, the government under the leadership of Stephen Harper abolished the mandatory long - form census. The decision to cut the long - form census was a response to protests from some Canadians who resented the personal questions. The long - form census was reinstated by the Justin Trudeau government in 2016.
As governments assumed responsibility for schooling and welfare, large government research departments made extensive use of census data. Actuarial estimates could be made to project populations and plan for provision in local government and regions. It was also possible for central government to allocate funding on the basis of census data. Even into the mid twentieth century, census data was only directly accessible to large government departments. However, computers meant that tabulations could be used directly by university researchers, large businesses and local government offices. They could use the detail of the data to answer new questions and add to local and specialist knowledge.
Now, census data are published in a wide variety of formats to be accessible to business, all levels of governance, media, students and teachers, charities and any citizen who is interested; researchers in particular have an interest in the role of Census Field Officers (CFO) and their assistants. Data can be represented visually or analysed in complex statistical models, to show the difference between certain areas, or to understand the association between different personal characteristics. Census data offer a unique insight into small areas and small demographic groups which sample data would be unable to capture with precision.
Although the census provides a useful way of obtaining statistical information about a population, such information can sometimes lead to abuses, political or otherwise, made possible by the linking of individuals ' identities to anonymous census data. This consideration is particularly important when individuals ' census responses are made available in microdata form, but even aggregate - level data can result in privacy breaches when dealing with small areas and / or rare subpopulations.
For instance, when reporting data from a large city, it might be appropriate to give the average income for black males aged between 50 and 60. However, doing this for a town that only has two black males in this age group would be a breach of privacy because either of those persons, knowing his own income and the reported average, could determine the other man 's income.
Typically, census data are processed to obscure such individual information. Some agencies do this by intentionally introducing small statistical errors to prevent the identification of individuals in marginal populations; others swap variables for similar respondents. Whatever measures have been taken to reduce the privacy risk in census data, new technology in the form of better electronic analysis of data poses increasing challenges to the protection of sensitive individual information. This is known as statistical disclosure control.
Another possibility is to present survey results by means of statistical models in the form of a multivariate distribution mixture. The statistical information in the form of conditional distributions (histograms) can be derived interactively from the estimated mixture model without any further access to the original database. As the final product does not contain any protected microdata, the model based interactive software can be distributed without any confidentiality concerns.
Another method is simply to release no data at all, except very large scale data directly to the central government. Different release strategies between government have led to an international project (IPUMS) to co-ordinate access to microdata and corresponding metadata. Such projects also promote standardising metadata by projects such as SDMX so that best use can be made of the minimal data available.
Censuses in Egypt first appears in the late Middle Kingdom and develops in the New Kingdom Pharaoh Amasis, according to Herodotus, require every Egyptian to declare annually to the nomarch, "whence he gained his living ''. Under the Ptolemies and the Romans several censuses were conducted in Egypt by governments officials
There are several accounts of ancient Greek city states carrying out censuses.
Censuses are mentioned in the Bible. God commands a per capita tax to be paid with the census in Exodus 30: 11 - 16 for the upkeep of the Tabernacle. The Book of Numbers is named after the counting of the Israelite population (in Numbers 1 - 4) according to the house of the Fathers after the exodus from Egypt. A second census was taken while the Israelite were camped in the plains of Moab, in Numbers 26.
King David performed a census that produced disastrous results (in 2 Samuel 24 and 1 Chronicles 21). His son, King Solomon, had all of the foreigners in Israel counted in 2 Chronicles 2: 17.
When the Romans took over Judea in AD 6, the legate Publius Sulpicius Quirinius organised a census for tax purposes. The Gospel of Luke links the birth of Jesus to this event. Luke 2.
One of the world 's earliest preserved censuses was held in China in AD 2 during the Han Dynasty, and is still considered by scholars to be quite accurate. Another census was held in AD 144.
The oldest recorded census in India is thought to have occurred around 300 BC during the reign of The Emperor Chandragupta Maurya under the leadership of Kautilya or Chanakya and Ashoka.
The word "census '' originated in ancient Rome from the Latin word censere ("to estimate ''). The census played a crucial role in the administration of the Roman Empire, as it was used to determine taxes. With few interruptions, it was usually carried out every five years. It provided a register of citizens and their property from which their duties and privileges could be listed. It is said to have been instituted by the Roman king Servius Tullius in the 6th century BC, at which time the number of arms - bearing citizens was supposedly counted at around 80,000. The 6 AD "census of Quirinius '' undertaken following the imposition of direct Roman rule in Judea was partially responsible for the development of the Zealot movement and several failed rebellions against Rome that ended in the Diaspora. The 15 - year indiction cycle established by Diocletian in AD 297 was based on quindecennial censuses and formed the basis for dating in late antiquity and under the Byzantine Empire.
In the Middle Ages, the Caliphate began conducting regular censuses soon after its formation, beginning with the one ordered by the second Rashidun caliph, Umar.
The Domesday Book was undertaken in AD 1086 by William I of England so that he could properly tax the land he had recently conquered in medieval Europe. In 1183, a census was taken of the crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem, to ascertain the number of men and amount of money that could possibly be raised against an invasion by Saladin, sultan of Egypt and Syria.
In the 15th century, the Inca Empire had a unique way to record census information. The Incas did not have any written language but recorded information collected during censuses and other numeric information as well as non-numeric data on quipus, strings from llama or alpaca hair or cotton cords with numeric and other values encoded by knots in a base - 10 positional system.
On May 25, 1577, King Philip II of Spain ordered by royal cédula the preparation of a general description of Spain 's holdings in the Indies. Instructions and a questionnaire, issued in 1577 by the Office of the Cronista Mayor, were distributed to local officials in the Viceroyalties of New Spain and Peru to direct the gathering of information. The questionnaire, composed of fifty items, was designed to elicit basic information about the nature of the land and the life of its peoples. The replies, known as "relaciones geográficas, '' were written between 1579 and 1585 and were returned to the Cronista Mayor in Spain by the Council of the Indies.
The earliest estimate of the world population was made by Giovanni Battista Riccioli in 1661; the next by Johann Peter Süssmilch in 1741, revised in 1762; the third by Karl Friedrich Wilhelm Dieterici in 1859.
In 1931 Walter Willcox published a table in his book, International Migrations: Volume II Interpretations, that estimated the 1929 world population to be roughly 1.8 billion.
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who played penny in the movie lost in space | Lost in Space (film) - wikipedia
Lost in Space is a 1998 American science fiction adventure film directed by Stephen Hopkins and starring William Hurt, Matt LeBlanc, and Gary Oldman. The film was shot in London and Shepperton, and produced by New Line Cinema. The plot is adapted from the 1965 -- 1968 CBS television series Lost in Space. The film focuses on the Robinson family, who undertake a voyage to a nearby star system to begin large - scale emigration from a soon - to - be uninhabitable Earth, but are thrown off course by a saboteur and must try to find their way home.
Several of the actors from the original TV series had cameos in the film.
In the year 2058, Earth will soon be uninhabitable due to irreversible effects of pollution. In an effort to save humanity, the United Global Space Force (UGSF) elects to send Professor John Robinson and his family -- wife Maureen, daughters Judy and Penny, and young prodigy son Will -- on a 10 - year mission on the spaceship Jupiter II to complete the construction of a hypergate over the planet Alpha - Prime, allowing for the population of Earth to be instantly transported to and populate it as a new home. Initially, Penny is resistant to leaving: rebelling by breaking curfew, while Will 's prize - winning science experiment involving time travel goes largely unnoticed by the family patriarch. Global Sedition, a terrorist group against the mission, assassinates the Jupiter II 's pilot, and hotshot fighter pilot Major Don West is instead recruited to fly their ship -- much to his chagrin.
Doctor Zachary Smith, the family 's physician, turns out to be a spy for the Sedition who sabotages the ship 's on - board robot before launch, but he is betrayed by his cohorts and left unconscious as an unwitting stowaway as the ship launches and the family enters cryosleep for the journey. The robot activates soon after they are asleep, and following its corrupted programming, begins to destroy the navigation and guidance systems, en route to destroying the family itself. Smith awakens the sleeping Robinsons and West, who manages to subdue the robot; yet due to the robot 's actions, the ship is falling uncontrollably into the sun. Forced to use the experimental hyperdrive, which has an unpredictable trajectory without a hypergate to go through, the ship is transported through hyperspace to a planet in a remote and uncharted part of the universe, where their known star charts are useless. Going through a strange distortion in space, the crew finds two abandoned ships in orbit, the Proteus, an Earth ship, and another ship that is clearly not of human origin. They board the Proteus, with Will controlling the now - modified robot by remote - control to aid them. They find navigational data that can be used to get to Alpha - Prime along with a camouflaging creature whom Penny calls "Blarp '', and evidence suggesting the ship is from decades in the future. They are attacked by spider - like creatures; in their escape, Smith is injured by one of them, and the robot 's body is damaged beyond repair, but Will saves its computerized intelligence. Pilot West ignores orders and destroys the vessel to eradicate the spiders, and as a result, the ship crash - lands on the nearby planet - where the strange distortions from before continue. Will theorizes that they are distortions in time; in fact, they are his science experiment 's predicted results. His father, however, frustrates Will by ignoring his input. His father and West head off to explore one of these time bubbles, and encounter a future version of Will, who explains that some spiders had survived and attacked after his father and West had left them, and that Maureen, Penny and Judy were all killed. Constructing a time machine, Will intends to go back to Earth prior to the launch of Jupiter II, and prevent it from happening.
Meanwhile, young Will and Smith head out on their own to investigate the time bubble. Smith tricks Will into handing over his weapon, but he is foiled by a future version of Smith who had been protecting Will ever since the rest of the family was killed, and was unwittingly transformed by an infection from the spider injury into a kind of anthropomorphic creature. Will and West return to their time with an injured Smith in tow, while the future Smith reveals his true actions: he had killed the Robinsons, but kept Will alive to build the time machine, so that he could go back in time to populate Earth with a race of space spiders. John remembers that the spiders eat their wounded, rips open Smith 's egg sac with a trophy Will had turned into a weapon, and while Smith 's own army devours him, he is thrown into the time portal, which rips him apart. The increasing instability of the planet caused by the portal forces the Jupiter II to take off, but they are unable to reach escape velocity and are destroyed by the planet 's debris. Will realizes that his father never actually abandoned them, and that he really does love him after all. Setting the time machine 's controls to send John back to his family, he himself is unable to go along -- for there is only enough power for one person. Saying goodbye to his family, Will disappears into the future and John reunites with his living family. Realizing that they do n't have enough power to escape the planet 's gravitational pull, John suggests that West do what he did when they were falling into the sun: drive the ship down through the planet, and use the gravity well to slingshot them back into space. They are successful, but the planet turns into a black hole, which begins to suck them back in, and the Robinsons once again activate the hyperdrive to escape. Using the navigational data from the Proteus to set a potential course for Alpha - Prime, the ship blasts off into hyperspace.
Several of the actors from the TV show appeared in the film. June Lockhart (Maureen Robinson) appeared as Will 's school principal "Cartwright '' in a hologram. Mark Goddard (Major West) appeared as Major West 's commanding officer. Angela Cartwright (Penny Robinson) and Marta Kristen (Judy Robinson) appeared as news reporters. Dick Tufeld returned to his role as the voice of the Robot. Jonathan Harris, who played Dr. Smith in the series, declined an offer to cameo as a Global Sedition representative who deals with Dr. Smith in the film, declaring "I 've never played a bit part in my life and I 'm not going to start now! ''. Billy Mumy was likewise offered a cameo, but turned it down after being told he would not be considered for the part he wanted -- the role of the older Will Robinson -- because he was told that would "confuse the audience. ''
TVT Records released a soundtrack album on March 31, 1998, featuring eleven tracks of Bruce Broughton 's original score (which makes no reference to either of the TV themes composed by John Williams) and eight tracks of techno music (most of which is heard only over the film 's end credits). A European version of the soundtrack album was released that omits the tracks "Spider Attack '', "Jupiter Crashes '', and "Spider Smith '' in favor of three new songs unused in the film by Aah - Yah, Asphalt Ostrich, and Anarchy. Intrada Records released a score album for the film the following year. (The track "Thru the Planet '' on the TVT album is not the same as "Through the Planet '' on the Intrada release, but is a shortened version of Broughton 's unused end title music heard on the score album as "Lost in Space. '')
All music composed by Bruce Broughton.
On its opening weekend, Lost in Space grossed $20,154,919 and debuted at number one at the box office, ending Titanic 's 15 - week - long hold on the first - place position. It opened in 3,306 theaters and grossed an average of $6,096 per screening. Lost in Space grossed $69,117,629 in the United States, and $67,041,794 outside of America, bringing its worldwide total to $136,159,423, making it a moderate box office success. Those results were deemed insufficient, however, to justify a planned sequel.
Reviews were generally negative for Lost in Space, drawing criticism for its darker tone. Rotten Tomatoes has reported that 27 % of critics gave them a positive review. The site 's consensus reads: "Clumsily directed and missing most of the TV series ' campy charm, Lost in Space sadly lives down to its title. '' It also holds a score of 42 out of 100 on Metacritic from 19 critics.
Roger Ebert gave the film a rating of 1 and a half out of 4, calling it a "dim - witted shoot - ' em - up ''. Wade Major from Boxoffice magazine rated the film at 1 and a half out of 5, calling it "the dumbest and least imaginative adaptation of a television series yet translated to the screen. '' James Berardinelli was slightly more favorable, giving the film a rating of 2 and a half out of 4. While praising the film 's set design, he criticized its "meandering storyline and lifeless protagonists, '' saying that "Lost in Space features a few action sequences that generate adrenaline jolts, but this is not an edge - of - the - seat motion picture. ''
The film was given a Golden Raspberry Award nomination for Worst Remake or Sequel, but lost against the tied The Avengers, Godzilla and Psycho.
VHS, DVD, and later a Blu - ray have been released for the film. Both DVD, and Blu - ray contain deleted scenes.
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kathak nautanki and kajri are art form of | Nautanki - wikipedia
Nautanki is one of the most popular folk operatic theater performance forms of South Asia, particularly in northern India. Before the advent of Bollywood (the Hindi film industry), Nautanki was the biggest entertainment medium in the villages and towns of northern India. Nautanki 's rich musical compositions and humorous, entertaining storylines hold a strong influence over rural people 's imagination. Even after the spread of mass media (such as television and DVDs), a crowd of 10,000 to 15,000 can be seen at the top Nautanki performances. Nautanki 's origins lie in the Saangit, Bhagat, and Swang musical theatre traditions of Northern India. One Saangit called Saangit Rani Nautanki Ka became so popular that the whole genre 's name became Nautanki.
Nautanki performances are operas based on a popular folk theme derived from romantic tales, mythologies, or biographies of local heroes. The performance is often punctuated with individual songs, dances, and skits, which serve as breaks and comic relief for audiences. Audiences sometimes use the breaks to go to the toilet or pick up food from their homes or nearby shops. Nautanki performances involve a lot of community participation from audiences. For instance, community members provide logistical support, financial support, and talented actors for Nautanki performances. Audience members choose what script will be performed and often intervene during the performance to demand a repeat of a particular song or skit.
Nautanki performances can take place in any open space available in or around a village that can accommodate audiences in hundreds or thousands. Sometimes this space is made available by the village chaupal (village community center). Other times, the playground of the local school becomes the performance site. A Nautanki stage is elevated above the ground and is made up of wooden cots (usually provided by local villagers). Until a few decades back, there was no electricity in Indian villages, so light was provided either by big lanterns or Petromax (a device run by kerosene oil).
The pleasure of Nautanki lies in the intense melodic exchanges between two or three performers; a chorus is used sometimes.
Traditional Nautankis usually start late at night, often around 10 p.m. or so, and go all night until sunrise the next morning (for a total of 8 -- 10 hours). There is no intermission in Nautanki performances.
Story lines of traditional Nautankis range from mythological and folk tales to stories of contemporary heroes. For instance, while Nautanki plays such as Satya - Harishchandra and Bhakt Moradhwaj are based on mythological themes, Indal Haran and Puranmal originated from folklore. In the first half of the 20th century, contemporary sentiment against British rule and feudal landlords found expression in Nautankis such as Sultana Daku, Jalianwala Bagh, and Amar Singh Rathore. In the last four decades, Pandit Ram Dayal Sharma (a renowned Nautanki maestro) and later Dr. Devendra Sharma have co-authored many new Nautankis. These new Nautankis are centered on contemporary social messages such as health, HIV / AIDS, women 's empowerment, dowry, immigration, and family planning. They are of a much shorter duration -- around two hours. This is to give audiences an opportunity to watch performances during a break in their daily routine. These contemporary Nautankis have been performed extensively in India and America and met with resounding popularity.
Some popular traditional Nautankis are Syah - Posh (Pak Mohabbat), Sultana Daku, Indal Haran, Amar Singh Rathore, Bhakt Puranmal, and Harischandra - Taramati. Some popular contemporary ones are Mission Suhani, Subah ka Bhoola, Behkaani and Muskaani, and Beti ka Byah (all of these contemporary Nautankis are written by Pandit Ram Dayal Sharma).
Some famous performers are Gokul Korea, Ghasso, Ram Swarup Sharma of Samai - Khera, Manohar Lal Sharma and Giriraj Prasad of Kaman District Bharatpur, Pandit Ram Dayal Sharma, Chunni Lal, Puran Lal Sharma, Amarnath, Gulab Bai, and Krishna Kumari.
In 2002, Nautanki was introduced in America by Dr. Devendra Sharma, a Nautanki artist, singer, writer, director, and scholar of communication and performance. The participants in Sharma 's productions are engineers, doctors, and other members of the Indian diaspora living in America, who are given a rare opportunity to connect with their cultural roots. At the same time, these performances have exposed other communities in America to Indian culture.
One such Nautanki is Mission Suhani, an original Nautanki co-authored by Sharma and Pandit Ram Dayal Sharma that communicates a contemporary and controversial social issue concerning Indians and Indian immigrants in America. It critically examines the phenomenon of some Indian men who come to America to study or work, but go back to India and get married -- either because of parental pressure or to get a big dowry (cash given to the groom 's family by the bride 's side). Many of these men leave their wives in India and never bring them to America, where they often have another wife or a girlfriend. One of the unique aspects of this Nautanki is that it is bilingual (Hindi and English). This protects the traditional operatic and artistic elements of Nautanki while effectively communicating the story and contemporary social issue to a diverse audience. Nautankis such as Mission Suhani involving global social issues help to update Nautanki to emerging issues in India and around the world.
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who sang i can make you feel good | I Can Make You Feel Good - Wikipedia
"I Can Make You Feel Good '' is a 1982 song by American funk band Shalamar from their album Friends. It reached No. 7 in the UK just beneath their previous single "A Night to Remember '' and their following single "There It Is '' which both peaked at No. 5.
In 1997, the song was covered by English singer Kavana. His version reached No. 8 on the UK Singles Chart.
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how many prisoners have a whole life tariff | List of prisoners with whole - life orders - wikipedia
This is a list of prisoners who have received a whole - life order through some mechanism in jurisdictions of the United Kingdom. It has been reportedly issued in approximately 100 cases since its introduction in 1983, although some of these prisoners have since died in custody, or had their sentences reduced on appeal. There are now believed to be at least 75 prisoners currently serving whole life sentences in England and Wales. These include some of Britain 's most notorious criminals, including the "Yorkshire Ripper '' Peter Sutcliffe.
A number of these prisoners, including Moors murderers Ian Brady and Myra Hindley, have died in prison since being sentenced.
There are also a number of prisoners, including police killer David Bieber, whose sentences have been reduced on appeal.
However, some of Britain 's most notorious murderers are not among those serving whole - life sentences. These include convicted child killers Roy Whiting and Ian Huntley. However, both murderers have been issued 40 - year minimum terms by the High Court, which means that they are likely to remain imprisoned for most if not all of their remaining lives, while many other less notorious prisoners are in a similar position due to the length of their minimum terms and the age they will be when they can be considered for parole.
A number of prisoners serving whole life sentences have challenged the legality of whole life sentences in the High Court or European Court of Human Rights. These include Jeremy Bamber and Gary Vinter, whose second legal challenge to the European Court of Human Rights was successful, although the High Court later ruled that whole life sentences could still be issued as long as they were reviewed within 25 years of being issued. Arthur Hutchinson has challenged his sentence at least four times in both the High Court and the European Court of Human Rights, but has been unsuccessful each time. A fresh legal challenge to the European Court of Human Rights is now pending from Jamie Reynolds.
Successive Home Secretaries are known to have imposed whole life orders for at least 23 murderers between 1983 and 2002 (note, this list is incomplete):
With accomplice Myra Hindley, he buried the children in shallow graves on Saddleworth Moor. From 1985 until his death he was held in a mental hospital and was on long - term hunger strike, which led to him being force - fed through a tube. In 2001, he published a book on serial killing. The body of one of his victims, 12 - year - old Keith Bennett, remains undiscovered on the Moor, despite Brady 's and Hindley 's own heavily guarded efforts to locate the remains themselves after they admitted two further murders in 1986; they did, however, guide police to the buried body of 16 - year - old Pauline Reade in 1987.
In 2006, Brady wrote to Keith Bennett 's mother to claim he remembered enough to be taken to within 20 yards of the grave, but was not permitted to do so.
Brady died, aged 79, at Ashworth Hospital in May 2017.
Hindley 's trial judge recommended she should serve at least 25 years in prison, which was endorsed in 1982 by the Lord Chief Justice. Reports suggested that Hindley was rehabilitating in prison and had found religion and rejected Brady and her past, but her tariff was increased to 30 years in 1988 and, finally, to a whole - life tariff two years later, although she was not informed of the whole - life tariff until 1994. Hindley 's supporters, including penal reformer Lord Longford, journalist David Astor and prison governor Peter Timms, claimed that the increase in Hindley 's sentence was the response of a succession of Home Secretaries to public opinion, as there was widespread public opposition to Hindley ever being released. Relatives of the Moors Murders victims were at the centre of a campaign to keep Hindley imprisoned and several of them vowed to kill her if she was ever paroled.
Hindley subsequently made three appeals against the whole life tariff, but each appeal was unsuccessful she died in jail at the age of 60 in November 2002, less than two weeks before a law lords ' ruling which could potentially have secured her freedom. Her case prompted more debate than that of any other prisoner of notoriety, with some high - profile backing from the House of Lords, but vitriol from the press and the public, as well as the families of her victims. Lord Longford, who died just over a year before Hindley, regularly condemned the media for their "exploitation '' of Ann West, mother of one of the victims, who gave regular newspaper and television interviews to argue against any suggestion of release from prison, and vowed to kill Hindley if she ever was released.
Her death left only Rosemary West (jailed for life for 10 murders in 1995) as a confirmed female prisoner serving a whole - life tariff, until the addition of Joanne Dennehy, in 2014.
He has served much of his sentence in solitary confinement to prevent him from attacking or killing any more inmates, some of it at Parkhurst prison, but mostly at Wakefield prison in a cell said to resemble Hannibal Lecter 's in the film The Silence of the Lambs with cardboard furniture. He became Britain 's longest - serving prisoner after the death of Ian Brady in May 2017.
His trial judge said in sentencing him that he found the idea of ever seeing Bamber free again "difficult to foresee '', and advised that he should serve at least 25 years behind bars before release could even be considered. Before the law lords ' ruling in November 2002, Bamber was told by at least one Home Secretary that his life sentence would mean life.
Since the European Court of Human Rights decision, only trial judges and the High Court have had the right to decide that a killer should never be released. In that time, there have been at least 63 instances of trial judges recommending that an offender should never be released.
Several of these prisoners have had their whole - life tariffs reduced on appeal by the High Court.
Vinter was among the killers who mounted the successful legal challenge against the whole - life tariff in July 2013, with the Court of Appeal later ruling in February 2014 that such sentences were justified.
In February 2016, Vinter was given a third life sentence for the attempted murder of fellow prisoner Lee Newell (also serving a whole - life tariff) at HMP Woodhill, with the judge once again reiterating that he should never be released. In November 2012, Vinter had also admitted wounding child killer Roy Whiting in prison.
It was frequently reported in the media that he was among the prisoners to have been issued with a whole - life tariff, but he was not on a list of 35 such prisoners which was published in December 2006. A whole - life tariff was imposed by the High Court on 16 July 2010.
Bridger later planned to appeal against his sentence, but dropped his appeal bid in January 2014 just before it was due to be heard.
In 2008 Reynolds tried to strangle a girl, but this merely resulted in a final warning when police investigated. In 2011, Reynolds drove his car into that of a girl who had rejected his advances, but police did not connect this with the 2008 incident. The Justice Liaison Service and police were told about violent pornography Reynolds had viewed, as well as images he had created of young women and teenage girls he personally knew. This was also not taken sufficiently seriously and the girls were not warned. Several agencies were involved with Reynolds but there was no co-ordinated approach to managing or monitoring him, and consequently few people who knew him were aware of these incidents.
In the aftermath of his conviction for the murder of Georgia Williams, media sources stated that the murder could have been prevented if police and social services had acted on information they had received about Reynolds, which would have led to him being monitored and registered as a sex offender when at liberty, even if he had not been jailed for these offences.
Reynolds, 23 at the time his trial began and still 22 when he murdered Williams, confessed to the murder on 2 December 2013. Sentencing was delayed until 19 December, when the judge sentenced him to life imprisonment and recommended that he should never be released, after reading reports from psychiatrists stating that Reynolds had the potential to progress into a serial killer if not apprehended and was likely to remain a danger to women for the rest of his life. The court also heard of pornographic material found on his computer, including 72 graphic videos and more than 16,000 graphic images. A murderer at the age of 22 and sentenced to life at 23, Reynolds is one of the youngest people in British history to be handed a whole - life tariff. In April 2014 it was reported that he would be appealing for a reduction in his sentence, despite his solicitor announcing shortly after the trial that Reynolds was resigned to spending the rest of his life in prison and would not be challenging his sentence. His appeal was rejected on 31 October 2014.
Since he was remanded in custody during 2013, Reynolds has been held at Ashworth Hospital, Merseyside. In September 2016, the Welsh media reported that Reynolds was lodging a fresh appeal to the European Court of Human Rights which was likely to be heard during 2017.
Following a ruling by UK judges in February 2014 that whole - life tariffs were lawful, McLoughlin 's 40 - year sentence was quashed, and a whole - life order was applied to him.
This was the second murder that Birley was convicted of. In 1996, Birley had been convicted of the murder of 69 - year - old Maurice Hoyle in his house in Barnsley and served 18 years of a life sentence before being released on licence. As a result of having already been convicted of one murder, Birley was given a whole - life tariff for the murder of Mr Gogarty. His partner, Helen Nichols, was told she must serve a minimum of 20 years for her part in the murder.
Four years later, Halliwell was tried for Godden 's murder after Wiltshire Police uncovered new evidence in the case. On 19 September 2016, a jury convicted him of Godden 's murder and, on 23 September, he was given a whole - life sentence with the judge describing him as a "calculating and devious '' individual. Police are also investigating the possibility he may have killed more women.
Police believe he committed the murders because she was planning to leave him. He buried their bodies in the garden and later fled to Ghana in an attempt to evade justice, but was caught and returned to the UK. On 5 October 2016, he was given a whole - life sentence after he pleaded guilty to the murders.
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the superior colliculus is located in the (diencephalon / midbrain / basal ganglia / medulla) | Basal ganglia - wikipedia
The basal ganglia (or basal nuclei) is a group of subcortical nuclei, of varied origin, in the brains of vertebrates including humans, which are situated at the base of the forebrain. Basal ganglia are strongly interconnected with the cerebral cortex, thalamus, and brainstem, as well as several other brain areas. The basal ganglia are associated with a variety of functions including: control of voluntary motor movements, procedural learning, routine behaviors or "habits '' such as teeth grinding, eye movements, cognition, and emotion.
The main components of the basal ganglia -- as defined functionally -- are the striatum; both dorsal striatum (caudate nucleus and putamen) and ventral striatum (nucleus accumbens and olfactory tubercle), globus pallidus, ventral pallidum, substantia nigra, and subthalamic nucleus. Each of these components has a complex internal anatomical and neurochemical organization. The largest component, the striatum (dorsal and ventral), receives input from many brain areas beyond the basal ganglia, but only sends output to other components of the basal ganglia. The pallidum receives input from the striatum, and sends inhibitory output to a number of motor - related areas. The substantia nigra is the source of the striatal input of the neurotransmitter dopamine, which plays an important role in basal ganglia function. The subthalamic nucleus receives input mainly from the striatum and cerebral cortex, and projects to the globus pallidus.
Popular theories implicate the basal ganglia primarily in action selection -- in helping to decide which of several possible behaviors to execute at any given time. In more specific terms, the basal ganglia 's primary function is likely to control and regulate activities of the motor and premotor cortical areas so that voluntary movements can be performed smoothly. Experimental studies show that the basal ganglia exert an inhibitory influence on a number of motor systems, and that a release of this inhibition permits a motor system to become active. The "behavior switching '' that takes place within the basal ganglia is influenced by signals from many parts of the brain, including the prefrontal cortex, which plays a key role in executive functions.
The importance of these subcortical nuclei for normal brain function and behavior is emphasized by the numerous and diverse neurological conditions associated with basal ganglia dysfunction, which include: disorders of behavior control such as Tourette syndrome, hemiballismus, and obsessive -- compulsive disorder; dystonia; addiction; and movement disorders, the most notable of which are Parkinson 's disease, which involves degeneration of the dopamine - producing cells in the substantia nigra pars compacta, and Huntington 's disease, which primarily involves damage to the striatum. The basal ganglia have a limbic sector whose components are assigned distinct names: the nucleus accumbens, ventral pallidum, and ventral tegmental area (VTA). There is considerable evidence that this limbic part plays a central role in reward learning, particularly a pathway (mesolimbic pathway) from the VTA to the nucleus accumbens that uses the neurotransmitter dopamine. A number of highly addictive drugs, including cocaine, amphetamine, and nicotine, are thought to work by increasing the efficacy of this dopamine signal. There is also evidence implicating overactivity of the VTA dopaminergic projection in schizophrenia.
In terms of development, the human central nervous system is often classified based on the original three primitive vesicles from which it develops: These primary vesicles form in the normal development of the neural tube of the embryo and initially include the prosencephalon, mesencephalon, and rhombencephalon, in rostral to caudal (from head to tail) orientation. Later in development of the nervous system each section itself turns into smaller components. During development, the cells that migrate tangentially to form the basal ganglia are directed by the lateral and medial ganglionic eminences. The following table demonstrates this developmental classification and traces it to the anatomic structures found in the basal ganglia. The structures relevant to the basal ganglia are shown in bold.
The basal ganglia form a fundamental component of the cerebrum. In contrast to the cortical layer that lines the surface of the forebrain, the basal ganglia are a collection of distinct masses of gray matter lying deep in the brain not far from the junction of the thalamus. They lie to the side of and surround the thalamus. Like most parts of the brain, the basal ganglia consist of left and right sides that are virtual mirror images of each other.
In terms of anatomy, the basal ganglia are divided into four distinct structures, depending on how superior or rostral they are (in other words depending on how close to the top of the head they are): Two of them, the striatum and the pallidum, are relatively large; the other two, the substantia nigra and the subthalamic nucleus, are smaller. In the illustration to the right, two coronal sections of the human brain show the location of the basal ganglia components. Of note, and not seen in this section, the subthalamic nucleus and substantia nigra lie farther back (posteriorly) in the brain than the striatum and pallidum.
The striatum is a subcortical structure generally divided into the dorsal striatum and ventral striatum, although a medial lateral classification has been suggested to be more relevant behaviorally and is being more widely used.
The striatum is composed mostly of medium spiny neurons. These GABAergic projection neurons project to the external (lateral) globus pallidus and internal (medial) globus pallidus as well as the substantia nigra pars reticulata. The projections into the globus pallidus and substantia nigra are primarily dopaminergic, although enkephalin, dynorphin and substance P are expressed. The striatum also contains interneurons that are classified into nitrergic neurons (due to use of nitric oxide as a neurotransmitter), tonically active cholinergic interneurons, parvalbumin - expressing neurons and calretinin - expressing neurons. The dorsal striatum receives significant glutamatergic inputs from the cortex, as well as dopaminergic inputs from the substantia nigra pars compacta. The dorsal striatum is generally considered to be involved in sensorimotor activities. The ventral striatum receives glutamatergic inputs from the limbic areas as well as dopaminergic inputs from the VTA, via the mesolimbic pathway. The ventral striatum is believed to play a role in reward and other limbic functions. The dorsal striatum is divided into the caudate and putamen by the internal capsule while the ventral striatum is composed of the nucleus accumbens and olfactory tubercle. The caudate has three primary regions of connectivity, with the head of the caudate demonstrating connectivity to the prefrontal cortex, cingulate cortex and amygdala. The body and tail show differentiation between the dorsolateral rim and ventral caudate, projecting to the sensorimotor and limbic regions of the striatum respectively.
The pallidum consists of a large structure called the globus pallidus ("pale globe '') together with a smaller ventral extension called the ventral pallidum. The globus pallidus appears as a single neural mass, but can be divided into two functionally distinct parts, called the internal (or medial) and external (lateral) segments, abbreviated GPi and GPe. Both segments contain primarily GABAergic neurons, which therefore have inhibitory effects on their targets. The two segments participate in distinct neural circuits. The GPe, receives input mainly from the striatum, and projects to the subthalamic nucleus. The GPi, receives signals from the striatum via the "direct '' and "indirect '' pathways. Pallidal neurons operate using a disinhibition principle. These neurons fire at steady high rates in the absence of input, and signals from the striatum cause them to pause or reduce their rate of firing. Because pallidal neurons themselves have inhibitory effects on their targets, the net effect of striatal input to the pallidum is a reduction of the tonic inhibition exerted by pallidal cells on their targets (disinhibition) with an increased rate of firing in the targets.
The substantia nigra is a midbrain gray matter portion of the basal ganglia that has two parts -- the pars compacta (SNc) and the pars reticulata (SNr). SNr often works in unison with GPi, and the SNr - GPi complex inhibits the thalamus. Substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc) however, produces the neurotransmitter dopamine, which is very significant in maintaining balance in the striatal pathway. The circuit portion below explains the role and circuit connections of each of the components of the basal ganglia.
The subthalamic nucleus is a diencephalic gray matter portion of the basal ganglia, and the only portion of the ganglia that produces an excitatory neurotransmitter, glutamate. The role of the subthalamic nucleus is to stimulate the SNr - GPi complex and it is part of the indirect pathway. The subthalamic nucleus receives inhibitory input from the external part of the globus pallidus and sends excitatory input to the GPi.
Multiple models of basal ganglia circuits and function have been proposed, however there have been questions raised about the strict divisions of the direct and indirect pathways, their possible overlap and regulation. The circuitry models has evolved since the first proposed model in the 1990s by DeLong in the parallel processing model, in which the cortex and substantia nigra pars compacta project into the dorsal striatum giving rise to an inhibitory indirect and excitatory direct pathway.
Generally, the basal ganglia circuitry is divided into a limbic, two associative (prefrontal), an oculomotor and one motor pathway. The motor and oculomotor are sometimes grouped into one motor pathway. The 5 general pathways are organized as follows:
The direct pathway, originating in the dorsal striatum inhibits the GPi and SNr, resulting in a net disinhibition or excitation of the thalamus. This pathway consist of medium spiny neurons (MSNs) that express dopamine receptor D1, muscarinic acetylcholine receptor M4, and adenosine receptor A1. The direct pathway has been proposed to facilitate motor actions, timing of motor actions, gating of working memory, and motor responses to specific stimuli.
The (long) indirect pathway originates in the dorsal striatum and inhibits the GPe, resulting in disinhibition of the GPi which is then free to inhibit the thalamus. This pathway consists of MSNs that express dopamine receptor D2, muscarinic acetylcholine receptor M1, and adenosine receptor A2a. This pathway has been proposed to result in global motor inhibition (inhibition of all motor activity), and termination of responses. Another shorter indirect pathway has been proposed, which involves cortical excitation of the subthalamic nucleus resulting in direct excitation of the GPe, and inhibition of the thalamus. This pathway is proposed to result in inhibition of specific motor programs based on associative learning.
A combination of these indirect pathways resulting in a hyperdirect pathway that results in inhibition of basal ganglia inputs besides one specific focus has been proposed as part of the center surround theory. This hyperdirect pathway is proposed to inhibit premature responses, or globally inhibit the basal ganglia to allow for more specific top down control by the cortex.
The interactions of these pathways are currently under debate. Some say that all pathways directly antagonize each other in a "push pull '' fashion, while others support the center surround theory, in which one focused input into the cortex is protected by inhibition of competing inputs by the rest of the indirect pathways.
The basal ganglia contains many afferent glutamatergic inputs, with predominantly GABAergic efferent fibers, modulatory cholinergic pathways, significant dopamine in the pathways originating in the ventral tegmental area and substantia nigra, as well as various neuropeptides. Neuropeptides found in the basal ganglia include substance P, neurokinin A, cholecystokinin, neurotensin, neurokinin B, neuropeptide Y, somatostatin, dynorphin, enkephaline. Other neuromodulators found in the basal ganglia include nitric oxide, carbon monoxide, and phenylethylamine.
The functional connectivity, measured by regional co-activation during functional neuroimaging studies, is broadly consistent with the parallel processing models of basal ganglia function. The putamen was generally coactivated with motor areas such as the Supplementary motor area, caudal Anterior cingulate cortex and Primary motor cortex, while the caudate and rostral putamen were more frequently coactivated with the rostral ACC and DLPFC. The ventral striatum was significantly associated with the amygdala and hippocampus, which although was not included in the first formulations of basal ganglia models, has been an addition to more recent models.
One intensively studied function of the basal ganglia is its role in controlling eye movements. Eye movement is influenced by an extensive network of brain regions that converges on a midbrain area called the superior colliculus (SC). The SC is a layered structure whose layers form two - dimensional retinotopic maps of visual space. A "bump '' of neural activity in the deep layers of the SC drives an eye movement directed toward the corresponding point in space.
The SC receives a strong inhibitory projection from the basal ganglia, originating in the substantia nigra pars reticulata (SNr). Neurons in the SNr usually fire continuously at high rates, but at the onset of an eye movement they "pause '', thereby releasing the SC from inhibition. Eye movements of all types are associated with "pausing '' in the SNr; however, individual SNr neurons may be more strongly associated with some types of movements than others. Neurons in some parts of the caudate nucleus also show activity related to eye movements. Since the great majority of caudate cells fire at very low rates, this activity almost always shows up as an increase in firing rate. Thus, eye movements begin with activation in the caudate nucleus, which inhibits the SNr via the direct GABAergic projections, which in turn disinhibits the SC.
Extracellular dopamine in the basal ganglia has been linked to motivational states in rodents, with high levels being linked to satiated "euphoria '', medium levels with seeking, and low with aversion. The limbic basal ganglia circuits are influenced heavily by extracellular dopamine. Increased dopamine results in inhibition of the Ventral pallidum, entopeduncular nucleus, and substantia nigra pars reticulata, resulting in disinhibition of the thalamus. This model of direct D1, and indirect D2 pathways explain why selective agonists of each receptor are not rewarding, as activity at both pathways is required for disinhibition. The disinhibition of the thalamus leads to activation of the prefrontal cortex and ventral striatum, selective for increased D1 activity leading to reward.
Two models have been proposed for the basal ganglia, one being that actions are generated by a "critic '' in the ventral striatum and estimates value, and the actions are carried out by an "actor '' in the dorsal striatum. Another model proposes the basal ganglia acts as a selection mechanism, where actions are generated in the cortex and are selected based on context by the basal ganglia. The CBGTC loop is also involved in reward discounting, with firing increasing with an unexpected or greater than expected reward. One review supported the idea that the cortex was involved in learning actions regardless of their outcome, while the basal ganglia was involved in selecting appropriate actions based on associative reward based trial and error learning.
The basal ganglia has been proposed to gate what enters and what does n't enter working memory. One hypothesis proposes that the direct pathway (Go, or excitatory) allows information into the PFC, where it stays independent of the pathway, however another theory proposes that in order for information to stay in the PFC the direct pathway needs to continue reverberating. The short indirect pathway has been proposed to, in a direct push pull antagonism with the direct pathway, close the gate to the PFC. Together these mechanisms regulate working memory focus.
Basal ganglia disease is a group of movement disorders that result from either excessive output from the basal ganglia to the thalamus -- hypokinetic disorders, or from insufficient output -- hyperkinetic disorders. Hypokinetic disorders arise from an excessive output from the basal ganglia, which inhibits the output from the thalamus to the cortex, and this limits voluntary movement. Hyperkinetic disorders result from a low output from the basal ganglia to the thalamus which gives not enough inhibition to the thalamic projections to the cortex and this gives uncontrolled / involuntary movements. Dysfunction of the basal ganglia circuitry can also lead to other disorders.
The following is a list of disorders that have been linked to the basal ganglia:
The acceptance that the basal ganglia system constitutes one major cerebral system took time to arise. The first anatomical identification of distinct subcortical structures was published by Thomas Willis in 1664. For many years, the term corpus striatum was used to describe a large group of subcortical elements, some of which were later discovered to be functionally unrelated. For many years, the putamen and the caudate nucleus were not associated with each other. Instead, the putamen was associated with the pallidum in what was called the nucleus lenticularis or nucleus lentiformis.
A thorough reconsideration by Cécile and Oskar Vogt (1941) simplified the description of the basal ganglia by proposing the term striatum to describe the group of structures consisting of the caudate nucleus, the putamen, and the mass linking them ventrally, the nucleus accumbens. The striatum was named on the basis of the striated (striped) appearance created by radiating dense bundles of striato - pallido - nigral axons, described by anatomist Samuel Alexander Kinnier Wilson (1912) as "pencil - like ''.
The anatomical link of the striatum with its primary targets, the pallidum and the substantia nigra, was discovered later. The name globus pallidus was attributed by Déjerine to Burdach (1822). For this, the Vogts proposed the simpler "pallidum ''. The term "locus niger '' was introduced by Félix Vicq - d'Azyr as tache noire in (1786), though that structure has since become known as the substantia nigra, due to contributions by Von Sömmering in 1788. The structural similarity between the substantia nigra and globus pallidus was noted by Mirto in 1896. Together, the two are known as the pallidonigral ensemble, which represents the core of the basal ganglia. Altogether, the main structures of the basal ganglia are linked to each other by the striato - pallido - nigral bundle, which passes through the pallidum, crosses the internal capsule as the "comb bundle of Edinger '', then finally reaches the substantia nigra.
Additional structures that later became associated with the basal ganglia are the "body of Luys '' (1865) (nucleus of Luys on the figure) or subthalamic nucleus, whose lesion was known to produce movement disorders. More recently, other areas such as the centromedian nucleus and the pedunculopontine complex have been thought to be regulators of the basal ganglia.
Near the beginning of the 20th century, the basal ganglia system was first associated with motor functions, as lesions of these areas would often result in disordered movement in humans (chorea, athetosis, Parkinson 's disease).
The nomenclature of the basal ganglia system and its components has always been problematic. Early anatomists, seeing the macroscopic anatomical structure but knowing nothing of the cellular architecture or neurochemistry, grouped together components that are now believed to have distinct functions (such as the internal and external segments of the globus pallidus), and gave distinct names to components that are now thought to be functionally parts of a single structure (such as the caudate nucleus and putamen).
The term "basal '' comes from the fact that most of its elements are located in the basal part of the forebrain. The term ganglia is a misnomer: In modern usage, neural clusters are called "ganglia '' only in the peripheral nervous system; in the central nervous system they are called "nuclei ''. For this reason, the basal ganglia are also occasionally known as the "basal nuclei ''. Terminologia anatomica (1998), the international authority for anatomical naming, retained "nuclei basales '', but this is not commonly used.
The International Basal Ganglia Society (IBAGS) informally considers the basal ganglia to be made up of the striatum, the pallidum (with two nuclei), the substantia nigra (with its two distinct parts), and the subthalamic nucleus, whereas Terminologia anatomica excludes the last two. Some neurologists have included the centromedian nucleus of the thalamus as part of the basal ganglia, and some have also included the pedunculopontine nucleus.
The basal ganglia form one of the basic components of the forebrain, and can be recognized in all species of vertebrates. Even in the lamprey (generally considered one of the most primitive of vertebrates), striatal, pallidal, and nigral elements can be identified on the basis of anatomy and histochemistry.
The names given to the various nuclei of the basal ganglia are different in different species. In cats and rodents the internal globus pallidus is known as the entopeduncular nucleus. In birds the striatum is called the paleostriatum augmentatum and the external globus pallidus is called the paleostriatum primitivum.
A clear emergent issue in comparative anatomy of the basal ganglia is the development of this system through phylogeny as a convergent cortically re-entrant loop in conjunction with the development and expansion of the cortical mantle. There is controversy, however, regarding the extent to which convergent selective processing occurs versus segregated parallel processing within re-entrant closed loops of the basal ganglia. Regardless, the transformation of the basal ganglia into a cortically re-entrant system in mammalian evolution occurs through a re-direction of pallidal (or "paleostriatum primitivum '') output from midbrain targets such as the superior colliculus, as occurs in sauropsid brain, to specific regions of the ventral thalamus and from there back to specified regions of the cerebral cortex that form a subset of those cortical regions projecting into the striatum. The abrupt rostral re-direction of the pathway from the internal segment of the globus pallidus into the ventral thalamus -- via the path of the ansa lenticularis -- could be viewed as a footprint of this evolutionary transformation of basal ganglia outflow and targeted influence.
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who kicked the longest field goal at heinz field | Heinz Field - wikipedia
Heinz Field is a stadium located in the North Shore neighborhood of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States. It primarily serves as the home to the Pittsburgh Steelers of the National Football League (NFL) and the Pittsburgh Panthers of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA). The stadium opened in 2001, after the controlled implosion of the teams ' previous stadium, Three Rivers Stadium. The stadium is named for the locally based H.J. Heinz Company, which purchased the naming rights in 2001. It hosted the 2011 NHL Winter Classic between the Pittsburgh Penguins and Washington Capitals on January 1, 2011. On September 10, 2016, it hosted the Keystone Classic, which featured a renewal of the Penn State - Pitt football rivalry, setting a new attendance record at 69,983 people. In 2017 it hosted the Coors Light Stadium Series game featuring the Pittsburgh Penguins and Philadelphia Flyers.
Funded in conjunction with PNC Park and the David L. Lawrence Convention Center, the $281 million (equivalent to $380.07 million in 2016) stadium stands along the Ohio River, on the Northside of Pittsburgh in the North Shore neighborhood. The stadium was designed with the city of Pittsburgh 's history of steel production in mind, which led to the inclusion of 12,000 tons of steel into the design. Ground for the stadium was broken in June 1999 and the first football game was hosted in September 2001. The stadium 's natural grass surface has been criticized throughout its history, but Steelers ownership has kept the grass after lobbying from players and coaches. Attendance for the 68,400 seat stadium has sold out for every Steelers home game, a streak which dates back to 1972 (a year before local telecasts of sold out home games were permitted in the NFL). A collection of memorabilia from the Steelers and Panthers of the past can be found in the Great Hall.
The Pittsburgh Steelers and the Pittsburgh Pirates shared Three Rivers Stadium from 1970 to 2000. After discussions over the Pirates building a full - time baseball park, a proposal was made to renovate Three Rivers Stadium into a full - time football facility. Though met with negative reaction from Steelers ownership, the proposal was used as a "fallback position '' that would be used if discussions for a new stadium failed. Steelers ownership stated that failing to build a new stadium would hurt the franchise 's chances of signing players who might opt to sign with other teams, such as the other three teams in the Steelers division who had all recently built new football - only stadiums. In June 2001, the H.J. Heinz Company purchased the naming rights to the stadium. As per the deal, Heinz will pay the Steelers a total of $57 million through 2021; the "57 '' being an intentional reference to Heinz 57. Despite Heinz later announcing its acquisition of Kraft Foods Group to form Kraft Heinz Company in 2015, the stadium 's name will remain Heinz Field.
Originally, a sales tax increase was proposed to fund three projects: Heinz Field, PNC Park, and an expansion of the David L. Lawrence Convention Center. After the rejection of this proposal in a referendum, the city developed Plan B. Similarly controversial, the alternative proposal was labeled Scam B by opponents. The Steelers ' pledge toward the new stadium was criticized for being too little, even after it was raised from $50 million to $76.5 million. Other local government members criticized the $281 million of public money allocated for Plan B. One member of the Allegheny Regional Asset District board called the use of tax dollars "corporate welfare ''. The plan, totaling $809 million, was approved by the Allegheny Regional Asset District board on July 9, 1998, with $233 million allotted for Heinz Field. Shortly after Plan B was approved, the Steelers made a deal with Pittsburgh city officials to stay in the city until at least 2031. The total cost of Heinz Field was $281 million.
HOK Sport designed the stadium. HOK Sport 's project manager for the project, Melinda Lehman, said that the Rooney family asked for the stadium 's design to "acknowledge the history of Pittsburgh and also bring in an element of looking forward, this is where Pittsburgh is going. '' In order to accomplish this, HOK Sport used steel structurally and externally. The stone used in Heinz Field 's design is artificial, in order to decrease cost. Of the glass used in the stadium 's design, Lehman said, "The glass is a more modern building element, which ties into a lot of the buildings in (Downtown) Pittsburgh and gives great views of the surrounding areas. '' The Steelers and Panthers have their own locker rooms, which differ in size based on the amount of players each team is permitted to dress for each game. The visitor facilities are modeled after the home locker rooms ' design. As with its predecessor, Heinz Field 's culinary service provider is Aramark; over 400 eateries are located throughout the stadium. A bronze statue of Steelers founder Art Rooney, similar to those located outside PNC Park, was moved 100 feet (30 m) from its previous position outside Three Rivers Stadium. In addition, a statue of a Pitt Panther over a paved depiction of Pitt 's Cathedral of Learning was placed outside Gate A. Upon opening in 2001, Heinz Field 's 27 by 96 foot Sony JumboTron was the largest scoreboard in the NFL. In 2007, ESPN named the "tipping '' of the oversized Heinz ketchup bottles atop the scoreboard one of the top ten touchdown celebrations in the NFL.
Ground was broken for Heinz Field on June 18, 1999, at a ceremony co-hosted by the Steelers and the University of Pittsburgh. The stadium was constructed by Hunt Construction Group and Mascaro Corporation. The two companies directed 1,400 workers over two years, in which there were no construction accidents or lawsuits. The stadium is inspected yearly, along with PNC Park, by Chronicle Consulting, LLC, for structural defects and maintenance.
The first event held at Heinz Field was a concert hosted by the band ' N Sync, on August 18, 2001. Coincidentally, they were also the last band to perform at the Steelers ' previous home, Three Rivers Stadium. Prior to the Steelers regular season schedule, the team played a pre-season game against the Detroit Lions on August 25, 2001. Pittsburgh won the stadium 's unofficial opening game 20 -- 7, with 57,829 spectators in attendance. The first official football game played in the stadium was between the Pittsburgh Panthers and East Tennessee State, on September 1. The Panthers won the game 31 -- 0, with quarterback David Priestley scoring the first touchdown on an 85 - yard run. The Steelers were scheduled to open the regular season play at Heinz Field on September 16 against the Cleveland Browns; however, due to the September 11 attacks, all NFL games of the week were postponed, thus moving the stadium 's premiere to October 7, against the Cincinnati Bengals. Prior to the game, a speech from US President George W. Bush, ordering attacks on Taliban - controlled Afghanistan, was shown live on the stadium 's JumboTron. The speech was met with much applause and support from the spectators in attendance. Pittsburgh defeated the Bengals, 16 -- 7. Steelers kicker Kris Brown scored the first NFL points in the stadium on a 26 - yard field goal, and quarterback Kordell Stewart scored the first touchdown on an eight - yard run.
That same year, two light - emitting diode (LED) video displays from Daktronics were installed at the field. The larger, high definition video display measures approximately 28 feet (8.5 m) high by nearly 96 feet (29 m) wide.
In 2007, writer Bill Evans named Heinz Field the second best stadium in the NFL, behind Lambeau Field, in an article for ESPN.com. Although both stadiums received a score of 54 out of 70, Sports Illustrated named Heinz Field the second best stadium in the NFL, also behind Lambeau Field.
In addition to football games, Heinz Field has hosted other various activities.
On August 4, 2012, Heinz Field hosted the Women 's Football Alliance 's National Championship Game, becoming the first NFL stadium to host a title game for any women 's football league.
The quickest score in NFL history occurred on September 8, 2013, in the Steelers season opener against the Tennessee Titans, when the Steelers scored a safety on the opening kickoff three seconds into the game. Darius Reynaud of the Titans fielded the kickoff and took a short step backwards (into the south end zone) for what was ruled to be a safety, not a touchback, because the ball was not in the end zone when it was fielded. The Steelers, however, lost the game 16 - 9, which was also their first home opener loss since Heinz Field opened.
The longest NFL field goal ever kicked in Heinz Field is 53 yards. Dallas Cowboys kicker Dan Bailey first set the record in 2016. That record was tied on November 26, 2017 by Pittsburgh Steelers kicker Chris Boswell in a game - winning effort over the Green Bay Packers with 4 seconds remaining in the game, resulting in a 31 - 28 win. In collegiate play, former Old Dominion kicker Jarod Brown made a 54 - yard kick against the Pittsburgh Panthers in 2013.
Since its opening in 2001, bands and artists including ' N Sync, Beyoncé, Taylor Swift, Kenny Chesney, and LeAnn Rimes have performed at the stadium. In addition, hometown bands The Clarks and the Povertyneck Hillbillies have played multiple shows at the stadium.
On July 27, 2014, Heinz Field hosted a soccer match between A.C. Milan and Manchester City which was part of the 2014 International Champions Cup and Manchester City won the match 5 - 1.
On May 28, 2010, National Hockey League commissioner Gary Bettman announced that Heinz Field would be the host of the 2011 NHL Winter Classic. The game was played January 1, 2011 between the Pittsburgh Penguins and Washington Capitals. Pittsburgh native Jackie Evancho sang the Star Spangled Banner before local sports legends Franco Harris, Jerome Bettis and Mario Lemieux dropped the ceremonial puck. The Capitals won, 3 -- 1. The game was the highest rated NHL contest since 1996 and the highest rated regular season game since 1975. It was also the first night Classic and the first to use "CableCam '' technology.
The 2011 American Idol Auditions chose Pittsburgh of one of six cities and scheduled signups at Heinz Field on July 12 -- 13 and auditions on July 15, 2011.
Heinz Field served as the home field of the Gotham Rogues in the 2012 film The Dark Knight Rises. An estimated 15,000 unpaid extras filled the stadium during shooting on August 6, 2011.
During Episode 4 of The Bachelorette (season 12), eleven contestants competed in a five on five football game. In addition, they met with football players from the Steelers, including Ben Roethlisberger, Hines Ward, and Brett Keisel.
In 2002, the Pittsburgh Marathon concluded at Heinz Field, the course was altered from past years to allow competitors to cross the finish line on the field.
In 2005, the Pittsburgh Wine Festival was held at Heinz Field, over 2,000 people attended.
In June 2001, Kentucky Bluegrass was laid on the field, at half the height of most NFL field 's 2 - inch (51 mm) grass. The field is heated from below, using a mixture of antifreeze and hot water, to keep the field at around 62 ° F (17 ° C) in order to keep the grass growing year - round. The field was re-surfaced multiple times, until the synthetic - enhanced Desso GrassMaster was installed in 2003. Debate continued over the surface after players began slipping during game play. Despite this players and coaches of Pitt, the Steelers, and their opponents supported keeping the current turf.
On Friday, November 23, 2007, Heinz Field hosted four WPIAL championship football games which were followed the day after with a game between Pitt and South Florida. After discussion with the NFL, Steelers ownership made the decision to re-surface the field for their nationally televised game against the Miami Dolphins. A layer of sod was laid overtop the 2.5 - acre (1.0 ha) Desso GrassMaster surface. The field 's condition was exacerbated by 11⁄2 inches of rain after the new sod had been laid, which did not allow the tarp to be removed from the field until 70 minutes before the game began. The field conditions during the game ended up being so bad that at one point during the game, a punt by Dolphins punter Brandon Fields ended up sticking into the turf without bouncing. The Steelers won the game 3 -- 0, with a field goal by Jeff Reed with 17 seconds remaining in regulation; it was the NFL 's first 3 - 0 game since 1993 and the longest two teams went without scoring since the New York Giants and Detroit Lions played to a scoreless tie on November 11, 1943. Scott Brown, of the Pittsburgh Tribune - Review, called the field a "veritable mud pit ''. While Gene Upshaw, head of the National Football League Players ' Association, also criticized the field citing a 2006 survey of NFL players that ranked Heinz Field as the second worst field in the league. Steelers receiver Hines Ward called the playing conditions "horrendous '' after the game. However, the following day Ward and other Pittsburgh players lobbied to keep the natural surface stating, "I think everybody wants to keep the grass. '' Since that season, the Steelers have played their game on the weekend following Thanksgiving on the road at the team 's request.
Debate continued over the field later in the season when Jacksonville running back Fred Taylor called the field "a lawsuit pending ''. Pittsburgh 's ownership stated that the decision was up to the players, who once again defended the natural surface. In February 2008, the Steelers announced that they would keep the Desso GrassMaster surface. During the 2008 season quarterback Ben Roethlisberger was given a concussion after being hit at Heinz Field. He later stated, "I 'm glad we were n't on FieldTurf. That grass -- you know, the soft Heinz Field -- might 've helped a little bit. '' After the 2008 season, a poll of 1,565 NFL players rated the surface at Heinz Field as the worst of the 18 natural surfaces in the League.
The DDGrassmaster surface was removed in January 2009 and replaced with the old sod placed on top of the DDGrassmaster surface for the AFC Championship also in January 2009.
Initially, the south end zone had either "Steelers '' or "Panthers '' painted in the end zone, depending on the game itself. The north end zone has always read "Pittsburgh '', which is painted in gold lettering and trimmed in either black for the Steelers or dark blue for Pitt. Although there is typically no midfield logo when both Pitt and the Steelers are in season, both teams have applied their logo if the field 's schedule allows for a sufficient break to remove or apply the other team 's logo for that team 's next upcoming game. The Steelers have typically added their logo to midfield after Pitt 's football season has ended.
In 2003, the Steelers played the Philadelphia Eagles in a preseason game to commemorate the 60th anniversary of the Steagles team, when the two merged as a result of player shortages caused by World War II. Steelers president Dan Rooney had initially considered wearing a throwback uniform for the game, but decided against it because the merged team wore the Eagles uniforms, and the Steelers did n't want to wear the Eagles ' colors. Instead, the team had the south end zone painted in plain diagonal white lines, which were common in NFL endzones until the 1960s.
Although the Steelers lost the game 21 -- 16, Rooney liked the look of the south end zone being "plain '', and decided to keep it permanently. As with the team 's logo at midfield, the Steelers paint "Steelers '' in the south end zone once the college football season ends. The Green Bay Packers also adopted the plain diagonal white lines in the end zones at Lambeau Field for 2007 due to an Anniversary logo being painted on each end, before switching back to wordmark endzones in 2008 which have remained since.
As of 2008, the Pittsburgh Steelers have sold out every home game since the 1972 season. Entering the 2008 season, the Steelers average ticket price of $69.47 was the 15th highest out of the NFL 's 32 teams. The majority of the 65,050 seats are colored "Steeler gold '', though club seats are dark gray. Heinz Field features 1,500 seats in 129 luxury boxes, with prices ranging from $64,000 to $135,000 depending on location and size. These boxes were predicted to increase the Steelers ' profits from $10 to $11 million per season over those at Three Rivers Stadium. The stadium also features 6,600 club seats that include a restaurant and an indoor bar, at prices up to $2,000 per person. For the 2010 season, season ticket prices for Panthers games range from a maximum of $295 per club seat with required donations per seat between $250 and $500 depending on location, to as low as $87 per seat with no required donation for upper end zone sections. Individual game ticket prices ranged from $30 to $65 depending on the seat location and the opponent. Attendance for Panthers games has varied from an average high of 59,197 people per game throughout the 2003 season to a low of 43,680 in 2007. Most recently, Pitt averaged 48,150 in home attendance during the 2015 season.
The Great Hall spans approximately 40,000 square feet (3,700 m) on the east side of the stadium and houses a collection of Steelers and Pittsburgh Panthers memorabilia. The Hall includes a timeline of the Steelers franchise 's major events, an oversized Steelers helmet hangs from the ceiling beside a video screen that shows entertainment for fans throughout game days. The Great Hall also features the actual lockers of several former Steelers, including Hall of Fame members Franco Harris, Joe Greene, and Bill Dudley. Six large Super Bowl trophies - shaped display columns were erected and contain artifacts from each championship the Steelers have won including replica trophies. Two display columns are dedicated to the University of Pittsburgh and contain memorabilia from the Panthers ' teams. The floor is painted to resemble the field at Three Rivers Stadium, with the word "Steelers '' painted in black over a gold background. University of Pittsburgh players are featured on two large murals within the Hall. Eight additional tile murals created by local high schools represent western Pennsylvania football history. In 2007, the Great Hall was named the best concourse at an NFL stadium by writer Bill Evans, in an article for ESPN.com.
The Steelers notified the Pittsburgh Stadium Authority in December 2010 of their intention to add up to 4,000 seats to the lower southern end of the stadium. The plan would increase seating up to 69,050 as soon as the 2012 NFL season. Seating was added in that section for the 2011 NHL Winter Classic, which had an attendance of 68,111. The temporary seating was left in place for the 2010 -- 11 NFL playoffs, with the AFC Championship game on January 23 having a record attendance of 66,662.
On April 12, 2012, the Steelers confirmed they would seek approval from the NFL to expand seating by 3,000. On May 19, 2014, after more than two years, the Steelers and the SEA came to an agreement to add about 3,000 seats to the venue. After contractors surveyed the complex the final number of 2,390 added seats with five additional suites including more parking, restrooms and concessions was determined in December 2014 to increase capacity to a total of 67,890. The seating was put in place by the summer of 2015.
Heinz Field is located at Exit 1B of Interstate 279 within a mile of direct access to both Interstate 376 and Interstate 579. The stadium also has dedicated elevated walkway access to the Allegheny Station of the Light Rail / Subway system. On Steelers and Pitt Panthers game days, access is also provided from Station Square parking facilities via the Gateway Clipper Fleet.
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where does the fair go after la county | L.A. County Fair - Wikipedia
Coordinates: 34 ° 4 ′ 56.367 '' N 117 ° 45 ′ 57.276 '' W / 34.08232417 ° N 117.76591000 ° W / 34.08232417; - 117.76591000
The Los Angeles County Fair is an annual county fair. It was first held on October 17, 1922, and ran for five days through October 21, 1922, in a former beet field in Pomona, California. Highlights of the Fair 's first year were harness racing, chariot races and an airplane wing - walking exhibition. The fair is one of the largest county fairs in the U.S. Fair attendance has topped one million people in every year but one since 1948, and is the 4th largest fair in the United States.
Since its inception, the Fair has been the link between California 's agriculture industry and the public, providing a community gathering place where people learn about California 's heritage and enjoy traditional Fair food, activities and entertainment. In recent years the fair has moved away from such agricultural heritage by transitioning from livestock competitions for area growers and ranchers to hired petting zoos. In addition to the 13 - acre (53,000 m) Ray Cammack Shows carnival, the Fair has an operational farm, an outdoor miniature garden railroad, California 's Heritage Square historical exhibit and America 's Kids - Education Expo, where school children discover A Day Full of Learning Cleverly Disguised as Fun. The End of Summer Concert Series features 19 nights of first - run musical entertainment and freestyle motocross.
The Fair is operated by the Los Angeles County Fair Association, a not - for - profit 501 (c) (5) corporation. The Fair is held each September on 543 acres (2.20 km) of fairgrounds known as Fairplex (Los Angeles County Fair, hotel and exposition complex). The Fair generates a national economic impact of more than $250 million, roughly the equivalent of hosting a Super Bowl every year.
Fairplex also includes the Sheraton Fairplex Hotel & Conference Center, the Sheraton KOA / RV Park, Barretts Sales and Racing, a defunct 0.625 miles (1.006 km) horse racing track, the Millard Sheets Art Center, the Child Development Center at Fairplex, the Fairplex railway exhibit, Barretts Equine Ltd., a thoroughbred horse racing auction facility and the Wally Parks NHRA Motorsports Museum.
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saskatchewan receives the most summer sunshine of any canadian province or territory | Saskatchewan - wikipedia
Saskatchewan (/ səˈskætʃəwən, sæ -, - wɒn / (listen)) is a prairie and boreal province in western Canada, the only province without natural borders. It has an area of 651,900 square kilometres (251,700 sq mi), nearly 10 percent of which (59,366 square kilometres (22,900 sq mi)) is fresh water, composed mostly of rivers, reservoirs, and the province 's 100,000 lakes.
Saskatchewan is bordered on the west by Alberta, on the north by the Northwest Territories, on the east by Manitoba, to the northeast by Nunavut, and on the south by the U.S. states of Montana and North Dakota. As of late 2017, Saskatchewan 's population was estimated at 1,163,925. Residents primarily live in the southern prairie half of the province, while the northern boreal half is mostly forested and sparsely populated. Of the total population, roughly half live in the province 's largest city Saskatoon, or the provincial capital Regina. Other notable cities include Prince Albert, Moose Jaw, Yorkton, Swift Current, North Battleford, Melfort, and the border city Lloydminster (partially within Alberta).
Saskatchewan is a landlocked province with large distances to moderating bodies of waters. As a result, its climate is extremely continental, rendering severe winters throughout the province. Southern areas have very warm or hot summers. Midale and Yellow Grass near the U.S. border are tied for the highest ever recorded temperatures in Canada with 45 ° C (113 ° F) observed at both locations on July 5, 1937. In winter, temperatures below − 45 ° C (− 49 ° F) are possible even in the south during extreme cold snaps.
Saskatchewan has been inhabited for thousands of years by various indigenous groups, and first explored by Europeans in 1690 and settled in 1774. It became a province in 1905, carved out from the vast North - West Territories, which had until then included most of the Canadian Prairies. In the early 20th century the province became known as a stronghold for Canadian social democracy; North America 's first social - democratic government was elected in 1944. The province 's economy is based on agriculture, mining, and energy. Saskatchewan 's current lieutenant governor is Thomas Molloy and the current premier is Scott Moe.
In 1992, the federal and provincial governments signed an historic land claim agreement with First Nations in Saskatchewan. The First Nations received compensation and were permitted to buy land on the open market for the tribes; they have acquired about 3,079 square kilometres (761,000 acres; 1,189 sq mi), now reserve lands. Some First Nations have used their settlement to invest in urban areas, including Saskatoon.
Its name derived from the Saskatchewan River. The river was known as kisiskāciwani - sīpiy ("swift flowing river '') in the Cree language.
As Saskatchewan 's borders largely follow the geographic coordinates of longitude and latitude, the province is roughly a quadrilateral, or a shape with four sides. However the 49th parallel boundary and the 60th northern border appear curved on globes and many maps. Additionally, the eastern boundary of the province is partially crooked rather than following a line of longitude, as correction lines were devised by surveyors prior to the homestead program (1880 -- 1928).
Saskatchewan is part of the Western Provinces and is bounded on the west by Alberta, on the north by the Northwest Territories, on the north - east by Nunavut, on the east by Manitoba, and on the south by the U.S. states of Montana and North Dakota. Saskatchewan has the distinction of being the only Canadian province for which no borders correspond to physical geographic features (i.e. they are all parallels and meridians). Along with Alberta, Saskatchewan is one of only two land - locked provinces.
The overwhelming majority of Saskatchewan 's population is located in the southern third of the province, south of the 53rd parallel.
Saskatchewan contains two major natural regions: the Canadian Shield in the north and the Interior Plains in the south. Northern Saskatchewan is mostly covered by boreal forest except for the Lake Athabasca Sand Dunes, the largest active sand dunes in the world north of 58 °, and adjacent to the southern shore of Lake Athabasca. Southern Saskatchewan contains another area with sand dunes known as the "Great Sand Hills '' covering over 300 square kilometres (120 sq mi). The Cypress Hills, located in the southwestern corner of Saskatchewan and Killdeer Badlands (Grasslands National Park), are areas of the province that were unglaciated during the last glaciation period, the Wisconsin glaciation.
The province 's highest point, at 1,392 metres (4,567 ft), is located in the Cypress Hills less than 2 km from the provincial boundary with Alberta. The lowest point is the shore of Lake Athabasca, at 213 metres (699 ft). The province has 14 major drainage basins made up of various rivers and watersheds draining into the Arctic Ocean, Hudson Bay and the Gulf of Mexico.
Saskatchewan receives more hours of sunshine than any other Canadian province. The province lies far from any significant body of water. This fact, combined with its northerly latitude, gives it a warm summer, corresponding to its humid continental climate (Köppen type Dfb) in the central and most of the eastern parts of the province, as well as the Cypress Hills; drying off to a semi-arid steppe climate (Köppen type BSk) in the southwestern part of the province. Drought can affect agricultural areas during long periods with little or no precipitation at all. The northern parts of Saskatchewan -- from about La Ronge northward -- have a subarctic climate (Köppen Dfc) with a shorter summer season. Summers can get very hot, sometimes above 38 ° C (100 ° F) during the day, and with humidity decreasing from northeast to southwest. Warm southern winds blow from the plains and intermontane regions of the Western United States during much of July and August, very cool or hot but changeable air masses often occur during spring and in September. Winters are usually bitterly cold, with frequent Arctic air descending from the north. with high temperatures not breaking − 17 ° C (1 ° F) for weeks at a time. Warm chinook winds often blow from the west, bringing periods of mild weather. Annual precipitation averages 30 to 45 centimetres (12 to 18 inches) across the province, with the bulk of rain falling in June, July, and August.
Saskatchewan is one of the most tornado - active parts in Canada, averaging roughly 12 to 18 tornadoes per year, some violent. In 2012, 33 tornadoes were reported in the province. The Regina Cyclone took place in June 1912 when 28 people died in an F4 Fujita scale tornado. Severe and non-severe thunderstorm events occur in Saskatchewan, usually from early spring to late summer. Hail, strong winds and isolated tornadoes are a common occurrence.
The hottest temperature ever recorded anywhere in Canada happened in Saskatchewan. The temperature rose to 45 ° C (113 ° F) in Midale and Yellow Grass. The coldest ever recorded in the province was − 56.7 ° C (− 70.1 ° F) in Prince Albert, which is north of Saskatoon.
Saskatchewan has been populated by various indigenous peoples of North America, including members of the Sarcee, Niitsitapi, Atsina, Cree, Saulteaux, Assiniboine (Nakoda), Lakota and Sioux. The first known European to enter Saskatchewan was Henry Kelsey in 1690, who travelled up the Saskatchewan River in hopes of trading fur with the region 's indigenous peoples. The first permanent European settlement was a Hudson 's Bay Company post at Cumberland House, founded in 1774 by Samuel Hearne. In 1762 the south of the province was part of the Spanish Louisiana until 1802.
In 1803 the Louisiana Purchase transferred from France to the United States part of what is now Alberta and Saskatchewan. In 1818 the U.S. ceded the area to Britain. Most of what is now Saskatchewan was part of Rupert 's Land and controlled by the Hudson 's Bay Company, which claimed rights to all watersheds flowing into Hudson Bay, including the Saskatchewan River, Churchill, Assiniboine, Souris, and Qu'Appelle River systems.
In the late 1850s and early 1860s, scientific expeditions led by John Palliser and Henry Youle Hind explored the prairie region of the province.
In 1870, Canada acquired the Hudson 's Bay Company 's territories and formed the North - West Territories to administer the vast territory between British Columbia and Manitoba. The Crown also entered into a series of numbered treaties with the indigenous peoples of the area, which serve as the basis of the relationship between First Nations, as they are called today, and the Crown. Since the late twentieth century, land losses and inequities as a result of those treaties have been subject to negotiation for settlement between the First Nations in Saskatchewan and the federal government, in collaboration with provincial governments.
In 1876, following their defeat of United States Army forces at the Battle of the Little Bighorn in Montana Territory in the United States, the Lakota Chief Sitting Bull led several thousand of his people to Wood Mountain. Survivors and descendants founded Wood Mountain Reserve in 1914.
The North - West Mounted Police set up several posts and forts across Saskatchewan, including Fort Walsh in the Cypress Hills, and Wood Mountain Post in south - central Saskatchewan near the United States border.
Many Métis people, who had not been signatories to a treaty, had moved to the Southbranch Settlement and Prince Albert district north of present - day Saskatoon following the Red River Rebellion in Manitoba in 1870. In the early 1880s, the Canadian government refused to hear the Métis ' grievances, which stemmed from land - use issues. Finally, in 1885, the Métis, led by Louis Riel, staged the North - West Rebellion and declared a provisional government. They were defeated by a Canadian militia brought to the Canadian prairies by the new Canadian Pacific Railway. Riel, who surrendered and was convicted of treason in a packed Regina courtroom, was hanged on November 16, 1885. Since then, the government has recognized the Métis as an aboriginal people with status rights and provided them with various benefits.
National policy set by the federal government, the Canadian Pacific Railway, the Hudson 's Bay Company and associated land companies encouraged immigration. The Dominion Lands Act of 1872 permitted settlers to acquire one quarter of a square mile of land to homestead and offered an additional quarter upon establishing a homestead. In 1874, the North - West Mounted Police began providing police services. In 1876, the North - West Territories Act provided for appointment, by the Ottawa, of a Lieutenant Governor and a Council to assist him.
Highly optimistic advertising campaigns promoted the benefits of prairie living. Potential immigrants read leaflets information painted Canada as a veritable garden of Eden, and downplayed the need for agricultural expertise. Ads in The Nor ' - West Farmer by the Commissioner of Immigration implied that western land was blessed with water, wood, gold, silver, iron, copper, and cheap coal for fuel, all of which were readily at hand. Reality was far harsher, especially for the first arrivals who lived in sod houses. However eastern money poured in and by 1913, long term mortgage loans to Saskatchewan farmers had reached $65 million.
The dominant groups comprised British settlers from eastern Canada and Britain, who comprised about 50 % of the population during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. They played the leading role in establishing the basic institutions of plains society, economy and government.
Gender roles were sharply defined. Men were primarily responsible for breaking the land; planting and harvesting; building the house; buying, operating and repairing machinery; and handling finances. At first there were many single men on the prairie, or husbands whose wives were still back east, but they had a hard time. They realized the need for a wife. In 1901, there were 19,200 families, but this surged to 150,300 families only 15 years later. Wives played a central role in settlement of the prairie region. Their labor, skills, and ability to adapt to the harsh environment proved decisive in meeting the challenges. They prepared bannock, beans and bacon, mended clothes, raised children, cleaned, tended the garden, helped at harvest time and nursed everyone back to health. While prevailing patriarchal attitudes, legislation, and economic principles obscured women 's contributions, the flexibility exhibited by farm women in performing productive and nonproductive labor was critical to the survival of family farms, and thus to the success of the wheat economy.
Immigration peaked in 1910, and in spite of the initial difficulties of frontier life -- distance from towns, sod homes, and backbreaking labour -- new settlers established a European - Canadian style of prosperous agrarian society.
On September 1, 1905, Saskatchewan became a province, with inauguration day held September 4. Its political leaders at the time proclaimed its destiny was to become Canada 's most powerful province. Saskatchewan embarked on an ambitious province - building program based on its Anglo - Canadian culture and wheat production for the export market. Population quintupled from 91,000 in 1901 to 492,000 to 1911, thanks to heavy immigration of farmers from the U.S., Germany and Scandinavia. Efforts were made to assimilate the newcomers to British Canadian culture and values.
The long - term prosperity of the province depended on the world price of grain, which headed steadily upward from the 1880s to 1920, then plunged down. Wheat output was increased by new strains, such as the "Marquis wheat '' strain which matured 8 days sooner and yielded 7 more bushels per acre than the previous standard, "Red Fife ''. The national output of wheat soared from 8 million bushels in 1896, to 26 million in 1901, reaching 151 million by 1921.
In the 1905 provincial elections, Liberals won 16 of 25 seats in Saskatchewan. The Saskatchewan government bought out Bell Telephone Company in 1909, with the government owning the long - distance lines and left local service to small companies organized at the municipal level. Premier Walter Scott preferred government assistance to outright ownership because he thought enterprises worked better if citizens had a stake in running them; he set up the Saskatchewan Cooperative Elevator Company in 1911. Despite pressure from farm groups for direct government involvement in the grain handling business, the Scott government opted to loan money to a farmer - owned elevator company. Saskatchewan in 1909 provided bond guarantees to railway companies for the construction of branch lines, alleviating the concerns of farmers who had trouble getting their wheat to market by wagon. The Saskatchewan Grain Growers Association, was the dominant political force in the province until the 1920s; it had close ties with the governing Liberal party. In 1913, the Saskatchewan Stock Growers Association was established with three goals: to watch over legislation; to forward the interests of the stock growers in every honourable and legitimate way; and to suggest to parliament legislation to meet changing conditions and requirements.
Urban reform movements in Regina were based on support from business and professional groups. City planning, reform of local government, and municipal ownership of utilities were more widely supported by these two groups, often through such organizations as the Board of Trade. Church - related and other altruistic organizations generally supported social welfare and housing reforms; these groups were generally less successful in getting their own reforms enacted.
The province responded to the First World War in 1914 with patriotic enthusiasm and enjoyed the resultant economic boom for farms and cities alike. Emotional and intellectuasl support for the war emerged from the politics of Canadian national identity, the rural myth, and social gospel progressivism The Church of England was especially supportive. However, there was strong hostility toward German - Canadian farmers. Recent Ukrainian immigrants were enemy aliens because their citizenship citizenship in the Austro - Hungarian Empire. A small fraction were were taken to internment camps. Most of the internees were unskilled unemployed labourers who were imprisoned "because they were destitute, not because they were disloyal. ''
The price of wheat tripled and acreage seeded doubled. The wartime spirit of sacrifice intensified social reform movements that had predated the war and now came to fruition. Saskatchewan gave women the right to vote in 1916 and at the end 1916 passed a referendum to prohibit the sale of alcohol.
In the late 1920s, the Ku Klux Klan, imported from the United States and Ontario, gained brief popularity in nativist circles in Saskatchewan and Alberta. The Klan, briefly allied with the provincial Conservative party because of their mutual dislike for Premier James G. "Jimmy '' Gardiner and his Liberals (who ferociously fought the Klan), enjoyed about two years of prominence. It declined and disappeared, subject to widespread political and media opposition, plus internal scandals involving the use of the organization 's funds.
In 1970, the first annual Canadian Western Agribition was held in Regina. This farm - industry trade show, with its strong emphasis on livestock, is rated as one of the five top livestock shows in North America, along with those in Houston, Denver, Louisville and Toronto.
The province celebrated the 75th anniversary of its establishment in 1980, with Princess Margaret, Countess of Snowdon, presiding over the official ceremonies. In 2005, 25 years later, her sister, Queen Elizabeth II, attended the events held to mark Saskatchewan 's centennial.
Since the late 20th century, First Nations have become more politically active in seeking justice for past inequities, especially related to government taking of indigenous lands. The federal and provincial governments have negotiated on numerous land claims, and developed a program of "Treaty Land Entitlement '', enabling First Nations to buy land to be taken into reserves with money from settlements of claims.
"In 1992, the federal and provincial governments signed an historic land claim agreement with Saskatchewan First Nations. Under the Agreement, the First Nations received money to buy land on the open market. As a result, about 761,000 acres have been turned into reserve land and many First Nations continue to invest their settlement dollars in urban areas '', including Saskatoon. The money from such settlements has enabled First Nations to invest in businesses and other economic infrastructure.
According to the Canada 2011 Census, the largest ethnic group in Saskatchewan is German (28.6 %), followed by English (24.9 %), Scottish (18.9 %), Canadian (18.8 %), Irish (15.5 %), Ukrainian (13.5 %), French (Fransaskois) (12.2 %), First Nations (12.1 %), Norwegian (6.9 %), and Polish (5.8 %).
The largest denominations by number of adherents according to the 2001 census were the Roman Catholic Church with 286,815 (30 %); the United Church of Canada with 187,450 (20 %); and the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Canada with 78,520 (8 %). 148,535 (15.4 %) responded "no religion ''.
Ten largest municipalities by population
This list does not include Lloydminster, which has a total population of 31,410 but straddles the Alberta -- Saskatchewan border. As of 2016, 11,765 people lived on the Saskatchewan side, which would make it Saskatchewan 's 8th largest municipality. All of the listed communities are considered cities by the province; municipalities in the province with a population of 5,000 or more can receive official city status.
Historically, Saskatchewan 's economy was primarily associated with agriculture. However, increasing diversification has resulted in agriculture, forestry, fishing, and hunting only making up 6.8 % of the province 's GDP. Saskatchewan grows a large portion of Canada 's grain. Wheat is the most familiar crop and the one most often associated with the province (there are sheafs of wheat depicted on the coat of arms of Saskatchewan), but other grains like canola, flax, rye, oats, peas, lentils, canary seed, and barley are also produced. Saskatchewan is the world 's largest exporter of mustard seed. Beef cattle production by a Canadian province is only exceeded by Alberta. In the northern part of the province, forestry is also a significant industry.
Mining is a major industry in the province, with Saskatchewan being the world 's largest exporter of potash and uranium.
Oil and natural gas production is also a very important part of Saskatchewan 's economy, although the oil industry is larger. Among Canadian provinces, only Alberta exceeds Saskatchewan in overall oil production. Heavy crude is extracted in the Lloydminster - Kerrobert - Kindersley areas. Light crude is found in the Kindersley - Swift Current areas as well as the Weyburn - Estevan fields. Natural gas is found almost entirely in the western part of Saskatchewan, from the Primrose Lake area through Lloydminster, Unity, Kindersley, Leader, and around Maple Creek areas.
Saskatchewan 's GDP in 2006 was approximately C $45.922 billion, with economic sectors breaking down in the following way:
A list of the top 100 companies includes The Potash Corporation of Saskatchewan, Federated Cooperatives Ltd. and IPSCO.
Major Saskatchewan - based Crown corporations are Saskatchewan Government Insurance (SGI), SaskTel, SaskEnergy (the province 's main supplier of natural gas), and SaskPower. Bombardier runs the NATO Flying Training Centre at 15 Wing, near Moose Jaw. Bombardier was awarded a long - term contract in the late 1990s for $2.8 billion from the federal government for the purchase of military aircraft and the running of the training facility. SaskPower since 1929 has been the principal supplier of electricity in Saskatchewan, serving more than 451,000 customers and managing $4.5 billion in assets. SaskPower is a major employer in the province with almost 2,500 permanent full - time staff located in 71 communities.
The Tabulated Data covers each fiscal year (e.g. 2015 -- 2016 covers April 1, 2015 -- March 31, 2016). All data is in $1,000 s.
These values reflect the estimated population at the beginning of the fiscal year.
These values reflect the debt of the General Revenue Fund alone at the end of the fiscal year.
These values reflect the combined debt of the three major Government Service Enterprises (Crown Corporations) at the end of the fiscal year. As of March 31, 2016, SaskPower, SaskEnergy, and SaskTel accounted for 88.4 % of Crown Debt.
The highest rate of provincial corporate income tax was reduced from 17 % to 14 % on July 1, 2006. It was further reduced to 13 % on July 1, 2007, and finally to 12 % on July 1, 2008. The tax on paid - up capital was reduced from 0.6 % to 0.3 % on July 1, 2006, to 0.15 % on July 1, 2007, and abolished altogether on July 1, 2008. These displayed values were obtained by adding the corporate income tax for each year with the corporate capital tax.
The Provincial Sales Tax (PST) rate was reduced from 7 % to 5 % on October 28, 2006.
These values are the credit ratings from Standard & Poor 's as of the end of the Fiscal Year.
Source: Government of Saskatchewan.
Saskatchewan has the same form of government as the other Canadian provinces with a lieutenant - governor (who is the representative of the Queen in Right of Saskatchewan), premier, and a unicameral legislature.
For many years, Saskatchewan was one of Canada 's more progressive provinces, reflecting many of its citizens ' feelings of alienation from the interests of large capital. In 1944 Tommy Douglas became premier of the first avowedly socialist regional government in North America. Most of his Members of the Legislative Assembly (MLAs) represented rural and small - town ridings. Under his Cooperative Commonwealth Federation government, Saskatchewan became the first province to have Medicare. In 1961, Douglas left provincial politics to become the first leader of the federal New Democratic Party.
Provincial politics in Saskatchewan is dominated by the social - democratic New Democrats and the centre - right Saskatchewan Party, with the latter holding the majority in the Legislative Assembly of Saskatchewan since 2007. Numerous smaller political parties also run candidates in provincial elections, including the Green Party, Liberal Party, and the Progressive Conservative Party, but none is currently represented in the Legislative Assembly (Liberals and Conservatives generally caucus under the Saskatchewan Party banner in provincial affairs). After 16 years of New Democratic governments under premiers Roy Romanow and Lorne Calvert, the 2007 provincial election was won by the Saskatchewan Party under Brad Wall. In the 2011 election, Premier Wall and the Saskatchewan Party were returned with an increased majority.
Recent federal elections have been dominated by the Conservative Party since the party currently represents 10 of 14 federal ridings in Saskatchewan, while the New Democratic Party represents three and the Liberal Party of Canada, one.
The first education on the prairies took place within the family groups of the First Nation and early fur trading settlers. There were only a few missionary or trading post schools established in Rupert 's Land -- later known as the North West Territories.
The first 76 North - West Territories school districts and the first Board of Education meeting formed in 1886. The pioneering boom formed ethnic bloc settlements. Communities were seeking education for their children similar to the schools of their home land. Log cabins, and dwellings were constructed for the assembly of the community, school, church, dances and meetings.
The prosperity of the Roaring Twenties and the success of farmers in proving up on their homesteads helped provide funding to standardize education. Text books, normal schools for educating teachers, formal school curricula and state of the art school house architectural plans provided continuity throughout the province. English as the school language helped to provide economic stability, because one community could communicate with another and goods could be traded and sold in a common language. The number of one - room school house districts across Saskatchewan totalled approximately 5,000 at the height of this system of education in the late 1940s.
Following World War II, the transition from many one - room school houses to fewer and larger consolidated modern technological town and city schools occurred as a means of ensuring technical education. School buses, highways, and family vehicles create ease and accessibility of a population shift to larger towns and cities. Combines and tractors mean the farmer could manage more than a quarter section of land, so there was a shift from family farms and subsistence crops to cash crops grown on many sections of land.
School vouchers have been newly proposed as a means of allowing competition between rural schools and making the operation of co-operative schools practicable in rural areas.
Saskatchewan 's Ministry of Health is responsible for policy direction, sets and monitors standards, and provides funding for regional health authorities and provincial health services.
Saskatchewan 's medical health system is widely and inaccurately characterized as "socialized medicine '': medical practitioners in Saskatchewan, as in other Canadian provinces, are not civil servants but remit their accounts to the publicly funded Saskatchewan Medical Care Insurance Plan rather than to patients (i.e. a single - payer system).
Saskatchewan medical health system has faced criticism due to a lack of accessibility to the midwifery program. According to Leanne Smith, the director for maternal services in the Saskatoon Health Region declared half of the women who apply for the midwifery program are turned away. Ministry of Health data shows midwives saw 1,233 clients in the 2012 -- 13 fiscal year (which runs April to March). But in that fourth quarter, 359 women were still on waiting lists for immediate or future care. The provincial Health Ministry received 47 letters about midwifery services in 2012, most of which asked for more midwives. As a continuing problem in the Saskatchewan health care system, more pressure has been placed to recruit more midwives for the province.
Transportation in Saskatchewan includes an infrastructure system of roads, highways, freeways, airports, ferries, pipelines, trails, waterways and railway systems serving a population of approximately 1,003,299 (according to 2007 estimates) inhabitants year - round. It is funded primarily with local and federal government funds. The Saskatchewan Department of Highways and Transportation estimates 80 % of traffic is carried on the 5,031 - kilometre principal system of highways.
The Ministry of Highways and Infrastructure operates over 26,000 kilometres (16,000 mi) of highways and divided highways. There are also municipal roads which comprise different surfaces. Asphalt concrete pavements comprise almost 9,000 kilometres (5,600 mi), granular pavement almost 5,000 kilometres (3,100 mi), non structural or thin membrane surface TMS are close to 7,000 kilometres (4,300 mi) and finally gravel highways make up over 5,600 kilometres (3,500 mi) through the province. In the northern sector, ice roads which can only be navigated in the winter months comprise another approximately 150 kilometres (93 mi) of travel.
Saskatchewan has over 250,000 kilometres (150,000 mi) of roads and highways, the highest amount of road surface of any Canadian province. The major highways in Saskatchewan are the Trans Canada expressway, Yellowhead Highway northern Trans Canada route, Louis Riel Trail, CanAm Highway, Red Coat Trail, Northern Woods and Water route, and Saskota travel route.
The first Canadian transcontinental railway was constructed by the Canadian Pacific Railway between 1881 and 1885. After the great east - west transcontinental railway was built, north - south connector branch lines were established. The 1920s saw the largest rise in rail line track as the CPR and CNR fell into competition to provide rail service within ten kilometres. In the 1960s there were applications for abandonment of branch lines. Today the only two passenger rail services in the province are The Canadian and Winnipeg -- Churchill train, both operated by Via Rail. The Canadian is a transcontinental service linking Toronto with Vancouver.
The main Saskatchewan waterways are the North Saskatchewan River or South Saskatchewan River routes. In total, there are 3,050 bridges maintained by the Department of Highways in Saskatchewan. There are currently twelve ferry services operating in the province, all under the jurisdiction of the Department of Highways.
The Saskatoon Airport (YXE) was initially established as part of the Royal Canadian Air Force training program during World War II. It was renamed the John G. Diefenbaker Airport in the official ceremony, June 23, 1993. Roland J. Groome Airfield is the official designation for the Regina International Airport (YQR) as of August 3, 2005; the airport was established in 1930. Under the British Commonwealth Air Training Plan (BCATP), twenty Service Flying Training Schools (RAF) were established at various Saskatchewan locations in World War II. 15 Wing Moose Jaw is home to the Canadian Forces formation aerobatics team, the Snowbirds.
Airlines offering service to Saskatchewan are Air Canada, WestJet Airlines, United Airlines, Delta Air Lines, Transwest Air, Sunwing Airlines, Norcanair Airlines, La Ronge Aviation Services Ltd, La Loche Airways, Osprey Wings Ltd, Buffalo Narrows Airways Ltd, Île - à - la - Crosse Airways Ltd, Voyage Air, Pronto Airways, Venture Air Ltd, Pelican Narrows Air Service, Jackson Air Services Ltd, and Northern Dene Airways Ltd.
The Government of Canada has agreed to contribute $20 million for two new interchanges in Saskatoon. One of them being at the Sk Hwy 219 / Lorne Ave intersection with Circle Drive, the other at the Senator Sid Buckwold Bridge (Idylwyld Freeway) and Circle Drive. This is part of the Asia - Pacific Gateway and Corridor Initiative to improve access to the Canadian National Railway 's intermodal freight terminal thereby increasing Asia - Pacific trade. Also, the Government of Canada will contribute $27 million to Regina to construct a Canadian Pacific Railway CPR intermodal facility and improve infrastructure transportation to the facility from both national highway networks, Sk Hwy 1, the TransCanada Highway and Sk Hwy 11, Louis Riel Trail. This also is part of the Asia - Pacific Gateway and Corridor Initiative to improve access to the CPR terminal and increase Asia - Pacific trade.
The Saskatchewan Roughriders Canadian football team are the province 's professional football franchise, and are extremely popular across Saskatchewan. The team 's fans are also found to congregate on game days throughout Canada, and collectively they are known as "Rider Nation ''.
The province 's other major sport franchise is the Saskatchewan Rush of the National Lacrosse League. In their first year of competition, 2016, the Rush won both their Division Title and the League Championship.
Hockey is the most popular sport in the province. More than 490 NHL players have been born in Saskatchewan, the highest per capita output of any Canadian province, U.S. state, or European country. Notable NHL figures born in Saskatchewan include Keith Allen, Gordie Howe, Bryan Trottier, Bernie Federko, Clark Gillies, Fern Flaman, Bert Olmstead, Harry Watson, Elmer Lach, Max Bentley, Sid Abel, Doug Bentley, Eddie Shore, Clint Smith, Bryan Hextall, Johnny Bower, Emile Francis, Glenn Hall, Chuck Rayner, Brad McCrimmon, Patrick Marleau, Dave Manson, Theo Fleury, Terry Harper, Wade Redden, Brian Propp, Scott Hartnell, Ryan Getzlaf, and Chris Kunitz. Saskatchewan does not have an NHL or minor professional franchise, but five teams in the junior Western Hockey League are located in the province: the Moose Jaw Warriors, Prince Albert Raiders, Regina Pats, Saskatoon Blades and Swift Current Broncos.
In 2015, Budweiser honoured Saskatchewan for their abundance of hockey players by sculpting a 12 - foot - tall hockey player monument in ice for Saskatchewan 's capital city of Regina. The company then filmed this frozen monument for a national television commercial, thanking the province for creating so many goal scorers throughout hockey 's history. Budweiser also gifted the "hockey player '' province a trophy made of white birch -- Saskatchewan 's provincial tree -- which bears the name of every pro player in history. Sitting atop the trophy was a golden Budweiser Red Light, synched to every current Saskatchewan player in the pros. This trophy can currently be seen at Victoria Bar in Regina.
The flag of Saskatchewan was officially adopted on September 22, 1969. The flag features the provincial shield in the upper quarter nearest the staff, with the floral emblem, the Prairie Lily, in the fly. The upper green (in forest green) half of the flag represents the northern Saskatchewan forest lands, while the golden lower half of the flag symbolizes the southern wheat fields and prairies. A province - wide competition was held to design the flag, and drew over 4,000 entries. The winning design was by Anthony Drake, then living in Hodgeville.
In 2005, Saskatchewan Environment held a province - wide vote to recognize Saskatchewan 's centennial year, receiving more than 10,000 on - line and mail - in votes from the public. The walleye was the overwhelming favourite of the six native fish species nominated for the designation, receiving more than half the votes cast. Other species in the running were the lake sturgeon, lake trout, lake whitefish, northern pike and yellow perch.
Saskatchewan 's other symbols include the tartan, the license plate, and the provincial flower. Saskatchewan 's official tartan was registered with the Court of Lord Lyon King of Arms in Scotland in 1961. It has seven colours: gold, brown, green, red, yellow, white and black. The provincial licence plates display the slogan "Land of Living Skies ''. The provincial flower of Saskatchewan is the Western Red Lily.
In 2005, Saskatchewan celebrated its centennial. To honour it, the Royal Canadian Mint issued a commemorative five - dollar coin depicting Canada 's wheat fields as well as a circulation 25 - cent coin of a similar design. Queen Elizabeth II and the Duke of Edinburgh visited Regina, Saskatoon, and Lumsden, and the Saskatchewan - reared Joni Mitchell issued an album in Saskatchewan 's honour.
The effects of climate change in Saskatchewan are now being observed in parts of the province. There is evidence of reduction of biomass in Saskatchewan 's boreal forests (as with those of other Canadian prairie provinces) is linked by researchers to drought - related water stress, stemming from global warming, most likely caused by greenhouse gas emissions. While studies, as early as 1988 (Williams, et al., 1988) have shown climate change will affect agriculture, whether the effects can be mitigated through adaptations of cultivars, or crops, is less clear. Resiliency of ecosystems may decline with large changes in temperature. The provincial government has responded to the threat of climate change by introducing a plan to reduce carbon emissions, "The Saskatchewan Energy and Climate Change Plan, '' in June 2007.
Lists:
Saskatchewan travel guide from Wikivoyage
Coordinates: 55 ° N 106 ° W / 55 ° N 106 ° W / 55; - 106
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