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who played mrs wolowitz on the big bang theory | Carol Ann Susi - wikipedia
Carol Ann Susi (February 2, 1952 -- November 11, 2014) was an American actress. She was known for providing the voice of recurring unseen character Mrs. Wolowitz, mother of Howard Wolowitz, on the television series The Big Bang Theory.
Susi made her first screen appearance in Kolchak: The Night Stalker. Other television and film credits included: McMillan & Wife, Coyote Ugly, Just Go with It, The Big Bang Theory, Becker, Grey 's Anatomy, That ' 70s Show, Out of Practice, Cats & Dogs, Just Shoot Me, Married... with Children, Night Court, The King of Queens, Death Becomes Her, Seinfeld, The Secret of My Success, My Blue Heaven, and Sabrina, the Teenage Witch. She also had extensive experience in live theatre and voiced a character on the video game installment of CSI: NY.
Carol Ann Susi was born in Brooklyn, of Italian descent. She studied acting at HB Studio in New York City before moving to Los Angeles in the 1970s.
Susi died of cancer on November 11, 2014, in Los Angeles, California, at age 62.
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when did galway last win the hurling all ireland | List of All - Ireland Senior hurling Championship winners - wikipedia
The All - Ireland Senior Hurling Championship is an annual hurling competition established by the Gaelic Athletic Association in 1887. The All - Ireland Championship is open to the top hurling teams in Ireland, with 14 teams currently participating. Originally, only the county club champions of their respective county championships were allowed to participate. However, this was changed in the 1890s when teams involving non-county championship - winning players began to emerge. Tipperary, represented by Thurles Sarsfields, won the inaugural championship, beating Galway, represented by Meelick, in the 1887 final.
The prize for the All - Ireland champions is the Liam MacCarthy Cup.
Kilkenny hold the record for the most victories, winning the competition thirty - six times since its inception. They have also won the competition the most times in - a-row, winning it four times from 2006 to 2009, a record they share with Cork who won it four times from 1941 to 1944. Kilkenny have also been runners - up the most times, losing the final twenty - five times. The province of Munster has provided the most champions, with seventy - one wins between all six counties.
The current champions are Limerick, who beat Galway 3 - 16 to 2 - 18 in the 2018 final at Croke Park.
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when was the first cd released in the uk | Compact disc - wikipedia
Compact disc (CD) is a digital optical disc data storage format that was co-developed by Philips and Sony and released in 1982. The format was originally developed to store and play only sound recordings but was later adapted for storage of data (CD - ROM). Several other formats were further derived from these, including write - once audio and data storage (CD - R), rewritable media (CD - RW), Video Compact Disc (VCD), Super Video Compact Disc (SVCD), Photo CD, PictureCD, CD - i, and Enhanced Music CD. The first commercially available Audio CD player, the Sony CDP - 101, was released October 1982 in Japan.
Standard CDs have a diameter of 120 millimetres (4.7 in) and can hold up to about 80 minutes of uncompressed audio or about 700 MiB of data. The Mini CD has various diameters ranging from 60 to 80 millimetres (2.4 to 3.1 in); they are sometimes used for CD singles, storing up to 24 minutes of audio, or delivering device drivers.
At the time of the technology 's introduction in 1982, a CD could store much more data than a personal computer hard drive, which would typically hold 10 MB. By 2010, hard drives commonly offered as much storage space as a thousand CDs, while their prices had plummeted to commodity level. In 2004, worldwide sales of audio CDs, CD - ROMs and CD - Rs reached about 30 billion discs. By 2007, 200 billion CDs had been sold worldwide.
From the early 2000s CDs were increasingly being replaced by other forms of digital storage and distribution, with the result that by 2010 the number of audio CDs being sold in the U.S. had dropped about 50 % from their peak; however, they remained one of the primary distribution methods for the music industry. In 2014, revenues from digital music services matched those from physical format sales for the first time.
American inventor James T. Russell has been credited with inventing the first system to record digital information on an optical transparent foil that is lit from behind by a high - power halogen lamp. Russell 's patent application was first filed in 1966, and he was granted a patent in 1970. Following litigation, Sony and Philips licensed Russell 's patents (then held by a Canadian company, Optical Recording Corp.) in the 1980s.
The compact disc is an evolution of LaserDisc technology, where a focused laser beam is used that enables the high information density required for high - quality digital audio signals. Prototypes were developed by Philips and Sony independently in the late 1970s. Although originally dismissed by Philips Research management as a trivial pursuit, the CD became the primary focus for Philips as the LaserDisc format struggled. In 1979, Sony and Philips set up a joint task force of engineers to design a new digital audio disc. After a year of experimentation and discussion, the Red Book CD - DA standard was published in 1980. After their commercial release in 1982, compact discs and their players were extremely popular. Despite costing up to $1,000, over 400,000 CD players were sold in the United States between 1983 and 1984. By 1988, CD sales in the United States surpassed those of vinyl LPs, and by 1992 CD sales surpassed those of prerecorded music cassette tapes. The success of the compact disc has been credited to the cooperation between Philips and Sony, which together agreed upon and developed compatible hardware. The unified design of the compact disc allowed consumers to purchase any disc or player from any company, and allowed the CD to dominate the at - home music market unchallenged.
In 1974, L. Ottens, director of the audio division of Philips, started a small group with the aim to develop an analog optical audio disc with a diameter of 20 cm (7.9 in) and a sound quality superior to that of the vinyl record. However, due to the unsatisfactory performance of the analog format, two Philips research engineers recommended a digital format in March 1974. In 1977, Philips then established a laboratory with the mission of creating a digital audio disc. The diameter of Philips 's prototype compact disc was set at 11.5 cm, the diagonal of an audio cassette.
Heitaro Nakajima, who developed an early digital audio recorder within Japan 's national public broadcasting organization NHK in 1970, became general manager of Sony 's audio department in 1971. His team developed a digital PCM adaptor audio tape recorder using a Betamax video recorder in 1973. After this, in 1974 the leap to storing digital audio on an optical disc was easily made. Sony first publicly demonstrated an optical digital audio disc in September 1976. A year later, in September 1977, Sony showed the press a 30 cm disc that could play 60 minutes of digital audio (44,100 Hz sampling rate and 16 - bit resolution) using MFM modulation. In September 1978, the company demonstrated an optical digital audio disc with a 150 - minute playing time, 44,056 Hz sampling rate, 16 - bit linear resolution, and cross-interleaved error correction code -- specifications similar to those later settled upon for the standard compact disc format in 1980. Technical details of Sony 's digital audio disc were presented during the 62nd AES Convention, held on 13 -- 16 March 1979, in Brussels. Sony 's AES technical paper was published on 1 March 1979. A week later, on 8 March, Philips publicly demonstrated a prototype of an optical digital audio disc at a press conference called "Philips Introduce Compact Disc '' in Eindhoven, Netherlands.
Sony executive Norio Ohga, later CEO and chairman of Sony, and Heitaro Nakajima were convinced of the format 's commercial potential and pushed further development despite widespread skepticism.
As a result, in 1979, Sony and Philips set up a joint task force of engineers to design a new digital audio disc. Led by engineers Kees Schouhamer Immink and Toshitada Doi, the research pushed forward laser and optical disc technology. After a year of experimentation and discussion, the task force produced the Red Book CD - DA standard. First published in 1980, the standard was formally adopted by the IEC as an international standard in 1987, with various amendments becoming part of the standard in 1996.
Philips coined the term compact disc in line with another audio product, the Compact Cassette, and contributed the general manufacturing process, based on video LaserDisc technology. Philips also contributed eight - to - fourteen modulation (EFM), which offers a certain resilience to defects such as scratches and fingerprints, while Sony contributed the error - correction method, CIRC.
The Compact Disc Story, told by a former member of the task force, gives background information on the many technical decisions made, including the choice of the sampling frequency, playing time, and disc diameter. The task force consisted of around four to eight persons, though according to Philips, the compact disc was "invented collectively by a large group of people working as a team. ''
Philips established the Polydor Pressing Operations plant in Langenhagen near Hannover, Germany, and quickly passed a series of milestones.
The Japanese launch was followed in March 1983 by the introduction of CD players and discs to Europe and North America (where CBS Records released sixteen titles). This 1983 event is often seen as the "Big Bang '' of the digital audio revolution. The new audio disc was enthusiastically received, especially in the early - adopting classical music and audiophile communities, and its handling quality received particular praise. As the price of players gradually came down, and with the introduction of the portable Discman the CD began to gain popularity in the larger popular and rock music markets. One of the first CD markets was devoted to reissuing popular music whose commercial potential was already proven. An advantage of the format was the ability to produce and market boxed sets and multi-volume collections. The first artist to sell a million copies on CD was Dire Straits, with their 1985 album Brothers in Arms. The first major artist to have his entire catalogue converted to CD was David Bowie, whose 15 studio albums were made available by RCA Records in February 1985, along with four greatest hits albums. On February 26, 1987, the first four UK albums by The Beatles were released in mono on compact disc. In 1988, 400 million CDs were manufactured by 50 pressing plants around the world.
The CD was planned to be the successor of the vinyl record for playing music, rather than primarily as a data storage medium. From its origins as a musical format, CDs have grown to encompass other applications. In 1983, following the CD 's introduction, Immink and Braat presented the first experiments with erasable compact discs during the 73rd AES Convention. In June 1985, the computer - readable CD - ROM (read - only memory) and, in 1990, CD - Recordable were introduced, also developed by both Sony and Philips. Recordable CDs were a new alternative to tape for recording music and copying music albums without defects introduced in compression used in other digital recording methods. Other newer video formats such as DVD and Blu - ray use the same physical geometry as CD, and most DVD and Blu - ray players are backward compatible with audio CD.
By the early 2000s, the CD player had largely replaced the audio cassette player as standard equipment in new automobiles, with 2010 being the final model year for any car in the United States to have a factory - equipped cassette player. With the increasing popularity of portable digital audio players, such as mobile phones, and solid state music storage, CD players are being phased out of automobiles in favor of minijack auxiliary inputs, wired connection to USB devices and wireless Bluetooth connection.
Meanwhile, with the advent and popularity of Internet - based distribution of files in lossily - compressed audio formats such as MP3, sales of CDs began to decline in the 2000s. For example, between 2000 and 2008, despite overall growth in music sales and one anomalous year of increase, major - label CD sales declined overall by 20 %, although independent and DIY music sales may be tracking better according to figures released 30 March 2009, and CDs still continue to sell greatly. As of 2012, CDs and DVDs made up only 34 percent of music sales in the United States. By 2015, only 24 % of music in the United States was purchased on physical media, 2⁄3 of this consisting of CDs; however, in the same year in Japan, over 80 % of music was bought on CDs and other physical formats.
Despite the rapidly declining sales year - over-year, the pervasiveness of the technology remained for a time, with companies placing CDs in pharmacies, supermarkets, and filling station convenience stores targeting buyers least able to utilize Internet - based distribution. However, in 2018, Best Buy announced plans to end CD sales in its stores on July 1, 2018, with Target Corporation planning to only offer CDs on a consignment basis.
Sony and Philips received praise for the development of the compact disc from professional organizations. These awards include
A CD is made from 1.2 millimetres (0.047 in) thick, polycarbonate plastic and weighs 15 -- 20 grams. From the center outward, components are: the center spindle hole (15 mm), the first - transition area (clamping ring), the clamping area (stacking ring), the second - transition area (mirror band), the program (data) area, and the rim. The inner program area occupies a radius from 25 to 58 mm.
A thin layer of aluminium or, more rarely, gold is applied to the surface, making it reflective. The metal is protected by a film of lacquer normally spin coated directly on the reflective layer. The label is printed on the lacquer layer, usually by screen printing or offset printing.
CD data is represented as tiny indentations known as "pits '', encoded in a spiral track moulded into the top of the polycarbonate layer. The areas between pits are known as "lands ''. Each pit is approximately 100 nm deep by 500 nm wide, and varies from 850 nm to 3.5 μm in length. The distance between the tracks, the pitch, is 1.6 μm.
A motor within the CD player spins the disc to a scanning velocity of 1.2 -- 1.4 m / s (constant linear velocity) -- equivalent to approximately 500 RPM at the inside of the disc, and approximately 200 RPM at the outside edge. (A disc played from beginning to end slows its rotation rate during playback.)
The program area is 86.05 cm and the length of the recordable spiral is (86.05 cm / 1.6 μm) = 5.38 km. With a scanning speed of 1.2 m / s, the playing time is 74 minutes, or 650 MiB of data on a CD - ROM. A disc with data packed slightly more densely is tolerated by most players (though some old ones fail). Using a linear velocity of 1.2 m / s and a narrower track pitch of 1.5 μm increases the playing time to 80 minutes, and data capacity to 700 MiB.
A CD is read by focusing a 780 nm wavelength (near infrared) semiconductor laser housed within the CD player, through the bottom of the polycarbonate layer. The change in height between pits and lands results in a difference in the way the light is reflected. By measuring the intensity change with a photodiode, the data can be read from the disc. In order to accommodate the spiral pattern of data, the semiconductor laser is placed on a swing arm within the disc tray of any CD player. This swing arm allows the laser to read information from the centre to the edge of a disc, without having to interrupt the spinning of the disc itself.
The pits and lands do not directly represent the zeros and ones of binary data. Instead, non-return - to - zero, inverted encoding is used: a change from pit to land or land to pit indicates a one, while no change indicates a series of zeros. There must be at least two and no more than ten zeros between each one, which is defined by the length of the pit. This in turn is decoded by reversing the eight - to - fourteen modulation used in mastering the disc, and then reversing the cross-interleaved Reed -- Solomon coding, finally revealing the raw data stored on the disc. These encoding techniques (defined in the Red Book) were originally designed for CD Digital Audio, but they later became a standard for almost all CD formats (such as CD - ROM).
CDs are susceptible to damage during handling and from environmental exposure. Pits are much closer to the label side of a disc, enabling defects and contaminants on the clear side to be out of focus during playback. Consequently, CDs are more likely to suffer damage on the label side of the disc. Scratches on the clear side can be repaired by refilling them with similar refractive plastic or by careful polishing. The edges of CDs are sometimes incompletely sealed, allowing gases and liquids to corrode the metal reflective layer and to interfere with the focus of the laser on the pits. The fungus Geotrichum candidum has been found -- under conditions of high heat and humidity -- to consume the polycarbonate plastic and aluminium found in CDs.
The digital data on a CD begins at the center of the disc and proceeds toward the edge, which allows adaptation to the different size formats available. Standard CDs are available in two sizes. By far, the most common is 120 millimetres (4.7 in) in diameter, with a 74 - or 80 - minute audio capacity and a 650 or 700 MiB (737,280,000 - byte) data capacity. The official Philips history says this capacity was specified by Sony executive Norio Ohga so as to be able to contain the entirety of Beethoven 's Ninth Symphony on one disc. This is a myth according to Kees Immink, as the code format had not yet been decided in December 1979. The adoption of EFM in June 1980 would have allowed a playing time of 97 minutes for 120 mm diameter or 74 minutes for a disc as small as 100 mm, but instead the information density was lowered by 30 % to keep the playing time at 74 minutes. The 120 mm diameter has been adopted by subsequent formats, including Super Audio CD, DVD, HD DVD, and Blu - ray Disc. The 80 mm diameter discs ("Mini CDs '') can hold up to 24 minutes of music or 210 MiB.
The logical format of an audio CD (officially Compact Disc Digital Audio or CD - DA) is described in a document produced in 1980 by the format 's joint creators, Sony and Philips. The document is known colloquially as the Red Book CD - DA after the colour of its cover. The format is a two - channel 16 - bit PCM encoding at a 44.1 kHz sampling rate per channel. Four - channel sound was to be an allowable option within the Red Book format, but has never been implemented. Monaural audio has no existing standard on a Red Book CD; thus, mono source material is usually presented as two identical channels in a standard Red Book stereo track (i.e., mirrored mono); an MP3 CD, however, can have audio file formats with mono sound.
CD - Text is an extension of the Red Book specification for audio CD that allows for storage of additional text information (e.g., album name, song name, artist) on a standards - compliant audio CD. The information is stored either in the lead - in area of the CD, where there is roughly five kilobytes of space available, or in the subcode channels R to W on the disc, which can store about 31 megabytes.
Compact Disc + Graphics is a special audio compact disc that contains graphics data in addition to the audio data on the disc. The disc can be played on a regular audio CD player, but when played on a special CD + G player, it can output a graphics signal (typically, the CD + G player is hooked up to a television set or a computer monitor); these graphics are almost exclusively used to display lyrics on a television set for karaoke performers to sing along with. The CD + G format takes advantage of the channels R through W. These six bits store the graphics information.
CD + Extended Graphics (CD + EG, also known as CD + XG) is an improved variant of the Compact Disc + Graphics (CD + G) format. Like CD + G, CD + EG utilizes basic CD - ROM features to display text and video information in addition to the music being played. This extra data is stored in subcode channels R-W. Very few, if any, CD + EG discs have been published.
Super Audio CD (SACD) is a high - resolution read - only optical audio disc format that was designed to provide higher fidelity digital audio reproduction than the Red Book. Introduced in 1999, it was developed by Sony and Philips, the same companies that created the Red Book. SACD was in a format war with DVD - Audio, but neither has replaced audio CDs. The SACD standard is referred to the Scarlet Book standard.
Titles in the SACD format can be issued as hybrid discs; these discs contain the SACD audio stream as well as a standard audio CD layer which is playable in standard CD players, thus making them backward compatible.
CD - MIDI is a format used to store music - performance data, which upon playback is performed by electronic instruments that synthesize the audio. Hence, unlike the original Red Book CD - DA, these recordings are not digitally sampled audio recordings. The CD - MIDI format is defined as an extension of the original Red Book.
For the first few years of its existence, the CD was a medium used purely for audio. However, in 1988, the Yellow Book CD - ROM standard was established by Sony and Philips, which defined a non-volatile optical data computer data storage medium using the same physical format as audio compact discs, readable by a computer with a CD - ROM drive.
Video CD (VCD, View CD, and Compact Disc digital video) is a standard digital format for storing video media on a CD. VCDs are playable in dedicated VCD players, most modern DVD - Video players, personal computers, and some video game consoles.
The VCD standard was created in 1993 by Sony, Philips, Matsushita, and JVC and is referred to as the White Book standard.
Overall picture quality is intended to be comparable to VHS video. Poorly compressed VCD video can sometimes be lower quality than VHS video, but VCD exhibits block artifacts rather than analog noise and does not deteriorate further with each use.
352x240 (or SIF) resolution was chosen because it is half the vertical and half the horizontal resolution of NTSC video. 352x288 is similarly one quarter PAL / SECAM resolution. This approximates the (overall) resolution of an analog VHS tape, which, although it has double the number of (vertical) scan lines, has a much lower horizontal resolution.
Super Video CD (Super Video Compact Disc or SVCD) is a format used for storing video media on standard compact discs. SVCD was intended as a successor to VCD and an alternative to DVD - Video and falls somewhere between both in terms of technical capability and picture quality.
SVCD has two thirds the resolution of DVD, and over 2.7 times the resolution of VCD. One CD - R disc can hold up to 60 minutes of standard quality SVCD - format video. While no specific limit on SVCD video length is mandated by the specification, one must lower the video bit rate, and therefore quality, to accommodate very long videos. It is usually difficult to fit much more than 100 minutes of video onto one SVCD without incurring significant quality loss, and many hardware players are unable to play video with an instantaneous bit rate lower than 300 to 600 kilobits per second.
Photo CD is a system designed by Kodak for digitizing and storing photos on a CD. Launched in 1992, the discs were designed to hold nearly 100 high - quality images, scanned prints and slides using special proprietary encoding. Photo CDs are defined in the Beige Book and conform to the CD - ROM XA and CD - i Bridge specifications as well. They are intended to play on CD - i players, Photo CD players and any computer with suitable software (irrespective of operating system). The images can also be printed out on photographic paper with a special Kodak machine. This format is not to be confused with Kodak Picture CD, which is a consumer product in CD - ROM format.
The Philips Green Book specifies a standard for interactive multimedia compact discs designed for CD - i players (1993). CD - i discs can contain audio tracks which can be played on regular CD players, but CD - i discs are not compatible with most CD - ROM drives and software. The CD - i Ready specification was later created to improve compatibility with audio CD players, and the CD - i Bridge specification was added to create CD - i compatible discs that can be accessed by regular CD - ROM drives.
Philips defined a format similar to CD - i called CD - i Ready, which puts CD - i software and data into the pregap of track 1. This format was supposed to be more compatible with older audio CD players.
Enhanced Music CD, also known as CD Extra or CD Plus, is a format which combines audio tracks and data tracks on the same disc by putting audio tracks in a first session and data in a second session. It was developed by Philips and Sony, and it is defined in the Blue Book.
Vinyl Disc is the hybrid of a standard audio CD and the vinyl record. The vinyl layer on the disc 's label side can hold approximately three minutes of music.
In 1995, material costs were 30 cents for the jewel case and 10 to 15 cents for the CD. Wholesale cost of CDs was $0.75 to $1.15, which retailed for $16.98. On average, the store received 35 percent of the retail price, the record company 27 percent, the artist 16 percent, the manufacturer 13 percent, and the distributor 9 percent. When 8 - track tapes, cassette tapes, and CDs were introduced, each was marketed at a higher price than the format they succeeded, even though the cost to produce the media was reduced. This was done because the apparent value increased. This continued from vinyl to CDs but was broken when Apple marketed MP3s for $0.99, and albums for $9.99. The incremental cost, though, to produce an MP3 is very small.
Recordable Compact Discs, CD - Rs, are injection - molded with a "blank '' data spiral. A photosensitive dye is then applied, after which the discs are metalized and lacquer - coated. The write laser of the CD recorder changes the colour of the dye to allow the read laser of a standard CD player to see the data, just as it would with a standard stamped disc. The resulting discs can be read by most CD - ROM drives and played in most audio CD players. CD - Rs follow the Orange Book standard.
CD - R recordings are designed to be permanent. Over time, the dye 's physical characteristics may change causing read errors and data loss until the reading device can not recover with error correction methods. The design life is from 20 to 100 years, depending on the quality of the discs, the quality of the writing drive, and storage conditions. However, testing has demonstrated such degradation of some discs in as little as 18 months under normal storage conditions. This failure is known as disc rot, for which there are several, mostly environmental, reasons.
The recordable audio CD is designed to be used in a consumer audio CD recorder. These consumer audio CD recorders use SCMS (Serial Copy Management System), an early form of digital rights management (DRM), to conform to the AHRA (Audio Home Recording Act). The Recordable Audio CD is typically somewhat more expensive than CD - R due to lower production volume and a 3 % AHRA royalty used to compensate the music industry for the making of a copy.
High - capacity recordable CD is a higher - density recording format that can hold 90 or 99 minutes of audio on a 12 cm (5 in) disc (compared to about 80 minutes for Red Book audio) or 30 minutes of audio on an 8 cm (3 in) disc (compared to about 24 minutes for Red Book audio). The higher capacity is incompatible with some recorders and recording software.
CD - RW is a re-recordable medium that uses a metallic alloy instead of a dye. The write laser in this case is used to heat and alter the properties (amorphous vs. crystalline) of the alloy, and hence change its reflectivity. A CD - RW does not have as great a difference in reflectivity as a pressed CD or a CD - R, and so many earlier CD audio players can not read CD - RW discs, although most later CD audio players and stand - alone DVD players can. CD - RWs follow the Orange Book standard.
The ReWritable Audio CD is designed to be used in a consumer audio CD recorder, which will not (without modification) accept standard CD - RW discs. These consumer audio CD recorders use the Serial Copy Management System (SCMS), an early form of digital rights management (DRM), to conform to the United States ' Audio Home Recording Act (AHRA). The ReWritable Audio CD is typically somewhat more expensive than CD - RW due to (a) lower volume and (b) a 3 % AHRA royalty used to compensate the music industry for the making of a copy.
Due to technical limitations, the original ReWritable CD could be written no faster than 4x speed. High Speed ReWritable CD has a different design, which permits writing at speeds ranging from 4x to 12x. Original CD - RW drives can only write to original ReWritable CDs. High Speed CD - RW drives can typically write to both original ReWritable CDs and High Speed ReWritable CDs. Both types of CD - RW discs can be read in most CD drives. Higher speed CD - RW discs, Ultra Speed (16x to 24x write speed) and Ultra Speed+ (32x write speed) are now available.
The Red Book audio specification, except for a simple "anti-copy '' statement in the subcode, does not include any copy protection mechanism. Known at least as early as 2001, attempts were made by record companies to market "copy - protected '' non-standard compact discs, which can not be ripped, or copied, to hard drives or easily converted to other formats (like FLAC, MP3 or Vorbis). One major drawback to these copy - protected discs is that most will not play on either computer CD - ROM drives or some standalone CD players that use CD - ROM mechanisms. Philips has stated that such discs are not permitted to bear the trademarked Compact Disc Digital Audio logo because they violate the Red Book specifications. Numerous copy - protection systems have been countered by readily available, often free, software, or even by simply turning off automatic AutoPlay to prevent the running of the DRM executable program.
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what does aby stand for in star wars | Galactic Empire (Star Wars) - wikipedia
The Galactic Empire is a fictional autocracy featured in the Star Wars franchise. It was first introduced in the 1977 film Star Wars and also appears in its two sequels: The Empire Strikes Back (1980) and Return of the Jedi (1983) and is the main antagonist faction of the original trilogy. By the time of the sequel trilogy, which starts three decades following the events of the original trilogy, the government has since collapsed and has been succeeded by the First Order.
The Empire 's origins are depicted in the prequel Star Wars: Episode III -- Revenge of the Sith (2005), where it replaces the Galactic Republic at the end of the Clone Wars orchestrated by Palpatine, who was then the Republic 's Supreme Chancellor. Palpatine is also secretly the Sith Lord Darth Sidious who intends to purge the Jedi and restore the Sith to power in the galaxy. Palpatine 's Sith identity is only known by a small few throughout his life. Palpatine claims that the Jedi attempted to assassinate him and overthrow the Galactic Senate and declares the Jedi to have committed treason. Palpatine declares that the civil war with the Confederacy of Independent Systems (CIS) in combination with the Jedi coup d'état require the reorganization of the Republic into a state that can provide stability, and a safe and secure society, a Galactic Empire with himself as Emperor. The Senate that he has manipulated overwhelmingly applauds Palpatine 's decision.
Emperor Palpatine proceeds to purge the Jedi, who had been the upholders of peace and justice in the Republic, and replaces them by redeeming the Sith. Though Palpatine 's Sith identity remains a secret to most, his apprentice Darth Vader is the Sith Lord who is publicly known to the galaxy as the ally of Palpatine who is serving the Empire to purge the galaxy of the Jedi. By the time of Episode IV: A New Hope, the Empire has transformed into a fully totalitarian regime, opposed by the Alliance To Restore The Republic.
The Galactic Empire is described and portrayed in various Star Wars media as a brutal dictatorship, one based on "nationalization, state terrorism, xenophobic hatred, enslavement and genocide of nonhumans, power projection, threat of lethal force, and, above all else, constant fear ''.
The Galactic Empire was born out of the collapsing Old Republic. However, its seeds are planted during the Clone Wars, the epic war between the Republic and the Confederacy of Independent Systems depicted in Episode II: Attack of the Clones and Episode III: Revenge of the Sith.
In Episode I: The Phantom Menace, amid a trade dispute, blockade and invasion of Naboo in the Mid Rim Territories by the Trade Federation, then - Senator Palpatine convinces Naboo 's Queen Padmé Amidala to address the Galactic Senate, in order to call for a vote of no confidence in Chancellor of the Republic Finis Valorum 's leadership, due to his alleged inability to act quickly to end the occupation of Naboo. The crisis on Naboo allows Palpatine to be elected Chancellor.
When the extent of the CIS threat becomes clear in Episode II, the Old Republic Senate, the legislature of the Republic, grants Palpatine emergency powers to deal with the crisis. This conflict allows Palpatine to remain in office long after his term as Chancellor officially expires. Palpatine promises to return his powers to the Senate once peace and order is restored to the galaxy. His first order is to create an army of clone troopers resulting in the construction of a massive military. He takes advantage of the conflict to increase his political power, and by the time of Episode III, he is effectively a dictator.
The Jedi begin to distrust the Chancellor 's motives, fearing he has come under the influence of a Dark Lord of the Sith named Darth Sidious. Palpatine insists to the Jedi that the war, and thus his emergency powers, will continue until CIS leader General Grievous is killed. Their concerns are shared by several Senators, who suspect Palpatine may not return his emergency powers to the Senate as promised. Among them are two who had long supported Palpatine, Padmé Amidala and Bail Organa. The film eventually reveals that Palpatine and Sidious are one and the same, and that he has been manipulating the Republic and the CIS against each other.
When the Jedi Knight Anakin Skywalker discovers Palpatine is actually the mysterious Sith lord Darth Sidious, he returns to the Jedi Temple to inform Jedi Master Mace Windu what he has learned. Windu then leaves with three other Masters to arrest Palpatine, instructing Anakin to remain at the temple. Anakin ignores Mace Windu 's directive and returns to the Chancellor 's office to prevent the Jedi from killing him; Palpatine has manipulated him into believing that he has the power to save Anakin 's pregnant wife, Padmé Amidala, from dying in childbirth. Mace Windu, with a cadre of Jedi, enters Palpatine 's office and declares that he is under arrest for crimes against the Republic, and that the Senate will determine his fate. Palpatine dispenses with his false modest persona and reveals his power - hungry nature, retorting "I am the Senate! ''. Palpatine produces a lightsaber and quickly dispatches all but Windu. When Anakin arrives, Windu is standing over the disarmed Palpatine, prepared to strike. Anakin intervenes on Palpatine 's behalf by cutting off Windu 's lower arm, disarming Windu and allowing Palpatine to send Windu plunging to his death with a blast of Force lightning. Anakin then submits to the dark side of the Force, becoming Palpatine 's third Sith apprentice, Darth Vader.
Palpatine declares the Jedi to be traitors and enemies of the Republic, and issues Order 66: Operation Knightfall. During the creation of the Clone Army, Palpatine ordered Jedi Master Syfo - Dyas to instruct the Kaminoans to implant a fail - safe chip into the clones, with a code embedded that allowed them to turn on their Jedi commanders, allowing for the commencement of Operation Knightfall. Led by Darth Vader, the Grand Army of the Republic, who once took orders from the Jedi, all but exterminate the Jedi Order in a massive galaxy - wide slaughter. Secure in his power and position, Palpatine reorganizes the Republic into the Galactic Empire, with himself as Emperor for life. The Senate enthusiastically supports Palpatine, although a few senators, like Padmé and Bail Organa, realize that the freedom enshrined by the Republic has been destroyed in the name of a "safe and secure society. '' A deleted scene in the film establishes that the two are among the main founders of the Rebel Alliance, which later arises in A New Hope.
Two remaining Jedi, Obi - Wan Kenobi and Yoda, attempt to attack and destroy the Sith once and for all. Yoda confronts Palpatine, and Obi - Wan duels his former apprentice, now Darth Vader. Obi - Wan defeats Vader and leaves him for dead, but Yoda 's duel with Palpatine ends in a stalemate and he is forced to flee for his life; both Jedi are forced to go into exile. Grievously wounded, Vader is rescued by Palpatine and fitted with cybernetics and a black suit of armor with a life support system, which he will wear for the rest of his life. Padme 's children, with their mother dead and their father a Sith Lord, are placed into adoptive families until the time is right for the Jedi to reappear in the galaxy and overthrow the Empire.
With the end of the Clone Wars, the purging of the Jedi Order and the formation of the First Galactic Empire, Palpatine rules with absolute power as Emperor. He retains the emergency powers that had been voted to him in Attack of the Clones, allowing him to rule for decades under what amounts to martial law. Lord Darth Vader is the Emperor 's second - in - command and his ruthless chief enforcer, greatly feared throughout the galaxy; a command from Vader is to be considered a command from Palpatine. In the 19 years between Revenge of the Sith and A New Hope, Palpatine rules the galaxy from the confines of his heavily guarded Imperial Palace on Coruscant. During that same time, Vader travels extensively to most of the galactic regions to enforce the Emperor 's rule.
The Imperial Palace, once known as the Jedi Temple when it was the home of the Jedi Order, was a complex on Coruscant that served as the seat of power for Darth Sidious during his reign.
The Senate, now known as the Imperial Senate, nominally continues to exist, though it is virtually powerless. Palpatine dissolves the Senate (off - camera) in A New Hope after discovering that several members of the Senate are founding members of the Rebellion. Aside from Palpatine, the real power in the Empire is in the hands of planetary system - administrators (regional governors), the "Moffs '' (sector governors) and the "Grand Moffs '' (quadrant governors) who oversee collections of sectors such as the "Outer Rim ''. After Palpatine dissolves the Senate, he commissioned the regional governors with a Star Destroyer, a division of soldiers and are formally granted direct control over their planet territories; each reports directly to their respective Moffs and Grand Moffs. The Grand Moffs themselves held such prestige that they outranked Darth Vader 's authority de facto; as was demonstrated by Vader 's deference to Tarkin 's command on the Death Star. Through this chain of command, Palpatine dictates direct control over all population centers.
In A New Hope, Grand Moff Tarkin explains the Empire 's military doctrine of peacekeeping, internal security, and counter-insurgency; describing its state terrorism - philosophy as rule through fear of force rather than force itself. The instrument of this power is the military, which includes the Imperial Stormtroopers, a massive fleet of Star Destroyers, and the Death Star, a moon - sized superweapon capable of destroying entire planets. Plans for the Death Star first appear (in universe chronology) in Attack of the Clones and construction begins at the end of Revenge of the Sith.
The Imperial Guard (or Red Guard) were elite, red - helmeted and red - cloaked stormtroopers who serve as Emperor Palpatine 's personal bodyguards. In addition to strict requirements of height, strength, intelligence, and loyalty, only the most capable soldiers in the Imperial Military qualified for duty in the ranks of the Royal Guard. On occasion if needed or ordered by Palpatine, they could take orders from his apprentice, Darth Vader.
In the waning days of the Republic, Supreme Chancellor Sheev Palpatine formed a personnel security detail of red - robed guards whom he favored over the Senate Guard. He additionally began to phase out the Senate Guard with the clone shock troopers of the Coruscant Guard. Eventually, as Galactic Emperor, Palpatine disbanded the Senate Guard altogether and replaced them with his Royal Guard and the stormtroopers of the Galactic Empire.
The Imperial Army Command (IAC) is the main ground force of the Galactic Empire. It operates massive ground combat vehicles and maintains garrisons across the galaxy. It also cooperates with other branches of the Empire in a variety of operations. The Imperial Army consists of a considerable number of legions, enough to project power throughout the galaxy. Some of the legions are stationed on the capital planet Coruscant as part of the Emperor 's personal security, while others are scattered in the Imperial Navy and planetary garrisons across the galaxy. Imperial Army officers and crew typically wear the Imperial standard green uniforms when not clad in armor.
The Imperial Naval Command (INC), also referred to as the Imperial Starfleet, was the military arm of the Galactic Empire in charge of maintaining security, peace and order in the galaxy. Commanded by Darth Vader, it absorbed the military forces of the Galactic Republic after Palpatine 's declaration of the New Order. Organization of the Imperial Navy was assigned to the Moffs.
At its peak, the Imperial Navy fielded millions of warships, including an estimated 25,000 Star Destroyers, fulfilling the Emperor 's will throughout the galaxy. The Empire 's central warship cadre is well structured and uniformed, but the Imperial Navy suffers against strike craft, largely due to the inadequacies of its own starfighters and point defense. The Empire 's focus on size, firepower, and terror came at the expense of a well - balanced fleet. After its defeat at the Battle of Endor, the Galactic Empire split up into warring factions and the Imperial Starfleet along with it. While much of the remnants of the Imperial Navy were later reunited under impressive Imperial commanders, the military organization covered in this article ceased to exist shortly after the death of the Emperor.
Specific responsibilities of the Imperial Navy included defending Imperial citizens from space - based threats (such as pirates, smugglers and rebel contingents), enforcing Imperial will, and overseeing commerce through customs and blockade operations. The Imperial Navy also performed orbital bombardments and transported major ground force deployments, supporting them with space, orbital, and aerial support.
Imperial Navy officers wore the same standard uniform that their Army counterparts used but was colored grey, and both services used colored chest plaques to denote rank.
After the Battle Of Endor (4 ABY), the navy was scattered.
The Imperial Starfighter Corps (ISC) was the starfighter pilot branch of the Galactic Empire. Although the Corps was a component of the Navy, most pilots were assigned to ground operations with the Imperial Army. Some Imperial starfighters include TIE (Twin Ion Engine) fighters, TIE Intercepters, TIE Strikers, TIE Silencers (by the First Order), and TIE Bombers. The corps was scattered after the Battle Of Endor (4 ABY).
Contrary to popular belief, Imperial Stormtrooper Corps (ISC) are not in fact the army, but rather an elite corps that works as a ground force for the Navy -- similar to a Marine Corps. The Stormtroopers operate in conjunction with the Army and Navy, but in practice are organized like marines with their own separate divisions. When not in their signature white armor, Stormtrooper officers wear black uniforms.
The Imperial Security Bureau (ISB) are the principal military intelligence, law enforcement, and internal security agency of the Galactic Empire. The ISB was charged with matters of counter-terrorism, counterintelligence, criminal investigation, internal affairs, state security and ensuring the loyalty of citizens to the Empire. It functions autonomously as a secret police organization (ISB officers are often found as political officers in Army and Navy units). Officers of the ISB wear white uniforms. Aside from that, it happened to be one of the many umbrella organizations under the greater Commission for the Preservation of the New Order, and was larger than its sister agency Imperial Intelligence.
The Imperial Central Intelligence (ICI) was an espionage organization of the Galactic Empire that provided services to the Imperial Military, the Joint Chiefs, and Emperor Sheev Palpatine. ICI was responsible for the gathering, processing, analyzing and dissemination of information throughout the Star Wars galaxy for the purpose national security and propaganda. Its clandestine operations allowed it to operate outside the chain of command, but had no military or law enforcement authority in itself. It had oversight of the operations of the Naval Intelligence Agency which was briefly made its own separate organization before being folded back under Imperial Intelligence. The Imperial Security Bureau was a sister agency and rival to Imperial Central Intelligence over resources, abilities, and areas of responsibility.
With the formation of the Empire and the purge of the Jedi now complete, martial law was immediately declared throughout the universe. Those in hiding, or attempting to either flee from or oppose the New Imperial Order, would be subject to persecution or death. This was the start of the bloody decades - long Galactic Civil War.
In a deleted scene in Revenge of the Sith (and in fear of that incoming conflict), several influential senators including Bail Organa of Alderaan, Padme Amidala of Naboo, and Mon Mothma of Chandrila, meet in secret to form what will later become the Alliance to Restore the Republic, more commonly referred to as the Rebel Alliance. During the two decades that take place between Revenge of the Sith and A New Hope, the Rebellion grows and becomes a formidable enemy of the Empire.
The Death Star, a moon - sized space station with sufficient firepower to destroy an entire planet, is designed to be the supreme weapon of the Empire 's power. Grand Moff Willhuff Tarkin, the station 's commander, shortly after informing the heads of the Imperial Military that Palpatine has dissolved the Senate, demonstrates that power in A New Hope, when he destroys Alderaan merely as a show of force. In the film 's climactic scene, however, the station is assaulted by a small force of Rebel starfighters who have come into possession of the station 's blueprints. The battle ends with the Death Star 's destruction at the hands of Luke Skywalker, which is the Rebel Alliance 's first major success against the Empire.
After several more years of conflict, the Alliance finally overthrows the Empire in Return of the Jedi. In the film 's climactic battle, the Rebellion destroys the second Death Star and a number of capital ships that contain a great portion of the Imperial Navy 's highest - ranking officers. During this battle, Vader redeems himself by killing Palpatine in order to save his son Luke Skywalker, but in this act of self - sacrifice he is himself mortally wounded in the process.
After the destruction of the second Death Star, the remnants of the Empire fractured into several splinter factions. The First Order is one of these groups, led by former Imperial officers who adhere to the principles of the Empire 's government. They become a major faction in the galaxy in The Force Awakens and face a reformed Rebel Alliance called the Resistance.
In the Star Wars expanded universe, the Rebels, renamed the New Republic, fight to claim the galaxy from remaining Imperials styling themselves as independent controllers of portions of the galaxy.
In the Jedi Prince novel series, a group of impostors calling themselves the Prophets of the Dark Side install a three - eyed mutant named Trioculus as Emperor by claiming that he is Palpatine 's son, reforming the Empire (as Trioculus 's Empire). By the end of the series, Palpatine 's true son, Triclops, helps the Rebels defeat this new enemy.
In the Thrawn trilogy book series, the New Republic is almost brought to its knees by Grand Admiral Thrawn, the new leader of the remnants of the Empire (which are known as Thrawn 's Empire) and a military genius. By the time of the third book in the series, Thrawn has nearly defeated the New Republic, but they claim victory in a last - ditch effort, and Thrawn is killed by his own bodyguard, shattering the Empire 's unity.
In the Dark Empire comic book series, Palpatine is reborn in a clone body and unites most of the scattered remnants of the Empire (forming the Dark Empire), hoping to retake control of the galaxy. By the sequel, Empire 's End, he is defeated and destroyed once and for all.
In the Jedi Academy Trilogy, an Imperial admiral named Daala commandeers the remainder of the Imperial Navy (the Crimson Empire) and mounts a ferocious assault on the New Republic. She nearly succeeds in taking over the galaxy, but is foiled by New Republic pilots Wedge Antilles and Lando Calrissian in the final entry, Champions of the Force.
In the novel Darksaber, Admiral Daala, frustrated with the Imperial warlords in the Core fighting and bickering amongst themselves, orchestrates the warlords ' deaths and unites and becomes the leader of the remaining Imperial forces. After being defeated in battle once again by the New Republic, she resigns and selects Gilad Pellaeon (originally in the Thrawn Trilogy) as the new leader, where he becomes Grand Admiral Pellaeon.
By the time of the New Jedi Order series, the remaining Imperial military factions sign a truce with the New Republic, becoming the Imperial Remnant. The former enemies then become allies against the invading Yuuzhan Vong. A few years later, the Remnant help the Galactic Alliance fight an assimilating insect species known as the Killiks, and in the early Legacy era they are a third party in the Second Galactic Civil War but made peace with the Alliance and Confederation. All three of these were represented by former Imperial commanders.
The Star Wars: Legacy comic book series, set 130 years after the original Star Wars film, explains that, during a civil war, the New Galactic Empire known as the Fel Empire declares war on the Galactic Federation Of Free Alliances (Galactic Alliance), the successor state of the New Republic. This conflict begins the Sith - Imperial War, which after three years leads to the eventual defeat of the Galactic Alliance and the Galactic Empire asserting its domination over the galaxy once again. Another split occurs as the Sith Lord Darth Krayt the leader of the One Sith, usurps the throne and forces Emperor Roan Fel to take refuge in the fortress planet of Bastion. The Galactic Alliance Remnant led by Admiral Gar Stazi, Fel 's forces known as the Empire - in - exile led by Empress Marasiah Fel, and the New Jedi Order led by Jedi Master K'Krukk united against Darth Krayt 's Galactic Empire and successfully destroy it and the three united factions formed a new galactic government out of their organizations called the Galactic Federation Triumvirate but the former Empire - in - exile still technically carried on the New Order that Palpatine had created. The One Sith however, led by Darth Wredd, remain at large and wage a war against the GFT known as the Darth Wredd 's insurgency but two years later in 140 ABY, the former Empire - in - exile works with the other two factions and kill Wredd, dissolve the One Sith, which defeats the Sith once and for all and allows the Galaxy to enter an era of peace (the Post-Legacy era).
In the Expanded Universe the successor to the Empire was Trioculus 's Empire (ruled by Trioculus) whose successor was Thrawn 's Empire (led by Grand Admiral Thrawn from Wayland in the Wayland System of the Ojoster Sector of the Outer Rim Territories) whose successor was the Dark Empire (ruled by Emperor Palpatine from Byss in the Byss System of the Deep Core) which successor was the Crimson Empire (by Carnor Jax from Ord Cantrell of the Ord Cantrell system of the Fath Sector of the Outer Rim Territories) whose successor was the Imperial Remmant whose successor was the Fel Empire.
Star Wars creator George Lucas sought to make the Galactic Empire aesthetically and thematically similar to Nazi Germany and to appear to be fascist. Like Nazi Germany, the Galactic Empire is a dictatorship based on rigid control of society that dissolved a previous democracy and is led by an all - powerful supreme ruler. The Empire, like the Nazis, desires the creation of totalitarian order and utilizes excessive force and violence to achieve their ends. The name of the Empire 's main soldiers, the Stormtroopers, is somewhat similar to the name given to Hitler 's Sturmabteilung (SA, "storm detachment '') paramilitary bodyguards. The visual appearance of Darth Vader in his all - black uniform combined with his devout obedience to the Emperor has allusion to the black - uniformed Nazi Schutzstaffel (SS). The uniforms of Imperial military officers also bear resemblance to uniforms used in Nazi Germany as well as nineteenth - century Germany 's ulans (mounted lancers) -- who wore a tunic, riding breeches, and boots like the Empire 's officers wear -- as well as the Imperial officers ' cap resembling the field caps historically worn by German and Austrian troops. In addition to Nazi Germany, there was also at least one portion of the Galactic Empire that was based on the Soviet Union, which is the various military personnel and TIE Fighters are flying in formation as Palpatine arrives on the Death Star in Return of the Jedi. In the commentary track for the film 's DVD release, Lucas admitted that the ceremony for the Emperor 's arrival was inspired by May Day military parades in the Soviet Union. Lucas has also indicated in various sources that the Galactic Empire was largely derived from America during the time of the Vietnam War, and more specifically Richard Nixon 's time as President, with it dating back as early as 1973 when he first started working on the first film, with his friend Walter Murch also verifying this to be the case.
Palpatine 's rise to power, and transforming a democracy into a dictatorship has been related to those of Julius Caesar, Augustus, Napoleon Bonaparte, and Adolf Hitler.
Palpatine 's consolidation of power and declaring himself emperor is like the Roman political figure Octavian (later renamed Augustus), in that Octavian manipulated the Roman Senate as Palpatine did with the Galactic Senate; he legitimized authoritarian rule by saying that corruption in the Senate was hampering the powers of the head of state; he pressured the Roman Senate to give him extraordinary powers as Consul of the Republic to deal with a crisis and he falsely claimed that he would rescind those powers once the crisis was over; and, like the transition of the Roman Republic into the Roman Empire, Octavian, like Palpatine, relied on his strong control over military force.
The power relationship in the Galactic Empire between Emperor Palpatine and Darth Vader has been likened to that within Nazi Germany between Hitler and Reichsführer - SS Heinrich Himmler, as well as that between Joseph Stalin and the head of the NKVD Lavrentiy Beria, in that Darth Vader is a dictator 's main henchman who is completely ruthless in serving his master.
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who has won the 2017 men's singles wimbledon tennis tournament | 2017 Wimbledon Championships -- men 's singles - wikipedia
Andy Murray was the defending champion, but lost to Sam Querrey in the quarterfinals. Despite his loss, Murray retained the ATP No. 1 singles ranking at the end of the tournament, as Rafael Nadal, Stan Wawrinka, and Novak Djokovic all failed to gain enough ranking points to surpass him.
Roger Federer achieved his record eighth Wimbledon and 19th Grand Slam men 's singles title, defeating Marin Čilić in the final, 6 -- 3, 6 -- 1, 6 -- 4. Federer thus became the only male player to win the Wimbledon singles title eight times, as well as only the second man in the Open era, after Björn Borg in 1976, to win Wimbledon without losing a set. This was Federer 's 70th appearance at a Grand Slam, tying the record for male players and a record - breaking 11th men 's singles final at the same Grand Slam tournament. In addition, by virtue of his third - round win over Mischa Zverev, Federer won his 317th Grand Slam singles match, surpassing Serena Williams ' record of 316 match wins and giving him the all - time record for the most Grand Slam singles wins by any player, male or female. The tournament marked the fifth time that Nadal and Federer won the French Open and Wimbledon respectively in the same year.
This was also the first Grand Slam tournament since the 2009 French Open in which Murray, Nadal and Djokovic all failed to reach the semifinals, and the first time since 2004, that no player will be able to reach all 4 quarterfinals in a year. With his win over Murray, Querrey became the first American man to reach a Grand Slam semifinal since Andy Roddick at the 2009 Wimbledon Championships. For the first time since the 2005 Australian Open, David Ferrer was not seeded at a Grand Slam and the first time since the 2004 US Open that fellow Spaniard Guillermo García López did not play at a Grand Slam, ending his streak of 50 consecutive Grand Slam appearances.
Click on the seed number of a player to go to their draw section.
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st luke's college of nursing kansas city mo | St. Luke 's College of Health Sciences - wikipedia
Saint Luke 's College of Health Sciences is a nursing school associated with Saint Luke 's Health System in Kansas City, Missouri.
Saint Luke 's College of Health Sciences is affiliated with Saint Luke 's Hospital of Kansas City. The Hospital established the diploma program in 1903 as a department within the hospital. Nurses were trained at the diploma level until 1994 when the College received accreditation as a baccalaureate degree granting institution. Saint Luke 's College of Health Sciences is currently accredited by The Higher Learning Commission (HLC). The Baccalaureate Degree Program in Nursing and the master 's degree Program in Nursing and the Post-Graduate APRN Certificate Program at Saint Luke 's College of Health Sciences are fully accredited by the Commission on Collegiate Nursing Education (CCNE).
On May 28, 2010 the College was incorporated as a standalone 501 (c) (3) educational institution with Saint Luke 's Hospital of Kansas City as the sole member of the corporation. Shortly after its formation in 2010, the College Board of Directors selected a new president and adopted a master plan to become financially independent from the Hospital by 2015. Growing the enrollment five-fold among other strategies helped the College achieve this goal by 2013.
In 2012, an MSN program was started with two tracks: Adult - Gerontology Acute Care Nurse Practitioner (AG - ACNP) and Nurse Educator. Today, the College offers upper - division baccalaureate and master 's level nursing education to top tier students. BSN track students apply to the College after completing two years of prerequisites at an accredited college or university. In fall of 2015, the College began an RN - BSN track for practicing nurses who wish to upgrade to a baccalaureate.
The College is located on historic Westport Road four blocks north of Saint Luke 's Hospital where the students go for most of their clinical training. The main building, containing 39,000 square feet, was purchased and totally renovated in the fall of 2011 and occupied in January 2012. A major feature of the new facility is a state - of - the - art Simulation Center, featuring two fully simulated hospital rooms, one fully simulated birthing room, control rooms, debriefing rooms and a ten - bed skills lab where students practice clinical skills. Simulation offers a safe, controlled learning environment for students to practice on high fidelity manikins prior to encountering actual patients.
Historical Highlights
Coordinates: 39 ° 03 ′ 07 '' N 94 ° 35 ′ 41 '' W / 39.05195 ° N 94.59460 ° W / 39.05195; - 94.59460
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what is the purpose of model united nations | Model United Nations - wikipedia
Model United Nations, also known as Model UN or MUN, is an educational simulation and / or academic activity in which students can learn about diplomacy, international relations, and the United Nations. MUN involves and teaches researching, public speaking, debating, and writing skills, in addition to critical thinking, teamwork, and leadership abilities. Usually an extracurricular activity, some schools also offer MUN as a class.
Participants in Model United Nations conferences, known as delegates, are placed in committees and assigned countries, or occasionally other organizations or political figures, where they represent members of that body. They are presented with their assignments in advance, along with a topic or topics that their committee will discuss. Delegates conduct research, before conferences and formulate positions that they will then debate with their fellow delegates in the committee, staying true to the actual position of the member they represent. At the end of a conference, the best - performing delegates in each committee, as well as delegations, are sometimes recognized with awards.
Model UN participants include students at middle school, high school, and college / university levels, with most conferences catering to just one of these three levels (high school and college conferences being most common). Delegates usually attend conferences together as delegations sent by their respective schools ' or universities ' Model UN clubs, though some delegates attend conferences independently.
Model UN began as a series of student - led Model League of Nations simulations. It is believed that the first Model League of Nations conferences were held in the 1920s, before transitioning to Model UN after the formation of the League 's successor organization, the United Nations, in 1945. Today, some Model United Nations conferences include simulations of the League of Nations among their committee offerings.
The first Model United Nations was held at St. Lawrence University from February 11 -- 13, 1949. It was initiated by Dr. Harry Reiff, Head of the History and Government Department, with the assistance of departmental colleague Otto L. George. Dr. Reiff was a technical advisor on the United States delegation to the 1945 San Francisco Conference (where the UN Charter was written) and the UN Organizational Conference in London in 1945 - 46 (where the UN was established). The 1949 St. Lawrence University Model UN conference included delegates from regional conferences and universities, including Adelphi, Alfred, Champlain, Clarkson, McGill, Middlebury, Potsdam, St. Michael 's, and Vermont. The conference continued annual for many years at St. Lawrence and has recently been revived on the campus. Other Model UN conference were developed later at Berkeley, Harvard and the National Model United Nations Harvard Model United Nations (HMUN), and National Model United Nations (NMUN NY) as well as many other colleges and universities.
In 1987, a few American exchange students founded TEIMUN in The Hague. In recent decades, Model UN has spread to East and South Asia, the Middle East, Europe, North Africa, and sub-Saharan Africa. Other major conference organizers such as Indian International Model United Nations, Harvard, THIMUN establishing additional conferences in these regions to meet burgeoning demand. The Ivy League Model United Nations, an arm of the Model UN at the University of Pennsylvania, hosts conferences for high - school - aged delegates in India and China, as well.
In order to maintain decorum, most Model UN committees use parliamentary procedure derived from Robert 's Rules of Order. However, most crisis committees forgo the formality of parliamentary procedure so as to ensure smoother operation. In addition, recently the United Nations has spearheaded efforts to introduce new Model UN rules of procedure that are more closely aligned with those used by the actual UN. Since there is no governing body for MUNs, each conference differs in the rules of procedure. The following rules of procedure apply to general MUNs but may not apply to every MUN:
MUNs are run by a group of administrators known as the dais. A dais is headed by a Secretary - General. Each committee usually has a chair (also known as moderator), a member of the dais that enforces the rules of procedure. A delegate may request the committee as a whole to perform a particular action; this is known as a motion. Documents aiming to address the issue of the committee are known as resolutions and are voted for ratification.
MUN committees can be divided into three general sessions: formal debate, moderated caucus, and unmoderated caucus. In a formal debate, the staff maintains a list of speakers and the delegates follow the order written on the ' speaker list '. Speakers may be added to the speaker list by raising their placards or sending a note to the chair. During this time, delegates talk to the entire committee. They make speeches, answer questions, and debate on resolutions and amendments. If there are no other motions, the committee goes back to formal debate by default. There is usually a time limit. In a moderated caucus, the committee goes into a recess and the rules of procedure are suspended. Anyone may speak if recognized by the chair. A vote on a motion is necessary to go into a moderated caucus. There is a comparatively shorter time limit per speech. In an unmoderated caucus, the delegates informally meet with other delegates and the staff for discussions.
Resolutions are the basis of all debate. They are considered the final results of conversations, writings, and negotiations. Resolutions must go through a draft, approval by the dais, and consequent debate and modification.
Participation in Model UN is meant to foster negotiation, speaking and communication skills. In addition, crisis committees, which deal with crisis scenarios which can be contemporary or historical, can develop leadership skills and the ability to adapt and deal with unexpected situations. Material issues of diplomacy and policy are also approached through a quasi-academic process. In preparation for a conference, topics are chosen for each committee, and typically, research and background guides (called Study Guides) are made available by the organizers of a conference for each committee. Delegates of each committee are often expected to pre-formulate the position of the country or group they represent, based on these background guides, and submit the result of this preparation to their committee as a so - called Position Paper. The purpose of this procedure is to familiarize delegates with the substantial topics of debate, encourage academic research and writing, and to enable substantial preparation for conferences.
While several guides on the techniques of writing Position Papers, including templates and examples, are available, no conferences publish their Study Guides, Position Papers or Resolutions. Currently, only one subscription - based Position Paper database is available.
Traditionally, English has been the official and working language of most conferences, but, as Model UN has become more popular around the world, and as conferences in countries such as the United States have sought to appeal to underrepresented minorities (such as the Spanish - speaking community), committees using languages other than English, or which are bilingual, have become common. It should be noted, however, that this is still not yet a mainstream phenomenon, especially not in the United States, where most bilingual or Spanish language committees are found at conferences hosted in Puerto Rico or the South.
Nearly all Model United Nations conferences require delegates to wear Western business attire, as dressing professionally is an important way to show respect for the nation, organization, or individual one is representing, as well as for the rest of one 's committee.
While Model United Nations conferences regularly simulate the bodies of the United Nations, the European Union, government cabinets, and regional bodies such as ASEAN as so - called Committees, as well as corporate boards, NGOs or so - called Press Corps, idiosyncrasies and fictional Committees also exist. An example for such a special committee that does not have a parallel in the actual United Nations which deals with a crisis is known as a ' Crisis Committee. ' In this committee, a crisis is given to a team of students and the teams must come up with solutions. The Crisis Committee focuses on a single historical event. The event may be fictional or non-fictional.
Model United Nations conferences are usually organized by high school clubs or college clubs.
Although Model United Nations originated in the United States, MUN clubs and conferences are not isolated to that country. Rather, like the actual UN, Model UN is found in countries around the globe. Because Model UN is decentralized and has grown autonomously around the world, there are significant differences in how MUN is done between regions.
MUN is relatively popular in Denmark, with conferences at both high - school and university level. It was first introduced in 2003, it has since spread with 3 major conferences at high - school level, with at least 400 participants at each conference, with BIGMUN being the largest conference in Scandinavia.
The largest MUN in the Netherlands is The Hague International Model United Nations (THIMUN) conference, which includes over 3500 participants coming from around 200 schools and 100 different countries. Although it is not located near the United - Nations Headquarters in New - York, it is one of the pioneer Model United Nations conferences in the world, since it has been founded in 1968 and located in the International Court of Justice 's (ICJ) world city of the Hague. A whole network of conferences is marked by its THIMUN affiliation, a label which basically describes the universality of the procedures that rule the conference and make it part of the UN recognized foundation. In 1995 the THIMUN Foundation was accredited as a Non-Governmental Organisation (NGO) associated with the United Nations Department of Public Information. Also, the THIMUN has established its own conferences ' network throughout time: THIMUN Qatar, THIMUN Singapore, THIMUN Online MUN (O - MUN) and THIMUN Latin America conferences have been set up from 2005. The second and third biggest MUN - conferences of the Netherlands are MUNISH (Model United Nations at the International School of the Hague and HMUN (Haarlem Model United Nations). There is also The European International Model UN TEIMUN which is founded in 1987 and is the oldest university Model UN in Europe.
In Turkey, Model United Nations conferences are mostly held by non-profit university - clubs. Istanbul hosts more conferences than all Turkish other cities combined. Yeditepe Model United Nations Club, the oldest and one of the most popular clubs in Turkey, holds three different conferences, being, Yeditepe Model United Nations Training and Development Conference, Justinianus Moot Courts, and Model United Nations Conference Istanbul (MUNIST) (1). Also, Koç University Model United Nations Conference (KUMUN) (2), Kadir Has University Model United Nations Conference (HASMUN) (3), alongside with the training conference of the Kadir Has University Model United Nations Training Conference (HASTRAIN), Izmir University of Economics Model United Nations Conference (ECOMUN) (4), alongside with the training conference, İzmir University of Economics Training Conference (EcoTRAIN) are most qualified conferences in Turkey. These conferences simulate not only General Assembly committees, but also Joint Crisis Cabinets, Futuristic, Fictional and Historical timeline based committees.
The Kabul Model United Nations was established in Kabul in 2014. The objectives are to bring young female and male individuals together to discuss global issues and promote diplomacy, human rights, peace building, and social welfare. Participants include university students up to the age of 30. They come from four or five Afghanistan provinces to develop critical thinking and public speaking skills. Pamir International Model United Nations (PIMUN) was established by October 2016.
Model United Nations conferences in Australia are typically separated into tertiary and high school levels. At the high school level, the large majority of Model United Nations events are organised by the various state and territory branches of UN Youth Australia, or by the many branches of Rotary Australia. Tertiary events, typically running for three to four days, occur within several Australian states, and are timed to coincide with holiday periods in tertiary semesters.
Model United Nations is practiced in Bangladesh since 2002. The first MUN to take place was the Model United Nations on Combating Terrorism - Bangladesh Model United Nations 2002. Since then, plenty of Model United Nations conferencess have been held in the country. But the concept of MUN became a popular one in Bangladesh from 2013.
United Nations Youth and Students Association of Bangladesh (UNYSAB) is the pioneer of MUN in Bangladesh. Bangladesh Model United Nations conferences, Bangladesh International Model United Nations 2012, Dhaka + 20, Brainwiz MUN 2013, UNYSAB MUN 2014 were organized by UNYSAB. MUNs if much larger numbers were organized by UNYSAB the past year when they organized Bangladesh Model United Nations (BANMUN) Session VII in June 2015 with more than 560 delegates and Bangladesh International Model United Nations (BIMUN) Session II in November 2015, with over 850 delegates, the largest number in Bangladesh 's history.
The arena of MUN started growing leaps and bounds after the formation of the first university based MUN club of the country Dhaka University Model United Nations Association in 2011. Dhaka University National Model United Nations (DUNMUN), the most prestigious Model United Nations conferences of the country, started from 2012. Worlds largest Model UN brand from India, Indian International Model United Nations is also slated to conduct its chapter conference in Dhaka in February 2016.
Model United Nations first came to China in 1995, when the elite China Foreign Affairs University held the country 's first collegiate Model United Nations conferences. Arriving in Chinese high schools in 2005, Model UN expanded rapidly. Peking University (PKU) students, after attending Harvard 's HMUN, organized the first national Model UN conference for high school students in China. PKU 's conference was initially backed by UNA - USA, however support was curtailed in 2010 due to the Great Recession.
Between 2005 and 2010, national Model United Nations conferencess such as those organized by PKU and the rivaling Fudan University in Shanghai drew the best high school students from around the country, who competed for limited spaces. Over time, lesser - known national conferences, as well as regional and even local conferences for high school students, began to develop and gradually spread to cities beyond Beijing and Shanghai.
In the realm of interscholastic Model United Nations conferencess in China, the widely acknowledged top 3 conferences are called "the ABC '': Asian International Model United Nations held by Peking University; Beijing International Model United Nations held by China Foreign Affairs University, and China National Model United Nations, held by United Nations Association of China, hosted in different cities annually.
Most Model United Nations conferencess in China are organized through private or academic enterprises, however some government - affiliated MUNs have also flourished, and recently, unofficial student - run grassroots conferences have begun to dominate the Chinese MUN scene.
In 1996, the Cathedral Model United Nations was hosted by The Cathedral and John Connon School in Mumbai. Since then, schools and colleges in India started taking up Model United Nations as an activity in their school.
The Kansai High School Model United Nations (KHSMUN) is believed to be the first organised Model United Nations (MUN) conference aimed directly at high school English as a Foreign Language (EFL) students. The first conference was held in 1990 as a required project for third year students in Kyoto Gaidai Nishi High School 's Course of International and Cultural Studies. This conference included 40 KGNHS students and 13 students from Kansai International High School in Toyonaka, Osaka. The two - day conference, held at Kyoto University of Foreign Studies, simulated the Commission on Human Rights and debated the agenda item of the Israel and Palestine Conflict. The conference went on to become an annual gathering of high school students studying EFL in Japan. Unlike other MUN events around the world, the Kansai High School Model United Nations is a non-competitive MUN event.
The largest MUN conference in Korea is the Seoul Model United Nations (SEOMUN) Conference, which includes over 1,000 participants from around the world. It has been held on an annual basis since 1997. Typically, the hosting responsibility rotates between three international schools in Korea: Korea International School, Seoul International School, and Seoul Foreign School. The conference is usually held at the Coex Mall in Gangnam District, Seoul.
The largest MUN conference in Taiwan is the Pan Asia MUN (PAMUN) Conference, which is held by National Taiwan University, also PAMUN is widely recognized as the most international MUN conference in Taiwan. There are also some regional MUN conference such as Taiwan Model United Nation (TWMUN) held by National Tsing Hua university (NTHU) and National Chiao Tung university (NCTU), Taipei Model United Nation (TMUN) held by National Chenchi University (NCCU), and Phoenix MUN held by National Cheng Kong University (NCKU). Different from China, English mostly is the official language in MUN in Taiwan expect for some special committees which use Chinese as official language.
MUN in Thailand is usually hosted by the international schools and universities in Thailand. Bangkok Patana School, Concordian International School, Ekamai International School, Harrow International School, International Seaboard Eastern School, NIST International School, Chulalongkorn University and Thammasat University have all hosted Model United Nations conferences. These conferences are typically separated into university and high school levels. Model United Nations conferencess are run by the school or the university club, with some guidance from their advisors. There are also conferences like ThaiMUN and APMUN, both are bigger than what the International School and university hosted. APMUN was hosted by the Royal Thai Embassy on September 20 to 24 of 2012. Unlike other Model United Nations conferences the APMUN and ThaiMUN are 3 - 4 day conferences, other Model United Nations conferencess are usually hosted for 1 day. ThaiModel United Nations conferences is hosted by any international schools or universities every year. Students from many international schools gather and form a host committee. The host committee decides where will ThaiMUN be hosted in that year. Thailand 's MUN, unlike Model United Nations conferencess around the world, are non-competitive, and are intended to help students improve their academic and social skills.
Sindh: In the Province of Sindh Many of the Model United Nations have been organized by many Reputable Universities, Organizations and Educational Institutes.
A high number of New Zealand high schools operate their own MUN events, with UN Youth New Zealand functioning as a managing organisation. UN Youth NZ also organises regional and national events, along with Aotearoa Youth Declaration, the Pacific Project, and New Zealand 's THIMUN delegation.
The following are Model United Nation Conferences, Model ASEAN Conferences and other model diplomatic conferences held in Singapore.
Vietnam
The idea of Model United Nations is relatively new among Vietnamese youth. There has been an increasing number of such conferences, including invitational ones such as UNISMUN, SAIMUN and many other non-invitational ones. These conferences are often organised by schools or student - led organizations with varying scale and exclusivity. One of the most inclusive Model United Nations conferences in the country is Vietnam National Model United Nations (VNMUN), open to not only Vietnamese in all parts of the country but also international students studying around the world.
Model United Nations is growing in popularity in the region. The largest conference in the region held in Doha, Qatar, held each January at the Qatar National Convention Center. THIMUN Qatar currently hosts over 1500 student participants. The region boasts over 8 THIMUN - affiliated conferences in places such as Istanbul (MUNDP) Jordan (AMMUN), Dubai (DIAMUN), Bahrain (BayMUN), Cairo (CIMUN and MUN MIU) and Doha (DCMUN). Most countries in the region host numerous smaller conferences. The region also has its own regional MUN magazine, The Olive Branch, co-edited by THIMUN Qatar, THIMUN Online, and Best Delegate.
Though local MUN conferences are popular in Lebanon, it was not until last year that an international MUN conference had been organized making BeyMUN (Beirut Model United Nations) the first international MUN conference held in Lebanon. In its first year, the conference drew more than 100 participants from local and international universities. After the success of BeyMUN'16, a second edition of the conference will be held this year on April 21 -- 23.
The Indian High School Model United Nations is one of the largest Model United Nations conferences in the region. Indian International Model United Nations had also conducted Model United Nations conferences in UAE in 2016.
Model United Nations Conference was organized for the very first time in Algeria back in 2014 by Mr. ARIF Abdeljalil, and so far it is approved to be a unique chance for Algerian youth talents to network and discuss world issues, as it offered them the opportunity to participate in an experiential education in practical global policymaking.
Algeria MUN celebrated its 3rd Annual Conference in December 2016 - Algiers - which was organized in 3 languages; English, Arabic and French. The profile of participant in this youth - based event should be between the age 16 to 29 years old, student, English understanding, and taking an active role in our society. (# AlgeriaMUN # DzYouth)
Conferences in Tunisia are mostly found in Tunis and they are usually sponsored by the Tunisian International Model United Nations (TIMUN). The most famous conference in Tunisia is the "Grande Simulation annuelle du TIMUN '' in Tunis, which host more than 300 delegates. These conferences are usually hosted by the biggest national universities. Since the 6th edition, the "Grande Simulation annuelle '' is under the patronage of the Tunisian Minister of Foreign Affairs and welcomes Tunisian ministers and diplomats.
The other conferences in Africa include NIAMUN in Marrakech Established in August 2012 by a coalition of North African youths, NAIMUN is the largest student - run Model United Nations conference in Africa and the Middle East, with 4 sub-branches in Morocco, Tunisia, Algeria and Egypt. It trains and encourages young people to address pressing global issues and engage them in resolving global problems. NAIMUN is a non-profit organization which provides an equal opportunity for all youth to actively participate in an open debate., JoMUN in Johannesburg, and the recently founded IMIRAMUN in Windhoek a recent one took place in Benin, in Cotonou. The first edition of Algeria Model United Nations was held in December 2014. The East African Model United Nations (EAMUN) takes place in Nairobi, Kenya. Also mentionable is the recently conducted Lagos Model United Nations held at the University of Lagos in Nigeria, the first of its kind in West Africa. The conference first held in 2016 and is hoped to be an annual occurrence. The idea was made reality by Nigerian Students of the Faculty of Law of the aforementioned University after several experiences of the National MUN especially winning many awards.
FAMUN -- FACAMP Model United Nations -- is a model annually organized by FACAMP -- Faculdades de Campinas, located in the city of Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil. It is a multidisciplinary initiative with the objective of simulating different international organizations, especially the ones under the United Nations system umbrella. During 5 days, approximately 500 High School and College students from different Brazilian cities discuss issues of great international relevance by performing the role as Heads of State and Government, Ministers and Diplomats. The organization of FAMUN follows the orientation of the UN4MUN approach: developed by the United Nations Department of Public Information, the approach proposes to bring MUNs ' practice closer to the real procedures of the United Nations. The result is a more dynamic debate, that captures the spirit of cooperation and the process of reaching consensus that drives the real negotiations at the UN.
The FAMUN experience can be watched here.
Model United Nations started in Peru many years ago, but became popular on 2012 with the first high school conference Lima Model United Nations (LiMUN) in 2012, followed by Villa Maria Model United Nations (VMMUN) 2015, and Newton College Model United Nations (NewMUN) 2015. The past years, school delegations from San Silvestre, Villa Maria, Newton College, Villa Caritas / San Pedro were the predominant delegations, but in 2015 Colegio Nuestra Señora del Carmen joined Model UN and suddenly became one of the top schools in MUN in Peru, organized Carmelitas Model United Nations (2015, 2016 and soon 2017) and were the hosts of the first Ivy League Model United Nations Conference Peru (ILMUNC 2016). Many students have now joined the debate team United Schools of Peru (USP) and travel to the city of Boston to participate in Harvard Model United Nations and other international conferences with USP or with their own school. On a higher competitive level, students from universities can join debate teams from their own university or big and full of prestige delegations such as Peruvian Universities Debate Team (PU), Peruvian Debate Society (PDS), and International Delegation of Peru (IDP), among others. Two Harvard National Model United Nations Latin America have been held in Peru and delegations participate in many international delegations as well.
Model UN builds skills that are useful in a wide variety of fields, with many participants having gone on to become leaders in diplomacy, politics, law and the media.
When I was an undergraduate at Stanford, I was twice a delegate to the Model United Nations and once a member of the Secretariat (when Stanford was the host). Students are enthusiastic role - players. We had to learn how nations and their representatives could work with others. We learned about how the United Nations (and international relations) worked in practice. The experience was valuable; the conferences were educational; and it was great fun. I am delighted to learn more than half a century later the Model UN is still going strong. I should think that in today 's great global conversation it offers... students an even more valuable experience.
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where does the movie the commuter take place | The Commuter (film) - wikipedia
The Commuter is a 2018 action thriller film directed by Jaume Collet - Serra and written by Byron Willinger, Philip de Blasi and Ryan Engle. The film stars Liam Neeson, Vera Farmiga, Patrick Wilson, Jonathan Banks, Elizabeth McGovern and Sam Neill, and follows a man who is unwittingly recruited into a murder conspiracy after meeting a mysterious woman while on his daily train commute.
The film premiered in New York City on January 8, 2018, and was theatrically released in the United States on January 12, 2018, by Lionsgate, and on January 19, 2018 in the United Kingdom by StudioCanal; it had a select IMAX release. The film grossed $116 million worldwide and received mixed reviews from critics, who called it similar to Neeson and Collet - Serra 's previous film, Non-Stop, but praised Neeson 's performance and the genre thrills.
Michael MacCauley, a former police officer, is a family man with a wife and son. He goes through the same routine train commute to work and back every day, only to be fired from his job as a life insurance salesman after ten years.
On the train, Michael meets a mysterious woman named Joanna. Joanna proposes a hypothetical situation to Michael, asking him to do one little thing, the results of which would have consequences that he would know nothing about, but would affect one of the passengers on the train. Joanna 's one little thing that she wants Michael to do is locate "Prynne, '' an unknown passenger, and plant a GPS tracker on them. Out of curiosity, Michael searches the bathroom and finds an envelope with $25,000, and realizes that the situation is not hypothetical.
He attempts to leave the train but is stopped by a young woman who hands him another envelope with Michael 's wife 's wedding ring. Michael attempts to call his wife but with no response. Michael attempts to warn a fellow passenger of what is going on by writing on a newspaper, but after he gets off is pushed in front of a bus on the street.
Michael proceeds to track down Prynne by examining the destination tags for the passengers that he does not recognize and plants the GPS tracker. Michael then calls Murphy, his former partner, and tells him what is going on. Murphy informs him that Prynne is a key witness in a supposed suicide case of a man named Enrique, leading Michael to realize that Prynne will be killed.
Sabotaging the air conditioning in the train except for the last car, Michael forces all of the remaining passengers into the last car. Prynne is revealed to be a young girl named Sofia, who is holding incriminating information on powerful people and was to go into witness protection at the final stop of the train. Michael asks Sofia why she did not go to the police, and she reveals that it was the police who killed Enrique.
Joanna calls Michael and tries to convince him to kill Sofia for the sake of his family, but Michael refuses. Joanna activates the fail - safe plan and derails the train in order to kill everyone aboard. Michael manages to save all of the passengers by unhooking the final car from the rest of the train right before a curve.
Assuming Michael is holding the train hostage, Murphy is sent to talk to him, only to be revealed as the cop who killed Enrique. Michael and Murphy engage in a fight, during which Michael removes Murphy 's police tracker which identifies him as a "friendly '' to the snipers outside. The snipers, believing Murphy to be Michael, shoot and kill Murphy.
Outside of the train, Sofia is met by the FBI and proceeds to tell what she knows. Sometime later, Joanna is on a train back from Chicago. Michael approaches her and shows his police detective badge.
In January 2010, Olatunde Osunsanmi boarded the action - thriller film as director for the production company Gold Circle Films, with a screenplay written by Byron Willinger and Philip de Blasi. More than a year later, in August 2011, Julian Jarrold was reported to be directing the film instead. In January 2016, Jaume Collet - Serra closed a deal to direct the film, marking his fourth collaboration with Neeson, and also executive produced through Ombra Films, with partner Juan Sola. The film was produced by StudioCanal and The Picture Company.
In September 2015, it was announced that Liam Neeson would star in the film. In June 2016, Vera Farmiga joined, in a role described as "a mysterious woman who boards a commuter train and proposes an enticing opportunity to Neeson 's character, one that has dire circumstances if he accepts. '' The project marks the second working collaboration between Farmiga and Collet - Serra, after 2009 's psychological thriller Orphan. On July 13, Sam Neill, Elizabeth McGovern, and Jonathan Banks were added to the principal cast, and in August 2016, Kobna Holdbrook - Smith joined in an undisclosed role. The same month, Patrick Wilson joined the cast as a trusted friend of Neeson 's character.
Principal photography began on July 25, 2016, at Pinewood Studios in Buckinghamshire, England, and continued in New York City. Neeson and McGovern were spotted on the set of the film at Worplesdon railway station in Surrey on September 18, 2016.
In May 2017, it was reported that Roque Baños would compose the film 's score. Varèse Sarabande released the soundtrack album digitally in January 2018, with a physical release following on February 9, 2018.
In November 2015, Lionsgate pre-bought the domestic distribution rights to the film, in a deal with StudioCanal. The Commuter was originally scheduled for release in the United States on October 13, 2017, and was pushed back to January 12, 2018. The film was set for release in the United Kingdom on October 20, 2017 by StudioCanal, and was also pushed back to January 19, 2018, in accordance with the U.S. rescheduling. The film had a limited IMAX release.
The Commuter grossed $36.3 million in the United States and Canada, and $79.7 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $116 million.
In the United States and Canada, The Commuter was released alongside the openings of Proud Mary and Paddington 2, and the wide expansion of The Post, and was projected to gross $12 -- 14 million from 2,892 theaters in its opening weekend. It made $4.5 million on its first day and $13.4 million over the weekend, on par with previous Neeson - Collet - Serra collaborations, finishing third at the box office behind holdover Jumanji: Welcome to the Jungle and The Post. It made $6.6 million in its second weekend, dropping 51.8 % and finishing 7th.
Internationally, the film debuted at number two in Germany with $2.6 million. It went on to gross a total of $6.5 million in the country, the biggest market outside the US, as well as $5.4 million in the UK, $4.1 million in France and $2.5 million in Australia.
On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 57 % based on 167 reviews, with a weighted average of 5.5 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "The Commuter 's cast is better than its workmanlike script -- which helps make this reasonably diverting Liam Neeson action thriller worth the price of a matinee ticket or rental, if not a full - price ticket. '' Metacritic assigned the film a weighted average score of 56 out of 100, based on 44 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B '' on an A+ to F scale.
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who was first person to conquer the south pole | Amundsen 's South Pole expedition - wikipedia
The first expedition to reach the geographic South Pole was led by the Norwegian explorer Roald Amundsen. He and four others arrived at the pole on 14 December 1911, five weeks ahead of a British party led by Robert Falcon Scott as part of the Terra Nova Expedition. Amundsen and his team returned safely to their base, and later learned that Scott and his four companions had died on their return journey.
Amundsen 's initial plans had focused on the Arctic and the conquest of the North Pole by means of an extended drift in an icebound ship. He obtained the use of Fridtjof Nansen 's polar exploration ship Fram, and undertook extensive fundraising. Preparations for this expedition were disrupted when, in 1909, the rival American explorers Frederick Cook and Robert E. Peary each claimed to have reached the North Pole. Amundsen then changed his plan and began to prepare for a conquest of the South Pole; uncertain of the extent to which the public and his backers would support him, he kept this revised objective secret. When he set out in June 1910, he led even his crew to believe they were embarking on an Arctic drift, and revealed their true Antarctic destination only when Fram was leaving their last port of call, Madeira.
Amundsen made his Antarctic base, which he named "Framheim '', in the Bay of Whales on the Great Ice Barrier. After months of preparation, depot - laying and a false start that ended in near - disaster, he and his party set out for the pole in October 1911. In the course of their journey they discovered the Axel Heiberg Glacier, which provided their route to the polar plateau and ultimately to the South Pole. The party 's mastery of the use of skis and their expertise with sledge dogs ensured rapid and relatively trouble - free travel. Other achievements of the expedition included the first exploration of King Edward VII Land and an extensive oceanographic cruise.
The expedition 's success was widely applauded, though the story of Scott 's heroic failure overshadowed its achievement in the United Kingdom. Amundsen 's decision to keep his true plans secret until the last moment was criticised by some. Recent polar historians have more fully recognised the skill and courage of Amundsen 's party; the permanent scientific base at the pole bears his name, together with that of Scott.
Amundsen was born in Fredrikstad (around 80 km from Christiania (now Oslo)), Norway, in 1872, the son of a ship - owner. In 1893, he abandoned his medical studies at Christiania University and signed up as a seaman aboard the sealer Magdalena for a voyage to the Arctic. After several further voyages he qualified as a second mate; when not at sea, he developed his skills as a cross-country skier in the harsh environment of Norway 's Hardangervidda plateau. In 1896, inspired by the polar exploits of his countryman Fridtjof Nansen, Amundsen joined the Belgian Antarctic Expedition as mate, aboard Belgica under Adrien de Gerlache. Early in 1898 the ship became trapped by pack ice in the Bellinghausen Sea, and was held fast for almost a year. The expedition thus became, involuntarily, the first to spend a complete winter in Antarctic waters, a period marked by depression, near - starvation, insanity, and scurvy among the crew. Amundsen remained dispassionate, recording everything and using the experience as an education in all aspects of polar exploration techniques, particularly aids, clothing and diet.
Belgica 's voyage marked the beginning of what became known as the Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration, and was rapidly followed by expeditions from the United Kingdom, Sweden, Germany and France. However, on his return to Norway in 1899, Amundsen turned his attention northwards. Confident in his abilities to lead an expedition, he planned a traversal of the Northwest Passage, the then - uncharted sea route from the Atlantic to the Pacific through the labyrinth of north Canadian islands. Having earned his master 's ticket, Amundsen acquired a small sloop, Gjøa, which he adapted for Arctic travel. He secured the patronage of King Oscar of Sweden and Norway, the support of Nansen, and sufficient financial backing to set out in June 1903 with a crew of six. The voyage lasted until 1906 and was wholly successful; the Northwest Passage, which defeated mariners for centuries, was finally conquered. At the age of 34 Amundsen became a national hero, in the first rank of polar explorers.
In November 1906 the American Robert Peary returned from his latest unsuccessful quest for the North Pole, claiming a new Farthest North of 87 ° 6 ′ -- a record disputed by later historians. He immediately began raising funds for a further attempt. In July 1907 Dr Frederick Cook, a former shipmate of Amundsen 's from Belgica, set off northwards on what was ostensibly a hunting trip but was rumoured to be an attempt on the North Pole. A month later Ernest Shackleton 's Nimrod Expedition sailed for Antarctica, while Robert Falcon Scott was preparing a further expedition should Shackleton fail. Amundsen saw no reason to concede priority in the south to the British, and spoke publicly about the prospects of leading an Antarctic expedition -- although his preferred goal remained the North Pole.
In 1893 Nansen had driven his ship Fram into the Arctic pack ice off the northern Siberian coast and allowed it to drift in the ice towards Greenland, hoping that this route would cross the North Pole. In the event, the drift did not approach the pole, and an attempt by Nansen and Hjalmar Johansen to reach it on foot was likewise unsuccessful. Nevertheless, Nansen 's strategy became the basis of Amundsen 's own Arctic plans. He reasoned that if he entered the Arctic Ocean via the Bering Strait, well to the east of Nansen 's starting point, his ship would achieve a more northerly drift and pass near or through the pole.
Amundsen consulted Nansen, who insisted that Fram was the only vessel fit for such an undertaking. Fram had been designed and built in 1891 -- 93 by Colin Archer, Norway 's leading shipbuilder and naval architect, in accordance with Nansen 's exacting specifications, as a vessel that would withstand prolonged exposure to the harshest of Arctic conditions. The ship 's most distinctive feature was its rounded hull which, according to Nansen, enabled the vessel to "slip like an eel out of the embraces of the ice ''. For extra strength the hull was sheathed in South American greenheart, the hardest timber available, and crossbeams and braces were fitted throughout its length. The ship 's wide beam of 36 feet (11 m) in relation to its overall length of 128 feet (39 m) gave it a markedly stubby appearance. This shape improved its strength in the ice but affected its performance in the open sea, where it moved sluggishly and was inclined to roll most uncomfortably. However, its looks, speed, and sailing qualities were secondary to the provision of a secure and warm shelter for the crew during a voyage that might extend over several years.
Fram had emerged virtually unscathed from Nansen 's expedition after nearly three years in the polar ice. On its return it had been refitted, before spending four years under the command of Otto Sverdrup, charting and exploring 100,000 square miles (260,000 km) of uninhabited territory in the northern Canadian islands. After Sverdrup 's voyage ended in 1902 Fram was laid up in Christiania. Although the ship was technically the property of the state, it was tacitly acknowledged that Nansen had first call on it. After his return from the Arctic in 1896 he had aspired to take Fram on an expedition to Antarctica, but by 1907 such hopes had faded. Late in September of that year, Amundsen was summoned to Nansen 's home and told he could have the ship.
Amundsen made his plans public on 10 November 1908, at a meeting of the Norwegian Geographical Society. He would take Fram round Cape Horn to the Pacific Ocean; after provisioning in San Francisco the ship would continue northwards, through the Bering Strait to Point Barrow. From here he would set a course directly into the ice to begin a drift that would extend over four or five years. Science would be as important as geographical exploration; continuous observations would, Amundsen hoped, help to explain a number of unresolved problems. The plan was received enthusiastically, and the next day King Haakon opened a subscription list with a gift of 20,000 kroner. On 6 February 1909 the Norwegian Parliament approved a grant of 75,000 kroner to refit the ship. The general fundraising and business management of the expedition was placed in the hands of Amundsen 's brother Leon so that the explorer could concentrate on the more practical aspects of organisation.
In March 1909 it was announced that Shackleton had reached a southern latitude of 88 ° 23 ′ -- 97 nautical miles (180 km) from the South Pole -- before turning back; thus, as Amundsen observed, in the south "a little corner remained ''. He was unreserved in his praise for Shackleton 's achievement, writing that Shackleton was the south 's equivalent of Nansen in the north. Following this near miss, Scott immediately confirmed his intention to lead an expedition (what became the Terra Nova Expedition) that would encompass the "little corner '' and claim the prize for the British Empire.
Amundsen chose three naval lieutenants as his expedition 's officers: Thorvald Nilsen, a navigator who would be second - in - command; Hjalmar Fredrik Gjertsen, and Kristian Prestrud. Gjertsen, despite lacking a medical background, was made expedition doctor, and was sent on a "lightning course '' in surgery and dentistry. A naval gunner, Oscar Wisting, was accepted on Prestrud 's recommendation because he could turn his hand to most tasks. Although he had little previous experience of sledge dogs, Amundsen wrote that Wisting developed "a way of his own '' with them, and became a useful amateur veterinarian.
An early choice for the party was Olav Bjaaland, a champion skier who was a skilled carpenter and ski - maker. Bjaaland was from Morgedal in the Telemark province of Norway, a region renowned for the prowess of its skiers and as the home of the pioneer of modern techniques, Sondre Norheim. Amundsen shared Nansen 's belief that skis and sledge dogs provided by far the most efficient method of Arctic transport, and was determined to recruit the most skilful dog drivers. Helmer Hanssen, who had proved his worth on the Gjøa expedition, agreed to travel with Amundsen again. He was joined later by Sverre Hassel, an expert on dogs, and veteran of Sverdrup 's 1898 -- 1902 Fram voyage, who intended only to travel with Amundsen as far as San Francisco. Mindful of the value of a competent cook, Amundsen secured the services of Adolf Lindstrøm, another Sverdrup veteran who had been cook aboard Gjøa.
From his experiences on board Belgica and Gjøa, Amundsen had learned the importance on long voyages of stable and compatible companions, and with these experienced personnel he felt he had the core of his expedition. He continued to recruit through 1909; the Fram party would eventually total 19. All of these except one were Amundsen 's personal choices; the exception was Hjalmar Johansen, who was taken on at the request of Nansen. Since his epic march with Nansen, Johansen had been unable to settle down. Despite the efforts of Nansen and others to help him, his life became a spiral of drink and indebtedness. Nansen wished to give his former comrade a final chance to show that he was still a capable worker in the field; feeling that he could not refuse Nansen 's wishes, Amundsen reluctantly accepted Johansen. The party contained two foreigners: a young Russian oceanographer Alexander Kuchin (or Kutchin), who was a pupil of Bjorn Helland - Hansen, and a Swedish engineer, Knut Sundbeck.
In September 1909 newspapers carried reports that Cook and Peary had each reached the North Pole, Cook in April 1908 and Peary a year later. Asked to comment, Amundsen avoided an outright endorsement of either explorer, but surmised that "probably something will be left to be done ''. While he avoided the controversy over the rival claims, he saw immediately that his own plans would be seriously affected. Without the allure of capturing the pole, he would struggle to maintain public interest or funding. "If the expedition was to be saved... there was nothing left for me but to try and solve the last great problem -- the South Pole ''. Thus Amundsen decided to go south; the Arctic drift could wait "for a year or two '' until the South Pole had been conquered.
Amundsen did not publicise his change of plan. As Scott 's biographer David Crane points out, the expedition 's public and private funding was earmarked for scientific work in the Arctic; there was no guarantee that the backers would understand or agree to the proposed volte - face. Furthermore, the altered objective might cause Nansen to revoke the use of Fram, or parliament to halt the expedition for fear of undermining Scott and offending the British. Amundsen concealed his intentions from everyone except his brother Leon and his second - in - command, Nilsen. This secrecy led to awkwardness; Scott had sent Amundsen instruments to enable their two expeditions, at opposite ends of the earth, to make comparative readings. When Scott, in Norway to test his motor sledges, telephoned Amundsen 's home to discuss cooperation, the Norwegian would not take the call.
The privately revised expedition schedule required Fram to leave Norway in August 1910 and sail to Madeira in the Atlantic, its only port of call. From there the ship would proceed directly to the Ross Sea in Antarctica, heading for the Bay of Whales, an inlet on the Ross Ice Shelf (then known as the "Great Ice Barrier '') where Amundsen intended to make his base camp. The Bay of Whales was the southernmost point in the Ross Sea to which a ship could penetrate, 60 nautical miles (110 km) closer to the Pole than Scott 's intended base at McMurdo Sound. In 1907 -- 09 Shackleton had considered the ice in the Bay of Whales to be unstable, but from his studies of Shackleton 's records Amundsen decided that the Barrier here was grounded on shoals or skerries, and would support a safe and secure base. After landing the shore party, Fram was to carry out oceanographic work in the Atlantic before picking up the shore party early in the following year.
Amundsen did not understand the apparent aversion of British explorers to dogs: "Can it be that the dog has not understood its master? Or is it the master who has not understood the dog? '' he later wrote. Following his decision to go south he ordered 100 North Greenland sledge dogs -- the best and strongest available.
The party 's ski boots, specially designed by Amundsen, were the product of two years ' testing and modification in search of perfection. The party 's polar clothing included suits of sealskin from Northern Greenland, and clothes fashioned after the style of the Netsilik Inuit from reindeer skins, wolf skin, Burberry cloth and gabardine. The sledges were constructed from Norwegian ash with steel - shod runners made from American hickory. Skis, also fashioned from hickory, were extra long to reduce the likelihood of slipping into crevasses. The tents -- "the strongest and most practical that have ever been used '' -- had built - in floors and required a single pole. For cooking on the march, Amundsen chose the Swedish Primus stove rather than the special cooker devised by Nansen, because he felt the latter took up too much space.
From his experiences on Belgica, Amundsen was aware of the dangers of scurvy. Although the true cause of the disease, vitamin C deficiency, was not understood at the time, it was generally known that the disease could be countered by eating fresh meat. To neutralise the danger, Amundsen planned to supplement sledging rations with regular helpings of seal meat. He also ordered a special kind of pemmican which included vegetables and oatmeal: "a more stimulating, nourishing and appetising food it would be impossible to find ''. The expedition was well supplied with wines and spirits, for use as medicine and on festive or social occasions. Mindful of the loss of morale on Belgica, Amundsen provided for leisure time with a library of around 3,000 books, a gramophone, a large quantity of records and a range of musical instruments.
In the months before departure, funds for the expedition became harder to acquire. Because of limited public interest, newspaper deals were cancelled and parliament refused a request for a further 25,000 kroner. Amundsen mortgaged his house to keep the expedition afloat; heavily in debt, he was now wholly dependent on the expedition 's success to avoid personal financial ruin.
After a month 's trial cruise in the northern Atlantic, Fram sailed to Kristiansand in late July 1910 to take the dogs on board and to make final preparations for departure. While at Kristiansand, Amundsen received an offer of help from Peter "Don Pedro '' Christophersen, a Norwegian expatriate whose brother was Norway 's Minister in Buenos Aires. Christophersen would provide fuel and other provisions to Fram at either Montevideo or Buenos Aires, an offer which Amundsen gratefully accepted. Just before Fram sailed on 9 August, Amundsen revealed the expedition 's true destination to the two junior officers, Prestrud and Gjertsen. On the four - week voyage to Funchal in Madeira, a mood of uncertainty developed among the crew, who could not make sense of some of the preparations and whose questions were met with evasive answers from their officers. This, says Amundsen 's biographer Roland Huntford, was "enough to generate suspicion and low spirits ''.
Fram reached Funchal on 6 September. Three days later Amundsen informed the crew of the revised plan. He told them he intended to make "a detour '' to the South Pole on the way to the North Pole, which was still his ultimate destination, but would have to wait for a while. After Amundsen outlined his new proposals, each man was asked whether he was willing to go on, and all responded positively. Amundsen wrote a lengthy letter of explanation to Nansen, stressing how the North Pole claims of Cook and Peary had dealt a "death blow '' to his original plans. He felt he had been forced into this action by necessity, asked for forgiveness and expressed the hope that his achievements would ultimately atone for any offence.
Before leaving Funchal on 9 September Amundsen sent a cable to Scott, to inform him of the change of plan. Scott 's ship Terra Nova had left Cardiff amid much publicity on 15 June, and was due to arrive in Australia early in October. It was to Melbourne that Amundsen sent his telegram, containing the bare information that he was proceeding southwards. No indication was given of the Norwegian 's plans or his destination in Antarctica; Scott wrote to the Royal Geographical Society (RGS) secretary, John Scott Keltie: "We shall know in due course I suppose ''. News of Amundsen 's revised plans reached Norway early in October and provoked a generally hostile response. Although Nansen gave his blessing and warm approval, Amundsen 's actions were with few exceptions condemned by press and public, and funding dried up almost completely. Reactions in Britain were predictably adverse; an initial disbelief expressed by Keltie soon turned to anger and scorn. "I have sent full details of Amundsen 's underhand conduct to Scott... If I was Scott I would not let them land '', wrote Sir Clements Markham, the influential former RGS president. Unaware of the world 's reactions, Fram sailed south for four months. The first icebergs were sighted on New Year 's Day 1911; the Barrier itself came into view on 11 January, and on 14 January Fram was in the Bay of Whales.
After Fram was anchored to ice in an inlet in the south - eastern corner of the Bay, Amundsen selected a site for the expedition 's main hut, 2.2 nautical miles (4.1 km) from the ship. Six teams of dogs were used to move supplies to the site, as work on erecting the hut began. Bjaaland and Stubberud laid the foundations deep into the ice, levelling the sloping ground. Because the prevailing winds came from the east, the hut was erected on an east - west axis, with the door facing west; in this way the wind caught only the shorter eastern wall. The roof was in place by 21 January, and six days later the hut was complete. By then a large supply of meat -- including 200 seals -- had been brought to the base, for use by the shore party and to be laid in depots before the journey to the pole. The base was dubbed Framheim, "the home of Fram ''.
Early on the morning of 3 February, Terra Nova arrived unexpectedly in the Bay of Whales. She had sailed from New Zealand on 29 November 1910 and had arrived in McMurdo Sound early in January. After landing Scott and his main party there, Terra Nova had taken a party of six men, led by Victor Campbell, eastward to King Edward VII Land. This group intended to explore this then - unknown territory, but had been prevented by sea ice from approaching the shore. The ship was sailing westward along the Barrier edge in search of a possible landing place when it encountered Fram. Scott had previously speculated that Amundsen might make his base in the Weddell Sea area, on the opposite side of the continent; this proof that the Norwegians would be starting the race for the pole with a 60 nautical mile advantage was an alarming prospect for the British. The two groups behaved civilly towards each other; Campbell and his officers Harry Pennell and George Murray Levick breakfasted aboard Fram, and reciprocated with lunch on the Terra Nova. Amundsen was relieved to learn that Terra Nova had no wireless radio, since that might have imperilled his strategy to be first with the news of a polar victory. He was worried, however, by a remark of Campbell 's that implied that Scott 's motorised sledges were working well. Nevertheless, he offered the British party a site alongside Framheim as a base for the exploration of King Edward VII Land. Campbell turned the offer down, and sailed for McMurdo Sound to inform Scott of Amundsen 's whereabouts.
In early February Amundsen began organising the depot - laying journeys across the Barrier, in preparation for the following summer 's assault on the pole. Supply depots laid in advance at regular intervals on the projected route would limit the amount of food and fuel that the South Pole party would have to carry. The depot journeys would be the first true tests of equipment, dogs and men. For the first journey, to begin on 10 February, Amundsen chose Prestrud, Helmer Hanssen and Johansen to accompany him; 18 dogs would pull three sledges. Before leaving, Amundsen left instructions with Nilsen regarding Fram. The ship was to sail to Buenos Aires for reprovisioning, before undertaking a programme of oceanographic work in the Southern Ocean and then returning to the Barrier as early as possible in 1912.
When the four men began their journey south, their only knowledge of the Barrier was from books previous explorers had published, and they anticipated difficult travelling conditions. They were surprised to find the Barrier surface was much like that of a conventional glacier; they covered 15 nautical miles (28 km) on the first day. Amundsen noted how well his dogs were performing in these conditions, and wondered at the English aversion to the use of dogs on the Barrier. The party reached 80 ° S on 14 February, and after laying the depot turned for home, reaching Framheim on 16 February.
The second depot - laying party left Framheim on 22 February, with eight men, seven sledges and forty - two dogs. Conditions on the Barrier had deteriorated sharply; average temperatures had dropped by 9 ° C (16 ° F), and rough snow had drifted across the previously smooth ice surface. In temperatures sometimes as low as − 40 ° C (− 40 ° F), on 3 March the party reached 81 ° S, where they established a second depot. Amundsen, Helmer Hanssen, Prestrud, Johansen and Wisting then continued with the strongest dogs, hoping to reach 83 ° S, but in difficult conditions they halted at 82 ° S on 8 March. Amundsen could see that the dogs were exhausted; the party turned for home, and with light sledges travelled swiftly to reach Framheim on 22 March. Amundsen wanted more supplies taken south before the impending polar night made travel impossible, and on 31 March a party of seven men led by Johansen left Framheim for the 80 ° S depot with six slaughtered seals -- 2,400 pounds (1,100 kg) of meat. The party returned on 11 April -- three days later than expected -- after they strayed into a field of crevasses.
Overall, the depot - laying journeys established three depots containing 7,500 pounds (3,400 kg) of supplies, which included 3,000 pounds (1,400 kg) of seal meat and 40 imperial gallons (180 L) of paraffin oil. Amundsen learned much from the journeys, especially on the second, when the dogs struggled with sledges that were too heavy. He decided to increase the number of dogs for the polar journey, if necessary at the expense of the number of men. The journeys revealed some disunity among the men, particularly between Johansen and Amundsen. During the second depot journey, Johansen openly complained about the unsatisfactory nature of the equipment; Amundsen believed that his authority had been challenged.
The sun set over Framheim on 21 April, not to reappear for four months. Amundsen was mindful of the boredom and loss of morale that had blighted the Belgica expedition 's winter in the ice, and although there was no possibility of sledging he ensured that the shore party kept busy. One urgent task was to improve the sledges, which had not worked well during the depot journeys. In addition to those chosen specifically for the expedition, Amundsen had brought along several sledges from Sverdrup 's 1898 -- 1902 Fram expedition, which he now thought would be better suited to the task ahead. Bjaaland reduced the weight of these older sledges by almost a third by planing down the timber, and also constructed three sledges of his own from some spare hickory wood. The adapted sledges were to be used to cross the Barrier, while Bjaaland 's new set would be used in the final stages of the journey, across the polar plateau itself. Johansen prepared the sledging rations (42,000 biscuits, 1,320 tins of pemmican and about 220 pounds (100 kg) of chocolate), while other men worked on improving the boots, cooking equipment, goggles, skis and tents. To combat the dangers of scurvy, twice a day the men ate seal meat that had been collected and frozen in quantities before the onset of winter. The cook, Lindstrøm, supplemented the vitamin C intake with bottled cloudberries and blueberries, and provided wholemeal bread made with fresh yeast, rich in B vitamins.
While Amundsen was confident in his men and equipment, he was, Hassel recorded, tormented by thoughts of Scott 's motor sledges and the fear that these would carry the British party to success. With this in mind Amundsen planned to begin the polar journey as soon as the sun rose in late August, though Johansen warned that it would be too cold on the Barrier so early in the season. Amundsen overruled him, and at sunrise on 24 August seven sledges were made ready. Johansen 's concerns seemed justified, as harsh conditions for the next two weeks -- temperatures as low as − 58 ° C (− 72 ° F) -- prevented the men from leaving. On 8 September 1911, when the temperature rose to − 27 ° C (− 17 ° F), Amundsen decided he could wait no longer, and the party of eight set off; Lindstrøm remained alone at Framheim.
The party made good initial progress, travelling around 15 nautical miles (28 km) each day. The dogs ran so hard that several from the strongest teams were detached from the traces and secured onto the sledges to act as ballast. In their wolf - skin and reindeer - skin clothing the men could cope with the freezing temperatures while they kept moving, but when they stopped they suffered, and barely slept at night. The dogs ' paws became frostbitten. On 12 September, with temperatures down to − 56 ° C (− 69 ° F), the party halted after only 4 nautical miles (7.4 km) and built igloos for shelter. Amundsen now recognised that they had started the march too early in the season, and decided they should return to Framheim. He would not risk the lives of men and dogs for reasons of stubbornness. Johansen, in his diary, wrote of the foolishness of starting prematurely on such a long and historic journey, and of the dangers of an obsession with beating the English.
On 14 September, on their way back to Framheim, they left most of their equipment at the 80 ° S depot, to lighten the sledges. Next day, in freezing temperatures with a strong headwind, several dogs froze to death while others, too weak to continue, were placed upon the sledges. On 16 September, 40 nautical miles (74 km) from Framheim, Amundsen ordered his men to push for home as quickly as possible. Not having a sledge of his own, he leapt onto Wisting 's, and with Helmer Hanssen and his team raced away, leaving the rest behind. The three arrived back at Framheim after nine hours, followed by Stubberud and Bjaaland two hours later and Hassel shortly after. Johansen and Prestrud were still out on the ice, without food or fuel; Prestrud 's dogs had failed, and his heels were badly frostbitten. They reached Framheim after midnight, more than seventeen hours after they had turned for home.
Next day, Amundsen asked Johansen why he and Prestrud had been so late. Johansen answered angrily that he felt they had been abandoned, and castigated the leader for leaving his men behind. Amundsen would later inform Nansen that Johansen had been "violently insubordinate ''; as a result, he was excluded from the polar party, which Amundsen now reduced to five. Johansen was placed under the command of Prestrud, much his junior as an explorer, in a party that would explore King Edward VII Land. Stubberud was persuaded to join them, leaving Amundsen, Helmer Hanssen, Bjaaland, Hassel and Wisting as the revised South Pole party.
Despite his eagerness to start out again, Amundsen waited until mid-October and the first hints of spring. He was ready to leave on 15 October, but was held up by the weather for a few more days. On 19 October 1911 the five men, with four sledges and fifty - two dogs, began their journey. The weather quickly worsened, and in heavy fog the party strayed into the field of crevasses that Johansen 's depot party had discovered the previous autumn. Wisting later recalled how his sledge, with Amundsen aboard, nearly disappeared down a crevasse when the snow bridge broke underneath it.
Despite this near mishap they were covering more than 15 nautical miles (28 km) a day, and reached their 82 ° S depot on 5 November. They marked their route by a line of cairns, built of snow blocks, at three - mile intervals. On 17 November they reached the edge of the Barrier and faced the Transantarctic Mountains. Unlike Scott, who would be following the Beardmore Glacier route pioneered by Shackleton, Amundsen had to find his own route through the mountains. After probing the foothills for several days and climbing to around 1,500 feet (460 m), the party found what appeared to be a clear route, a steep glacier 30 nautical miles (56 km) long leading upwards to the plateau. Amundsen named this the Axel Heiberg Glacier, after one of his chief financial backers. It was a harder ascent than the team had anticipated, made much longer by the need to take detours, and by the deep, soft snow. After three days of difficult climbing the party reached the glacier summit. Amundsen was full of praise for his dogs, and scorned the idea that they could not work in such conditions; on 21 November the party travelled 17 miles and climbed 5,000 feet (1,500 m).
Upon reaching 10,600 feet (3,200 m) at the summit of the glacier, at 85 ° 36 ′ S, Amundsen prepared for the final stage of the journey. Of the 45 dogs who had made the ascent (7 had perished during the Barrier stage), only 18 would go forward; the remainder were to be killed for food. Each of the sledge - drivers killed dogs from his own team, skinned them, and divided the meat between dogs and men. "We called the place the Butchers ' Shop '', Amundsen recalled. "(T) here was depression and sadness in the air; we had grown so fond of our dogs ''. Regrets did not prevent the team from enjoying the plentiful food; Wisting proved particularly skilful in his preparation and presentation of the meat.
The party loaded up three sledges with supplies for a march of up to 60 days, leaving the remaining provisions and dog carcasses in a depot. Bad weather prevented their departure until 25 November, when they set off cautiously over the unknown ground in persistent fog. They were travelling over an icy surface broken by frequent crevasses, which together with the poor visibility slowed their progress. Amundsen called this area the "Devil 's Glacier ''. On 4 December they came to an area where the crevasses were concealed under layers of snow and ice with a space between, which gave what Amundsen called an "unpleasantly hollow '' sound as the party passed over it. He christened this area "The Devil 's Ballroom. '' When later that day they emerged on to more solid ground, they had reached 87 ° S.
On 8 December the Norwegians passed Shackleton 's Farthest South record of 88 ° 23 ′. As they neared the pole, they looked for any break in the landscape that might indicate another expedition had got there ahead of them. While camped on 12 December they were momentarily alarmed by a black object that appeared on the horizon, but this proved to be their own dogs ' droppings off in the distance, magnified by mirage. Next day they camped at 89 ° 45 ′ S, 15 nautical miles (28 km) from the pole. On the following day, 14 December 1911, with the concurrence of his comrades Amundsen travelled in front of the sledges, and at around 3 pm the party reached the vicinity of the South Pole. They planted the Norwegian flag and named the polar plateau "King Haakon VII 's Plateau ''. Amundsen later reflected on the irony of his achievement: "Never has a man achieved a goal so diametrically opposed to his wishes. The area around the North Pole -- devil take it -- had fascinated me since childhood, and now here I was at the South Pole. Could anything be more crazy? ''
For the next three days the men worked to fix the exact position of the pole; after the conflicting and disputed claims of Cook and Peary in the north, Amundsen wanted to leave unmistakable markers for Scott. After taking several sextant readings at different times of day, Bjaaland, Wisting and Hassel skied out in different directions to "box '' the pole; Amundsen reasoned that between them they would bracket the exact point. Finally the party pitched a tent, which they called Polheim, as near as possible to the actual pole as they could calculate by their observations. In the tent Amundsen left equipment for Scott, and a letter addressed to King Haakon which he requested Scott to deliver.
On 18 December, the party began the journey back to Framheim. Amundsen was determined to return to civilisation before Scott, and be first with the news. Nevertheless, he limited their daily distances to 15 nautical miles (28 km), to preserve the strength of dogs and men. In the 24 - hour daylight the party travelled during the notional night, to keep the sun at their backs and thus reduce the danger of snow - blindness. Guided by the snow cairns built on their outward journey, they reached the Butchers ' Shop on 4 January 1912, and began the descent to the Barrier. The men on skis "went whizzing down '', but for the sledge drivers -- Helmer Hanssen and Wisting -- the descent was precarious; the sledges were hard to manoeuvre, and brakes were added to the runners to enable rapid stops when crevasses were encountered.
On 7 January, the party reached the first of their depots on the Barrier. Amundsen now felt their pace could be increased, and the men adopted a routine of travelling 15 nautical miles (28 km), stopping for six hours, then resuming the march. Under this regime they covered around 30 nautical miles (56 km) a day, and on 25 January, at 4 am, they reached Framheim. Of the 52 dogs that had started in October, 11 had survived, pulling 2 sledges. The journey to the pole and back had taken 99 days -- 10 fewer than scheduled -- and they had covered about 1,860 nautical miles (3,440 km).
On his return to Framheim, Amundsen lost no time in winding up the expedition. After a farewell dinner in the hut, the party loaded the surviving dogs and the more valuable equipment aboard Fram, which departed the Bay of Whales late on 30 January 1912. The destination was Hobart in Tasmania. During the five - week voyage Amundsen prepared his telegrams and drafted the first report that he would give to the press. On 7 March, Fram reached Hobart, where Amundsen quickly learned there was as yet no news from Scott. He immediately sent telegrams to his brother Leon, to Nansen and to King Haakon, briefly informing them of his success. The next day he cabled the first full account of the story to London 's Daily Chronicle, to which he had sold exclusive rights. Fram remained in Hobart for two weeks; while there she was joined by Douglas Mawson 's ship Aurora, which was in service with the Australasian Antarctic Expedition. Amundsen presented them with a gift of his 11 surviving dogs.
On 8 November 1911, Prestrud, Stubberud and Johansen had departed for King Edward VII Land. The search for the point at which the solid ice of the Barrier became ice - covered land proved difficult. On 1 December the party had their first sighting of what was indubitably dry land, a nunatak which had been recorded by Scott during the Discovery expedition in 1902. After reaching this point they collected geological specimens and samples of mosses, and briefly explored their surroundings before returning to Framheim on 16 December. They were the first men to set foot on King Edward VII Land.
After leaving the Bay of Whales on 15 February 1911, Fram sailed for Buenos Aires where she arrived on 17 April. Here, Nilsen learned that the expedition 's funds were exhausted; a sum supposedly set aside for the ship 's needs had not materialised. Fortunately, Amundsen 's friend Don Pedro Christopherson was at hand to fulfil his earlier promises to provide supplies and fuel. Fram departed in June for an oceanographic cruise between South America and Africa, which occupied the next three months. The ship returned to Buenos Aires in September for final refitting and re-provisioning, before sailing south on 5 October. Strong winds and stormy seas prolonged the voyage, but the ship arrived at the Bay of Whales on 9 January 1912. On 17 January the men in Framheim were surprised by the appearance of a second ship; it was Kainan Maru, carrying the Japanese Antarctic Expedition led by Nobu Shirase. Communication between the two expeditions was limited by language difficulties, though the Norwegians gathered that the Japanese were heading for King Edward VII Land. Kainan Maru departed the next day, and on 26 January she landed a party on King Edward VII Land. This was the first landing on this shore from the sea; attempts by Discovery (1902), Nimrod (1908) and Terra Nova (1911) had all failed.
In Hobart, Amundsen received congratulatory telegrams from, among others, former US President Theodore Roosevelt and King George V of the United Kingdom. The king expressed particular pleasure that Amundsen 's first port of call on his return had been on soil of the British Empire. In Norway, which only six years earlier had become an independent country after 500 years of Danish and Swedish supremacy, the news was proclaimed in banner headlines, and the national flag was flown throughout the country. All the expedition 's participants received the Norwegian South Pole medal (Sydpolsmedaljen), established by King Haakon to commemorate the expedition. However, Amundsen 's biographer Roland Huntford refers to "the chill underneath the cheers ''; there remained a residue of unease over Amundsen 's tactics. One Norwegian newspaper expressed relief that Amundsen had found a new route, and had not intruded on Scott 's path from McMurdo Sound.
In Britain, press reaction to Amundsen 's victory was restrained but generally positive. Apart from the enthusiastic reports in the Daily Chronicle and the Illustrated London News -- which each had a financial stake in Amundsen 's success -- the Manchester Guardian remarked that any cause for reproach was wiped out by the Norwegians ' courage and determination. Readers of Young England were exhorted not to grudge "the brave Norseman '' the honour he had earned, and The Boy 's Own Paper suggested that every British boy should read Amundsen 's expedition account. The Times correspondent offered a mild rebuke to Amundsen for his failure to inform Scott until it was too late for the latter to respond, "all the more unnecessary, for no one would have welcomed co-operation in the work of South Polar exploration more than Captain Scott... Still, no one who knows Captain Amundsen can have any doubt of his integrity, and since he states he has reached the Pole we are bound to believe him ''.
Senior figures at the RGS expressed more hostile sentiments, at least privately. To them, Amundsen 's feat was the result of "a dirty trick ''. Markham hinted that Amundsen 's claim might be fraudulent: "We must wait for the truth until the return of the Terra Nova ''. When later in 1912 Amundsen addressed the RGS he felt slighted after Lord Curzon, the Society 's president, jocularly called for "three cheers for the dogs ''. Shackleton did not join in denigrating Amundsen 's victory, and called him "perhaps the greatest polar explorer of today ''. Before she heard the news of her husband 's death, Kathleen Scott conceded that Amundsen 's journey "was a very fine feat... in spite of one 's irritation one has to admire it ''.
Amundsen left Hobart to undertake a lecture tour of Australia and New Zealand. He then went to Buenos Aires where he finished writing his expedition account. Back in Norway he supervised the publication of the book, then visited Britain before embarking on a long lecture tour of the United States. In February 1913, while in Madison, Wisconsin, he received the news that Scott and four comrades had reached the pole on 17 January 1912, but had all perished by 29 March, during their return journey. The bodies of Scott, Wilson and Bowers had been discovered in November 1912, after the end of the Antarctic winter. In his initial response, Amundsen called the news "Horrible, horrible ''. His more formal tribute followed: "Captain Scott left a record, for honesty, for sincerity, for bravery, for everything that makes a man ''.
According to Huntford, the news of Scott 's death meant that "Amundsen the victor was eclipsed... by Scott the martyr ''. In the United Kingdom a myth quickly developed in which Scott was portrayed as one who had behaved nobly and played the game fairly. He had been defeated because, by contrast, Amundsen was a mere glory - seeker who had concealed his true intentions, had used dogs rather than relying on honest man - hauling and had slaughtered these same dogs for food. Furthermore, he was considered a "professional '' which, in the mindset of upper - class Britain of that time, diminished anything he might have accomplished. This narrative was heavily reinforced with the publication of Scott 's journals and his "Message to the Public ''. Huntford points out that "(Scott 's) literary talent was his trump. It was as if he had reached out from his buried tent and taken revenge. '' Even so, among explorers Amundsen 's name continued to be respected. In his account of the Terra Nova expedition written a few years later, Scott 's comrade Apsley Cherry - Garrard wrote that the primary reason for Amundsen 's success was "the very remarkable qualities of the man '', specifically his courage in choosing to discover a new route rather than follow the known path.
The outbreak of the First World War in 1914 delayed the start of Amundsen 's northern polar drift -- to which the South Pole expedition had been intended as a preliminary -- until July 1918. He then set off in a specially - constructed vessel, Maud, which remained in Arctic waters for the next seven years. The ship did not drift over the North Pole, although in the course of the expedition it became the second ship to traverse the North - East Passage. Amundsen left the expedition in 1923; the remaining years of his life were largely devoted to polar exploration by air. On 12 May 1926, aboard the airship Norge with Lincoln Ellsworth and Umberto Nobile, Amundsen flew over the North Pole. He and Wisting, also on the airship, were the first men to see both poles. In 1928, while attempting to rescue a later Nobile expedition, Amundsen disappeared with his aircraft in the seas between Norway and Spitsbergen.
The four men who had stood at the pole with Amundsen were all asked to accompany their leader on the Maud drift. Bjaaland and Hassel declined; neither participated in any further polar ventures. Helmer Hanssen and Wisting both joined Maud; the latter took over the leadership when Amundsen left the expedition. In 1936 Wisting captained Fram on the ship 's final voyage to Oslo, where it became a museum. Johansen, who had been unable to settle back into normal life on his return from Antarctica, became withdrawn and uncommunicative. He refused to discuss his experiences or his dispute with Amundsen, and retreated into a life of depression and poverty. On 4 January 1913 he shot himself in his Oslo lodgings.
The Scott myth lasted until the final quarter of the 20th century, when it was replaced by one that characterised him as a "heroic bungler '' whose failure was largely the result of his own mistakes. This portrayal, the cultural historian Stephanie Barczewski asserts, is as fallacious as the earlier one in which he was considered beyond criticism. In the early 21st century, writers have suggested more reasoned explanations for the Scott tragedy than his incompetence, and his reputation has to some extent been rescued. The renewed spotlight on Scott has also highlighted Amundsen 's achievements: Barczewski writes that "Amundsen and his men reached the pole due to a combination of superb planning, long experience with sledge - dogs and skis and impressive physical stamina ''. In her account of Scott 's expedition, Diana Preston is equally specific in identifying the basis of Amundsen 's success. He was focused on the single goal of reaching the pole, whereas Scott had to reconcile the competing claims of geographical exploration and scientific knowledge. "A practical and experienced professional, (Amundsen) planned carefully and applied all the lessons he had learned in the Arctic... (H) e relied exclusively on the well - tried means of transport and unsentimentally exploited their food potential. He was similarly efficient and unsentimental in his management of his men ''. The United States ' scientific base at the South Pole, founded in 1957, is named the Amundsen -- Scott South Pole Station, to honour the memories of both polar pioneers.
In a paper published 100 years after the Amundsen expedition, researchers claimed that the tent and flags are buried under 17 m (56 ft) of ice and about a minute of latitude north of the South Pole, or about one nautical mile. Scott 's party was the last to see the tent, which they found on 18 January 1912. Henry Robertson Bowers took a photo of the tent, but died returning from the Pole.
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the exchange of genetic material during crossing over causes which of the following | Chromosomal crossover - wikipedia
Chromosomal crossover (or crossing over) is the exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes that results in recombinant chromosomes during sexual reproduction. It is one of the final phases of genetic recombination, which occurs in the pachytene stage of prophase I of meiosis during a process called synapsis. Synapsis begins before the synaptonemal complex develops and is not completed until near the end of prophase I. Crossover usually occurs when matching regions on matching chromosomes break and then reconnect to the other chromosome.
Crossing over was described, in theory, by Thomas Hunt Morgan. He relied on the discovery of Frans Alfons Janssens who described the phenomenon in 1909 and had called it "chiasmatypie ''. The term chiasma is linked, if not identical, to chromosomal crossover. Morgan immediately saw the great importance of Janssens ' cytological interpretation of chiasmata to the experimental results of his research on the heredity of Drosophila. The physical basis of crossing over was first demonstrated by Harriet Creighton and Barbara McClintock in 1931.
The linked frequency of crossing over between two gene loci (markers) is the crossing - over value. For fixed set of genetic and environmental conditions, recombination in a particular region of a linkage structure (chromosome) tends to be constant and the same is then true for the crossing - over value which is used in the production of genetic maps.
There are two popular and overlapping theories that explain the origins of crossing - over, coming from the different theories on the origin of meiosis. The first theory rests upon the idea that meiosis evolved as another method of DNA repair, and thus crossing - over is a novel way to replace possibly damaged sections of DNA. The second theory comes from the idea that meiosis evolved from bacterial transformation, with the function of propagating diversity. In 1931, Barbara McClintock discovered a triploid maize plant. She made key findings regarding corn 's karyotype, including the size and shape of the chromosomes. McClintock used the prophase and metaphase stages of mitosis to describe the morphology of corn 's chromosomes, and later showed the first ever cytological demonstration of crossing over in meiosis. Working with student Harriet Creighton, McClintock also made significant contributions to the early understanding of codependency of linked genes.
Crossing over and DNA repair are very similar processes, which utilize many of the same protein complexes. In her report, "The Significance of Responses of the Genome to Challenge '', McClintock studied corn to show how corn 's genome would change itself to overcome threats to its survival. She used 450 self - pollinated plants that received from each parent a chromosome with a ruptured end. She used modified patterns of gene expression on different sectors of leaves of her corn plants show that transposable elements ("controlling elements '') hide in the genome, and their mobility allows them to alter the action of genes at different loci. These elements can also restructure the genome, anywhere from a few nucleotides to whole segments of chromosome. Recombinases and primases lay a foundation of nucleotides along the DNA sequence. One such particular protein complex that is conserved between processes is RAD51, a well conserved recombinase protein that has been shown to be crucial in DNA repair as well as cross over. Several other genes in D. melanogaster have been linked as well to both processes, by showing that mutants at these specific loci can not undergo DNA repair or crossing over. Such genes include mei - 41, mei - 9, hdm, spnA, and brca2. This large group of conserved genes between processes supports the theory of a close evolutionary relationship. Furthermore, DNA repair and crossover have been found to favor similar regions on chromosomes. In an experiment using radiation hybrid mapping on wheat 's (Triticum aestivum L.) 3B chromosome, crossing over and DNA repair were found to occur predominantly in the same regions. Furthermore, crossing over has been correlated to occur in response to stressful, and likely DNA damaging, conditions
The process of bacterial transformation also shares many similarities with chromosomal cross over, particularly in the formation of overhangs on the sides of the broken DNA strand, allowing for the annealing of a new strand. Bacterial transformation itself has been linked to DNA repair many times. The second theory comes from the idea that meiosis evolved from bacterial transformation, with the function of propagating genetic diversity.. Thus, this evidence suggests that it is a question of whether cross over is linked to DNA repair or bacterial transformation, as the two do not appear to be mutually exclusive. It is likely that crossing over may have evolved from bacterial transformation, which in turn developed from DNA repair, thus explaining the links between all three processes.
Meiotic recombination may be initiated by double - stranded breaks that are introduced into the DNA by exposure to DNA damaging agents or the Spo11 protein. One or more exonucleases then digest the 5 ' ends generated by the double - stranded breaks to produce 3 ' single - stranded DNA tails (see diagram). The meiosis - specific recombinase Dmc1 and the general recombinase Rad51 coat the single - stranded DNA to form nucleoprotein filaments. The recombinases catalyze invasion of the opposite chromatid by the single - stranded DNA from one end of the break. Next, the 3 ' end of the invading DNA primes DNA synthesis, causing displacement of the complementary strand, which subsequently anneals to the single - stranded DNA generated from the other end of the initial double - stranded break. The structure that results is a cross-strand exchange, also known as a Holliday junction. The contact between two chromatids that will soon undergo crossing - over is known as a chiasma. The Holliday junction is a tetrahedral structure which can be ' pulled ' by other recombinases, moving it along the four - stranded structure.
The MSH4 and MSH5 proteins form a hetero - oligomeric structure (heterodimer) in yeast and humans. In the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae MSH4 and MSH5 act specifically to facilitate crossovers between homologous chromosomes during meiosis. The MSH4 / MSH5 complex binds and stabilizes double Holliday junctions and promotes their resolution into crossover products. An MSH4 hypomorphic (partially functional) mutant of S. cerevisiae showed a 30 % genome wide reduction in crossover numbers, and a large number of meioses with non exchange chromosomes. Nevertheless, this mutant gave rise to spore viability patterns suggesting that segregation of non-exchange chromosomes occurred efficiently. Thus in S. cerevisiae proper segregation apparently does not entirely depend on crossovers between homologous pairs.
The grasshopper Melanoplus femur - rubrum was exposed to an acute dose of X-rays during each individual stage of meiosis, and chiasma frequency was measured. Irradiation during the leptotene - zygotene stages of meiosis (that is, prior to the pachytene period in which crossover recombination occurs) was found to increase subsequent chiasma frequency. Similarly, in the grasshopper Chorthippus brunneus, exposure to X-irradiation during the zygotene - early pachytene stages caused a significant increase in mean cell chiasma frequency. Chiasma frequency was scored at the later diplotene - diakinesis stages of meiosis. These results suggest that X-rays induce DNA damages that are repaired by a crossover pathway leading to chiasma formation.
In most eukaryotes, a cell carries two versions of each gene, each referred to as an allele. Each parent passes on one allele to each offspring. An individual gamete inherits a complete haploid complement of alleles on chromosomes that are independently selected from each pair of chromatids lined up on the metaphase plate. Without recombination, all alleles for those genes linked together on the same chromosome would be inherited together. Meiotic recombination allows a more independent segregation between the two alleles that occupy the positions of single genes, as recombination shuffles the allele content between homologous chromosomes.
Recombination results in a new arrangement of maternal and paternal alleles on the same chromosome. Although the same genes appear in the same order, some alleles are different. In this way, it is theoretically possible to have any combination of parental alleles in an offspring, and the fact that two alleles appear together in one offspring does not have any influence on the statistical probability that another offspring will have the same combination. This principle of "independent assortment '' of genes is fundamental to genetic inheritance. However, the frequency of recombination is actually not the same for all gene combinations. This leads to the notion of "genetic distance '', which is a measure of recombination frequency averaged over a (suitably large) sample of pedigrees. Loosely speaking, one may say that this is because recombination is greatly influenced by the proximity of one gene to another. If two genes are located close together on a chromosome, the likelihood that a recombination event will separate these two genes is less than if they were farther apart. Genetic linkage describes the tendency of genes to be inherited together as a result of their location on the same chromosome. Linkage disequilibrium describes a situation in which some combinations of genes or genetic markers occur more or less frequently in a population than would be expected from their distances apart. This concept is applied when searching for a gene that may cause a particular disease. This is done by comparing the occurrence of a specific DNA sequence with the appearance of a disease. When a high correlation between the two is found, it is likely that the appropriate gene sequence is really closer.
Crossovers typically occur between homologous regions of matching chromosomes, but similarities in sequence and other factors can result in mismatched alignments. Most DNA is composed of base pair sequences repeated very large numbers of times. These repetitious segments, often referred to as satellites, are fairly homogenous among a species. During DNA replication, each strand of DNA is used as a template for the creation of new strands using a partially - conserved mechanism; proper functioning of this process results in two identical, paired chromosomes, often called sisters. Sister chromatid crossover events are known to occur at a rate of several crossover events per cell per division in eukaryotes. Most of these events involve an exchange of equal amounts of genetic information, but unequal exchanges may occur due to sequence mismatch. These are referred to by a variety of names, including non-homologous crossover, unequal crossover, and unbalanced recombination, and result in an insertion or deletion of genetic information into the chromosome. While rare compared to homologous crossover events, these mutations are drastic, affecting many loci at the same time. They are considered the main driver behind the generation of gene duplications and are a general source of mutation within the genome.
The specific causes of non-homologous crossover events are unknown, but several influential factors are known to increase the likelihood of an unequal crossover. One common vector leading to unbalanced recombination is the repair of double - strand breaks (DSBs). DSBs are often repaired using non-homologous end joining, a process which involves invasion of a template strand by the DSB strand (see figure below). Nearby homologous regions of the template strand are often used for repair, which can give rise to either insertions or deletions in the genome if a non-homologous but complementary part of the template strand is used. Sequence similarity is a major player in crossover -- crossover events are more likely to occur in long regions of close identity on a gene. This means that any section of the genome with long sections of repetitive DNA is prone to crossover events.
The presence of transposable elements is another influential element of non-homologous crossover. Repetitive regions of code characterize transposable elements; complementary but non-homologous regions are ubiquitous within transposons. Because chromosomal regions composed of transposons have large quantities of identical, repetitious code in a condensed space, it is thought that transposon regions undergoing a crossover event are more prone to erroneous complementary match - up; that is to say, a section of a chromosome containing a lot of identical sequences, should it undergo a crossover event, is less certain to match up with a perfectly homologous section of complementary code and more prone to binding with a section of code on a slightly different part of the chromosome. This results in unbalanced recombination, as genetic information may be either inserted or deleted into the new chromosome, depending on where the recombination occurred.
While the motivating factors behind unequal recombination remain obscure, elements of the physical mechanism have been elucidated. Mismatch repair (MMR) proteins, for instance, are a well - known regulatory family of proteins, responsible for regulating mismatched sequences of DNA during replication and escape regulation. The operative goal of MMRs is the restoration of the parental genotype. One class of MMR in particular, MutSβ, is known to initiate the correction of insertion - deletion mismatches of up to 16 nucleotides. Little is known about the excision process in eukaryotes, but E. coli excisions involve the cleaving of a nick on either the 5 ' or 3 ' strand, after which DNA helicase and DNA polymerase III bind and generate single - stranded proteins, which are digested by exonucleases and attached to the strand by ligase. Multiple MMR pathways have been implicated in the maintenance of complex organism genome stability, and any of many possible malfunctions in the MMR pathway result in DNA editing and correction errors. Therefore, while it is not certain precisely what mechanisms lead to errors of non-homologous crossover, it is extremely likely that the MMR pathway is involved.
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magic the gathering how many cards in deck | Magic: the Gathering - wikipedia
Magic: The Gathering is a both a trading card and digital collectible card game created by Richard Garfield. Released in 1993 by Wizards of the Coast, Magic was the first trading card game created and it continues to thrive, with approximately twenty million players as of 2015.
Magic can be played by two or more players in various formats, which fall into two categories: constructed and limited. Limited formats involve players building a deck spontaneously out of a pool of random cards with a minimum deck size of 40 cards. In constructed, players created decks from cards they own, usually 60 cards with no more than 4 of any given card. Magic is played in person with printed cards, or using a deck of virtual cards through the Internet - based Magic: The Gathering Online, or on a smartphone or tablet, or through other programs.
Each game represents a battle between wizards known as "planeswalkers '', who employ spells, artifacts, and creatures depicted on individual Magic cards to defeat their opponents. Although the original concept of the game drew heavily from the motifs of traditional fantasy role - playing games such as Dungeons & Dragons, the gameplay of Magic bears little similarity to pencil - and - paper adventure games, while having substantially more cards and more complex rules than many other card games.
New cards are released on a regular basis through expansion sets. An organized tournament system played at an international level and a worldwide community of professional Magic players has developed, as well as a substantial secondary market for Magic cards. Certain Magic cards can be valuable due to their rarity and utility in game play, with prices ranging from a few cents to thousands of dollars.
Richard Garfield was a doctoral candidate in combinatorial mathematics at University of Pennsylvania when he first started to design the game. During his free time he worked with local volunteer playtesters to help refine the game. He had been brought on as an adjunct professor at Whitman College in 1991 when Peter Adkison (then CEO of Wizards of the Coast games company) first met with Garfield to discuss Garfield 's new game RoboRally. Adkison saw the game as very promising, but decided that Wizards of the Coast lacked the resources to produce it at that point. He did like Garfield 's ideas and mentioned that he was looking for a portable game that could be played in the downtime that frequently occurs at gaming conventions. Garfield returned and presented the general outline of the concept of a trading card game. It was based on Garfield 's game Five Magics from 1982. Adkison immediately saw the potential of this idea and agreed to produce it. Magic: The Gathering underwent a general release on August 5, 1993.
While the game was simply called Magic through most of playtesting, when the game had to be officially named a lawyer informed them that the name Magic was too generic to be trademarked. Mana Clash was instead chosen to be the name used in the first solicitation of the game, however, everybody involved with the game continued to refer to it as Magic. After further consultation with the lawyer, it was decided to rename the game Magic: The Gathering, thus enabling the name to be trademarked.
A patent was granted to Wizards of the Coast in 1997 for "a novel method of game play and game components that in one embodiment are in the form of trading cards '' that includes claims covering games whose rules include many of Magic 's elements in combination, including concepts such as changing orientation of a game component to indicate use (referred to in the Magic and Vampire: The Eternal Struggle rules as "tapping '') and constructing a deck by selecting cards from a larger pool. The patent has aroused criticism from some observers, who believe some of its claims to be invalid. In 2003, the patent was an element of a larger legal dispute between Wizards of the Coast and Nintendo, regarding trade secrets related to Nintendo 's Pokémon Trading Card Game. The legal action was settled out of court, and its terms were not disclosed.
Magic was an immediate success for Wizards of the Coast. Early on they were even reluctant to advertise the game because they were unable to keep pace with existing demand. Initially Magic attracted many Dungeons & Dragons players, but the following included all types of other people as well. The success of the game quickly led to the creation of similar games by other companies as well as Wizards of the Coast themselves. Companion Games produced the Galactic Empires CCG (the first science fiction trading card game), which allowed players to pay for and design their own promotional cards, while TSR created the Spellfire game, which eventually included five editions in six languages, plus twelve expansion sets. Wizards of the Coast produced Jyhad (now called Vampire: The Eternal Struggle), a game about modern - day vampires. Other similar games included trading card games based on Star Trek and Star Wars. Magic is often cited as an example of a 1990s collecting fad, though the game 's makers were able to overcome the bubble traditionally associated with collecting fads.
The success of the initial edition prompted a reissue later in 1993, along with expansions to the game. Arabian Nights was released as the first expansion in December 1993. New expansions and revisions of the base game ("Core Sets '') have since been released on a regular basis, amounting to four releases a year. By the end of 1994, the game had printed over a billion cards. Until the release of Mirage in 1996, expansions were released on an irregular basis. Beginning in 2009 one revision of the core set and a set of three related expansions called a "block '' were released every year. This system was revised in 2015, with the Core Set being eliminated and blocks now consisting of two sets, released biannually. While the essence of the game has always stayed the same, the rules of Magic have undergone three major revisions with the release of the Revised Edition in 1994, Classic Edition in 1999, and Magic 2010 in July 2009. With the release of the Eighth Edition in 2003, Magic also received a major visual redesign.
In 1996, Wizards of the Coast established the "Pro Tour '', a circuit of tournaments where players can compete for sizeable cash prizes over the course of a single weekend - long tournament. In 2009 the top prize at a single tournament was US $ 40,000. Sanctioned through the DCI, the tournaments added an element of prestige to the game by virtue of the cash payouts and media coverage from within the community. For a brief period of time, ESPN2 televised the tournaments.
In 1999, Wizards of The Coast was acquired by Hasbro for $325 million, making Magic a Hasbro game.
While unofficial methods of online play existed previously, Magic Online ("MTGO '' or "Modo ''), an official online version of the game, was released in 2002. A new, updated version of Magic Online was released in April 2008.
In January 2014, Hasbro announced a franchise film deal with 20th Century Fox for Magic: The Gathering, saying that they wanted "to launch a massive franchise on the scale of Harry Potter and The Lord of the Rings. '' Simon Kinberg was to serve as a producer for the project. In June 2014, Fox hired screenwriter Bryan Cogman to write the script for the film. As of 2017, no film has entered production.
In February 2018, Wizards noted that between the years of 2008 and 2016 they had printed over 20 billion Magic: the Gathering cards.
A 2004 article in USA Today suggested that playing Magic might help improve the social and mental skills of some of the players. The article interviewed players ' parents who believe that the game, similar to sports, teaches children how to more gracefully win and lose. Magic also contains a great amount of strategy and vocabulary that children may not be exposed to on a regular basis. Parents also claimed that playing Magic helped keep their children out of trouble, such as using illegal drugs or joining criminal gangs. On the other hand, the article also briefly mentions that Magic can be highly addictive, leading to parents worried about their children 's Magic obsession. In addition, until 2007, some of the better players had opportunities to compete for a small number of scholarships.
Jordan Weisman, an American game designer and entrepreneur, commented, "I love games that challenge and change our definition of adventure gaming, and Magic: The Gathering is definitely one of a very short list of titles that has accomplished that elusive goal. By combining the collecting and trading elements of baseball cards with the fantasy play dynamics of roleplaying games, Magic created a whole new genre of product that changed our industry forever. ''
In addition several individuals including Richard Garfield and Donato Giancola won personal awards for their contributions to Magic.
A game of Magic involves two or more players who are engaged in a battle acting as powerful wizards called planeswalkers. Each player has their own deck, either one previously constructed or made from a limited pool of cards for the event. A player starts the game with twenty "life points '' and loses the game when their life total is reduced to zero. A player can also lose if they must draw from an empty deck. In addition, some cards specify other ways to win or lose the game. Garfield has stated that two major influences in his creation of Magic: the Gathering were the games Cosmic Encounter, which first used the concept that normal rules could sometimes be overridden, and Dungeons & Dragons. The "Golden Rule of Magic '' states that "Whenever a card 's text directly contradicts the rules, the card takes precedence. '' The Comprehensive Rules, a detailed rulebook, exists to clarify conflicts.
Players begin the game by shuffling their decks and then drawing seven cards. Players draw one card at the beginning of each of their turns, except the first player on their first turn unless there are more than 2 players. Players alternate turns. The two basic kinds of cards are "spells '' and "lands ''. Lands provide "mana '', or magical energy, which is used as magical fuel when the player attempts to cast spells. Players may only play one land per turn. More powerful spells cost more mana, so as the game progresses more mana becomes available, and the quantity and relative power of the spells played tends to increase. Spells come in several varieties: "sorceries '' and "instants '' have a single, one - time effect before they go to the "graveyard '' (discard pile); "enchantments '' and "artifacts '' are "permanents '' that remain in play after being cast to provide a lasting magical effect; "creature '' spells (also a type of permanent) summon creatures that can attack and damage an opponent. The set Lorwyn introduced the new "planeswalker '' card type, which represents powerful allies who fight with their own magic abilities.
In most Constructed tournament formats, decks are required to be a minimum of sixty cards, with no upper limit. Players may use no more than four copies of any named card, with the exception of "basic lands '', which act as a standard resource in Magic, and some specific cards that state otherwise. For example, the card Relentless Rats states that a deck may contain any number of itself. Certain formats such as Commander may limit the number of iterations of a single card players may have in their decks. These are colloquially known as singleton formats.
In most Constructed formats, there exists a list of individual cards which have been "restricted '' (the card is limited to a single copy per deck) or "banned '' (the card is no longer legal for tournament play). These limitations are usually for balance of power reasons, but have been occasionally made because of gameplay mechanics.
In "Limited '' tournament formats, a small number of cards are opened for play from booster packs or tournament packs, and a minimum deck size of forty cards is enforced. The most popular limited format is draft, in which players open a booster pack, choose a card from it, and pass it to the player seated next to them. This continues until all the cards have been picked, and then a new pack is opened. Three packs are opened altogether, and the direction of passing alternates left - right - left.
Deck building requires strategy as players must choose among thousands of cards which they want to play. This requires players to evaluate the power of their cards, as well as the possible synergies between them, and their possible interactions with the cards they expect to play against (this "metagame '' can vary in different locations or time periods). The choice of cards is usually narrowed by the player deciding which colors they want to include in the deck. This decision is a key part of creating a deck. In general, reducing the number of colors used increases the consistency of play and the probability of drawing the lands needed to cast one 's spells, at the expense of restricting the range of tactics available to the player.
Most spells come in one of five colors. The colors can be seen on the back of the cards, in a pentagonal design, called the "Color Wheel '' or "Color Pie ''. Clockwise from the top, they are: white (W), blue (U), black (B), red (R), and green (G). To play a spell of a given color, at least one mana of that color is required. This mana is normally generated by a basic land: plains for white, island for blue, swamp for black, mountain for red, and forest for green. The balances and distinctions among the five colors form one of the defining aspects of the game. Each color has strengths and weaknesses based on the "style '' of magic it represents.
The colors adjacent to each other on the pentagon are "allied '' and often have similar, complementary abilities. For example, Blue has a relatively large number of flying creatures, as do White and Black, which are next to it. The two non-adjacent colors to a particular color are "enemy '' colors, and are thematically opposed. For instance, Red tends to be very aggressive, while White and Blue are often more defensive in nature. The Research and Development (R&D) team at Wizards of the Coast aims to balance power and abilities among the five colors by using the "Color Pie '' to differentiate the strengths and weaknesses of each. This guideline lays out the capabilities, themes, and mechanics of each color and allows for every color to have its own distinct attributes and gameplay. The Color Pie is used to ensure new cards are thematically in the correct color and do not infringe on the territory of other colors.
Magic, like many other games, combines chance and skill. One frequent complaint about the game involves the notion that there is too much luck involved, especially concerning possessing too many or too few lands. Early in the game especially, too many or too few lands could ruin a player 's chance at victory without the player having made a mistake. This in - game statistical variance can be minimized by proper deck construction, as an appropriate land count can reduce mana problems. In Duels of the Planeswalkers 2012, the land count is automatically adjusted to 40 % of the total deck size.
A "mulligan '' rule was introduced into the game, first informally in casual play and then in the official game rules. The most current mulligan rule allows players to shuffle an unsatisfactory opening hand back into the deck at the start of the game, draw a new hand with one fewer card, and repeat until satisfied, after which any player who has less than seven cards may look at the top card of his or her deck and either return it or put it at the bottom of the deck. In multiplayer, a player may take one mulligan without penalty, while subsequent mulligans will still cost one card (a rule known as "Partial Paris mulligan ''). The original mulligan allowed a player a single redraw of seven new cards if that player 's initial hand contained seven or zero lands. A variation of this rule called a "forced mulligan '' is still used in some casual play circles and in multiplayer formats on Magic Online, and allows a single "free '' redraw of seven new cards if a player 's initial hand contains seven, six, one or zero lands.
Confessing his love for games combining both luck and skill, Magic creator Richard Garfield admitted its influence in his design of Magic. In addressing the complaint about luck influencing a game, Garfield points out that new and casual players tend to appreciate luck as a leveling field, in which a random effect increases their chances of winning. Meanwhile, a player with higher skills appreciates a game with less chance, as the higher degree of control increases their chances of winning. According to Garfield, Magic has and would likely continue decreasing its degree of luck as the game matured. The "Mulligan rule '', as well as card design, past vs. present, are good examples of this trend. He feels that this is a universal trend for maturing games. Garfield explained using chess as an example, that unlike modern chess, in predecessors, players would use dice to determine which chess piece to move.
The original set of rules prescribed that all games were to be played for ante. Garfield was partly inspired by the game of marbles and wanted folks to play with the cards rather than collect them. For Magic, each player removed a card at random from the deck they wished to play with and the two cards would be set aside as the ante. At the end of the match, the winner would take and keep both cards. Early sets included a few cards with rules designed to interact with this gambling aspect, allowing replacements of cards up for ante, adding more cards to the ante, or even permanently trading cards in play.
The ante concept became controversial because many regions had restrictions on games of chance. The rule was later made optional because of these restrictions and because of players ' reluctance to possibly lose a card that they owned. The gambling rule is forbidden at sanctioned events and is now mostly a relic of the past, though it still sees occasional usage in friendly games as well as the prismatic format. The last card to mention ante was printed in the 1995 expansion set Homelands.
Magic tournaments regularly occur in gaming stores and other venues. Larger tournaments with hundreds of competitors from around the globe sponsored by Wizards of the Coast are arranged many times every year, with substantial cash prizes for the top finishers. A number of websites report on tournament news, give complete lists for the most currently popular decks, and feature articles on current issues of debate about the game. The DCI, which is owned and operated by Wizards of the Coast, is the organizing body for sanctioned Magic events. The two major categories of tournament play are "Constructed '' and "Limited ''.
In "Constructed '' tournaments, each player arrives with a pre-built deck, which must have a minimum of sixty cards and follow other deck construction rules. The deck may also have up to a fifteen card sideboard, which allows players to modify their deck. Normally the first player to win two games is the winner of the match.
Different formats of Constructed Magic exist, each allowing different cards. The DCI maintains a "Banned and Restricted List '' for each format; players may not use banned cards at all, and restricted cards are limited to one copy per deck. The DCI bans cards that it determines are damaging the health of a format; it seeks to use this remedy as infrequently as possible, and only a handful of cards have been banned in recent years.
In "Limited '' tournaments, players construct decks using booster packs plus any additional basic lands of their choice. The decks in Limited tournaments must be a minimum of forty cards. All unused cards function as the sideboard, which, as in "Constructed '' formats, can be freely exchanged between games of a match, as long as the deck continues to adhere to the forty card minimum. The rule that a player may use only four copies of any given card does not apply.
Players often create their own formats based on any number of criteria. Sometimes these can be based on limiting the financial value of a deck, mixing and matching different blocks or sets, or taking an existing format and modifying the DCI Banned List. Commander (formerly Elder Dragon Highlander) was one such format, before being officially supported by wizards. One of the most popular player created formats for Limited is Cube Drafting. Similar in structure to Draft, players will instead use a collection of pre-selected cards instead of random boosters to draft from. Since 2014 player created formats are allowed as Friday Night Magic events, so long as they follow basic Magic Tournament Rules (no fake cards, no gambling etc.)
The DCI maintains a set of rules for being able to sanction tournaments, as well as runs its own circuit. Local shops often offer "Friday Night Magic '' tournaments as a stepping - stone to more competitive play. The DCI runs the Pro Tour as a series of major tournaments to attract interest. The right to compete in a Pro Tour has to be earned by either winning a Pro Tour Qualifier Tournament or being successful in a previous tournament on a similar level. A Pro Tour is usually structured into two days of individual competition played in the Swiss format. On the final day, the top eight players compete with each other in an elimination format to select the winner.
At the end of the competition in a Pro Tour, players are awarded Pro Points depending on their finishing place. If the player finishes high enough, they will also be awarded prize money. Frequent winners of these events have made names for themselves in the Magic community, such as Gabriel Nassif, Kai Budde and Jon Finkel. As a promotional tool, the DCI launched the Hall of Fame in 2005 to honor selected players.
At the end of the year the Magic World Championship is held. The World Championship functions like a Pro Tour, except that competitors have to present their skill in three different formats (usually Standard, booster draft and a second constructed format) rather than one. Another difference is that invitation to the World Championship can be gained not through Pro Tour Qualifiers, but via the national championship of a country. Most countries send their top four players of the tournament as representatives, though nations with minor Magic playing communities may send just one player. The World Championship also has a team - based competition, where the national teams compete with each other.
At the beginning of the World Championship, new members are inducted into the Hall of Fame. The tournament also concludes the current season of tournament play and at the end of the event, the player who earned the most Pro Points during the year is awarded the title "Pro Player of the Year ''. The player who earned the most Pro Points and did not compete in any previous season is awarded the title "Rookie of the Year ''.
Invitation to a Pro Tour, Pro Points and prize money can also be earned in lesser tournaments called Grand Prix that are open to the general public and are held more frequently throughout the year. Grand Prix events are usually the largest Magic tournaments, sometimes drawing more than 2,000 players. The largest Magic tournament ever held was Grand Prix: Las Vegas in June 2013 with a total of 4,500 players.
Magic: The Gathering cards are produced in much the same way as normal playing cards. Each Magic card, approximately 63 × 88 mm in size (2.5 by 3.5 inches), has a face which displays the card 's name and rules text as well as an illustration appropriate to the card 's concept. 16,203 unique cards have been produced for the game as of September 2016, many of them with variant editions, artwork, or layouts, and 600 -- 1000 new ones are added each year. The first Magic cards were printed exclusively in English, but current sets are also printed in Simplified Chinese, Traditional Chinese, French, German, Italian, Japanese, Korean, Portuguese, Russian, and Spanish.
The overwhelming majority of Magic cards are issued and marketed in the form of sets. For the majority of its history there were two types: the Core Set and the themed expansion sets. Under Wizards of the Coast 's current production and marketing scheme, a new set is released quarterly. Various products are released with each set to appeal to different segments of the Magic playing community:
Shards of Alara also debuted mythic rares (red - orange), which replace one in eight rare cards on average. There are also premium versions of every card with holographic foil, randomly inserted into some boosters in place of a common, which replace about one in seventy cards.
Expansion sets are currently released in a two - set block, starting with a large set and ending with a smaller one three months later. Prior to 2016, expansion sets were released in a three - set block (again, beginning with a larger set followed by two smaller sets). These sets consist almost exclusively of newly designed cards. Contrasting with the wide - ranging Core Set, each expansion is focused around a subset of mechanics and ties into a set storyline. Expansions also dedicate several cards to a handful of particular, often newly introduced, game mechanics.
The Core Sets began to be released annually (previously biennially) in July 2009 coinciding with the name change from 10th Edition to Magic 2010. This shift also introduced new, never before printed cards into the core set, something that previously had never been done. However, core sets were discontinued following the release of Magic Origins, on July 17, 2015, at the same time that two - set blocks were introduced. Wizards of Coast announced on June 12, 2017 that they plan on revamping and reintroducing a revamped core set for the year 2018.
In addition to the quarterly set releases, Magic cards are released in other products as well, such as the Planechase and Archenemy spin - off games. These combine reprinted Magic cards with new, oversize cards with new functionality. Magic cards are also printed specifically for collectors, such as the From the Vault and Premium Deck Series sets, which contain exclusively premium foil cards.
In 2003, starting with the Eighth Edition Core Set, the game went through its biggest visual change since its creation -- a new card frame layout was developed to allow more rules text and larger art on the cards, while reducing the thick, colored border to a minimum. The new frame design aimed to improve contrast and readability using black type instead of the previous white, a new font, and partitioned areas for the name, card type, and power and toughness.
For the first few years of its production, Magic: The Gathering featured a small number of cards with names or artwork with demonic or occultist themes, in 1995 the company elected to remove such references from the game. In 2002, believing that the depiction of demons was becoming less controversial and that the game had established itself sufficiently, Wizards of the Coast reversed this policy and resumed printing cards with "demon '' in their names.
Magic: The Gathering video games, comics, and books have been produced under licensing or directly by Wizards of the Coast.
In September 2011, Hasbro and IDW Publishing accorded to make a four - issue mini-series about Magic: The Gathering with a new story but heavily based on MTG elements and with a new Planeswalker called Dack Fayden, which story is mainly developed in the planes of Ravnica and Innistrad. The ongoing series started in February 2012.
In 2015 Wizards of the Coast and Hasbro published Magic: The Gathering -- Arena of the Planeswalkers. Arena of the Planeswalkers is a tactical boardgame where the players maneuver miniatures over a customizable board game, and the ruleset and terrain is based on Heroscape, but with an addition of spell cards and summoning. The original master set includes miniatures that represent the five Planeswalkers Gideon, Jace, Liliana, Chandra, and Nissa as well as select creatures from the Magic: The Gathering universe. They later released an expansion Battle for Zendikar featuring multi-color Planeswalkers Kiora and Ob Nixilis and a colorless Eldrazi Ruiner, and a second master set Shadows Over Innistrad which has 4 new Planeswalkers and also includes the addition of cryptoliths.
While comics and books have mostly been supplements to develop a background story for the game, several video games have been produced which lean in varying degree on the original game. For the first computer games Wizards of the Coast had sold licenses to Acclaim and MicroProse roughly at the same time. While MicroProse 's Magic: The Gathering received favorable reviews, Acclaim 's Magic: The Gathering: BattleMage was mostly dismissed with negative reaction.
With Magic: The Gathering Online or MTGO for short, Wizards developed and released a computer version of the game themselves that allows players to compete online against other players using the original Magic cards and rules. Players purchase digital cards, and are able to play online against each other using their digital collections. Magic: The Gathering Online is the closest to paper magic of the digital alternatives.
A stripped down version of MTGO is Magic: The Gathering -- Duels of the Planeswalkers which was developed by Stainless Games and released for the Xbox 360 in June 2009. The game was ported to Windows in June of the next year. Six months after the PC release of Duels of the Planeswalkers, the game was ported to the PlayStation 3 platform. The game was the most - played Xbox Live title for two weeks after its release. Stainless continued to release yearly updates to this, culminating in Magic Duels, a free - to - play title released in 2015.
Hiberium and D3 Publisher licensed Magic: the Gathering for its mobile game, Magic: The Gathering - Puzzle Quest, combining deck building with match - 3 - style casual gaming. This was released in December 2015 and continues to be updated with new card sets from the physical game.
Cryptic Studios and Perfect World Entertainment have announced plans to create a Magic: The Gathering massively multiplayer online role - playing game, to be released for personal computers and consoles.
In January 2014, 20th Century Fox acquired the rights to produce a Magic: The Gathering film with Simon Kinberg as producer and TSG Entertainment (its co-financing partner), Hasbro Studios and subsidiary company Allspark Pictures as co-financers, after Universal Pictures allegedly dropped the film from their schedule (Both Universal and Hasbro had been developing the original Magic: The Gathering film since 2009).
In April, 2016, Enter the Battlefield, a documentary about life on the Magic Pro Tour was released. The film was written by Greg Collins, Nathan Holt, and Shawn Kornhauser.
In 1998, PGI Limited created Havic: The Bothering, which was a parody of Magic: The Gathering. Wizards of the Coast, which owned the rights to Magic: The Gathering, took active steps to hinder the distribution of the game and successfully shut out PGI Limited from attending GenCon in July 1998. In an attempt to avoid breaching copyright and Richard Garfield 's patent, each starter deck of Havic had printed on the back side, "This is a Parody '', and on the bottom of the rule card was printed, "Do not have each player: construct their own library of predetermined number of game components by examining and selecting (the) game components from (a) reservoir of game components or you may infringe on U.S. Patent No. 5,662,332 to Garfield. ''
Three official parody expansions of Magic exist: Unglued, Unhinged, and Unstable. Most of the cards in these sets feature silver borders and humorous themes. The silver - bordered cards are not legal for play in DCI - sanctioned tournaments.
There is an active secondary market in individual cards among players and game shops. Many physical and online stores sell single cards or "playsets '' of four of a card. Common cards rarely sell for more than a few cents and are usually sold in bulk. Uncommon cards and weak rare cards typically sell from 10 ¢ up to $1. The more expensive cards in standard tournament play are typically priced between $1 to $25, although many commonly played cards in the modern and legacy formats sell for $60 to $180. Foil versions of rare and mythic rare cards are typically priced at about twice as much as the regular versions. Some of the more sought - after rare and mythic rare cards can have foil versions that cost up to three or four times more than the non-foil versions.
A few of the oldest cards, due to smaller printings and limited distribution, are highly valued and rare. This is partly due to the "Reserved List '', a list of cards from the sets Alpha to Urza 's Destiny (1994 -- 1999) that Wizards has promised never to reprint. The most expensive card that was in regular print (as opposed to being a promotional or special printing) is Black Lotus. In 2013, a "Pristine 9.5 grade '' Beckett Grading Services graded Alpha Black Lotus was bought by an anonymous buyer, for a record $27,302.
The secondary market started with comic book stores, and hobby shops displaying and selling cards, with the cards ' values determined somewhat arbitrarily by the employees of the store. With the expansion of the internet, prices of cards were determined by the amount of tournament deck lists a given card would appear in. If a card was played in a tournament more frequently, the cost of the card would be higher (in addition to the market availability of the card). When eBay, Amazon, and other large online markets started to gain popularity, the Magic secondary market evolved substantially. Buying and selling Magic cards online became a source of income for people who learned how to manipulate the market. Today, the secondary market is so large and complex, it has become an area of study for consumer research, and some people make a career out of market manipulation, creating mathematical models to analyze the growth of cards ' worth, and predict the market value of both individual cards, and entire sets of cards.
As of late 2013, Wizards of the Coast has expressed concern over the increasing number of counterfeit cards in the secondary market. Wizards of the Coast has since made an effort to counteract the rise of counterfeits by introducing a new holofoil stamp on all rare and mythic rare cards as of Magic 2015.
Each card has an illustration to represent the flavor of the card, often reflecting the setting of the expansion for which it was designed. Much of Magic 's early artwork was commissioned with little specific direction or concern for visual cohesion. One infamous example was the printing of the creature Whippoorwill without the "flying '' ability even though its art showed a bird in flight. The art direction team later decided to impose a few constraints so that the artistic vision more closely aligned with the design and development of the cards. Each block of cards now has its own style guide with sketches and descriptions of the various races and places featured in the setting.
A few early sets experimented with alternate art for cards. However, Wizards came to believe that this impeded easy recognition of a card and that having multiple versions caused confusion when identifying a card at a glance. Consequently, alternate art is now only used sparingly and mostly for promotional cards. When older cards are reprinted in new sets, however, Wizards of the Coast has guaranteed that they will be printed with new art to make the older cards more collectible.
As Magic has expanded across the globe, its artwork has had to change for its international audience. Artwork has been edited or given alternate art to comply with the governmental standards. For example, the portrayal of skeletons and most undead in artwork was prohibited by the Chinese government until 2008.
The way Magic storylines are conceived and deployed has changed considerably over the years. The main premise of Magic is that countless possible worlds (planes) exist in the Multiverse, and only unique and rare beings called Planeswalkers are capable of traversing the Multiverse. This allows the game to frequently change worlds so as to renew its mechanical inspiration, while maintaining planeswalkers as recurrent, common elements across worlds. An intricate storyline underlies the cards released in each expansion and is shown in the art and flavor text of the cards, as well as in novels and anthologies published by Wizards of the Coast (and formerly by Harper Prism). Important storyline characters, objects and locations often appear as cards in Magic sets, usually as "Legendary '' creatures, artifacts, and lands, or as "Planeswalker '' cards.
The original Magic: The Gathering Limited Edition has no overarching storyline, and the cards only have unconnected bits of lore and trivia to give the cards some individual depth. In the early expansion sets until Visions there is usually no real story arc either. Instead, some of these sets are inspired from mythologies of various cultures. This is most apparent in Arabian Nights, that takes some of the One Thousand and One Nights characters and makes them into Magic cards. Norse mythological influences can be seen worked into Ice Age and African influences into Mirage. However, not all of the early sets can be linked as directly to earth mythology. Antiquities touches on an independent storyline about two warring brothers, Urza and Mishra. Homelands is the exception in that period. For this set, a back story was first conceived and the cards in the set were designed afterwards to fit the storyline.
Beginning with the Weatherlight expansion there was a shift in the way Magic storylines were used. For the blocks Weatherlight through Apocalypse, the story was laid out in a character driven story, following the events of the Weatherlight ship and its crew. With help of the planeswalking capabilities of the Weatherlight, the protagonists travel through the multiverse to fight Yawgmoth and his army of Phyrexians. Odyssey through Scourge are an unconnected storyline set 100 years later on Dominaria where multiple factions battle for control of the Mirari, a powerful magical artifact left by Karn. After Scourge, Magic storylines have mostly panned away from Dominaria. New planes were created to set the scene for new storylines. In contrast to the previous character driven stories, these releases focused on thematic worlds. This was the model from Mirrodin through Alara, a world split into five magically and culturally distinct "shards '' but later reunited.
After Alara, Magic visited Zendikar, a world used as a prison to entrap a race of interplanar parasitic monsters called the Eldrazi, which were inspired by H.P. Lovecraft 's Old Ones. Beginning with Zendikar the world - centric storytelling was complemented by an overlying story layer. Planeswalker cards had been introduced in Lorwyn and these Planeswalker characters were used to give the overarching storyline a sense of continuity, despite the constant change of setting. The block following Zendikar, Scars of Mirrodin, revisited the plane of Mirrodin, where the Mirran natives battled against an invading Phyrexian corruption unwittilingly left by Karn (again interconnecting various storylines). To further integrate the storyline into the gameplay, certain events for the second set, Mirrodin Besieged, encouraged players to affiliate themselves with either the Mirran or Phyrexian faction. Much of the recent focus has been on both integrating the play experience with the story line and on making mechanics and individual cards which represent pivotal points in the story.
On Innistrad, a plane inspired heavily by gothic horror, its guardian angel has gone missing. Darkness has started to consume the plane, and the players must discover that the Helvault, a magical prison, has been holding the archangel Avacyn as well as demons. Thalia, a cathar of the Church of Avacyn, broke open the Helvault and released Avacyn as well as all of the demons. In the Return to Ravnica block, players were encouraged to affiliate themselves with a guild and take control of the city of Ravnica by completing the maze discovered by Niv - Mizzet.
Theros was a plane inspired by Greek mythology, containing many references to Greek mythological figures such as Prometheus and the pantheon of gods. Tarkir would have been a plane where dragons had long since died, controlled by five clans ruled by khans. Through time travel, the result of the struggle between the ancient clans and the dragons was reversed and the dragons now reign over each of the five clans, which are both similar and different to their alternate - timeline predecessors.
Battle for Zendikar was a return to the plane of Zendikar, which had been ravaged by the Eldrazi horrors. This marks a change in Magic 's storytelling, where each block 's story is shown from the perspective of a group of planeswalkers called the Gatewatch. Shadows Over Innistrad is a return to Innistrad, where Avacyn has been corrupted. The next set, Eldritch Moon, focuses on the fact that Emrakul, the most powerful Eldrazi titan who had been missing from the Battle for Zendikar storyline, is now on Innistrad. Together, the Gatewatch must find a way to save the plane from Emrakul 's influence. This story also focuses on cosmic horror instead of the traditional gothic horror of old Innistrad.
Kaladesh has the Gatewatch go to Chandra Nalaar 's home world, the titular plane of Kaladesh, where she finds her mother (presumed dead) and almost kills Tezzeret. Tezzeret later kidnaps Rashmi, winner of the famous Inventor 's Fair, and begins a dastardly plot to control the ruling Consulate. With the Consulate imprisoning inventors and confiscating their devices following the Fair, tensions between the populace and the government reach a boiling point, as depicted in Aether Revolt. The block focuses on a Steampunk aesthetic, with the steam replaced by the powerful material aether.
Amonkhet has the Gatewatch set out to destroy the evil dragon planeswalker Nicol Bolas after learning of his dominion over the titular desert plane Amonkhet. In the desert, they find a city (Naktamun) teeming with food, water, and life, ruled by five gods, with Bolas seemingly absent altogether. The people of Naktamun train their entire lives to die in ritual combat, hoping to experience pure bliss in the afterlife when the God - Pharaoh (Bolas) returns to Amonkhet. In Hour of Devastation, Bolas returns as prophesied, only to raze Naktamun and reveal the true purpose of the training and combat: to create an army of physically - perfect and combat - adept mummies to serve as an unquestionably loyal army. The block 's setting is based ancient Egypt, with themes of social hierarchy and contrast between life and death.
There are several examples of academic, peer - reviewed research concerning different aspects of Magic: The Gathering. One study examined how players use their imaginations when playing. This research studied hobby players and showed how players sought to create and participate in an epic fantasy narrative. Another example used online auctions for Magic cards to test revenue outcomes for various auction types. A final example uses probability to examine Magic card - collecting strategies. Using a specific set of cards in a specialized manner has shown Magic: The Gathering to be Turing complete.
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when was the flute invented and by whom | Flute - wikipedia
Plucked
The flute is a family of musical instruments in the woodwind group. Unlike woodwind instruments with reeds, a flute is an aerophone or reedless wind instrument that produces its sound from the flow of air across an opening. According to the instrument classification of Hornbostel -- Sachs, flutes are categorized as edge - blown aerophones. A musician who plays the flute can be referred to as a flute player, flautist, flutist or, less commonly, fluter or flutenist.
Flutes are the earliest extant musical instruments, as paleolithic instruments with hand - bored holes have been found. A number of flutes dating to about 43,000 to 35,000 years ago have been found in the Swabian Jura region of present - day Germany. These flutes demonstrate that a developed musical tradition existed from the earliest period of modern human presence in Europe.
The word flute first entered the English language during the Middle English period, as floute, or else flowte, flo (y) te, possibly from Old French flaute and from Old Provençal flaüt, or else from Old French fleüte, flaüte, flahute via Middle High German floite or Dutch fluit. The English verb flout has the same linguistic root, and the modern Dutch verb fluiten still shares the two meanings. Attempts to trace the word back to the Latin flare (to blow, inflate) have been pronounced "phonologically impossible '' or "inadmissable ''. The first known use of the word flute was in the 14th century. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, this was in Geoffrey Chaucer 's The Hous of Fame, c. 1380.
Today, a musician who plays any instrument in the flute family can be called a flutist (pronounced "FLEW - tist '', most common in the US), or flautist (pronounced "FLAW - tist '', most common in the UK), or simply a flute player (more neutrally). Flutist dates back to at least 1603, the earliest quote cited by the Oxford English Dictionary. Flautist was used in 1860 by Nathaniel Hawthorne in The Marble Faun, after being adopted during the 18th century from Italy (flautista, itself from flauto), like many musical terms in England since the Italian Renaissance. Other English terms, now virtually obsolete, are fluter (15th -- 19th centuries) and flutenist (17th -- 18th centuries).
The oldest flute ever discovered may be a fragment of the femur of a juvenile cave bear, with two to four holes, found at Divje Babe in Slovenia and dated to about 43,000 years ago. However, this has been disputed. In 2008 another flute dated back to at least 35,000 years ago was discovered in Hohle Fels cave near Ulm, Germany. The five - holed flute has a V - shaped mouthpiece and is made from a vulture wing bone. The researchers involved in the discovery officially published their findings in the journal Nature, in August 2009. The discovery was also the oldest confirmed find of any musical instrument in history, until a redating of flutes found in Geißenklösterle cave revealed them to be even older with an age of 42,000 to 43,000 years.
The flute, one of several found, was found in the Hohle Fels cavern next to the Venus of Hohle Fels and a short distance from the oldest known human carving. On announcing the discovery, scientists suggested that the "finds demonstrate the presence of a well - established musical tradition at the time when modern humans colonized Europe ''. Scientists have also suggested that the discovery of the flute may help to explain "the probable behavioural and cognitive gulf between '' Neanderthals and early modern human.
A three - holed flute, 18.7 cm long, made from a mammoth tusk (from the Geißenklösterle cave, near Ulm, in the southern German Swabian Alb and dated to 30,000 to 37,000 years ago) was discovered in 2004, and two flutes made from swan bones excavated a decade earlier (from the same cave in Germany, dated to circa 36,000 years ago) are among the oldest known musical instruments.
A playable 9,000 - year - old Gudi (literally, "bone flute '') was excavated from a tomb in Jiahu along with 29 defunct twins, made from the wing bones of red - crowned cranes with five to eight holes each, in the Central Chinese province of Henan. The earliest extant Chinese transverse flute is a chi (篪) flute discovered in the Tomb of Marquis Yi of Zeng at the Suizhou site, Hubei province, China. It dates from 433 BC, of the later Zhou Dynasty. It is fashioned of lacquered bamboo with closed ends and has five stops that are at the flute 's side instead of the top. Chi flutes are mentioned in Shi Jing, compiled and edited by Confucius, according to tradition.
The earliest written reference to a flute is from a Sumerian - language cuneiform tablet dated to c. 2600 -- 2700 BCE. Flutes are also mentioned in a recently translated tablet of the Epic of Gilgamesh, an epic poem whose development spanned the period of approximately 2100 -- 600 BCE. Additionally, a set of cuneiform tablets knows as the "musical texts '' provide precise tuning instructions for seven scale of a stringed instrument (assumed to be a Babylonian lyre). One of those scales is named embūbum, which is an Akkadian word for "flute ''.
The Bible, in Genesis 4: 21, cites Jubal as being the "father of all those who play the ugab and the kinnor ''. The former Hebrew term is believed by some to refer to some wind instrument, or wind instruments in general, the latter to a stringed instrument, or stringed instruments in general. As such, Jubal is regarded in the Judeo - Christian tradition as the inventor of the flute (a word used in some translations of this biblical passage). Elsewhere in the Bible, the flute is referred to as "chalil '' (from the root word for "hollow ''), in particular in 1 Samuel 10: 5, 1 Kings 1: 40, Isaiah 5: 12 and 30: 29, and Jeremiah 48: 36. Archeological digs in the Holy Land have discovered flutes from both the Bronze Age (c. 4000 - 1200 BCE) and the Iron Age (1200 - 586 BCE), the latter era "witness (ing) the creation of the Israelite kingdom and its separation into the two kingdoms of Israel and Judea. ''
Some early flutes were made out of tibias (shin bones). The flute has also always been an essential part of Indian culture and mythology, and the cross flute believed by several accounts to originate in India as Indian literature from 1500 BCE has made vague references to the cross flute.
A flute produces sound when a stream of air directed across a hole in the instrument creates a vibration of air at the hole. The airstream creates a Bernoulli or siphon. This excites the air contained in the usually cylindrical resonant cavity within the flute. The flutist changes the pitch of the sound produced by opening and closing holes in the body of the instrument, thus changing the effective length of the resonator and its corresponding resonant frequency. By varying the air pressure, a flutist can also change the pitch by causing the air in the flute to resonate at a harmonic rather than the fundamental frequency without opening or closing any holes.
Head joint geometry appears particularly critical to acoustic performance and tone, but there is no clear consensus on a particular shape amongst manufacturers. Acoustic impedance of the embouchure hole appears the most critical parameter. Critical variables affecting this acoustic impedance include: chimney length (hole between lip - plate and head tube), chimney diameter, and radii or curvature of the ends of the chimney and any designed restriction in the "throat '' of the instrument, such as that in the Japanese Nohkan Flute.
A study in which professional flutists were blindfolded could find no significant differences between flutes made from a variety of metals. In two different sets of blind listening, no flute was correctly identified in a first listening, and in a second, only the silver flute was identified. The study concluded that there was "no evidence that the wall material has any appreciable effect on the sound color or dynamic range ''.
In its most basic form, a flute is an open tube which is blown into. After focused study and training, players use controlled air - direction to create an airstream in which the air is aimed downward into the tone hole of the flute 's headjoint. There are several broad classes of flutes. With most flutes, the musician blows directly across the edge of the mouthpiece, with 1 / 4 of their bottom lip covering the embouchure hole. However, some flutes, such as the whistle, gemshorn, flageolet, recorder, tin whistle, tonette, fujara, and ocarina have a duct that directs the air onto the edge (an arrangement that is termed a "fipple ''). These are known as fipple flutes. The fipple gives the instrument a distinct timbre which is different from non-fipple flutes and makes the instrument easier to play, but takes a degree of control away from the musician.
Another division is between side - blown (or transverse) flutes, such as the Western concert flute, piccolo, fife, dizi and bansuri; and end - blown flutes, such as the ney, xiao, kaval, danso, shakuhachi, Anasazi flute and quena. The player of a side - blown flute uses a hole on the side of the tube to produce a tone, instead of blowing on an end of the tube. End - blown flutes should not be confused with fipple flutes such as the recorder, which are also played vertically but have an internal duct to direct the air flow across the edge of the tone hole.
Flutes may be open at one or both ends. The ocarina, xun, pan pipes, police whistle, and bosun 's whistle are closed - ended. Open - ended flutes such as the concert flute and the recorder have more harmonics, and thus more flexibility for the player, and brighter timbres. An organ pipe may be either open or closed, depending on the sound desired.
Flutes may have any number of pipes or tubes, though one is the most common number. Flutes with multiple resonators may be played one resonator at a time (as is typical with pan pipes) or more than one at a time (as is typical with double flutes).
Flutes can be played with several different air sources. Conventional flutes are blown with the mouth, although some cultures use nose flutes. The flue pipes of organs, which are acoustically similar to duct flutes, are blown by bellows or fans.
Usually in D, wooden transverse flutes were played in European classical music mainly in the period from the early 18th century to the early 19th century. As such the instrument is often indicated as baroque flute. Gradually marginalized by the Western concert flute in the 19th century, baroque flutes were again played from the late 20th century as part of the historically informed performance practice.
The Western concert flute, a descendant of the medieval German flute, is a transverse treble flute that is closed at the top. An embouchure hole is positioned near the top across and into which the flutist blows. The flute has circular tone holes larger than the finger holes of its baroque predecessors. The size and placement of tone holes, key mechanism, and fingering system used to produce the notes in the flute 's range were evolved from 1832 to 1847 by Theobald Boehm and greatly improved the instrument 's dynamic range and intonation over its predecessors. With some refinements (and the rare exception of the Kingma system and other custom adapted fingering systems), Western concert flutes typically conform to Boehm 's design, known as the Boehm system. Beginner 's flutes are made of nickel, silver, or brass that is silver - plated, while professionals use solid silver, gold, and sometimes platinum flutes. There are also modern wooden - bodied flutes usually with silver or gold keywork. The wood is usually African Blackwood.
The standard concert flute is pitched in C and has a range of three octaves starting from middle C or one half step lower when a B foot is attached. This means the concert flute is one of the highest common orchestra and concert band instruments.
The piccolo plays an octave higher than the regular treble flute. Lower members of the flute family include the G alto and C bass flutes that are used occasionally, and are pitched a perfect fourth and an octave below the concert flute, respectively. The contrabass, double contrabass, and hyperbass are other rare forms of the flute pitched two, three, and four octaves below middle C respectively.
Other sizes of flutes and piccolos are used from time to time. A rarer instrument of the modern pitching system is the treble G flute. Instruments made according to an older pitch standard, used principally in wind - band music, include D ♭ piccolo, soprano flute (the primary instrument, equivalent to today 's concert C flute), F alto flute, and B ♭ bass flute.
The bamboo flute is an important instrument in Indian classical music, and developed independently of the Western flute. The Hindu God Lord Krishna is traditionally considered a master of the bamboo flute. The Indian flutes are very simple compared to the Western counterparts; they are made of bamboo and are keyless.
Two main varieties of Indian flutes are currently used. The first, the Bansuri (बांसुरी), has six finger holes and one embouchure hole, and is used predominantly in the Hindustani music of Northern India. The second, the Venu or Pullanguzhal, has eight finger holes, and is played predominantly in the Carnatic music of Southern India. Presently, the eight - holed flute with cross-fingering technique is common among many Carnatic flutists. Prior to this, the South Indian flute had only seven finger holes, with the fingering standard developed by Sharaba Shastri, of the Palladam school, at the beginning of the 20th century.
The quality of the flute 's sound depends somewhat on the specific bamboo used to make it, and it is generally agreed that the best bamboo grows in the Nagercoil area of South India.
Based on Bharata Natya Shastra Sarana Chatushtai, Avinash Balkrishna Patwardhan in 1998 developed a methodology to produce perfectly tuned flutes for the ten ' thatas ' currently present in Indian Classical Music.
In China there are many varieties of dizi (笛子), or Chinese flute, with different sizes, structures (with or without a resonance membrane) and number of holes (from 6 to 11) and intonations (different keys). Most are made of bamboo, but can come in wood, jade, bone, and iron. One peculiar feature of the Chinese flute is the use of a resonance membrane mounted on one of the holes that vibrates with the air column inside the tube. This membrane is called a di mo, which is usually a thin tissue paper. It gives the flute a bright sound.
Commonly seen flutes in the modern Chinese orchestra are the bangdi (梆 笛), qudi (曲 笛), xindi (新 笛), and dadi (大 笛). The bamboo flute played vertically is called the xiao (簫), which is a different category of wind instrument in China.
The Japanese flute, called the fue, 笛 (hiragana: ふえ), encompasses a large number of musical flutes from Japan, include the end - blown shakuhachi and hotchiku, as well as the transverse gakubue, komabue, ryūteki, nōkan, shinobue, kagurabue and minteki.
The sodina is an end - blown flute found throughout the island state of Madagascar, located in the Indian Ocean off southeastern Africa. One of the oldest instruments on the island, it bears close resemblance to end - blown flutes found in Southeast Asia and particularly Indonesia, where it is known as the suling, suggesting the predecessor to the sodina was carried to Madagascar in outrigger canoes by the island 's original settlers emigrating from Borneo. An image of the most celebrated contemporary sodina flutist, Rakoto Frah (d. 2001), was featured on the local currency.
The sring (also called blul) is a relatively small, end - blown flute with a nasal tone quality found in the Caucasus region of Eastern Armenia. It is made of wood or cane, usually with seven finger holes and one thumb hole, producing a diatonic scale. One Armenian musicologist believes the sring to be the most characteristic of national Armenian instruments.
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where did crying in the club come from | Crying in the Club - wikipedia
"Crying in the Club '' is the debut solo single by Cuban - American singer and songwriter Camila Cabello. It was written by Cabello, Sia, and Benny Blanco and produced by Blanco, Happy Perez and Cashmere Cat. A mid-tempo tropical pop and dance track, it was originally released on May 19, 2017 as the lead single from her debut studio album Camila, then titled The Hurting. The Healing. The Loving.
Despite being generally well received from critics, it only managed to attain moderate chart success and thus, was omitted from the album. Its music video premiered the same date. It is her first release as a solo artist since her departure from the girl group Fifth Harmony.
Cabello previously collaborated with producers Benny Blanco and Cashmere Cat on the latter 's song "Love Incredible '', recorded in May 2016. Following Cabello 's departure from the girl group Fifth Harmony, and after years of writing in her downtime, she began writing songs in earnest for her debut. In November 2016, during a writing session with Blanco, singer - songwriter Sia conceived the concept for a demo, and both composed the song. After Blanco offered her "Crying in the Club '', Cabello rewrote the song 's bridge and recorded the track. "It had a message about healing through the power of music, '' she said later, "That theme was a key part of what I wanted for my album. ''
The song was released on May 19, 2017 to digital music stores and streaming services, following several music collaborations by Cabello, including "Bad Things '' with Machine Gun Kelly -- which reached the top 10 on several Billboard charts. "Crying in the Club '' was serviced to US contemporary hit radio on May 23, 2017.
"Crying in the Club '' is a mid-tempo pop and dance track featuring a "subdued '' minor - key dance groove and dancehall - inspired beat. Some critics described it as a tropical track. Lyrically, the song contains themes of the healing powers of music and dancing your heartbreak away. The song samples Christina Aguilera 's "Genie in a Bottle '', written by David Frank, Steve Kipner and Pamela Sheyne. The song is written in the key of F ♯ minor, with Cabello 's vocals spanning from the low note of E3 to the high belted note of F ♯ 5. Sia Furler performed backing vocals for the song.
Writing for Billboard, Joe Lynch opined the song "demonstrates just enough vocal flair for the former Fifth Harmony star to escape the more generic tropes of top 40, '' while in Rolling Stone, Ryan Reed noted Cabello "finds emotional redemption '' in the song. Editors from Rap - Up wrote "the song blends island flavors with intense pop sounds, making it a dance - ready soundtrack for optimism. '' Anna Gaca of Spin described the song as a "dancehall - inspired beat that bears a passing resemblance to Sia 's ' Cheap Thrills '. '' Idolator writer Mike Wass called the song a "moody, mid-tempo bop '', and opined, "the 20 - year - old followed Sia 's demo a little too closely. She 's almost unrecognizable and that 's worrying for something trying to establish their independence. ''
Directed by Emil Nava, the song 's accompanying music video was released on May 19, 2017. The clip opens in black and white with Cabello standing against a brick wall, dancing through the fog and soaking in a tub as she performs the song "I Have Questions '', before transitioning into the song itself with the singer getting loose in a crowded club. The video has received positive reviews. Writing for Billboard, Gil Kaufman related the concept to Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde. In Rolling Stone, Ryan Reed opined the video "mirrors the song 's emotional journey. It opens with black - and - white shots of the singer crying and reclining in a bathtub before exploding with color in the nightclub. '' As of May 2018, the video has reached 143 million views on YouTube.
Cabello performed the song live for the first time at the 2017 Billboard Music Awards on May 21. The singer started her performance by singing "I Have Questions '' before transitioning into "Crying in the Club ''. Wearing sparkly gold attire, Cabello danced amid male backup dancers and drummers as fires burned behind them. The singer also performed the song on Britain 's Got Talent on May 31, and at the 2017 iHeartRadio Much Music Video Awards on June 18. Cabello delivered a "stripped - back '' acoustic rendition on The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon on June 22. Idolator 's Mike Wass considered it "her best live performance yet. '' She also included the song as a part of her setlist as an opening act on tour with Bruno Mars.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
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who is winning the election in south australia | South Australian state election, 2018 - wikipedia
Jay Weatherill Labor
Steven Marshall Liberal
The 2018 South Australian state election to elect members to the 54th Parliament of South Australia was held on 17 March 2018. All 47 seats in the House of Assembly or lower house, whose members were elected at the 2014 election, and 11 of 22 seats in the Legislative Council or upper house, last filled at the 2010 election, were contested. The record - 16 - year - incumbent Australian Labor Party (SA) government led by Premier Jay Weatherill was seeking a fifth four - year term, but was defeated by the opposition Liberal Party of Australia (SA), led by Opposition Leader Steven Marshall. Nick Xenophon 's new SA Best party unsuccessfully sought to obtain the balance of power.
Like federal elections, South Australia has compulsory voting, uses full - preference instant - runoff voting for single - member electorates in the lower house and optional preference single transferable voting in the proportionally represented upper house. The election was conducted by the Electoral Commission of South Australia (ECSA), an independent body answerable to Parliament.
South Australian state election, 17 March 2018 House of Assembly < < 2014 -- 2022 > >
^ a: Results final as of 5 April.
Independents: Frances Bedford, Troy Bell, Geoff Brock
The Liberal opposition formed a two - seat majority government with 25 of 47 seats, after retaining three of the four redistributed notionally Liberal seats won by Labor at the previous election (Colton, Elder and Newland) and winning the newly - created notionally ultra marginal Labor seat of King. The Labor government went in to opposition with 19 seats. Despite the change of government, there was actually a statewide two - party - preferred swing away from the Liberals toward Labor.
The seats of Colton, Elder, Mawson and Newland were won by Labor at the previous election, but the 2016 redistribution made them notionally Liberal seats. Colton, Elder and Newland were won by the Liberals; Mawson was retained by Labor.
South Australian state election, 17 March 2018 Legislative Council < < 2014 -- 2022 > >
^ b: Results final as of 23 April.
The 11 of 22 seats up for election were 4 Liberal, 4 Labor, 1 Green, 1 Conservative and 1 Dignity. The final outcome was 4 Liberal, 4 Labor, 2 SA Best and 1 Green. Conservative MLC Dennis Hood, who had been elected as a Family First MLC in 2014, defected to the Liberals nine days after the 2018 state election. The 22 seat upper house composition is therefore 9 Liberal on the government benches, 8 Labor on the opposition benches, and 5 to minor parties on the crossbench, consisting of 2 SA Best, 2 Green, and 1 Advance SA. The government therefore requires at least three additional non-government members to form a majority and carry votes on the floor.
elected 2018: David Ridgway Stephen Wade Terry Stephens Jing Lee
elected 2018: Emily Bourke Justin Hanson Irene Pnevmatikos Clare Scriven
elected 2018: Connie Bonaros Frank Pangallo
elected 2018: Tammy Franks
elected 2014: Rob Lucas John Dawkins Michelle Lensink Andrew McLachlan Dennis Hood ^ ^ defected from AC / FFP after 2018 election
elected 2014: Russell Wortley Ian Hunter Tung Ngo Kyam Maher
elected 2014: Mark Parnell
elected 2014: John Darley
Four hours after the close of polls, at approximately 10pm ACDST, incumbent Premier Jay Weatherill telephoned Steven Marshall and conceded defeat. Weatherill subsequently publicly announced that he had conceded, saying, "I 'm sorry I could n't bring home another victory, but I do feel like one of those horses that has won four Melbourne Cups and I think the handicap has caught up with us on this occasion. '' Marshall claimed victory saying, "A massive thank you to the people of South Australia who have put their trust, their faith in me and the Liberal team for a new dawn, a new dawn for South Australia! '' After the SA Best party failed to win a seat including Hartley, Nick Xenophon ruled out a return to federal politics.
Following the election outcome, Weatherill resigned as state Labor leader and returned to the backbench. Outgoing Minister for Health Peter Malinauskas became Leader of the Opposition, with outgoing Education Minister Susan Close as deputy, following a Labor caucus meeting on 9 April 2018.
Notably, the Liberals won 16 of the 33 metropolitan seats, their best showing in the Adelaide area since their landslide victory in 1993, when they took all but nine seats in the capital. Labor had spent all but 12 of the 48 years since the end of the Playmander in government due to its traditional dominance of Adelaide, home to over three - fourths of the state 's population. South Australia is by far the most centralised state in Australia, and so Adelaide decides election outcomes to a far greater extent than is the case with other state capitals. Since the end of the Playmander, most elections have seen Labor win most of the metropolitan seats, with most of the Liberal vote locked up in safe rural seats. In 2010, for instance, the Liberals won 51 percent of the two - party vote on a swing that should have been large enough to deliver them government. However, they only won nine seats in Adelaide, allowing Labor to eke out a two - seat majority. In 2014, while picking up a two percent two - party swing, the Liberals were only able to win an additional three seats in Adelaide.
Nick Xenophon announced a few SA Best lower house candidates. Polls had included Xenophon 's party as one of the four parties they monitored explicitly since February 2016. Originally, SA Best planned to only contest 12 seats. This was increased to 20. On 27 January, a landmark was passed when Xenophon announced eight new candidates, making a total of 24. This was the minimum number to be theoretically capable of forming majority government in the 47 - seat house. On 1 February, Xenophon said it was likely the total number of SA Best lower house candidates would be around 30.
After early opinion polls indicated that it could outperform other parties, the party ultimately contested 36 seats in the House of Assembly and put forward four candidates for the upper house.
Opinion polling indicated a strong performance for the party was possible in at least 10 seats.
Ultimately, the party failed to secure any lower house seats, although there was a close contest in the seat of Heysen. Xenophon lost the seat of Hartley, with un-finalised results indicating a two - party preferred vote of around 42 %. The party came second on primary votes in ten seats; the strongest results were in Chaffey, Finniss, and Hartley, where the party received over 25 %. SA Best did, however, secure two upper house positions, with the successful election of Connie Bonaros, the campaign manager, and Frank Pangallo, Xenophon 's former media advisor.
Following the election, NXT Senator Stirling Griff claimed that polling indicated a 5 % drop in SA Best 's vote as a direct result of negative advertisements by two major parties as well as the Australian Hotels Association (AHA). He also claimed paternity for an election ad that had been described as "wacky, cheesy '' and that that ad actually led to a polling bump for SA Best.
Cory Bernardi 's new party Australian Conservatives which merged with Family First Party with its two state incumbents Dennis Hood and Robert Brokenshire with the Australian Conservatives in April 2017 also ran its first election. It would not win any seats.
The table lists, according to The Poll Bludger website and based on the Nick Xenophon Team 's Senate vote performance at the 2016 federal election, the strongest SA Best seats.
Though most of the listed seats are safe Liberal seats, a third party or candidate with a substantial vote was believed to be more likely to be successful in a traditionally safe seat than a marginal seat due to it being easier to out - poll the comparatively low primary vote of the seat 's traditionally uncompetitive major party, usually before but occasionally after the distribution of preferences (see Frome state by - election, 2009). If the third party attracts enough first preference votes away from the dominant party, then it is possible that the preferences of voters for the second traditional party will assist the new party 's candidate to overtake and therefore defeat the incumbent on the two - candidate - preferred vote (rather than the normally pivotal two - party - preferred vote). According to The Poll Bludger, Nick Xenophon 's SA Best candidates "will stand an excellent chance in any seat where they are able to outpoll one or other major party, whose voters will overwhelmingly place them higher than the candidate of the rival major party. In that circumstance, the more strongly performing major party candidate will be in serious trouble unless their own primary vote approaches 50 %, which will be difficult to achieve in circumstances where approaching a quarter of the vote has gone to SA Best. ''
Analysis in December 2017 from polling company Essential Research found SA Best preference flows of 60 / 40 to Liberal / Labor, indicating that the substantial third party presence of SA Best is eating in to the Liberal vote somewhat greater than the Labor vote.
There were fourteen political parties registered with the Electoral Commission of South Australia at the time of the election, which were consequently eligible to field candidates for election. Aside from the major parties (Labor and Liberal parties), SA - Best, which polled higher figures than the major parties on occasion, ran in 36 seats, more than the 24 theoretically required to form government. The fourteen parties registered with the Commission were Advance SA, Animal Justice Party, Australian Conservatives, Child Protection Party, Danig Party of Australia, Dignity Party, the Australian Greens SA, Australian Labor Party (SA Branch) and Country Labor Party, Liberal Party of Australia (SA Division), Liberal Democratic Party, the National Party of Australia (SA) Inc, Nick Xenophon 's SA - BEST, and Stop Population Growth Now. Since the previous election, six new parties had registered: Danig Party of Australia, Animal Justice Party, Nick Xenophon 's SA - BEST, Australian Conservatives, Advance SA and the Child Protection Party. Four were no longer registered: FREE Australia Party, Fishing and Lifestyle Party, Multicultural Progress Party and the Family First Party.
Like federal elections, South Australia has compulsory voting and uses full - preference instant - runoff voting for single - member electorates in the lower house. However, following similar Senate changes which took effect from the 2016 federal election, South Australia 's single transferable vote in the proportionally represented upper house changed from group voting tickets to optional preferential voting − instructions for above the line votes were to mark ' 1 ' and then further preferences optional as opposed to preference flows from simply ' 1 ' above the line being determined by group voting tickets, while instructions for voters who instead opt to vote below the line were to provide at least twelve preferences as opposed to having to number all candidates, and with a savings provision to admit ballot papers which indicate at least six below - the - line preferences.
The 2014 election resulted in a hung parliament with 23 seats for Labor and 22 for the Liberals. The balance of power rested with the two crossbench independents, Bob Such and Geoff Brock. Such did not indicate who he would support in a minority government before he went on medical leave for a brain tumour, diagnosed one week after the election. University of Adelaide Professor and Political Commentator Clem Macintyre said the absence of Such virtually guaranteed that Brock would back Labor -- with 24 seats required to govern, Brock duly provided support to the incumbent Labor government, allowing Premier Jay Weatherill to continue in office as head of a minority government. Macintyre said:
If Geoff Brock had gone with the Liberals, then the Parliament would have effectively been tied 23 to 23, so once Bob Such became ill and stepped away then Geoff Brock, I think had no choice but to side with Labor.
The Liberals were reduced to 21 seats in May 2014 when Martin Hamilton - Smith became an independent and entered cabinet with Brock. Both Hamilton - Smith and Brock agreed to support the government on confidence and supply while retaining the right to otherwise vote on conscience. It is Labor 's longest - serving South Australian government and the second longest - serving South Australian government behind the Playmander - assisted Thomas Playford IV. Aside from Playford, it is the second time that any party has won four consecutive state elections in South Australia, the first occurred when Don Dunstan led Labor to four consecutive victories between 1970 and 1977. Recent hung parliaments occurred when Labor came to government at the 2002 election and prior to that at the 1997 election which saw the South Australian Division of the Liberal Party of Australia, created in 1974, win re-election for the first time. Following the 2014 election, Labor went from minority to majority government when Nat Cook won the 2014 Fisher by - election by five votes from a 7.3 percent two - party swing which was triggered by the death of Such. Despite this, the Jay Weatherill Labor government kept Brock and Hamilton - Smith in cabinet, giving the government a 26 to 21 parliamentary majority. Frances Bedford resigned from Labor and became an independent in March 2017 after minister Jack Snelling was endorsed for Florey pre-selection as a result of the major electoral redistribution ahead of the 2018 election. As with the rest of the crossbench, Bedford will continue to provide confidence and supply support to the incumbent Labor government. Duncan McFetridge resigned from the Liberals and moved to the crossbench as an independent in May 2017 after Stephen Patterson was endorsed for Morphett pre-selection. Troy Bell resigned from the Liberals and moved to the crossbench as an independent in August 2017 due to criminal financial allegations.
Independent Bob Such died from a brain tumour on 11 October 2014 which triggered a by - election in Fisher for 6 December. Labor 's Nat Cook won the by - election by nine votes with a 7.3 percent two - party swing against the Liberals, resulting in a change from minority to majority government. On a 0.02 percent margin it is the most marginal seat in parliament. Despite this, the Weatherill Labor government kept crossbench MPs Geoff Brock and Martin Hamilton - Smith in cabinet, giving the government a 26 to 21 parliamentary majority. ABC psephologist Antony Green described the by - election as a "very bad result for the Liberal Party in South Australia '' both state and federally, and that a fourth term government gaining a seat at a by - election is unprecedented in Australian history.
Liberal Iain Evans in Davenport resigned from parliament on 30 October 2014 which triggered a 2015 Davenport by - election for 31 January. Liberal Sam Duluk won the seat despite a five percent two - party swing, turning the historically safe seat of Davenport in to a two - party marginal seat for the first time. ABC psephologist Antony Green described it as "another poor result for the South Australian Liberal Party '', following the 2014 Fisher by - election which saw Labor go from minority to majority government.
Following the parliamentary resignation of former Labor Minister Bernard Finnigan on 12 November 2015 following his conviction for accessing child pornography. SDA secretary Peter Malinauskas filled the Legislative Council casual vacancy in a joint sitting of the Parliament of South Australia on 1 December.
Following the parliamentary resignation of Labor MLC Gerry Kandelaars on 17 February 2017, Justin Hanson filled the Legislative Council casual vacancy in a joint sitting of the Parliament of South Australia on 28 February.
The key dates for the 2018 election were:
The last state election was held on 15 March 2014 to elect members for the House of Assembly and half of the members in the Legislative Council. In South Australia, section 28 of the Constitution Act 1934, as amended in 2001, directs that parliaments have fixed four - year terms, and elections must be held on the third Saturday in March every four years unless this date falls the day after Good Friday, occurs within the same month as a Commonwealth election, or the conduct of the election could be adversely affected by a state disaster. Section 28 also states that the Governor may also dissolve the Assembly and call an election for an earlier date if the Government has lost the confidence of the Assembly or a bill of special importance has been rejected by the Legislative Council. Section 41 states that both the Council and the Assembly may also be dissolved simultaneously if a deadlock occurs between them.
The Electoral (Miscellaneous) Amendment Act 2013 introduced set dates for writs for general elections in South Australia. The writ sets the dates for the close of the electoral roll and the close of nominations for an election. The Electoral Act 1985 requires that, for a general election, the writ be issued 28 days before the date fixed for polling (S47 (2a)) and the electoral roll be closed at 12 noon, six days after the issue of the writ (S48 (3 (a) (i)). The close of nominations will be at 12 noon three days after the close of rolls (Electoral Act 1985 S48 (4) (a) and S4 (1)).
To produce "fair '' electoral boundaries, the Electoral Commission of South Australia (ECSA) has been required following the 1989 election to redraw boundaries after each election through a "fairness clause '' in the state constitution, with the objective that the party which receives over 50 percent of the statewide two - party vote at the forthcoming election should win the two - party vote in a majority of seats in terms of the two - party - preferred vote calculated in all seats regardless of any differing two - candidate - preferred vote.
The Electoral Districts Boundaries Commission released a new draft redistribution in August 2016, as calculated from the 24 Liberal − 23 Labor seat count by two - party vote as recorded in all 47 seats at the 2014 state election (subsequent by - election results including the significant 2014 Fisher by - election are not counted). The net change proposed would have seen a 25 Liberal − 22 Labor notional seat count.
The proposed changes in the draft redistribution contained significant boundary redrawing. Seven seats would be renamed − Ashford would become Badcoe, Mitchell would become Black, Bright would become Gibson, Fisher would become Hurtle Vale, Napier would become King, Goyder would become Narungga, while Little Para would once again become Elizabeth. In two - party terms since the previous election, the seats of Mawson and Elder would become notionally Liberal seats, while Hurtle Vale would become a notionally Labor seat. Mawson in the outer southern suburbs would geographically change the most, stretching along the coast right through to as far as and including Kangaroo Island. Hurtle Vale 's margin change of 9 percent would be the largest in the state, with Mawson to change 8.3 percent and King to change 8 percent.
Upon the release of the draft redistribution, Liberal MP Rachel Sanderson organised the mass distribution of a pro forma document in the two inner metropolitan suburbs of Walkerville and Gilberton, which aimed for residents to use the pro forma document to submit their objection to the commission in support of Sanderson 's campaign to keep the two suburbs in her seat of Adelaide, which in the draft would have been transferred to neighbouring Torrens. Sanderson 's position however was at odds with her own party 's submission which in fact agreed with the commission that Walkerville should be transferred to Torrens. Under the commission 's draft proposal, the Liberal margin in Adelaide would have been reduced from 2.4 percent to 0.6 percent, but would have also resulted in the Labor margin in Torrens reduced from 3.5 percent to 1.1 percent. Of a record 130 total submissions received in response to the draft redistribution, about 100 (over three quarters of all submissions) were from Walkerville and Gilberton. As a result, the commission reversed the draft decision in the final publication.
Along with other various alterations in the final publication released in December 2016, in addition to Hurtle Vale becoming a notionally Labor seat and Mawson and Elder becoming notionally Liberal seats in the draft redistribution, the final redistribution additionally turned Newland and the bellwether of Colton in to notionally Liberal seats. These further changes provide a 27 Liberal − 20 Labor notional seat count in two - party terms, a net change of three seats from Labor to Liberal since the previous election.
Labor objected to the commission 's interpretation of the fairness requirements and appealed against it to the Supreme Court of South Australia in accordance with the provisions of the Constitution Act 1934 (SA). Labor sought to have the redistribution order quashed and have the Boundaries Commission make a fresh redistribution. The Grounds of Appeal were stated to relate to the Commission 's interpretation of section 77 relating to the number of electors in each electoral district, with the redistribution reducing the number of voters in rural seats and increasing the number of voters in metropolitan seats, though still within the one vote one value 10 percent tolerance. The Supreme Court appeal was rejected on 10 March 2017. Labor considered but decided against an appeal to the High Court.
Below post-redistribution margins listed were calculated by the South Australian Electoral Districts Boundaries Commission, and differ somewhat from those calculated by the ABC 's Antony Green. The EDBC is the only redistribution authority in Australia that is required to examine voting patterns in drawing electoral boundaries, and in doing so, assume that the proportion of each party 's vote in the declaration vote (postal, pre-poll and absent votes) is evenly distributed across the whole of each former electorate. Antony Green 's margin estimates are more accurately calculated using declaration votes from the redistributed polling booths.
Retiring members are shown in italic text.
The July to September 2014 Newspoll saw Labor leading the Liberals on the two - party preferred (2PP) vote for the first time since 2009. The October to December 2015 Newspoll saw Marshall 's leadership approval rating plummet 11 points to 30 percent, the equal lowest Newspoll approval rating in history for a South Australian Opposition Leader since Dale Baker in 1990.
The first state - level Newspoll to be conducted in two years, in late 2017, did not publish a 2PP figure, claiming that calculating it had become difficult due to the large third - party primary vote of SA Best. Roy Morgan ceased publishing a 2PP figure from January 2018.
Essential polling 's 2PP figures were calculated with approximated SA Best preference flows of 60 / 40 to Liberal / Labor.
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when was the last time astros win the world series | Houston Astros - wikipedia
The Houston Astros are an American professional baseball team based in Houston, Texas. The Astros compete in Major League Baseball (MLB) as a member club of the American League (AL) West division, having moved to the division in 2013 after spending their first 51 seasons in the National League (NL). The Astros have played their home games at Minute Maid Park since 2000.
The Astros were established as the Houston Colt. 45s and entered the National League as an expansion team in 1962 along with the New York Mets. The current name -- reflecting Houston 's role as the control center of the U.S. space program -- was adopted three years later, when they moved into the Astrodome, the world 's first domed sports stadium.
The Astros played in the NL from 1962 to 2012. They played in the West Division from 1969 to 1993, and the Central Division from 1994 to 2012. While a member of the NL, the Astros played in one World Series, in 2005, against the Chicago White Sox, in which they were swept in four games. In 2017, they became the first franchise in MLB history to have won a pennant in both the NL and the AL, when they defeated the New York Yankees in the ALCS. They subsequently won the 2017 World Series against the Los Angeles Dodgers, winning four games to three, earning the team, and Texas, its first World Series title.
From 1888 until 1961, Houston 's professional baseball club was the minor league Houston Buffaloes. Although expansion from the National League eventually brought an MLB team to Texas in 1962, Houston officials had been making efforts to do so for years prior. There were four men chiefly responsible for bringing Major League Baseball to Houston: George Kirksey and Craig Cullinan, who had led a futile attempt to purchase the St. Louis Cardinals in 1952; R.E. "Bob '' Smith, a prominent oilman and real estate magnate in Houston who was brought in for his financial resources; and Judge Roy Hofheinz, a former Mayor of Houston and Harris County Judge who was recruited for his salesmanship and political style. They formed the Houston Sports Association as their vehicle for attaining a big league franchise for the city of Houston.
Given MLB 's refusal to consider expansion, Kirksey, Cullinan, Smith, and Hofheinz joined forces with would - be owners from other cities and announced the formation of a new league to compete with the established National and American Leagues. They called the new league the Continental League. Wanting to protect potential new markets, both existing leagues chose to expand from eight teams to ten. However, plans eventually fell through for the Houston franchise after the Houston Buffaloes owner, Marty Marion, could not come to an agreement with the HSA to sell the team. To make matters worse, the Continental League as a whole folded in August 1960.
However, on October 17, 1960, the National League granted an expansion franchise to the Houston Sports Association in which their team could begin play in the 1962 season. According to the Major League Baseball Constitution, the Houston Sports Association was required to obtain territorial rights from the Houston Buffaloes in order to play in the Houston area, and again negotiations began to purchase the team. Eventually, the Houston Sports Association succeeded in purchasing the Houston Buffaloes, at this point majority - owned by William Hopkins, on January 17, 1961. The Buffs played one last minor league season as the top farm team of the Chicago Cubs in 1961 before being succeeded by the city 's NL club.
The new Houston team was named the Colt. 45s after a "Name The Team '' contest was won by William Irving Neder. The Colt. 45 was well known as "the gun that won the west. '' The colors selected were navy blue and orange. The first team was formed mostly through an expansion draft after the 1961 season. The Colt. 45s and their expansion cousins, the New York Mets, took turns choosing players left unprotected by the other National League franchises.
Many of those associated with the Houston Buffaloes organization were allowed by the ownership to continue in the major league. Manager Harry Craft, who had joined Houston in 1961, remained in the same position for the team until the end of the 1964 season. General manager Spec Richardson also continued with the organization as business manager, but was later promoted again to the same position with the Astros from 1967 until 1975. Although most players for the major league franchise were obtained through the 1961 Major League Baseball expansion draft, Buffs players J.C. Hartman, Pidge Browne, Jim Campbell, Ron Davis, Dave Giusti, and Dave Roberts were chosen to continue as major league ball players.
Similarly, the radio broadcasting team remained with the new Houston major league franchise. Loel Passe worked alongside Gene Elston as a color commentator until he retired from broadcasting in 1976. Elston continued with the Astros until 1986.
The Colt. 45s began their existence playing at Colt Stadium, a temporary venue built just north of the construction site of the indoor stadium.
The Colt. 45s started their inaugural season on April 10, 1962, against the Chicago Cubs with Harry Craft as the Colt. 45s ' manager. Bob Aspromonte scored the first run for the Colt. 45s on an Al Spangler triple in the first inning. They started the season with a three - game sweep of the Cubs but eventually finished eighth among the National League 's ten teams. The team 's best pitcher, Richard "Turk '' Farrell, lost 20 games despite an ERA of 3.02. A starter for the Colt. 45s, Farrell was primarily a relief pitcher prior to playing for Houston. He was selected to both All - Star Games in 1962.
The 1963 season saw more young talent mixed with seasoned veterans. Jimmy Wynn, Rusty Staub, and Joe Morgan all made their major league debuts in the 1963 season. However, Houston 's position in the standings did not improve. In fact, the Colt. 45s finished in ninth place with a 66 -- 96 record. The team was still building, trying to find that perfect mix to compete. The 1964 campaign began on a sad note, as relief pitcher Jim Umbricht died of cancer at the age of 33 on April 8, just before Opening Day. Umbricht was the only Colt. 45s pitcher to post a winning record in Houston 's first two seasons. He was so well liked by players and fans that the team retired his jersey number, 32, in 1965.
Just on the horizon, the structure of the new domed stadium was more prevalent and it would soon change the way that baseball was watched in Houston and around the league. On December 1, 1964, the team announced the name change from Colt. 45s to "Astros. ''
With Judge Roy Hofheinz now the sole owner of the franchise and the new venue complete, the renamed "Astros '' moved into their new domed stadium, the Astrodome, in 1965. The name honored Houston 's position as the center of the nation 's space program; NASA 's new Manned Spacecraft Center had recently opened southeast of the city. The Astrodome, coined the "Eighth Wonder of the World '', did little to improve the home team 's results on the field. While several "indoor '' firsts were accomplished, the team still finished ninth in the standings. The attendance was high not because of the team accomplishments, but because people came from miles around to see the Astrodome.
Just as the excitement was settling down over the Astrodome, the 1966 season found something new to put the domed stadium in the spotlight once again -- the field. Grass would not grow in the new park, since the roof panels had been painted to reduce the glare that was causing players on both the Astros and the visiting teams to miss routine pop flies. A new artificial turf was created called "AstroTurf '' and Houston would be involved in yet another change in the way the game was played.
With new manager Grady Hatton the Astros started the 1966 season strong. By May they were in second place in the National League and looked like a team that could contend. Joe Morgan was named as a starter on the All - Star Team. The success did not last as they lost Jimmy Wynn for the season after he crashed into an outfield fence in Philadelphia and Morgan had broken his knee cap. 1967 saw first baseman Eddie Mathews join the Astros. The slugger hit his 500th home run while in Houston. He would be traded late in the season and Doug Rader would be promoted to the big leagues. Rookie Don Wilson pitched a no - hitter on June 18. Wynn also provided some enthusiasm in 1967. The 5 ft 9 in Wynn was becoming known not only for how often he hit home runs, but also for how far he hit them. Wynn set club records with 37 home runs, and 107 RBIs. It was also in 1967 that Wynn hit his famous home run onto Interstate 75 in Cincinnati. As the season came to a close, the Astros found themselves again in ninth place and with a winning percentage below. 500. The team looked good on paper, but could not make it work on the field.
April 15, 1968 saw a pitching duel for the ages. The Astros ' Don Wilson and the Mets ' Tom Seaver faced each other in a pitching duel that lasted six hours. Seaver went ten innings, allowing no walks and just two hits. Wilson went nine innings, allowing five hits and three walks. After the starters exited, eleven relievers (seven for the Mets and four for the Astros) tried to end the game. The game finally ended in the 24th inning when Aspromonte hit a shot toward Mets shortstop Al Weis. Weis had been perfect all night at short, but he was not quick enough to make the play. The ball zipped into left field, allowing Norm Miller to score.
With baseball expansion and trades, the Astros had dramatically changed in 1969. Aspromonte was sent to the Braves and Staub was traded to the expansion Montreal Expos, in exchange for outfielder Jesús Alou and first baseman Donn Clendenon. However, Clendenon refused to report to Houston, electing to retire and take job with a pen manufacturing company. The Astros asked Commissioner Bowie Kuhn to void the trade, but he refused. Instead, he awarded Jack Billingham and a left - handed relief pitcher to the Astros to complete the trade. Cuellar was traded to the Baltimore Orioles for Curt Blefary. Other new players included catcher Johnny Edwards, infielder Denis Menke, and pitcher Denny Lemaster. Wilson continued to pitch brilliantly and on May 1 threw the second no - hitter of his career. In that game, he struck out 18 batters, tying what was then the all - time single - game mark. He was just 24 years of age and was second to only Sandy Koufax for career no - hit wins. Wilson 's no - hitter lit the Astros ' fire after a miserable month of April, and six days later the team tied a major league record by turning seven double plays in a game. By May 's end the Astros had put together a ten - game winning streak. The Houston infield tandem of Menke and Joe Morgan continued to improve, providing power at the plate and great defense. Morgan had 15 homers and stole 49 bases while Menke led the Astros with 90 RBIs. The Menke / Morgan punch was beginning to come alive, and the team was responding to Walker 's management style. The Astros dominated the season series against their expansion twins, the New York Mets, that season. In one game at New York, Denis Menke and Jimmy Wynn hit grand slams in the same inning, against a Mets team that would go on to win the World Series that same year. The Astros finished the 1969 season with a record of 81 wins, 81 losses, marking their first season of. 500 ball.
In 1970, the Astros were expected to be a serious threat in the National League West. In June, 19 - year - old César Cedeño was called up and immediately showed signs of being a superstar. The Dominican outfielder batted. 310 after being called up. Not to be outdone, Denis Menke batted. 304 and Jesús Alou batted. 306. The Astros ' batting average was up by 19 points compared to the season before. The team looked good, but the Astros ' ERA was up. Larry Dierker and Don Wilson had winning records, but the pitching staff as a whole had an off season. Houston finished in fourth place in 1970.
The fashion trends of the 1970s had started taking root in baseball. Long hair and loud colors were starting to appear on team uniforms, including the Astros '. In 1971 the Astros made some changes to their uniform: they kept the same style they had in previous seasons, but inverted the colors. What was navy blue was now orange and what was orange was now a lighter shade of blue. The players ' last names were added to the back of the jerseys. In 1972, the uniform fabric was also changed to what was at the time revolutionizing the industry -- polyester. Belts were replaced by elastic waistbands, and jerseys zipped up instead of having buttons. The uniforms became popular with fans, but would last only until 1975, when the Astros would shock baseball and the fashion world.
The uniforms were about the only thing that did change in 1971. The acquisition of Roger Metzger from the Chicago Cubs in the off - season moved Menke to first base and Bob Watson to the outfield. The Astros got off to a slow start and the pitching and hitting averages were down. Larry Dierker was selected to the All - Star game in 1971, but due to an arm injury he could not make it. César Cedeño led the club with 81 RBIs and the league with 40 doubles, but batted just. 264 and had 102 strikeouts in his second season with the Astros. Pitcher J.R. Richard made his debut in September of the 1971 season against the Giants.
In November 1971 the Astros and Cincinnati Reds made one of the biggest blockbuster trades in the history of the sport, and helped create The Big Red Machine of the 1970s, with the Reds getting the better end of the deal. Houston sent second baseman Joe Morgan, infielder Denis Menke, pitcher Jack Billingham, outfielder César Gerónimo and prospect Ed Armbrister to Cincinnati for first baseman Lee May, second baseman Tommy Helms and infielder Jimmy Stewart. The trade left Astros fans and the baseball world scratching their heads as to why General Manager Spec Richardson would give up so much for so little. The Reds, on the other hand, would shore up many problems. They had an off year in 1971, but were the National League Pennant winner in 1972.
The Astros ' acquisition of Lee May added more power to the lineup in 1972. May, Wynn, Rader and Cedeño all had 20 or more home runs and Watson hit 16. Cedeño also led the Astros with a. 320 batting average, 55 stolen bases and made spectacular plays on the field. Cedeño made his first All - Star game in 1972 and became the first Astros player in team history to hit for the cycle in August versus the Reds. The Astros finished the strike - shortened season at 84 - 69, their first winning season.
Astros fans had hoped for more of the same in 1973, but it was not to be. The Astros run production was down, even though the same five sluggers the year before were still punching the ball out of the park. Lee May led the Astros with 28 home runs and Cesar Cedeño batted. 320 with 25 home runs. Bob Watson hit the. 312 mark and drove in 94 runs. Doug Rader and Jimmy Wynn both had 20 or more home runs. However, injuries to their pitching staff limited the Astros to an 82 -- 80 fourth - place finish. The Astros again finished in fourth place the next year under new manager Preston Gómez.
With the $38 million deficit of the Astrodome, control of the Astrodomain was passed from Judge Roy Hofheinz to GE Credit and Ford Motor Credit. This included the Astros. The creditors were just interested in preserving asset value of the team, so any money spent had to be found or saved somewhere else. Tal Smith returned to the Astros from the New York Yankees to find a team that needed a lot of work and did not have a lot of money. However, there would be some bright spots that would prove to be good investments in the near future.
The year started on a sad note. Pitcher Don Wilson was found dead in the passenger seat of his car on January 5, 1975. Cause of death was asphyxiation by carbon monoxide. Wilson was 29 years old. Wilson 's number 40 was retired on April 13, 1975.
The 1975 season saw the introduction of the Astros ' new uniforms. Many teams were going away from the traditional uniform and the Astros were no exception. The uniforms had multishade stripes of orange, red and yellow in front and in back behind a large dark blue star over the midsection. The same stripes ran down the pant legs. Players numbers not only appeared on the back of the jersey, but also on the pant leg. The bright stripes were meant to appear as a fiery trail like a rocket sweeping across the heavens. The uniforms were panned by critics, but the public liked them and versions started appearing at the high school and little league level. The uniform was so different from what other teams wore that the Astros wore it both at home and on the road until 1980.
Besides the bright new uniforms there were some other changes. Lee May was traded to Baltimore for much talked about rookie second baseman Rob Andrews and utility player Enos Cabell. In Baltimore, Cabell was stuck behind third baseman Brooks Robinson, but he took advantage of his opportunity in Houston and became their everyday third baseman. Cabell would go on to become a big part of the team 's success in later years. With May gone, Bob Watson was able to move to first base and was a bright spot in the line up, batting. 324 with 85 RBI.
The two biggest moves the Astros made in the offseason were the acquisitions of Joe Niekro and José Cruz. The Astros bought Niekro from the Braves for almost nothing. Niekro had bounced around the big leagues with minimal success. His older brother Phil Niekro had started teaching Joe how to throw his knuckleball and Joe was just starting to use it when he came to the Astros. Niekro won six games, saved four games and had an ERA of 3.07. José Cruz was also a steal, in retrospect, from the Cardinals. Cruz became a fixture in the Astros ' outfield for several years and would eventually have his number 25 retired.
Despite high expectations, 1975 was among the Astros ' worst in franchise history. Their record of 64 -- 97 was far worse than even the expansion Colt. 45 's and would remain the worst record in franchise history until 2011. It was the worst record in baseball and manager Preston Gómez was fired late in the season and replaced by Bill Virdon. The Astros played. 500 ball under Virdon in the last 34 games of the season. With Virdon as the manager the Astros improved greatly in 1976 finishing in third place with an 80 -- 82 record. A healthy César Cedeño was a key reason for the Astros ' success in 1976. Bob Watson continued to show consistency and led the club with a. 313 average and 102 RBI. José Cruz became Houston 's everyday left fielder and hit. 303 with 28 stolen bases. 1976 saw the end of Larry Dierker 's playing career as an Astro, but before it was all over he would throw a no - hitter and win the 1,000 th game in the Astrodome. The Astros finished in third place again in 1977 with a record of 81 -- 81.
One of the big problems the Astros had in the late 1970s was that they were unable to compete in the free agent market. Ford Motor Credit Company was still in control of the team and was looking to sell the Astros, but they were not going to spend money on better players. Most of the talent was either farm grown or bought on the cheap.
The 1979 season would prove to be a big turnaround in Astros history. During the offseason, the Astros made an effort to fix some of their problem areas. They traded Floyd Bannister to Seattle for shortstop Craig Reynolds and acquired catcher Alan Ashby from Toronto for pitcher Mark Lemongello. Reynolds and Ashby were both solid in their positions and gave Houston some much needed consistency. The season started with a boost from pitcher Ken Forsch, who threw a no - hitter the Braves the second game of the season. In May 1979, New Jersey shipping tycoon Dr. John McMullen had agreed to buy the Astros. Now with an investor in charge, the Astros would be more likely to compete in the free agent market.
The Astros were playing great baseball throughout the season. José Cruz and Enos Cabell both stole 30 bases. Joe Niekro had a great year with 21 wins and 3.00 ERA. J.R. Richard won 18 games and set a new personal strikeout record at 313. Joe Sambito came into his own with 22 saves as the Astros closer. Things were going as they should for a team that could win the west. The Astros and Reds battled the final month of the season. The Reds pulled ahead of the Astros by a game and a half. Later that month they split a pair and the Reds kept the lead. That would be how it would end. The Astros finished with their best record to that point at 89 -- 73 and 11⁄2 games behind the NL winner Reds.
With Dr. McMullen as sole owner of the Astros, the team would now benefit in ways a corporation could not give them. The rumors of the Astros moving out of Houston started to crumble and the Astros were now able to compete in the free - agent market. McMullen showed the city of Houston that he too wanted a winning team, signing nearby Alvin, Texas native Nolan Ryan to the first million - dollar - a-year deal. Ryan had four career no - hitters already and had struck out 383 in one season.
Joe Morgan returned in 1980. Now back in Houston with two MVP awards and two World Series rings, Morgan wanted to help make the Astros a pennant winner.
The 1980 pitching staff was one of the best Houston ever had, with the fastball of Ryan, the knuckleball of Joe Niekro and the terrifying 6 ft 8 in frame of J.R. Richard. Teams felt lucky to face Ken Forsch, who was a double - digit winner in the previous two seasons. Richard became the first Astros pitcher to start an All - Star game. After a medical examination three days later, Richard was told to rest his arm and he collapsed during a July 30 workout. He had suffered a stroke after a blood clot in the arm apparently moved to his neck and cut off blood flow to the brain. Surgery was done to save his life, but the Astros had lost their ace pitcher after a 10 -- 4 start with a stingy 1.89 ERA. Richard attempted a comeback, but would never again pitch a big league game.
After the loss of Richard and some offensive struggles, the Astros slipped to third place in the division behind the Dodgers and the Reds. They bounced back to first with a ten - game winning streak, but the Dodgers had regained a two - game lead when they arrived in Houston on September 9. The Astros won the first two games of that series and the two teams were tied for the division lead. The Astros held a three - game lead over the Dodgers with three games left in the season against the Dodgers. The Dodgers swept the series games, forcing a one - game playoff the next day. The Astros would however win the one - game playoff 7 - 1, and advance to their first post-season.
The team would face the Philadelphia Phillies in the 1980 National League Championship Series. The Phillies sent out Steve Carlton in game one of the NLCS after a six - hour flight the night before. The Phillies would win the opener after the Astros got out to a 1 - 0 third - inning lead. Ken Forsch pitched particularly strong fourth and fifth innings, but Greg Luzinski hit a sixth - inning two - run bomb to the 300 level seats of Veterans Stadium. The Phillies added an insurance run on the way to a 3 -- 1 win. Houston bounced back to win games two and three. Game four went into extra innings, with the Phillies taking the lead and the win in the tenth inning. Pete Rose started a rally with a one - out single, then Luzinski doubled off the left field wall and Rose bowled over catcher Bruce Bochy to score the go - ahead run. The Phillies got an insurance run on the way to tying the series.
Rookie Phillies pitcher Marty Bystrom was sent out by Philadelphia manager Dallas Green to face veteran Nolan Ryan in Game Five. The rookie gave up a run in the first inning, then held the Astros at bay until the sixth inning. An Astros lead was lost when Bob Boone hit a two - out single in the second, but the Astros tied the game in the sixth with an Alan Ashby single scoring Denny Walling. Houston took a 5 -- 2 lead in the seventh, however the Phillies came back with five runs in the inning. The Astros came back against Tug McGraw with four singles and two two - out runs. Now in extra innings, Garry Maddox doubled in Del Unser with one out to give the Phillies an 8 -- 7 lead. The Astros failed to score in the bottom of the tenth.
A 1981 player strike ran between June 12 and August 10. Ultimately, the strike would help the Astros get into the playoffs. Nolan Ryan and Bob Knepper picked up steam in the second half of the season. Ryan threw his fifth no - hitter on September 26 and finished the season with a 1.69 ERA. Knepper finished with an ERA of 2.18. In the wake of the strike, Major League Baseball took the winners of each "half '' season and set up a best - of - five divisional playoff. The Reds won more games than any other team in the National League, but they won neither half of the strike - divided season. The Astros finished 61 -- 49 overall, which would have been third in the division behind the Reds and the Dodgers. Advancing to the playoffs as winners of the second half, Houston beat Los Angeles in their first two playoff games at home, but the Dodgers took the next three in Los Angeles to advance to the NLCS.
By 1982, only four players and three starting pitchers remained from the 1980 squad. The Astros were out of pennant contention by August and began rebuilding for the near future. Bill Virdon was fired as manager and replaced by original Colt. 45 Bob Lillis. Don Sutton asked to be traded and was sent to the Milwaukee Brewers for cash and the team gained three new prospects, including Kevin Bass. Minor league player Bill Doran was called up in September. Bass also got a look in the outfield. The Astros finished fourth in the west, but new talent was starting to appear.
Before the 1983 season, the Astros traded Danny Heep to the Mets for pitcher Mike Scott, a 28 - year - old who had struggled with New York. Art Howe sat out the 1983 season with an injury, forcing Phil Garner to third and Ray Knight to first. Doran took over at second, becoming the everyday second baseman for the next seven seasons. The Astros finished third in the National League West. The 1984 season started off badly when shortstop Dickie Thon was hit in the head by a pitch and was lost for the season. In September, the Astros called up rookie Glenn Davis after he posted impressive numbers in AAA. The Astros finished in second place. In 1985, Mike Scott learned a new pitch, the split - finger fastball. Scott, who was coming off of a 5 -- 11 season, had found his new pitch and would become one of Houston 's most celebrated hurlers. In June, Davis made the starting lineup at first base, adding power to the team. In September, Joe Niekro was traded to the Yankees for two minor league pitchers and lefty Jim Deshaies. The Astros finished in fourth place in 1985.
After finishing fourth in 1985, the Astros fired general manager Al Rosen and manager Bob Lillis. The former was supplanted by Dick Wagner, the man whose Reds defeated the Astros to win the 1979 NL West title. The latter was replaced by Hal Lanier who, like his manager mentor in St. Louis, Whitey Herzog, had a hard - nosed approach to managing and espoused a playing style that focused on pitching, defense, and speed rather than home runs to win games. This style of baseball, known as Whiteyball, took advantage of stadiums with deep fences and artificial turf, both of which were characteristics of the Astrodome. Lanier 's style of baseball took Houston by storm. Before Lanier took over, fans were accustomed to Houston 's occasional slow starts, but with Lanier leading the way, Houston got off to a hot start, winning 13 of their first 19 contests.
Prior to the start of the season the Astros acquired outfielder Billy Hatcher from the Cubs for Jerry Mumphrey. Lainer also made a change in the pitching staff, going with a three - man rotation to start the season. This allowed Lanier to keep his three starters (Nolan Ryan, Bob Knepper, and Mike Scott) sharp and to slowly work in rookie hurler Jim Deshaies. Bill Doran and Glenn Davis held down the right side of the field but Lainer rotated the left side. Denny Walling and Craig Reynolds faced the right - handed pitchers while Phil Garner and Dickie Thon batted against left - handers. Lainer knew the Astros had talent and he put it to work.
The Astrodome was host to the 1986 All - Star Game in which Astros Mike Scott, Kevin Bass, Glenn Davis, and Dave Smith represented the host field. The Astros kept pace with the NL West after the All - Star break. They went on a streak of five straight come - from - behind wins. Houston swept a key 3 - game series over the San Francisco Giants in late September to clinch the division title. Mike Scott took the mound in the final game of the series and pitched a no - hitter -- the only time in MLB history that any division was clinched via a no - hitter. Scott would finish the season with an 18 -- 10 record and a Cy Young Award.
The 1986 National League Championship Series against the New York Mets was noted for great drama and is considered one of the best postseason series ever. In Game 3, the Astros were ahead at Shea Stadium, 5 -- 4, in the bottom of the 9th when closer Dave Smith gave up a two - run home run to Lenny Dykstra, giving the Mets a dramatic 6 -- 5 win.
However, the signature game of the series was Game 6. Needing a win to get to Mike Scott (who had been dominant in the series) in Game 7, the Astros jumped off to a 3 -- 0 lead in the first inning but neither team would score again until the 9th inning. In the 9th, starting pitcher Bob Knepper would give up two runs, and once again the Astros would look to Dave Smith to close it out. However, Smith would walk Gary Carter and Darryl Strawberry, giving up a sacrifice fly to Ray Knight, tying the game. Despite having the go - ahead runs on base, Smith was able to escape the inning without any further damage.
There was no scoring until the 14th inning when the Mets would take the lead on a Wally Backman single and an error by left fielder Billy Hatcher. The Astros would get the run back in the bottom of the 14th when Hatcher (in a classic goat - to - hero - conversion - moment) hit one of the most dramatic home runs in NLCS history, off the left field foul pole. In the 16th inning, Darryl Strawberry doubled to lead off the inning and Ray Knight drove him home in the next at - bat. The Mets would score a total of three runs in the inning to take what appeared an insurmountable 7 -- 4 lead. With their season on the line, the Astros would nonetheless rally for two runs to come to within 7 -- 6. Kevin Bass came up with the tying and winning runs on base; however Jesse Orosco would strike him out, ending the game. At the time the 16 - inning game held the record for the longest in MLB postseason history. The Mets won the series, 4 - 2.
After the 1986 season, the team had difficulty finding success again. Several changes occurred. The "rainbow '' uniforms were phased out, the team electing to keep a five - stripe "rainbow '' design on the sleeves. From 1987 to 1993, the Astros wore the same uniform for both home and away games; the only team in Major League Baseball to do so during that period. Its favorites Nolan Ryan and José Cruz moved on and the team entered a rebuilding phase. Craig Biggio debuted in June 1988, joining new prospects Ken Caminiti and Gerald Young. Biggio would become the everyday catcher by 1990. A trade acquiring Jeff Bagwell in exchange for Larry Andersen would become one of the biggest deals in Astros history. Glenn Davis was traded to Baltimore for Curt Schilling, Pete Harnisch and Steve Finley in 1990.1990 -- 1999: Fine tuning
The early 1990s were marked by the Astros ' growing discontent with their home, the Astrodome. After the Astrodome was renovated for the primary benefit of the NFL 's Houston Oilers (who shared the Astrodome with the Astros since the 1960s), the Astros began to grow increasingly disenchanted with the facility. Faced with declining attendance at the Astrodome and the inability of management to obtain a new stadium, in the 1991 off - season Astros management announced its intention to sell the team and move the franchise to the Washington, D.C. area. However, the move was not approved by other National League owners, thus compelling the Astros to remain in Houston. Shortly thereafter, McMullen (who also owned the NHL 's New Jersey Devils) sold the team to Texas businessman Drayton McLane in 1993, who committed to keeping the team in Houston.
Shortly after McLane 's arrival, which coincided with the maturation of Bagwell and Biggio, the Astros began to show signs of consistent success. After finishing second in their division in 1994 (in a strike year), 1995, and 1996, the Astros won consecutive division titles in 1997, 1998, and 1999. In the 1998 season, the Astros set a team record with 102 victories. However, each of these titles was followed by a first - round playoff elimination, in 1998 by the San Diego Padres and in 1997 and 1999 against the Atlanta Braves. The manager of these title teams was Larry Dierker, who had previously been a broadcaster and pitcher for the Astros. During this period, Bagwell, Biggio, Derek Bell, and Sean Berry earned the collective nickname "The Killer Bs ''. In later seasons, the name came to include other Astros, especially Lance Berkman.
Coinciding with the change in ownership, the team switched uniforms and team colors after the 1993 season in order to go for a new, more serious image. The team 's trademark rainbow uniforms were retired, and the team 's colors changed to midnight blue and metallic gold. The "Astros '' font on the team logo was changed to a more aggressive one, and the team 's traditional star logo was changed to a stylized, "flying '' star with an open left end. It marked the first time since the team 's inception that orange was not part of the team 's colors. Despite general agreement that the rainbow uniforms identified with the team had become tired (and looked too much like a minor league team according to the new owners), the new uniforms and caps were never especially popular with many Astros fans.
Off the field, in 1994, the Astros hired one of the first African American general managers, former franchise player Bob Watson. Watson would leave the Astros after the 1995 season to become general manager of the New York Yankees and helped to lead the Yankees to a World Championship in 1996. He would be replaced by Gerry Hunsicker, who until 2004 would continue to oversee the building of the Astros into one of the better and most consistent organizations in the Major Leagues.
However, in 1996, the Astros again nearly left Houston. By the mid-1990s, McLane (like McMullen before him) wanted his team out of the Astrodome and was asking the city to build the Astros a new stadium. When things did not progress quickly toward that end, he put the team up for sale. He had nearly finalized a deal to sell the team to businessman William Collins, who planned to move them to Northern Virginia. However, Collins was having difficulty finding a site for a stadium himself, so Major League owners stepped in and forced McLane to give Houston another chance to grant his stadium wish. Houston voters, having already lost the Houston Oilers in a similar situation, responded positively via a stadium referendum and the Astros stayed put.
The 2000 season saw a move to a new stadium. Originally to be named The Ballpark at Union Station due to being located on the site of Union Station (Houston), it was renamed Enron Field by the season opening after the naming rights were sold to energy corporation Enron. The stadium was to feature a retractable roof, a particularly useful feature with unpredictable Houston weather. The ballpark also featured more intimate surroundings than the Astrodome. In 2002, naming rights were purchased by Houston - based Minute Maid, after Enron went bankrupt. The park was built on the grounds of the old Union Station. A locomotive moves across the outfield and whistles after home runs, paying homage to a Houston history which had eleven railroad company lines running through the city by 1860. The ballpark previously contained quirks such as "Tal 's Hill '', which was a hill in deep center field on which a flagpole stood, all in fair territory. Tal 's Hill was replaced in the 2016 -- 2017 offseason. The wall was moved in to 409 feet, which the team hoped would generate more home runs. A similar feature was located in Crosley Field. Over the years, many highlight reel catches have been made by center fielders running up the hill to make catches. With the change in location also came a change in attire. Gone were the blue and gold uniforms of the 1990s in favor a more "retro '' look with pinstripes, a traditional baseball font, and the colors of brick red, sand and black. These colors were chosen because ownership originally wanted to rename the team the Houston Diesels. The "shooting star '' logo was modified but still retained its definitive look.
After two fairly successful seasons without a playoff appearance, the Astros were early favorites to win the 2004 NL pennant. They added star pitcher Andy Pettitte to a roster that already included standouts like Lance Berkman and Jeff Kent as well as veterans Bagwell and Biggio. Roger Clemens, who had retired after the 2003 season with the New York Yankees, agreed to join former teammate Pettitte on the Astros for 2004. The one - year deal included unique conditions, such as the option for Clemens to stay home in Houston on select road trips when he was n't scheduled to pitch. Despite the early predictions for success, the Astros had a mediocre 44 -- 44 record at the All - Star break. A lack of run production and a poor record in close games were major issues. After being booed at the 2004 All - Star Game held in Houston, manager Jimy Williams was fired and replaced by Phil Garner, a star on the division - winning 1986 Astros. The Astros enjoyed a 46 -- 26 record in the second half of the season under Garner and earned the NL wild card spot. The Astros defeated the Braves 3 -- 2 in the Division Series, but would lose the National League Championship Series to the St. Louis Cardinals in seven games. Clemens earned a record seventh Cy Young Award in 2004. Additionally, the mid-season addition of Carlos Beltrán in a trade with the Kansas City Royals helped the Astros tremendously in their playoff run. Despite midseason trade rumors, Beltrán would prove instrumental to the team 's hopes, hitting eight home runs in the postseason. Though he had asserted a desire to remain with the Astros, Beltrán signed a long - term contract with the New York Mets on January 9, 2005.
In 2005, the Astros started poorly and found themselves with a 15 - 30 record in late May. The Houston Chronicle had written them off with a tombstone emblazoned with "RIP 2005 Astros ''. However, from that low point until the end of July, Houston went 42 -- 17 and found themselves in the lead for an NL wild card spot. July saw the best single month record in the club 's history at 22 - 7. Offensive production had increased greatly after a slow start in the first two months. The Astros had also developed an excellent pitching staff, anchored by Roy Oswalt (20 -- 12, 2.94), Andy Pettitte (17 -- 9, 2.39), and Roger Clemens (13 -- 8 with a league - low ERA of only 1.87). The contributions of the other starters -- Brandon Backe (10 -- 8, 4.76) and rookie starters Ezequiel Astacio (3 -- 6, 5.67) and Wandy Rodríguez (10 -- 10, 5.53) -- were less remarkable, but enough to push the Astros into position for a playoff run. The Astros won a wild card berth on the final day of the regular season, becoming the first team since the world champion 1914 Boston Braves to qualify for the postseason after being 15 games under. 500.
The Astros won the National League Division Series against the Atlanta Braves, 3 - 1, with a game four that set postseason records for most innings (18), most players used by a single team (23), and longest game time (5 hours and 50 minutes). Trailing by a score of 6 - 1, Lance Berkman hit an eighth inning grand slam to narrow the score to 6 -- 5. In the bottom of the ninth, catcher Brad Ausmus, hit a game tying home run that allowed the game to continue in extra innings. In the bottom of the tenth inning, Luke Scott hit a blast to left field that had home run distance, but was inches foul. This game remained scoreless for the next eight innings. In the top of the fifteenth inning, Roger Clemens made only his second career relief appearance, pitching three shutout innings, notably striking out Julio Franco, at the time the oldest player in the MLB at 47 years old; Clemens was himself 43. In the bottom of the eighteenth inning, Clemens came to bat again, indicating that he would be pitching in the nineteenth inning, if it came to that. Clemens struck out, but the next batter, Chris Burke, hit a home run to left field for the Astros win, 7 -- 6. Oddly enough, a fan in the "Crawford Boxes '' in left field had previously caught Berkman 's grand slam and this same fan caught Burke 's home run. The National League Championship Series featured a rematch of the 2004 NLCS. The Astros lost the first game in St. Louis, but would win the next three games, with Roy Oswalt getting the win. Though the Astros were poised to close out the series in Game Five in Houston, Brad Lidge gave up a monstrous two - out three - run home run to Albert Pujols, forcing the series to a sixth game in St. Louis, where the Astros clinched a World Series appearance. Roy Oswalt was named NLCS MVP, having gone 2 -- 0 with a 1.29 ERA in the series. Current honorary NL President William Y. Giles presented the league champion Astros with the Warren C. Giles Trophy. Warren Giles, William 's father and President of the National League from 1951 to 1969, had awarded an MLB franchise to the city of Houston in 1960.
The Astros faced the Chicago White Sox in the World Series. Chicago had been considered the slight favorite but would win all four games, the first two at U.S. Cellular Field in Chicago and the final two in Houston. Game 3 marked the first World Series game held in the state of Texas, and was the longest game in World Series history, lasting 5 hours and 41 minutes.
This World Series was marked by a controversy involving the Minute Maid Park roof. MLB & Commissioner Bud Selig insisted that the Astros must play with the roof open which mitigated the intensity and enthusiasm of the cheering Astros fans.
In the 2006 offseason, the team signed Preston Wilson and moved Berkman to first base, ending the long tenure of Jeff Bagwell. The Astros renewed the contract with Clemens and traded two minor league prospects to the Tampa Bay Devil Rays for left - handed hitter Aubrey Huff. By August, Preston Wilson complained about his playing time after the return of Luke Scott from AAA Round Rock. The Astros released Wilson and he was signed by St. Louis. A dramatic season end included wins in 10 of their last 12 games, but the Astros missed a playoff appearance when they lost the final game of the season to the Atlanta Braves.
On October 31, the Astros declined a contract option on Jeff Bagwell for 2007, ending his 15 - year Astros career and leading to his retirement. Roger Clemens and Andy Pettitte filed for free agency. On December 12, the Astros traded Willy Taveras, Taylor Buchholz, and Jason Hirsh to the Colorado Rockies for Rockies pitchers Jason Jennings and Miguel Asencio. A trade with the White Sox, involving the same three Astros in exchange for Jon Garland, had been nixed a few days earlier when Buchholz reportedly failed a physical. In the end, Taveras continued to develop and Hirsh had a strong 2007 rookie campaign, while Jennings was often injured and generally ineffective.
On April 28, 2007, the Astros purchased the contract of top minor league prospect Hunter Pence. He debuted that night, getting a hit and scoring a run. By May 2007, the Astros had suffered one of their worst recent losing streaks (10 games). On June 28, second baseman Craig Biggio became the 27th MLB player to accrue 3,000 career hits. Biggio needed three hits to reach 3,000 and on that night he had five hits. That night, Carlos Lee hit a towering walk - off grand slam in the eleventh inning. Lee later quipped to the newsmedia that "he had hit a walk - off grand slam and he got second billing '', considering Biggio 's achievement. On July 24, Biggio announced that he would retire at the end of the season. He hit a grand slam in that night 's game which broke a 3 -- 3 tie and led to an Astros win. In Biggio 's last at bat, he grounded out to Chipper Jones of the Atlanta Braves.
On September 20, Ed Wade was named General Manager. In his first move, he traded Jason Lane to the Padres on September 24. On September 30, Craig Biggio retired after twenty years with the team. In November, the Astros traded RHP Brad Lidge and SS Eric Bruntlett to the Philadelphia Phillies for OF Michael Bourn, RHP Geoff Geary, and minor leaguer Mike Costanzo. Utility player Mark Loretta accepted Houston 's salary arbitration and Kazuo Matsui finalized a $16.5 million, three - year contract with the team. In December the Astros traded OF Luke Scott, RHP Matt Albers, RHP Dennis Sarfate, LHP Troy Patton, and minor - league 3B Mike Costanzo, to the Baltimore Orioles for SS Miguel Tejada. On December 14, they sent infielder Chris Burke, RHP Juan Gutiérrez, and RHP Chad Qualls to the Arizona Diamondbacks for RHP José Valverde. On December 27, the Astros came to terms on a deal with All - star, Gold Glove winner Darin Erstad.
In January and February 2008, the Astros signed Brandon Backe, Ty Wigginton, Dave Borkowski and Shawn Chacón to one - year deals. The starting rotation would feature Roy Oswalt and Brandon Backe as numbers one and two. Wandy Rodríguez, Chacón and Chris Sampson rounded out the bottom three slots in the rotation. Woody Williams had retired after a 0 -- 4 spring training and Jason Jennings was now with Texas. On the other side of the roster, the Astros would start without Kazuo Matsui, who was on a minor league rehab assignment after a spring training injury.
The Astros regressed in 2008 and 2009, finishing with records of 86 -- 75 and 74 -- 88, respectively. Manager Cecil Cooper was fired after the 2009 season.
The 2010 season was the first season as Astros manager for Brad Mills, who was previously the bench coach of the Boston Red Sox. The Astros struggled throughout a season that was marked by trade - deadline deals that sent longtime Astros to other teams. On July 29, the Astros ' ace starting pitcher, Roy Oswalt, was dealt to the Philadelphia Phillies for J.A. Happ and two minor league players. On July 31, outfielder Lance Berkman was traded to the New York Yankees for minor leaguers Jimmy Paredes and Mark Melancon. The Astros finished with a record of 76 - 86.
On July 30, 2011, the Astros traded OF Hunter Pence, the team 's 2010 leader in home runs, to the Philadelphia Phillies. On July 31, they traded OF Michael Bourn to the Atlanta Braves. On September 17, the Astros clinched their first 100 - loss season in franchise history, On September 28, the Astros ended the season with an 8 -- 0 home loss to the St. Louis Cardinals. Cardinals pitcher Chris Carpenter pitched a complete game, two - hit shutout in the game, enabling the Cardinals to win the National League Wild Card, where they went on to beat the Texas Rangers in the World Series, with Lance Berkman being a key player in their championship victory. The Astros finished with a record of 56 -- 106, the worst single - season record in franchise history (a record which would be broken the following season).
In November 2010, Drayton McLane announced that the Astros were being put up for sale. McLane stated that because the Astros were one of the few franchises in Major League Baseball with only one family as the owners, he was planning his estate. McLane was 75 years old as of November 2011. In March 2011, local Houston businessman Jim Crane emerged as the front - runner to purchase the franchise. In the 1980s, Crane founded an air freight business which later merged with CEVA Logistics, and later founded Crane Capital Group. McLane and Crane had a previous handshake agreement for the franchise in 2008, but Crane abruptly changed his mind and broke off discussions. Crane also attempted to buy the Chicago Cubs in 2008 and the Texas Rangers during their 2010 bankruptcy auction. Crane came under scrutiny because of previous allegations of discriminatory hiring practices regarding women and minorities, among other issues. This delayed MLB 's approval process. During the summer of 2011, a frustrated Crane hinted that the delays might threaten the deal. In October 2011, Crane met personally with MLB Commissioner Bud Selig, in a meeting that was described as "constructive ''.
On November 15, 2011, it was announced that Crane had agreed to move the franchise to the American League for the 2013 season. The move was part of an overall divisional realignment of MLB, with the National and American leagues each having 15 teams in three geographically balanced divisions. Crane was given a $70 million concession by MLB for agreeing to the switch; the move was a condition for the sale to the new ownership group. Two days later, the Astros were officially sold to Crane after the other owners unanimously voted in favor of the sale. It was also announced that 2012 would be the last season for the Astros in the NL. After over fifty years of the Astros being a part of the National League, this move was unpopular with many Astros fans.
In 2012, the Astros were eliminated from the playoffs before September 5. On September 27, the Astros named Bo Porter to be the manager for the 2013 season.
On October 3, the Astros ended over 50 years of NL play with a 5 -- 4 loss to the Chicago Cubs and began to look ahead to join the American League. Winning only 20 road games during the entire season, the Astros finished with a 55 -- 107 record, the worst record in all of Major League Baseball for the 2012 season, and surpassing the 2011 season for the worst record in Astros history.
On November 2, 2012, the Astros unveiled their new look in preparation for their move to the American League for the 2013 season. The uniform is navy blue and orange, going back to the original 1960s team colors, as well as debuting a new version of the classic navy blue hat with a white "H '' over an orange star.
On November 6, 2012, the Astros hired former Cleveland Indians director of baseball operations David Stearns as the team 's new assistant general manager. The Astros would also go on to hire former St. Louis Cardinals front office executive Jeff Luhnow as their general manager.
The Houston Astros played their first game as an American League team on March 31, 2013, where they were victorious over their in - state division competitor, the Texas Rangers, with a score of 8 -- 2.
On September 29, the Astros completed their first year in the American League, losing 5 -- 1 in a 14 inning game to the New York Yankees. The Astros finished the season with a 51 -- 111 record (a franchise worst) with a season ending 15 game losing streak, again surpassing their worst record from last season. The team finished 45 games back out of the division winner Oakland Athletics, further adding to their futility. This marked three consecutive years that the Astros had lost more than 100 games in a single season. They also became the first team to have the first overall pick in the draft three years in a row. They improved on their season in 2014, going 70 -- 92, finishing 28 games back over the division winner Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim, and placing fourth in the AL West over the Texas Rangers.
After a slow start, the Astros took over first place in the AL West on April 19 and stayed there until shortly before the All - Star Break in mid-July. The Astros retook first place on July 29, but fell from first on September 15.
In September 2015, four men died who had been closely associated with the team: Yogi Berra, Gene Elston, Milo Hamilton, and John McMullen. McMullen and Hamilton passed on the same Thursday, September 17, 2015, Elston on September 5th, and Berra on September 22. McMullen, after being a co-owner of the New York Yankees, purchased the Astros in 1979. He also brought Nolan Ryan to the Astros. In 1980, the Astros played the Philadelphia Phillies for the NL pennant with Gene Elston on the radio. In 1985, McMullen brought Yogi Berra in to be a bench coach for the new Astros manager Hal Lanier for the 1986 season, with Milo Hamilton on the radio.
Dallas Keuchel led the AL with 20 victories, going 15 -- 0 at home, an MLB record. Key additions to the team included Scott Kazmir and SS Carlos Correa who hit 22 home runs, being called up in June 2015. 2B José Altuve picked up where he left off as the star of the Astros ' offense. On July 30, the Astros picked up Mike Fiers and Carlos Gómez from the Milwaukee Brewers. Fiers threw the 11th no - hitter in Astros history on August 21 against the LA Dodgers. Houston got the final AL playoff spot and faced the Yankees in the Wild Card Game on October 6 at New York. They defeated the Yankees 3 -- 0, but lost to the Kansas City Royals in the American League Division Series.
The Astros split the first two games of the ALDS best - of - five series in Kansas City. The Astros won the first game at Minute Maid to take a 2 -- 1 lead in the ALDS. In game 4, after 7 innings, the Astros had a 6 -- 2 lead. In the top half of the eighth inning, which took about 45 minutes to end, the Royals had taken 7 -- 6 lead with a series of consecutive base hits. The Astros suffered a 9 -- 6 loss and the ALDS was tied at 2 -- 2. Then the series went back to Kansas City, where the Royals clinched the series in the fifth game, 7 - 2.
The Astros entered the 2016 season as the favorites to win the AL West after a promising 2015 season. After a bad start to their season, with Houston going just 7 -- 17 in April, the Astros bounced back and went on to have a winning record in their next four months, including an 18 -- 8 record in June. But after going 12 -- 15 in September, the Astros were eliminated from playoff contention. They finished in third place in the American League West Division with a final record of 84 -- 78.
On August 10, 2016 Gómez was designated for assignment by the Astros after a dreadful campaign with the team. He was released on August 18, 2016. Gomez finished his Astros career batting a career low average of. 210 and only hitting 5 HR through 85 games with the club. Gómez later signed with division rival Texas.
The season was marked by the Astros 4 -- 15 record against their in - state division rival (and eventual division winner) Texas Rangers. The Astros finished the 2016 season eleven games behind the Rangers.
In 2014, Sports Illustrated predicted the Astros would win the 2017 World Series through their strategic rebuilding process. As of June 9, the Astros were 41 -- 16, which gave them a 13.5 - game lead over the rest of their division, and they had comfortable possession of the best record in the entire league. This was the best start in the Astros ' 55 - year history. As the games of June 23 concluded, the Astros had an 11.5 - game lead over the rest of the division. The Astros entered the All - Star Break with an American League best 60 -- 29 record and a 16 - game lead in the division, although the overall best record in MLB had just barely slipped to the Dodgers shortly before the All - Star Break by just one game.
With Hurricane Harvey causing massive flooding throughout Houston and southeast Texas, the Astros ' three - game series against the Texas Rangers for August 29 -- 31, was relocated to Tropicana Field (home of the Tampa Bay Rays), in St. Petersburg, Florida. The Astros greatly improved against the Rangers in 2017, going 12 -- 7 against them and winning the season series.
At the August 31 waiver - trade deadline GM Jeff Luhnow acquired veteran starting pitcher and Cy Young Award winner Justin Verlander to bolster the starting rotation. Verlander won each of his 5 regular season starts with the Astros, yielding only 4 runs over this stretch. He carried his success into the playoffs, posting a record of 4 - 1 in his 6 starts, and throwing a complete game shutout in Game 2 of the ALCS. Verlander was named the 2017 ALCS MVP.
The Astros clinched their first division title as a member of the American League West division, and first division title overall since 2001. They also became the first team in Major League history to win three different divisions: National League West in 1980 and 1986, National League Central from 1997 -- 1999 and 2001, and American League West in 2017. On September 29, the Astros won their 100th game of the season, the second time the Astros finished a season with over 100 wins, the first being in 1998. They finished 101 -- 61, with a 21 - game lead in the division, and faced the Red Sox in the first round of the AL playoffs. The Astros defeated the Red Sox three games to one, and advanced to the American League Championship Series against the New York Yankees. The Astros won the ALCS four games to three, and advanced to the World Series to play against the Los Angeles Dodgers. The Astros defeated the Dodgers in the deciding seventh game of the World Series, winning the first championship in franchise history.
The city of Houston celebrated the team 's accomplishment with a parade on the afternoon of November 3, 2017. Houston 's Independent School District gave the students and teachers the day off to watch the parade.
On November 16, 2017 Jose Altuve was named the American League Most Valuable Player, capping off a historic season in which he accumulated 200 hits for the fourth consecutive season, led the majors with a. 346 BA, and was the unquestioned clubhouse leader of the World Series Champions.
Source:
Two awards are presented each year, one to a Houston Astro and one to a St. Louis Cardinal, each of whom exemplifies Kile 's virtues of being "a good teammate, a great friend, a fine father and a humble man. '' The winner is selected by each local chapter of the Baseball Writers ' Association of America.
The number 42 is retired by Major League Baseball in honor of Jackie Robinson.
Source:
57: Has not been reissued since former Astros pitcher Darryl Kile died as an active player with the St. Louis Cardinals in 2002.
17: Has not been reissued since Lance Berkman was traded in 2010.
Nellie Fox
Jeff Bagwell Craig Biggio
Leo Durocher Randy Johnson
Eddie Mathews Joe Morgan
Robin Roberts Iván Rodríguez
Nolan Ryan Don Sutton
Gene Elston
Milo Hamilton
Harry Kalas
Pitchers
Catchers
Infielders
Outfielders
Pitchers
Catchers
Manager
Coaches
38 active, 1 inactive, 2 non-roster invitees
7 - or 10 - day disabled list * Not on active roster Suspended list Roster, coaches, and NRIs updated January 17, 2018 Transactions Depth Chart → All MLB rosters
* In December 2016, the Astros agreed to a 30 - year deal to field a Class - A Advanced team in Fayetteville, North Carolina, beginning in 2019. The team will play the 2017 and 2018 seasons in Buies Creek while a new stadium is built in Fayetteville.
As of 2013, the Astros ' new flagship radio station is KBME, Sportstalk 790AM (a Fox Sports Radio affiliate), leaving KTRH, 740AM after a partnership with them since 1999 (both stations are owned by iHeartMedia). This change suddenly made it difficult for listeners outside of Houston itself to hear the Astros, as KTRH runs 50 kilowatts of power day and night, and KBME runs only five kilowatts. As a result, KTRH is audible across much of Central, East, and South Texas, whereas KBME can only be heard in Houston, especially after dark. Milo Hamilton, a veteran voice who was on the call for Hank Aaron 's 715th career home run in 1974, retired at the end of the 2012 season, after broadcasting play - by - play for the Astros since 1985. Dave Raymond and Brett Dolan shared play - by play duty for road games, while Raymond additionally worked as Hamilton 's color analyst (while Hamilton called home games only for the past few seasons before his retirement); they were not retained and instead brought in Robert Ford and Steve Sparks to begin broadcasting for the 2013 season.
Spanish language radio play - by - play is handled by Francisco Romero, and his play - by - play partner is Alex Treviño, a former backup catcher for the club.
During the 2012 season Astros games on television were announced by Bill Brown and Jim Deshaies. In the seven seasons before then, Astros games were broadcast on television by Fox Sports Houston, with select games shown on broadcast TV by KTXH. As part of a ten - year, $1 billion deal with Comcast that includes a majority stake jointly held by the Astros and the Houston Rockets, Houston Astros games moved to the new Comcast SportsNet Houston at the beginning of the 2013 season. On September 27, 2013 CSN Houston filed for Chapter 11 Bankruptcy and surprising the Astros who own the largest stake. After being brought out of bankruptcy by DirecTV Sports Networks and AT&T, the channel 's name was changed to Root Sports Southwest then later AT&T SportsNet Southwest.
The current television team consists of Todd Kalas and Geoff Blum.
Orbit is the name given to MLB 's Houston Astros mascot, a lime - green outer - space creature wearing an Astros jersey with antennae extending into baseballs. Orbit was the team 's official mascot from the 1990 through the 1999 seasons until the 2000 season, where Junction Jack was introduced as the team 's mascot with the move from the Astrodome to then Enron Field. Orbit returned on November 2, 2012 at the unveiling of the Astros new look for their 2013 debut in the American League. The name Orbit pays homage to Houston 's association with NASA and nickname Space City.
The Astros had been represented by a trio of rabbit mascots named Junction Jack, Jesse and Julie from 2000 through 2012.
In April 1977 the Houston Astros introduced their very first mascot, Chester Charge. Created by Ed Henderson, Chester Charge was a Texas cavalry soldier on a horse. Chester appeared on the field at the beginning of each home game, during the seventh inning stretch and then ran around the bases at the conclusion of each win. At the blast of a bugle, the scoreboard would light up and the audience would yell, "Charge! ''
General
In - line citations
See also: List of companies in Houston
See: List of colleges and universities in Houston
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who airs the macy's thanksgiving day parade | Macy 's Thanksgiving Day parade - wikipedia
The annual Macy 's Thanksgiving Day Parade in New York City, the world 's largest parade, is presented by the U.S. - based department store chain Macy 's. The tradition started in 1924, tying it for the second - oldest Thanksgiving parade in the United States with America 's Thanksgiving Parade in Detroit (with both parades being four years younger than Philadelphia 's Thanksgiving Day Parade). The three - hour Macy 's event is held in Manhattan starting at 9: 00 a.m. Eastern Standard Time on Thanksgiving Day, and has been televised nationally on NBC since 1952. Employees at Macy 's department stores have the option of marching in the parade.
In 1924, the annual Thanksgiving parade started in Newark, New Jersey by Louis Bamberger at the Bamberger 's store was transferred to New York City by Macy 's. In New York, the employees marched to Macy 's flagship store on 34th Street dressed in vibrant costumes. There were floats, professional bands and live animals borrowed from the Central Park Zoo. At the end of that first parade, as has been the case with every parade since, Santa Claus was welcomed into Herald Square. At this first parade, Santa was enthroned on the Macy 's balcony at the 34th Street store entrance, where he was then "crowned '' "King of the Kiddies. '' With an audience of over 250,000 people, the parade was such a success that Macy 's declared it would become an annual event.
Anthony "Tony '' Frederick Sarg loved to work with marionettes from an early age. After moving to London to start his own marionette business, Sarg moved to New York City to perform with his puppets on the street. Macy 's heard about Sarg 's talents and asked him to design a window display of a parade for the store. Sarg 's large animal - shaped balloons, produced by the Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company in Akron, Ohio, replaced the live animals in 1927. A popular belief was that a balloon version Felix the Cat balloon was the first ever character balloon in the parade back in 1927, with Macy 's also claiming that too, but Felix actually made his first appearance in 1931.
At the finale of the 1928 parade, the balloons were released into the sky, where they unexpectedly burst. The following year, they were redesigned with safety valves to allow them to float for a few days. Address labels were sewn into them, so that whoever found and mailed back the discarded balloon received a gift from Macy 's.
Through the 1930s, the Parade continued to grow, with crowds of over one million people lining the parade route in 1933. The first Mickey Mouse balloon entered the parade in 1934. The annual festivities were broadcast on local radio stations in New York City from 1932 to 1941, and resumed in 1945, running through 1951.
The parade was suspended from 1942 to 1944 as a result of World War II, owing to the need for rubber and helium in the war effort. The parade resumed in 1945 using the route that it followed until 2008. The parade became known nationwide after being prominently featured in the 1947 film, Miracle on 34th Street, which included footage of the 1946 festivities. The event was first broadcast on network television in 1948 (see below). By this point the event, and Macy 's sponsorship of it, were sufficiently well - known to give rise to the colloquialism "Macy 's Day Parade ''. Since 1984, the balloons have been made by Raven Aerostar (a division of Sioux Falls, South Dakota - based Raven Industries).
Macy 's also sponsored the smaller Celebrate the Season Parade in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, which is held two days after the main event, from 2006 to 2013. Other American cities also have parades held on Thanksgiving, none of which are run by Macy 's. The nation 's oldest Thanksgiving parade (the Gimbels parade, which has had many sponsors over the years, and is now known as the 6abc Dunkin ' Donuts Thanksgiving Day Parade) was first held in Philadelphia in 1920. Other cities with parades on the holiday include the McDonald 's Thanksgiving Parade in Chicago, Illinois and parades in Plymouth, Massachusetts; Seattle, Washington; Houston, Texas; Detroit, Michigan; and Fountain Hills, Arizona. A parade is also held at the two Disney theme parks, Disneyland Resort and Walt Disney World Resort. There is also a second Thanksgiving balloon parade within the New York metropolitan area, the UBS balloon parade in Stamford, Connecticut, located 30 miles (48 km) away; that parade is held the Sunday before Thanksgiving, so as to not compete with the parade in New York City and usually does not duplicate any balloon characters.
The classic "Macy 's Thanksgiving Day Parade '' logo (seen below) was, with one exception, last used in 2005. For 2006, a special variant of the logo was used. Every year since then, a new logo has been used for each parade. The logos however are seen rarely, if at all, on television as NBC has used its own logo with the word "Macy 's '' in a script typeface and "Thanksgiving Day Parade '' in a bold font. The logos are assumed to be for use by Macy 's only, such as on the Grandstand tickets and the ID badges worn by parade staff. The Jackets worn by parade staff still bear the original classic parade logo, this being the only place where that logo can be found.
New safety measures were incorporated in 2006 to prevent accidents and balloon - related injuries. One measure taken was the installation of wind measurement devices to alert parade organizers to any unsafe conditions that could cause the balloons to behave erratically. In addition, parade officials implemented a measure to keep the balloons closer to the ground during windy conditions. If wind speeds are forecast to be higher than 34 miles per hour (55 km / h), all balloons are removed from the parade.
Since 2013, the balloons in the Macy 's Thanksgiving Day Parade have come in two varieties. The first (and older of the two) is the novelty balloon class, consisting of smaller balloons; the novelty balloons range widely in size and are handled by between one and thirty people (the smallest novelty balloons are shaped like human heads and fit on the actual heads of the handlers). The second and more widely known is the full - size balloon class, primarily consisting of licensed pop - culture characters; each of these is handled by exactly 90 people. From 2005 to 2012, a third balloon class, the "Blue Sky Gallery, '' transformed the works of contemporary artists into full - size balloons.
The following is a list of balloons that have, over the years, been featured in the Macy 's Thanksgiving Day Parade, sorted by their first year in the lineup. Underlined items indicate entries in the Blue Sky Gallery.
A falloon, a portmanteau of "float '' and "balloon '', is a float - based balloon. They were introduced in 1990.
A balloonicle, a portmanteau of "balloon '' and "vehicle '', is a self - powered balloon vehicle. They were introduced in 2004.
In addition to the well - known balloons and floats, the Parade also features live music and other performances. College and high school marching bands from across the country participate in the parade, and the television broadcasts feature performances by established and up - and - coming singers and bands. The Rockettes of Radio City Music Hall are a classic performance as well (having performed annually since 1957 as the last pre-parade act to perform and their performance was followed by a commercial break), as are cheerleaders and dancers chosen by the National Cheerleaders Association from various high schools across the country. The parade always concludes with the arrival of Santa Claus to ring in the Christmas and holiday season.
On the NBC telecast from in front of the flagship Macy 's store on Broadway and 34th Street, the marching bands perform live music. Most "live '' performances by musicals and individual artists lip sync to the studio, soundtrack or cast recordings of their songs, due to the technical difficulties of attempting to sing into a wireless microphone while in a moving vehicle (performers typically perform on the floats themselves); the NBC - flagged microphones used by performers on floats are almost always non-functioning props. Although rare, recent parade broadcasts have featured at least one live performance with no use of recorded vocals.
Every year, cast members from a number of Broadway shows (usually shows that debuted that year) perform either in the parade, or immediately preceding the parade in front of Macy 's and before The Rockettes ' performance (since NBC broadcasts the parade 's start, the performances are shown during the wait for the parade itself). The 2007 parade was notable as it took place during a strike by the I.A.T.S.E. (a stagehands ' union), and as such, Legally Blonde, the one performing musical affected by the strike, performed in show logo shirts, with makeshift props and no sets. The other three shows that year performed in theaters that were not affected by the strike.
For the 10th anniversary of the September 11th attacks in 2011, the Macy 's Thanksgiving Parade invited family members from Tuesday 's Children, a family service organization that has made a long - term commitment to those directly impacted by the attacks and terrorism around the world, to cut the ribbon at the start of the parade with NBC 's Al Roker and led the parade with Amy Kule, the Parade 's executive producer.
More than 44 million people watch the parade on television on an annual basis. It was first televised locally in New York City in 1939 as an experimental broadcast on NBC 's W2XBS (forerunner of today 's WNBC). No television stations broadcast the parade in 1940 or 1941, but when the parade returned in 1945 after the wartime suspension, local broadcasts also resumed. The parade began its network television appearances on CBS in 1948, the year that major, regular television network programming began. NBC has been the official broadcaster of the event since 1952, though CBS (which has a studio in Times Square) also carries unauthorized coverage under the title The Thanksgiving Day Parade on CBS. Since the parade takes place in public, the parade committee can endorse an official broadcaster, but they can not award exclusive rights as other events (such as sporting events, which take place inside restricted - access stadiums) have the authority to do. The rerouting of the parade that was implemented for the 2012 event (see below) moved the parade out of the view of CBS 's cameras and thus made it significantly more difficult for the network to cover the parade (though the route now passes along the west side of the network 's Black Rock headquarters building along Sixth Avenue, and the hosts are stationed on a temporary tower platform at the Sixth / W. 53rd St. corner of the building); CBS nevertheless continues to cover the parade to the same extent as in previous years.
Since 2003, the parade has been broadcast simultaneously in Spanish on the sister network of NBCUniversal (Telemundo) host by María Celeste Arrarás from 2003 - 2006. The parade won nine Emmy Awards for outstanding achievements in special event coverage since 1979.
At first, the telecasts were only an hour long. In 1961, the telecast expanded to two hours, and was then reduced to 90 minutes in 1962, before reverting to a two - hour telecast in 1965; all three hours of the parade were televised by 1969. The event began to be broadcast in color in 1960. NBC airs the Macy 's Thanksgiving Day Parade live in the Eastern Time Zone, but tape delays the telecast elsewhere in the continental U.S. and territories from the Central Time Zone westward to allow the program to air in the same 9: 00 a.m. to 12: 00 p.m. timeslot across its owned - and - operated and affiliated stations; since the morning program 's expansion to three hours in 2000 and eventually to four hours, NBC 's Today only airs for two hours Thanksgiving morning as a result, pre-empting the latter two talk - focused hours of the show for the day. NBC began airing a same - day afternoon rebroadcast of the parade in 2009 (replacing the annual broadcast of Miracle on 34th Street, which NBC had lost the broadcast television rights to that year). CBS 's unauthorized coverage airs live in most time zones, allowing viewers to see the parade as many as two hours before the official NBC coverage airs in their area; CBS still broadcasts the parade on delay on the West Coast, immediately after the Detroit Lions Thanksgiving game in years when CBS carries it, or at 9 a.m. local time in years they carry the Dallas Cowboys Thanksgiving game.
From 1962 to 1970, NBC 's coverage was hosted by Lorne Greene (who was then appearing on NBC 's Bonanza) and Betty White. Ed McMahon co-hosted in 1971, then hosted until 1981. Since 1982, NBC has appointed at least one of the hosts of Today to emcee the television broadcast, starting with Bryant Gumbel, who hosted the parade until 1986. From 1987 to 1996, NBC 's coverage was hosted by longtime Today weather anchor Willard Scott. During that period, their co-hosts included Mary Hart, Sandy Duncan, and Today colleagues Deborah Norville and Katie Couric. In recent years, NBC 's coverage has been hosted by Today anchors Matt Lauer (from 1998 to 2017), Meredith Vieira (from 2006 to 2010), Ann Curry (2011) and Savannah Guthrie (since 2012) as well as Today weather anchor Al Roker who usually joins the producers of the parade and special guests in the ribbon cutting ceremony.
From the early 1980s until circa 1994, the television broadcast was produced and directed by Dick Schneider; since circa 1994, it has been executive produced by Brad Lachman (who has otherwise been known for producing reality television series), produced by Bill Bracken and directed by veteran sitcom director Gary Halvorson. Announcements during the telecast were first provided by Don Pardo, followed by Lynda Lopez, the telecast 's only female announcer, who served during the decade wherein Willard Scott was the parade 's host; from circa 1994 to 2010, announcer duties were helmed by Joel Godard (who also served as the announcer for Late Night with Conan O'Brien for much of that period), and then were assumed by Today announcer Les Marshak with the 2011 telecast. The musical director for the television coverage is veteran composer / arranger Milton DeLugg.
CBS 's coverage was originally part of the "All - American Thanksgiving Day Parade, '' a broadcast that included footage from multiple parades across North America, including parades at Detroit, Philadelphia and Disneyland (the latter was later replaced by Opryland USA in 1997 and after that Miami Beach), and taped footage of the Toronto Santa Claus Parade (taped usually the second or third weekend of November) and the Aloha Floral Parade in Honolulu (which usually took place in September). Beginning in 2004, however, CBS has focused exclusively on the Macy 's parade, but avoids using the Macy 's name due to the lack of an official license. To compensate for the fact that the Broadway and music performances can only appear on NBC, CBS adds their own pre-recorded performances (also including Broadway shows, although different from the ones that are part of the official parade and recorded off - site) to fill out the special.
For the 1997 parade, MTV guest reporters, Beavis and Butt - head, with host Kurt Loder, provided their usual style of commentary on aspects of the parade, and of their take on Thanksgiving in general. The special, titled Beavis and Butt - head Do Thanksgiving, included a balloon of Beavis and Butt - head spectating from their couch. The balloon was not participating in the parade, but stationed on top of a building alongside the parade route.
Radio coverage is provided by Entercom 's WINS (1010 AM) in New York City. It is one of the few times throughout the year in which that station breaks away from its all - news radio format.
In 2016, Verizon produced a 360 - degree virtual reality live telecast of the parade, with minimal commentary, made available through YouTube.
The Parade has always taken place in Manhattan. The parade originally started from 145th Street in Harlem and ended at Herald Square, making a 6 - mile (9.7 km) route.
In the 1930s, the balloons were inflated in the area of 110th Street and Amsterdam Avenue near St. John the Divine Cathedral. The parade proceeded South on Amsterdam Avenue to 106th Street and turned east. At Columbus Avenue, the balloons had to be lowered to go under the Ninth Avenue El. Past the El tracks, the parade proceeded through 106th Street to Central Park West and turned south to terminate at Macy 's Department Store.
A new route was established for the 2009 parade. From 77th Street and Central Park West, the route went south along Central Park to Columbus Circle, then east along Central Park South. The parade would then make a right turn at 7th Avenue and go south to Times Square. At 42nd Street, the parade turned left and went east, then at 6th Avenue turned right again at Bryant Park. Heading south on 6th Avenue, the parade turned right at 34th Street (at Herald Square) and proceeded west to the terminating point at 7th Avenue where the floats are taken down. The 2009 route change eliminated Broadway completely, where the parade has traveled down for decades. The City of New York said that the new route would provide more space for the parade, and more viewing space for spectators. Another reason for implementing the route change is the city 's plan to turn Broadway into a pedestrian - only zone at Times Square.
Another new route was introduced with the 2012 parade. This change is similar to the 2009 route, but eliminated Times Square altogether.
It is not advised to view the parade from Columbus Circle, as balloon teams race through it due to higher winds in this flat area. New York City officials preview the parade route and try to eliminate as many potential obstacles as possible, including rotating overhead traffic signals out of the way.
Since 2001, Macy 's Studios has partnered with the Universal Orlando Resort (owned by NBC parent NBCUniversal) to bring balloons and floats from New York City to the theme park in Florida every holiday season in an event known as the Macy 's Holiday Parade. The parade is performed daily and includes the iconic Santa Claus float. Performers from the Orlando area are cast as various clowns, and the park used to invite guests to be "balloon handlers '' for the parade.
In 2017, the Macy 's Holiday Parade was renamed to Universal 's Holiday Parade Featuring Macy 's.
Notes
Further reading
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this wheel's on fire julie driscoll & brian auger trinity | Brian Auger And The Trinity - Wikipedia
Brian Auger and the Trinity was a British musical ensemble led by keyboardist Brian Auger. His duet with Julie Driscoll, the Bob Dylan - penned "This Wheel 's On Fire '', was a # 5 hit on the 1968 UK Singles Chart.
Their joint album, Open, billed as Julie Driscoll, Brian Auger and the Trinity, reached # 12 in the UK Albums Chart the same year.
The group and Driscoll opened for Led Zeppelin at the Rose Palace in Pasadena, California on 2 and 3 May 1969.
Columbia (UK) Records:
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Marmalade / Polydor (UK) Records:
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what happens at the end of the new a star is born | A Star Is Born (2018 film) - wikipedia
A Star Is Born is a 2018 American music - themed romantic drama film produced and directed by Bradley Cooper (in his directorial debut) and written by Cooper, Eric Roth and Will Fetters. A remake of the 1937 film of the same name, it stars Cooper, Lady Gaga, Andrew Dice Clay, Dave Chappelle, and Sam Elliott, and follows a hard - drinking musician (Cooper) who discovers and falls in love with a young singer (Gaga). It marks the fourth remake of the original 1937 film, after the 1954 musical, the 1976 rock musical and the 2013 Bollywood romance film.
Talks of a remake of A Star Is Born began in 2011, with Clint Eastwood attached to direct and Beyoncé set to star. The film was in development hell for several years with various actors approached to co-star, including Christian Bale, Leonardo DiCaprio, Will Smith, and Tom Cruise. In March 2016, Cooper signed on to star and direct, and Lady Gaga joined the cast in August 2016. Principal photography began at the Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival in April 2017.
A Star Is Born premiered at the 75th Venice International Film Festival on August 31, 2018, and was theatrically released in the United States on October 5, 2018, by Warner Bros. The film has grossed over $255 million worldwide and received critical acclaim, with praise for Cooper, Gaga and Elliott 's performances and Cooper 's direction, as well as the screenplay, cinematography and music.
Jackson Maine, a famous country music singer privately battling an alcohol and drug addiction, plays a concert in California. His main support is Bobby, his manager and significantly older half - brother. After the show, Jackson happens upon a drag bar where he witnesses a performance by Ally, a waitress and singer - songwriter. Jackson is amazed by her talent; they spend the night speaking to each other, where Ally discloses to him the troubles she has faced in pursuing a professional music career.
Jackson invites Ally to his next show. Despite her initial refusal she attends and, with Jackson 's encouragement, sings on stage with him. Jackson invites Ally to go on tour with him, and they form a romantic relationship. In Arizona, Ally and Jackson visit the ranch where Jackson grew up and where his father is buried, only to discover that Bobby sold the land. Angered at his betrayal, Jackson punches Bobby, who subsequently quits as his manager. Before doing so, Bobby reveals that he did inform Jackson about the sale, but the latter was too inebriated to notice.
While on tour Ally meets Rez, a record producer who offers her a contract. Although visibly bothered, Jackson still supports her decision. Rez refocuses Ally away from country music and towards pop. Jackson misses one of Ally 's performances after he passes out drunk in public; he recovers at the home of his friend Noodles, and later makes up with Ally. There he proposes to Ally with a ring made from a loop of guitar string, and they are married that same day.
During Ally 's performance on Saturday Night Live, Bobby reconciles with Jackson. Later, Jackson and Ally fight after he drunkenly voices his disapproval of Ally 's new image and music, which is nominated for Grammy Awards. At the Grammys, a visibly intoxicated Jackson performs in a tribute to Roy Orbison, and Ally wins the Best New Artist award. When she goes up on stage to receive her award, Jackson follows her, where he wets himself and passes out. Ally 's father Lorenzo berates Jackson and Ally helps him sober up. Jackson joins a drug rehabilitation program shortly thereafter.
Jackson recovers in rehab, where he discloses to his counselor that he attempted suicide as a teenager. He tearfully apologizes to Ally for his behavior, and returns home. Ally wishes to bring Jackson to perform with her on the European leg of her tour; Rez refuses, prompting Ally to cancel the remainder of the tour so she can care for Jackson.
Rez later confronts Jackson, informing him of Ally 's decision to cancel her tour and accusing him of holding Ally back. That evening, Ally lies to Jackson, and tells him that her record label has cancelled her tour so she can focus on her second album. Jackson promises that he will come to her concert that night, but after Ally leaves, he hangs himself in their garage.
Ally becomes inconsolable after Jackson 's death. She is visited by Bobby, who explains Jackson 's death was his own fault and not hers. Ally takes a song that Jackson had written but never performed and sings it at a tribute concert, introducing herself as Ally Maine.
Additionally, Rebecca Field appears as Gail, Shangela Laquifa Wadley as the drag bar emcee, Willam Belli as drag queen Emerald, Greg Grunberg as Jackson 's driver Phil, and Ron Rifkin as Carl. Lukas Nelson & Promise of the Real appear as Jackson 's band, Eddie Griffin appears as a local preacher and Luenell appears as a cashier. Marlon Williams, Brandi Carlile, Halsey, Alec Baldwin, and Don Roy King cameo as themselves.
In January 2011, it was announced that Clint Eastwood was in talks to direct Beyoncé in a third American remake of the 1937 film A Star Is Born; however, the project was delayed due to Beyoncé 's pregnancy. In April 2012, writer Will Fetters told Collider that the script was inspired by Kurt Cobain. Talks with Christian Bale, Leonardo DiCaprio, Tom Cruise, Johnny Depp, and Will Smith to play the male lead failed to come to fruition. On October 9, 2012, Beyoncé left the project, and it was reported that Bradley Cooper was in talks to star. Eastwood was interested in Esperanza Spalding to play the female lead.
On March 24, 2015, Warner Bros. announced that Cooper was in final talks to make his directorial debut with the film, and potentially to star with Beyoncé, who was again in talks to join; Cooper did become the male lead. On August 16, 2016, it was reported that Lady Gaga had officially become attached and the studio had green - lit the project to begin production early 2017. It marks the fourth remake of the original 1937 film, after the 1954 musical, the 1976 rock musical and the 2013 Bollywood romance film. On November 9, 2016, it was reported that Ray Liotta was in talks to join the film in the role of the manager to Cooper 's character, though he ultimately was not involved. On March 17, 2017, Sam Elliott joined the film, with Andrew Dice Clay entering negotiations to play Lorenzo, the father of Lady Gaga 's character. Clay was selected over Robert De Niro, John Turturro and John Travolta. In April 2017, Rafi Gavron, Michael Harney, and Rebecca Field also joined the cast.
Filming began on April 17, 2017. In May, Dave Chappelle was cast in the film. In April 2018, it was announced that Halsey would have a small role.
After seeing him perform at Desert Trip festival, Cooper approached Lukas Nelson (son of country music singer Willie Nelson) and asked him to help work on the film. Nelson agreed and wrote several songs, which he sent to the producers. Nelson subsequently met Lady Gaga and began writing songs with her and she, in turn, provided backing vocals on two tracks on his self - titled 2017 album. The soundtrack, performed by Gaga and Cooper, was released on October 5, 2018, by Interscope Records. The studio announced that the album "features 19 songs in a wide range of musical styles + 15 dialogue tracks that will take you on a journey that mirrors the experience of seeing the film. ''
A Star Is Born had its world premiere at the Venice Film Festival on August 31, 2018. It also screened at the Toronto International Film Festival, the San Sebastián International Film Festival, and the Zurich Film Festival in September 2018. The film was theatrically released in the United States on October 5, 2018, distributed by Warner Bros. Pictures, after initially having been set for September 28, 2018, and May 18, 2018, releases.
As of October 29, 2018, A Star Is Born has grossed $149.9 million in the United States and Canada, and $106 million in other territories, for a total worldwide gross of $255.9 million, against a production budget of $36 -- 40 million.
In the United States and Canada, A Star Is Born grossed $1.35 million from select Tuesday and Wednesday night screenings, and $15.8 million on its first day, including $3.2 million from Thursday night previews. It went on to debut to $42.9 million for the weekend and finished second at the box office, behind fellow newcomer Venom. The film remained in second place in its second, third and fourth weekends, grossing a respective $28 million, $19.3 million and $14.1 million.
Outside North America, the film was released day - and - date with the U.S. in 31 other countries, and made $14.2 million in its opening weekend; its largest markets were the United Kingdom ($5.3 million), France ($2.1 million) and Germany ($1.9 million).
On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, A Star Is Born holds an approval rating of 90 % based on 394 reviews, with an average rating of 8.1 / 10. The website 's critical consensus reads, "With appealing leads, deft direction, and an affecting love story, A Star Is Born is a remake done right -- and a reminder that some stories can be just as effective in the retelling. '' On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 88 out of 100, based on 60 critics, indicating "universal acclaim ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A '' on an A+ to F scale, while PostTrak reported film - goers gave it a 90 % positive score.
Alonso Duralde of TheWrap gave the film a positive review, saying, "Cooper and Lady Gaga are dynamite together; this is a story that lives and dies by the central relationship and the instant chemistry that must blossom between them, and these two have it in spades, '' and praised the musical numbers, describing them as "electrifying ''. Owen Gleiberman of Variety lauded Cooper 's directing, co-writing, and acting, and called the film "a transcendent Hollywood movie ''. Leah Greenblatt of Entertainment Weekly gave the film a B+, singling out Gaga 's performance, saying, "she deserves praise for her restrained, human - scale performance as a singer whose real - girl vulnerability feels miles away from the glittery meat - dress delirium of her own stage persona. '' Stephanie Zacharek of Time magazine found the film superior to its previous iterations and similarly praised Cooper 's direction, the writing, as well the performances and chemistry of Cooper and Gaga. She stated: "You come away feeling something for these people, flawed individuals who are trying to hold their cracked pieces of self together -- or to mend the cracks of those they love, '' also describing Gaga 's performance as a "knockout. ''
In his review for Los Angeles Times, Justin Chang called the film "remarkable, '' and praised Cooper for his fresh take on the well - worn formula of 1937 film, as well his direction, the performances, writing, and the cinematography. Peter Travers of Rolling Stone gave the film 4.5 out of five stars, and deemed it as a "modern classic, '' hailing the performances of Cooper and Gaga, and Cooper 's direction. He found the film 's screenplay and the original songs "seamless '' and "terrific, '' and also called the film a major Oscar contender of the year and one of the year 's best films. The Washington Post 's Ann Hornaday described the film as "lavishly delightful '' and "earthly convincing, '' and added that it "offers a suitably jaundiced glimpse of starmaking machinery at its most cynical, but also its most thrilling and gratifying. '' She similarly praised Cooper 's direction, the performances and chemistry of Cooper and Gaga, and the supporting performances, particularly Andrew Dice Clay and Sam Elliott.
While praising the direction, acting, and writing, Michael Phillips in the Chicago Tribune argues that a A Star is Born 's formula has always been very seductive to audiences, even when it has been written poorly, and Cooper 's few missteps include being a bit of a scene hog. Admitting audiences love it, and he just liked it, Phillips drew attention to a skeptical review by Lindsey Romaine of Medium.com who criticized the story 's marginalization of the Gaga character in dealing with Cooper 's manipulative addict. She at least wanted a scene where Gaga 's character processed her behavior of letting the addict boyfriend get away with it. Phillips argued that it is in part the skillful musicianship which gets audiences to blow past such flaws.
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where do you find interstitial fluid in the human body | Extracellular fluid - wikipedia
Extracellular fluid (ECF) denotes all body fluid outside the cells. Total body water in humans makes up between 45 to 75 % of total body weight. About two thirds of this is intracellular fluid within cells, and one third is the extracellular fluid. The main component of the extracellular fluid is the interstitial fluid that bathes cells.
Extracellular fluid is the internal environment of all multicellular animals, and in those animals with a blood circulatory system a proportion of this fluid is blood plasma. Plasma and interstitial fluid are the two compartments that make up at least 97 % of the ECF. Lymph makes up a small percentage of the interstitial fluid. The remaining small portion of the ECF includes the transcellular fluid (about 2.5 %). The ECF can also be seen as having two components -- plasma and lymph as a delivery system, and interstitial fluid for water and solute exchange with the cells.
The extracellular fluid, in particular the interstitial fluid, constitutes the body 's internal environment that bathes all of the cells in the body. The ECF composition is therefore crucial for their normal functions, and is maintained by a number of homeostatic mechanisms involving negative feedback. Homeostasis regulates, among others, the pH, sodium, potassium, and calcium concentrations in the ECF. The volume of body fluid, blood glucose, oxygen, and carbon dioxide levels are also tightly homeostatically maintained.
The volume of extracellular fluid in a young adult male of 70 kg is 20 % of body weight -- about fourteen litres. Eleven litres is interstitial fluid and the remaining three litres is plasma.
The main component of the extracellular fluid is the interstitial fluid which surrounds the cells in the body. The other major component of the ECF is the intravascular fluid of the circulatory system called blood plasma. The remaining small percentage of ECF includes the transcellular fluid. These constituents are often called fluid compartments. The transcellular fluid includes the aqueous humour in the eye, the synovial fluid in the joints, the cerebrospinal fluid in the brain and spinal cord, the serous fluid in the serous membranes lining body cavities and in the saliva and other gut fluids (gastric juice, pancreatic juice and other intestinal secretions), as well as the perilymph and endolymph in the inner ear. The volume of extracellular fluid in a young adult male of 70 kg, is 20 % of body weight -- about fourteen litres.
The interstitial fluid and the plasma make up about 97 % of the ECF, and a small percentage of this is lymph. Interstitial fluid is fluid that surround cells providing them with nutrients and removing their waste products. Eleven litres of the ECF is interstitial fluid and the remaining three litres is plasma. Plasma and interstitial fluid are very similar because water, ions, and small solutes are continuously exchanged between them across the walls of capillaries, through pores and capillary clefts.
Interstitial fluid consists of a water solvent containing sugars, salts, fatty acids, amino acids, coenzymes, hormones, neurotransmitters, white blood cells and cell waste - products. This solution accounts for 26 % of the water in the human body. The composition of interstitial fluid depends upon the exchanges between the cells in the biological tissue and the blood. This means that tissue fluid has a different composition in different tissues and in different areas of the body.
The plasma that filters through the capillaries into the interstitial fluid does not contain red blood cells or platelets as they are too large to pass through but can contain some white blood cells to help the immune system.
Once the extracellular fluid collects into small vessels it is considered to be lymph, and the vessels that carry it back to the blood are called the lymphatic vessels. The lymphatic system returns protein and excess interstitial fluid to the circulation.
The ionic composition of the interstitial fluid and blood plasma vary due to the Gibbs -- Donnan effect. This causes a slight difference in the concentration of cations and anions between the two fluid compartments.
The extracellular fluid provides the medium for the exchange of substances between the ECF and the cells, and this can take place through dissolving, mixing and transporting in the fluid medium. Substances in the ECF include dissolved gases, nutrients, and electrolytes, all needed to maintain life. The ECF also contains materials secreted from cells in soluble form, but which quickly coalesces into fibres (e.g. collagen, reticular, and elastic fibres) or precipitates out into a solid or semisolid form (e.g. proteoglycans which form the bulk of cartilage, and the components of bone). These and many other substances occur, especially in association with various proteoglycans to form the extracellular matrix or the "filler '' substance between the cells throughout the body. These substances occur in the extracellular space, and are therefore all bathed or soaked in ECF, without being part of the ECF.
The internal environment is stabilised in the process of homeostasis. Complex homeostatic mechanisms operate to regulate and keep the composition of the ECF stable. Individual cells can also regulate their internal composition by various mechanisms.
There is a significant difference between the concentrations of sodium and potassium ions inside and outside the cell. The concentration of sodium ions is considerably higher in the extracellular fluid than in the intracellular fluid. The converse is true of the potassium ion concentrations inside and outside the cell. These differences cause all cell membranes to be electrically charged, with the positive charge on the outside of the cells and the negative charge on the inside. In a resting neuron (not conducting an impulse) the membrane potential is known as the resting potential, and between the two sides of the membrane is about - 70 mV.
This potential is created by sodium - potassium pumps in the cell membrane, which pump sodium ions out of the cell, into the ECF, in return for potassium ions which enter the cell from the ECF. The maintenance of this difference in the concentration of ions between the inside of the cell and the outside, is critical to keep normal cell volumes stable, and also to enable some cells to generate action potentials.
In several cell types voltage - gated ion channels in the cell membrane can be temporarily opened under specific circumstances for a few microseconds at a time. This allows a brief inflow of sodium ions into the cell (driven in by the sodium ion concentration gradient that exists between the outside and inside of the cell). This causes the cell membrane to temporarily depolarize (lose its electrical charge) forming the basis of action potentials.
The sodium ions in the ECF also play an important role in the movement of water from one body compartment to the other. When tears are secreted, or saliva is formed, sodium ions are pumped from the ECF into the ducts in which these fluids are formed and collected. The water content of these solutions results from the fact water follows the sodium ions (and accompanying anions) osmotically. The same principle applies to the formation of many other body fluids.
Calcium ions have a great propensity to bind to proteins. This changes the distribution of electrical charges on the protein, with the consequence that the 3D (or tertiary) structure of the protein is altered. The normal shape, and therefore function of very many of the extracellular proteins, as well as the extracellular portions of the cell membrane proteins is dependent on a very precise ionized calcium concentration in the ECF. The proteins that are particularly sensitive to changes in the ECF ionized calcium concentration are several of the clotting factors in the blood plasma, which are functionless in the absence of calcium ions, but become fully functional on the addition of the correct concentration of calcium salts. The voltage gated sodium ion channels in the cell membranes of nerves and muscle have an even greater sensitivity to changes in the ECF ionized calcium concentration. Relatively small decreases in the plasma ionized calcium levels (hypocalcemia) cause these channels to leak sodium into the nerve cells or axons, making them hyper - excitable, thus causing spontaneous muscle spasms (tetany) and paraesthesia (the sensation of "pins and needles '') of the extremities and round the mouth. When the plasma ionized calcium rises above normal (hypercalcemia) more calcium is bound to these sodium channels having the opposite effect, causing lethargy, muscle weakness, anorexia, constipation and labile emotions.
The tertiary structure of proteins is also affected by the pH of the bathing solution. In addition, the pH of the ECF affects the proportion of the total amount of calcium in the plasma which occurs in the free, or ionized form, as opposed to the fraction that is bound to protein and phosphate ions. A change in the pH of the ECF therefore alters the ionized calcium concentration of the ECF. Since the pH of the ECF is directly dependent on the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the ECF, hyperventilation, which lowers the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the ECF, produces symptoms that are almost indistinguishable from low plasma ionized calcium concentrations.
The extracellular fluid is constantly "stirred '' by the circulatory system, which ensures that the watery environment which bathes the body 's cells is virtually identical throughout the body. This means that nutrients can be secreted into the ECF in one place (e.g. the gut, liver, or fat cells) and will, within about a minute, be evenly distributed throughout the body. Hormones are similarly rapidly and evenly spread to every cell in the body, regardless of where they are secreted into the blood. Oxygen taken up by the lungs from the alveolar air is also evenly distributed at the correct partial pressure to all the cells of the body. Waste products are also uniformly spread to the whole of the ECF, and are removed from this general circulation at specific points (or organs), once again ensuring that there is generally no localized accumulation of unwanted compounds or excesses of otherwise essential substances (e.g. sodium ions, or any of the other constituents of the ECF). The only significant exception to this general principle is the plasma in the veins, where the concentrations of dissolved substances in individual veins differs, to varying degrees, from those in the rest of the ECF. However this plasma is confined within the waterproof walls of the venous tubes, and therefore does not affect the interstitial fluid in which the body 's cell live. When the blood from all the veins in body mixes in the heart and lungs, the differing compositions cancel out (e.g. acidic blood from active muscles is neutralized by the alkaline blood homeostatically produced by the kidneys). From the left atrium onward, to every organ in the body, the normal, homeostatically regulated values of all of the ECF 's components are therefore restored.
The arterial blood plasma, interstitial fluid and lymph interact at the level of the blood capillaries. The capillaries are permeable and water can move freely in and out. At the arteriolar end of the capillary the blood pressure is greater than the hydrostatic pressure in the tissues. Water will therefore seep out of the capillary into the interstitial fluid. The pores through which this water moves are large enough to allow all the smaller molecules (up to the size of small proteins such as insulin) to move freely through the capillary wall as well. This means that their concentrations across the capillary wall equalize, and therefore have no osmotic effect (because the osmotic pressure caused by these small molecules and ions -- called the crystalloid osmotic pressure to distinguish it from the osmotic effect of the larger molecules than can not move across the capillary membrane -- is the same on both sides of capillary wall).
The movement of water out of the capillary at the arteriolar end causes the concentration of the substances that can not cross the capillary wall to increase as the blood moves to the venular end of the capillary. The most important substances that are confined to the capillary tube are plasma albumin, the plasma globulins and fibrinogen. They, and particularly the plasma albumin, because of its molecular abundance in the plasma, are responsible for the so called "oncotic '' or "colloid '' osmotic pressure which draws water back into the capillary, especially at the venular end.
The net effect of all of these processes is that water moves out of and back into the capillary, while the crystalloid substances in the capillary and interstitial fluids equilibrate. Since the capillary fluid is constantly and rapidly renewed by the flow of the blood, its composition dominates the equilibrium concentration that is achieved in the capillary bed. This ensures that the watery environment of the body 's cells is always close to their ideal environment (set by the body 's homeostats).
A small proportion of the solution that leaks out of the capillaries is not drawn back into the capillary by the colloid osmotic forces. This amounts to between 2 - 4 liters per day for the body as a whole. This water is collected by the lymphatic system and is ultimately discharged into the left subclavian vein, where it mixes with the venous blood coming from the left arm, on its way to the heart. The lymph flows through lymph capillaries to lymph nodes where bacteria and tissue debris are removed from the lymph, while various types white blood cells (mainly lymphocytes) are added to the fluid. In addition the lymph which drains the small intestine contains fat droplets called chylomicrons after the ingestion of a fatty meal. This lymph is called chyle which has a milky appearance, and imparts the name lacteals (referring to the milky appearance of their contents) to the lymph vessels of the small intestine.
Extracellular fluid may be mechanically guided in this circulation by the vesicles between other structures. Collectively this forms the interstitium, which may be considered a newly identified biological structure in the body. However, there is some debate over whether the interstitium is an organ.
Main cations:
Main anions:
Body water: Intracellular fluid / Cytosol
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when does edge of the empire take place | Star Wars Roleplaying game (Fantasy Flight games) - wikipedia
The Star Wars Roleplaying Game is a tabletop role - playing game set in the Star Wars universe first published by Fantasy Flight Games in August 2012. It consists of three different standalone games, each one conceived to play a particular type of character:
A fourth line, based in the era of the movie Star Wars: The Force Awakens, was released in September 2016. It currently only consists of a Beginner Game with no announced plans to expand the line with any other products.
In the 2000s, Wizards of the Coast (WotC) owned the license for all Star Wars ' collectible card and roleplaying games. When the license expired in May of 2010, WotC declined the offer to renew it. In August 2011 Fantasy Flight Games acquired the license to produce Star Wars related games from Lucasfilm Ltd. Upon acquisition, Fantasy Flight announced two Star Wars gaming products: the miniatures game X-Wing and the card game Star Wars: The Card Game. A role - playing game was rumored to be in the works until a year later, in August 2012, when the Fantasy Flight announced the publication of Star Wars: Edge of the Empire. Edge of the Empire was to be the first standalone game in a series of three, constituting the Fantasy Flight Games Star Wars Roleplaying Game. The first installment of the "trilogy '' was first sold in a beta version (Star Wars: Edge of the Empire Beta) in late 2012. The completed version of Edge of the Empire, nearly double the size of the beta, was released on June 25, 2013. Age of Rebellion 's beta version was released in October 2013, a beginner set released on April 25, 2014, and the final version of the game, the Age of Rebellion core rulebook, released on July 3, 2014. The third line of products, Star Wars: Force and Destiny, for playing Jedi characters, was released in beta in September 2014.
Fantasy Flight initially drew criticism for releasing a beta version, making people pay twice, and for the extra expense of the unusual custom dice; but reviews after launch were enthusiastic about the dice, with Game Informer saying "In practice, this system offers tremendous flexibility to allow the players to participate in the storytelling process, rather than just waiting for the GM to respond after a die roll. The players talk together about how to interpret a roll of the dice, and shape the results to make the most exciting story. It also speaks strongly to the cinematic nature of the Star Wars universe; characters in the movies often succeed or fail along with potent side effects. '' and Penny Arcade saying "This dice system is designed to facilitate awesome storytelling and it worked great! ''
In the following release timeline, supplements are not included, however the timeline includes dice sets and the principal rule - containing products from all four lines of standalone games, including beta versions, beginner games, and core rulebooks.
All three installments of the Star Wars Roleplaying Game are set within the time period of the Star Wars original trilogy. Star Wars: Edge of the Empire is set shortly after the destruction of the first Death Star, and deals with characters on the fringes of galactic space. Age of Rebellion is set around the time of The Empire Strikes Back, and allows players to join the Rebellion. Like Edge of the Empire, Force and Destiny is set shortly after the destruction of the first Death Star and the death of Obi - Wan Kenobi, when the force sensitive and Jedi slowly start to re-emerge in hopes of rebuilding the Order of the Jedi.
Characters are created by first specifying their species, then their initial profession (a general Career with a narrow Specialization). Players can spend experience points increasing Skills or gaining Talents (special Career - based abilities) gained from their profession. As in some other career - based RPGs your current career and specialization indicates what you do and what skills you can learn easily. Characters can buy other Specializations after character creation and can use the Skills and Talents they grant without closing the character 's original Career Specialization. Having a Specialization from the same or a similar career narrows the character 's selection of available Career Skills and Talents, while taking a Specialization from a different career widens the field of Career Skills and Talents and rounds the character out more.
The Force Awakens Beginner Game is based upon the era of the 2015 movie, Star Wars: The Force Awakens, with the adventure provided taking place just before the events of the movie. This places the adventure at roughly the same time as of the movie at thirty years after the events of Return of the Jedi.
The Attributes are Brawn (Strength), Agility (Dexterity), Intellect (Intelligence), Cunning (Wisdom), Willpower (Mental Focus), and Presence (Charisma). Attribute levels range from a minimum of 1 to a maximum of 6. Each character race has different base Attribute levels, though additional levels in each attribute can be gained during or after character creation, at the cost the value of the next level times 10. For instance, a Human who wants to upgrade their Brawn from a base level of 2 to a level of 4 during character creation will pay 30 pts. (3 x 10) for level 3, plus 40 pts. (4 x 10) for level 4 for a total cost of 70 points. Attributes can only be increased after character creation by buying the 25 - point Dedication talent on the character 's career specialization tree, which raises one Attribute by one level (up to the Attribute maximum of 6).
Strain is a derived attribute based on a Racial minimum plus the character 's Will that determines how much physical, mental or emotional stress a character can take before collapsing. Wound Points are a derived attribute based on a Racial minimum plus the character 's Brawn that determines how much physical damage a character can take before passing out or slipping into a coma. Soak is the protection granted by the clothing or armor a character is wearing and / or the character 's natural toughness.
The game 's rules assume that all characters have all the listed skills at "zero level '' if they do not have a level in it. (A real - life equivalent would be how the average person vaguely knows how to give CPR even if they have never performed it before; meanwhile, a person who took an annual CPR certification course would be qualified to do it correctly and an EMT would be an expert from performing it all the time). The character 's default skill level is equal to the skill 's governing Attribute score. "Default '' skill rolls use one green 8 - sided Ability die per Attribute level.
Purchasing a level in a skill makes the character an expert in it. Skill levels can be purchased for five points times the level for career skills, with the additional cost of five additional points for non-career skills. For instance, buying level one in athletics skill would cost no points if it was a selected career or specialty skill during character creation, 5 points (5 x 1 = 5) if it was a non-selected career skill during or after character creation, and 10 points (5 x 1 (+ 5) = 10) if it was a non-career skill. Buying level two would cost 10 points (5 x 2 = 10) for a selected or non-selected career skill and 15 points (5 x 2 (+ 5) = 15) for a non-career skill. Skills have a maximum level of five. Regular Skill rolls use a yellow 12 - sided proficiency die per Skill level in the place of a green ability die. It can also add an ability die if the skill level is higher than the character 's attribute level. For instance, a character with a level of four in computers skill and a level of 5 in Intellect would roll four Proficiency dice and one Ability die. However, a character with a level of five in computers skill and a level of 4 in intellect would still roll four Proficiency dice and 1 Ability die rather than five Proficiency dice.
The player begins character design by selecting a Racial Template. Each race has different racial attribute minimums and maximums. Some races also have a free level in a racial skill (usually up to a maximum of Level 2 at creation) or have a racial talent. As an example, humans have a racial template that has a score of 2 in all Attributes and can have any two different skills of the player 's choice at the start of play. Characters can also pay points to increase starting wealth (a baseline of 500 credits) or racial advantages.
The player then picks a career, which grants career skills. Then they pick a specialization - which grants more career skills and a specialization tree (which grants specialization - based talents). Characters can not buy a new career but may buy additional specializations.
Example: The Engineer Career narrows down to the Mechanic, Saboteur, and Scientist Specializations. If a character wishes to buy another Specialization, it costs less for one under their Career than for one under another career. For instance, an Engineer - Mechanic who wants to add the Engineer 's Scientist Specialization would pay less than if they wanted to add the Technician 's Slicer or Ace 's Pilot Specialization.
Career Skills grant the first level free during initial character creation (but cost points later on if a newly purchased career specialization grants them). They also cost less than regular Skills when buying additional levels in them. The character 's career grants four Career Skills from the Career template skill list and their career specialization grants two more career Skills from the Specialization template skill list. For instance, an Engineer - Mechanic and Technician - Mechanic have the same specialization tree but have different specialization template career skills to choose from to depict their different character concepts.
Talents are what gamers call "crunchy bits '': advantages with cool names (like Gear Head or Hold Together, Baby) that add flavor to a character and either grant bonuses, benefit allies, remove penalties during play, or penalize adversaries. They cost experience points to buy, and must be unlocked in the order they appear on a diagram called a "Specialization Tree '' (similar to those found in video games such as Star Wars: The Old Republic). The further down the diagram, the more expensive (and powerful) the Talents become. This means that sometimes a player has to buy Talents that they do not want or require in order to get to desired talents further down the same branch. However, it avoids having the character cherry - pick the more powerful talents and leaving the rest. The player can only buy a talent on the tree once (but can buy it again if it appears elsewhere on the diagram); when the tree is all filled out, the character can not buy any more talents from that specialization tree.
Talents are split into two groups. "Passive '' talents (which have a blue code) denote abilities that are considered always on and can be used for the entire duration of the session. "Active '' talents (which have a red code) denote abilities that require a difficulty roll to turn on prior to use, and in some cases can only be used a limited number of times in a given session. Some talents have levels and can be purchased more than once. The talent 's levels stack, even if they are bought at different amounts of experience points.
Example: If a character bought three levels of Grit (a Talent that grants a bonus of plus one per level to the character 's Strain) from one specialization tree at a total cost of 45 points and bought it at one level on another Specialization Tree at a cost of 10 points, it would stack as four levels of Grit (granting a total of plus four to Strain).
Disadvantages can be taken during character creation to offset point costs. Edge of the Empire has Obligations, something the character is forced or compelled to do. Age of Rebellion has Duties, something the character wants to do. The number of Player Characters in the group set the base disadvantage number, as the Game Master rolls at the beginning of play to see which character 's disadvantage will be used during the session. The character can pay off the disadvantage with experience points in gameplay.
Force and Destiny has Morality, which governs how close to slipping over to the Dark Side the Force using character is. Unlike the other two games Morality is governed by a character 's actions during gameplay, with conflict being generated whenever they choose to perform a morally questionable action or choose to use the Dark Side of the Force in order to power their abilities. Morality can not be ' bought ' with XP, instead a player wanting to change their alignment must actually role play a more aggressive character to turn Dark, or perform acts of compassion to become a paragon of the Light.
Motivation is the character 's guiding principle (a Belief, Personal Connection, or Quest). If the player uses the character 's Motivation during gameplay, they get an experience point bonus.
As in Fantasy Flight Games ' edition of Warhammer Fantasy Roleplay, the system requires custom polyhedral dice, or dice modified with stickers to play (the beta version came with stickers to convert ordinary dice of the right size to Star Wars dice).
The custom dice enable the dice having results on two axes; how successful the skill check was, and how lucky the attempt was with other factors -- normally only one success on the pass / fail axis is needed to succeed. There are both positive and negative types of dice, which can be added to a roll represent advantages or disadvantages in a skill check.
The results on the dice are Success (explosion symbol) / Failure (caltrop symbol), Advantage (a pip in a wreath) / Threat (a pip on the central facet of a faceted sphere), or Critical Success ("Triumph '', a starburst in a circle) / Critical Failure ("Despair '', a triangle in a circle). Blank faces confer no benefit or penalty. The result depends on subtracting the lower result from the higher result on an axis. A result of 5 Successes and 3 Failures is a Success of 2. A result of 2 Advantages and 5 Threats is a Threat of 3. However, Triumph and Despair do not cancel each other out and double as a Success or Failure result; a result of no Triumphs and 1 Despair is 1 Critical Failure / + 1 normal Failure. These results mean that the character made the Skill roll with a bonus of 1 Success, but suffered 3 Threats and 1 Despair as well. The Game Master would interpret the result to indicate what problems and difficulties would happen next.
For example, a Rebel commando bumps into a squad of Stormtroopers turning around a corner and he shoots his blaster at them. The player rolls the 1 Success, 3 Threats, and 1 Despair from the above example. His blaster shot hits (1 Success) and does the blaster rifle 's base damage + 1 (from the number of Successes). The Game Master interprets the negative results to mean that the commando suffers 1 point of Strain (1 Threat), suffers 1 Black Die on the next skill roll (2 Threats), and the power cell in his blaster ran out and needs to be reloaded (1 Despair).
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if president and vice president die who is next in india | United States Presidential line of succession - wikipedia
The United States presidential line of succession is the order in which officials of the United States federal government discharge the powers and duties of the office of President of the United States if the incumbent president becomes incapacitated, dies, resigns, or is removed from office (by impeachment by the House of Representatives and subsequent conviction by the Senate) during their four - year term of office. Presidency succession is referred to multiple times in the U.S. Constitution -- Article II, Section 1, Clause 6, as well as the 12th Amendment, 20th Amendment, and 25th Amendment. The Article II succession clause authorizes Congress to provide for a line of succession beyond the vice president, which it has done on three occasions. The current Presidential Succession Act was adopted in 1947, and last revised in 2006.
The line of succession follows the order of Vice President, Speaker of the House of Representatives, President pro tempore of the Senate, and then the eligible heads of federal executive departments who form the president 's Cabinet. The Presidential Succession Act refers specifically to officers beyond the vice president acting as president rather than becoming president when filling a vacancy. The Cabinet currently has 15 members, of which the Secretary of State is first in line; the other Cabinet secretaries follow in the order in which their department (or the department of which their department is the successor) was created. Those heads of department who are constitutionally ineligible to be elected to the presidency are also disqualified from assuming the powers and duties of the presidency through succession. Since 1789, the vice president has succeeded to the presidency intra-term on nine occasions, eight times due to the incumbent 's death, and once due to resignation. No one lower in the line of succession has yet been called upon to act as president.
Widely considered a settled issue during the late 20th century, the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001 demonstrated the potential for a decapitation strike that would kill or incapacitate multiple individuals in the presidential line of succession, in addition to many members of Congress and of the federal judiciary. In the years immediately following the attacks, there were numerous wide - ranging discussions in Congress, among academics, and within the public policy community about continuity of government concerns, including the existing constitutional and statutory provisions governing presidential succession. These discussions are ongoing. One effort, that of the Continuity of Government Commission, a nonpartisan think tank, produced three reports (in 2003, 2009, and 2011), the second of which focused on the implicit ambiguities and limitations in the current succession act, and contained recommendations for amending the laws for succession to the presidency.
The table below details the current presidential order of succession as established by the 1947 presidential succession statute as amended (3 U.S.C. § 19). The order is determined by the offices. However, the individual in an office must still satisfy the constitutional requirements for the office in order to serve as Acting President. In the table, the absence of a number in the first column indicates that the incumbent is ineligible, or is of uncertain eligibility. In such cases, a note explains the detail.
Article II, Section 1, Clause 5 of the Constitution sets three qualifications for holding the presidency. To serve as president, one must: be a natural - born U.S. citizen of the United States; be at least thirty - five years old; and be a resident in the United States for at least fourteen years.
A person who meets the above qualifications, however, would still be constitutionally disqualified from holding the office of president under any of the following conditions:
The presidential line of succession is mentioned at four places in the Constitution:
The Presidential Succession Act of 1792 (Full text) provided for succession to the presidency, in the event both the office of the President and the Vice President were vacant, by, first, the president pro tempore of the Senate, followed by, if need be, the speaker of the House. Various framers of the Constitution, such as James Madison, criticized the arrangement as being contrary to their intent. The decision to build the line of succession around those two officials was made after a long and contentious debate. In addition to the president pro tempore and the speaker, both the secretary of state and the chief justice of the Supreme Court were also suggested. Including the secretary of state was unacceptable to most Federalists, who did not want the then secretary of state, Thomas Jefferson, who had become the leader of the opposition Democratic - Republicans, to follow the vice president in the succession, and many objected to including the chief justice due to separation of powers concerns.
The statute provided that the presidential successor would serve in an acting capacity, holding office only until a new president could be elected. A special election was to be held in November of the year in which dual vacancies occurred (unless the vacancies occurred after the first Wednesday in October, in which case the election would occur the following year; or unless the vacancies occurred within the last year of the presidential term, in which case the next election would take place as regularly scheduled). The persons elected president and vice president in such a special election would have served a full four - year term beginning on March 4 of the next year; no such election ever took place.
The Presidential Succession Act of 1886 (Full text) established a line of succession that included the members of the president 's cabinet, the order of the establishment of the various departments, beginning with the Secretary of State, and stipulated that any official discharging the powers and duties of the presidency must possess the constitutional qualifications to hold the office. The president pro tempore and speaker were excluded from the new line; also dropped was the provision mandating a special presidential election when a double vacancy arose.
The need for increasing the number of presidential successors was abundantly clear to Congress, for twice within the span of four years it happened that there was no one in the presidential line of succession. In September 1881, When Chester A. Arthur succeeded to the presidency following James A. Garfield 's death, there was no vice President, no president pro tempore of the Senate, and no Speaker of the House of Representatives. Then, in November 1885, Grover Cleveland faced a similar situation, following the death of Vice President Thomas A. Hendricks, as the Senate and the House had not convened yet to elect new officers.
The Presidential Succession Act of 1947 (Full text) restored the speaker of the House and president pro tempore of the Senate to the line of succession -- but in reverse - order from their 1792 positions -- and placed them ahead of the members of the Cabinet, who were positioned once more in the order of the establishment of their department. Placing the speaker and the president pro tempore (both elected officials) back in the succession and placing them ahead of cabinet members (all of whom are appointed by the president with the advice and consent of the Senate), was Harry S. Truman 's idea. Personally conveyed to Congress in June 1945, two months after becoming president upon Franklin D. Roosevelt 's death, the proposal reflected Truman 's belief that the president should not have the power to appoint to office "the person who would be my immediate successor in the event of my own death or inability to act, '' and that the presidency should, whenever possible, "be filled by an elective officer. ''
The Act, which the president signed into law on July 18, 1947, has been modified several times, with changes being made as the face of the federal bureaucracy has changed over the ensuing years. Its most recent change came about in 2006, when the USA PATRIOT Improvement and Reauthorization Act added the secretary of Homeland Security to the presidential line of succession.
Although the Presidential Succession Clause in Article II of the Constitution clearly provided for the vice president to take over the "powers and duties '' of the presidency in the event of a president 's removal, death, resignation, or inability, left unclear was whether the vice president became president of the United States or simply acted as president in a case of succession. Some historians, including Edward Corwin and John D. Feerick, have argued that the framers ' intention was that the vice president would remain vice president while executing the powers and duties of the presidency until a new president could be elected.
The hypothetical debate about whether the office or merely the powers of the office devolve upon a vice president who succeeds to the presidency between elections became an urgent constitutional issue in 1841, when President William Henry Harrison died in office, only 31 days into his term. Vice President John Tyler claimed a constitutional mandate to carry out the full powers and duties of the presidency, asserting he was the president and not merely a temporary acting president, by taking the presidential oath of office.
Many around him -- including John Quincy Adams, Henry Clay and other members of Congress, along with Whig party leaders, and even Tyler 's own cabinet -- believed that he was only acting as president and did not have the office itself. He was nicknamed "His Accidency '' and excoriated as a usurper. Nonetheless, Tyler adhered to his position, even returning, unopened, mail addressed to the "Acting President of the United States '' sent by his detractors. Tyler 's view ultimately prevailed when the Senate voted to accept the title "President, '' setting a momentous precedent for an orderly transfer of presidential power following a president 's death, one that was written into the Constitution as section 1 of the Twenty - fifth Amendment.
Even after the precedent regarding presidential succession due to the president 's death was set, the part of the Presidential Succession Clause that provided for replacing a disabled president remained unclear. What constituted an "inability ''? Who determined the existence of an inability? Did a vice president become president for the rest of the presidential term in the case of an inability; or was the vice president merely "acting as President ''? Due to this lack of clarity, later vice presidents were hesitant to assert any role in cases of presidential inability. Two situations are noteworthy:
When Dwight D. Eisenhower suffered a heart attack in September 1955, he and Vice President Richard Nixon developed an informal plan authorizing Nixon to assume some administrative duties during Eisenhower 's recovery. Although it did not have the force of law, the plan helped to reassure the nation. The agreement also contained a provision whereby Eisenhower could declare his own inability and, if unable to do so, empowered Nixon, with appropriate consultation, to make the decision. Had it been invoked, Nixon would have served as acting president until the president issued a declaration of his recovery. Moved forward as consequence of President Kennedy 's November 1963 assassination, this informal plan evolved into constitutional procedure a decade later through Sections 3 and 4 of the Twenty - fifth Amendment, which resolved the uncertainties surrounding presidential disability.
Nine vice presidents have succeeded to the presidency intra-term, eight due to the president 's death, and one due to the president 's resignation from office.
Additionally, two vice presidents have temporarily assumed the powers and duties of the presidency as acting president, as authorized by Section 3 of the Twenty - fifth Amendment: George H.W. Bush did so once, on July 13, 1985, and Dick Cheney did so twice, on June 29, 2002, and on July 21, 2007.
While several vice presidents have succeeded to the presidency upon the death or resignation of the president, and a number of them have died or resigned, the offices of President and Vice President have never been simultaneously vacant; thus no other officer in the presidential line of succession has ever been called upon to act as president. The prospect of such a double vacancy lurked in the shadows surrounding President Abraham Lincoln 's 1865 assassination, as Vice President Andrew Johnson (along with Secretary of State William Seward and possibly General Ulysses S. Grant) was also targeted as part of John Wilkes Booth 's plot to destabilize the Union government. It was also there three years later, when, as president and with the vice presidency vacant, Johnson was impeached by the House of Representatives and faced removal from office if convicted at trial in the Senate. Johnson was acquitted by a one - vote margin.
Ratification of the 25th Amendment, with its mechanism for filling an intra-term vice presidential vacancy, has made calling on the speaker, president pro tempore, or a cabinet member to serve as acting president unlikely to happen, except in the aftermath of a catastrophic event. Only a few years after it went into effect, in October 1973, at the height of Watergate, Vice President Spiro Agnew resigned. With Agnew 's unexpected departure, and the state of Richard Nixon 's presidency, Speaker of the House Carl Albert was suddenly first in line to become acting president. The vacancy continued until Gerald Ford was sworn in as vice president on December 6, 1973. Albert was also next in line from the time Ford assumed the presidency on August 9, 1974, following Nixon 's resignation from office, until Ford 's choice to succeed him as vice president, Nelson Rockefeller, was confirmed by Congress four months later.
The vice presidency has been vacant on 18 occasions since 1789; during those periods, the following people have been next in line to serve as Acting President of the United States:
In 2003, the Continuity of Government Commission suggested that the current law has "at least seven significant issues... that warrant attention '', specifically:
In 2009, the Continuity of Government Commission commented on the use of the term "Officer '' in the 1947 statute,
The language in the current Presidential Succession Act is less clear than that of the 1886 Act with respect to Senate confirmation. The 1886 Act refers to "such officers as shall have been appointed by the advice and consent of the Senate to the office therein named... '' The current act merely refers to "officers appointed, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate. '' Read literally, this means that the current act allows for acting secretaries to be in the line of succession as long as they are confirmed by the Senate for a post (even for example, the second or third in command within a department). It is common for a second in command to become acting secretary when the secretary leaves office. Though there is some dispute over this provision, the language clearly permits acting secretaries to be placed in the line of succession. (We have spoken to acting secretaries who told us they had been placed in the line of succession.)
In 2016 - 17, the Second Fordham University School of Law Clinic on Presidential Succession developed a series of proposals to "resolve succession issues that have received little attention from scholars and commissions '' over the past several decades. The clinic 's recommendations included:
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which of these martial arts has been used in china for nearly 1 000 years | Agriculture in China - wikipedia
Agriculture is a vital industry in China, employing over 300 million farmers. China ranks first in worldwide farm output, primarily producing rice, wheat, potatoes, tomato, sorghum, peanuts, tea, millet, barley, cotton, oilseed and soybeans. Although accounting for only 10 percent of arable land worldwide, it produces food for 20 percent of the world 's population.
The development of farming over the course of China 's history has played a key role in supporting the growth of what is now the largest population in the world. Analysis of stone tools by Professor Liu Li and others has shown that the origins of Chinese agriculture is rooted in the pre-agricultural Paleolithic. During this time, hunter - gatherers harvested wild plants with the same tools that would later be used for millet and rice.
Remains of domesticated millet have been found in northern China at Xinglonggou, Yuezhang, Dadiwan, Cishan, and several Peiligang sites. These sites cover a period over 6250 - 5050 BCE. The amount of domesticated millet eaten at these sites was proportionally quite low compared to other plants. At Xinglonggou, millet made up only 15 % of all plant remains around 6200 - 5400 BCE; a ratio that changed to 99 % by 2050 - 1550 BCE. Experiments have shown that millet requires very little human intervention to grow, which means that obvious changes in the archaeological record that could demonstrate millet was being cultivated do not exist.
Excavations at Kuahuqiao, the earliest known Neolithic site in eastern China, have documented rice cultivation 7,700 years ago. Approximately half of the plant remains belonged to domesticated japonica species, whilst the other half were wild types of rice. It is possible that the people at Kuahuqiao also cultivated the wild type. Finds at sites of the Hemudu Culture (c. 5500 - 3300 BCE) in Yuyao and Banpo near Xi'an include millet and spade - like tools made of stone and bone. Evidence of settled rice agriculture has been found at the Hemudu site of Tianluoshan (5000 - 4500 BCE), with rice becoming the backbone of the agricultural economy by the Majiabang culture in southern China.
There is also a long tradition involving agriculture in Chinese mythology. In his book Permanent Agriculture: Farmers of Forty Centuries (1911), Professor Franklin Hiram King described and extolled the values of the traditional farming practices of China.
Due to China 's status as a developing country and its severe shortage of arable land, farming in China has always been very labor - intensive. However, throughout its history, various methods have been developed or imported that enabled greater farming production and efficiency. They also utilized the seed drill to help improve on row farming.
During the Spring and Autumn period (722 -- 481 BC), two revolutionary improvements in farming technology took place. One was the use of cast iron tools and beasts of burden to pull plows, and the other was the large - scale harnessing of rivers and development of water conservation projects. The engineer Sunshu Ao of the 6th century BC and Ximen Bao of the 5th century BC are two of the oldest hydraulic engineers from China, and their works were focused upon improving irrigation systems. These developments were widely spread during the ensuing Warring States period (403 -- 221 BC), culminating in the enormous Du Jiang Yan Irrigation System engineered by Li Bing by 256 BC for the State of Qin in ancient Sichuan.
For agricultural purposes the Chinese had invented the hydraulic - powered trip hammer by the 1st century BC, during the ancient Han Dynasty (202 BC - 220 AD). Although it found other purposes, its main function was to pound, decorticate, and polish grain that otherwise would have been done manually. The Chinese also innovated the square - pallet chain pump by the 1st century AD, powered by a waterwheel or an oxen pulling on a system of mechanical wheels. Although the chain pump found use in public works of providing water for urban and palatial pipe systems, it was used largely to lift water from a lower to higher elevation in filling irrigation canals and channels for farmland.
During the Eastern Jin (317 -- 420) and the Northern and Southern Dynasties (420 -- 589), the Silk Road and other international trade routes further spread farming technology throughout China. Political stability and a growing labor force led to economic growth, and people opened up large areas of wasteland and built irrigation works for expanded agricultural use. As land - use became more intensive and efficient, rice was grown twice a year and cattle began to be used for plowing and fertilization.
By the Tang Dynasty (618 -- 907), China had become a unified feudal agricultural society. Improvements in farming machinery during this era included the moldboard plow and watermill. Later during the Yuan Dynasty (1271 -- 1368), cotton planting and weaving technology were extensively adopted and improved.
While around 750, 75 % of China 's population lived north of the river Yangtze, by 1250, 75 % of the population lived south of the river. Such large - scale internal migration was possible due to the introduction of quick - ripening strains of rice from Vietnam suitable for multi-cropping.
The Qing, Ming and Yuan dynasties had seen the rise of collective help organizations between farmers.
In 1909 US Professor of Agriculture Franklin Hiram King made an extensive tour of China (as well as Japan and briefly Korea) and he described contemporary agricultural practices. He favourably described the farming of China as ' permanent agriculture ' and his book ' Farmers of Forty Centuries ', published posthumously in 1911, has become an agricultural classic and has been a favoured reference source for organic farming advocates.
Following the Communist Party of China 's victory in the Chinese Civil War, control of the farmlands was taken away from landlords and redistributed to the 300 million peasant farmers. In 1952, gradually consolidating its power following the civil war, the government began organizing the peasants into teams. Three years later, these teams were combined into producer cooperatives, enacting the Socialist goal of collective land ownership. In the following year, 1956, the government formally took control of the land, further structuring the farmland into large government - operated collective farms.
In the 1958 "Great Leap Forward '' campaign initiated by Mao Zedong, land use was placed under closer government control in an effort to improve agricultural output. In particular, the Great sparrow campaign had a direct negative impact on agriculture. Collectives were organized into communes, private food production was banned, and collective eating was required. Greater emphasis was also put on industrialization instead of agriculture. The farming inefficiencies created by this campaign led to The Great Chinese Famine, resulting in the deaths of somewhere between the government estimate of 14 million to scholarly estimates of 20 to 43 million. Although private plots of land were re-instated in 1962 due to this failure, communes remained the dominant rural unit of economic organization during the Cultural Revolution, with Mao championing the "Learn from Tachai '' campaign. Tachai 's semiliterate party secretary Chen Yonggui was among those outmaneuvered by Deng Xiaoping after the death of Mao: from 1982 -- 1985, the Dazhai - style communes were gradually replaced by townships.
Beginning in 1978, as part of the Four Modernizations campaign, the Family Production Responsibility System was created, dismantling communes and giving agricultural production responsibility back to individual households. Households are now given crop quotas that they were required to provide to their collective unit in return for tools, draft animals, seeds, and other essentials. Households, which now lease land from their collectives, are free to use their farmland however they see fit as long as they meet these quotas. This freedom has given more power to individual families to meet their individual needs. In addition to these structural changes, the Chinese government also engages in irrigation projects (such as the Three Gorges Dam), runs large state farms, and encourages mechanization and fertilizer use.
By 1984, when about 99 % of farm production teams had adopted the Family Production Responsibility System, the government began further economic reforms, aimed primarily at liberalizing agricultural pricing and marketing. In 1984, the government replaced mandatory procurement with voluntary contracts between farmers and the government. Later, in 1993, the government abolished the 40 - year - old grain rationing system, leading to more than 90 percent of all annual agricultural produce to be sold at market - determined prices.
Since 1994, the government has instituted a number of policy changes aimed at limiting grain importation and increasing economic stability. Among these policy changes was the artificial increase of grain prices above market levels. This has led to increased grain production, while placing the heavy burden of maintaining these prices on the government. In 1995, the "Governor 's Grain Bag Responsibility System '' was instituted, holding provincial governors responsible for balancing grain supply and demand and stabilizing grain prices in their provinces. Later, in 1997, the "Four Separations and One Perfection '' program was implemented to relieve some of the monetary burdens placed on the government by its grain policy.
As China continues to industrialize, vast swaths of agricultural land is being converted into industrial land. Farmers displaced by such urban expansion often become migrant labor for factories, but other farmers feel disenfranchised and cheated by the encroachment of industry and the growing disparity between urban and rural wealth and income.
The most recent innovation in Chinese agriculture is a push into organic agriculture. This rapid embrace of organic farming simultaneously serves multiple purposes, including food safety, health benefits, export opportunities, and, by providing price premiums for the produce of rural communities, the adoption of organics can help stem the migration of rural workers to the cities. In the mid-1990s China became a net importer of grain, since its unsustainable practises of groundwater mining has effectively removed considerable land from productive agricultural use.
Although China 's agricultural output is the largest in the world, only about 15 % of its total land area can be cultivated. China 's arable land, which represents 10 % of the total arable land in the world, supports over 20 % of the world 's population. Of this approximately 1.4 million square kilometers of arable land, only about 1.2 % (116,580 square kilometers) permanently supports crops and 525,800 square kilometers are irrigated. The land is divided into approximately 200 million households, with an average land allocation of just 0.65 hectares (1.6 acres).
China 's limited space for farming has been a problem throughout its history, leading to chronic food shortage and famine. While the production efficiency of farmland has grown over time, efforts to expand to the west and the north have met with limited success, as such land is generally colder and drier than traditional farmlands to the east. Since the 1950s, farm space has also been pressured by the increasing land needs of industry and cities.
Such increases in the sizes of cities, such as the administrative district of Beijing 's increase from 4,822 km2 in 1956 to 16,808 km2 in 1958, has led to the increased adoption of peri-urban agriculture. Such "suburban agriculture '' led to more than 70 % of non-staple food in Beijing, mainly consisting of vegetables and milk, to be produced by the city itself in the 1960s and 1970s. Recently, with relative food security in China, periurban agriculture has led to improvements in the quality of the food available, as opposed to quantity. One of the more recent experiments in urban agriculture is the Modern Agricultural Science Demonstration Park in Xiaotangshan.
About 75 % of China 's cultivated area is used for food crops. Rice is China 's most important crop, raised on about 25 % of the cultivated area. The majority of rice is grown south of the Huai River, in the Zhu Jiang delta, and in the Yunnan, Guizhou, and Sichuan provinces.
Wheat is the second most - prevalent grain crop, grown in most parts of the country but especially on the North China Plain, the Wei and Fen River valleys on the Loess plateau, and in Jiangsu, Hubei, and Sichuan provinces. Corn and millet are grown in north and northeast China, and oat is important in Inner Mongolia and Tibet.
Other crops include sweet potatoes in the south, white potatoes in the north, and various other fruits and vegetables. Tropical fruits are grown on Hainan Island, apples and pears are grown in northern Liaoning and Shandong.
Oil seeds are important in Chinese agriculture, supplying edible and industrial oils and forming a large share of agricultural exports. In North and Northeast China, Chinese soybeans are grown to be used in tofu and cooking oil. China is also a leading producer of peanuts, which are grown in Shandong and Hebei provinces. Other oilseed crops are sesame seeds, sunflower seeds, rapeseed, and the seeds of the tung tree.
Citrus is a major cash crop in southern China, with production scattered along and south of the Yangtze River valley. Mandarins are the most popular citrus in China, with roughly double the output of oranges.
Other important food crops for China include green and jasmine teas (popular among the Chinese population), black tea (as an export), sugarcane, and sugar beets. Tea plantations are located on the hillsides of the middle Yangtze Valley and in the southeast provinces of Fujian and Zhejiang. Sugarcane is grown in Guangdong and Sichuan, while sugar beets are raised in Heilongjiang province and on irrigated land in Inner Mongolia. Lotus is widely cultivated throughout southern China. Arabica coffee is grown in the southwestern province of Yunnan.
China is the leading producer of cotton, which is grown throughout, but especially in the areas of the North China Plain, the Yangtze river delta, the middle Yangtze valley, and the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region. Other fiber crops include ramie, flax, jute, and hemp. Sericulture, the practice of silkworm raising, is also practiced in central and southern China.
China has a large livestock population, with pigs and fowls being the most common. China 's pig population and pork production mainly lie along the Yangtze River. In 2011, Sichuan province had 51 million pigs (11 % of China 's total supply). In rural western China, sheep, goats, and camels are raised by nomadic herders. In Tibet, yaks are raised as a source of food, fuel, and shelter. Cattle, water buffalo, horses, mules, and donkeys are also raised in China, and dairy has recently been encouraged by the government, even though approximately 92.3 % of the adult population is affected by some level of lactose intolerance.
As demand for gourmet foods grows, production of more exotic meats increases as well. Based on survey data from 684 Chinese turtle farms (less than half of the all 1,499 officially registered turtle farms in the year of the survey, 2002), they sold over 92,000 tons of turtles (around 128 million animals) per year; this is thought to correspond to the industrial total of over 300 million turtles per year.
Increased incomes and increased demand for meat, especially pork, has resulted in demand for improved breeds of livestock, breeding stock imported particularly from the United States. Some of these breeds are adapted to factory farming.
China accounts for about one - third of the total fish production of the world. Aquaculture, the breeding of fish in ponds and lakes, accounts for more than half of its output. The principal aquaculture - producing regions are close to urban markets in the middle and lower Yangtze valley and the Zhu Jiang delta.
In its first fifty years, the People 's Republic of China greatly increased agricultural production through organizational and technological improvements.
However, since 2000 the depletion of China 's main aquifers has led to an overall decrease in grain production, turning China into a net importer. The trend of Chinese dependence on imported food is expected to accelerate as the water shortage worsens. Despite their potential, desalination plants find few customers because it is still cheaper to over-utilize rivers, lakes and aquifers, even as these are depleted.
Today, China is both the world 's largest producer and consumer of agricultural products. However, the researcher Lin Erda has stated a projected fall of possibly 14 % to 23 % by 2050 due to water shortages and other impacts by climate change; China has increased the budget for agriculture by 20 % in 2009, and continues to support energy efficiency measures, renewable technology, and other efforts with investments, such as the over 30 % green component of the $586 bn fiscal stimulus package announced in November 2008.
Despite rapid growth of in output, the Chinese agricultural sector still faces several challenges. Farmers in several provinces, such as Shandong, Zhejiang, Anhui, Liaoning, and Xinjiang often have a hard time selling their agricultural products to customers due to a lack of information about current conditions.
Between the producing farmer in the countryside and the end - consumer in the cities there is a chain of intermediaries. Because a lack of information flows through them, farmers find it difficult to foresee the demand for different types of fruits and vegetables. In order to maximize their profits they, therefore, opt to produce those fruits and vegetables that created the highest revenues for farmers in the region in the previous year. If, however, most farmers do so, this causes the supply of fresh products to fluctuate substantially year on year. Relatively scarce products in one year are produced in excess the following year because like of expected higher profit margins. The resulting excess supply, however, forces farmers to reduce their prices and sell at a loss. The scarce, revenue creating products of one year become the over-abundant, loss - making products in the following, and vice versa.
Efficiency is further impaired in the transportation of agricultural products from the farms to the actual markets. According to figures from the Commerce Department, up to 25 % of fruits and vegetables rot before being sold, compared to around 5 % in a typical developed country. As intermediaries can not sell these rotten fruits they pay farmers less than they would if able to sell all or most of the fruits and vegetables. This reduces farmer 's revenues although the problem is caused by post-production inefficiencies, which they are not themselves aware of during price negotiations with intermediaries.
These information and transportation problems highlight inefficiencies in the market mechanisms between farmers and end consumers, impeding farmers from taking advantage of the fast development of the rest of the Chinese economy. The resulting small profit margin does not allow them to invest in the necessary agricultural inputs (machinery, seeds, fertilizers, etc.) to raise productivity and improve their standards of living, from which the whole of the Chinese economy would benefit. This in turn increases the exodus of people from the countryside to the cities, which already face urbanization issues.
China is the world 's largest importer of soybeans and other food crops, and is expected to become the top importer of farm products within the next decade. In 2017, farmers in the providence of Donggaozhuang began selling yarn in an online marketplace owned by Alibaba Group. Many farmers later sold their farmland to focus on online sales as the access to global consumers yielded much more income then traditional farming.
While most years China 's agricultural production is sufficient to feed the country, in down years, China has to import grain. Due to the shortage of available farm land and an abundance of labor, it might make more sense to import land - extensive crops (such as wheat and rice) and to save China 's scarce cropland for high - value export products, such as fruits, nuts, or vegetables. In order to maintain grain independence and ensure food security, however, the Chinese government has enforced policies that encourage grain production at the expense of more - profitable crops. Despite heavy restrictions on crop production, China 's agricultural exports have greatly increased in recent years.
One important motivator of increased international trade was China 's inclusion in the World Trade Organization (WTO) on December 11, 2001, leading to reduced or eliminated tariffs on much of China 's agricultural exports. Due to the resulting opening of international markets to Chinese agriculture, by 2004 the value of China 's agricultural exports exceeded $17.3 billion (US). Since China 's inclusion in the WTO, its agricultural trade has not been liberalized to the same extent as its manufactured goods trade. Markets within China are still relatively closed - off to foreign companies. Due to its large and growing population, it is speculated that if its agricultural markets were opened, China would become a consistent net importer of food, possibly destabilizing the world food market. The barriers enforced by the Chinese government on grains are not transparent because China 's state trading in grains is conducted through its Cereal, Oil, and Foodstuffs Importing and Exporting Corporation (COFCO).
As a developing nation, China has relatively low sanitary and phytosanitary (SPS) standards for its agricultural goods. Corruption in the government, such as the bribery of the former head of the State Food and Drug Administration Zheng Xiaoyu, has also complicated China 's regulation difficulties. Excessive pesticide residues, low food hygiene, unsafe additives, contamination with heavy metals and other contaminants, and misuse of veterinary drugs have all led to trade restrictions with developed nations such as Japan, the United States, and the European Union. These problems have also led to public outcry, such as in the melamine - tainted dog food scare and the carcinogenic - tainted seafood import restriction, leading to measures such as the "China - free '' label.
About one tenth of China 's farmland is contaminated with heavy metals, according to the Ministry of Environmental Protection of the People 's Republic of China.
China has developed a Green Food program where produce is certified for low pesticide input. This has been articulated into Green food Grade A and Grade AA. This Green Food AA standard has been aligned with IFOAM international standards for organic farming and has formed the basis of the rapid expansion of organic agriculture in China.
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where does charlie from charlie and the chocolate factory live | Charlie and the Chocolate Factory - wikipedia
Charlie and the Chocolate Factory is a 1964 children 's novel by British author Roald Dahl. The story features the adventures of young Charlie Bucket inside the chocolate factory of eccentric chocolatier Willy Wonka.
Charlie and the Chocolate Factory was first published in the United States by Alfred A. Knopf, Inc. in 1964 and in the United Kingdom by George Allen & Unwin, 11 months later. The book has been adapted into two major motion pictures: Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory in 1971, and Charlie and the Chocolate Factory in 2005. The book 's sequel, Charlie and the Great Glass Elevator, was written by Roald Dahl in 1971 and published in 1972. Dahl had also planned to write a third book in the series but never finished it.
The story was originally inspired by Roald Dahl 's experience of chocolate companies during his schooldays. Cadbury would often send test packages to the schoolchildren in exchange for their opinions on the new products. At that time (around the 1920s), Cadbury and Rowntree 's were England 's two largest chocolate makers and they each often tried to steal trade secrets by sending spies, posing as employees, into the other 's factory. Because of this, both companies became highly protective of their chocolate - making processes. It was a combination of this secrecy and the elaborate, often gigantic, machines in the factory that inspired Dahl to write the story.
11 - year - old Charlie Bucket lives in poverty in a tiny house with his parents and four grandparents. His grandparents share the only bed in the house, located in the only bedroom. Charlie and his parents sleep on a mattress on the floor. One day, Grandpa Joe tells him about the legendary and eccentric chocolatier, Willy Wonka and all the wonderful sweets he made until the other sweetmakers sent in spies to steal his secret recipes, which led him to close the factory forever. The next day, the newspaper announces that Mr Wonka is reopening the factory and has invited five children to come on a tour, after they find a golden ticket in a Wonka Bar. Each ticket find is a media sensation and each finder becomes a celebrity. The first four golden tickets are found by the gluttonous Augustus Gloop, the spoiled and petulant Veruca Salt, the gum - addicted Violet Beauregarde, and the TV - obsessed Mike Teavee.
One day, Charlie sees a fifty - pence coin (dollar bill in the US version) buried in the snow. He then buys himself a Wonka Bar and finds the fifth golden ticket. The ticket says he can bring any family members with him to the factory and Charlie 's parents decide to allow Grandpa Joe to go with him.
After meeting Mr Wonka, the kids and their parents go inside where they meet Oompa - Loompas, a race of small people who help Mr Wonka operate the factory since he rescued them from poverty and fear in their home country Loompaland. The other kids are ejected from the factory in comical, mysterious and painful ways - befitting their various greedy characters and personalities. Augustus gets sucked up the pipe after falling into the Chocolate River in the Chocolate Room, Violet blows up into a giant blueberry after sampling an experimental three - course chewing gum meal in the Inventing Room, Veruca is thrown down the rubbish chute in the Nut Room after the nut - testing squirrels consider her a "bad nut, '' and Mike gets shrunk after he tries to be the first person to be sent by television in the Television Room 's Television Chocolate Technology. With only Charlie remaining, Mr Wonka congratulates him for "winning '' the factory and, after explaining his true age and the reason behind his golden tickets, names Charlie his successor. They ride the Great Glass Elevator to Charlie 's house while the other four children go home (Augustus squeezed thin, Violet all blue in the face, Veruca covered in rubbish, and Mike stretched ten feet tall). Afterwards, Mr Wonka invites Charlie 's family to come live with him in the factory, and they do.
Dahl 's widow said that Charlie was originally written as ' a little black boy. ' Dahl 's biographer said the change to a white character was driven by Dahl 's agent, who thought a black Charlie would not appeal to readers.
In the first published edition, the Oompa - Loompas were described as African pygmies, and were drawn this way in the original printed edition. After the announcement of a film adaptation sparked a statement from the NAACP expressing concern that the transportation of Oompa - Loompas to Wonka 's factory resembled slavery, Dahl found himself sympathizing with the NAACP 's concerns and published a revised edition. In this edition, as well as the subsequent sequel, the Oompa - Loompas were drawn as being white and appearing similar to hippies, and the references to Africa were deleted. Dahl later expressed regret over the original version, saying that his original intention of depicting Charlie as a black child was evidence that he was not racist.
Various unused and draft material from Dahl 's early versions of the novel have been found. In the initial, unpublished drafts of Charlie and the Chocolate Factory nine golden tickets were distributed to tour Willy Wonka 's secret chocolate factory and the children faced more rooms and more temptations to test their self - control. Some of the names of the children cut from the final work include:
"Spotty Powder '' was first published as a short story in 1973. In 2005, The Times reprinted "Spotty Powder '' as a "lost '' chapter, saying it had been found in Dahl 's desk, written backwards in mirror writing (the way Leonardo da Vinci wrote his journal). This chapter describes Spotty Powder, which looks and tastes like sugar, but causes bright red pox - like spots to appear on faces and necks five seconds after ingestion, so children who eat Spotty Powder do not have to go to school. The spots fade on their own a few hours later. After learning the purpose of Spotty Powder, the humourless, smug Miranda Piker and her equally humourless father (a schoolmaster) are enraged and disappear into the Spotty Powder room to sabotage the machine. Soon after entering, they are heard making what Mrs Piker interpreted as screams. Mr Wonka assures her (after making a brief joke where he claims that headmasters are one of the occasional ingredients) it was only laughter. Exactly what happened to them is not revealed in the extract.
In an early draft, sometime after being renamed from Miranda Grope to Miranda Piker but before "Spotty Powder '' was written, she falls down the chocolate waterfall and ends up in the Peanut - Brittle Mixer. This results in the "rude and disobedient little kid '' becoming "quite delicious. '' This early draft poem was slightly rewritten as an Oompa - Loompa song in the lost chapter, which now puts her in the "Spotty - Powder mixer '' and instead of being "crunchy and... good (peanut brittle) '' she is now "useful (for truancy) and... good. ''
In 2014, The Guardian revealed that Dahl had cut another chapter ("The Vanilla Fudge Room '') from an early draft of the book. The Guardian reported the now - eliminated passage was "deemed too wild, subversive and insufficiently moral for the tender minds of British children almost 50 years ago. '' In what was originally chapter five in that version of the book, Charlie goes to the factory with his mother (instead of his grandfather, as originally published). At this point, the chocolate factory tour is down to eight kids, including Tommy Troutbeck and Wilbur Rice. After the entire group climbs to the top of the titular fudge mountain, eating vanilla fudge along the way, Troutbeck and Rice decide to take a ride on the wagons carrying away chunks of fudge. The wagons take them directly to The Pounding And Cutting Room, where the fudge is reformed and sliced into small squares for retail sale. Wonka states the machine is equipped with "a large wire strainer... which is used specially for catching children before they fall into the machine '' adding that "It always catches them. At least it always has up to now. ''
The chapter dates back to an early draft with ten golden tickets, including two for Miranda Grope and Augustus Pottle, who fell into the chocolate river prior to the events of "Fudge Mountain ''. Augustus Pottle was routed to the Chocolate Fudge Room, not the Vanilla Fudge Room explored in this chapter, and Miranda Grope ended up in the Peanut Brittle Room.
Also in 2014, Vanity Fair published a plot summary of "The Warming Candy Room '', wherein three boys eat too many "warming candies '' and end up "bursting with heat. ''
The Warming Candy Room is dominated by a boiler, which heats a scarlet liquid. The liquid is dispensed one drop at a time, where it cools and forms a hard shell, storing the heat and "by a magic process... the hot heat changes into an amazing thing called ' cold heat. ' '' After eating a single warming candy, one could stand naked in the snow comfortably. This is met with predictable disbelief from Clarence Crump, Bertie Upside, and Terence Roper, who proceed to eat at least one hundred warming candies each, resulting in profuse perspiration. The three boys and their families discontinue the tour after they are taken to cool off "in the large refrigerator for a few hours. ''
Roald Dahl originally planned for a child called Marvin Prune to be included in Charlie and the Chocolate Factory. Dahl submitted the excised chapter regarding Marvin Prune to The Horn Book Review in the early 1970s. Rather than publish the chapter, Horn Book responded with a critical essay by novelist Eleanor Cameron, who criticised Dahl 's worth as a human being.
Although it was believed that Horn Book never returned the chapter, Marvin Prune 's chapter is actually available, but it has not yet been published. "The Children 's - Delight Room '' was reworked into "Spotty Powder ''. It is present in two versions. One features the workers from "The Vanilla Fudge Room '' but also include "tiny whispery voices '' who sing the songs after each child 's exit, and Charlie with his mother and father. The second version features Grandpa Joe, Charlie 's grandfather, who is present in the final book, and the Oompa - Loompas. In the version with the voices, the voices actually sing two songs, a two verse type one found in "The Vanilla Fudge Room '', plus a longer one like the type that is found in the final book. Like Miranda, Marvin loves school and suffers the same fate as her -- supposedly getting ground into powder.
A fan of the book since childhood, film director Tim Burton wrote: "I responded to Charlie and the Chocolate Factory because it respected the fact that children can be adults. '' In a 2006 list for the Royal Society of Literature, author J.K. Rowling (author of the Harry Potter books) named Charlie and the Chocolate Factory among her top ten books every child should read.
A 2004 study found that it was a common read - aloud book for fourth - graders in schools in San Diego County, California. A 2012 survey by the University of Worcester determined that it was one of the most common books that UK adults had read as children, after Alice 's Adventures in Wonderland, The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe, and The Wind in The Willows.
Groups who have praised the book include:
In the 2012 survey published by SLJ, a monthly with primarily US audience, Charlie was the second of four books by Dahl among the so - called Top 100 Chapter Books, one more than any other writer.
Although the book has always been popular and considered a children 's classic by many literary critics, a number of prominent individuals have spoken unfavorably of the novel over the years. Children 's novelist and literary historian John Rowe Townsend has described the book as "fantasy of an almost literally nauseating kind '' and accused it of "astonishing insensitivity '' regarding the original portrayal of the Oompa - Loompas as black pygmies, although Dahl did revise this in later editions. Another novelist, Eleanor Cameron, compared the book to the sweets that form its subject matter, commenting that it is "delectable and soothing while we are undergoing the brief sensory pleasure it affords but leaves us poorly nourished with our taste dulled for better fare. '' Ursula K. Le Guin wrote in support of this assessment in a letter to The Horn Book Review, saying that her own daughter would turn "quite nasty '' upon finishing the book. Roald Dahl responded to Cameron 's criticisms by noting the classics she had cited would not be well received by contemporary children.
The cover art for Penguin UK 's Modern Classics 50th Anniversary Edition of the book, published in September 2014, received criticism as being creepy, irrelevant, and age inappropriate.
In addition to spawning several sequels, Charlie and the Chocolate Factory has frequently been adapted for other media, including games, radio, the screen, and stage, most often as plays or musicals for children -- often titled Willy Wonka or Willy Wonka, Jr. and almost always featuring musical numbers by all the main characters (Wonka, Charlie, Grandpa Joe, Violet, Veruca, etc.); many of the songs are revised versions from the 1971 film.
Charlie and the Chocolate Factory has undergone numerous editions and been illustrated by numerous artists.
The cover photo of the 50th anniversary edition, published by Penguin Modern Classics for sale in the UK and aimed at the adult market received widespread commentary and criticism. The cover is a photo of a heavily made up young girl seated on her mother 's knee and wearing a doll - like expression, taken by the photographers Sofia Sanchez and Mauro Mongiello as part of a photo shoot for a 2008 fashion article in a French magazine, for a fashion article titled "Mommie Dearest. '' In addition to writing that "the image seemingly has little to do with the beloved children 's classic '', reviewers and commenters in social media (such as posters on the publisher 's Facebook page) have said the art evokes Lolita, Valley of the Dolls, and JonBenet Ramsey; looks like a scene from Toddlers & Tiaras; and is "misleading, '' "creepy, '' "sexualized, '' "grotesque, '' "misjudged on every level, '' "distasteful and disrespectful to a gifted author and his work, '' "pretentious, '' "trashy '', "outright inappropriate, '' "terrifying, '' "really obnoxious, '' and "weird & kind of paedophilic. ''
The publisher explained its objective in a blog post accompanying the announcement about the jacket art: "This new image... looks at the children at the center of the story, and highlights the way Roald Dahl 's writing manages to embrace both the light and the dark aspects of life. '' Additionally, Penguin Press 's Helen Conford told the Bookseller: "We wanted something that spoke about the other qualities in the book, '' Penguin Press 's Helen Conford told the Bookseller. "It 's a children 's story that also steps outside children 's and people are n't used to seeing Dahl in that way. '' She continued: "(There is) a lot of ill feeling about it, I think because it 's such a treasured book and a book which is n't really a ' crossover book ' '' As she acknowledged: "People want it to remain as a children 's book. ''
The New Yorker describes what it calls this "strangely but tellingly misbegotten '' cover design thusly: "The image is a photograph, taken from a French fashion shoot, of a glassy - eyed, heavily made - up little girl. Behind her sits, a mother figure, stiff and coiffed, casting an ominous shadow. The girl, with her long, perfectly waved platinum - blond hair and her pink feather boa, looks like a pretty and inert doll -- '' The article continues: "And if the Stepford daughter on the cover is meant to remind us of Veruca Salt or Violet Beauregarde, she does n't: those badly behaved squirts are bubbling over with rude life. '' Moreover, writes Talbot, "The Modern Classics cover has not a whiff of this validation of childish imagination; instead, it seems to imply a deviant adult audience. ''
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who sailed on a voyage on the santa maria | Santa María (ship) - wikipedia
La Santa María de la Inmaculada Concepción (Spanish for: The Holy Mary of the Immaculate Conception), or La Santa María, originally La Gallega, was the largest of the three ships used by Christopher Columbus in his first voyage. Her master and owner was Juan de la Cosa.
Santa María was built in Pontevedra, Galicia, in Spain 's north - west region. Santa María was probably a medium - sized nau (carrack), about 58 ft (17.7 m) long on deck, and according to Juan Escalante de Mendoza in 1575, Santa Maria was "very little larger than 100 toneladas '' (about 100 tons, or tuns) burthen, or burden, and was used as the flagship for the expedition. Santa María had a single deck and three small masts.
The other ships of the Columbus expedition were the smaller caravel - type ships Santa Clara, remembered as La Niña ("The Girl ''), and La Pinta ("The Painted ''). All these ships were second - hand (if not third - or more) and were not intended for exploration. Niña, Pinta, and the Santa María were modest - sized merchant vessels comparable in size to a modern cruising yacht. The exact measurements of length and width of the three ships have not survived, but good estimates of their burden capacity can be judged from contemporary anecdotes written down by one or more of Columbus 's crew members, and contemporary Spanish and Portuguese shipwrecks from the late 15th and early 16th centuries which are comparable in size to that of Santa María. These include the ballast piles and keel lengths of the Molasses Reef Wreck and Highborn Cay Wreck in the Bahamas. Both were caravel vessels 19 m (62 ft) in length overall, 12.6 m (41 ft) keel length and 5 to 5.7 m (16 to 19 ft) in width, and rated between 100 and 150 tons burden. Santa María, being Columbus ' largest ship, was only about this size, and Niña and Pinta were smaller, at only 50 to 75 tons burden and perhaps 15 to 18 metres (49 to 59 ft) on deck (updated dimensional estimates are discussed below in the section entitled Replicas).
With three masts, Santa María was the slowest of Columbus ' vessels but performed well in the Atlantic Ocean crossing. Then on the return trip, on 24 December (1492), not having slept for two days, Columbus decided at 11: 00 p.m. to lie down to sleep. The night being calm, the steersman also decided to sleep, leaving only a cabin boy to steer the ship, a practice which the admiral had always strictly forbidden. With the boy at the helm, the currents carried the ship onto a sandbank, running her aground off the present - day site of Cap - Haïtien, Haiti. It sank the next day. Realizing that the ship was beyond repair, Columbus ordered his men to strip the timbers from the ship. The timbers were later used to build a fort which Columbus called La Navidad (Christmas) because the wreck occurred on Christmas Day, north from the modern town of Limonade (see map, and the photograph).
Santa María carried several anchors, possibly six. One of the anchors now rests in the Musée du Panthéon National Haïtien (MUPANAH), in Port - au - Prince, Haiti.
On 13 May 2014, underwater archaeological explorer Barry Clifford claimed that his team had found the wreck of Santa María. In the following October, UNESCO 's expert team published their final report, concluding that the wreck could not be Columbus 's vessel. Fastenings used in the hull and possible copper sheathing dated it to the 17th or 18th century.
Columbus ' crew was not composed of criminals as is widely believed. Many were experienced seamen from the port of Palos in Andalusia and its surrounding countryside, as well as from the region of Galicia in northwest Spain. It is true, however, that the Spanish sovereigns offered an amnesty to convicts who signed up for the voyage; still, only four men took up the offer: one who had killed a man in a fight, and three friends of his who had then helped him escape from jail.
Despite the romantic legend that the Queen of Spain had used a necklace that she had received from her husband the king as collateral for a loan, the voyage was principally financed by a syndicate of seven noble Genovese bankers resident in Seville (the group was linked to Amerigo Vespucci and funds belonging to Lorenzo di Pier Francesco de Medici). Hence, all the accounting and recording of the voyage was kept in Seville. This also applies to the second voyage, even though the syndicate had by then disbanded.
The crew of Santa María is well - known, albeit in many cases, there are no surnames and the crewman 's place of origin was used to differentiate him from others with the same given name.
Santa Maria de Colombo, built by craftsmen from Câmara de Lobos, Madeira
1892 replica
Replica in West Edmonton Mall
Replica in Columbus, Ohio
1998 replica in Madeira
Replica in Wharf of the Caravels, Palos de la Frontera, Spain
Little is definitively known about the actual dimensions of Santa María, since no documentation or illustration has survived from that era. Since the 19th century, various notable replicas have been publicly commissioned or privately constructed.
Interest in reconstructing Santa María started in Spain at around 1890 for the 400th anniversary of Columbus 's voyage. An 1892 reconstruction by the Spanish government depicted the ship as a nau.
A replica was built during Expo 86 and anchored in "Deep Sea Adventure Lake '' at West Edmonton Mall. Built at False Creek in Vancouver, British Columbia, the ship was hand - carved and hand - painted, and then transported by flatbed trucks across the Rocky Mountains to Edmonton, Alberta.
A replica, depicted as a Carrack, was commissioned by the city of Columbus, Ohio. It was built by the Scarano Brothers Boat Building Company in Albany, New York, who later cut the ship in half and transported it by truck to the Scioto River. The replica cost about 1.2 million dollars. The ship was constructed out of white cedar as opposed to an oak wood used on the original to give the ship a long life in the Scioto River and to reduce cost. The main mast was carved out of a single douglas fir tree and was equipped with a top sail (since removed). The ship was built using power tools, with a hull length of 29.6 m (97 ft), keel length 16.1 m (53 ft), beam 7.9 m (26 ft), depth 3.2 m (10 ft) and load 223.8 metric tons of displacement. The foremast is 9.7 m (32 ft) high, the mainmast is 15.9 m (52 ft) and mizzen mast is 10.4 m (34 ft). The replica was declared by Jose Maria Martinez - Hidalgo, a Spanish marine historian, to be the most authentic replica of the Santa María in the world during the ship 's coronation on 12 October 1991.
Dana Rinehart, the 50th mayor of Columbus, christened the ship as part of the 500th anniversary of its voyage. The ship was removed from its moorings in 2014, cut into 10 pieces, and stored in a lot south of the city, pending funding to do repairs and restorations. As of early 2016, the plans for restoration have stalled. Its parts can be seen via satellite view on Google Maps (2).
A functional replica was built on the island of Madeira, between July 1997 and July 1998, in the fishing village of Câmara de Lobos. The ship is 22 m (72 ft) long and 7 m (23 ft) wide. In 1998 Santa María represented the Madeira Wine Expo 98 in Lisbon, where she was visited by over 97,000 people in 25 days. Since then thousands more have sailed and continue to sail aboard that Santa María replica which is located in Funchal.
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what is the meaning of loudness in science | Loudness - wikipedia
In acoustics, loudness is the subjective perception of sound pressure. More formally, it is defined as, "That attribute of auditory sensation in terms of which sounds can be ordered on a scale extending from quiet to loud. '' The relation of physical attributes of sound to perceived loudness consists of physical, physiological and psychological components. The study of apparent loudness is included in the topic of psychoacoustics and employs methods of psychophysics.
In different industries, loudness may have different meanings and different measurement standards. Some definitions, such as ITU - R BS. 1770 refer to relative loudness of different segments of electronically reproduced sounds, such as for broadcasting and cinema. Others, such as ISO 532A (Stevens loudness, measured in sones), ISO 532B (Zwicker loudness), DIN 45631 and ASA / ANSI S3. 4, have a more general scope and are often used to characterize loudness of environmental noise.
Loudness, a subjective measure, often confused with physical measures of sound strength such as sound pressure, sound pressure level (in decibels), sound intensity or sound power. Filters such as A-weighting and LKFS attempt to compensate measurements to correspond to loudness as perceived by the typical human.
The perception of loudness is related to sound pressure level (SPL), frequency content and duration of a sound. The relationship between SPL and loudness of a single tone can be approximated by Stevens 's power law in which SPL has an exponent of 0.67. More precise measurements indicate that loudness increases with a higher exponent at low and high levels and with a lower exponent at moderate levels.
The sensitivity of the human ear changes as a function of frequency, as shown in the equal - loudness graph. Each line on this graph shows the SPL required for frequencies to be perceived as equally loud, and different curves pertain to different sound pressure levels. It also shows that humans with normal hearing are most sensitive to sounds around 2 -- 4 kHz, with sensitivity declining to either side of this region. A complete model of the perception of loudness will include the integration of SPL by frequency.
Historically, loudness was measured using an "ear - balance '' audiometer in which the amplitude of a sine wave was adjusted by the user to equal the perceived loudness of the sound being evaluated. Contemporary standards for measurement of loudness are based on summation of energy in critical bands.
When sensorineural hearing loss (damage to the cochlea or in the brain) is present, the perception of loudness is altered. Sounds at low levels (often perceived by those without hearing loss as relatively quiet) are no longer audible to the hearing impaired, but sounds at high levels often are perceived as having the same loudness as they would for an unimpaired listener. This phenomenon can be explained by two theories, called "loudness recruitment '' and "softness imperception ''.
Loudness recruitment (LR) posits that loudness grows more rapidly for certain listeners than normal listeners with changes in level. This theory has been accepted as the classical explanation.
Softness imperception (SI), a term coined by Mary Florentine around 2002, proposes that some listeners with sensorineural hearing loss may exhibit a normal rate of loudness growth, but instead have an elevated loudness at their threshold. That is, the softest sound that is audible to these listeners is louder than the softest sound audible to normal listeners.
The "loudness '' control on some consumer stereos alters the frequency response curve to correspond roughly with the equal loudness characteristic of the ear. Loudness compensation is intended to make the recorded music sound more natural when played at a lower levels by boosting low frequencies, to which the ear is less sensitive at lower sound pressure levels.
Loudness normalization is a specific type of audio normalization that equalizes perceived level such that, for instance, commercials do not sound louder than television programs. Loudness normalization schemes exist for a number of audio applications.
Historically Sone (loudness N) and Phon (loudness level L) units have been used to measure loudness.
A-weighting follows human sensitivity to sound and describes relative perceived loudness for at quiet to moderate speech levels, around 40 phons. However, physiological loudness perception is a much more complex process than can be captured with a single correction curve. Not only do equal - loudness contours vary with intensity, but perceived loudness of a complex sound depends on whether its spectral components are closely or widely spaced in frequency. When generating neural impulses in response to sounds of one frequency, the ear is less sensitive to nearby frequencies, which are said to be in the same critical band. Sounds containing spectral components in many critical bands are perceived as louder, even if the total sound pressure remains constant.
Relative loudness monitoring in production is measured in accordance with ITU - R BS. 1770 in units of LKFS.
Work began on ITU - R BS. 1770 in 2001 after 0 dBFS+ level distortion in converters and lossy codecs had become evident; and the original Leq (RLB) loudness metric was proposed by Gilbert Soulodre in 2003.
Based on data from subjective listening tests, Leq (RLB) was compared against numerous other algorithms where it did remarkably well. After modification of the frequency weighting, the measurement was made multi-channel (monaural to 5.1 surround sound). CBC, Dolby and TC Electronic and numerous broadcasters contributed to the listening tests.
To make the loudness metric cross-genre friendly, a relative measurement gate was added. This work was carried out in 2008 by the EBU. The improvements were brought back into BS. 1770 - 2. ITU subsequently updated the true - peak metric (BS. 1770 - 3) and added provision for more audio channels, for instance 22.2 surround sound (BS. 1770 - 4).
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who sang what kind of fool do you think i am | What Kind of Fool (Do You Think I Am) - Wikipedia
"What Kind of Fool (Do You Think I Am) '' is a 1964 single written by Ray Whitley and recorded by The Tams. The single was their most successful release on both the United States R&B and pop charts. "What Kind of Fool (Do You Think I Am) '' went to number one on the Cash Box R&B chart and peaked at number nine on the Billboard Hot 100. this track was one of the many hit records recorded at Rick Hall 's FAME Studios in Muscle Shoals, Alabama. Musicians on this track included Norbert Putman on bass, Jerry Carrigan on drums, David Briggs on piano, and Terry Thompson and Earl "Peanut '' Montgomery on guitar.
The song was covered by Bill Deal and the Rhondels in 1969, and peaked at # 23 on the Billboard Hot 100. Del Shannon covered this song on his posthumously - released album Rock On!.
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how many seasons did orange is the new black run | Orange Is the New Black - Wikipedia
Orange Is the New Black (sometimes abbreviated to OITNB) is an American comedy - drama web television series created by Jenji Kohan for the streaming service Netflix. The series is based on Piper Kerman 's memoir, Orange Is the New Black: My Year in a Women 's Prison (2010), about her experiences at FCI Danbury, a minimum - security federal prison. Produced by Tilted Productions in association with Lionsgate Television, Orange Is the New Black premiered on Netflix on July 11, 2013. In February 2016, the series was renewed for a fifth, sixth, and seventh season. The sixth season was released on July 27, 2018. On October 17, 2018, it was confirmed that the seventh season would be its last and would be released in 2019.
Orange Is the New Black has become Netflix 's most - watched original series. It has received critical acclaim and many accolades. For its first season, the series garnered 12 Primetime Emmy Award nominations, including Outstanding Comedy Series, Outstanding Writing for a Comedy Series, and Outstanding Directing for a Comedy Series, winning three. A new Emmy rule in 2015 forced the series to change categories from comedy to drama. For its second season, the series received four Emmy nominations, including Outstanding Drama Series, and Uzo Aduba won for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series. Orange Is the New Black is the first series to score Emmy nominations in both comedy and drama categories. The series has also received six Golden Globe Award nominations, six Writers Guild of America Award nominations, a Producers Guild of America Award, an American Film Institute award, and a Peabody Award.
The series begins revolving around Piper Chapman (Taylor Schilling), a woman in her thirties living in New York City who is sentenced to 15 months in Litchfield Penitentiary, a minimum - security women 's federal prison in upstate New York. Chapman was convicted of transporting a suitcase full of drug money for her girlfriend Alex Vause (Laura Prepon), an international drug smuggler. The offense had occurred 10 years prior to the start of the series and in that time Piper had moved on to a quiet, law - abiding life among New York 's upper middle class. Her sudden and unexpected indictment disrupts her relationships with her fiancé, family and friends. In prison, Chapman is reunited with Vause (who named Chapman in her trial, resulting in Chapman 's arrest) and they re-examine their relationship. Simultaneously, Chapman, along with the other inmates, attempt to grapple with prison 's numerous, inherent struggles. Episodes often feature flashbacks of significant events from various inmates ' and prison guards ' pasts. These flashbacks typically depict how an inmate came to be in prison or develop a character 's backstory. The prison is initially operated by the "Federal Department of Corrections '' (a fictional version of the Federal Bureau of Prisons), and was in a later season acquired by the Management & Correction Corporation (MCC), a private prison company.
The fifth season shows the prisoners revolting against the guards, wardens and the system after MCC 's failed handling of an inmate 's death at the hands of a guard in the fourth season. The inmate death had followed a peaceful protest and subsequent instigation of an inmate fight by another guard. Fueled by the conditions the inmates are forced to tolerate, as well as grudges against the prison guards, a three - day riot ensues, during which some inmates attempt to negotiate better living conditions and seek justice for the death of the inmate, while others pursue their own interests and entertainment, and a few seek no involvement in the riot. At the emergence of the riot, the guard who incited the fight in the prior season is critically shot by an inmate who took the gun the guard illegally brought into the prison. At the end of the season, SWAT raids the prison to end the riot and remove all inmates from the facility. During this raid, a correctional officer is fatally shot by a corrupt "strike team '', which then conspires to blame the guard 's death on inmates who hid in an underground bunker and had taken hostage of the guard. All inmates are transported to other prisons.
The consequences of the riot are shown in the sixth season. A number of the inmates, including Chapman and Vause, are transported to Litchfield Maximum Security. Most of these inmates are interrogated, and several of them charged and sentenced for their involvement in the riot. In max, new inmates are introduced, alliances are made, and a gang - like war emerges between two prison blocks, spearheaded by a longstanding feud between two sisters and a grudge harbored by them toward a former maximum - security inmate who returned. Inmates who arrived from the minimum security prison are either caught up or willingly participate in the war between prison blocks. The season portrays further corruption and guard brutality.
Throughout the series, it is shown how various forms of corruption, funding cuts, privatization of prison, overcrowding, guard brutality and racial discrimination, among other issues, affect the prisoners ' safety, health and well - being, the correctional officers, and the prison 's basic ability to fulfill its fundamental responsibilities and ethical obligations as a corrections institution. One of the show 's key conflicts involves the minimum - security prison 's Director of Human Activities, Joe Caputo, whose efforts and aims as a warden constantly conflict with the corporate interests of MCC, which acquired the facility when it was about to be shut down.
Show creator Jenji Kohan read Piper Kerman 's memoir after a friend sent it to her. She then set up a meeting with Kerman to pitch her on a TV adaptation, which she notes she "screwed up '' as she spent most of the time asking Kerman about her experiences she described in the book rather than selling her on the show. This appealed to Kerman as it let her know that she was a fan and she signed off on the adaptation. Kohan would later go on to describe the main character, Piper Chapman, as a "trojan horse '' for the series, allowing it to focus on characters whose demographics would not normally be represented on TV.
In July 2011, it was revealed that Netflix was in negotiations with Lionsgate for a 13 - episode TV adaptation of Kerman 's memoirs with Kohan as creator. In November 2011, negotiations were finalized and the series had been greenlit. Kohan had initially wanted to cast Katie Holmes in the role of Piper Chapman, and met with the actress to discuss it, but Holmes had other commitments. Casting announcements began in August 2012 with Taylor Schilling, the first to be cast, as Piper Chapman, followed by Jason Biggs as Piper 's fiancé Larry Bloom.
Laura Prepon and Yael Stone were next to join the series, as Alex Vause and Lorna Morello, respectively. Abigail Savage, who plays Gina, and Alysia Reiner, who plays Fig, had auditioned for role of Alex Vause. Prepon initially auditioned for Piper Chapman, however Kohan felt she would not worry about her (in prison), noting a "toughness and a presence to her that was n't right for the character. '' Kohan instead gave her the role of Alex. Stone had originally auditioned for the role of Nicky Nichols, but she was not considered "tough enough '' for the character; she was asked to audition for Lorna Morello instead. Likability was important for Morello, whom casting director Jen Euston deemed "a very helpful, nice, sweet Italian girl. '' Natasha Lyonne was to audition for Alex, but was asked to read for the character Nicky Nichols; "(Kohan knew) she could do Nicky with her eyes closed. She was perfect, '' said Euston. Laverne Cox, a black transgender woman, was cast as Sophia Burset, a transgender character. The Advocate touted Orange Is the New Black as possibly the first women - in - prison narrative to cast a transgender woman for this type of role. Uzo Aduba read for the part of Janae Watson but was offered the character Suzanne "Crazy Eyes '' Warren. Taryn Manning was offered the role of Tiffany "Pennsatucky '' Doggett. This American Life host Ira Glass was offered a role as a public radio host, but he declined. The role instead went to Robert Stanton, who plays the fictional host Maury Kind.
The series is set in a fictional prison in Litchfield, New York, which is a real town in upstate New York, but it does not have a federal penitentiary. The series began filming in the old Rockland Children 's Psychiatric Center in Rockland County, New York, on March 7, 2013. The title sequence features photos of real former female prisoners including Kerman herself.
On June 27, 2013, prior to the series ' premiere, Netflix renewed the show for a second season consisting of 13 episodes. For the second season, Uzo Aduba, Taryn Manning, Danielle Brooks, and Natasha Lyonne were promoted to series regulars. Laura Prepon did not return as a series regular for a second season because of scheduling conflicts, but returned for season 3 as a regular. On May 5, 2014, the series was renewed for a third season, as revealed by actress Laura Prepon. For the third season, several actors were promoted to series regulars, including Selenis Leyva, Adrienne C. Moore, Dascha Polanco, Nick Sandow, Yael Stone, and Samira Wiley. Both Jason Biggs and Pablo Schreiber were confirmed as not returning for the third season, but Schreiber appeared in the 10th episode of the third season. The series was renewed for a fourth season on April 15, 2015, prior to its third - season release. For the fourth season, Jackie Cruz and Lea DeLaria were promoted to series regulars; with Elizabeth Rodriguez also being promoted by the season 's sixth episode. On February 5, 2016, the series was renewed for a fifth, sixth and seventh season. In season six, Dale Soules, Laura Gómez, and Matt Peters were promoted to series regulars. On October 17, 2018, Netflix announced that the seventh season would be the series ' last and would be released in 2019.
Orange Is the New Black has received critical acclaim. It has been particularly praised for humanizing prisoners and for its depiction of race, sexuality, gender and body types.
The first season received positive reviews from critics. Review aggregator Metacritic gave it a weighted average score of 79 out of 100 based on reviews from 32 critics, indicating favorable reviews. On Rotten Tomatoes, season one has a 94 % approval rating based on 47 reviews, with an average rating of 8.24 out of 10. The site 's critical consensus is "Orange Is the New Black is a sharp mix of black humor and dramatic heft, with interesting characters and an intriguing flashback structure. ''
Hank Stuever, television critic for The Washington Post, gave Orange Is the New Black a perfect score. In his review of the series, he stated: "In Jenji Kohan 's magnificent and thoroughly engrossing new series, Orange Is the New Black, prison is still the pits. But it is also filled with the entire range of human emotion and stories, all of which are brought vividly to life in a world where a stick of gum could ignite either a romance or a death threat. '' Maureen Ryan, of The Huffington Post, wrote: "Orange is one of the best new programs of the year, and the six episodes I 've seen have left me hungry to see more. ''
The second season also received critical acclaim. Rotten Tomatoes gave a rating of 98 %, with an average rating of 9.17 out of 10 based on 45 reviews. The site 's critical consensus reads: "With a talented ensemble cast bringing life to a fresh round of serial drama, Orange Is the New Black 's sophomore season lives up to its predecessor 's standard for female - led television excellence. '' Metacritic gave the second season a score of 89 out of 100 based on 31 critics, indicating "universal acclaim. '' David Wiegland of the San Francisco Chronicle gave the season a positive review, calling the first six episodes "not only as great as the first season, but arguably better. ''
The third season received critical acclaim. On Metacritic, it has a score of 83 out of 100 based on 24 reviews. On Rotten Tomatoes, it has a 95 % rating with an average score of 8.15 out of 10 based on 58 reviews. The site 's critical consensus reads: "Thanks to its blend of potent comedy and rich character work, Orange is the New Black remains a bittersweet pleasure in its third season. ''
The fourth season received critical acclaim. On Metacritic, it has a score of 86 out of 100 based on 19 reviews. On Rotten Tomatoes, it has a 96 % rating with an average score of 8.46 out of 10 based on 47 reviews. The site 's critical consensus reads: "Orange is the New Black is back and better than ever, with a powerful fourth season full of compelling performances by the ensemble cast. '' James Poniewozik of The New York Times reviewed the fourth season as "Do you measure the quality of a TV season as a beginning - to - end average or by how well it ends? By the first yardstick, Season 4 is ambitious but uneven; by the latter, it 's the series ' best. ''
The fifth season received "generally favorable reviews ''. On Metacritic, it has a score of 67 out of 100 based on 20 reviews. On Rotten Tomatoes, it has a 73 % rating with an average score of 7.19 out of 10 based on 41 reviews. The site 's critical consensus reads: "Orange Is the New Black 's fifth season offers up more of the sharp writing and dizzying tonal juggling acts that fans expect -- albeit somewhat less successfully. ''
The sixth season received positive reviews from critics, with many critics noting its improvement over the previous season. On Metacritic, it has a score of 69 out of 100 based on 14 reviews. On Rotten Tomatoes, it has an 84 % rating with an average score of 7.3 out of 10 based on 32 reviews. The site 's critical consensus reads: "Brutality and humor continue to mesh effectively in a season of Orange Is the New Black that stands as a marked improvement from its predecessor, even if some arcs are more inspired than others. ''
Orange Is the New Black has received many accolades since its debut. The series has garnered 16 Emmy Award nominations and four wins. For its first season, it received 12 Emmy Award nominations, including Outstanding Comedy Series, Outstanding Writing for a Comedy Series, and Outstanding Directing for a Comedy Series, winning three. Taylor Schilling received a Golden Globe Award nomination for Best Actress in a Television Series -- Drama. In 2013, the American Film Institute selected the series as one of the Top 10 Television Programs of the Year.
A new Emmy rule in 2015, classifying half - hour shows as comedies and hour - long shows as dramas, forced the series to change categories from comedy to drama for its second season. That year, the series received four Emmy nominations, including Outstanding Drama Series, and Aduba won her second Emmy Award, for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series. Orange Is the New Black became the first series to receive Emmy nominations in both comedy and drama categories. For its second season, the series also received three Golden Globe Award nominations: Best Television Series -- Musical or Comedy, Best Actress -- Television Series Musical or Comedy for Schilling, and Best Supporting Actress -- Series, Miniseries or Television Film for Aduba. At the 21st Screen Actors Guild Awards, the series won Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series and Aduba won Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Comedy Series.
For its third season, Orange Is the New Black won Screen Actors Guild Awards for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series and Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Comedy Series (Aduba). It received a Golden Globe Award nomination for Best Television Series -- Musical or Comedy. The series has also received, among other accolades, six Writers Guild of America Award nominations, five Satellite Awards, four Critics ' Choice Television Awards, a GLAAD Media Award, an American Cinema Editors Award, a Producers Guild of America Award, and a Peabody Award.
-- Variety
The series began airing on broadcast television in New Zealand on TV2 on August 19, 2013. It premiered in Australia on October 9, 2013, on Showcase. The second season began on Showcase on July 16, 2014, and the third season premiered on June 11, 2015. The first season began airing on broadcast television in the UK on Sony Channel from April 19, 2017.
In April 2017, it was reported that a cybercriminal had stolen the first ten episodes of the fifth season in a security breach of a post-production company. Netflix failed to respond to ransom demands, and the cybercriminal leaked the episodes online. Netflix confirmed the security breach and an ongoing investigation by federal law enforcement. Multichannel News reported that demand for the series significantly increased over the seven - day period following the leak of the episodes. It was also said that the leak would likely cause a decrease in demand for the fifth season when Netflix releases it in June.
Orange Is the New Black generated more viewers and hours viewed in its first week than the other top Netflix original series House of Cards and Arrested Development. In October 2013, Netflix stated that the show is a "tremendous success '' for the streaming platform. "It will end the year as our most watched original series ever and, as with each of our other previously launched originals, enjoys an audience comparable with successful shows on cable and broadcast TV. '' As reported in February 2016, Orange Is the New Black remains Netflix 's most - watched original series. In 2016, a New York Times study of the 50 TV shows with the most Facebook Likes found that Orange Is the New Black is one of the shows most watched in urban areas, and despite its "minority - rich ensemble cast, '' the series "appeals more to a white audience. ''
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what is the purpose of african lip plates | Lip plate - wikipedia
The lip plate, also known as a lip plug or lip disc, is a form of body modification. Increasingly large discs (usually circular, and made from clay or wood) are inserted into a pierced hole in either the upper or lower lip, or both, thereby stretching it. The term labret denotes all kinds of pierced - lip ornaments, including plates and plugs.
Archaeological evidence indicates that labrets have been independently invented no fewer than six times, in Sudan and Ethiopia (8700 BC), Mesoamerica (1500 BC), and Coastal Ecuador (500 BC). Today, the custom is maintained by a few groups in Africa and Amazonia.
In Africa, a lower lip plate is usually combined with the excision of the two lower front teeth, sometimes all four. Among the Sara people and Lobi of Chad, a plate is also inserted into the upper lip. Other tribes, such as the Makonde of Tanzania and Mozambique, used to wear a plate in the upper lip only. Many older sources reported that the plate 's size was a sign of social or economical importance in some tribes. But, because of natural mechanical attributes of human skin, the plate 's size may often depend on the stage of stretching of the lip and the wishes of the wearer.
Among the Surma (own name Suri) and Mursi people of the lower Omo River valley in Ethiopia, about 6 to 12 months before marriage, a young woman has her lip pierced by her mother or one of her kinswomen, usually at around the age of 15 to 18. The initial piercing is done as an incision of the lower lip of 1 to 2 cm length, and a simple wooden peg is inserted. After the wound has healed, which usually takes between two and three weeks, the peg is replaced with a slightly bigger one. At a diameter of about 4 cm, the first lip plate made of clay is inserted. Every woman crafts her own plate and takes pride in including some ornamentation. The final diameter ranges from about 8 cm to over 20 cm.
In 1990 Beckwith and Carter claimed that for Mursi and Surma women, the size of their lip plate indicates the number of cattle paid as the bride price. Whereas anthropologist Turton, who studied the Mursi for 30 years, denies this. Shauna LaTosky, building from field research among the Mursi in 2004, discusses in detail why most Mursi women use lip plates and describes the value of the ornamentation within a discourse of female strength and self - esteem.
In contemporary culture, most girls of age 13 to 18 appear to decide whether or not to wear a lip plate. This adornment has attracted tourists to view the Mursi and Surma women, with mixed consequences for these tribes.
The largest lip plate recorded was in Ethiopia, measuring 59.5 cm (23.4 in) in circumference and 19.5 cm (7.6 in) wide, in 2014.
In South America among some Amazonian tribes, young males traditionally have their lips pierced and begin to wear plates when they enter the men 's house and leave the world of women. Lip plates there are associated with oratory and singing. The largest plates are worn by the greatest orators and war chiefs, such as Chief Raoni of the Kayapo tribe, a well known environmental campaigner. In South America, lip plates are nearly always made from light wood.
In the Pacific Northwest of North America, among the Haida, Tsimshian, and Tlingit, lip plates are used by women to symbolize social maturity by indicating a girl 's eligibility to be a wife. The installation of a girl 's first plate was celebrated with a sumptuous feast.
In western nations, some young people, including some members of the Modern Primitive movement, have adopted larger - gauge lip piercings, a few large enough for them to wear proper lip plates. Some examples are given on the BME website.
Tribes that are known for their traditional lip plates include:
In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, African women wearing lip plates were brought to Europe and North America for exhibit in circuses and sideshows. Around 1930, Ringling Brothers and Barnum & Bailey promoted such women from the French Congo as members of the "Ubangi '' tribe; the Ringling press agent admitted that he picked that name from a map for its exotic sound. The word Ubangi was still given a definition as an African tribe in 2009 in some English - language dictionaries. The word was used in this way in the 1937 Marx Brothers film A Day at the Races.
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who played the title role in maisie raine | Maisie Raine - wikipedia
Maisie Raine is an English television crime drama series, first broadcast on BBC One, that ran from 28 July 1998 to 9 July 1999. Pauline Quirke starred as the eponymous title character, an unorthodox detective whose hands on yet down - to - earth approach is not always appreciated by her superiors. Created by Stephen Bill, a total of twelve episodes were broadcast across two series. The first series featured a running story arc involving Maisie 's wayward brother Kelvin (Paul Reynolds), and had a much lighter feel than the second, which featured grittier storylines including drug dealing, armed robbery, arson and murder.
Throughout the series, Maisie is portrayed as a strong and dedicated detective, often stepping on toes and bending the rules to get results, and even becoming personally involved with the victims of each case. She often clashes with her superior officer, Jack Freeman (Ian McElhinney), who also appears to hold a romantic torch for her, while George Kyprianou (Steve John Shepherd), a junior constable on her team, often proves to be her best ally in the field. Maisie also receives help from her loyal housekeeper Joan (Stella Moray). Although neither series has been released on DVD, repeats of the series are regularly shown on Drama and Alibi.
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when did gulf oil go out of business | Gulf Oil - Wikipedia
Gulf Oil was a major global oil company from the 1900s to the 1980s. The eighth - largest American manufacturing company in 1941 and the ninth - largest in 1979, Gulf Oil was one of the so - called Seven Sisters oil companies. Prior to its merger with Standard Oil of California, Gulf was one of the chief instruments of the Mellon family fortune; both Gulf and Mellon Financial had their headquarters in Pittsburgh.
Gulf 's former headquarters, originally referred to as "the Gulf Building '' (now the Gulf Tower office condos), is an Art Deco skyscraper. The tallest building in Pittsburgh until 1970, when it was eclipsed by the U.S. Steel Tower, it is capped by a step pyramid structure several stories high. Until the late 1970s, the entire top was illuminated, changing color with changes in barometric pressure to provide a weather indicator that could be seen for many miles.
Gulf Oil Corporation (GOC) ceased to exist as an independent company in 1985, when it merged with Standard Oil of California (SOCAL), with both re-branding as Chevron in the United States. Gulf Canada, Gulf 's main Canadian subsidiary, was sold the same year with retail outlets to Ultramar and Petro Canada and what became Gulf Canada Resources to Olympia & York. However, the Gulf brand name and a number of the constituent business divisions of GOC survived. Gulf has experienced a significant revival since 1990, emerging as a flexible network of allied business interests based on partnerships, franchises and agencies.
Gulf, in its present incarnation, is a "new economy '' business. It employs very few people directly and its assets are mainly in the form of intellectual property: brands, product specifications and scientific expertise. The rights to the brand in the United States are owned by Gulf Oil Limited Partnership (GOLC), which operates over 2,100 service stations and several petroleum terminals; it is headquartered in Framingham, Massachusetts. The corporate vehicle at the center of the Gulf network outside the United States, Spain and Portugal is Gulf Oil International, a company owned by the Hinduja Group. The company 's focus is primarily in the provision of downstream products and services to a mass market through joint ventures, strategic alliances, licensing agreements, and distribution arrangements.
The business that became Gulf Oil started in 1901 with the discovery of oil at Spindletop near Beaumont, Texas. A group of investors came together to promote the development of a modern refinery at nearby Port Arthur to process the oil. The largest investor was William Larimer Mellon of the Pittsburgh Mellon banking family. Other investors included many of Mellon 's Pennsylvania clients as well as some Texas wildcatters. Mellon Bank and Gulf Oil remained closely associated thereafter. The Gulf Oil Corporation itself was formed in 1907 through the amalgamation of a number of oil businesses, principally the J.M. Guffey Petroleum and Gulf Refining companies of Texas. The name of the company refers to the Gulf of Mexico where Beaumont lies.
Output from Spindletop peaked at around 100,000 barrels per day (16,000 m / d) just after it was discovered and then started to decline. Later discoveries made 1927 the peak year of Spindletop production, but Spindletop 's early decline forced Gulf to seek alternative sources of supply to sustain its substantial investment in refining capacity. This was achieved by constructing the 400 - mile (640 - km) Glenn Pool pipeline connecting oilfields in Oklahoma with Gulf 's refinery at Port Arthur. The pipeline opened in September 1907. Gulf later built a network of pipelines and refineries in the eastern and southern United States, requiring heavy capital investment. Thus, Gulf Oil provided Mellon Bank with a secure vehicle for investing in the oil sector.
Gulf promoted the concept of branded product sales by selling gasoline in containers and from pumps marked with a distinctive orange disc logo. A customer buying Gulf - branded gasoline could be assured of its quality and consistent standard. (In the early 20th century, non-branded gasoline in the United States was often contaminated or of unreliable quality).
Gulf Oil grew steadily in the inter-war years, with its activities mainly confined to the United States. The company was characterized by its vertically integrated business activities, and was active across the whole spectrum of the oil industry: exploration, production, transport, refining and marketing. It also involved itself in associated industries such as petrochemicals and automobile component manufacturing. It introduced significant commercial and technical innovations, including the first drive - in service station (1913), complimentary road maps, drilling over water at Ferry Lake, and the catalytic cracking refining process (Gulf installed the world 's first commercial catalytic cracking unit at its Port Arthur, Texas, refinery complex in 1951). Gulf also established the model for the integrated, international "oil major '', which refers to one of a group of very large companies that assumed influential and sensitive positions in the countries in which they operated. In 1924 had acquired the Venezuelan - American Creole Syndicate 's leases in the strip of shallow water 1.5 kilometres (0.93 mi) wide along the Lake Maracaibo east shore.
In Colombia, Gulf purchased the Barco oil concession in 1926. The government of Colombia revoked the concession the same year, but after much negotiation Gulf won it back in 1931. However, during a period of over-capacity, Gulf was more interested in holding the reserve than developing it. In 1936 Gulf sold Barco to the Texas Corporation, now Texaco.
Gulf had extensive exploration and production operations in the Gulf of Mexico, Canada, and Kuwait. The company played a major role in the early development of oil production in Kuwait, and through the 1950s and ' 60s apparently enjoyed a "special relationship '' with the Kuwaiti government. This special relationship attracted unfavorable attention since it was associated with "political contributions '' (see below) and support for anti-democratic politics, as evidenced by papers taken from the body of a Gulf executive killed in the crash of a TWA aircraft at Cairo in 1950.
In 1934, the Kuwait Oil Company (KOC) was formed as a joint venture by British Petroleum and Gulf. Both British Petroleum and Gulf held equal shares in the venture. KOC pioneered the exploration for oil in Kuwait during the late 1930s. Oil was discovered at Burgan in 1938 but it was not until 1946 that the first crude oil was shipped. Oil production started from Rawdhatain in 1955 and Minagish in 1959. KOC started gas production in 1964. It was the cheap oil and gas being shipped from Kuwait that formed the economic basis for Gulf 's diverse petroleum sector operations in Europe, the Mediterranean, Africa, and the Indian subcontinent. These last operations were coordinated by Gulf Oil Company, Eastern Hemisphere Ltd (GOCEH) from their offices at 2 Portman Street in London W1.
Gulf expanded on a worldwide basis from the end of the Second World War. The company leveraged its international drilling experience to other areas of the world, and by mid-1943 had established a presence in the eastern oil fields of Venezuela as Mene Grande Oil Company. Much of the company 's retail sales expansion was through the acquisition of privately owned chains of filling stations in various countries, allowing Gulf outlets to sell product (sometimes through "matching '' arrangements) from the oil that it was "lifting '' in Canada, the Gulf of Mexico, Kuwait, and Venezuela. Some of these acquisitions were to prove less than resilient in the face of economic and political developments from the 1970s on. Gulf invested heavily in product technology and developed many specialty products, particularly for application in the maritime and aviation engineering sectors. It was particularly noted for its range of lubricants and greases.
Gulf Oil reached the peak of its development around 1970. In that year, the company processed 1.3 million barrels (210,000 m) of crude daily, held assets worth $6.5 billion ($40.09 billion today), employed 58,000 employees worldwide, and was owned by 163,000 shareholders. In addition to its petroleum marketing interests, Gulf was a major producer of petrochemicals, plastics, and agricultural chemicals. Through its subsidiary, Gulf General Atomic Inc., it was also active in the nuclear energy sector. Gulf abandoned its involvement in the nuclear sector after a failed deal to build atomic power plants in Romania in the mid-1970s.
In 1974, the Kuwait National Assembly took a 60 percent stake in the equity of KOC with the remaining 40 percent divided equally between BP and Gulf. The Kuwaitis took over the rest of the equity in 1975, giving them full ownership of KOC. This meant that Gulf (EH) had to start supplying its downstream operations in Europe with crude bought on the world market at commercial prices. The whole GOC (EH) edifice now became highly marginal in an economic sense. Many of the marketing companies that Gulf had established in Europe were never truly viable on a stand - alone basis. In 1976 during the nationalization of Venezuelan oil, the transfer of properties, benefits, equipment of Gulf Oil to PDVSA was carried out without any setback and with full satisfaction on both parts.
Gulf was at the forefront of various projects in the late 1960s intended to adjust the world oil industry to developments of the time including closure of the Suez Canal after the 1967 war. In particular, Gulf undertook the construction of deep water terminals at Bantry Bay in Ireland and Okinawa in Japan capable of handling Ultra Large Crude Carrier (ULCC) vessels serving the European and Asian markets respectively. In 1968, the Universe Ireland was added to Gulf 's tanker fleet. At 312,000 long tons deadweight (DWT), this was the largest vessel in the world and incapable of berthing at most normal ports.
Gulf also participated in a partnership with other majors, including Texaco, to build the Pembroke Catalytic Cracker refinery at Milford Haven and the associated Mainline Pipelines fuel distribution network. The eventual reopening of the Suez canal and upgrading of the older European oil terminals (Europoort and Marchwood) meant that the financial return from these projects was not all that had been hoped for. The Bantry terminal was devastated by the explosion of a Total tanker, the Betelgeuse, in January 1979 (Whiddy Island Disaster) and it was never fully reopened. The Irish government took over ownership of the terminal in 1986 and held its strategic oil reserve there.
In the 1970s, Gulf participated in the development of new oilfields in the UK North Sea and in Cabinda, although these were high - cost operations that never compensated for the loss of Gulf 's interest in Kuwait. A mercenary army had to be raised to protect the oil installations in Cabinda during the Angolan civil war. The Angolan connection was another "special relationship '' that attracted comment. In the late 1970s, Gulf was effectively funding a Soviet bloc regime in Africa while the US government was attempting to overthrow that regime by supporting the UNITA rebels led by Jonas Savimbi.
In 1975, several senior Gulf executives, including chairman Bob Dorsey, were implicated in the making of illegal "political contributions '' and were forced to step down from their positions. This loss of senior personnel at a critical time in Gulf 's fortunes may have had a bearing on the events that followed.
Gulf 's operations worldwide were struggling financially in the recession of the early 1980s, so Gulf 's management devised the "Big Jobber '' strategic realignment in 1981 (along with a program of selective divestments) to maintain viability. The Big Jobber strategy recognized that the day of the integrated, multi-national oil major might be over, since it involved concentrating on those parts of the supply chain where Gulf had a competitive advantage.
In the late 1930s, Gulf 's aviation manager, Maj. Alford J. Williams, had the Grumman Aircraft Engineering Corporation construct two modified biplanes, cleaned - up versions of the Grumman F3F Navy fighter, for promotional use by the company. Wearing Gulf Oil company colors and logos, the Grumman G - 22 "Gulfhawk II '', registered NR1050, was delivered in December 1936, and in 1938 Maj. Williams flew it on a tour of Europe. A second scavenger pump and five drain lines were added to the engine installation that allowed the aircraft to be flown inverted for up to thirty minutes. This aircraft is now preserved in the National Air and Space Museum in Washington, D.C. A second airplane, the Grumman G - 32 "Gulfhawk III '', registered NC1051, was delivered on May 6, 1938. Impressed by the Army Air Force in November 1942 for use as a VIP transport and designated a UC - 103, it crashed in the southern Florida Everglades in early 1943.
Gulf Oil was the primary sponsor for NBC News special events coverage in the 1960s, notably for coverage of the U.S. space program. The company used the connection to its advantage by offering giveaway or promotional items at its stations, including sticker sheets of space mission logos, a paper punch - out lunar module model kit, and a book titled "We Came in Peace, '' containing pictures of the Apollo 11 moon landing. Gulf was also a major sponsor of Walt Disney 's Wonderful World of Color, which also aired on NBC. Disney magazines and activity books were often given away with a gas fill - up. Gulf was also noted for its "Tourgide '' road maps.
One particularly memorable Gulf advertisement carried by NBC during their coverage of the Apollo missions showed aerial and onboard views of the Universe Ireland with Tommy Makem and the Clancy Brothers singing "Bringin ' Home the Oil '' -- a tribute to the opening of Gulf 's operations in Bantry Bay.
Gulf Oil was most synonymous for its association with auto racing, as it famously sponsored the John Wyer Automotive team in the 1960s and early ' 70s. The signature light blue and orange color scheme associated with its Ford GT40 and Porsche 917 is one of the most famous corporate racing colors and has been replicated by other racing teams sponsored by Gulf. Much of its popularity is attributed to the fact that in the 1971 film Le Mans, Steve McQueen 's character, Michael Delaney, drives for the Gulf team. As a result of McQueen 's increasing popularity following his death and the increasing popularity of the Heuer Monaco which he wore in the film, TAG Heuer released a limited edition of the watch with the Gulf logo and trademark color scheme. In the same era, Gulf Oil also sponsored Team McLaren during the Bruce McLaren days, which used a papaya orange color scheme with Gulf blue for lettering.
From 1963 to 1980, Gulf Oil had a formal agreement with Holiday Inn, the world 's largest lodging chain, for which Holiday Inns in the U.S. and Canada would accept Gulf credit cards for food and lodging. In return, Gulf placed service stations on the premises of many Holiday Inn properties along major U.S. highways to provide one - stop availability for gasoline, auto service, food and lodging. Many older Holiday Inns still have those original Gulf stations on their properties, some in operation and some closed, but few operate today as Gulf stations.
Gulf No - Nox gasoline was promoted with a bucking horse leaving an imprint of two horseshoes. Several promotions centered on the two horseshoes. In 1966 bright orange 3 - D plastic self - adhesive horseshoes for car bumpers were given away. Another popular giveaway was during the 1968 election season, gold horseshoe lapel pins featuring either a Democratic donkey or a Republican elephant.
By 1980, Gulf exhibited many of the characteristics of a giant corporation that had lost its way. It had a huge but poorly performing asset portfolio, associated with a depressed share price. The stock market value of Gulf started to drop below the break - up value of its assets. Such a situation was bound to attract the interest of corporate raiders, although a corporation in the top 100 of the Fortune 500 was in the early 1980s thought immune to takeover risk.
Its undoing as an independent company began in 1982 when T. Boone Pickens, an Amarillo, Texas oilman and corporate raider (or greenmailer), and owner of Mesa Petroleum, made an offer for the comparatively larger (but still considered "non-major '' oil company) Cities Service Company (more generally known by the name Citgo) from Tulsa, Oklahoma, which was then trading in the low 20s. Pickens first privately offered $45 a share for a friendly takeover and then later made a $50 a share public offer when Cities ' CEO rejected the friendly offer. Gulf forestalled Mesa 's takeover attempt by offering $63 a share in a friendly offer which Cities (by then trading at $37) accepted. Cities then bought out Pickens for $55 a share. Once Pickens was gone, Gulf reneged on its buyout offer, supposedly over a dispute regarding accuracy of Cities Service 's reserves, and the stock price of Cities plunged, triggering stockholder lawsuits as well as distrust for Gulf 's management on Wall Street and among financing investment banks who bet big in assisting Gulf to defeat Mesa only to be left broke when Gulf backed out. Cities Service was ultimately sold to Occidental Petroleum, and the retail operations were resold to Southland Corporation, the operators of 7 - Eleven stores. Gulf 's termination of the Cities Service acquisition resulted in more than 15 years of shareholder litigation against Gulf (and later Chevron).
With declining margins in the industry and left without Citgo 's reserves, Mesa and its investor partners kept hunting for a takeover target, only to discover while fighting Gulf for Citgo how increasingly top - heavy its portfolio and declining reserves were undervaluing its overall assets. They subtly but quickly acquired 4.9 percent of Gulf Oil 's stock by early fall 1983, just shy of having to declare themselves and their intent at 5 percent to the SEC. In the ten days allowed to prepare the SEC filing, Mesa and its investor partners accelerated buying to 11 percent of the company 's stock, larger than the founding Mellon family 's share, by October 1983. Gulf responded to Mesa 's interest by calling a shareholders ' meeting for late November 1983 and subsequently engaged in a proxy war on changing the corporation 's by - laws to minimize arbitrage. Pickens made loud criticisms of the existing Gulf management and offered an alternative business plan intended to release shareholder value through a royalty trust that management argued would "slim down '' Gulf 's market share. Pickens had acquired the reputation of being a corporate raider whose skill lay in making profits out of bidding for companies but without actually acquiring them. During the early 1980s alone, he made failed bids for Cities Service, General American Oil, Gulf, Phillips Petroleum and Unocal. The process of making such bids would promote a frenzy of asset divestiture and debt reduction in the target companies. This is a standard defensive tactic calculated to boost the current share price, although possibly at the expense of long - term strategic advantage. The target shares would rise sharply in price, at which point Pickens would dispose of his interest at a substantial profit.
Gulf management and directors took the view that the Mesa bid represented an undervaluation of the Gulf business as a long - term going concern and that it was not in the interest of Gulf shareholders. James Lee, Gulf 's CEO and chairman, even claimed during the November 1983 shareholders meeting to address the Mesa ownership that Pickens ' royalty trust idea was nothing more than a "get - rich - quick scheme '' that would undermine the corporation 's profit potential in the coming decades. Gulf, therefore, sought to resist Pickens by various means, including refiling as a Delaware corporation, voiding the ability of shareholders to cumulatively vote (fearing that Pickens would use his shares to gain control of the board) and listening to offers from Ashland Oil (which would double Gulf 's price from its pre-Mesa level), General Electric (two years before it took over the media company NBC / RKO) and finally Chevron to act as its white knight in late 1984. Gulf divested many of its worldwide operating subsidiaries and then merged with Chevron by the spring of 1985. The Mesa group of investors was reported to have made a profit of $760 million ($1,692.4 million today) when it assigned its Gulf shares to Chevron. Pickens has claimed that after realizing a more than doubling of stock appreciation for Gulf shareholders (as well as its management that fought him at every turn), Mesa 's shares were the last to be paid out by Chevron.
The forced merger of Gulf and Chevron was controversial, with the U.S. Senate considering legislation to freeze oil industry mergers for a year -- before the Reagan administration made it known it opposed government intervention in the matter and would veto any bill. However, Pickens and Lee (Gulf 's CEO) were summoned to testify before the Senate months before the merger was hammered out and the matter was referred to the Federal Trade Commission (FTC). The FTC only approved the deal subject to strict conditions. Never before had a "small operator '' successfully taken apart a Fortune 500 corporation, or in Gulf 's case a "Fortune 10 '' corporation. The merger sent even deeper shock waves through the long - time exclusive "Seven Sisters '' club of major integrated oil companies that defined themselves as elevated from the "non-major independents ''. A board member of Exxon even admitted in the mid-1980s that "mostly all we talk about in board meetings anymore is T. Boone Pickens ''. Chevron, to settle with the government antitrust requirements, sold some Gulf stations and a refinery in the eastern United States to British Petroleum (BP) and Cumberland Farms in 1985 as well as some of the international operations.
The effect on the Pittsburgh area was severe as close to 900 PhD and research jobs and 600 headquarters (accounting, law, clerical) jobs were transferred to California or cut, a payroll of $54 million ($124.5 million today) and corporate charity to 50 Western Pennsylvania organizations worth $2 million / year ($4.6 million / year today). These losses were mitigated some with the donation of Gulf Labs in suburban north Pittsburgh to the University of Pittsburgh to be used as a research business incubator along with $5 million ($11.1 million today) in maintenance and seed money. The "Gulf Labs '' research complex consisted of 55 multi-story buildings with 800,000 square feet (74,000 m) on 85 acres (34 ha) and including several chemical labs, petroleum production and refining areas and even a nuclear laboratory complete with reactor in 1985 and employed close to 2,000 engineers and scientists operating with a $100 million budget ($230.5 million today) from Gulf / Chevron. After its donation, it was renamed the University of Pittsburgh Applied Research Center or U-PARC and opened to small technology, computer and engineering firms as well as graduate level research.
BP, Chevron, Cumberland Farms and other companies that acquired former Gulf operations continued to use the Gulf name through the early 1990s. This caused consumer confusion in the US retail market as the parent companies would not accept each other 's credit cards. All former Gulf stations franchised by BP and Chevron in the United States have since been converted to those names. Gulf Oil Limited Partnership (GOLP), based in Framingham, Massachusetts, has bought a license for North American rights to the Gulf brand from Chevron. Chevron still owned the Gulf brand, but was making almost no direct use of it. In January 2010, GOLP bought the entire brand from Chevron and began a nationwide expansion campaign. GOLP operates a distribution network reaching from Maine to Ohio. Most Gulf - branded filling stations in North America are owned by Cumberland Farms of Framingham, which owns a two - thirds interest in GOLP. In addition there are some independently owned franchises still operating under the Gulf brand within North America, such as the American Refining Group, which is licensed by Chevron to blend and distribute Gulf - branded lubricants.
Gulf Oil International (GOI) owns the rights to the Gulf brand outside the United States, Spain & Portugal. It is now owned by the Hinduja Group. After they acquired a large share from the Taher family, a major Saudi Arabian family led by Dr. Abdulhadi H. Taher (former governor of the Saudi Petroleum and Mineral organization and board member of Aramco). GOI trades mainly in lubricants, oils, and greases. GOI is also involved in franchising the Gulf brand to operators in the petroleum and automotive sectors; Gulf - branded filling stations can be found in several countries including the UK, Belgium, Germany, Ireland, the Slovak & Czech Republics, the Netherlands, Jordan, Finland and Turkey. GOI has direct and indirect interests in a number of businesses that use the Gulf brand under license.
The Canadian exploration, production, and distribution arm of Gulf Oil was sold to Olympia and York in 1985. From 1992 it continued as an independent oil company (Gulf Canada Resources) until its acquisition by Conoco in 2002.
Most Gulf downstream operations in Europe were sold to the Kuwait Petroleum Corporation in early 1983. The associated Gulf filling stations were converted to trade under the Q8 brand by 1988. However, attempts to sell Gulf Oil (Great Britain) to KPC failed because of irrevocable GOC guarantees given earlier in regard to bonds issued to finance the construction of refinery facilities in the UK. GO (GB) was taken over by Chevron and its stations continued to use the Gulf brand name and insignia until 1997 when the network was sold to Shell, although by this stage a fairly large proportion of Gulf stations were supplied by jobbers rather than Gulf Oil (GB). Gulf completely withdrew from the UK in 1997. This represented the end of the last major "downstream '' use of the Gulf brand by Chevron.
GOI and GOLP continue to sell Gulf - branded lubricants worldwide through a network of official licensed companies, joint ventures and wholly owned subsidiary companies. Many of these official Gulf distributors carry out local marketing and sponsorship which help to raise the profile of the brand. Of these wholly owned subsidiaries Gulf Oil Corporation India has raised the market profile of the Gulf brand in the Middle East. GOCL have emerged as one of leading lubricants brands in India and run many marketing sponsorships targeted at the ever - growing youth sector in the country.
GOI licenses the Gulf brand and logo in the UK to the Bayford group, one of the largest independent fuel distributors. Starting in 2001, a new Gulf network of independent stations is slowly reappearing across the UK. At present, many of these stations are notable for offering genuine leaded four - star petrol, for which Bayford has a special dispensation to sell. At the same time, Gulf Lubricants (UK) Ltd was set up to market Gulf products (mostly manufactured by the Gulf Netherlands operation) in the UK. This return by Gulf to the UK after a four - year absence used the slogan "The Return of the Legend ''. The post-2001 Gulf presence in the UK is a wholly network - based operation. It involves almost no direct Gulf investment in fixed assets, corporate infrastructure, or manufacturing capability. This is a complete contrast to the pre-1997 presence.
In January 2010, after using the name since 1986, GOLP acquired all right, title and interest in the Gulf brand name in the United States and announced plans to expand the use of the Gulf brand beyond its parent company 's Northeastern United States base. Its promotions have included sponsorship of major sporting events in the area with advertisements for Gulf in New York City, Boston, Philadelphia, and Pittsburgh. To take one case as an illustrative example of the Gulf revival, after Texaco 's 2001 merger with Chevron, many former Texaco stations in Pittsburgh switched to Gulf since Chevron does not service the Greater Pittsburgh area. As a result, the Texaco brand name disappeared from the area in June 2004 when the nonexclusive rights agreement with Shell expired, with Shell itself expanding in the area by means other than Texaco but, in June 2006 Chevron gave exclusive rights to the Texaco brand name in the U.S. and sold some BP gas stations in the southeast which were Gulf gas stations. In New England, former Exxon stations have been rebranded as Gulf, in accordance with the consent decree that allowed the merger of Exxon and Mobil. Many of the former Exxon stations feature a rectangular logo that fit into the existing sign standards used by Exxon. Gulf refers to the look as its "sunrise '' imaging.
The Gulf logo is still used around the world by various businesses. GOI uses it for their marketing activities to focus on the sponsorship of Le Mans race teams (with the current team being Aston Martin Racing team) This sponsorship is used across the world by Gulf distributors, alongside local activity demonstrating the GOI company ethos of "your local global brand ''. In 2009, the clothing store chain Old Navy began selling T - shirts bearing the old Gulf logo, along with the former logos of Standard Oil and Chevron.
Between 1980 and 2000, Gulf moved from being a monolithic, vertically integrated multinational corporation to being more of a network of allied business interests. This has given the entire Gulf enterprise a high degree of strategic and operational flexibility. It is a move that reflects fundamental change in the economics of international business.
Alliances represent yet another shift in the organization of economic transactions from organizational hierarchies to networks; from mass to flexible production; from large, vertically integrated organizations to disintegration and horizontal networks of economic units; from "Fordist '' to "post-Fordist '' companies.
In March 2016 Gulf MX announced that will put their own filling stations in Mexico, which is planned to begin operations on July of the same year to compete with the Local company (PEMEX) (as a result of the recent changes in the local laws in matter of energy and oil resources). As said by Sergio De La Vega (CEO of Gulf Mexico) in order to improve a better service Gulf will make fidelity programs and dedicated smartphone apps. for customers (improving fuel payment into the same, Fuel Administration and better experience with fidelity programs as another additional benefits benefits) adding to modern Service Stations with more quality added services.
Adding to that, Gulf will offer franchises to the existing filling station owners to convert them into Gulf Trademark.
In 1970, there were nearly 25,000 filling stations in the UK, of which 10,000 were independents (typically, privately owned and supplied by a major or jobber while using a brand under license). By the end of 1999, the number of filling stations had dropped to 13,700 and to 9,700 at the end of 2005. In recent years, filling stations have been closing at a rate of 50 per month. Many of the smaller and independent stations have succumbed to competition from out - of - town supermarkets that undercut local enterprises through sheer volume of sales and shared overheads.
The Gulf brand in the UK is licensed by GOI to the Bayford group which specializes in operating service stations on minor trunk roads in rural areas. Bayford supplies about 185 Gulf - branded filling stations in the UK, all of which are independently owned. The Gulf filling stations provide outlets for Gulf - branded oils and lubricants.
The illustration shows a typical Bayford / Gulf filling station in the UK, still associated with a service garage, restaurant and retailing facilities. It is in an isolated location, five miles (8 km) south of Wooler in the Cheviot Hills, catering to both local residents and passing tourist traffic. It is not vulnerable to competition from supermarkets and provides something of a local community center.
For decades, Gulf operated filling stations on the Pennsylvania Turnpike toll highway system alongside the Howard Johnson 's restaurants at the Turnpike 's travel plazas (which correspond to European motorway service areas). This began in 1950 with the opening of the Philadelphia Extension, and Gulf added more filling stations as the system was extended. The Standard Oil Company of Pennsylvania (now part of Exxon) had exclusive rights to provide filling station services on the sections of the system that opened prior to 1950, principally the Irwin - to - Carlisle section.
In the 1980s, Sunoco was awarded the franchise to operate the filling stations at the Sideling Hill and now - closed Hempfield travel plazas. This led to a bidding war among three of Pennsylvania 's most recognizable gasoline brands each time a travel plaza franchise came up for renewal.
Gulf had the opportunity to become the exclusive provider of filling stations at travel plazas along the Pennsylvania Turnpike after Exxon withdrew from the Turnpike in 1990. Cumberland Farms (owner of the Gulf brand in the northeastern U.S.) was awarded a new contract with the Pennsylvania Turnpike Commission, but the contract was sold to Sunoco two years later as part of the company 's bankruptcy proceedings. In June 1992, all of the former Gulf filling stations on the Turnpike (as with the Exxon ones before it) converted to Sunoco. All of the travel plazas continue to sell Sunoco fuel today.
XTR Energy Company Ltd. has a deal with Gulf Oil International U.K. Ltd. for the rights to the retail brand name in Canada. XTR provides petroleum to roughly 150 independently operated gas stations -- many of them in rural areas. The company now wants to move into urban markets with a more recognizable brand.
Most filling stations in Europe sell three types of fuel: unleaded, LRP, and diesel. Although these products lack any real brand differentiation, this has not always been the case. Until well into the 1970s, Gulf (in common with other oil companies) sold distinctive brands of petrol / gasoline including subregular Gulftane, Good Gulf regular, Gulf No - Nox premium, and Gulf Super Unleaded (aka Gulfcrest). Gulf petrol was sold using the slogans "Good Gulf Gasoline, '' and "Gulf -- the Gas with Guts. '' Gulf service stations often supplied customers with pens and key rings bearing these slogans. For a few years, beginning in 1966, Gulf stations in the U.S. gave away orange plastic "Extra Kick Horseshoes '' to customers who filled their tanks with Gulf 's No - Nox premium gasoline (the novelty items were commonly mounted on bumpers).
GOI still produces and sells a wide range of branded oil based products including lubricants and greases of all kinds. These include products for a variety of applications ranging from metal working oils to refrigeration oils. Car engine oils include the Gulf Formula, Gulf MAX, and Gulf TEC ranges. Heavy duty diesel engine lubricants include the Gulf Supreme and Gulf Superfleet ranges.
In the Summer of 2013, Gulf Oil licensed the "Gulf '' name for racing fuels in a return to the American racing scene for the 2014 competition season. The fuels were announced at the Performance Racing Industry Show in Indianapolis, Indiana in December 2013. The racing fuels support the World Racing League and the Formula Atlantic Championship in the United States.
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how much does it cost to renew a cuban passport | Cuban passport - wikipedia
Cuban passports are issued to citizens of Cuba to facilitate international travel. They are valid for 6 years from the date of issuance, but have to be extended every 2 years.
The cost of this passport is about US $500 (CUC 500) for every two years if one person lives in the United States.
Until January 14, 2013, the Cuban government required that all Cuban citizens and foreigners such as foreign students that live in Cuba desiring to leave the country would have to obtain an exit permit (Spanish: Permiso de Salida). The abolition of the controversial requirement led to long lines at passport offices filled with citizens desiring to legally travel abroad; however, the lines were partly attributed to the fact that the cost of obtaining a passport was going to double the next day to the equivalent of US $100 (CUC 100), the equivalent of 5 months of average state salary. Now the passport is the only document required to leave the country, apart from a visa from the destination country. Previously the cost of a passport, exit permit, and associated paperwork added up to around US $300 (CUC 300), the equivalent of 15 months of average state salary.
Passports of many countries contain a message, nominally from the official who is in charge of passport issuance, addressed to authorities of other countries. The message identifies the bearer as a citizen of the issuing country, requests that he or she be allowed to enter and pass through the other country, and requests further that, when necessary, he or she be given help consistent with international norms. In Cuban passports, the message is in Spanish, French and English. The message is:
in Spanish:
in French:
and in English:
In addition to colored fibers in all common pages, Cuban passports feature a UV - reaction - based mark of the Cuban flag and the words República de Cuba (Spanish for Republic of Cuba) on the front endpaper.
As of 1 January 2017, Cuban citizens had visa - free or visa on arrival access to 60 countries and territories, ranking the Cuban passport 76th in terms of travel freedom according to the Henley visa restrictions index.
B) The Isle of Man, Jersey and Guernsey are not part of the European Union, but Manxmen and Channel Islanders are citizens of the European Union; the Isle of Man, Jersey and Guernsey, and Manxmen and Channel Islanders themselves (unless they qualify and apply for recognition of a change in status), are however excluded from the benefits of the Four Freedoms of the European Union.
C) The Government of the United Kingdom also issue passports to British nationals who are not British citizens with the right of abode in the United Kingdom and who are also not otherwise citizens of the European Union.
Non-EU country that has open border with Schengen Area.
Russia is a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. The vast majority of its population (80 %) lives in European Russia, therefore Russia as a whole is included as a European country here.
Turkey is a transcontinental country in the Middle East and Southeast Europe. Turkey has a small part of its territory (3 %) in Southeast Europe called Turkish Thrace.
Azerbaijan and Georgia (Abkhazia; South Ossetia) are transcontinental countries. Both have a small part of their territories in the European part of the Caucasus.
Kazakhstan is a transcontinental country. Kazakhstan has a small part of its territories located west of the Urals in Eastern Europe.
Armenia (Nagorno - Karabakh) and Cyprus (Northern Cyprus) are entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio - political connections with Europe.
Egypt is a transcontinental country in North Africa and Western Asia. Egypt has a small part of its territory in Western Asia called Sinai Peninsula.
Partially recognized.
Not recognized by any other state.
Special administrative regions of China
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who among the following wrote one of mahatma gandhi favourite bhajan named vaishnav jana to | Vaishnava Jana to - wikipedia
Vaishnava Jana To is one of the most popular Hindu bhajans, written in the 15th century by the poet Narsinh Mehta in the Gujarati language. The bhajan speaks about the life, ideals and mentality of a Vaishnava Jana (a follower of Vishnu).
Lyrics of the Poems:
વૈષ્ણવ જન તો તેને કહિયે જે પીડ પરાયી જાણે રે પર દુ: ખે ઉપકાર કરે તો યે મન અભિમાન ન આણે રે. ॥ ધૃ ॥
वैष्णव जन तो तेने कहिये जे पीड परायी जाणे रे । पर दुःखे उपकार करे तो ये मन अभिमान न आणे रे ॥
vaiṣṇava jana to tene kahiye je pīḍa parāyī jāṇe re, para duḥkhe upakāra kare to ye mana abhimāna na āṇe re
Call those people Vaishnavas who Feel the pain of others, Help those who are in misery, But never let self - conceit enter their mind.
સકળ લોકમાં સહુને વંદે, નિંદા ન કરે કેની રે વાચ કાછ મન નિશ્છળ રાખે ધન ધન જનની તેની રે. ॥ ૧ ॥
सकळ लोकमां सहुने वंदे, निंदा न करे केनी रे । वाच काछ मन निश्चळ राखे, धन धन जननी तेनी रे ॥
sakaḷa loka māṁ sahune vande, nindā na kare kenī re, vāca kācha mana niścala rākhe, dhana dhana jananī tenī re
They respect the entire world, Do not disparage anyone, Keep their words, actions and thoughts pure, The mother of such a soul is blessed.
સમદૃષ્ટિ ને તૃષ્ણા ત્યાગી પરસ્ત્રી જેને માત રે જિહ્વા થકી અસત્ય ન બોલે પરધન નવ ઝાલે હાથ રે. ॥ ૨ ॥
समदृष्टि ने तृष्णा त्यागी, परस्त्री जेने मात रे । जिह्वा थकी असत्य न बोले, परधन नव झाले हाथ रे ॥
sama - dṛṣṭi ne tṛṣṇā tyāgī, para-strī jene māta re, jihvā thakī asatya na bole, para-dhana nava jhāle hātha re
They see all equally, renounce craving, Respect other women as their own mother, Their tongue never utters false words, Their hands never touch the wealth of others.
મોહ માયા વ્યાપે નહિ જેને, દૃઢ વૈરાગ્ય જેના મનમાં રે રામ નામ શુ તાળી રે લાગી સકળ તીરથ તેના તનમાં રે. ॥ ૩ ॥
मोह माया व्यापे नहि जेने, दृढ़ वैराग्य जेना मनमां रे । रामनाम शुं ताळी रे लागी, सकळ तीरथ तेना तनमां रे ॥
moha māyā vyāpe nahi jene, dṛḍha - vairāgya jenā manamāṁ re, rāma - nāma śuṁ tāḷī re lāgī, sakaḷa tīratha tenā tanamāṁ re
They do not succumb to worldly attachments, They are firmly detached from the mundane, They are enticed by the name of God (Rama), All places of pilgrimage are embodied in them.
વણ લોભી ને કપટ રહિત છે, કામ ક્રોધ નિવાર્યાં રે ભણે નરસૈયો તેનું દર્શન કરતાં કુળ એકોતેર તાર્યાં રે. ॥ ૪ ॥
वणलोभी ने कपटरहित छे, काम क्रोध निवार्या रे । भणे नरसैयॊ तेनुं दरसन करतां, कुळ एकोतेर तार्या रे ॥
vaṇa - lobhī ne kapaṭa - rahita che, kāma krodha nivāryā re, bhaṇe narasaiyo tenuṁ darasana karatāṁ, kuḷa ekotera tāryā re
They have forsaken greed and deceit, They stay afar from lust and anger, Narsi says: I 'd be grateful to meet such a soul, Whose virtue liberates their entire lineage.
In 1999, this song was rendered in a single album by top artists such as classical vocalists Gangubai Hangal and Pandit Jasraj, pop star Remo Fernandes and also including Sarod maestro Amjad Ali Khan, Pandit Narayan on the sarangi, flute maestro Hariprasad Chaurasia and santoor exponent Shivkumar Sharma played an instrumental rendition. Along with "Raghupati Raghava Raja Ram '', the song is also sung regularly by Delhi 's best known western classical choral groups -- The Capital City Minstrels at their annual Peace Concerts coinciding with Gandhi Jayanti. Carnatic guitarist Baiju Dharmajan created an instrumental guitar version of the prayer in 2013.
Elements of the hymn were included in the Hollywood film Gandhi (1982), in Bollywood films like Water (2005), Cheeni Kum (2007) and Road to Sangam (2009), and Kollywood film Hey Ram (2000). The hymn was also used as a title song for several Indian films. In the Telugu movie Prathinidhi (2014), the first stanza of the song is used during the climatic scene. In the Malayalam movie Indian Rupee (2011), the first stanza of the song is used in the climatic scene and sung by Bombay Jayashri. The song also appears in the Gujarati biopic of the author Kunvaar Bhainu Mameru. An instrumental rendition of the song was featured in the strategy video game Sid Meier 's Civilization VI as the musical theme for the Indian civilization.
Recently to commemorate Mahatma Gandhi on his 150th birth anniversary artists from 124 countries recreated this song.
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the religious pamphlets and books distributed by the american tract society | Awake! - Wikipedia
Awake! is an illustrated religious magazine published every second month by Jehovah 's Witnesses via the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania. It is considered to be a companion magazine of The Watchtower, and is distributed by Jehovah 's Witnesses in their door - to - door ministry.
Awake! is the second most widely distributed magazine in the world (after the Public Edition of The Watchtower), with a total worldwide circulation of over 60 million copies in 121 languages per issue.
The magazine was originally published "every other Wednesday '' under the name The Golden Age on October 1, 1919, by the International Bible Students Association. (In 1930 it was published in Danish under the name New World.) On October 6, 1937, it was renamed Consolation and continued to be published bi-weekly until July 31, 1946. On August 22, 1946, the magazine was renamed Awake! and until 2005 was published semi-monthly in major languages (on the 8th and 22nd), monthly in many languages, and quarterly in a few languages. As of January 2006, the magazine was published monthly, and as of 2016 it was published every second month. As of early 2018, it is published every four months, in March, July, and November of each year.
The stated purpose of the magazine has changed over time. From 1982 to 1995, each issue of the magazine included a mission statement which stated "this magazine builds confidence in the Creator 's promise of a peaceful and secure new order before the generation that saw 1914 passes away ''. When their belief regarding the "generation '' of 1914 was changed to a less literal sense, the aim was restated as "this magazine builds confidence in the Creator 's promise of a peaceful and secure new world that is about to replace the present wicked, lawless system of things ''.
Awake! contains articles about general - interest topics such as nature, geography, family life, and also the Bible and biblical history, from the Watchtower Bible And Tract Society 's perspective. It has also presented medical opinions of various medical conditions. Conditions that have been featured in Awake! include dementia, stroke, infectious diseases, bipolar disorder, and postpartum depression. Many issues claim that mankind is living in the end times.
The magazine 's editor under the titles of The Golden Age and Consolation was Clayton J. Woodworth, who later served on the boards of several corporations of Jehovah 's Witnesses. When the magazine was renamed Awake!, the journal 's editorship became anonymous. (Autobiographical articles credited to individual members about their experiences and circumstances occasionally appear.) Publication is overseen by the Writing Committee of the Governing Body of Jehovah 's Witnesses.
The magazine is printed in nineteen countries; about 25 % of the total is printed at one of the organization 's printeries in Toronto, Canada.
Awake! is considered to be the second most widely distributed magazine in the world (after The Watchtower -- Public Edition), with a worldwide circulation of 60,240,000 each issue.
The magazine is distributed by Jehovah 's Witnesses in the course of their house - to - house ministry. They are also distributed by approaching people in public places, given informally to acquaintances and professionals, or left as reading material in places such as bus terminals and laundromats.
Awake! is available, in selected languages, on audio compact disc and online in various digital formats.
Until March 1990, Awake! was available for a small charge that varied over time and in different countries. For example, in the United States, the suggested donation per issue was $0.05 in 1950, gradually increasing to $0.25 in 1989. On January 17, 1990, the Supreme Court of the United States ruled against Jimmy Swaggart that sales of religious literature were subject to taxation, which introduced ambiguity into the formerly tax - free practice of suggesting a particular donation in exchange for the magazines. The Watch Tower Society supported Swaggart in the case, arguing that the perceived sale of religious literature should be exempt from taxation.
From March 1, 1990, the journals were made available at no cost, on a freewill donation basis in the United States, with the stated purpose of simplifying their Bible educational work and distinguishing themselves from those who commercialize religion. An article in the May 1990 issue of Our Kingdom Ministry -- a newsletter provided to members -- stated that "there are growing pressures against all religious elements '' and went on to say that their main concern was to move ahead in the worldwide preaching work, "without hindrance. ''
The sale of Jehovah 's Witnesses ' literature was gradually phased out in other countries, and Awake! has been distributed free of charge worldwide since early 2000, its printing being funded by voluntary donations from Jehovah 's Witnesses and members of the public.
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what do you call the lawyer who defends | Criminal defense lawyer - wikipedia
A criminal defense lawyer is a lawyer (mostly barristers) specializing in the defense of individuals and companies charged with criminal activity. Some criminal defense lawyers are privately retained, while others are employed by the various jurisdictions with criminal courts for appointment to represent indigent persons; the latter are generally called public defenders. The terminology is imprecise because each jurisdiction may have different practices with various levels of input from state and federal law or consent decrees. Some jurisdictions use a rotating system of appointments, with judges appointing a private practice attorney or firm for each case.
In the United States, criminal defense lawyers deal with the issues surrounding an arrest, a criminal investigation, criminal charges, sentencing, appeals, and post-trial issues. Often an attorney will specialize in a niche within criminal defense, such as drug defense or DUI defense.
An arrest simply means a police officer, federal agent, or judge believes probable cause exists that a person committed a crime. Since an arrest is usually made by law enforcement, the arrest often is for a criminal charge that has not been levied or verified by an attorney or judge. Criminal defense lawyers also deal with the substantive issues of the crimes with which his or her clients are charged. Criminal defense lawyers may also help clients before charges have been filed by a prosecuting attorney. This is done when someone believes he or she is being investigated, or is arrested.
The accused may hire a criminal defense lawyer to help with counsel and representation dealing with police or other investigators, perform his or her own investigation, and at times present exculpatory evidence that negates potential charges by the prosecutor. Criminal defense lawyers in the United States who are employed by governmental entities such as counties, state governments, and the federal government are often referred to as public defenders or court - appointed attorneys.
A considerable aspect of this work requires the US criminal defense lawyer to have a clear understanding of the United States Constitution. Specifically, the Fourth Amendment protects against unlawful searches and seizures, while the Fifth and Sixth Amendments govern the right to remain silent so one does not become a witness against himself. All of the Amendments to the United States Constitution are guaranteed to the criminal accused against the states via the Fourteenth Amendment. Thus, a criminal defense lawyer must understand each of these rights. Initial work on any criminal case involves review of the charges and the claimed facts, and analysis of constitutional violations, the prima facie burden of the prosecution, defenses, and affirmative defenses; as well as potential sentence and sentencing issues. Early stages of a criminal case may involve a grand jury or preliminary hearing to determine if there exists probable cause for the case to continue. A violation of the Fourth or Fifth Amendment, or other illegally obtained evidence could result in evidence being inadmissible at trial. Accordingly, a criminal defense lawyer often spends a considerable amount of time reviewing all documentation to determine if the case can be won on constitutional grounds due to illegal conduct by the government.
If there are no constitutional violations, much of the work of a criminal defense attorney then turns to trial preparation. Any proposed settlement agreement must be compared to the best judgment about the outcome after trial. A criminal defense lawyer will usually discuss potential plea bargains with the prosecuting attorney, as an alternative to exercising the defendant 's trial right and other rights. Plea agreements, when made, can be characterized as either charge agreements (often involving a less serious charge), sentencing agreements (involving a lesser sentence), or both.
Criminal defense lawyers are typically defending people with misdemeanor or felony charges. A misdemeanor generally refers to criminal activity that is punishable by one year or less in the local jail. A felony typically refers to criminal activity that is punishable by more than one year in the prison system. Many states have "wobblers '', which refers to criminal activity that is charged as a felony, but has a possibility of being reduced to a misdemeanor. In matters involving a wobbler, many times a reputable lawyer can either have the felony reduced to a misdemeanor or in the alternative have the felony appear to be a misdemeanor so that the felony can be reduced to a misdemeanor at a later date, which may be good strategy since the typical felony can not be expunged.
The process of becoming a criminal defense attorney is similar to any other legal practice area. To become a criminal defense lawyer, a person will typically complete their undergraduate degree, and then attend and graduate from a law school. After graduating law school and passing the bar examination, the new lawyer can begin practicing criminal law. However, nearly all reputable criminal defense attorneys spend some time after being admitted to the bar working under the mentorship of an experienced attorney, often in a prosecutors office or a public defenders office.
The name in British English is "defence counsel '', or "criminal defence counsel '', who are also known as barristers. A law degree alongside the Bar Professional Training Course is required in order to work as a defense lawyer in England and Wales.
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what is the blind spot of the eye | Blind spot (vision) - wikipedia
A blind spot, scotoma, is an obscurity of the visual field. A particular blind spot known as the physiological blind spot, "blind point '', or punctum caecum in medical literature, is the place in the visual field that corresponds to the lack of light - detecting photoreceptor cells on the optic disc of the retina where the optic nerve passes through the optic disc. Because there are no cells to detect light on the optic disc, the corresponding part of the field of vision is invisible. Some process in our brains interpolates the blind spot based on surrounding detail and information from the other eye, so we do not normally perceive the blind spot.
Although all vertebrates have this blind spot, cephalopod eyes, which are only superficially similar, do not. In them, the optic nerve approaches the receptors from behind, so it does not create a break in the retina.
The first documented observation of the phenomenon was in the 1660s by Edme Mariotte in France. At the time it was generally thought that the point at which the optic nerve entered the eye should actually be the most sensitive portion of the retina; however, Mariotte 's discovery disproved this theory.
The blind spot is located about 12 -- 15 ° temporally and 1.5 ° below the horizontal and is roughly 7.5 ° high and 5.5 ° wide.
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what is the difference between university of birmingham and birmingham city university | Birmingham City University - wikipedia
Birmingham City University (abbrev. BCU) is a modern university in the city of Birmingham, England. Initially established as the Birmingham College of Art with roots dating back to 1843, it was designated as a polytechnic in 1971 and gained university status in 1992.
The university has three main campuses serving four faculties, and offers courses in art and design, business, the built environment, computing, education, engineering, English, healthcare, law, the performing arts, social sciences, and technology. A £ 125 million extension to its campus in the city centre of Birmingham, part of the Eastside development of a new technology and learning quarter, is opening in two stages, with the first phase having opened its doors in 2013.
It is the second largest of five universities in the city, the other four being Aston University, University of Birmingham, University College Birmingham, and Newman University. It is ranked third of the five according to the Complete University Guide, below both the University of Birmingham and Aston University. Roughly half of the university 's full - time students are from the West Midlands, and a large percentage of these are from ethnic minorities. The university runs access and foundation programmes through an international network of associated universities and further education colleges, and has the highest intake of foreign students in the Birmingham area.
In the 1960s, changes were made to the higher education system creating an expansion of polytechnics as a more vocationally orientated alternative to the typical university.
The City of Birmingham Education Committee was invited to submit a scheme for the establishment of a polytechnic bringing together a number of different colleges in the city in 1967. Late in 1969, the post of director of the polytechnic was advertised. Although the city lagged behind other parts of the country, Birmingham finally gained a polytechnic in 1971 -- then the 27th in the UK -- designated by the Education Secretary Margaret Thatcher as the City of Birmingham Polytechnic. This was the second polytechnic in Birmingham, the first -- Birmingham Polytechnic Institution -- having existed in the mid-19th century for ten years.
It was formed initially out of five colleges. Some of the colleges ' staff fought against the merger but later changed their minds. The colleges were:
The latter 's new Perry Barr campus (which began construction in 1971) became the centre of the new Polytechnic, although the institution continued to have a number of different campuses spread across the city. This has sometimes been seen as a weakness of the polytechnic, with the dispersal of sites considered confusing to visitors.
In the early 1970s, the Perry Barr campus was the site of building work for what later became the centrepiece of the polytechnic: the Attwood and Baker buildings. Later in the 1970s, the campus was increased in size with the building of what later became the Cox, Dawson, Edge, Feeney and Galton buildings. In the early 1980s, the William Kenrick Library was added to the site. Although smaller buildings were subsequently constructed, this is largely the Perry Barr campus as it remains today (now called the City North Campus of Birmingham City University).
From its opening, the polytechnic was considered very strong in the field of art and design. As early as 1972, fashion and textile courses were heavily oversubscribed; there were 100 applications for every 30 places. Also in that year, the polytechnic held the Design in a Polytechnic exhibition, which was opened at a reception hosted by Sir Duncan Oppenheim, the chairman of the Council of Industrial Design. Arts courses remained strong at the polytechnic through the 1970s, with twice as many arts students compared to those doing engineering or technology courses.
In 1975, three more colleges were added to the polytechnic:
In the mid-1970s, the polytechnic 's then - chairman, William Kenrick, sparked criticism from politicians for saying his students were "second - class '' students. In 1978, a lecturer in law, Francis Reynolds, was convicted and fined £ 150 for preparing instruments of property conveyance without being a solicitor. He did this to challenge the monopoly solicitors held over conveyancing, which he felt led to higher costs.
By 1979, the polytechnic was one of the biggest in the country, though that did not prevent it from being "starved '' of resources and money. There was a concern that without sufficient investment, the quality of its degree courses in areas such as engineering could not be maintained to the desired standard.
In 1988, the Birmingham Institute of Art and Design (BIAD) was established from the merging of the polytechnic 's Faculty of Art and Design with Bournville College of Art. The extensive archives from these earlier incarnations, including over 10,000 artworks, were housed at the polytechnic 's Margaret Street campus.
Following the UK Government 's Education Reform Act in 1989, the polytechnic ceased to be under Birmingham Local Education Authority control and became an independent corporation with charitable status. It was funded by the Polytechnics and Colleges Funding Council and no longer by the local education authority. The polytechnic continued to have close links to Birmingham City Council, and to this day the Lord Mayor of Birmingham also serves as the University 's Chancellor.
The change in status enabled a tighter union between the polytechnic and industry, and by 1989 it had 30 lecturer 's posts sponsored by firms.
The Further and Higher Education Act 1992 allowed all polytechnics to adopt the title of "university ''. The name University of Central England in Birmingham was approved by the Privy Council on 16 June 1992. The name change took place in time for the new academic year starting later that year. Students who graduated in mid-1992 were given certificates bearing the name University of Central England, even if the entirety of their study had taken place at the polytechnic. The original design was created by Amba Frog Design after a meeting with delegates from university student councils.
In 1995, two more colleges were absorbed -- Birmingham and Solihull College of Nursing and Midwifery, and the West Midlands School of Radiography -- and the Birmingham School of Jewellery opened on Vittoria Street in Birmingham 's Jewellery Quarter. The Faculty of Engineering and Computer Technology provided the basis for the creation of the Technology Innovation Centre (TIC) in 2000. The following year, the Faculty of Health incorporated the Defence School of Health Care Studies.
In November 2003, the university pursued a merger between UCE and Aston University - another university in Birmingham, that, according to The Guardian, "would create an institution of 32,000 students with a £ 200m turnover ''. The plans were announced by the then Vice-Chancellor Peter Knight, and approved by lecturers. The new institution would utilise the established Aston University name, and all UCE staff members ' jobs and employment conditions would be kept intact, although Vice-Chancellor Knight would not be part of its management team. He estimated a completion date for the merger of August 2006.
Michael Sterling, vice-chancellor of University of Birmingham, welcomed the initiative and said it was time for some creative thinking about higher education in the city. "Clearly, with three very distinct universities in one city, it 's sensible to take a hard look at the big picture and how we can best work together, whether separately, in combination, or even as one institution, '' he said. His intervention provoked a furious reaction from Peter Knight, vice-chancellor of UCE, who made it clear his approach was only to Aston University.
The Aston University Council discussed the proposal during a meeting on 3 December 2003 and concluded that it should be rejected. In a statement, Aston University said that "Whilst the Council respects UCE 's distinctive mission, it does not share UCE 's analysis of the potential opportunities that might arise from any merger '', and cited influencing factors such as Aston 's approach to research and teaching, the "significant differences between the missions and strategies '' of Aston and UCE, and the negative impact that prolonged discussions would have on both institutions. Aston suggested that it, UCE and the University of Birmingham should instead begin discussions about the three universities ' contribution to the future of local and regional higher education.
In August 2005, the University of Central England rebranded itself as UCE Birmingham for marketing and promotional purposes, though the original name remained for official use. This decision was reversed in March 2007, following the arrival of a new Vice-Chancellor, and the fuller title University of Central England in Birmingham was resurrected for all purposes.
In June 2007, it was announced that the University would be renamed from ' UCE Birmingham ', with three possible names being proposed: Birmingham City University, Birmingham Chamberlain University, and Birmingham Metropolitan University. Staff and students (both current and alumni) were asked to complete a survey on what they wished the name to be changed to. On October 1, 2007, Vice-Chancellor David Tidmarsh unveiled the name change from UCE Birmingham to Birmingham City University. 48.2 % of those who voted on the survey voted for this name, although 62.1 % of staff had voted for Birmingham Metropolitan University. The University of Birmingham Council had previously advised UCE that their preferred choice was Birmingham Metropolitan University, and that it considered Birmingham Chamberlain University "unacceptable '' because of Joseph Chamberlain 's historic involvement and association with the University of Birmingham.
The proposed name change was met with mixed reaction from students and student union officials. A common argument was that money should be spend on facilities and building repair work, and some students felt ignored by the establishment. The rationale for the name change was a perceived confusion of the location of the university and to give a "shorter, more powerful name ''. The rebranding of the university, which included changing signage and stationery, cost £ 285,084.
The university 's current logo, designed by Birmingham - based BHMG Marketing, is based on the tiger in the crest originally used when it was awarded university status. The crest itself originated from the Birmingham College of Commerce, one of the institutions that formed the polytechnic in 1971. In 2009, the logo was revised to include the word "CITY '' in upper - case on the first line instead of in lower - case on the second.
Throughout its history the university has been spread across a number of different sites in Birmingham. As of 2016, the university is at the following campuses:
The university is part - way through a "flagship '' extension to its campus in Birmingham City Centre, next to the existing facilities at Millennium Point. The City Centre campus is a £ 150 million scheme, as part of Birmingham 's Eastside development, with design and media students moving into Phase 1 of the development in 2013, from the former Gosta Green Campus and City North Campus, respectively. Business, English, law and social sciences followed when Phase 2 of the new building was completed in 2015.
University House (formerly known as the New Technology Institute or NTI) is located close to the City Centre Campus and is home to a number of the University 's professional service departments. The International Project Space (IPS) is an art gallery located at the Bournville Centre for Visual Arts.
Moor Lane is a venue for sports, business training and conferences near to City North Campus. Previously, a dedicated sports centre was located behind The Coppice, a student accommodation block next to the City North Campus, and included tennis courts, bowls, football and rugby pitches, running track and a social club. The university announced a £ 7 million sports complex would be built on the site, formerly the Ansells Sports Club, with construction to start in mid-2008 for completion in 2009. The centre, Doug Ellis Sports Centre, opened on 4 January 2010 and includes a fitness suite, workout classes, and a sports hall. Lawyers at Wragge & Co have advised Birmingham City University on the outsourcing of work for the sports centre to international service company Serco. Under a new 10 - year agreement, the FTSE 100 company will run both the sports centre and the existing Pavilion sports facility in Perry Barr.
The Coppice and Oscott Gardens are residential halls of residence located adjacent to City North Campus. The university also offers accommodation in a number of privately owned halls of residence, these include Jennens Court, My Student Village: Birmingham (formerly clv Birmingham) and Curzon Gateway in the city centre. There are also halls of residence at the City South Campus, primarily used by nursing students.
After the former Birmingham Polytechnic was granted University status it installed the city 's Lord Mayor as its Chancellor each year. It was one of only two national institutions to adopt this link with its local region. On 21 July 2016 the University announced that Lenny Henry would become its new Chancellor, for a term of five years.
Birmingham City University is a large university and has departments covering a wide range of subjects. The university 's system was re-organised into four faculties in September 2014, composed of numerous schools and departments.
This faculty includes the art and design related courses taught by the School of Art, School of Architecture, School of Fashion, Textiles and 3D Design, School of Jewellery and School of Visual Communication.
It is also home to Birmingham Conservatoire, an international conservatoire and junior school and a major concert venue for many of Birmingham 's principal concert promoters and organisations, hosting over 300 events annually; Birmingham School of Acting, which merged with the university in 2005 following a period of collaboration; the School of English; and Birmingham School of Media, one of the first media schools in the country to teach media as part of the Skillset Academy Network. Its courses have received approval from the Broadcast Journalism Training Council and the Chartered Institute of Public Relations.
This faculty includes Birmingham City Business School, a major centre for business, computing and management education. It incorporates three academic departments and two specialist centres: the Department of Accountancy and Finance, the Department of Business and Marketing, the Department of Management and Human Resources, the Centre for Leadership and Management Practice, and the Centre for Internal Audit, Governance and Risk Management. It also includes the university 's School of Law and School of Social Sciences.
The University is among the UK 's largest higher education centres for health and social care. The faculty includes the Defence School of Health Care, which is part of the Royal Centre for Defence Medicine (RCDM). It also provides courses for intending teachers, serving teachers or those simply interested in education issues covering the entire range of school phases from infant to continuing education, at every study level from full - time undergraduate to postgraduate level and PhD.
The Faculty of Computing, Engineering and the Built Environment, based in Millennium Point, is a national centre of excellence for learning, innovation and technology transfer. The faculty was temporarily known as the Faculty of Technology, Innovation and Development (TID) from 2008 until 2009, when the university relaunched the faculty through the merger of three of the more successful departments -- the Technology Innovation Centre (TIC), School of Computing, and the School of Property Construction. It now has four divisions:
The university has seven libraries across Birmingham on all campuses that contain around 950,000 books and 9,000 print and electronic journals. Kenrick Library, named after William Kenrick in recognition of his role as the first Chairman of Governors when the Polytechnic was formed in 1971, is located at the City North Campus and is the largest of the university 's libraries, covering three floors and featuring more than 320,000 books, 2,000 print journals and more than 4,000 electronic journals. A £ 3 million refurbishment introduced a suite of individual and group study areas. Other libraries include:
In 1998, the university was involved in controversy when a book by photographer Robert Mapplethorpe, Mapplethorpe (1992), was confiscated. A final year undergraduate student was writing a paper on Mapplethorpe 's work and intended to illustrate the paper with a few photographs. She took the photographs to the local photo - studio to be developed and the photo - studio informed West Midlands Police because of the unusual nature of the images. The police confiscated the library book from the student and informed the university that the book would have to be destroyed. If the university agreed to the destruction, no further action would be taken.
The university Vice-Chancellor, Peter Knight, took the view -- supported by the Senate -- that the book was a legitimate book for the university library to hold and that the action of the police was a serious infringement of academic freedom. The Vice-Chancellor was interviewed by the police, under caution, with a view to prosecution under the terms of the Obscene Publications Act, which defines obscenity as material that is likely to deprave and corrupt. The police focused on one particular image, ' Jim and Tom, Sausalito 1977 ', which depicts one man urinating into the mouth of another.
After the interview with the Vice-Chancellor, a file was sent to the Crown Prosecution Service as the Director of Public Prosecutions (DPP) has to take the decision as to whether or not to proceed with a trial. After a delay of about six months, the affair came to an end when the DPP informed Knight that no action would be taken as "there was insufficient evidence to support a successful prosecution on this occasion ''. The original book was returned, in a slightly tattered state, and restored to the university library.
The university runs access and foundation programmes through an international network of associated universities and further education colleges, including:
The university has five Centres of Research Excellence, which are the main focus of its research activity. Following the 2008 Research Assessment Exercise conducted by the Higher Education Funding Council for England, the Birmingham Post reported that more than 70 per cent of research work submitted by Birmingham City University -- including in business and management studies, education, English, social work and social policy, and town and country planning -- was "officially recognised as of an international standard '', and 15 per cent of that work was "rated as world leading ''. Its art and design submission was among the ten highest ranked in the country, and Birmingham Conservatoire was rated one of the top three conservatoires, and the best outside London. The university was ranked sixty - third based on average assessment scores.
The university has a number of courses accredited by Creative Skillset, the government 's skills sector council for audio, visual and creative industries. With regard to post-production, the university also has Avid Mentor status, and is the Midlands ' accredited training centre for Apple 's Final Cut editing software. The School of Media is regarded as the UK 's number - one media school to offer both theory - and production - based teaching, and is ranked eleventh in The Guardian University Guide 2010. From the launch of CCNP in 2001, BCU was also the CATC for the CCNP Program within EMEA and has provided CCNP instructor training across Europe, Russia, Israel, Dubai and South Africa.
The School of English is among the top 20 in the U.K., according to the 2014 Research Excellence Framework, with 77 % of its research being rated nationally or internationally excellent.
For health and social care, Birmingham City University was awarded national recognition as a Centre for Excellence in Teaching and Learning. The Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education, in its institutional audit and major review of Nursing, Midwifery and Allied Health Professions, gave the university excellent outcomes. The university has an on - site virtual operating suite for health students, the first at a university in England. In the Smithers - Robinson League Table, for initial teacher training, Birmingham City University and three other institutions are consistently ranked top ten. Ofsted inspection scores for teacher education courses are frequently among the best.
In May 2010, the university achieved the highest mark, an Ofsted grade 1 for the quality of training and the management and quality assurance of the training it provides for both its primary and secondary teacher training courses.
Roughly half of the university 's full - time students are from the West Midlands, and a large percentage of these are from ethnic minorities. The university runs access and foundation programmes through an international network of associated universities and further education colleges, and it has the highest intake of international students in the Birmingham area. For 2009 entry, applications rose by 37 per cent from 2008, one of the biggest increases at any university. There are almost six applications per place and course entry requirements range from 200 to 300 UCAS points for all honours programmes; other courses ' requirements vary.
Birmingham City University Students ' Union is located at the City North Campus. There are several reception offices located at all the university 's campuses. It is affiliated with the National Union of Students, and all students are automatically members of the union. Student media comprises a magazine, Spaghetti Junction, and a television station, Tiger TV. The Students ' Union also has close ties with the student and community radio station Scratch Radio, which is housed in the main Students ' Union building.
The student union of Birmingham Polytechnic was condemned in November 1974 when its council passed a resolution supporting IRA terrorism. The polytechnic 's student radio station, Radio G, was the runner - up in the 1989 Guardian / NUS Student Media Awards.
Now Birmingham City Students ' Union, it holds elections every year to elect the five full - time sabbatical officers who run the Union and act as its Company Directors.
Current and former staff of the University and its former entities include environmentalist Chris Baines, journalist Paul Bradshaw, photographer Ravi Deepres, and musician Roy Priest (formerly of Sweet Jesus).
Other notable graduates of the University and its predecessor institutions working in broadcasting include children 's television presenter Kirsten O'Brien, sports TV presenter Mary Rhodes, radio and TV presenters Fiona Phillips, Zoë Ball, Margherita Taylor and Phil Upton, and investigative journalist Mark Williams - Thomas.
Several work in broadcast journalism, such as Sky News news presenter Marverine Cole and BBC news presenter Charlie Stayt. Art and design alumni include cartoonist Alex Hughes, artist Barbara Walker, fashion designer Betty Jackson, and artist Rob Pepper.
Graduates in the performing arts include musician Nick Duffy, singer - songwriter Stephen Duffy, actors Jimi Mistry, Catherine Tyldesley and Tom Lister, comedian Frank Skinner, singer and The X Factor contestant Rhydian Roberts, and bass guitarist John Taylor, founder of Duran Duran.
Other individuals to have studied at what is now Birmingham City University include novelists Jim Crace and Stephen Booth, nurse - author Bethann Siviter, Nigerian researcher and pollster Bell Ihua, scientist Kevin Warwick, politicians Khalid Mahmood (MP for Perry Barr) and Lynne Jones (former MP for Selly Oak), and former Chief Inspector of Probation for England and Wales Paul McDowell.
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who plays gollum in lord of the rings | Andy Serkis - Wikipedia
Andrew Clement Serkis (born 20 April 1964) is an English actor and director. He is best known for his performance capture roles comprising motion capture acting, animation and voice work for such computer - generated characters as Gollum in The Lord of the Rings film trilogy (2001 -- 2003) and The Hobbit: An Unexpected Journey (2012), King Kong in the eponymous 2005 film, Caesar in the Planet of the Apes reboot series (2011 -- 17), Captain Haddock / Sir Francis Haddock in Steven Spielberg 's The Adventures of Tintin (2011), and Supreme Leader Snoke in Star Wars: The Force Awakens (2015) and Star Wars: The Last Jedi (2017). Upcoming performance capture roles include Baloo in his self - directed film, Mowgli (2018).
Serkis ' film work in motion capture has been critically acclaimed. He has received an Empire Award, and two Saturn Awards for his motion - capture acting. He earned a Golden Globe nomination for his portrayal of serial killer Ian Brady in the British television film Longford (2006) and was nominated for a BAFTA for his portrayal of new wave and punk rock musician Ian Dury in the biopic Sex & Drugs & Rock & Roll (2010).
In 2015, Serkis began playing Ulysses Klaue in the Marvel Cinematic Universe, beginning with Avengers: Age of Ultron, which was followed by Black Panther (2018). Serkis has his own production company and motion capture workshop, The Imaginarium Studios in London, which he used for Mowgli. He made his directorial debut with Imaginarium 's 2017 film Breathe.
Serkis was born and brought up in Ruislip Manor in Middlesex. His mother, Lylie (born Weech), was English and taught disabled children; his father, Clement Serkis, was an Iraqi - born gynaecologist of Armenian descent. His ancestors ' original surname was "Sarkisian ''. His father often worked away in the Middle East, while Serkis and his siblings were raised in Britain, with regular holidays in the Middle East including to Tyre, Sidon, Damascus and Baghdad.
Serkis was educated at St Benedict 's School, Ealing, and then studied visual arts at Lancaster University. He chose theatre as a secondary subject so that he could design posters. Serkis was a member of the County College and part of the student radio station Bailrigg FM. He joined the Nuffield Studio, getting involved in designing and producing plays.
Having agreed to act in a couple of productions towards the end of his first year, Serkis played the lead role in Barrie Keeffe 's play, Gotcha, as a rebellious teenager holding a teacher hostage. As a result, he changed his major subject to acting, constructing his Independent Studies Degree around acting and set design, studying Konstantin Stanislavski and Bertolt Brecht, and including minor modules in art and visual graphics. In his final year at Lancaster he adapted Raymond Briggs 's graphic novel The Tin - Pot Foreign General and the Old Iron Woman, a satire about the Falklands War, as a one - man show, which he performed to acclaim.
In his third year at college, Serkis joined the backstage team at the local Duke 's Playhouse to earn his Equity card. On graduation, although advised to take a one - year post-graduate acting course, he joined Dukes as an actor and, under director Jonathan Petherbridge who used workshops based upon the methods of Augusto Boal, spent 18 months acting in a broad range of productions from Brecht through Shakespeare to modern British playwrights.
After 16 months, and having gained his Equity card, Serkis joined a series of touring companies, including productions of: Bouncers opposite Hull Truck; Florizel in The Winter 's Tale; and the fool in King Lear with director Max Stafford - Clark. In the early 1990s he settled in London, and took roles in Dogboy, the Royal Court Theatre 's production of Mojo, Bill Sikes in a television film of Oliver Twist (1999) and Wilson Milam 's production of Hurlyburly (1997) at the Queen 's Theatre, Shaftesbury Avenue, with Rupert Graves and David Tennant.
Like many British actors, Serkis made the move to television by appearing in small roles, such as Greville in an episode of The Darling Buds of May (1992). However, one of his first major starring roles was in the joint BBC / HBO production of Einstein and Eddington (2008). Serkis played Albert Einstein, following the development of his theory of relativity, while David Tennant played British scientist Sir Arthur Eddington. Serkis joined director Mike Leigh 's ensemble for two film productions, and appeared in the romantic comedy Loop (1997) alongside Susannah York.
Serkis first came to wide public notice for his performance as Sméagol / Gollum, in The Lord of the Rings film trilogy (2001 -- 2003), for which he provided motion capture movements and voice for the CGI character. His work on The Lord of the Rings started a debate on the legitimacy of CGI - assisted acting. Some critics felt Serkis should have been nominated for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor, since his voice, body language, and facial expressions were used.
Serkis has done critically acclaimed motion capture work in several other films, including the title character in the 2005 version of King Kong (in which he also played the ship 's cook in live action) and as Caesar in Rise of the Planet of the Apes (2011), Dawn of the Planet of the Apes (2014), and War for the Planet of the Apes (2017). He also worked with game developers Ninja Theory on the 2007 release Heavenly Sword, providing the motion capture and voice for King Bohan (the game 's main villain).
Serkis was cast as serial killer Ian Brady in the BAFTA - nominated Longford, co-starring Samantha Morton as Myra Hindley and Jim Broadbent as Lord Longford. The film was attacked by relatives of Brady 's and Hindley 's victims. In 2006, Serkis appeared in the role of Mr. Grin in the film rendition of Anthony Horowitz 's Alex Rider novel Stormbreaker. In 2006, he was in the film The Prestige as Mr. Alley, assistant to Nikola Tesla, and as the voice of Spike, one of the henchrats in the Aardman Animations film Flushed Away. In 2006 Serkis appeared in Jim Threapleton 's improvised feature film Extraordinary Rendition, which premiered in 2007. In 2010, he played 1970s new wave singer Ian Dury in Sex & Drugs & Rock & Roll. Serkis appeared in Sugarhouse, a low - budget independently made film, playing local crime lord Hoodwink, who terrorises an east London housing estate. For the role, Serkis shaved his head and had sessions lasting 20 hours each to have temporary tattoos stencilled onto his body. The film premiered at the 2007 Edinburgh Festival and released in the UK on 24 August 2007. He appeared alongside Sacha Baron Cohen in The Jolly Boys ' Last Stand.
In 2007, Serkis provided the voice over for Monkey Life, Five broadcast for three weeks from 13 -- 31 August 2007. This series is about Monkey World, the popular ape and monkey sanctuary and zoo near Wool, Dorset. Serkis reunited with Peter Jackson, as a cast member in Jackson 's and Steven Spielberg 's Tintin trilogy, based on The Adventures of Tintin. Serkis supplied the voice and motion capture performance of Captain Haddock (adopting a Scottish accent) as well as his ancestor, Sir Francis Haddock. Filming began in January 2009 and the film was released in 2011. Filming was due to begin in September 2008 but was delayed due to Universal pulling out of backing the project. In 2008, Serkis appeared as Rigaud in the BBC Television adaptation of Charles Dickens ' Little Dorrit and as Capricorn in Inkheart.
In 2009, Serkis voiced the role of the demon Screwtape in Focus on the Family 's Radio Theatre audio adaptation of C.S. Lewis 's The Screwtape Letters. In 2010, Serkis was cast as William Hare, with Simon Pegg as Burke, in the John Landis black comedy film Burke and Hare based on the Burke and Hare murders in Scotland in 1828.
In 2010, Serkis features in the TV series The Accused, in "Liam 's Story '', written by Danny Brocklehurst and Jimmy McGovern. He played Caesar in the 20th Century Fox science - fiction film Rise of the Planet of the Apes. Serkis was acclaimed for his performance as Caesar, and in a high - profile campaign by 20th Century Fox for him to be honoured with a Best Supporting Actor Oscar nomination, his co-star James Franco stated: "Andy Serkis is the undisputed master of the newest kind of acting called "performance capture, '' and it is time that Serkis gets credit for the innovative artist that he is. '' In 2010, Serkis played Monkey, the lead character along with Lindsay Shaw in the videogame Enslaved: Odyssey to the West.
In January 2011, it was confirmed that Serkis would reprise the role of Gollum in the three - part The Hobbit films which were released in 2012, 2013 and 2014. He was also the film 's second unit director, which included directing aerial shots and battle scenes. He was invited to join the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences in June 2012 along with 175 other individuals. In 2014, Serkis reprised his role as Caesar in Dawn of the Planet of the Apes, and in 2017 again reprised the role in War for the Planet of the Apes, the last of the trilogy.
In Gareth Edwards ' 2014 science - fiction monster film Godzilla, Serkis was the consultant on the film 's motion capture sequences in order to "control the souls '' of the creatures. Serkis played Ulysses Klaue in Marvel Studios ' Avengers: Age of Ultron (2015), and was also a motion capture consultant on the film. Serkis played Supreme Leader Snoke in Star Wars: The Force Awakens (2015) and reprised the role in Star Wars: The Last Jedi (2017).
In late 2015, it was announced that Serkis was working on a modern film adaptation of Rumpelstiltskin, titled Steelskin. In addition to starring in the film, Serkis will serve as producer and director.
In 2011, Serkis founded The Imaginarium Studios with film producer Jonathan Cavendish. The Imaginarium is a production company and creative digital studio based in Ealing, London and is dedicated to invention of believable, emotionally engaging digital characters using Performance Capture technology, in which Serkis specialises. On 20 October 2012, the studio acquired rights to The Bone Season by Samantha Shannon and a new motion capture adaptation of Animal Farm, which Serkis will direct.
Serkis has served as the second unit director for The Hobbit films and made his directorial debut with Breathe. He will also direct the upcoming film, Mowgli.
Serkis published a memoir about his experiences playing Gollum in The Lord of the Rings film trilogy, Gollum: How We Made Movie Magic, published in late 2004. He also made an appearance in the music video for Neneh Cherry 's "Woman '', portraying an abusive boyfriend. In 2015, Serkis collaborated with British rock band Coldplay in the making of the music video for "Adventure of a Lifetime '' (which saw the group perform as chimpanzees) with Serkis acting as a performance capture consultant.
Serkis was born to Catholic parents, and though he has been an atheist since his teenage years, he is "drawn to the karmic possibilities of energy transference '', specifically "the idea that your energy lives on after you ''. He studied visual arts and theatre as part of his degree at Lancaster University and graduated in 1985.
Serkis married actress Lorraine Ashbourne in July 2002. He lives in Crouch End, north London with his wife and their three children: Ruby (b. 1998), Sonny (b. 2000) and Louis (b. 2004).
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where did the angel and devil on the shoulder come from | Shoulder angel - wikipedia
A shoulder angel is a plot device used for either dramatic or humorous effect in animation and comic strips (and occasionally in live - action television). The angel represents conscience and is often accompanied by a shoulder devil representing temptation. They are a useful convention for depicting the inner conflict of a character. Usually, the angel is depicted on (or hovering near) the right shoulder and the devil or demon on the left, as the left side traditionally represents dishonesty or impurity.
The shoulder angel often uses the iconography of a traditional angel, with wings, a robe, a halo, and sometimes a harp. The shoulder devil likewise usually looks like a traditional devil with reddish skin, horns, barbed tail, a pitchfork or, more precisely, a trident and in some cases, cloven hooves. Often, both resemble their host, though sometimes they will resemble other characters in the story who are responsible or mischievous. In Western culture the idea develops the Christian concept of a personal guardian angel, who was sometimes considered to be matched by a personal devil who countered the angel 's efforts. Especially in popular medieval dramas, like the 15th century The Castle of Perseverance. In both this and Christopher Marlowe 's play The Tragical History of Doctor Faustus, of about 1592, the "Good Angel '' and "Bad Angel '' offer competing advice (Act 2, scene 1, etc.) to the hero.
The non-canonical early Christian book, The Shepherd of Hermas, of around A.D. 140 -- 150, has a reference to the idea of two angels, There are two angels with a man -- one of righteousness, and the other of iniquity. (Sixth Commandment, Chapter 2). These angels in turn descend into a person 's heart, and attempt to guide a person 's emotions. Hermas is told to understand both Angels, but to only trust the Angel of Righteousness. The concept is similar to ideas of personal tutelary spirits that are very common in many ancient and traditional cultures.
In some Christian folklore, each person has a dedicated guardian angel whose task is to follow the person and try to prevent them from coming to harm, both physical and moral. At the same time each person is assailed by devils, not usually considered as single and dedicated to a single person in the same way as the guardian angel, who try to tempt the person into sin. Both angels and devils are often regarded as having the ability to access the person 's thoughts, and introduce ideas.
There is a similar Islamic belief of Kiraman Katibin, two angels residing on either shoulder of humans which record their good and bad deeds. However, these angels do not have influence over the choices one makes, and only record one 's deeds. However, there is a concept much similar to the shoulder angel and devil which is of the Qareen. The Qareen, according to Islamic literature, is a personal companion, and there are two with each individual, one from the angels and another from the Jinn. The word qarīn literally means ' constant companion '. The angel pushes the individual to do good and obey God while that from the Jinn does the opposite.
In Japanese Buddhism, the Kushoujin are a pair of beings (Domyo, meaning "same name '' and Dosho, meaning "same birth '') which sit on a person 's shoulders, observing and reporting all his deeds. Domyo records good deeds, but Dosho reports bad ones.
In several modern fictional stories, a character can be marked as especially evil or mischievous by receiving similarly bad advice from both shoulder figures, having a second shoulder devil instead of the angel, or being persuaded by the devil to kick the angel out.
One may view this image in Freudian terms, with the Angel representing the Super-ego (the source of self - censorship), counterbalanced by the Devil representing the Id (the primal, instinctive desires of the individual).
The Disney animated film The Emperor 's New Groove, its sequel Kronk 's New Groove, and the animated series The Emperor 's New School feature the concept of shoulder angels and devils, most notably in the character of Kronk. His appear at various points of moral crisis in the franchise for Kronk, but often spend more time antagonizing each other than actually trying to take Kronk down one path or another. The Oscar - winning Disney short Lend a Paw also featured Pluto being influenced by a shoulder angel and devil, and Pete has similar manifestations -- though simply colored white and red rather than depicted with wings and a halo / horns and a pitchfork, respectively - in episodes of Mickey Mouse Clubhouse.
The film Cloud Atlas is an example of utilizing a shoulder angel plot device in feature film, in which the character of Hugo Weaving whispers bad and good advices to the character of Tom Hanks. Old Georgie (Hugo Weaving) appears only in critical points of the story, where Zachry 's mind (Tom Hanks) is split between right and wrong choices.
BYUtv 's sketch comedy series Studio C makes use of the concept in several sketches, with the physical comedy aspect of the angel or devil - a full - sized being played by an actor - having to physically climb up onto the shoulder of the one they are attempting to influence for good or evil.
It is speculated that the two main protagonists of Neil Gaiman and Terry Pratchett 's Good Omens are supposed to represent the angel and demon on your shoulder as the Demon Anthony J. Crowley tempts people into sin / baser nature while his counter figure the Angel Aziraphale encourages people to do good and rise above their baser instincts, however neither forces people into following their examples allowing free will to be exercised unimpeded.
In The Simpsons episode Whacking Day Homer presents the concept that everyone has a good and a bad self to Lisa, who then imagines Homer 's evil version dancing on the grave of good Homer while singing ' I am Evil Homer, I am Evil Homer ', implying that within him the battle for good and evil has long ago been won by his bad angel.
In the Discworld novel Nightwatch by Terry Pratchett the killer Carcer was considered by the hero Samuel Vimes to have a demon on each shoulder rather than an angel and a demon, but not opposing each other, just in competition to urge Carcer on to worse deeds. It was said that if Vimes looked deep into Carcer 's eyes, he could see the demons looking back.
The Adventures of Tintin comics used this concept in at least two stories The Red Sea Sharks, where Captain Haddock 's good and bad angels try to convince him to drink a bottle of whisky. The bad one is able to convince him, but the bottle smashes before he is able to drink it, leaving the good angel victorious. In Tintin in Tibet Snowy is tempted by his demon to lap up Captain Haddock 's whiskey leaking from his rucksack or enjoy a huge bone rather than deliver a vital message. His good angel loses the argument leaving in tears, and he gnaws the bone while the message blows away. Realizing his mistake, Snowy makes amends by reaching a local monastery and brings the monks to help.
In both examples, the angels resemble good or bad versions of their subject, with horns and angel wings.
Sluggy Freelance comics has made use of this theme, with all three of the main characters; Riff, Torg and Zoe having been shown debating with their shoulder angels and demons. Despite being good and bad they both still reflect aspects of their owner - both Riff 's are unwilling to commit to a course of action saying ' do n't know ' when asked for guidance. Torg 's angle and demon are both childish while Zoe has her bad demon dressed in revealing outfit, while her good one wishes she could dress in the same fashion.
Angel on My Shoulder is a 1946 American fantasy film about a deal between the Devil and a dead man.
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who died as political prisoner in lahore prison | Jatindra Nath Das - Wikipedia
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Anushilan Samiti
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Jatindra Nath Das (Bengali: যতীন্দ্রনাথ দাস) (27 October 1904 -- 13 September 1929), also known as Jatin Das, was an Indian independence activist and revolutionary. He died in Lahore jail after a 63 - day hunger strike.
Jatindra Das was born in 1904 at Calcutta. He joined the Anushilan Samiti, a revolutionary group in Bengal, at a young age and also participated in Gandhi 's Non-Cooperation movement in 1921.
In November 1925, while studying for a B.A. at Bangabasi College in Calcutta, Das was arrested for his political activities and was imprisoned at the Mymensingh Central Jail. While interned there, he went on a hunger strike to protest the ill - treatment meted out to the political prisoners. After fasting for twenty days, the Jail Superintendent apologised and he gave up the fast. He was contacted by revolutionaries in other parts of India and agreed to participate in bomb - making for Bhagat Singh and comrades. Sachindra Nath Sanyal taught him how to make bombs.
On 14 June 1929 he was arrested for revolutionary activities and was imprisoned in Lahore jail to be tried under the supplementary Lahore Conspiracy Case.
In Lahore jail, Das began a hunger strike along with other revolutionary fighters, demanding equality for Indian political prisoners with those from Europe. The conditions of Indian inhabitants of the jails was deplorable. The uniforms that Indian prisoners were required to wear in jail with were not washed for several days, and rats and cockroaches roamed the kitchen area making the food unsafe to eat. Indian prisoners were not provided with any reading material such as newspapers, nor paper to write on. The condition of the British prisoners in the same jail was strikingly different.
Das 's hunger strike started on 13 July 1929 and lasted 63 days. The jail authority took measures to forcibly feed him and the other independence activist. Eventually, the jail committee recommended his unconditional release, but the government rejected the suggestion and offered to release him on bail.
Jatin died on 13 September 1929. Durga Bhabhi led the funeral procession, which went from Lahore to Calcutta by train. Thousands of people rushed to the railway stations to pay homage to Das. A two - mile long procession in Calcutta carried the coffin to the cremation ground. It was Subhas Chandra Bose, who received the coffin of Das at Howrah Railway Station and led the funeral procession to the cremation ground. The hunger strike of Jatin Das in prison was one crucial moment in the resistance against illegal detentions.
After his death, the Viceroy informed London that "Mr Das of the Conspiracy Case, who was on hunger strike, died this afternoon at 1 p.m. Last night, five of the hunger strikers gave up their hunger strike. So there are only Bhagat Singh and Dutt who are on strike. ''
Tributes were paid by almost every leader in the country. Mohammad Alam and Gopi Chand Bhargava resigned from the Punjab Legislative Council in protest. Motilal Nehru proposed the adjournment of the Central Assembly as a censure against the inhumanity of the Lahore prisoners. The censure motion was carried by 55 votes against 47. Jawaharlal Nehru said "Another name has been added to the long and splendid roll of Indian martyrs. Let us bow our heads and pray for strength to act to carry on the struggle, however long it may be and whatever consequences, till the victory is ours ". Subhas Chandra Bose described Das as the "young Dadhichee of India '', referring to the well known mythological yogi Dadhichee who sacrificed his life for the sake of killing a demon.
In the 2002 film The Legend of Bhagat Singh, the character of Jatin Das was played by Amitabh Bhattacharjee. A 35 - minute documentary film titled Immortal Martyr Jatin Das was released in 2009.
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what does the yin and yang symbol stand for | Yin and yang - wikipedia
Model humanity:
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Confucian churches and sects:
In Chinese philosophy, yin yang (陰 陽 yīnyáng, lit. "dark - bright '', "negative - positive '') describe how seemingly opposite or contrary forces may actually be complementary, interconnected, and interdependent in the natural world, and how they may give rise to each other as they interrelate to one another. Many tangible dualities (such as light and dark, fire and water, expanding and contracting) are thought of as physical manifestations of the duality symbolized by yin and yang. This duality lies at the origins of many branches of classical Chinese science and philosophy, as well as being a primary guideline of traditional Chinese medicine, and a central principle of different forms of Chinese martial arts and exercise, such as baguazhang, taijiquan (t'ai chi), and qigong (Chi Kung), as well as appearing in the pages of the I Ching.
Duality is found in many belief systems, but yin and yang are parts of a Oneness that is also equated with the Tao. The term ' dualistic - monism ' or dialectical monism has been coined in an attempt to express this fruitful paradox of simultaneous unity / duality. Yin and yang can be thought of as complementary (rather than opposing) forces that interact to form a dynamic system in which the whole is greater than the assembled parts. Everything has both yin and yang aspects (for instance, shadow can not exist without light). Either of the two major aspects may manifest more strongly in a particular object, depending on the criterion of the observation. The yin yang (i.e. taijitu symbol) shows a balance between two opposites with a portion of the opposite element in each section.
In Taoist metaphysics, distinctions between good and bad, along with other dichotomous moral judgments, are perceptual, not real; so, the duality of yin and yang is an indivisible whole. In the ethics of Confucianism on the other hand, most notably in the philosophy of Dong Zhongshu (c. 2nd century BC), a moral dimension is attached to the idea of yin and yang.
The Chinese terms yin 陰 or 阴 "shady side '' and yang 陽 or 阳 "sunny side '' are linguistically analyzable in terms of Chinese characters, pronunciations and etymology, meanings, topography, and loanwords.
The Traditional Chinese characters 陰 and 陽 for the words yīn and yáng are both classified as radical - phonetic characters, combining the semantically significant "mound; hill '' radical 阝 or 阜 with the phonetic indicators ying 侌 and yang 昜. The first phonetic yīn 侌 "cloudy '' ideographically combines jīn 今 "now; present '' and yún 云 "cloud '', denoting the "今 presence of 云 clouds ''. The second phonetic yáng 昜 "bright '' originally pictured 日 the "sun '' with 勿 "rays coming down ''. This phonetic is expanded with the "sun '' radical into yáng 暘 "rising sun; sunshine ''. The "mound; hill '' radical 阝 full forms semantically specify yīn 陰 "shady / dark side of a hill '' and yáng 陽 "sunny / light side of a hill ''.
The Simplified Chinese characters 阴 and 阳 for yīn and yáng combine the same "hill '' radical 阝 with the non-phonetic yuè 月 "moon '' and rì 日 "sun '', graphically denoting "shady side of a hill '' and "sunny side of a hill ''. Compare the Classical Chinese names (which contain tài 太 "great '') for these two heavenly bodies: Tàiyīn 太陰 "moon '' and Tàiyáng 太陽 "sun ''.
The Modern Standard Chinese pronunciation of 陰 or 阴 is usually level first tone yīn "shady; cloudy '' or sometimes falling fourth tone yìn "to shelter; shade '', and 陽 or 阳 "sunny '' is always pronounced with rising second tone yáng.
Sinologists and historical linguists have reconstructed Middle Chinese pronunciations from data in the (7th century CE) Qieyun rhyme dictionary and later rhyme tables, which was subsequently used to reconstruct Old Chinese phonology from rhymes in the (11th - 7th centuries BCE) Shijing and phonological components of Chinese characters. Reconstructions of Old Chinese have illuminated the etymology of modern Chinese words.
Compare these Middle Chinese and Old Chinese (with asterisk) reconstructions of yīn 陰 and yáng 陽:
Schuessler gives probable Sino - Tibetan etymologies for both Chinese words.
Yin < * ʔəm compares with Burmese ʔum "overcast; cloudy '', Adi muk - jum "shade '', and Lepcha so'yǔm "shade ''; and is probably cognate with Chinese àn < * ʔə̂mʔ 黯 "dim; gloomy '' and qīn < * khəm 衾 "blanket ''
Yang < * laŋ compares with Lepcha a-lóŋ "reflecting light '', Burmese laŋ "be bright '' and ə - laŋ "light '', and Tai plaŋ "bright ''; and is perhaps cognate with Chinese chāng < * k - hlaŋ 昌 "prosperous; bright '' (cf. Proto - Viet - Mong hlaŋ "bright ''), and bǐng < * braŋʔ 炳 "bright ''.
Yin and yang are semantically complex words.
A reliable Chinese - English dictionary gives the following translation equivalents.
Yin 陰 or 阴 Noun 1 (philosophy) negative / passive / female principle in nature 2 Surname Bound morpheme 1 the moon 2 shaded orientation 3 covert; concealed; hidden 4 7 negative 8 north side of a hill 9 south bank of a river 10 reverse side of a stele 11in intaglio Stative verb 1 overcast 2 sinister; treacherous
Yang 陽 or 阳 Bound morpheme 1 (Chinese philosophy) positive / active / male principle in nature 2the sun 4 in relief 5 open; overt 6 belonging to this world 7 (linguistics) masculine 8 south side of a hill 9 north bank of a river
The compound yinyang 陰陽 or 阴阳 means "yin and yang; opposites; ancient Chinese astronomy; occult arts; astrologer; geomancer; etc. ''.
The sinologist Rolf Stein etymologically translates Chinese yin 陰 "shady side (of a mountain) '' and yang 陽 "sunny side (of a mountain) '' with the uncommon English geographic terms ubac "shady side of a mountain '' and adret "sunny side of a mountain '' (which are of French origin).
Many Chinese place names or toponyms contain the word yang "sunny side '' and a few contain yin "shady side ''. In China, as elsewhere in the Northern Hemisphere, sunlight comes predominantly from the south, and thus the south face of a mountain or the north bank of a river will receive more direct sunlight than the opposite side.
Yang refers to the "south side of a hill '' in Hengyang 衡陽, which is south of Mount Heng 衡山 in Hunan province, and to the "north bank of a river '' in Luoyang 洛陽, which is located north of the Luo River 洛 河 in Henan.
Similarly, yin refers to "north side of a hill '' in Huayin 華 陰, which is north of Mount Hua 華山 in Shaanxi province.
English yin, yang, and yin - yang are familiar loanwords of Chinese origin.
The Oxford English Dictionary defines:
yin (jɪn) Also Yin, Yn. (Chinese yīn shade, feminine; the moon.)
a. In Chinese philosophy, the feminine or negative principle (characterized by dark, wetness, cold, passivity, disintegration, etc.) of the two opposing cosmic forces into which creative energy divides and whose fusion in physical matter brings the phenomenal world into being. Also attrib. or as adj., and transf. Cf. yang.
yang (jæŋ) Also Yang. (Chinese yáng yang, sun, positive, male genitals.)
a. In Chinese philosophy, the masculine or positive principle (characterized by light, warmth, dryness, activity, etc.) of the two opposing cosmic forces into which creative energy divides and whose fusion in physical matter brings the phenomenal world into being. Also attrib. or as adj. Cf. yin.
For the earliest recorded "yin and yang '' usages, the OED cites 1671 for yin and yang, 1850 for yin - yang, and 1959 for yang - yin.
In English, yang - yin (like ying - yang) occasionally occurs as a mistake or typographical error for the Chinese loanword yin - yang -- yet they are not equivalents. Chinese does have some yangyin collocations, such as 洋銀 (lit. "foreign silver '') "silver coin / dollar '', but not even the most comprehensive dictionaries (e.g., the Hanyu Da Cidian) enter yangyin * 陽 陰. While yang and yin can occur together in context, yangyin is not synonymous with yinyang. The linguistic term "irreversible binomial '' refers to a collocation of two words A-B that can not normally be reversed as B-A, for example, English cat and mouse (not * mouse and cat) and friend or foe (not * foe or friend). Similarly, the usual pattern among Chinese binomial compounds is for positive A and negative B, where the A word is dominant or privileged over B, for example, tiandi 天地 "heaven and earth '' and nannü 男女 "men and women ''. Yinyang meaning "dark and light; female and male; moon and sun '', however, is an exception. Scholars have proposed various explanations for why yinyang violates this pattern, including "linguistic convenience '' (it is easier to say yinyang than yangyin), the idea that "proto - Chinese society was matriarchal '', or perhaps, since yinyang first became prominent during the late Warring States period, this term was "purposely directed at challenging persistent cultural assumptions ''.
Needham discusses Yin and Yang together with Five Elements as part of the School of Naturalists. He says that it would be proper to begin with Yin and Yang before Five Elements because the former: "lay, as it were, at a deeper level in Nature, and were the most ultimate principles of which the ancient Chinese could conceive. But it so happens that we know a good deal more about the historical origin of the Five - Element theory than about that of the Yin and the Yang, and it will therefore be more convenient to deal with it first. '' He then discusses Zou Yan (鄒衍; 305 -- 240 BC) who is most associated with these theories. Although Yin and Yang are not mentioned in any of the surviving documents of Zou Yan, his school was known as the Yin Yang Jia (Yin and Yang School) Needham concludes "There can be very little doubt that the philosophical use of the terms began about the beginning of the - 4th century, and that the passages in older texts which mention this use are interpolations made later than that time. ''
In Daoist philosophy, dark and light, yin and yang, arrive in the Tao Te Ching at chapter 42. It becomes sensible from an initial quiescence or emptiness (wuji, sometimes symbolized by an empty circle), and continues moving until quiescence is reached again. For instance, dropping a stone in a calm pool of water will simultaneously raise waves and lower troughs between them, and this alternation of high and low points in the water will radiate outward until the movement dissipates and the pool is calm once more. Yin and yang thus are always opposite and equal qualities. Further, whenever one quality reaches its peak, it will naturally begin to transform into the opposite quality: for example, grain that reaches its full height in summer (fully yang) will produce seeds and die back in winter (fully yin) in an endless cycle.
It is impossible to talk about yin or yang without some reference to the opposite, since yin and yang are bound together as parts of a mutual whole (for example, there can not be the bottom of the foot without the top). A way to illustrate this idea is to postulate the notion of a race with only men or only women; this race would disappear in a single generation. Yet, men and women together create new generations that allow the race they mutually create (and mutually come from) to survive. The interaction of the two gives birth to things, like manhood. Yin and yang transform each other: like an undertow in the ocean, every advance is complemented by a retreat, and every rise transforms into a fall. Thus, a seed will sprout from the earth and grow upwards towards the sky -- an intrinsically yang movement. Then, when it reaches its full potential height, it will fall. Also, the growth of the top seeks light, while roots grow in darkness.
Certain catchphrases have been used to express yin and yang complementarity:
Yin is the black side with the white dot in it, and yang is the white side with the black dot in it. The relationship between yin and yang is often described in terms of sunlight playing over a mountain and a valley. Yin (literally the ' shady place ' or ' north slope ') is the dark area occluded by the mountain 's bulk, while yang (literally the ' sunny place ' or ' south slope ') is the brightly lit portion. As the sun moves across the sky, yin and yang gradually trade places with each other, revealing what was obscured and obscuring what was revealed.
Yin is characterized as slow, soft, yielding, diffuse, cold, wet, and passive; and is associated with water, earth, the moon, femininity, and nighttime.
Yang, by contrast, is fast, hard, solid, focused, hot, dry, and active; and is associated with fire, sky, the sun, masculinity and daytime.
The Yin - Yang symbol, having no "officially standardized '' rendition, has been the basis of much artistic variation, most of it "frivolous '' (that is, "merely '' artistic, with no philosophical / mystical meaning, e.g., tattoos).
Yin and yang also applies to the human body. In traditional Chinese medicine good health is directly related to the balance between yin and yang qualities within oneself. If yin and yang become unbalanced, one of the qualities is considered deficient or has vacuity.
In the I Ching, originally a divination manual of the Western Zhou period (c. 1000 -- 750 BC), yin and yang are represented by broken and solid lines: yin is broken (⚋) and yang is solid (⚊). These are then combined into trigrams, which are more yang (e.g. ☱) or more yin (e.g. ☵) depending on the number of broken and solid lines (e.g., ☰ is heavily yang, while ☷ is heavily yin), and trigrams are combined into hexagrams (e.g. ䷕ and ䷟). The relative positions and numbers of yin and yang lines within the trigrams determines the meaning of a trigram, and in hexagrams the upper trigram is considered yang with respect to the lower trigram, yin, which allows for complex depictions of interrelations.
The principle of yin and yang is represented in Taoism by the Taijitu (literally "Diagram of the Supreme Ultimate ''). The term is commonly used to mean the simple "divided circle '' form, but may refer to any of several schematic diagrams representing these principles, such as the swastika, common to Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism. Similar symbols have also appeared in other cultures, such as in Celtic art and Roman shield markings.
Taijiquan (Chinese: 太极 拳), a form of martial art, is often described as the principles of yin and yang applied to the human body and an animal body. Wu Jianquan, a famous Chinese martial arts teacher, described Taijiquan as follows:
Various people have offered different explanations for the name Taijiquan. Some have said: -- ' In terms of self - cultivation, one must train from a state of movement towards a state of stillness. Taiji comes about through the balance of yin and yang. In terms of the art of attack and defense then, in the context of the changes of full and empty, one is constantly internally latent, to not outwardly expressive, as if the yin and yang of Taiji have not yet divided apart. ' Others say: ' Every movement of Taijiquan is based on circles, just like the shape of a Taijitu. Therefore, it is called Taijiquan.
Footnotes
Works cited
See also: Hundred Schools of Thought
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india is located in which latitude and longitude | Geography of India - Wikipedia
India lies on the Indian Plate, the northern portion of the Indo - Australian Plate, whose continental crust forms the Indian subcontinent. The country is situated north of the equator between 8 ° 4 ' to 37 ° 6 ' north latitude and 68 ° 7 ' to 97 ° 25 ' east longitude. It is the seventh - largest country in the world, with a total area of 3,287,263 square kilometres (1,269,219 sq mi). India measures 3,214 km (1,997 mi) from north to south and 2,933 km (1,822 mi) from east to west. It has a land frontier of 15,106.7 km (9,387 mi) and a coastline of 7,516.6 km (4,671 mi).
On the south, India projects into and is bounded by the Indian Ocean -- - in particular, by the Arabian Sea on the west, the Lakshadweep Sea to the southwest, the Bay of Bengal on the east, and the Indian Ocean proper to the South. The Palk Strait and Gulf of Mannar separate India from Sri Lanka to its immediate southeast, and the Maldives are some 125 kilometres (78 mi) to the south of India 's Lakshadweep Islands across the Eight Degree Channel. India 's Andaman and Nicobar Islands, some 1,200 kilometres (750 mi) southeast of the mainland, share maritime borders with Myanmar, Thailand and Indonesia. Kanyakumari at 8 ° 4 ′ 41 '' N and 77 ° 55 ′ 230 '' E is the southernmost tip of the Indian mainland, while the southernmost point in India is Indira Point on Great Nicobar Island. Northernmost point which is under Indian administration is Indira Col, Siachen Glacier. India 's territorial waters extend into the sea to a distance of 12 nautical miles (13.8 mi; 22.2 km) from the coast baseline.
The northern frontiers of India are defined largely by the Himalayan mountain range, where the country borders China, Bhutan, and Nepal. Its western border with Pakistan lies in the Karakoram range, Punjab Plains, the Thar Desert and the Rann of Kutch salt marshes. In the far northeast, the Chin Hills and Kachin Hills, deeply forested mountainous regions, separate India from Burma. On the east, its border with Bangladesh is largely defined by the Khasi Hills and Mizo Hills, and the watershed region of the Indo - Gangetic Plain.
The Ganga is the longest river originating in India. The Ganga -- Brahmaputra system occupies most of northern, central, and eastern India, while the Deccan Plateau occupies most of southern India. Kanchanjhunga is the highest point, in the Indian state of Sikkim, is the highest point in India at 8,586 m (28,169 ft) and the world 's 3rd highest peak. Climate across India ranges from equatorial in the far south, to alpine and tundra in the upper reaches of the Himalayas.
India is situated entirely on the Indian Plate, a major tectonic plate that was formed when it split off from the ancient continent Gondwanaland (ancient landmass, consisting of the southern part of the supercontinent of Pangea). The Indo - Australian plate is subdivided into the Indian and Australian plates. About 90 million years ago, during the late Cretaceous Period, the Indian Plate began moving north at about 15 cm / year (6 in / yr). About 50 to 55 million years ago, in the Eocene Epoch of the Cenozoic Era, the plate collided with Asia after covering a distance of 2,000 to 3,000 km (1,243 to 1,864 mi), having moved faster than any other known plate. In 2007, German geologists determined that the Indian Plate was able to move so quickly because it is only half as thick as the other plates which formerly constituted Gondwanaland. The collision with the Eurasian Plate along the modern border between India and Nepal formed the orogenic belt that created the Tibetan Plateau and the Himalayas. As of 2009, the Indian Plate is moving northeast at 5 cm / yr (2 in / yr), while the Eurasian Plate is moving north at only 2 cm / yr (0.8 in / yr). India is thus referred to as the "fastest continent ''. This is causing the Eurasian Plate to deform, and the Indian Plate to compress at a rate of 4 cm / yr (1.6 in / yr).
India is divided into 29 states (further subdivided into districts) and 6 union territories and 1 National capital territory (I.e., Delhi).
India 's borders run a total length of 15,106.70 km (9,386.87 mi).
Its borders with Pakistan and Bangladesh were delineated according to the Radcliffe Line, which was created in 1947 during Partition of India. Its western border with Pakistan extends up to 3,323 km (2,065 mi), dividing the Punjab region and running along the boundaries of the Thar Desert and the Rann of Kutch. This border runs along the Indian states of Jammu & Kashmir, Rajasthan, Gujarat, and Punjab. Both nations delineated a Line of Control (LoC) to serve as the informal boundary between the Indian and Pakistan - administered areas of Kashmir. According to India 's claim, it also shares a 106 km (66 mi) border with Afghanistan in northwestern Kashmir, which is under Pakistani control.
India 's border with Bangladesh runs 4,096.70 km (2,545.57 mi). West Bengal, Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram are the States which share the border with Bangladesh. Before 2015, there were 92 enclaves of Bangladesh on Indian soil and 106 enclaves of India were on Bangladeshi soil. These enclaves were eventually exchanged in order to simplify the border. After the exchange, India lost roughly 40 km2 (10,000 acres) to Bangladesh.
The Line of Actual Control (LAC) is the effective border between India and the People 's Republic of China. It traverses 4,057 km along the Indian states of Jammu and Kashmir, Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh. The border with Burma (Myanmar) extends up to 1,643 km (1,021 mi) along the southern borders of India 's northeastern states viz. Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur and Mizoram. Located amidst the Himalayan range, India 's border with Bhutan runs 699 km (434 mi). Sikkim, West Bengal, Assam and Arunachal Pradesh are the States, which share the border with Bhutan. The border with Nepal runs 1,751 km (1,088 mi) along the foothills of the Himalayas in northern India. Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal and Sikkim are the States, which share the border with Nepal. The Siliguri Corridor, narrowed sharply by the borders of Bhutan, Nepal and Bangladesh, connects peninsular India with the northeastern states.
India can be divided into six physiographic regions. They are:
A great arc of mountains, consisting of the Himalayas of Nepal, Hindu Kush, and Patkai ranges define the northern Indian subcontinent. These were formed by the ongoing tectonic plates collision of the Indian and Eurasian plates. The mountains in these ranges include some of the world 's tallest mountains which act as a natural barrier to cold polar winds. They also facilitate the monsoon winds which in turn influence the climate in India. Rivers originating in these mountains flow through the fertile Indo -- Gangetic plains. These mountains are recognised by biogeographers as the boundary between two of the Earth 's great ecozones: the temperate Palearctic that covers most of Eurasia and the tropical and subtropical Indomalaya ecozone which includes the Indian subcontinent, Southeast Asia and Indonesia.
The Himalayan range is the world 's highest mountain range, with its tallest peak Mt. Everest (8,848 metres (29,029 ft)) on the Nepal -- China border. They form India 's northeastern border, separating it from northeastern Asia. They are one of the world 's youngest mountain ranges and extend almost uninterrupted for 2,500 km (1,600 mi), covering an area of 500,000 km (190,000 sq mi). The Himalayas extend from Jammu and Kashmir in the north to Arunachal Pradesh in the east. These states along with Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, and Sikkim lie mostly in the Himalayan region. Numerous Himalayan peaks rise over 7,000 m (23,000 ft) and the snow line ranges between 6,000 m (20,000 ft) in Sikkim to around 3,000 m (9,800 ft) in Kashmir. Kanchenjunga -- on the Sikkim -- Nepal border -- is the highest point in the area administered by India. Most peaks in the Himalayas remain snowbound throughout the year. The Himalayas act as a barrier to the frigid katabatic winds flowing down from Central Asia. Thus, North India is kept warm or only mildly cooled during winter; in summer, the same phenomenon makes India relatively hot.
Kutch Kathiawar plateau is located in Gujarat state.
The Indo - Gangetic plains, also known as the Great Plains are large alluvial plains dominated by three main rivers, the Indus, Ganges, and Brahmaputra. They run parallel to the Himalayas, from Jammu and Kashmir in the west to Assam in the east, and drain most of northern and eastern India. The plains encompass an area of 700,000 km (270,000 sq mi). The major rivers in this region are the Ganges, Indus, and Brahmaputra along with their main tributaries -- Yamuna, Chambal, Gomti, Ghaghara, Kosi, Sutlej, Ravi, Beas, Chenab, and Tista -- as well as the rivers of the Ganges Delta, such as the Meghna.
The great plains are sometimes classified into four divisions:
The Indo - Gangetic belt is the world 's most extensive expanse of uninterrupted alluvium formed by the deposition of silt by the numerous rivers. The plains are flat making it conducive for irrigation through canals. The area is also rich in ground water sources. The plains are one of the world 's most intensely farmed areas. The main crops grown are rice and wheat, which are grown in rotation. Other important crops grown in the region include maize, sugarcane and cotton. The Indo - Gangetic plains rank among the world 's most densely populated areas.
The Thar Desert (also known as the deserts) is by some calculations the world 's seventh largest desert, by some others the tenth. It forms a significant portion of western India and covers an area of 200,000 to 238,700 km (77,200 to 92,200 sq mi). The desert continues into Pakistan as the Cholistan Desert. Most of the Thar Desert is situated in Rajasthan, covering 61 % of its geographic area.
About 10 percent of this region comprises sand dunes, and the remaining 90 percent consist of craggy rock forms, compacted salt - lake bottoms, and interdunal and fixed dune areas. Annual temperatures can range from 0 ° C (32 ° F) in the winter to over 50 ° C (122 ° F) during the summer. Most of the rainfall received in this region is associated with the short July -- September southwest monsoon that brings 100 to 500 mm (3.9 to 19.7 in) of precipitation. Water is scarce and occurs at great depths, ranging from 30 to 120 metres (98 to 394 ft) below the ground level. Rainfall is precarious and erratic, ranging from below 120 mm (4.7 in) in the extreme west to 375 mm (14.8 in) eastward. The only river in this region is Luni. The soils of the arid region are generally sandy to sandy - loam in texture. The consistency and depth vary as per the topographical features. The low - lying loams are heavier may have a hard pan of clay, calcium carbonate or gypsum.
In western India, the Kutch region in Gujarat and Koyna in Maharashtra are classified as a Zone IV region (high risk) for earthquakes. The Kutch city of Bhuj was the epicentre of the 2001 Gujarat earthquake, which claimed the lives of more than 1,337 people and injured 166,836 while destroying or damaging near a million homes. The 1993 Latur earthquake in Maharashtra killed 7,928 people and injured 30,000. Other areas have a moderate to low risk of an earthquake occurring.
(The Eastern Coastal Plain is a wide stretch of land lying between the Eastern Ghats and the oceanic boundary of India. It stretches from Tamil Nadu in the south to West Bengal in the east. The Mahanadi, Godavari, Kaveri, and Krishna rivers drain these plains. The temperature in the coastal regions often exceeds 30 ° C (86 ° F), and is coupled with high levels of humidity. The region receives both the northeast monsoon and southwest monsoon rains.) The southwest monsoon splits into two branches, the Bay of Bengal branch and the Arabian Sea branch. (The Bay of Bengal branch moves northwards crossing northeast India in early June. The Arabian Sea branch moves northwards and discharges much of its rain on the windward side of Western Ghats. Annual rainfall in this region averages between 1,000 and 3,000 mm (39 and 118 in). The width of the plains varies between 100 and 130 km (62 and 81 mi). The plains are divided into six regions -- the Mahanadi delta, the southern Andhra Pradesh plain, the Krishna - Godavari deltas, the Kanyakumari coast, the Coromandel Coast, and sandy coastal).
The Western Coastal Plain is a narrow strip of land sandwiched between the Western Ghats and the Arabian Sea, ranging from 50 to 100 km (31 to 62 mi) in width. It extends from Gujarat in the north and extends through Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, and Kerala. Numerous rivers and backwaters inundate the region. Mostly originating in the Western Ghats, the rivers are fast - flowing, usually perennial, and empty into estuaries. Major rivers flowing into the sea are the Tapi, Narmada, Mandovi and Zuari. Vegetation is mostly deciduous, but the Malabar Coast moist forests constitute a unique ecoregion. The Western Coastal Plain can be divided into two parts, the Konkan and the Malabar Coast.
(The Lakshadweep and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands are India 's two major island formations and are classified as union territories.
The Lakshadweep Islands lie 200 to 440 km (120 to 270 mi) off the coast of Kerala in the Arabian sea with an area of 32 km (12 sq mi). They consist of twelve atolls, three reefs, and five submerged banks, with a total of about 35 islands and islets.)
(The Andaman and Nicobar Islands are located between 6 ° and 14 ° north latitude and 92 ° and 94 ° east longitude. They consist of 572 islands, lying in the Bay of Bengal near the Myanma coast running in a North - South axis for approximately 910 km. They are located 1,255 km (780 mi) from Kolkata (Calcutta) and 193 km (120 mi) from Cape Negrais in Burma. The territory consists of two island groups, the Andaman Islands and the Nicobar Islands. The Andaman and Nicobar Islands consist of 572 islands which run in a North - South axis for around 910 km. The Andaman group has 325 islands which cover an area of 6,170 km2 (2,382 sq mi) while the Nicobar group has only 247 islands with an area of 1,765 km2 (681 sq mi). India 's only active volcano, Barren Island is situated here. It last erupted in 2017. The Narcondum is a dormant volcano and there is a mud volcano at Baratang. Indira Point, India 's southernmost land point, is situated in the Nicobar islands at 6 ° 45'10 '' N and 93 ° 49'36 '' E, and lies just 189 km (117 mi) from the Indonesian island of Sumatra, to the southeast. The highest point is Mount Thullier at 642 m (2,106 ft).
Other significant islands in India include Diu, a former Portuguese colony; Majuli, a river island of the Brahmaputra; Elephanta in Bombay Harbour; and Sriharikota, a barrier island in Andhra Pradesh. Salsette Island is India 's most populous island on which the city of Mumbai (Bombay) is located. Forty - two islands in the Gulf of Kutch constitute the Marine National Park.
India has around 14,500 km of inland navigable waterways. There are twelve rivers which are classified as major rivers, with the total catchment area exceeding 2,528,000 km (976,000 sq mi). All major rivers of India originate from one of the three main watersheds:
The Himalayan river networks are snow - fed and have a perennial supply throughout the year. The other two river systems are dependent on the monsoons and shrink into rivulets during the dry season. The Himalayan rivers that flow westward into Punjab are the Indus, Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas, and Sutlej.
(The Ganges - Brahmaputra - Meghana system has the largest catchment area of about 1,600,000 km (620,000 sq mi). The Ganges Basin alone has a catchment of about 1,100,000 km (420,000 sq mi). The Ganges originates from the Gangotri Glacier in Uttarakhand. It flows southeast, draining into the Bay of Bengal). (The Yamuna and Gomti rivers also arise in the western Himalayas and join the Ganges in the plains. The Brahmaputra originates in Tibet, China, where it is known as the Yarlung Tsangpo River) (or "Tsangpo ''). It enters India in the far - eastern state of Arunachal Pradesh, then flows west through Assam. The Brahmaputra merges with the Ganges in Bangladesh, where it is known as the Jamuna River.
The Chambal, another tributary of the Ganges, via the Yamuna, originates from the Vindhya - Satpura watershed. The river flows eastward. Westward - flowing rivers from this watershed are the Narmada and Tapti, which drain into the Arabian Sea in Gujarat. The river network that flows from east to west constitutes 10 % of the total outflow.
(The Western Ghats are the source of all Deccan rivers, which include the through Godavari River, Krishna River and Kaveri River, all draining into the Bay of Bengal. These rivers constitute 20 % of India 's total outflow).
The heavy southwest monsoon rains cause the Brahmaputra and other rivers to distend their banks, often flooding surrounding areas. Though they provide rice paddy farmers with a largely dependable source of natural irrigation and fertilisation, such floods have killed thousands of people and tend to cause displacements of people in such areas.
Major gulfs include the Gulf of Cambay, Gulf of Kutch, and the Gulf of Mannar. Straits include the Palk Strait, which separates India from Sri Lanka; the Ten Degree Channel, which separates the Andamans from the Nicobar Islands; ' and the Eight Degree Channel, which separates the Laccadive and Amindivi Islands from the Minicoy Island to the south. Important capes include the Kanyakumari (formerly called Cape Comorin), the southern tip of mainland India; Indira Point, the southernmost point in India (on Great Nicobar Island); Rama 's Bridge, and Point Calimere. The Arabian Sea lies to the west of India, the Bay of Bengal and the Indian Ocean lie to the east and south, respectively. Smaller seas include the Laccadive Sea and the Andaman Sea. There are four coral reefs in India, located in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, the Gulf of Mannar, Lakshadweep, and the Gulf of Kutch. Important lakes include Sambhar Lake, the country 's largest saltwater lake in Rajasthan, Vembanad Lake in Kerala, Kolleru Lake in Andhra Pradesh, Loktak Lake in Manipur, Dal Lake in Kashmir, Chilka Lake (lagoon lake) in Orrisa, and Sasthamkotta Lake in Kerala.
India 's wetland ecosystem is widely distributed from the cold and arid located in the Ladakh region of Jammu and Kashmir, and those with the wet and humid climate of peninsular India. Most of the wetlands are directly or indirectly linked to river networks. The Indian government has identified a total of 71 wetlands for conservation and are part of sanctuaries and national parks. Mangrove forests are present all along the Indian coastline in sheltered estuaries, creeks, backwaters, salt marshes and mudflats. The mangrove area covers a total of 4,461 km (1,722 sq mi), which comprises 7 % of the world 's total mangrove cover. Prominent mangrove covers are located in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, the Sundarbans delta, the Gulf of Kutch and the deltas of the Mahanadi, Godavari and Krishna rivers. Parts of Maharashtra, Karnataka and Kerala also have large mangrove covers.
The Sundarbans delta is home to the largest mangrove forest in the world. It lies at the mouth of the Ganges and spreads across areas of Bangladesh and West Bengal. The Sundarbans is a UNESCO World Heritage Site, but is identified separately as the Sundarbans (Bangladesh) and the Sundarbans National Park (India). The Sundarbans are intersected by a complex network of tidal waterways, mudflats and small islands of salt - tolerant mangrove forests. The area is known for its diverse fauna, being home to a large variety of species of birds, spotted deer, crocodiles and snakes. Its most famous inhabitant is the Bengal tiger. It is estimated that there are now 400 Bengal tigers and about 30,000 spotted deer in the area.
The Rann of Kutch is a marshy region located in northwestern Gujarat and the bordering Sindh province of Pakistan. It occupies a total area of 27,900 km (10,800 sq mi). The region was originally a part of the Arabian Sea. Geologic forces such as earthquakes resulted in the damming up of the region, turning it into a large saltwater lagoon. This area gradually filled with silt thus turning it into a seasonal salt marsh. During the monsoons, the area turn into a shallow marsh, often flooding to knee - depth. After the monsoons, the region turns dry and becomes parched.
Based on the Köppen system, India hosts six major climatic subtypes, ranging from arid desert in the west, alpine tundra and glaciers in the north, and humid tropical regions supporting rainforests in the southwest and the island territories. The nation has four seasons: winter (January -- February), summer (March -- May), a monsoon (rainy) season (June -- September) and a post-monsoon period (October -- December) '.
The Himalayas act as a barrier to the frigid katabatic winds flowing down from Central Asia. ' Thus, North India is kept warm or only mildly cooled during winter; in summer, the same phenomenon makes India relatively hot. Although the Tropic of Cancer -- the boundary between the tropics and subtropics -- passes through the middle of India, the whole country is considered to be tropical.
Summer lasts between March and June in most parts of India. Temperatures can exceed 40 ° C (104 ° F) during the day. The coastal regions exceed 30 ° C (86 ° F) coupled with high levels of humidity. In the Thar desert area temperatures can exceed 45 ° C (113 ° F). The rain - bearing monsoon clouds are attracted to the low - pressure system created by the Thar Desert. The southwest monsoon splits into two arms, the Bay of Bengal arm and the Arabian Sea arm. The Bay of Bengal arm moves northwards crossing northeast India in early June. The Arabian Sea arm moves northwards and deposits much of its rain on the windward side of Western Ghats. Winters in peninsula India see mild to warm days and cool nights. Further north the temperature is cooler. Temperatures in some parts of the Indian plains sometimes fall below freezing. Most of northern India is plagued by fog during this season. The highest temperature recorded in India was 51 ° C (124 ° F) in Phalodi, Rajasthan. The lowest was − 45 ° C (− 49 ° F) in Kashmir.
India 's geological features are classified based on their era of formation. The Precambrian formations of Cudappah and Vindhyan systems are spread out over the eastern and southern states. A small part of this period is spread over western and central India. The Paleozoic formations from the Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian and Devonian system are found in the Western Himalaya region in Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh. The Mesozoic Deccan Traps formation is seen over most of the northern Deccan; they are believed to be the result of sub-aerial volcanic activity. The Trap soil is black in colour and conducive to agriculture. The Carboniferous system, Permian System and Triassic systems are seen in the western Himalayas. The Jurassic system is seen in the western Himalayas and Rajasthan.
Tertiary imprints are seen in parts of Manipur, Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh and along the Himalayan belt. The Cretaceous system is seen in central India in the Vindhyas and part of the Indo - Gangetic plains. The Gondowana system is seen in the Narmada River area in the Vindhyas and Satpuras. The Eocene system is seen in the western Himalayas and Assam. Oligocene formations are seen in Kutch and Assam. The Pleistocene system is found over central India. The Andaman and Nicobar Island are thought to have been formed in this era by volcanoes. The Himalayas were formed by the convergence and deformation of the Indo - Australian and Eurasian Plates. Their continued convergence raises the height of the Himalayas by 1 cm each year.
Soils in India can be classified into 8 categories: alluvial, black, red, laterite, forest, arid & desert, saline & alkaline and peaty & organic soils. Alluvial soil constitute the largest soil group in India, constituting 80 % of the total land surface. It is derived from the deposition of silt carried by rivers and are found in the Great Northern plains from Punjab to the Assam valley. Alluvial soil are generally fertile but they lack nitrogen and tend to be phosphoric. National Disaster Management Authority says that 60 % of Indian landmass is prone to earthquake and 8 % susceptible to cyclone risks.
Black soil are well developed in the Deccan lava region of Maharashtra, Gujarat, and Madhya Pradesh. These contain high percentage of clay and are moisture retentive. Red soil are found in Tamil Nadu, Karnataka plateau, Andhra plateau, Chota Nagpur plateau and the Aravallis. These are deficient in nitrogen, phosphorus and humus. Laterite soils are formed in tropical regions with heavy rainfall. Heavy rainfall results in leaching out all soluble material of top layer of soil. These are generally found in Western ghats, Eastern ghats and hilly areas of northeastern states that receive heavy rainfall. Forest soils occur on the slopes of mountains and hills in Himalayas, Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats. These generally consist of large amounts of dead leaves and other organic matter called humus.
India 's total renewable water resources are estimated at 1,907.8 km3 / year. Its annual supply of usable and replenshable groundwater amounts to 350 billion cubic metres. Only 35 % of groundwater resources are being utilised. About 44 million tonnes of cargo is moved annually through the country 's major rivers and waterways. Groundwater supplies 40 % of water in India 's irrigation canals. 56 % of the land is arable and used for agriculture. Black soils are moisture - retentive and are preferred for dry farming and growing cotton, linseed, etc. Forest soils are used for tea and coffee plantations. Red soil have a wide diffusion of iron content.
Most of India 's estimated 5.4 billion barrels (860,000,000 m) in oil reserves are located in the Mumbai High, upper Assam, Cambay, the Krishna - Godavari and Cauvery basins. India possesses about seventeen trillion cubic feet of natural gas in Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat and Odisha. Uranium is mined in Andhra Pradesh. India has 400 medium - to - high enthalpy thermal springs for producing geothermal energy in seven "provinces '' -- the Himalayas, Sohana, Cambay, the Narmada - Tapti delta, the Godavari delta and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands (specifically the volcanic Barren Island.)
India is the world 's biggest producer of mica blocks and mica splittings. India ranks second amongst the world 's largest producers of barites and chromites. The Pleistocene system is rich in minerals. India is the third - largest coal producer in the world and ranks fourth in the production of iron ore. It is the fifth - largest producer of bauxite, second largest of crude steel as of February 2018 replacing Japan, the seventh - largest of manganese ore and the eighth - largest of aluminium. India has significant sources of titanium ore, diamonds and limestone. India possesses 24 % of the world 's known and economically viable thorium, which is mined along shores of Kerala. Gold had been mined in the now - defunct Kolar Gold Fields in Karnataka.
The only land area antipodal to India is Easter Island, which is antipodal to the western corner of Rajasthan. The triangular island closely reflects the triangle between the cities of Mokal, Kuchchri, and Habur. Habur corresponds to Hanga Roa, and Mokal to the eastern cape.
Photo Gallery
Tso Moriri lake, Ladakh
Valley of flowers, Uttarakhand
Indo - Gangetic Plain
Arawali Hills, near Ajmer
Madhya Pradesh
Shola in western ghats
Anaimudi, the tallest mountain in South India
Backwater in Kerala
Minicoy island, Lakshadweep
Andaman and Nicobar
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where is olympia horse show held in london | Olympia London International Horse Show - wikipedia
Olympia London International Horse Show is one of the UK 's biggest equestrian competitions. Many of the top Show - Jumping riders in the world compete annually as well as Britain 's finest, namely Ellen Whitaker, Tim Stockdale, Ben Maher and many more.
Held in the Olympia exhibition centre, London, Olympia celebrated its 100th Anniversary in 2007 as ' one of Europe 's oldest Equine Competitions '. In 2010 it was held as CSI 5 * - W (Show Jumping World Cup event) and CDI - W (Dressage World Cup event).
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a natural chemical which controls a specific body function is called a(n) | Hormone - wikipedia
A hormone (from the Greek participle "ὁρμῶ '', "to set in motion, urge on '') is any member of a class of signaling molecules produced by glands in multicellular organisms that are transported by the circulatory system to target distant organs to regulate physiology and behaviour. Hormones have diverse chemical structures, mainly of 3 classes: eicosanoids, steroids, and amino acid / protein derivatives (amines, peptides, and proteins). The glands that secrete hormones comprise the endocrine signaling system. The term hormone is sometimes extended to include chemicals produced by cells that affect the same cell (autocrine or intracrine signalling) or nearby cells (paracrine signalling).
Hormones are used to communicate between organs and tissues for physiological regulation and behavioral activities, such as digestion, metabolism, respiration, tissue function, sensory perception, sleep, excretion, lactation, stress, growth and development, movement, reproduction, and mood. Hormones affect distant cells by binding to specific receptor proteins in the target cell resulting in a change in cell function. When a hormone binds to the receptor, it results in the activation of a signal transduction pathway. This may lead to cell type - specific responses that include rapid non-genomic effects or slower genomic responses where the hormones acting through their receptors activate gene transcription resulting in increased expression of target proteins. Amino acid -- based hormones (amines and peptide or protein hormones) are water - soluble and act on the surface of target cells via second messengers; steroid hormones, being lipid - soluble, move through the plasma membranes of target cells (both cytoplasmic and nuclear) to act within their nuclei.
Hormone secretion may occur in many tissues. Endocrine glands are the cardinal example, but specialized cells in various other organs also secrete hormones. Hormone secretion occurs in response to specific biochemical signals from a wide range of regulatory systems. For instance, serum calcium concentration affects parathyroid hormone synthesis; blood sugar (serum glucose concentration) affects insulin synthesis; and because the outputs of the stomach and exocrine pancreas (the amounts of gastric juice and pancreatic juice) become the input of the small intestine, the small intestine secretes hormones to stimulate or inhibit the stomach and pancreas based on how busy it is. Regulation of hormone synthesis of gonadal hormones, adrenocortical hormones, and thyroid hormones is often dependent on complex sets of direct influence and feedback interactions involving the hypothalamic - pituitary - adrenal (HPA), - gonadal (HPG), and - thyroid (HPT) axes.
Upon secretion, certain hormones, including protein hormones and catecholamines, are water - soluble and are thus readily transported through the circulatory system. Other hormones, including steroid and thyroid hormones, are lipid - soluble; to allow for their widespread distribution, these hormones must bond to carrier plasma glycoproteins (e.g., thyroxine - binding globulin (TBG)) to form ligand - protein complexes. Some hormones are completely active when released into the bloodstream (as is the case for insulin and growth hormones), while others are prohormones that must be activated in specific cells through a series of activation steps that are commonly highly regulated. The endocrine system secretes hormones directly into the bloodstream typically into fenestrated capillaries, whereas the exocrine system secretes its hormones indirectly using ducts. Hormones with paracrine function diffuse through the interstitial spaces to nearby target tissue.
Hormonal signaling involves the following steps:
Hormone cells are typically of a specialized cell type, residing within a particular endocrine gland, such as the thyroid gland, ovaries, and testes. Hormones exit their cell of origin via exocytosis or another means of membrane transport. The hierarchical model is an oversimplification of the hormonal signaling process. Cellular recipients of a particular hormonal signal may be one of several cell types that reside within a number of different tissues, as is the case for insulin, which triggers a diverse range of systemic physiological effects. Different tissue types may also respond differently to the same hormonal signal.
The rate of hormone biosynthesis and secretion is often regulated by a homeostatic negative feedback control mechanism. Such a mechanism depends on factors that influence the metabolism and excretion of hormones. Thus, higher hormone concentration alone can not trigger the negative feedback mechanism. Negative feedback must be triggered by overproduction of an "effect '' of the hormone.
Hormone secretion can be stimulated and inhibited by:
One special group of hormones is the tropic hormones that stimulate the hormone production of other endocrine glands. For example, thyroid - stimulating hormone (TSH) causes growth and increased activity of another endocrine gland, the thyroid, which increases output of thyroid hormones.
To release active hormones quickly into the circulation, hormone biosynthetic cells may produce and store biologically inactive hormones in the form of pre - or prohormones. These can then be quickly converted into their active hormone form in response to a particular stimulus.
Eicosanoids are considered to act as local hormones. They are considered to be "local '' because they possess specific effects on target cells close to their site of formation. They also have a rapid degradation cycle, making sure they do not reach distal sites within the body.
Most hormones initiate a cellular response by initially binding to either cell membrane associated or intracellular receptors. A cell may have several different receptor types that recognize the same hormone but activate different signal transduction pathways, or a cell may have several different receptors that recognize different hormones and activate the same biochemical pathway.
Receptors for most peptide as well as many eicosanoid hormones are embedded in the plasma membrane at the surface of the cell and the majority of these receptors belong to the G protein - coupled receptor (GPCR) class of seven alpha helix transmembrane proteins. The interaction of hormone and receptor typically triggers a cascade of secondary effects within the cytoplasm of the cell, often involving phosphorylation or dephosphorylation of various other cytoplasmic proteins, changes in ion channel permeability, or increased concentrations of intracellular molecules that may act as secondary messengers (e.g., cyclic AMP). Some protein hormones also interact with intracellular receptors located in the cytoplasm or nucleus by an intracrine mechanism.
For steroid or thyroid hormones, their receptors are located inside the cell within the cytoplasm of the target cell. These receptors belong to the nuclear receptor family of ligand - activated transcription factors. To bind their receptors, these hormones must first cross the cell membrane. They can do so because they are lipid - soluble. The combined hormone - receptor complex then moves across the nuclear membrane into the nucleus of the cell, where it binds to specific DNA sequences, regulating the expression of certain genes, and thereby increasing the levels of the proteins encoded by these genes. However, it has been shown that not all steroid receptors are located inside the cell. Some are associated with the plasma membrane.
Hormones have the following effects on the body:
A hormone may also regulate the production and release of other hormones. Hormone signals control the internal environment of the body through homeostasis.
As hormones are defined functionally, not structurally, they may have diverse chemical structures. Hormones occur in multicellular organisms (plants, animals, fungi, brown algae and red algae). These compounds occur also in unicellular organisms, and may act as signaling molecules, but there is no consensus if, in this case, they can be called hormones.
Vertebrate hormones fall into three main chemical classes:
Compared with vertebrates, insects and crustaceans possess a number of structurally unusual hormones such as the juvenile hormone, a sesquiterpenoid.
Plant hormones include abscisic acid, auxin, cytokinin, ethylene, and gibberellin.
Many hormones and their structural and functional analogs are used as medication. The most commonly prescribed hormones are estrogens and progestogens (as methods of hormonal contraception and as HRT), thyroxine (as levothyroxine, for hypothyroidism) and steroids (for autoimmune diseases and several respiratory disorders). Insulin is used by many diabetics. Local preparations for use in otolaryngology often contain pharmacologic equivalents of adrenaline, while steroid and vitamin D creams are used extensively in dermatological practice.
A "pharmacologic dose '' or "supraphysiological dose '' of a hormone is a medical usage referring to an amount of a hormone far greater than naturally occurs in a healthy body. The effects of pharmacologic doses of hormones may be different from responses to naturally occurring amounts and may be therapeutically useful, though not without potentially adverse side effects. An example is the ability of pharmacologic doses of glucocorticoids to suppress inflammation.
At the neurological level, behavior can be inferred based on: hormone concentrations; hormone - release patterns; the numbers and locations of hormone receptors; and the efficiency of hormone receptors for those involved in gene transcription. Not only do hormones influence behavior, but also behavior and the environment influence hormones. Thus, a feedback loop is formed. For example, behavior can affect hormones, which in turn can affect behavior, which in turn can affect hormones, and so on.
Three broad stages of reasoning may be used when determining hormone - behavior interactions:
There are various clear distinctions between hormones and neurotransmitters:
Hormone transport and the involvement of binding proteins is an essential aspect when considering the function of hormones. There are several benefits with the formation of a complex with a binding protein: the effective half - life of the bound hormone is increased; a reservoir of bound hormones is created, which evens the variations in concentration of unbound hormones (bound hormones will replace the unbound hormones when these are eliminated).
The discovery of hormones and endocrine signaling occurred during studies of how the digestive system regulates its activities, as explained at Secretin § Discovery.
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what is the full form of icu in hospital | Intensive care unit - wikipedia
An intensive care unit (ICU), also known as an intensive therapy unit or intensive treatment unit (ITU) or critical care unit (CCU), is a special department of a hospital or health care facility that provides intensive treatment medicine.
Intensive care units cater to patients with severe and life - threatening illnesses and injuries, which require constant, close monitoring and support from specialist equipment and medications in order to ensure normal bodily functions. They are staffed by highly trained doctors and nurses who specialise in caring for critically ill patients. ICUs are also distinguished from normal hospital wards by a higher staff - to - patient ratio and access to advanced medical resources and equipment that is not routinely available elsewhere. Common conditions that are treated within ICUs include acute (or adult) respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), trauma, multiple organ failure and sepsis.
Patients may be transferred directly to an intensive care unit from an emergency department if required, or from a ward if they rapidly deteriorate, or immediately after surgery if the surgery is very invasive and the patient is at high risk of complications.
In 1854, Florence Nightingale left for a Crimean War, where triage, used to separate seriously wounded soldiers from the less - seriously wounded, was observed. Until recently, it was reported that Nightingale reduced mortality from 40 % to 2 % on the battlefield. Although this was not the case, her experiences during the war formed the foundation for her later discovery of the importance of sanitary conditions in hospitals, a critical component of intensive care. In 1950, anesthesiologist Peter Safar established the concept of "Advanced Support of Life '', keeping patients sedated and ventilated in an intensive care environment. Safar is considered to be the first practitioner of intensive care medicine as a speciality. In response to a polio epidemic (where many patients required constant ventilation and surveillance), Bjørn Aage Ibsen established the first intensive care unit in Copenhagen in 1953. The first application of this idea in the United States was in 1955 by Dr. William Mosenthal, a surgeon at the Dartmouth - Hitchcock Medical Center. In the 1960s, the importance of cardiac arrhythmias as a source of morbidity and mortality in myocardial infarctions (heart attacks) was recognized. This led to the routine use of cardiac monitoring in ICUs, especially after heart attacks.
Hospitals may have ICUs that cater to a specific medical speciality or patient, such as those listed below:
A specialized ambulance with the staff and equipment to provide on - scene Advanced Life Support resuscitation and intensive care during transport. In the Anglo American model of pre-hospital care MICUs are generally paramedic crewed. In the Franco German model MICU crews are usually a specialist nurse and doctor. Some systems use a mix of the two models.
Common equipment in an ICU includes mechanical ventilators to assist breathing through an endotracheal tube or a tracheostomy tube; cardiac monitors including those problems; equipment for the constant monitoring of bodily functions; a web of intravenous lines, feeding tubes, nasogastric tubes, suction pumps, drains, and catheters; and a wide array of drugs to treat the primary condition (s) of hospitalization. Medically induced comas, analgesics, and induced sedation are common ICU tools needed and used to reduce pain and prevent secondary infections.
The available data suggests a relation between ICU volume and quality of care for mechanically ventilated patients. After adjustment for severity of illnesses, demographic variables, and characteristics of different ICUs (including staffing by intensivists), higher ICU staffing was significantly associated with lower ICU and hospital mortality rates. A ratio of 2 patients to 1 nurse is recommended for a medical ICU, which contrasts to the ratio of 4: 1 or 5: 1 typically seen on medical floors. This varies from country to country, though; e.g., in Australia and the United Kingdom most ICUs are staffed on a 2: 1 basis (for high - dependency patients who require closer monitoring or more intensive treatment than a hospital ward can offer) or on a 1: 1 basis for patients requiring very intensive support and monitoring; for example, a patient on a mechanical ventilator with associated anaesthetics or sedation such as propofol, midazolam and use of strong analgesics such as morphine, fentanyl and / or remifentanil.
In the ICU, international guidelines recommend that every patient gets checked for delirium every day (usually twice or more a day) using a validated clinical tool. The two most widely used are the Confusion Assessment Method for the ICU (CAM - ICU) and the Intensive Care Delirium Screening Checklist (ICDSC). There are translations of these tools in over 20 languages and they are used globally in many thousands of ICUs.
In the United States, up to 20 % of hospital beds can be labelled as intensive - care beds; in the United Kingdom, intensive care usually will comprise only up to 2 % of total beds. This high disparity is attributed to admission of patients in the UK only when considered the most severely ill.
Intensive care is an expensive healthcare service. A recent study conducted in the United States found, hospital stays that involved ICU services were 2.5 times more costly than other hospital stays.
In the United Kingdom, the average cost of funding an intensive care unit is:
Some hospitals have installed teleconferencing systems that allow doctors and nurses at a central facility (either in the same building, at a central location serving several local hospitals, or in rural locations another more urban facility) to collaborate with on - site staff and speak with patients (a form of telemedicine). This is variously called an eICU, virtual ICU, or tele - ICU. Remote staff typically have access to vital signs from live monitoring equipment, and to electronic health records so they can get a broader view of a patient 's medical history. Often bedside and remote staff have met in person and may rotate responsibilities. Such systems allow hospitals to double - check that correct procedures are being followed for the patients most vulnerable to mistakes, and to use access expertise remotely to keep patients that would otherwise have to be transferred to a larger facility, and have demonstrated a significant decrease in mortality.
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when does the full moon party happen in thailand | Full Moon Party - wikipedia
The Full Moon Party is an all - night beach party that originated in Haad Rin on the island of Ko Pha Ngan, Thailand on the night of, before or after every full moon. It is mostly attended by tourists.
The first Full Moon Party was improvised at a Paradise Bungalows on the beach in 1988, for giving thanks to about 20 -- 30 travelers. The parties gained fame through word of mouth, and the event now draws a crowd of about 5,000 -- 30,000 every full moon evening. The party carries on until the sun rises the next day. The bars on the sunrise beach of Haad Rin town stay open and play music such as psychedelic trance, R&B, drum and bass, house, dance and reggae. The modern event has become a part of the itinerary of many travellers to Southeast Asia.
The success of the Full Moon Party prompted the creation of "Half Moon '', "Black (sic. New) Moon '', and other parties. The ruling military government in late - 2014 banned all but the Full Moon Party, the application of sweeping edicts such as this, a proven method of levering the secondary party organizers and local business people adhoc into garnishing further contributions to said administrative coffers. but the 2014 edict may not have been observed by local authorities, given that, as of 5 April 2015, all parties except the Full Moon Party were again banned on Ko Pha Ngan. This is to stop the noise pollution which has become a constant source of irritation for the islanders. The ban was ordered by Pha Ngan district chief officer, Mr Krirkkrai Songthani, after a meeting with local leaders on 3 April to discuss complaints from many residents about the various parties which are held up to 25 times a month at one coconut plantation or another on the island. However, these bans are only ever short lived, and lapse once they have served their unstated purpose. Allowing the re-proliferation of parties. Given the junta 's stated goal of attracting higher - class (wealthier) tourists, it is unclear how much longer the Full Moon Party will be permitted to continue. Already, the Tourist Authority of Thailand (TAT) webpage for Ko Pha Ngan barely makes mention of the Full Moon Party. A police colonel summed up the attitude of the new government when he said, "The sort of tourist that comes here to drink too much and take drugs are not the type that Thailand wants. ''
The Full Moon Party takes place every month throughout the year. Its attractions include fire skipping ropes, alcohol "buckets '', and drugs. There is a very wide spectrum of music ranging from trance, to drum and bass, to reggae. The party takes place in many clubs along the Haad Rin beach.
However the Full Moon Party in October 2017, and all other parties and music activities on Koh Phangan, was cancelled in respect for the cremation ceremony for the late king Bhumibol Adulyadej, October 25 to 29.
Full Moon Party schedule for 2018
Although drugs are consumed by many partygoers, drug laws are strict and police enforcement is stepped up during the parties. There are undercover police on patrol and even the drug dealers themselves may report drug users to police. In recent years, there has been an increasing number of assaults and robberies at the party and in bars in the surrounding area, leading the British government to officially warn tourists to exercise caution at the Full Moon Parties. Break - ins at hotel bungalows while partygoers are away from their rooms sometimes occur as well. At the party there are lots of broken beer bottles and cigarettes. Every month many partygoers cut and / or burn their feet and legs at the Full Moon Party, which is preventable with appropriate footwear.
On New Years Eve 2012, British tourist Stephen Ashton was killed by a stray bullet.
On New Years Eve 2016, The crowd was showered in firework embers at midnight causing minor burns and stampede of panicked party goers.
The Full Moon Party has been featured in films such as The Beach, Last Stop for Paul, and the Thai film Hormones. It was also featured in the first episode of the Comedy Central TV show Gerhard Reinke 's Wanderlust. In 2011, the island 's parties featured on Tourism and the Truth: Stacey Dooley Investigates, a documentary investigating the negative impacts of tourism on local people and the economy. It was featured in episode four of E4 's comedy - drama series Gap Year.
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who protects clients interests to the extent of the law | Legal professional privilege - wikipedia
In common law jurisdictions, legal professional privilege protects all communications between a professional legal adviser (a solicitor, barrister or attorney) and his or her clients from being disclosed without the permission of the client. The privilege is that of the client and not that of the lawyer.
The purpose behind this legal principle is to protect an individual 's ability to access the justice system by encouraging complete disclosure to legal advisers without the fear that any disclosure of those communications may prejudice the client in the future.
The common law principle of legal professional privilege is of extremely long standing. The earliest recorded instance of the principle in English case - law dates from 1577 in the case of Berd v Lovelace the full report of which states:
Thomas Hawtry, gentleman, was served with a subpoena to testify his knowledge touching the cause in variance; and made oath that he hath been, and yet is a solicitor in this suit, and hath received several fees of the defendant; which being informed to the Master of the Rolls, it is ordered that the said Thomas Hawtry shall not be compelled to be deposed, touching the same; and that he shall be in no danger of any contempt, touching the not executing of the same process.
The principle originated as protection for individuals when accessing the knowledge and legal resources available to a lawyer and was said to stem from the "oath and honour '' of the lawyer, a sort of special contractual relationship. It was based on the fact that the ordinary citizen could not safely navigate the complexities of the law and justice system without some assistance. However, without protection the quality of the advice would suffer as clients would be discouraged from making full disclosure to their legal representatives. As Lord Brougham put it in Greenough v Gaskell (1833):
The foundation of this rule is not difficult to discover. It is not (as has sometimes been said) on account of any particular importance which the law attributes to the business of legal professors, or any particular disposition to afford them protection... But it is out of regard to the interests of justice, which can not be upholden, and to the administration of justice, which can not go on without the aid of men skilled in jurisprudence, in the practice of the courts, and in those matters affecting rights and obligations which form the subject of all judicial proceedings. If the privilege did not exist at all, every one would be thrown upon his own legal resources, deprived of professional assistance, a man would not venture to consult any skilful person, or would only dare tell his counsellor half his case ".
In England and Wales, the rules on legal professional privilege are set out in common law. The Civil Procedure Rules 1998 (' CPR ') Rule 31.15 establishes a right to inspect documents in civil litigation, and provide that a party to whom a document has been disclosed (i.e. mentioned or relied upon in litigation) has a right to inspect that document (if such inspection would be proportionate given the nature of the case) - except where the party making disclosure has the right to withhold such inspection.
One of these rights is legal professional privilege. It is a privilege that attaches to the client (not to the lawyer) in a client -- lawyer relationship. It may only, therefore, be waived by the client. In the law of England and Wales, legal professional privilege is divided into two types: advice privilege, and litigation privilege, the former category being more absolutely and broadly - defined than the latter.
The Evidence Act 1995 (Cth) and identical provisions in the Evidence Act 1995 of NSW and Tasmania now control when privilege prevents evidence is adduced during trial in any court (as defined by a proceeding bound by the laws of evidence). The rules of court in NSW extends the definitions in the Evidence Act to discovery and inspection of documents. The right, under legislation, has been renamed to reflect the fact that it is a right of the client. It is now client legal privilege (as opposed to legal professional privilege). The courts regard privilege as a "substantive general principle which plays an important role in the effective and efficient administration of justice by the courts '', not a mere rule of evidence. As such, it extends to all forms of compulsory disclosure, including search warrants. Furthermore, although the legislature may restrict privilege "the law (should n't) ease the way for the legislature to (restrict privilege) ''.
Solicitor -- client privilege was initially a common law evidentiary principle similar to hearsay, but has since become recognized as a substantive rule that is constitutionally protected. This recognition began with R. v. Solosky (1979) where Justice Dickson, in tracing its history, regarded it as a "fundamental civil and legal right '' that guaranteed clients a right to privacy in their communications with their lawyers even outside a courtroom.
In R. v. McClure (2001) 1 S.C.R. 445, the Court found that solicitor -- client privilege was a principle of fundamental justice, hinting that it may be protected under section 7 of the Charter.
In its general sense, Canada has adopted John Wigmore 's definition of solicitor client privilege:
Justice Lamer set out the test for solicitor -- client privilege in Decoteaux v. Mierzwinski:
Attorney -- client privilege is a legal concept that protects communications between a client and his or her attorney and keeps those communications confidential, in both civil and criminal cases. This privilege encourages open and honest communication between clients and attorneys. However, in the United States, not all state courts treat attorney communications as privileged. For instance, Washington state law, and the federal courts when applying federal law, only protect client communications -- an attorney 's communication will only be protected as privileged to the extent it contains or reveals the client 's communications. In contrast, California state law protects the attorney 's confidential communications regardless of whether they contain, refer to or reveal the client 's communications. In addition, the United States Supreme Court has ruled that the privilege generally does not terminate upon the client 's death. See Swidler & Berlin v. United States.
Privilege can not be relied upon where the communication is used to facilitate a crime.
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when was the first independence day celebrated in the usa | Independence Day (United States) - wikipedia
Independence Day (colloquial: the Fourth of July) is a federal holiday in the United States commemorating the adoption of the Declaration of Independence on July 4, 1776. The Continental Congress declared that the thirteen American colonies regarded themselves as free and independent states, the United States of America, and were no longer connected to the British Crown. The Congress actually voted to declare independence two days earlier, on July 2.
Independence Day is commonly associated with fireworks, parades, barbecues, carnivals, fairs, picnics, concerts, baseball games, family reunions, and political speeches and ceremonies, in addition to various other public and private events celebrating the history, government, and traditions of the United States. Independence Day is the National Day of the United States.
During the American Revolution, the legal separation of the Thirteen Colonies from Great Britain in 1776 actually occurred on July 2, when the Second Continental Congress voted to approve a resolution of independence that had been proposed in June by Richard Henry Lee of Virginia declaring the United States independent from Great Britain 's rule. After voting for independence, Congress turned its attention to the Declaration of Independence, a statement explaining this decision, which had been prepared by a Committee of Five, with Thomas Jefferson as its principal author. Congress debated and revised the wording of the Declaration, finally approving it two days later on July 4. A day earlier, John Adams had written to his wife Abigail:
The second day of July, 1776, will be the most memorable epoch in the history of America. I am apt to believe that it will be celebrated by succeeding generations as the great anniversary festival. It ought to be commemorated as the day of deliverance, by solemn acts of devotion to God Almighty. It ought to be solemnized with pomp and parade, with shows, games, sports, guns, bells, bonfires, and illuminations, from one end of this continent to the other, from this time forward forever more.
Adams 's prediction was off by two days. From the outset, Americans celebrated independence on July 4, the date shown on the much - publicized Declaration of Independence, rather than on July 2, the date the resolution of independence was approved in a closed session of Congress.
Historians have long disputed whether members of Congress signed the Declaration of Independence on July 4, even though Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, and Benjamin Franklin all later wrote that they had signed it on that day. Most historians have concluded that the Declaration was signed nearly a month after its adoption, on August 2, 1776, and not on July 4 as is commonly believed.
Coincidentally, both John Adams and Thomas Jefferson, the only signers of the Declaration of Independence later to serve as Presidents of the United States, died on the same day: July 4, 1826, which was the 50th anniversary of the Declaration. Although not a signer of the Declaration of Independence, James Monroe, another Founding Father who was elected as President, also died on July 4, 1831. He was the third President who died on the anniversary of independence. Calvin Coolidge, the 30th President, was born on July 4, 1872; so far he is the only U.S. President to have been born on Independence Day.
Independence Day is a national holiday marked by patriotic displays. Similar to other summer - themed events, Independence Day celebrations often take place outdoors. According to 5 U.S.C. § 6103, Independence Day is a federal holiday, so all non-essential federal institutions (such as the postal service and federal courts) are closed on that day. Many politicians make it a point on this day to appear at a public event to praise the nation 's heritage, laws, history, society, and people.
Families often celebrate Independence Day by hosting or attending a picnic or barbecue; many take advantage of the day off and, in some years, a long weekend to gather with relatives or friends. Decorations (e.g., streamers, balloons, and clothing) are generally colored red, white, and blue, the colors of the American flag. Parades are often held in the morning, before family get - togethers, while fireworks displays occur in the evening after dark at such places as parks, fairgrounds, or town squares.
The night before the Fourth was once the focal point of celebrations, marked by raucous gatherings often incorporating bonfires as their centerpiece. In New England, towns competed to build towering pyramids, assembled from barrels and casks. They were lit at nightfall to usher in the celebration. The highest were in Salem, Massachusetts, with pyramids composed of as many as forty tiers of barrels. These made the tallest bonfires ever recorded. The custom flourished in the 19th and 20th centuries and is still practiced in some New England towns.
Independence Day fireworks are often accompanied by patriotic songs such as the national anthem, "The Star - Spangled Banner ''; "God Bless America ''; "America the Beautiful ''; "My Country, ' Tis of Thee ''; "This Land Is Your Land ''; "Stars and Stripes Forever ''; and, regionally, "Yankee Doodle '' in northeastern states and "Dixie '' in southern states. Some of the lyrics recall images of the Revolutionary War or the War of 1812.
Firework shows are held in many states, and many fireworks are sold for personal use or as an alternative to a public show. Safety concerns have led some states to ban fireworks or limit the sizes and types allowed. In addition, local and regional weather conditions may dictate whether the sale or use of fireworks in an area will be allowed. Some local or regional firework sales are limited or prohibited because of dry weather or other specific concerns. On these occasions the public may be prohibited from purchasing or discharging fireworks, but professional displays (such as those at sports events) may still take place, if certain safety precautions have been taken.
A salute of one gun for each state in the United States, called a "salute to the union, '' is fired on Independence Day at noon by any capable military base.
New York City has the largest fireworks display in the country, with more than 22 tons of pyrotechnics exploded in 2009. It generally holds displays in the East River. Other major displays are in Seattle on Lake Union; in San Diego over Mission Bay; in Boston on the Charles River; in Philadelphia over the Philadelphia Museum of Art; in San Francisco over the San Francisco Bay; and on the National Mall in Washington, D.C.
During the annual Windsor -- Detroit International Freedom Festival, Detroit, Michigan hosts one of the largest fireworks displays in North America, over the Detroit River, to celebrate Independence Day in conjunction with Windsor, Ontario 's celebration of Canada Day.
The first week of July is typically one of the busiest United States travel periods of the year, as many people use what is often a three - day holiday weekend for extended vacation trips.
Patriotic trailer shown in theaters celebrating July 4, 1940
In addition to a fireworks show, Miami, Florida, lights one of its tallest buildings with the patriotic red, white and blue color scheme on Independence Day.
New York City 's fireworks display, shown above over the East Village, is sponsored by Macy 's and is the largest in the country.
A festively decorated Independence Day cake
The Philippines celebrates July 4 as its Republic Day to commemorate that day in 1946 when it ceased to be a U.S. territory and the United States officially recognized Philippine Independence. July 4 was intentionally chosen by the United States because it corresponds to its Independence Day, and this day was observed in the Philippines as Independence Day until 1962. In 1964, the name of the July 4 holiday was changed to Republic Day. Rebild National Park in Denmark is said to hold the largest July 4 celebrations outside of the United States.
(federal) = federal holidays, (state) = state holidays, (religious) = religious holidays, (week) = weeklong holidays, (month) = monthlong holidays, (36) = Title 36 Observances and Ceremonies Bold indicates major holidays commonly celebrated in the United States, which often represent the major celebrations of the month.
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mention any three kind of freedom given under right to freedom | Freedom of religion - wikipedia
Freedom of religion is a principle that supports the freedom of an individual or community, in public or private, to manifest religion or belief in teaching, practice, worship, and observance without government influence or intervention. It also includes the freedom to change one 's religion or beliefs.
Freedom of religion is considered by many people and most of the nations to be a fundamental human right. In a country with a state religion, freedom of religion is generally considered to mean that the government permits religious practices of other sects besides the state religion, and does not persecute believers in other faiths. Freedom of belief is different. It allows the right to believe what a person, group or religion wishes, but it does not necessarily allow the right to practice the religion or belief openly and outwardly in a public manner.
Historically, freedom of religion has been used to refer to the tolerance of different theological systems of belief, while freedom of worship has been defined as freedom of individual action. Nevertheless, freedom from religion is a far more pressing moralistic, legal, and peaceful solution. Each of these have existed to varying degrees. While many countries have accepted some form of religious freedom, this has also often been limited in practice through punitive taxation, repressive social legislation, and political disenfranchisement. Compare examples of individual freedom in Italy or the Muslim tradition of dhimmis, literally "protected individuals '' professing an officially tolerated non-Muslim religion.
In Antiquity, a syncretic point of view often allowed communities of traders to operate under their own customs. When street mobs of separate quarters clashed in a Hellenistic or Roman city, the issue was generally perceived to be an infringement of community rights.
Cyrus the Great established the Achaemenid Empire ca. 550 BC, and initiated a general policy of permitting religious freedom throughout the empire, documenting this on the Cyrus Cylinder.
Some of the historical exceptions have been in regions where one of the revealed religions has been in a position of power: Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity and Islam. Others have been where the established order has felt threatened, as shown in the trial of Socrates in 399 BC or where the ruler has been deified, as in Rome, and refusal to offer token sacrifice was similar to refusing to take an oath of allegiance. This was the core for resentment and the persecution of early Christian communities.
Freedom of religious worship was established in the Buddhist Maurya Empire of ancient India by Ashoka the Great in the 3rd century BC, which was encapsulated in the Edicts of Ashoka.
Greek - Jewish clashes at Cyrene in 73 AD and 117 AD and in Alexandria in 115 AD provide examples of cosmopolitan cities as scenes of tumult.
The Romans tolerated most religions, including Judaism and encouraged local subjects to continue worshipping their own gods. They did not however, tolerate Christianity until it was legalised by the Roman emperor Galerius in 311. The Edict of Milan guaranteed freedom of religion in the Roman Empire until the Edict of Thessalonica in 380, which outlawed all religions except Christianity.
Following a period of fighting lasting around a hundred years before 620 AD which mainly involved Arab and Jewish inhabitants of Medina (then known as Yathrib), religious freedom for Muslims, Jews and pagans was declared by Muhammad in the Constitution of Medina. The Islamic Caliphate later guaranteed religious freedom under the conditions that non-Muslim communities accept dhimmi status and their adult males pay the punitive jizya tax instead of the zakat paid by Muslim citizens. Though Dhimmis were not given the same political rights as Muslims, they nevertheless did enjoy equality under the laws of property, contract, and obligation.
Religious pluralism existed in classical Islamic ethics and Sharia, as the religious laws and courts of other religions, including Christianity, Judaism and Hinduism, were usually accommodated within the Islamic legal framework, as seen in the early Caliphate, Al - Andalus, Indian subcontinent, and the Ottoman Millet system. In medieval Islamic societies, the qadi (Islamic judges) usually could not interfere in the matters of non-Muslims unless the parties voluntarily choose to be judged according to Islamic law, thus the dhimmi communities living in Islamic states usually had their own laws independent from the Sharia law, such as the Jews who would have their own Halakha courts.
Dhimmis were allowed to operate their own courts following their own legal systems in cases that did not involve other religious groups, or capital offences or threats to public order. Non-Muslims were allowed to engage in religious practices that were usually forbidden by Islamic law, such as the consumption of alcohol and pork, as well as religious practices which Muslims found repugnant, such as the Zoroastrian practice of incestuous "self - marriage '' where a man could marry his mother, sister or daughter. According to the famous Islamic legal scholar Ibn Qayyim (1292 -- 1350), non-Muslims had the right to engage in such religious practices even if it offended Muslims, under the conditions that such cases not be presented to Islamic Sharia courts and that these religious minorities believed that the practice in question is permissible according to their religion.
Despite Dhimmis enjoying special statuses under the Caliphates, they were not considered equals, and sporadic persecutions of non-Muslim groups did occur in the history of the Caliphates.
Ancient Jews fleeing from persecution in their homeland 2,500 years ago settled in India and never faced anti-Semitism. Freedom of religion edicts have been found written during Ashoka the Great 's reign in the 3rd century BC. Freedom to practise, preach and propagate any religion is a constitutional right in Modern India. Most major religious festivals of the main communities are included in the list of national holidays.
Although India is an 80 % Hindu country, India is a secular state without any state religions.
Many scholars and intellectuals believe that India 's predominant religion, Hinduism, has long been a most tolerant religion. Rajni Kothari, founder of the Centre for the Study of Developing Societies has written, "(India) is a country built on the foundations of a civilisation that is fundamentally non-religious. ''
The Dalai Lama, the Tibetan leader in exile, said that religious tolerance of ' Aryabhoomi, ' a reference to India found in the Mahabharata, has been in existence in this country from thousands of years. "Not only Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism, Sikhism which are the native religions but also Christianity and Islam have flourished here. Religious tolerance is inherent in Indian tradition, '' the Dalai Lama said.
Freedom of religion in the Indian subcontinent is exemplified by the reign of King Piyadasi (304 -- 232 BC) (Ashoka). One of King Ashoka 's main concerns was to reform governmental institutes and exercise moral principles in his attempt to create a just and humane society. Later he promoted the principles of Buddhism, and the creation of a just, understanding and fair society was held as an important principle for many ancient rulers of this time in the East.
The importance of freedom of worship in India was encapsulated in an inscription of Ashoka:
King Piyadasi (Ashok) dear to the Gods, honours all sects, the ascetics (hermits) or those who dwell at home, he honours them with charity and in other ways. But the King, dear to the Gods, attributes less importance to this charity and these honours than to the vow of seeing the reign of virtues, which constitutes the essential part of them. For all these virtues there is a common source, modesty of speech. That is to say, one must not exalt one 's creed discrediting all others, nor must one degrade these others without legitimate reasons. One must, on the contrary, render to other creeds the honour befitting them.
On the main Asian continent, the Mongols were tolerant of religions. People could worship as they wished freely and openly.
After the arrival of Europeans, Christians in their zeal to convert local as per belief in conversion as service of God, have also been seen to fall into frivolous methods since their arrival, though by and large there are hardly any reports of law and order disturbance from mobs with Christian beliefs, except perhaps in the north eastern region of India.
Freedom of religion in contemporary India is a fundamental right guaranteed under Article 25 of the nation 's constitution. Accordingly, every citizen of India has a right to profess, practice and propagate their religions peacefully. Vishwa Hindu Parishad counters this argument by saying that evangelical Christians are forcefully (or through money) converting rural, illiterate populations and they are only trying to stop this.
In September 2010, the Indian state of Kerala 's State Election Commissioner announced that "Religious heads can not issue calls to vote for members of a particular community or to defeat the nonbelievers ''. The Catholic Church comprising Latin, Syro - Malabar and Syro - Malankara rites used to give clear directions to the faithful on exercising their franchise during elections through pastoral letters issued by bishops or council of bishops. The pastoral letter issued by Kerala Catholic Bishops ' Council (KCBC) on the eve of the poll urged the faithful to shun atheists.
Even today, most Indians celebrate all religious festivals with equal enthusiasm and respect. Hindu festivals like Deepavali and Holi, Muslim festivals like Eid al - Fitr, Eid - Ul - Adha, Muharram, Christian festivals like Christmas and other festivals like Buddha Purnima, Mahavir Jayanti, Gur Purab etc. are celebrated and enjoyed by all Indians.
Most Roman Catholic kingdoms kept a tight rein on religious expression throughout the Middle Ages. Jews were alternately tolerated and persecuted, the most notable examples of the latter being the expulsion of all Jews from Spain in 1492. Some of those who remained and converted were tried as heretics in the Inquisition for allegedly practicing Judaism in secret. Despite the persecution of Jews, they were the most tolerated non-Catholic faith in Europe.
However, the latter was in part a reaction to the growing movement that became the Reformation. As early as 1380, John Wycliffe in England denied transubstantiation and began his translation of the Bible into English. He was condemned in a Papal Bull in 1410, and all his books were burned.
In 1414, Jan Hus, a Bohemian preacher of reformation, was given a safe conduct by the Holy Roman Emperor to attend the Council of Constance. Not entirely trusting in his safety, he made his will before he left. His forebodings proved accurate, and he was burned at the stake on 6 July 1415. The Council also decreed that Wycliffe 's remains be disinterred and cast out. This decree was not carried out until 1429.
After the fall of the city of Granada, Spain, in 1492, the Muslim population was promised religious freedom by the Treaty of Granada, but that promise was short - lived. In 1501, Granada 's Muslims were given an ultimatum to either convert to Christianity or to emigrate. The majority converted, but only superficially, continuing to dress and speak as they had before and to secretly practice Islam. The Moriscos (converts to Christianity) were ultimately expelled from Spain between 1609 (Castile) and 1614 (rest of Spain), by Philip III.
Martin Luther published his famous 95 Theses in Wittenberg on 31 October 1517. His major aim was theological, summed up in the three basic dogmas of Protestantism:
In consequence, Luther hoped to stop the sale of indulgences and to reform the Church from within. In 1521, he was given the chance to recant at the Diet of Worms before Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor. After he refused to recant, he was declared heretic. Partly for his own protection, he was sequestered on the Wartburg in the possessions of Frederick III, Elector of Saxony, where he translated the New Testament into German. He was excommunicated by Papal Bull in 1521.
However, the movement continued to gain ground in his absence and spread to Switzerland. Huldrych Zwingli preached reform in Zürich from 1520 to 1523. He opposed the sale of indulgences, celibacy, pilgrimages, pictures, statues, relics, altars, and organs. This culminated in outright war between the Swiss cantons that accepted Protestantism and the Catholics. The Catholics were victorious, and Zwingli was killed in battle in 1531. The Catholic cantons were magnanimous in victory.
The defiance of Papal authority proved contagious, and in 1533, when Henry VIII of England was excommunicated for his divorce and remarriage to Anne Boleyn, he promptly established a state church with bishops appointed by the crown. This was not without internal opposition, and Thomas More, who had been his Lord Chancellor, was executed in 1535 for opposition to Henry.
In 1535, the Swiss canton of Geneva became Protestant. In 1536, the Bernese imposed the reformation on the canton of Vaud by conquest. They sacked the cathedral in Lausanne and destroyed all its art and statuary. John Calvin, who had been active in Geneva was expelled in 1538 in a power struggle, but he was invited back in 1540.
The same kind of seesaw back and forth between Protestantism and Catholicism was evident in England when Mary I of England returned that country briefly to the Catholic fold in 1553 and persecuted Protestants. However, her half - sister, Elizabeth I of England was to restore the Church of England in 1558, this time permanently, and began to persecute Catholics again. The King James Bible commissioned by King James I of England and published in 1611 proved a landmark for Protestant worship, with official Catholic forms of worship being banned.
In France, although peace was made between Protestants and Catholics at the Treaty of Saint Germain in 1570, persecution continued, most notably in the Massacre of Saint Bartholomew 's Day on 24 August 1572, in which thousands of Protestants throughout France were killed. A few years before, at the "Michelade '' of Nîmes in 1567, Protestants had massacred the local Catholic clergy.
The Norman Kingdom of Sicily under Roger II was characterized by its multi-ethnic nature and religious tolerance. Normans, Jews, Muslim Arabs, Byzantine Greeks, Lombards, and native Sicilians lived in harmony. Rather than exterminate the Muslims of Sicily, Roger II 's grandson Emperor Frederick II of Hohenstaufen (1215 -- 1250) allowed them to settle on the mainland and build mosques. Not least, he enlisted them in his -- Christian -- army and even into his personal bodyguards.
Bohemia (present - day Czech Republic) enjoyed religious freedom between 1436 and 1520, and became one of the most liberal countries of the Christian world during that period of time. The so - called Basel Compacts of 1436 declared the freedom of religion and peace between Catholics and Utraquists. In 1609 Emperor Rudolf II granted Bohemia greater religious liberty with his Letter of Majesty. The privileged position of the Catholic Church in the Czech kingdom was firmly established after the Battle of White Mountain in 1620. Gradually freedom of religion in Bohemian lands came to an end and Protestants fled or were expelled from the country. A devout Catholic, Emperor Ferdinand II forcibly converted Austrian and Bohemian Protestants.
In the meantime, in Germany Philip Melanchthon drafted the Augsburg Confession as a common confession for the Lutherans and the free territories. It was presented to Charles V in 1530.
In the Holy Roman Empire, Charles V agreed to tolerate Lutheranism in 1555 at the Peace of Augsburg. Each state was to take the religion of its prince, but within those states, there was not necessarily religious tolerance. Citizens of other faiths could relocate to a more hospitable environment.
In France, from the 1550s, many attempts to reconcile Catholics and Protestants and to establish tolerance failed because the State was too weak to enforce them. It took the victory of prince Henry IV of France, who had converted into Protestantism, and his accession to the throne, to impose religious tolerance formalized in the Edict of Nantes in 1598. It would remain in force for over 80 years until its revocation in 1685 by Louis XIV of France. Intolerance remained the norm until Louis XVI, who signed the Edict of Versailles (1787), then the constitutional text of 24 December 1789, granting civilian rights to Protestants. The French Revolution then abolished state religion and confiscated all Church property, turning intolerance against Catholics.
In 1558, the Transylvanian Diet 's Edict of Torda declared free practice of both Catholicism and Lutheranism. Calvinism, however, was prohibited. Calvinism was included among the accepted religions in 1564. Ten years after the first law, in 1568, the same Diet, under the chairmanship of King of Hungary, and Prince of Transylvania John Sigismund Zápolya (John II.), following the teaching of Ferenc Dávid, the founder of the Unitarian Church of Transylvania, extended the freedom to all religions, declaring that "It is not allowed to anybody to intimidate anybody with captivity or expelling for his religion ''. However, it was more than a religious tolerance; it declared the equality of the religions, prohibiting all kinds of acts from authorities or from simple people, which could harm other groups or people because of their religious beliefs. The emergence in social hierarchy was n't dependent on the religion of the person thus Transylvania had also Catholic and Protestant monarchs, who all respected the Edict of Torda. The lack of state religion was unique for centuries in Europe. Therefore, the Edict of Torda is considered as the first legal guarantee of religious freedom in Christian Europe.
Act of Religious Tolerance and Freedom of Conscience: His majesty, our Lord, in what manner he -- together with his realm -- legislated in the matter of religion at the previous Diets, in the same matter now, in this Diet, reaffirms that in every place the preachers shall preach and explain the Gospel each according to his understanding of it, and if the congregation like it, well. If not, no one shall compel them for their souls would not be satisfied, but they shall be permitted to keep a preacher whose teaching they approve. Therefore none of the superintendents or others shall abuse the preachers, no one shall be reviled for his religion by anyone, according to the previous statutes, and it is not permitted that anyone should threaten anyone else by imprisonment or by removal from his post for his teaching. For faith is the gift of God and this comes from hearing, which hearings is by the word of God.
Four religions (Catholicism, Lutheranism, Calvinism, Unitarianism) were named as accepted religions (religo recepta), having their representatives in the Transylvanian Diet, while the other religions, like the Orthodoxs, Sabbatarians and Anabaptists were tolerated churches (religio tolerata), which meant that they had no power in the law making and no veto rights in the Diet, but they were not persecuted in any way. Thanks to the Edict of Torda, from the last decades of the 16th Century Transylvania was the only place in Europe, where so many religions could live together in harmony and without persecution.
This religious freedom ended however for some of the religions of Transylvania in 1638. After this year the Sabbatarians begun to be persecuted, and forced to convert to one of the accepted religions of Transylvania.
Also the Unitarians (despite of being one of the "accepted religions '') started to be put under an ever - growing pressure, which culminated after the Habsburg conquest of Transylvania (1691), Also after the Habsburg occupation, the new Austrian masters forced in the middle of the 18th century the Hutterite Anabaptists (who found a safe heaven in 1621 in Transylvania, after the persecution to which they were subjected in the Austrian provinces and Moravia) to convert to Catholicism or to migrate in another country, which finally the Anabaptists did, leaving Transylvania and Hungary for Wallachia, than from there to Russia, and finally in the United States.
In the Union of Utrecht (20 January 1579), personal freedom of religion was declared in the struggle between the Northern Netherlands and Spain. The Union of Utrecht was an important step in the establishment of the Dutch Republic (from 1581 to 1795). Under Calvinist leadership, the Netherlands became the most tolerant country in Europe. It granted asylum to persecuted religious minorities, such as the Huguenots, the Dissenters, and the Jews who had been expelled from Spain and Portugal. The establishment of a Jewish community in the Netherlands and New Amsterdam (present - day New York) during the Dutch Republic is an example of religious freedom. When New Amsterdam surrendered to the English in 1664, freedom of religion was guaranteed in the Articles of Capitulation. It benefitted also the Jews who had landed on Manhattan Island in 1654, fleeing Portuguese persecution in Brazil. During the 18th century, other Jewish communities were established at Newport, Rhode Island, Philadelphia, Charleston, Savannah, and Richmond.
Intolerance of dissident forms of Protestantism also continued, as evidenced by the exodus of the Pilgrims, who sought refuge, first in the Netherlands, and ultimately in America, founding Plymouth Colony in Massachusetts in 1620. William Penn, the founder of Philadelphia, was involved in a case which had a profound effect upon future American laws and those of England. In a classic case of jury nullification, the jury refused to convict William Penn of preaching a Quaker sermon, which was illegal. Even though the jury was imprisoned for their acquittal, they stood by their decision and helped establish the freedom of religion.
The General Charter of Jewish Liberties known as the Statute of Kalisz was issued by the Duke of Greater Poland Boleslaus the Pious on 8 September 1264 in Kalisz. The statute served as the basis for the legal position of Jews in Poland and led to the creation of the Yiddish - speaking autonomous Jewish nation until 1795. The statute granted exclusive jurisdiction of Jewish courts over Jewish matters and established a separate tribunal for matters involving Christians and Jews. Additionally, it guaranteed personal liberties and safety for Jews including freedom of religion, travel, and trade. The statute was ratified by subsequent Polish Kings: Casimir III of Poland in 1334, Casimir IV of Poland in 1453 and Sigismund I of Poland in 1539. Poland freed Jews from direct royal authority, opening up enormous administrative and economic opportunities to them.
The right to worship freely was a basic right given to all inhabitants of the future Polish -- Lithuanian Commonwealth throughout the 15th and early 16th century, however, complete freedom of religion was officially recognized in 1573 during the Warsaw Confederation. Polish -- Lithuanian Commonwealth kept religious freedom laws during an era when religious persecution was an everyday occurrence in the rest of Europe.
Most of the early colonies were generally not tolerant of dissident forms of worship, with Maryland being one of the exceptions. For example, Roger Williams found it necessary to found a new colony in Rhode Island to escape persecution in the theocratically dominated colony of Massachusetts. The Puritans of the Massachusetts Bay Colony were the most active of the New England persecutors of Quakers, and the persecuting spirit was shared by Plymouth Colony and the colonies along the Connecticut river. In 1660, one of the most notable victims of the religious intolerance was English Quaker Mary Dyer, who was hanged in Boston, Massachusetts for repeatedly defying a Puritan law banning Quakers from the colony. As one of the four executed Quakers known as the Boston martyrs, the hanging of Dyer on the Boston gallows marked the beginning of the end of the Puritan theocracy and New England independence from English rule, and in 1661 King Charles II explicitly forbade Massachusetts from executing anyone for professing Quakerism. Anti-Catholic sentiment appeared in New England with the first Pilgrim and Puritan settlers. In 1647, Massachusetts passed a law prohibiting any Jesuit Roman Catholic priests from entering territory under Puritan jurisdiction. Any suspected person who could not clear himself was to be banished from the colony; a second offense carried a death penalty. The Pilgrims of New England held radical Protestant disapproval of Christmas. Christmas observance was outlawed in Boston in 1659. The ban by the Puritans was revoked in 1681 by an English appointed governor, however it was not until the mid-19th century that celebrating Christmas became common in the Boston region.
Freedom of religion was first applied as a principle of government in the founding of the colony of Maryland, founded by the Catholic Lord Baltimore, in 1634. Fifteen years later (1649), the Maryland Toleration Act, drafted by Lord Baltimore, provided: "No person or persons... shall from henceforth be any waies troubled, molested or discountenanced for or in respect of his or her religion nor in the free exercise thereof. '' The Act allowed freedom of worship for all Trinitarian Christians in Maryland, but sentenced to death anyone who denied the divinity of Jesus. The Maryland Toleration Act was repealed during the Cromwellian Era with the assistance of Protestant assemblymen and a new law barring Catholics from openly practicing their religion was passed. In 1657, the Catholic Lord Baltimore regained control after making a deal with the colony 's Protestants, and in 1658 the Act was again passed by the colonial assembly. This time, it would last more than thirty years, until 1692 when, after Maryland 's Protestant Revolution of 1689, freedom of religion was again rescinded. In addition, in 1704, an Act was passed "to prevent the growth of Popery in this Province '', preventing Catholics from holding political office. Full religious toleration would not be restored in Maryland until the American Revolution, when Maryland 's Charles Carroll of Carrollton signed the American Declaration of Independence.
Rhode Island (1636), Connecticut (1636), New Jersey, and Pennsylvania (1682) -- founded by Protestants Roger Williams, Thomas Hooker, and William Penn, respectively -- combined the democratic form of government which had been developed by the Puritans and the Separatist Congregationalists in Massachusetts with religious freedom. These colonies became sanctuaries for persecuted religious minorities. Catholics and later on Jews also had full citizenship and free exercise of their religions. Williams, Hooker, Penn, and their friends were firmly convinced that freedom of conscience was the will of God. Williams gave the most profound argument: As faith is the free work of the Holy Spirit, it can not be forced on a person. Therefore, strict separation of church and state has to be kept. Pennsylvania was the only colony that retained unlimited religious freedom until the foundation of the United States in 1776. It was the inseparable connection between democracy, religious freedom, and the other forms of freedom which became the political and legal basis of the new nation. In particular, Baptists and Presbyterians demanded the disestablishment of state churches -- Anglican and Congregationalist -- and the protection of religious freedom.
Reiterating Maryland 's and the other colonies ' earlier colonial legislation, the Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom, written in 1779 by Thomas Jefferson, proclaimed:
(N) o man shall be compelled to frequent or support any religious worship, place, or ministry whatsoever, nor shall be enforced, restrained, molested, or burthened in his body or goods, nor shall otherwise suffer, on account of his religious opinions or belief; but that all men shall be free to profess, and by argument to maintain, their opinions in matters of religion, and that the same shall in no wise diminish, enlarge, or affect their civil capacities.
Those sentiments also found expression in the First Amendment of the national constitution, part of the United States ' Bill of Rights: "Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof... ''
The United States formally considers religious freedom in its foreign relations. The International Religious Freedom Act of 1998 established the United States Commission on International Religious Freedom which investigates the records of over 200 other nations with respect to religious freedom, and makes recommendations to submit nations with egregious records to ongoing scrutiny and possible economic sanctions. Many human rights organizations have urged the United States to be still more vigorous in imposing sanctions on countries that do not permit or tolerate religious freedom.
Freedom of religion in Canada is a constitutionally protected right, allowing believers the freedom to assemble and worship without limitation or interference. Canadian law goes further, requiring that private citizens and companies provide reasonable accommodation to those, for example, with strong religious beliefs. The Canadian Human Rights Act allows an exception to reasonable accommodation with respect to religious dress, such as a Sikh turban, when there is a bona fide occupational requirement, such as a workplace requiring a hard hat.
On 25 November 1981, the United Nations General Assembly passed the Declaration on the Elimination of All Forms of Intolerance and of Discrimination Based on Religion or Belief. This declaration recognizes freedom of religion as a fundamental human right in accordance with several other instruments of international law.
However, the most substantial binding legal instruments that guarantee the right to freedom of religion that was passed by the international community is the Convention on the Rights of the Child which states in its Article 14: "States Parties shall respect the right of the child to freedom of thought, conscience and religion. -- States Parties shall respect the rights and duties of the parents and, when applicable, legal guardians, to provide direction to the child in the exercise of his or her right in a manner consistent with the evolving capacities of the child. -- Freedom to manifest one 's religion or beliefs may be subject only to such limitations as are prescribed by law and are necessary to protect public safety, order, health or morals, or the fundamental rights and freedoms of others. ''
In 1993, the UN 's human rights committee declared that article 18 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights "protects theistic, non-theistic and atheistic beliefs, as well as the right not to profess any religion or belief. '' The committee further stated that "the freedom to have or to adopt a religion or belief necessarily entails the freedom to choose a religion or belief, including the right to replace one 's current religion or belief with another or to adopt atheistic views. '' Signatories to the convention are barred from "the use of threat of physical force or penal sanctions to compel believers or non-believers '' to recant their beliefs or convert. Despite this, minority religions still are persecuted in many parts of the world.
The French philosopher Voltaire noted in his book on English society, Letters on the English, that freedom of religion in a diverse society was deeply important to maintaining peace in that country. That it was also important in understanding why England at that time was more prosperous in comparison to the country 's less religiously tolerant European neighbours.
If one religion only were allowed in England, the Government would very possibly become arbitrary; if there were but two, the people would cut one another 's throats; but as there are such a multitude, they all live happy and in peace.
Adam Smith, in his book The Wealth of Nations (using an argument first put forward by his friend and contemporary David Hume), states that in the long run it is in the best interests of society as a whole and the civil magistrate (government) in particular to allow people to freely choose their own religion, as it helps prevent civil unrest and reduces intolerance. So long as there are enough different religions and / or religious sects operating freely in a society then they are all compelled to moderate their more controversial and violent teachings, so as to be more appealing to more people and so have an easier time attracting new converts. It is this free competition amongst religious sects for converts that ensures stability and tranquillity in the long run.
Smith also points out that laws that prevent religious freedom and seek to preserve the power and belief in a particular religion will, in the long run, only serve to weaken and corrupt that religion, as its leaders and preachers become complacent, disconnected and unpractised in their ability to seek and win over new converts:
The interested and active zeal of religious teachers can be dangerous and troublesome only where there is either but one sect tolerated in the society, or where the whole of a large society is divided into two or three great sects; the teachers of each acting by concert, and under a regular discipline and subordination. But that zeal must be altogether innocent, where the society is divided into two or three hundred, or, perhaps, into as many thousand small sects, of which no one could be considerable enough to disturb the public tranquillity. The teachers of each sect, seeing themselves surrounded on all sides with more adversaries than friends, would be obliged to learn that candour and moderation which are so seldom to be found among the teachers of those great sects.
Hinduism is one of the more broad - minded religions when it comes to religious freedom. It respects the right of everyone to reach God in their own way. Hindus believe in different ways to preach attainment of God and religion as a philosophy and hence respect all religions as equal. One of the famous Hindu sayings about religion is: "Truth is one; sages call it by different names. ''
Judaism includes multiple streams, such as Orthodox, Reform Judaism, Conservative Judaism, Reconstructionist Judaism, Jewish Renewal and Humanistic Judaism. However, Judaism also exists in many forms as a civilization, possessing characteristics known as peoplehood, rather than strictly as a religion. In the Torah, Jews are forbidden to practice idolatry and are commanded to root out pagan and idolatrous practices within their midst, including killing idolaters who sacrifice children to their gods, or engage in immoral activities. However, these laws are not adhered to anymore as Jews have usually lived among a multi-religious community.
After the conquest of the Kingdoms of Israel and Judea by the Roman Empire, a Jewish state did not exist until 1948 with the establishment of the State of Israel. For over 1500 years Jewish people lived under pagan, Christian, Muslim, etc. rule. As such Jewish people in some of these states faced persecution. From the pogroms in Europe during the Middle Ages to the establishment of segregated Jewish ghettos during World War II. In the Middle East, Jews were categorised as dhimmi, non - Muslims permitted to live within a Muslim state. Even though given rights within a Muslim state, a dhimmi is still not equal to a Muslim within Muslim society, the same way non-Jewish Israeli citizens are not equal with Jewish citizens in modern - day Israel.
Possibly because of this history of long term persecution, Jews in modernity have been among the most active proponents of religious freedom in the US and abroad and have founded and supported anti-hate institutions, including the Anti-Defamation League, the Southern Poverty Law Center and the American Civil Liberties Union. Jews are very active in supporting Muslim and other religious groups in the US against discrimination and hate crimes and most Jewish congregations throughout the US and many individual Jews participate in interfaith community projects and programs.
The State of Israel was established for the Jewish diaspora after World War II. While the Israel Declaration of Independence stresses religious freedom as a fundamental principle, in practice the current government, dominated by the ultra-Orthodox segment of the population has instituted legal barriers for those who do not practice Orthodox Judaism as Jews. However, as a nation state, Israel is very open towards other religions and religious practices, including public Muslim call to prayer chants and Christian prayer bells ringing in Jerusalem. Israel has been evaluated in research by the Pew organization as having "high '' government restrictions on religion. The government recognizes only Orthodox Judaism in certain matters of personal status, and marriages can only be performed by religious authorities. The government provides the greatest funding to Orthodox Judaism, even though adherents represent a minority of citizens. Jewish women, including Anat Hoffman, have been arrested at the Western Wall for praying and singing while wearing religious garments the Orthodox feel should be reserved for men. Women of the Wall have organized to promote religious freedom at the Wall. In November 2014, a group of 60 non-Orthodox rabbinical students were told they would not be allowed to pray in the Knesset synagogue because it is reserved for Orthodox. Rabbi Joel Levy, director of the Conservative Yeshiva in Jerusalem, said that he had submitted the request on behalf of the students and saw their shock when the request was denied. He noted: "paradoxically, this decision served as an appropriate end to our conversation about religion and state in Israel. '' MK Dov Lipman expressed the concern that many Knesset workers are unfamiliar with non-Orthodox and American practices and would view "an egalitarian service in the synagogue as an affront. '' The non-Orthodox forms of Jewish practice function independently in Israel, except for these issues of praying at the Western Wall.
According to the Catholic Church in the Vatican II document on religious freedom, Dignitatis Humanae, "the human person has a right to religious freedom '', which is described as "immunity from coercion in civil society ''. This principle of religious freedom "leaves untouched traditional Catholic doctrine on the moral duty of men and societies toward the true religion. '' In addition, this right "is to be recognized in the constitutional law whereby society is governed and thus it is to become a civil right. ''
Prior to this, Pope Pius IX had written a document called the Syllabus of Errors. The Syllabus was made up of phrases and paraphrases from earlier papal documents, along with index references to them, and presented as a list of "condemned propositions ''. It does not explain why each particular proposition is wrong, but it cites earlier documents to which the reader can refer for the Pope 's reasons for saying each proposition is false. Among the statements included in the Syllabus are: "(It is an error to say that) Every man is free to embrace and profess that religion which, guided by the light of reason, he shall consider true '' (15); "(It is an error to say that) In the present day it is no longer expedient that the Catholic religion should be held as the only religion of the State, to the exclusion of all other forms of worship ''; "(It is an error to say that) Hence it has been wisely decided by law, in some Catholic countries, that persons coming to reside therein shall enjoy the public exercise of their own peculiar worship ''.
Some Orthodox Christians, especially those living in democratic countries, support religious freedom for all, as evidenced by the position of the Ecumenical Patriarchate. Many Protestant Christian churches, including some Baptists, Churches of Christ, Seventh - day Adventist Church and main line churches have a commitment to religious freedoms. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter - day Saints also affirms religious freedom.
However others, such as African scholar Makau Mutua, have argued that Christian insistence on the propagation of their faith to native cultures as an element of religious freedom has resulted in a corresponding denial of religious freedom to native traditions and led to their destruction. As he states in the book produced by the Oslo Coalition on Freedom of Religion or Belief, "Imperial religions have necessarily violated individual conscience and the communal expressions of Africans and their communities by subverting African religions. ''
In their book Breaking India, Rajiv Malhotra and Aravindan Neelakandan discussed the "US Church '' funding activities in India, such as the popularly advertised campaigns to "save '' poor children by feeding, clothing, and educating them, with the book arguing that the funds collected were being used not so much for the purposes indicated to sponsors, but for indoctrination and conversion activities. They suggest that India is the prime target of a huge enterprise -- a "network '' of organizations, individuals, and churches -- that, they argue, seem intensely devoted to the task of creating a separatist identity, history, and even religion for the vulnerable sections of India. They suggest that this nexus of players includes not only church groups, government bodies, and related organizations, but also private think tanks and academics.
Joel Spring has written about the Christianization of the Roman Empire:
Christianity added new impetus to the expansion of empire. Increasing the arrogance of the imperial project, Christians insisted that the Gospels and the Church were the only valid sources of religious beliefs. Imperialists could claim that they were both civilizing the world and spreading the true religion. By the 5th century, Christianity was thought of as co-extensive with the Imperium romanum. This meant that to be human, as opposed to being a natural slave, was to be "civilized '' and Christian. Historian Anthony Pagden argues, "just as the civitas; had now become coterminous with Christianity, so to be human -- to be, that is, one who was ' civil ', and who was able to interpret correctly the law of nature -- one had now also to be Christian. '' After the fifteenth century, most Western colonialists rationalized the spread of empire with the belief that they were saving a barbaric and pagan world by spreading Christian civilization.
Conversion to Islam is simple, but Muslims are forbidden to convert from Islam to another religion. Certain Muslim - majority countries are known for their restrictions on religious freedom, highly favoring Muslim citizens over non-Muslim citizens. Other countries having the same restrictive laws tend to be more liberal when imposing them. Even other Muslim - majority countries are secular and thus do not regulate religious belief.
Islamic theologians quote the Qur'an ("There is no compulsion in religion '' and "Say: O you who reject faith, I do not worship what you worship, nor do you worship what I worship... To you be your religion, and to me be mine '', i.e., Sura Al - Kafirun) to show scriptural support for religious freedom.
Quran 2: 190 -- 194, referring to the war against Pagans during the Battle of Badr in Medina, indicates that Muslims are only allowed to fight against those who intend to harm them (right of self - defense) and that if their enemies surrender, they must also stop because God does not like those who transgress limits.
In Bukhari: V9 N316, Jabir ibn ' Abdullah narrated that a Bedouin accepted Islam and then when he got a fever he demanded that Muhammad to cancel his pledge (allow him to renounce Islam). Muhammad refused to do so. The Bedouin man repeated his demand once, but Muhammad once again refused. Then, he (the Bedouin) left Medina. Muhammad said, "Madinah is like a pair of bellows (furnace): it expels its impurities and brightens and clear its good. '' In this narration, there was no evidence demonstrating that Muhammad ordered the execution of the Bedouin for wanting to renounce Islam.
In addition, Quran 5: 3, which is believed to be God 's final revelation to Muhammad, states that Muslims are to fear God and not those who reject Islam, and Quran 53: 38 -- 39 states that one is accountable only for one 's own actions. Therefore, it postulates that in Islam, in the matters of practising a religion, it does not relate to a worldly punishment, but rather these actions are accountable to God in the afterlife. Thus, this supports the argument against the execution of apostates in Islam.
However, on the other hand, some Muslims support the practice of executing apostates who leave Islam, as in Bukhari: V4 B52 N260; "The Prophet said, ' If a Muslim discards his religion and separates from the main body of Muslims, kill him. However, many Muslims believe that this hadith was written in the context of war and therefore Prophet Muhammad stipulated that whichever Muslim rejects his religion, leaves from the main body of Muslims and betrays the Muslims in war should be executed as a punishment for his treachery towards the community of Muslims. So many Muslims believe that this hadith talks about the punishment of Treason.
In Iran, the constitution recognizes four religions whose status is formally protected: Zoroastrianism, Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. The constitution, however, also set the groundwork for the institutionalized persecution of Bahá'ís, who have been subjected to arrests, beatings, executions, confiscation and destruction of property, and the denial of civil rights and liberties, and the denial of access to higher education. There is no freedom of conscience in Iran, as converting from Islam to any other religion is forbidden.
In Egypt, a 16 December 2006 judgment of the Supreme Administrative Council created a clear demarcation between recognized religions -- Islam, Christianity and Judaism -- and all other religious beliefs; no other religious affiliation is officially admissible. The ruling leaves members of other religious communities, including Bahá'ís, without the ability to obtain the necessary government documents to have rights in their country, essentially denying them of all rights of citizenship. They can not obtain ID cards, birth certificates, death certificates, marriage or divorce certificates, and passports; they also can not be employed, educated, treated in public hospitals or vote, among other things. See Egyptian identification card controversy.
Among the most contentious areas of religious freedom is the right of an individual to change or abandon his or her own religion (apostasy), and the right to evangelize individuals seeking to convince others to make such a change.
Other debates have centered around restricting certain kinds of missionary activity by religions. Many Islamic states, and others such as China, severely restrict missionary activities of other religions. Greece, among European countries, has generally looked unfavorably on missionary activities of denominations others than the majority church and proselytizing is constitutionally prohibited.
A different kind of critique of the freedom to propagate religion has come from non-Abrahamic traditions such as the African and Indian. African scholar Makau Mutua criticizes religious evangelism on the ground of cultural annihilation by what he calls "proselytizing universalist faiths '' (Chapter 28: Proselytism and Cultural Integrity, p. 652):
... the (human) rights regime incorrectly assumes a level playing field by requiring that African religions compete in the marketplace of ideas. The rights corpus not only forcibly imposes on African religions the obligation to compete -- a task for which as nonproselytizing, noncompetitive creeds they are not historically fashioned -- but also protects the evangelizing religions in their march towards universalization... it seems inconceivable that the human rights regime would have intended to protect the right of certain religions to destroy others.
Some Indian scholars have similarly argued that the right to propagate religion is not culturally or religiously neutral.
In Sri Lanka, there have been debates regarding a bill on religious freedom that seeks to protect indigenous religious traditions from certain kinds of missionary activities. Debates have also occurred in various states of India regarding similar laws, particularly those that restrict conversions using force, fraud or allurement.
In 2008, Christian Solidarity Worldwide, a Christian human rights non-governmental organisation which specializes in religious freedom, launched an in - depth report on the human rights abuses faced by individuals who leave Islam for another religion. The report is the product of a year long research project in six different countries. It calls on Muslim nations, the international community, the UN and the international media to resolutely address the serious violations of human rights suffered by apostates.
In Islam, apostasy is called "ridda '' ("turning back '') and is considered to be a profound insult to God. A person born of Muslim parents that rejects Islam is called a "murtad fitri '' (natural apostate), and a person that converted to Islam and later rejects the religion is called a "murtad milli '' (apostate from the community).
In Islamic law (Sharia), the consensus view is that a male apostate must be put to death unless he suffers from a mental disorder or converted under duress, for example, due to an imminent danger of being killed. A female apostate must be either executed, according to Shafi'i, Maliki, and Hanbali schools of Sunni Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh), or imprisoned until she reverts to Islam as advocated by the Sunni Hanafi school and by Shi'a scholars.
Ideally, the one performing the execution of an apostate must be an imam. At the same time, all schools of Islamic jurisprudence agree that any Muslim can kill an apostate without punishment.
However, while almost all scholars agree about the punishment, many disagree on the allowable time to retract the apostasy. Many scholars push this as far as allowing the apostate till he / she dies. Thus, practically making the death penalty just a theoretical statement / exercise. S.A. Rahman, a former Chief Justice of Pakistan, argues that there is no indication of the death penalty for apostasy in the Qur'an.
Religious practice may also conflict with secular law, creating debates on religious freedom. For instance, even though polygamy is permitted in Islam, it is prohibited in secular law in many countries. This raises the question of whether prohibiting the practice infringes on the beliefs of certain Muslims. The US and India, both constitutionally secular nations, have taken two different views of this. In India, polygamy is permitted, but only for Muslims, under Muslim Personal Law. In the US, polygamy is prohibited for all. This was a major source of conflict between the early LDS Church and the United States until the Church amended its position on practicing polygamy.
Similar issues have also arisen in the context of the religious use of psychedelic substances by Native American tribes in the United States as well as other Native practices.
In 1955, Chief Justice of California Roger J. Traynor neatly summarized the American position on how freedom of religion can not imply freedom from law: "Although freedom of conscience and the freedom to believe are absolute, the freedom to act is not. '' But with respect to the religious use of animals within secular law and those acts, the US Supreme Court decision in the case of the Church of Lukumi Babalu Aye v. City of Hialeah in 1993 upheld the right of Santeria adherents to practice ritual animal sacrifice, with Justice Anthony Kennedy stating in the decision: "religious beliefs need not be acceptable, logical, consistent or comprehensible to others in order to merit First Amendment protection '' (quoted by Justice Kennedy from the opinion by Justice Burger in Thomas v. Review Board of the Indiana Employment Security Division 450 U.S. 707 (1981)).
In 2015, Kim Davis, a Kentucky county clerk, refused to abide by the Supreme Court decision in Obergefell v. Hodges legalizing Same - sex marriage in the United States. When she refused to issue marriage licenses, she became embroiled in the Miller v. Davis lawsuit. Her actions caused attorney and author Roberta Kaplan to state that "Kim Davis is the clearest example of someone who wants to use a religious liberty argument to discriminate. ''
In 1962, the case of Engele v. Vitale went to court over the violation of the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment resulting from a mandatory nondenominational prayer in New York public schools. The Supreme Court ruled in opposition to the state.
In 1963, the Supreme Court ruled on the case of Abington School District v. Schempp. Edward Schempp sued the school district in Abington over the Pennsylvania law which required students to hear and sometimes read portions of the bible for their daily education. The court ruled in favor of Schempp and the Pennsylvania law was overturned.
In 1968, the Supreme Court ruled on the case of Epperson v. Arkansas. Susan Epperson, a high school teacher in Arkansas sued over a violation of religious freedom. The state had a law banning the teaching of evolution and the school Epperson worked for had provided curriculum which contained evolutionary theory. Epperson had to choose between violating the law or losing her job. The Supreme Court ruled to overturn the Arkansas law because it was unconstitutional.
The law in Germany provides the term of "religious majority '' (Religiöse Mündigkeit) with a minimum age for minors to follow their own religious beliefs even if their parents do n't share those or do n't approve. Children 14 and older have the unrestricted right to enter or exit any religious community. Children 12 and older can not be compelled to change to a different belief. Children 10 and older have to be heard before their parents change their religious upbringing to a different belief. There are similar laws in Austria and in Switzerland.
27 October is International Religious Freedom Day, in commemoration of the execution of the Boston martyrs, a group of Quakers executed by the Puritans on Boston Common for their religious beliefs under the legislature of the Massachusetts Bay Colony between 1659 -- 1661. The US proclaimed 16 January Religious Freedom Day.
In its 2011 annual report, the United States Commission on International Religious Freedom designated fourteen nations as "countries of particular concern ''. The commission chairman commented that these are nations whose conduct marks them as the world 's worst religious freedom violators and human rights abusers. The fourteen nations designated were Burma, China, Egypt, Eritrea, Iran, Iraq, Nigeria, North Korea, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Vietnam. Other nations on the commission 's watchlist include Afghanistan, Belarus, Cuba, India, Indonesia, Laos, Russia, Somalia, Tajikistan, Turkey, and Venezuela.
There are concerns about the restrictions on public religious dress in some European countries (including the Hijab, Kippah, and Christian cross). Article 18 of the UN International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights limits restrictions on freedom to manifest one 's religion or beliefs to those necessary to protect public safety, order, health, or morals or the fundamental rights and freedoms of others. Freedom of religion as a legal concept is related to, but not identical with, religious toleration, separation of church and state, or secular state (laïcité).
The Pew Research Center has performed studies on international religious freedom between 2009 and 2015, compiling global data from 16 governmental and non-governmental organizations -- including the United Nations, the United States State Department, and Human Rights Watch -- and representing over 99.5 percent of the world 's population. In 2009, nearly 70 percent of the world 's population lived in countries classified as having heavy restrictions on freedom of religion. This concerns restrictions on religion originating from government prohibitions on free speech and religious expression as well as social hostilities undertaken by private individuals, organisations and social groups. Social hostilities were classified by the level of communal violence and religion - related terrorism.
While most countries provided for the protection of religious freedom in their constitutions or laws, only a quarter of those countries were found to fully respect these legal rights in practice. In 75 countries governments limit the efforts of religious groups to proselytise and in 178 countries religious groups must register with the government. In 2013, Pew classified 30 % of countries as having restrictions that tend to target religious minorities, and 61 % of countries have social hostilities that tend to target religious minorities.
The countries in North and South America reportedly had some of the lowest levels of government and social restrictions on religion, while The Middle East and North Africa were the regions with the highest. Saudi Arabia, Pakistan and Iran were the countries that top the list of countries with the overall highest levels of restriction on religion. Topping the Pew government restrictions index were Saudi Arabia, Iran, Uzbekistan, China, Egypt, Burma, Maldives, Eritrea, Malaysia and Brunei.
Of the world 's 25 most populous countries, Iran, Egypt, Indonesia and Pakistan had the most restrictions, while Brazil, Japan, Italy, South Africa, the UK, and the US had some of the lowest levels, as measured by Pew.
Vietnam and China were classified as having high government restrictions on religion but were in the moderate or low range when it came to social hostilities. Nigeria, Bangladesh and India were high in social hostilities but moderate in terms of government actions.
Restrictions on religion across the world increased between mid-2009 and mid-2010, according to a 2012 study by the Pew Research Center. Restrictions in each of the five major regions of the world increased -- including in the Americas and sub-Saharan Africa, the two regions where overall restrictions previously had been declining. In 2010, Egypt, Nigeria, the Palestinian territories, Russia, and Yemen were added to the "very high '' category of social hostilities. The five highest social hostility scores were for Pakistan, India, Sri Lanka, Iraq, and Bangladesh. In 2015, Pew published that social hostilities declined in 2013, but the harassment of Jews increased.
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where was the movie the matchmaker filmed in ireland | The Matchmaker (1997 film) - wikipedia
The Matchmaker is a 1997 romantic comedy film set in Ireland and starring Janeane Garofalo.
Marcy Tizard (Janeane Garofalo) is assistant to Senator John McGlory (Jay O. Sanders) from Boston, Massachusetts. In an attempt to court the Irish - American vote in a tough re-election battle, the bumbling senator 's chief of staff, Nick (Denis Leary), sends Marcy to Ireland to find McGlory 's relatives or ancestors.
Marcy arrives at the fictional village of Ballinagra (Irish: Baile na Grá, literally the Town of Love) as it is preparing for the annual matchmaking festival. She attracts the attention of two rival professional matchmakers, Dermot (Milo O'Shea) and Millie (Rosaleen Linehan), as well as roguish bartender Sean (David O'Hara).
The locals tolerate her genealogical search while trying to match her with various bachelors. Sean tries to woo Marcy despite her resistance to his boorish manners. After they have begun their romance, they return home to Sean 's house one afternoon to find his estranged wife Moira (Saffron Burrows) waiting for them. Marcy leaves Sean, upset that he did not disclose his marriage to her.
McGlory and Nick arrive in Ballinagra, although Marcy 's been unable to locate any McGlory relatives. McGlory discovers Sean 's wife 's maiden name is Kennedy and brings her back to Boston as his fiancée just in time for the election, and wins by a small margin. While at the victory party, McGlory 's father (Robert Mandan) reveals privately to Marcy that the family is Hungarian, not Irish. The family name had been changed at Ellis Island when they immigrated, but as they settled in Boston with its large Irish population, he never told his son their true lineage.
Sean follows Marcy to Boston, and they reconcile.
The film earned $1,378,930 in its first weekend and had a total gross of $3,392,080 in 705 theatres.
Review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes gave the film a score of 52 % based on reviews from 27 critics, with an average rating of 5.5 out of 10 reviews.
Roger Ebert gives the film 3 out of 4 stars. Ebert praises Garofalo, calling her "one of the most engaging actresses around '' and admiring her balance of "her cynical intelligence and the warmth of her smile ''. Ebert finds the Irish centre of the film charming and says the Boston bookends are distracting.
The Irish Independent notes: "Bad things happen whenever Hollywood and Ireland collide and this rather thin comedy is no exception '' but say the film is helped by the central performance of Janeane Garofalo.
In a 2003 interview, when asked what films from her career she was happiest with, Garofalo included The Matchmaker among the few films she mentioned.
Marcy 's expectations clash with a host of colourful rural Irish characters in the tradition of such other works as The Irish R.M.
Filming took place on location in the town of Roundstone, County Galway. Besides the personalities of the villagers, the film establishes a sense of place through a generous use of village scenes, the local surrounding farms and a trip to the Aran Islands, with cavorting near Dún Aengus.
Worked into the story is a parody of Senator John Kerry 's family background. His paternal grandfather was from Eastern Europe, picking a new name once arriving in America and blending into the Irish Catholic community in Boston.
Irish music is heard frequently throughout, both as background music and in scenes where it is performed live as when an Irishman (Vincent Walsh) competes for a kiss from Marcy with his sean nós rendition of "Raglan Road ''.
The soundtrack features "Haunted '' by Shane MacGowan and Sinéad O'Connor. "Irish Heartbeat '' by Van Morrison and The Chieftains plays over the end credits...
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the case of richmond v. j.a. croson company limited abortion rights | City of Richmond v. J.A. Croson Co.. - Wikipedia
City of Richmond v. J.A. Croson Co., 488 U.S. 469 (1989) was a case in which the United States Supreme Court held that the city of Richmond 's minority set - aside program, which gave preference to minority business enterprises (MBE) in the awarding of municipal contracts, was unconstitutional under the Equal Protection Clause. The Court found that the city failed to identify both the need for remedial action and that other non-discriminatory remedies would be insufficient.
Croson involved a minority set - aside program in the awarding of municipal contracts. Richmond, Virginia, with a black population of just over 50 percent had set a 30 percent goal in the awarding of city construction contracts, based on its findings that local, state, and national patterns of discrimination had resulted in all but complete lack of access for minority - owned businesses. The Supreme Court stated:
We, therefore, hold that the city has failed to demonstrate a compelling interest in apportioning public contracting opportunities on the basis of race. To accept Richmond 's claim that past societal discrimination alone can serve as the basis for rigid racial preferences would be to open the door to competing claims for "remedial relief '' for every disadvantaged group. The dream of a Nation of equal citizens in a society where race is irrelevant to personal opportunity and achievement would be lost in a mosaic of shifting preferences based on inherently unmeasurable claims of past wrongs. (Citing Regents of the University of California v. Bakke). Courts would be asked to evaluate the extent of the prejudice and consequent harm suffered by various minority groups. Those whose societal injury is thought to exceed some arbitrary level of tolerability then would be entitled to preferential classification. We think such a result would be contrary to both the letter and the spirit of a constitutional provision whose central command is equality.
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ha ha this away haha that away lyrics | They 're Coming to Take Me Away, Ha - Haaa! - Wikipedia
They 're Coming to Take Me Away, Ha - Haaa! is a 1966 novelty record written and performed by Jerry Samuels (billed as Napoleon XIV), and released on Warner Bros. Records. The song became an instant success in the United States, peaking at No. 3 on the Billboard Hot 100 popular music singles chart on August 13 and reaching No. 4 on the UK Singles Chart.
Jerry Samuels was a recording engineer at Associated Recording Studios in New York at the time when the song was written. He had learned a way to alter the pitch of a track using a device called a variable - frequency oscillator (VFO) -- for example, making voices higher or lower. This gave him the idea for a song based on the rhythm of the old Scottish tune "The Campbells Are Coming ''.
The lyrics describe the effect on the mental health of an individual after a break - up. His paranoid thinking makes him believe that he is being pursued by "those nice young men in their clean white coats '' (i.e., psychiatric attendants) who are coming to transport him to the funny farm / happy home (i.e., mental hospital), and he welcomes them as an end to his misery. The main character seems to be addressing an ex-girlfriend, and describes his descent into madness after she has left him. However, the last verse of the song finishes: "They 'll find you yet and when they do / They 'll put you in the ASPCA / You mangy mutt ''.
The recording is set primarily to a rhythm tapped on a snare drum and tambourine. The performer speaks rhythmically rather than singing the lyric, and the sparse, multi-tracked looped percussion track features a siren sounding in and out of the "chorus ''. According to Samuels, the vocal glissando was achieved by Samuels ' manipulating tape recording speeds, a variation on the technique used by Ross Bagdasarian in creating the original Chipmunks novelty songs. In addition, a siren is heard when the voice gets higher, and then, dissipates when it 's back to the regular voice.
Continuing the theme of insanity, the flip or B - side of the single was simply the A-side played in reverse, and given the title "! aaaH - aH, yawA eM ekaT oT gnimoC er'yehT '' (or "Ha - Haaa! Away, Me Take to Coming They 're '') and the performer billed as "XIV NAPOLEON ''. Most of the label affixed to the B - side was a mirror image of the front label (as opposed to simply being spelled backward), including the letters in the "WB '' shield logo. Only the label name, disclaimer, and record and recording master numbers were kept frontward. The reverse version of the song is not included on the original Warner Bros. album, although the title is shown on the front cover, whereas the title is actually spelled backward.
Warner Bros. Records reissued the original single (# 7726) in 1973. It entered the Billboard Hot 100 at number 87. The reissue featured the "Burbank / palm trees '' label. As with the original release, the labels for the reissue 's B - side also included mirror - imaged print except for the disclaimer, record catalog, and track master numbers. The "Burbank '' motto at the top of the label was also kept frontward as well as the "WB '' letters in the shield logo, which had been printed in reverse on the originals.
In his Book of Rock Lists, rock music critic Dave Marsh calls the recording the "... most obnoxious song ever to appear in a jukebox, '' saying the recording once "cleared out a diner of forty patrons in three minutes flat. ''
"They 're Coming to Take Me Away, Ha - Haaa! '' has the distinction of being the song to drop the farthest within the Top 40 in a single week. It charted for six weeks during 1966. In week four, it peaked at # 3, scored # 5 in week five, and fell to # 37 in week six. This was because radio programmers removed the song from their playlists, fearing anger from people who might think it was ridiculing the mentally ill. This occurred most notably in the New York market, where both the New York Top 40 music radio stations of the time (WABC and WMCA) banned broadcasting of the song. (WABC continued to include the song on its local Top 20 list, despite no longer broadcasting it.)
Opposition to the banning saw teenagers picketing WMCA, carrying such signs as "We 're coming to take WMCA away! Unfair to Napoleon in every way. '' A plane also flew a banner to protest WMCA 's banning the record.
"I 'm Happy They Took You Away, Ha - Haaa! '' was recorded by CBS Radio Mystery Theater cast member Bryna Raeburn, credited as "Josephine XV '', and was the closing track on Side Two of the 1966 Warner Bros. album. (Josephine was the name of the spouse of the French Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte.)
A variation of "They 're Coming to Take Me Away, Ha - Haaa! '' was also done by Jerry Samuels, from that same album entitled Where the Nuts hunt the Squirrels, where Samuels, towards the end of the track, repeats the line: "THEY 'RE TRYING TO DRIVE ME SANE!!! HA HA, '' before the song 's fade, in a fast - tracked higher voice.
In 1966, KRLA DJ "Emperor Bob '' Hudson recorded a similarly styled song titled I 'm Normal, including the lines "They came and took my brother away / The men in white picked him up yesterday / But they 'll never come take me away, ' cos I 'm O.K. / I 'm normal. '' Another line in the song was: "I eat my peas with a tuning fork. '' The record was credited simply to "The Emperor. ''
In 1988, Samuels wrote and recorded "They 're Coming To Get Me Again, Ha Haaa! '', a sequel to the original record. It was included on a single two years later on the Collectables label. Recorded with the same beat as the original, and portraying Napoleon XIV relapsing to madness after being released from an insane asylum, it never charted, and was combined with the original 1966 recording on side A. (Both sequels are included on Samuels ' 1996 Second Coming album.) In the song, instead of a "mangy mutt, '' for his lost dog, Napoleon bemoans the loss of his pet monkey. ("I 'll swing you by your tail, you hairy ape! '') In the song, instead of the "funny farm '' and the "happy home '' Napoleon XIV is being taken away to the "loony bin '' and the "rubber room. '' Towards the end of the song, he relapses into the "funny farm '' and "happy home '' -- until when reality sinks in, he cries out at a fast tracked double voice with the words: "OH NO!!! '' before the beat ends with a door slam, indicating that he has been locked up in the insane asylum.
The recording appeared on disk releases by Dr. Demento in 1975 as part of Dr. Demento 's Delights, then in subsequent Dr. Demento LP records released in 1985, 1988 and 1991.
Kim Fowley released a cover of the song as his second single, after "The Trip ''.
In the UK a cover version was also released in November 1966 by the humorous pop group The Barron Knights where it was included on the B - side of their single "Under New Management ''
The Monkees ' song "Gonna Buy Me a Dog '', sung by Micky Dolenz, features Davy Jones teasing Dolenz toward the fade of the song with the words "they 're coming to take us away, ha ha '' taken from Napoleon XIV 's song.
Jeff Duff, as "Cyril Trotts '', covered "They 're Coming To Take Me Away, Ha! Ha! '' in 1984 on his To Bogna LP.
Experimental music band Nurse With Wound used some of the lyrics from the song for their limited 7 '' release "No Hiding from the Blackbird / Burial Of The Sardine ''.
Biz Markie also covers this song on Make the Music with Your Mouth, Biz, but he changes most of the lyrics.
Jello Biafra covered this song with his band Lard on their album The Last Temptation of Reid in 1990.
In 1998, Amanda Lear included this song in her compilation Made in Blood & Honey.
The song is referenced in the lyrics of the Mudvayne song "Internal Primates Forever '' on L.D. 50.
Stone Sour also covered this song on their 2001 demo CD, giving it the name "Death Dance of the Frog Fish '', and has also used it as exit music while on tour.
Swedish death industrialists Brighter Death Now included a version of the song on their 2005 recording Kamikaze Kabaret.
German industrial / EBM act Neuroticfish covered the song on Gelb in 2005.
A new version by Napoleon 's Ghost was produced by Les Fradkin in 2006. The flip or B - side of the single was recreated as well by Napoleon 's Ghost "! AaaH - aH, yawA eM ekaT oT gnimoC er'yehT ''.
Ray Stevens covered the song in 2012 for his nine - CD Encyclopedia of Recorded Comedy Music collection, complete with vocal speed changes, a drum beat, sirens, and a funny sped - up laugh.
Butcher Babies covered the song on their EP Uncovered in 2014.
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who played will on land of the lost | Land of the Lost (1974 TV series) - wikipedia
Land of the Lost (1974 -- 1976) is a children 's adventure television series created (though uncredited) by David Gerrold and produced by Sid and Marty Krofft, who co-developed the series with Allan Foshko. During its original run, it was broadcast on the NBC television network. It later aired in daily syndication from 1978 to 1985 as part of the "Krofft Superstars '' package. In 1985, it returned to late Saturday mornings on CBS as a replacement for the canceled Pryor 's Place - also a Krofft production, followed by another brief return to CBS in the Summer of 1987. It was later shown in reruns on the Sci Fi Channel in the 1990s. Reruns of this series were aired on Saturday mornings on Me - TV and are streamed online at any time on their website. It has since become a cult classic and is now available on DVD. Krofft Productions remade the series in 1991, also titled Land of the Lost, and a big budget film adaptation was released in 2009.
Land of the Lost details the adventures of the Marshall family (father Rick, and his children Will and Holly) who are trapped in an alternate universe inhabited by dinosaurs, a primate - type people called Pakuni, and aggressive humanoid / lizard creatures called Sleestak. The episode storylines focus on the family 's efforts to survive and find a way back to their own world, but the exploration of the exotic inhabitants of the Land of the Lost is also an ongoing part of the story.
An article on renewed studio interest in feature film versions of Land of the Lost and H.R. Pufnstuf commented that "decision - makers in Hollywood, and some big - name stars, have personal recollections of plopping down on the family - room wall - to - wall shag sometime between 1969 and 1974 to tune in to multiple reruns of the Kroffts ' Saturday morning live - action hits, '' and quoting Marty Krofft as saying that the head of Universal Studios, Ronald Meyer, and leaders at Sony Pictures all had been fans of Krofft programs.
A number of well - respected writers in the science fiction field contributed scripts to the series (mostly in the first and second seasons), including Larry Niven, Theodore Sturgeon, Ben Bova, and Norman Spinrad, and a number of people involved with Star Trek, such as D.C. Fontana, Walter Koenig, and David Gerrold. Gerrold, Niven, and Fontana also contributed commentaries to the DVD of the first season.
The prolific Krofft team was influential in live - action children 's television, producing many shows that were oddly formatted, highly energetic, and made frequent use of special effects, with most of them following a "stranger in a strange land '' storyline. Most of these shows were comedic in nature, but Land of the Lost was considerably more serious, especially during its first season, though as the series progressed the dramatic tone diminished.
The Marshalls are brought to the mysterious world by means of a dimensional portal, a device used frequently throughout the series and a major part of its internal mythology. This portal opens when they are swept down a gigantic 1,000 - foot waterfall. We later learn in "Circle '', which explains the time paradox, that this portal is actually opened by Rick Marshall himself, while in Enik 's cave, as a way for the current Marshalls to return to Earth, resolving the paradox and allowing Enik to also return to his time.
Outfitted only for a short camping trip, the resourceful family from California takes shelter in a natural cave and improvises the provisions and tools that they need to survive. Their most common and dangerous encounters are with dinosaurs, particularly a Tyrannosaurus rex they nickname "Grumpy '' who frequents the location of their cave. However, many of the dinosaurs are herbivores, posing no threat to the Marshalls, unless unintentionally provoked. One is a particularly tame young Brontosaurus whom Holly nicknames "Dopey '', and whom Holly looks upon as a pet.
They also encounter the mostly hostile Sleestak (lizard - men), and the primate - like creatures called Pakuni (one of whom, Cha - Ka, they befriend), as well as a variety of dangerous creatures, strange geography and unfamiliar technology.
The main goal of the three is to find a way to return home. They are occasionally aided in this by the Altrusian castaway Enik.
At the start of the third season it is explained that Rick Marshall (played by Spencer Milligan) has been accidentally returned to Earth alone, leaving his children behind. Rick is immediately replaced by his brother Jack. Rick Marshall abruptly disappeared while trying to use one of the pylons to get home; Jack stumbled upon his niece and nephew after he embarked on a search of his own to find them.
Though the term "time doorway '' is used throughout the series, Land of the Lost is not meant to portray an era in Earth 's history, but rather an enigmatic zone whose place and time are unknown. Indeed, within the first few minutes of the pilot, the Marshall family father tells his children that he spotted three moons in the sky. The original creators of these time portals were thought to be the ancestors of the Sleestak, called Altrusians, though later episodes raised some questions about this.
Many aspects of the Land of the Lost, including the time doorways and environmental processes, were controlled by the Pylons, metallic obelisk - shaped booths that were larger on the inside than the outside and housed matrix tables - stone tables studded with a grid of colored crystals. Uncontrolled time doorways result in the arrival of a variety of visitors and castaways in the Land.
Land of the Lost is notable for its epic - scale concept, which suggested an expansive world with many fantastic forms of life and mysterious technology, all created on a children 's series ' limited production budget. To support the internal mythology, linguist Victoria Fromkin was commissioned to create a special language for the Pakuni, which she based on the sounds of West African speech and attempted to build into the show in a gradual way that would allow viewers to learn the language over the course of many episodes. The series ' intention was to create a realistic fantasy world, albeit relying heavily on children 's acceptance of minor inconsistencies.
In a 1999 interview, first - season story editor and writer David Gerrold claimed that he largely created the show, based on photographs of various science fiction topoi that were bound together in a book and given him by Sid Krofft and Allan Foshko.
It was a marked departure from the Krofft team 's previous work, which mostly featured extremely stylized puppets and sets such as those in H.R. Pufnstuf and Lidsville.
The series for the first two seasons was shot on a modular indoor soundstage at General Service Studios in Hollywood, and made economical use of a small number of sets and scenic props which were rearranged frequently to suggest the ostensibly vast jungles, ancient cities and cave systems. As is traditional in many effect scenes, miniatures or scale - version settings were used for insertion of live - action scenes. Additional locations were often rendered using scale miniatures and chroma key.
Spencer Milligan departed the show at the beginning of its third season for financial reasons. In addition to a salary increase, he believed it was only fair that he and the rest of the cast receive compensation for using their image on various merchandise. His character Rick Marshall was replaced by his brother, Jack Marshall, played by actor Ron Harper. Milligan did not return for the brief scene, also shown in the credits of the third season, showing Rick Marshall being transported out of the Land of the Lost. One of the show 's crew played the role instead, wearing a wig resembling Milligan 's hair and standing with his back to the camera.
Non-human characters were portrayed by actors in latex rubber suits, or with heavy creature make - up. Dinosaurs in the series were created using a combination of stop motion animation miniatures, rear projection film effects and occasional hand puppets for close - ups of dinosaur heads. Wesley Eure points out on a commentary track for Land of the Lost 's first season DVD that the Grumpy hand puppet has no hole in the back of its throat, even though it is often seen opening its mouth wide to roar. The series marked a rare example of matting filmed stop - motion sequences with videotape live action, so as to avoid the telltale blue ' fringe ' produced in matting with less exacting processes. Though this occasionally worked very well, the difference in lighting between the video and film sequences sometimes brought inadvertent attention to the limitations of the process.
Special effects footage was frequently re-used. Additional visual effects were achieved using manual film overlay techniques, the low - tech ancestor to current motion control photography.
From 2004 to 2005, Rhino Entertainment owned the rights to the show, and released seasons one through three, and a complete series package, with several bonus features, including commentaries, on all of the releases. On May 26, 2009, Universal Studios released two complete series releases, one in original packaging, and the other enclosed in a Land of the Lost vintage lunchbox; the only bonus feature was a look at the film starring Will Ferrell. On October 13, 2009, Universal released the three seasons individually; the DVDs are identical to Universal 's Complete Series Boxes. The series is also available in Digital media format.
Despite a relatively short run, the show continued to be aired extensively through syndication. Based on that success, a remake of the series began in 1991 and ran for two seasons. The DVDs of the series earned a Saturn nomination for best retro TV series release in 2004.
On June 5, 2009 a feature film based on the 1974 TV series opened in U.S. theaters. Unlike the original series, which was a serious take on the story, the film was a comedy / parody (more likely inspired by the unsuccessful 1991 series reboot). It was directed by Brad Silberling and starred Will Ferrell, with the Krofft brothers serving as co-producers. Although the original series was aimed for children, the film 's target audience was adults.
In 2015 it was reported that Sid and Marty Kroft were working on a reboot to Land of the Lost following what they called "that other movie. '' In a 2018 podcast interview with both Sid & Marty Krofft, The Kroffts ' reconfirmed that they are still working on an updated remake to Land Of The Lost and that this time it will be an hour long series.
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what is the tv series the deuce about | The Deuce (TV series) - wikipedia
The Deuce is an American drama television series set in and around Times Square, New York City in the early 1970s. Created and written by author and former police reporter David Simon and his frequent collaborator George Pelecanos, the series pilot began shooting in October 2015. It was picked up to series in January 2016. It is broadcast by the premium cable network HBO in the United States. The first season consists of eight episodes. HBO made the pilot available through its video on demand services and affiliate portals on August 25, 2017. The series premiered on September 10, 2017.
The Deuce tells the story of the legalization and ensuing rise of the porn industry in New York beginning in the 1970s. Themes explored include the violence of the drug epidemic and the resulting real estate booms and busts that coincided with the change. The show 's title is derived from the nickname for 42nd Street between Seventh Avenue and Eighth Avenue.
On September 19, 2017, HBO renewed the series for a second season.
In New York, the violence of the drug epidemic is worsening. Twin brothers Vincent and Frankie Martino become fronts for the Mafia while operating out of Times Square, which is also the home of "Candy, '' a sex worker who turns to the now legal emerging porn industry.
Marc Henry Johnson, an assistant locations manager on Treme, introduced Simon and Pelecanos to a man in New York who told them vivid accounts from his stint as a mob front for bars and massage parlors in 1970s Manhattan. "The characters were so rich, and that 's what it all comes down to, '' said Pelecanos. Inspired by these stories, the producers set out to present a fictional account of the era. "Some of it happened, '' said Simon. "Some of it did n't happen. Some of it might have happened. But all of it could have happened. ''
... Sometimes there 's a beauty in the ugliness of the truth. To me, when you are authentic and real to what something looks like, it brings a different kind of beauty in the honesty of it.
-- Director of The Deuce pilot, Michelle MacLaren, The Ringer, September 6, 2017
The Deuce received critical acclaim. On Metacritic, it has a score of 86 out of 100 based on 34 reviews. On Rotten Tomatoes, it has a 93 % approval rating with an average rating of 8.66 out of 10 based on 72 reviews. The site 's critical consensus is, "The Deuce again demonstrates David Simon 's masterful grasp of urban grit, while never losing detailed sight of its colorful characters. ''
Daniel Fienberg of The Hollywood Reporter gave it a highly positive review, praising its ensemble cast, and wrote in conclusion, "Simon and Pelecanos are just beginning to put the machinery of The Deuce into motion in these eight episodes. As an opening act, the show 's first season is substantive, provocative and entertaining. '' Charles Bramesco of The Guardian gave it a five star review and wrote, "Simon has created his most accessible work of humanism to date, and he 's done so without sacrificing his loftier ambitions of societal critique. ''
The premiere episode received 830,000 viewers on HBO for its initial airing and an additional 342,000 viewers for its encore later that night, on September 10, 2017. The episode was previously made available online through on - demand and HBO Go on August 25 and received 1.1 million viewers. Cumulatively, through all platforms, the episode received 2.2 million viewers.
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what happened to the actors in last of the summer wine | List of last of the Summer Wine characters - Wikipedia
The following is a list of characters in the BBC sitcom Last of the Summer Wine. The series focused primarily on a trio of old men and their interaction with other characters in the town. Due to the longevity of the series it was often necessary to replace key characters due to an actor 's death, illness, or unavailability for other reasons. Many characters were first seen in "one - off '' appearances and were popular enough or felt to have enough potential for them to be brought back as regulars, in some instances replacing previous members of the cast.
(1973 -- 1975) The first "third man '', and the most childishly argumentative and snobbish, Blamire was the contrast to Compo. Blamire was fired up by displays of youthful enthusiasm, energetic gusto, or any sign of the British spirit. He served as a corporal in the British Army in the Royal Signals regiment during "The Great Fight for Freedom '' as a "supply wallah '' (a storeman) in India and retains his military bearing. He was a Tory and a self - important know - it - all with upper - class aspirations, who often dissociated himself from the other two, especially Compo, as he considered himself superior to them. Because of his sophisticated interests and insistence on table manners, Compo liked to refer to him as a "poof '' (in turn, Cyril would often use insults such as "grotty little herbert '' to Compo). Cyril would often reprimand Compo whenever he addressed him by his given name, as he preferred the "more rounded tone of Mr. Blamire '' and would say that Compo had to touch his "tatty cap '' whenever he did so. Out of all of the third men, Blamire tolerated Compo 's antics the least (though sometimes when he got caught up in them he would join in, such as backchatting Miss Probert on one occasion). In spite of this, Compo and Blamire were close, as shown by Compo 's misery in the episodes immediately after he left. Despite his snobby nature Blamire had more commonsense than most of his successors. Bates left the cast in 1975 due to cancer that left him too ill to perform in any long - term projects aside from It Ai n't Half Hot Mum. So Blamire was written out of the series; it was said that he had left to get married. The last we hear of him is a very organised letter, instructing Clegg and Compo to meet their old classmate, Foggy Dewhurst.
(1976 -- 1985, 1990 -- 1997) The successor to Blamire, Foggy was a former soldier who liked to boast of his military exploits in Burma during the Second World War. In fact, he was a signwriter; and unlike Blamire, many of his old military stories were untrue.
Although he considered himself very regimental and heroic, when confronted Foggy was generally meek and incompetent. Like the previous third man -- and all subsequent third men -- he considered himself the leader of the trio, and frequently took charge of Compo and Clegg. Foggy was infamous for trying to figure out a solution to the trio 's everyday problems, only to make them much worse. In earlier years Foggy wore a scarf with regimental colours on it. When Wilde left the series in 1985 to star in his own sitcom and to pursue other TV work, it was explained that Foggy had moved to Bridlington to take over his family 's egg - painting business.
Returning in 1990 after the sudden departure of Michael Aldridge, he claimed he had tired of egg painting, and wanted to return to his old life. A regular skit from this period included Foggy crossing paths with a stranger and then rambling about his supposed military career, typically boring each stranger to death. At other times he would try and recreate scenarios from his military days which also confused and bored passing strangers. He would often explain that he was a trained killer, which would inevitably lead to him getting into trouble and on the odd occasion being arrested (stupidly, he could never understand why people always found this explanation strange). During his second stint Foggy was shown to have mellowed somewhat and he did not argue with Compo as much as he had done previously. In 1997, when Wilde 's illness stopped him taking part, he was written out of the series in the Special, "There Goes the Groom '', in which the character was only seen in brief, non-face shots, played by a double; this episode also introduced his successor, Truly.
An unconscious, hung - over Foggy was swept off to Blackpool by the local postmistress. There he inadvertently proposed to her in a verbal slip - up over the wedding rings of which he had taken charge "for safe keeping '' (out of the dubious care of Best Man, Barry). But he must have at least liked her, as he was never heard from again after that. Foggy 's real first name was revealed to be Walter (with the middle initial "C ''); "Foggy '' is a nickname, derived from the traditional song "The Foggy Foggy Dew ''; perhaps also because, in his earlier episodes, he would occasionally "blank out '' everything around him to help him concentrate, particularly when he was thinking up new ideas or finding solutions to problems. This is particularly noticeable in the episode "The Man from Oswestry ''. In one of his earlier episodes, his name is hinted to be Oliver when Clegg finds one of his old army trunks with the initials ' COD '. (Because he was a corporal in the army). Due to his dislike of Compo 's attire and nature he was often seen making insults of disgust to Clegg and often addressed Compo as "him '' or "that man ''.
Foggy was played by Colin Harris in ' There Goes The Groom '.
(1986 -- 1990) The first successor to Foggy. A snobbish inventor, Edie 's and Ros 's brother Seymour always felt it was his duty to educate the masses, and in particular, Compo and Clegg, to whom he was reintroduced by his brother - in - law, Wesley Pegden (who often called him a pillock), shortly before the wedding of Wesley 's daughter. Seymour went to school with Clegg and Compo but lost touch when he went to grammar school. Whereas Cyril and Foggy tried to solve the problems of the residents of Holmfirth, when Seymour was around he always liked to invent, but the resulting inventions invariably led to disaster -- especially for Compo, who was always the reluctant test subject and called him a twit whenever anything went disastrously wrong. Despite this, he was well - liked by the other two and was more willing to play along with their childish antics than his predecessors. He did have occasional bouts of bravery: in one episode he contradicted Pearl, Ivy and Nora Batty in one sitting for which Clegg, Compo and a random passer - by heartily congratulated him.
Seymour usually blamed the failure of his inventions on divine punishment for his once having had an affair with a barmaid. Seymour 's house, outside the town, was modified into a laboratory, filled with new devices and contraptions that seldom, if ever, worked properly. His sister Edie always spoke very highly of him and how he was ' educated ', refusing to take into account his continual failed inventions (though she would secretly be embarrassed by his involvement in the antics of the other two). Because Seymour 's inventions were always built poorly he would normally get Wesley to fix them (or he would just get Wesley to build them in the first place, much to the latter 's annoyance). Seymour had previously been the headmaster of a school, although it is not entirely clear how successful he was in running it. When Compo and Clegg were in his home Seymour would often put on his old headmaster 's gown and treat the two of them like schoolchildren when trying to explain a new invention. He sometimes appeared to take an unhealthy delight in corporal punishment, and was appalled to hear that it has been prohibited.
When Aldridge left the series in 1990 for personal reasons, Seymour was last seen leaving on a bus to take up a new job as interim headmaster at a private school -- just as previous third man Foggy returned.
There were allegedly plans for Seymour to make a comeback, but Michael Aldridge died in 1994. The character was never alluded to again.
(1997 -- 2010) The second (and last) successor to Foggy. A retired policeman, Truly was initially played with a pompous self - importance in all things criminal. However, this aspect of the character was fairly quickly softened, and Truly is more relaxed and fun - loving, and can be more of an equal match at the local pub than his predecessors as third man. He can also be a bit more devious with practical jokes or witty schemes. Likewise, he can be equally sly in getting people out of a scrape or just helping out a friend. He is divorced, and makes disparaging comments about "the former Mrs. Truelove '' (who evidently feels the same way about him, judging by the reaction of her new husband, who appears in one episode, to Truly). The former Mrs Truelove is an unseen character. Because of his previous job in the police, Truly refers to himself as "Truly of the Yard '', he was also once misheard and thought to have said he was "Trudy '' (of the Yard). In early appearances he was initially shown as snobbish and pompous, like his predecessors (sometimes taking out his police notebook in unnecessary situations) but he gradually became a more likeable character and made less snide remarks over Compo 's attire. He also appeared to be more respected than his predecessors by the other regular characters such as Wesley and Howard as well as the local ladies. In the two final series he is demoted to a secondary character along with Norman Clegg, so his role as third man was filled by Hobbo.
(1999, 2000, 2001 -- 2006) Billy Hardcastle was first introduced in the 1999 series as a guest star and also appeared in the 2000 New Year 's special and a guest role in the 2000 series. Because of his popularity, he was made a regular character in the 2001 series.
Billy believes he is a direct descendant of Robin Hood. His first appearance on the show showed him attempting to recruit a band of Merry Men to go with him while he robs from the rich to give to the poor. At the end of the 21st series, Billy moves next door to Truly and is teamed as the third member of the trio. When Billy joined with Clegg and Truly, much of the humour Compo previously brought to the series returned in Billy 's childlike demeanour, although an element of physical humour was still lacking in the series. On his first appearance, Nora was shown to be attracted to him dressed in his Robin Hood costume, which made Compo extremely jealous and decided to dress up as Robin Hood himself. Much of his dialogue bemoaned the domestic presence of "the wife '' or "the wife 's sister '' (two other characters who are never seen, only referred to). Billy was last seen at the end of the 27th series following the departure of Keith Clifford from the show and the character was never alluded to again.
(2003 -- 2010) Alvin Smedley was introduced in the 2003 series as Nora Batty 's new next door neighbour following the death of Compo. When Tom 's former acquaintance, Mrs. Avery, gives up the lease she owns on Compo 's old house, Alvin purchases it. Although he publicly claims to hate Nora Batty, he feels it is his duty to try to bring some joy to her life, often in the form of practical jokes similar to those Compo once played on her. In the 2005 series he joined the main trio thus making them a quartet (this was largely to compensate for Clegg 's decreasing role) but after the 2006 series following Billy Hardcastle 's departure the quartet once again became a trio although in the 2007 and 2008 series he was mostly teamed up with Entwistle. His arrival to the main trio brought a sense physical humour that had been missing since Compo 's death. Despite his childlike personality, he was shown to be more level headed than his predecessors. In the final two series he and Entwistle teamed up with Hobbo, thus making a new trio.
(2002 -- 2010) Electrician and fortune - teller from the land of eastern wisdom, Hull. His original surname was McIntyre, but he changed it so that people would n't mistake him for a Scotsman. When Wesley died, Entwistle took over his job of shuttling the others across the countryside, in a battered red Toyota Hilux pick - up truck, and occasionally constructing the various contraptions the main trio produce. He also seemed to be taking over a character version of Auntie Wainwright, although he mainly sold second - hand washing machines.
Following the departure of Billy Hardcastle in series 28, Entwistle was often paired with Alvin, with many stories revolving around their dealings with Howard or Barry. During this period his role increased and he often hung around with the main trio (sometimes to compensate for Clegg 's decreasing role.) In series 30 and 31, Entwistle became the second man (officially taking over from Clegg) in a new trio when Hobbo arrived and recruited Alvin and Entwistle to form a band of volunteers to respond to emergencies in the village.
(2008 -- 2010) Hobbo is a former milkman with ties to MI5 who was first introduced in the 2008 New Years special, to set up his role in the upcoming 30th series. He is Clegg 's new next door neighbour. Upon first arriving in the village, Hobbo recruits Alvin and Entwistle to form a small band of volunteers who will react to any emergency that arises in the village, thus forming a new trio (with Hobbo taking Truly 's role in the trio). Hobbo is incredibly cautious, and always on the lookout for enemy attack. He fondly remembers his time spent with MI5, when he used to leap from aeroplanes ("Holding crates of milk? '' asks Entwistle) and dive for cover from enemy fire. Throughout his time on the show Hobbo is convinced that Nelly is his mother and he frequently bothers her (or uses other people) for attention, much to her annoyance. Clegg and Truly recall that Hobbo was never much of a milkman but was exemplary at needlework. He was also one of the last new characters to be introduced to the series.
(1975, 1976, 1977 -- 1987) Nora 's perennially shell - shocked husband and Compo 's next - door neighbour, Wally Batty was a short quiet man, kept on a short leash by his wife. His relationship with Nora stood in stark contrast to Compo 's unrequited lust after her; in fact, he often welcomed the prospect of Compo running off with her. Initially mentioned but not seen, he first appeared on screen in 1975. He was generally seen doing chores or stealing a quick moment away from Nora at the pub. Despite being dominated by his wife, Wally had an acerbic wit (like that of Norman Clegg) and was often quick to reply with a sharp - tongued comment when Nora told him off (though this often caused more trouble for him from Nora). Wally had a passion for racing pigeons and owned a motorbike and sidecar, occasionally taking Nora for a spin around the countryside. When Joe Gladwin died in 1987, Wally died off screen, but he is still occasionally mentioned. (Note: in the pilot episode of the series, which was part of the Comedy Playhouse strand, Nora referred to her unseen husband as Harold, not Wally.) Joe Gladwin last appeared in series 9. He died just days before the broadcast of his final appearance.
(2008 -- 2010) Stella is Nora 's sister, she first appeared in the 2008 New Years Special, I Was A Hitman for Primrose Dairies as a replacement for and to compensate for the absence of actress Kathy Staff, (who was unable to continue her role as Nora owing to ill health and subsequent death).
With Nora having departed for Australia, Stella moved in to house - sit for her sister, and had become a new member of the elder women 's talking circle. She is a former pub landlady and appears to take a more free - spirited approach to life than Nora, as evidenced by her brighter wardrobe and hair. The storyline in her first episode saw her trying to give up smoking, and her yearning for a cigarette has continued unabated into subsequent episodes. Despite this she was equally annoyed as Nora by the pranks that Alvin played on her.
Stella has four siblings: Madge, Billy, Clara and Nora (See Nora Batty).
In the episode "Get Out of That, Then '' Young wore a brown wig and played the part of Florrie, wife of Barry 's cousin Lenny (Bobby Ball).
(1973 -- 2010) joint owner of tea - shop with husband Sid, with whom she would often have blazing rows in the kitchen, until his death. She later ran it alone. Physically formidable, she viciously scolded anyone who dared misbehave or criticize the food by throwing them out the cafe or often hitting them on the head with a tray. Generally the wisest and most level - headed of the show 's female social circle, she was also on occasion a target of Compo 's (unwanted) affection, who often said that if it was n't for Nora Batty, he 'd be all over her. This regularly resulted in Compo along with the others (sometimes including Sid) being thrown out or being on the receiving end of her anger in other ways. In earlier episodes she was shown to tolerate the main trio more when they visited the cafe. Eventually she became more strict with them (especially after Sid 's death), although after Compo 's death she became kinder to the trio. When taking into account Kathy Staff 's brief exit from the show in 2001 and later absence from series 30 to series 31 (see above), Jane Freeman as Ivy is the only character other than Clegg (Peter Sallis) to have been present throughout the course of the series (274 episodes, although Clegg is the only one to have appeared in every single episode). In some of the episodes she seemed to have a sort of rivalry with Nora participating in what Nora once called a "slanging match '' Ivy would often criticize Nora 's taste in hats and Nora in turn once said Ivy 's pastry was n't light enough which succeeded in bringing Ivy to the verge of tears. On the other hand, Nora and Ivy are normally best friends with each other like their husbands and the two were regularly seen to be having a coffee together chatting about the downsides of men and life in general. Nora would also sometimes help Ivy and Sid with the café (on one occasion Wally was also shown helping them).
(1973 -- 1983), bluff tea - shop owner, who featured prominently for the first ten years, before Comer 's death in 1984. Ivy remembers him fondly, and often mentions him in conversation. Sid was one of the few characters who actually seemed to enjoy getting involved in the misadventures of the three central characters, and often saw them as an excuse to get out of the cafe for a few hours. However, occasionally he was shown to be extremely irritated by some of their schemes and antics (most notably in the episode "Getting on Sidney 's wire '' where he gets angry with Foggy for ruining his attempts to fit a new doorbell to the cafe and subsequently throws him out). Like Wally Batty he often welcomed Compo 's affection for his wife. In one episode he remarks that he "ca n't help admiring (Compo 's) nerve ''.
Ivy and Sid often shouted and argued with each other (and Ivy was never shy about bringing up Sid 's infidelity), but, as with many of the show 's couples, there was little doubt that they loved each other. Throughout his time in the series Sid and Wally were shown to be best friends and the two of them often joined each other in trying to sneak away from their wives to the pub or any other activity (often involving the main trio). Another long running gag during his time on the show were ongoing rumours of his supposed affair with a local unseen bus conductress (likely to be an early structure for Howard and Marina). Ivy was aware of this and often accused him of being unfaithful. Although Sid once admitted to the trio he was friends with the conductress, he always flatly denied the rumours and despite the odd verbal hint very little evidence of this was ever seen onscreen.
For John Comer 's last ever appearance, in the 1983 feature - length Christmas special, ' Getting Sam Home ', illness caused by cancer affected his speech, and so his lines were dubbed over by another actor, Tony Melody. Comer died two months later in February 1984. Sid 's death was not referred to until "Uncle of the Bride '' on New Year 's Day 1986. It is hinted (after his death) by Ivy that Sid was a supporter of Manchester United (though this was not mentioned when he was alive).
In the 2000 episode "Just a Small Funeral '' as Ivy is getting ready for Compo 's funeral, she finds a photo of Sid in her handbag.
(1984, 1985 -- 1987) Sid and Ivy 's giant, lumbering and very strong nephew, who looked like a younger version of his own late uncle.
The character was first introduced in 1984, following the death of John Comer (who played Sid in the series). Crusher helped his widowed auntie Ivy out in the cafe for 31⁄2 years. His real name was Milburn, but he insisted on being called "Crusher ''. He was influenced by the Rock and Rollers of the 1950s and was into heavy metal music. Well - meaning but not overly bright, he was rather easily led. Crusher was first seen in the touring stage show around 1984 before being introduced into the 8th series. In the 1988 Christmas Special "Crums '' he was shown to have a girlfriend (though Crusher himself did not appear in this episode as Jonathan Linsley had left the show by then) named Fran (played by Yvette Fielding) who, according to Ivy, was as daft as he is. In his early episodes, he seemed to have a crush on Marina much to Ivy 's displeasure. This stemmed from the fact that Ivy told him to find "some poor lass that 's had a hard time ''.
However Crusher did not return in the tenth series, as Jonathan Linsley left the show to work on other TV projects: most of the character 's humour came from the contrast between his menacing size and his total harmlessness. Following his departure in early 1988 (after the 1987 Christmas special), Ivy ran the cafe alone (with occasional help from Nora Batty).
(Tony Haygarth, 1973) A forgotten character, Chip was Compo 's nephew from the first series episode 3 Pate and Chips. Chip and his wife Connie, played by Margaret Nolan, with their children and dog, take the Yorkshire trio to a large country home for a ' bit of culture ' in a cramped van for transport (much to Cyril 's disgust). When they arrive at the country home Cyril points out that Chip has n't renewed his Road Fund License since 1967.
(Paul Luty, 1976) Big Malcolm is revealed to be, in "The Man From Oswestry '' Compo 's cousin and he appeared in just two 1976 episodes. Within hours of his arrival in "The Man from Oswestry '', Foggy is unfortunate enough to let Big Malcolm overhear him in a pub, saying he will fight to the death anyone who mocks his regimental scarf. Foggy is taken outdoors by Big Malcolm and returns the worse for wear. Several episodes later, Malcolm is one of the family guests in "Going to Gordon 's Wedding ''.
(Philip Jackson, 1976) An oft - forgotten character, Gordon was Compo 's gormless fishing - obsessed nephew, and appeared in a few 1976 episodes, joining the trio on a Bank Holiday trip to Scarborough. He became friendly with a young woman named Josie whilst in Scarborough, and married her in a later episode. In some ways he was a prototype of Barry, who was introduced in the mid-1980s. When he is married, it is revealed he has a sister, Julie. In the same episode his mother states to him that he 's "queer '', much to his annoyance, as he reveals that he knows there 's been some rumors to that effect.
(Liz Goulding, 1976) Another forgotten character, Josie met Compo 's nephew Gordon in the trio 's Bank Holiday trip to Scarborough. She and Gordon go back to Gordon 's room at the Guest House at which they are staying, and start a game of chess. In a later episode, she and Gordon marry, but as the wedding turns more and more disastrous, she turns more and more into her rather foreboding and complaining mother, Madge (Joan Scott). It is unknown what became of her and Gordon after the wedding.
(Margaret Burton, 1976) Compo 's sister - in - law, and mother of Gordon and his sister Julie. She is flamboyent in her dress, and screeches instead of shouts. She is the object of Big Malcolm and Eric 's, affections, and hits both Malcolm and Eric with her handbag when they attempt to drag her to two different seats at once. It is revealed her husband, Compo 's brother, left her with Julie and Gordon a few years back. Like Gordon and Josie, it is unknown what happened to her after Gordon 's wedding.
(Barry Hart, 1976) Eric 's exact relationship to Compo is unknown, and he only appears in one episode, but he is shown to have feelings for Gordon 's mother Dolly, and that he drinks a lot, and almost gets in a fight with Big Malcolm. In his only appearance, he is a guest at Gordon 's wedding. Eric is also referred to, but not seen, in the episode of the first series, "Short Back and Palais Glide. '' When the trio are in the police station whilst looking for Mr Wainwright, the desk sergeant asks Compo, "How 's your Eric? ''
(Tom Owen, 2000 -- 2010) Compo 's long - lost son, arriving just after his father 's death, Tom is played by Bill Owen 's real - life son. Tom is a layabout like Compo but seems a bit more enterprising in his attempts to maintain his slothful lifestyle. Originally it was planned that Tom would fill the gap in the three - man line - up left by his father, but it was soon felt that this line - up did not quite work. For most of his time in the series, he was paired with Smiler working for Auntie Wainwright, and also, in one episode, goes to live with Smiler (though it 's not clear if this continued). Of the duo, he designates himself the ' leader ' and the planner (often leaving Smiler to struggle with Auntie Wainwright 's antiquated hand - cart while he strolls on ahead), although in truth, he is not particularly bright himself. After Smiler was written out of the series, Tom continued to work for Aunty Wainwright until the conclusion of the show 's run. Clegg and Truly often take advantage of his desire to live up to his father 's reputation in order to convince him to do rather stupid things. After the death of Compo, Nora feels somewhat maternal towards Tom, and often showers him with affection -- much to the embarrassment of Tom. He also has a scruffy puppet dog called Waldo which he aspires to use in an unconvincing ventriloquist act. When not working for Auntie Wainwright, Tom can usually be found in his allotment shed, avoiding the repo man (he rarely, if ever used his allotment to grow vegetables). When he first arrived in the series, Tom also had a tatty old yellow Renault van, but this was seen in only a couple of his early appearances. (Note: For some years before joining the series as Tom Simmonite, Tom Owen sometimes appeared in small walk - on parts on the show (for instance appearing on the 1991 Christmas special), sometimes with no dialogue, and not always credited.)
(Julie T. Wallace, 2000 -- 2001) Tom 's live - in "associate ''; much larger than him, and something of a battle - axe, yet rather easily manipulated. Although Tom always insisted that she was merely an acquaintance, Mrs Avery always wanted more, and was under the impression that Tom had promised to marry her. After a brief spell of living in the pair 's bus, they moved into the deceased Compo 's home, next - door to Nora Batty. During her stay at Compo 's home, she began a rivalry with Nora, often copying each other (cleaning their windows or vacuuming their rugs). This was not to last; she threw him out and disappeared from the series after only a year on the show.
(Helen Turaya, 2000) Along with Tom Simmonite was Babs, Mrs. Avery 's niece, involved in a couple of schemes. The character was so unpopular that she was axed after just three episodes without explanation.
Seymour Utterthwaite was the third man of the trio from 1986 to 1990. He left the series in 1990 when Foggy Dewhurst returned to the show, but his family had gained so much popularity themselves that they remained on the show.
(1982, 1984, 1985 -- 2002) Edie 's husband, who spent all his time in his workshop / garage.
In one of the most popular and often reused scenes in the series, Edie would call Wesley in from his garage (after much shouting, first in gentle ' posh ' tones, before ending up in harsh yelling) and would lay down a trail of newspaper for him to stand on -- often putting one on the wall just in time as he leaned against it. Wesley generally kept out of Edie 's way in his garage, restoring old motors.
The character first appeared in the 1982 episode ' Car and Garter ' in a cameo role. The writer and producers liked him so much they brought him back for the 1984 Christmas Special ' The Loxley Lozenge ' and again twice in the 1985 episode ' Who 's Looking After The Cafe Then? '. He reappeared in the 1985 feature - length Christmas special ' Uncle Of The Bride ', in which he was established as Edie 's husband, at which point both became regulars from this special thereafter.
Mechanic Wesley was often called upon by the main trio to construct the many bizarre creations they came up with, and to drive them into the hills for test runs. One recurring theme is the occasional explosion caused by projects in Wesley 's shed accompanied by billows of white smoke. On some occasions, Wesley 's hat is also smouldering and smoking. In his early years in the series, Wesley seemed to have a love of loud rock music, which led to the trio desperately trying to call over it to get his attention on a number of occasions. Though he was clearly a very skilled builder and mechanic, much of his projects were poorly and hastily built and he would get easily embarrassed and annoyed by anyone managing to fix something he ca n't (notably, Compo once managed to rewire Edie 's car correctly, much to Wesley 's annoyance). Unlike Edie, Wesley did not speak highly of Seymour (Wesley calling him a pillock) and was often annoyed by Seymour 's requests to construct the latter 's ridiculous inventions as well as Seymour 's pompous school headmaster nature. His attitude towards Foggy was similar to that of Seymour but during later years when Truly was introduced on the show he was shown to be more willing to help the trio out in their schemes. Sometimes Wesley would be extremely secretive about his inventions (largely down to his fear of other people copying them) but they were often exposed by the main trio or Edie and would go to extreme lengths to hide what he was building (on one occasion he kept a guard dog in his shed that chased Barry away).
When Gordon Wharmby died in 2002, the character is said to have also died. Although he was not formally written out, subsequent references to him were in the past tense.
(1986, 1987, 1988 -- 2003), a highly opinionated older woman, sister of Seymour Utterthwaite (who called her Edith) and Wesley 's wife, she was the house - proud hostess of the women 's coffee mornings. She was introduced, along with Seymour, daughter Glenda and son - in - law Barry in the 1986 New Years Day special episode "Uncle of the Bride '' (husband Wesley had been introduced in 1982, 4 years before).
The ladies ' tea parties, where they would sit and discuss life (particularly the shortcomings of men), became a popular staple of the show from the 1990s onwards; they were usually held in Edie 's front room. Wesley restored a convertible car for her to drive, although she was a terrible driver, and was always accusing Wesley of moving things (particularly the gear lever) around. The other ladies (including Glenda) often accompanied her on the roads and as a result of Edie 's poor driving, they would be fearing for their lives. Another running gag was Edie making a big performance of locking the front door, repeatedly pushing it to check that it was locked properly. When her brother Seymour was around Edie would speak very highly of him and his inventions (refusing to count his numerous failed ones) despite the other ladies thinking he is just as daft as the rest of the trio (although when Seymour 's antics became extreme she would secretly be annoyed and embarrassed).
In later years Hird, who was still in the series at the age of 90, suffered poor health, which affected her ability to stand. To cover this, she was often seen sitting down, or, when standing, had something to hold on to (often out of camera shot). For driving and distance shots, her double, Amy Shaw, was used.
When Thora Hird died in 2003, Edie was also said to have died. As with her husband Wesley previously, it was not immediately made obvious, but later references to the character indicated that she had died. In the final three series, a framed photo of Edie can be seen on Barry and Glenda 's mantelpiece.
In one episode Barry talks about ghosts and Glenda asks if he had seen her mother. Barry 's response in the negative includes immense gladness, in that she scared him enough alive.
For the first few series in which she appeared, Edie was extremely concerned with her reputation in the neighbourhood: whenever there was company, Edie would try to put on a posh, educated voice -- which would suddenly vanish when she was shouting for (or at) Wesley. This aspect of Edie 's character was a prototype for Hyacinth Bucket in Keeping Up Appearances (also written by Roy Clarke). Once the latter series was created, this aspect of Edie 's personality was toned down a bit (although not completely) in order to differentiate the two characters.
(Sarah Thomas: 1986, 1987, 1988 -- 1990, 1991 -- 2010) daughter of Edie and Wesley. The other women in the group consider that she is somewhat naive, despite her being middle - aged. When her mother was alive, if she attempted to join in a mature conversation, Edie would snap "Drink your coffee! '' She speaks glowingly of her husband Barry, but is often insecure and unsatisfied with him at home, often because of the pressure of her mother and other ladies in the group. She often comes to the defence of men when other women in the group speak the worst about them and does not believe that all men are evil, as they do. Likewise she is generally shown to be kinder to the main trio than the other ladies (particularly when her uncle Seymour was with them and notably in the episode "The McDonaghs of Jamieson Street '' she lends Billy a skirt after his trousers are mauled by a vicious dog). She appears, like her husband, to have a very meek demeanour, but under duress she has proven to be quite a force to be reckoned with. In the very last episode of the programme, Glenda clearly seems to have joined the bossy Yorkshire women 's brigade in her suggestions to Barry and Morton that are, in Barry 's words "not optional ''. Although the rest of the ladies (particularly Pearl) disliked the flirtatious Marina, Glenda was seen to strike up friendship with her on a number of occasions (although this role was generally taken by Miss Davenport in the later series).
(1986 -- 1990, 1996 -- 2010) meek and mild husband of Glenda. Dull and ineffectual, accountant Barry strives for adventure but seems destined for paperwork and domesticity. His one pride is his shiny new car, which he was always trying to keep away from father - in - law Wesley, who could not resist tinkering under the bonnet (although in one episode, he did completely dismantle the engine).
Barry is often trying out new hobbies in an attempt to stop his life being humdrum; and in more recent years, has made a number of attempts to fit in at a local golf club, often upsetting the golf captain "the Major ''. Though he clearly loved his wife he was afraid to kiss her in public, out of fear of being judged by the neighbors. He was also afraid of his mother in law Edie, largely because she (along with the other ladies) would often judge Barry or accuse him of being guilty. In later series Barry became more regularly involved in the schemes of the main trio and in series 28 -- 29 was often involved in schemes with Alvin, Entwistle and Howard. After being introduced in the feature - length "Uncle of the Bride '' in 1986, which centres around Barry and Glenda 's wedding, Barry was much - mentioned but not seen for around six years when Mike Grady originally left to pursue several other television projects, before returning as a regular from 1996 thereafter. He is one of the few characters to have left the series but returned in later series.
(2000, 2001 -- 2005) Edie 's and Seymour 's sister, who has always been more romantically adventurous, to Edie 's unending shame. She often speaks of past flings, frequently with married men. She was often paired with Pearl Sibshaw. Ros was last seen at the end of the 26th series following the departure of Dora Bryan owing to ill health. Her role of being paired with Pearl was replaced by June Whitfield 's character Nelly.
Before Ros actually appeared in the series, she had never been mentioned and it was not known that Edie and Seymour even had a sister.
(1985, 1986 -- 2010) Howard is the shy, beady - eyed, constantly conniving, simpering, henpecked husband of Pearl. Doubtless owing to his wife 's domineering nature, Howard often tries to escape from her. Most episodes involve Howard dating peroxide blonde, Marina, behind his wife 's back. In most episodes, Marina would simper, "Oh Howard. '', followed by Howard 's "Oh Marina. '' - sometimes the order was reversed, He is a creative but unconvincing liar. He and Pearl live next door to Clegg, and, much to the annoyance of the latter, Howard is always pestering him for aid in his various schemes to escape Pearl and be with Marina. Over the years he has come up with countless disguises, cover stories and hideaways to allow him to see Marina, all of which have ultimately been doomed or exposed by Pearl. In their earlier appearances, they were frequently shown in disguise with Howard saying, "I think we 've really cracked it this time ''. However, he tends to ignore Marina when he 's out with her, partly out of fear of his wife Pearl, and partly because he gets so deeply caught up in fabricating charades to cover up his affair. As a result, their relationship does not appear to have gone beyond hand - holding and gazing into each other 's eyes (much to the annoyance of Marina), and the occasional kiss in a field, haystack, or mobile hut somewhere, and it is hinted that if Howard ever did get the chance, he would be too cowardly to go through with it anyway. It has also been suggested that Howard loves Pearl underneath it all. In later series Howard was shown to be out of the house more regularly (despite Pearl knowing about his attempted affair with Marina) and eventually became more involved in the schemes of the main trio. Howard first appeared in the Bournemouth summer season show of the series, and was popular enough and felt to have enough potential that he was soon made a regular character. At first, he, Pearl and Marina were used semi-regularly, but as time passed and their popularity grew, they appeared in every episode (particularly after Wally Batty died). Howard and Pearl 's surname was given as Sibshaw in Roy Clarke 's novel ' The Moonbather ' in 1987, but only mentioned once in the entire TV series, in one of the last episodes, when Glenda refers to Howard as Mr. Sibshaw.
(1985, 1986 -- 2010) Howard 's wife, a bit of a shrew and always one step ahead of his crafty schemes, she is often shown to know about his (attempted) affair with Marina, but is almost gleefully obsessed with exposing Howard 's philandering and generally tormenting him. Although she has a fearsome reputation, she, like Nora, occasionally surprises Norman Clegg and others (not including Howard) with displays of kindness, especially after Compo died. She also showed shock when, after seeing Howard in the appropriate uniform, believed he had joined the French foreign legion and outright fainted in a Christmas Special when Compo casually remarked that Howard was in Wesley 's hearse.
When she was first introduced on the show, Pearl was somewhat naive, especially towards Howard 's affair with Marina. When introduced to the ladies ' tea group, Nora, Ivy, and Edie integrated her into the group and, over time, her demeanour has hardened.
(1985, 1986 -- 2010) Busty but over-age, Howard 's love interest Marina works in a local supermarket. Despite her carefree appearance, Marina is a long - suffering type, having to deal with the disapproval of the prominent village women, the indirect wrath of Pearl, and timorous and neglectful romancing by Howard. She is often thought of as a "tart '', and not without reason. She seems to have a soft spot for Clegg (often referring to him as "Norman Clegg that was '' implying that they have a past), and occasionally briefly leaves Howard for other men. In the episode "A Double For Howard '', she is also content for Eli to kiss her when he impersonates Howard. Marina works as a check - out girl at the local Co-op (although in more recent series, the store 's name has been seen as Lodges); Howard often sneaks there to pass or receive notes from her (or more often sends Norman Clegg in his place; leading on several occasions for Marina to believe mistakenly that Clegg is interested in her romantically). In A Sidecar Named Desire Clegg reveals that he was once trapped in a lift with Marina and she cuddled him for warmth, much to Howard 's ire and jealousy. Though she perceived it to be a romantic incident, it left Clegg terrified of her. Clegg always strongly denies any romantic interest in her. Marina first appeared in the spin - off 1984 Eastbourne summer season show, and soon became a regular character.
(1988, 1989, 1992 -- 2010) Howard 's aunt. A sly and grasping bric - a-brac shop owner. Whilst she and her nephew both have a general predisposition towards sneakiness, Auntie Wainwright is much more adept at applying it.
Clegg is reluctant to go into her shop, since she always sells him something he does n't want, but she usually finds ways to trick him into entering. She is extremely mean, and pretends to be cheated when she gives the slightest discount. At Compo 's funeral, she grabbed Eli by the arm and pretended to be blind in order to avoid giving money to a collection outside the church. Whenever customers entered the shop she would surprise them by talking through a loudspeaker, saying things like "Stay where you are! '', "Do n't touch anything or you will be electrocuted '', (or things of that nature). Though she is largely based in her usual junk shop, she was occasionally shown to own (or she was the tenant of) other shops and even junkyards (which comes to the shock of the trio and other characters). She was also extremely security conscious (even pointing a shotgun at the trio on one occasion).
As with several other characters, she was originally seen in a "one - off '' appearance in the 1988 Christmas Special Crums. However she became so popular that she was brought back for a second appearance at Christmas 1989, eventually becoming a regular from 1992 thereafter.
She may have had a sister called Elsie -- this is the name of Howard 's mother.
Note: Auntie Wainwright is no relation to Mr Wainwright from the library. (See Below)
(Stephen Lewis: 1988, 1990, 1991 -- 2007) eternally miserable and none - too - bright comic foil, similar to Lewis ' character Inspector Cyril "Blakey '' Blake in LWT 's hit comedy On The Buses (some episodes of which he co-wrote) from 1969 to 1973. Smiler was first seen as a one - off character in 1988 's ' That Certain Smile ', in which the trio had to sneak a hospitalised Smiler 's beloved dog Bess in to see him. During his first appearance he was almost entirely referred to by everyone else as his real name "Clem ''. The character was popular enough to be brought back on a semi-regular basis, and was a regular throughout the 1990s and most of the 2000s (although his dog died between his first and second appearances). In some early appearances, he was a lollipop man, but for much of his time on the show worked for Auntie Wainwright, with whom he seems to be suffering some sort of indentured servitude. In early appearances, Smiler was also a lodger with Nora Batty, which enraged the jealous Compo. Smiler once described that working for Nora Batty was like being in the Army again, and always on Jankers. He also described it akin to jail at Stalag 14. Smiler also owned a big, but rather beaten up and poorly maintained, white convertible 1972 Chevrolet Impala, in which he sometimes drove around with Tom, and which on occasion has been used in various promotions for Auntie Wainwright. The trio would often cross paths with Smiler and use him for whatever scheme or activity they were doing (largely because of his tall height and gormless nature). Smiler was last seen in the series 28 episode "Sinclair and the Wormley Witches ''. Lewis left the show at the end of series 28 because of ill health. He was last mentioned in the series 29 episode "Of Passion and Pizza '' by Tom 's saying that Smiler had disappeared.
(Blake Butler, 1973, 1976) The rather timid head of the local library, which the trio visited a lot in the show 's early days -- Compo nicknamed him ' Old Shagnasty '. Mr Wainwright left at the same time as Mrs Partridge 's departure (see below), but was "transferred back '' to the area in the third series, featuring in two episodes where he was once again romancing his new assistant, Miss Moody. It is shown in Series 1 he, unlike Miss Probert, approves of the books with four - letter words. (Note: Mr Wainwright is not related to Auntie Wainwright.)
(Rosemary Martin: 1973), a librarian at the same library, and who was engaged in an affair with Mr Wainwright which they mistakenly believed was secret. The characters were never really felt to catch on, and disappeared as the library was written out as a favourite haunt of the main trio. However, a few years later, the storyline was resurrected and occasionally used for Howard and Marina. The library was also brought back for Foggy to get thrown out of all the time. She has twelve - year - old son, as of Short Back and Palais Glide.
(June Watson, 1975) One of the librarians who briefly replaced Wainwright and Partridge during the second series. Miss Probert is a radical "feminist '', who is always railing against men to the more timid Miss Jones. Miss Probert has two missions in life; one is discouraging the lending out of books she considers "filthy ''; the other is making a misandrist out of Miss Jones, in whom she seems to take a more than professional interest. Her disappearance from the series is unexplained, and it is presumed she went back to wherever she worked before.
(Janet Davies:, 1975) The other librarian who replaced Mr. Wainwright and Mrs. Partridge in the second series. Miss Jones is a quiet, timid female who is overshadowed by Miss Probert. She previously worked in a children 's library, which she frequently says she wants to return to. She has a pair of pink fly - away glasses that are on a chain around her neck. She does n't like working at the Holmfirth library, because of the four - letter words. She always does what Miss Probert asks her, always without question or protest. Like Miss Probert, her disappearance is unexplained, and it is believed she returned to the children 's library. This is most likely due to the remark she made to Miss Probert about wanting to go back where "Puss in Boots means just that and not like that awful magazine ''.
(Kate Brown, 1976) The librarian who replaced Mrs. Partridge on Mr. Wainwright 's return. She only appeared in two episodes, and it is shown she shares Mr. Wainwrights dreams about revolution. She is the first woman to suffer the sight of Compo 's matchbox. Although middle - aged, she is attractive and she and Mr. Wainwright are believed to one of the original structures for Howard and Marina.
(Josephine Tewson, 2003 -- 2010) After many years of the library setting seldom being used, Miss Davenport was introduced as the new librarian in 2003. A very emotional woman haunted by a string of past rejections, she first appeared as a guest, driving Gavin Hinchcliff around while he skied on the van roof. Originally, Glenda took up the cause of socializing her and tried to fit her in with the coffee - drinker circle of Nora, Ivy, Pearl, and co. They did not take too well to each other; in more recent episodes, she 's bonded with Marina instead, with the pair of them both longing for love in their individual ways. In the episode: "In Which Howard Remembers Where He Left His Bicycle Pump '', it is revealed that Miss Davenport 's first name is "Lucinda ''.
(1987 -- 2002) An extremely long - sighted bumbler, Eli maintained a highly cheerful, friendly attitude despite not having a clue what was going on around him. He generally made only brief cameo appearances, walking into a scene and commenting on his long - sighted misinterpretation of the action, and then walking off again. He was occasionally seen on a bicycle.
On occasion, his long - sightedness caused him to walk into slapstick (and carefully choreographed) mishaps such as walking into the back of a lorry and over the tops of cars, or falling into a skip. For much of his time in the series, Eli also had a Jack Russell dog (which once went missing, leading Eli to mistake a sheep for the dog). Despite his long - sightedness, Eli is eternally cheerful and optimistic, and glad to see anyone who stops to talk to him. In one episode, a passing comment by Compo seemed to suggest that Eli was a sniper during the Second World War.
In the 1995 New Year Special episode featuring Sir Norman Wisdom, ' The Man Who Nearly Knew Pavarotti ', Eli is the conductor of the Holme Silver Band. Originally brought in as a friend of Wally Batty, the character was so popular that Eli remained on the show after the death of actor Joe Gladwin. Eli and Wally appeared together in the series 9 episode, "Jaws '', in 1987.
Eli never appeared again following the death of O'Dea, though the character was not explicitly killed off. He was replaced by two drunks (who were also in earlier episodes of the series, sometimes credited as Villagers), but appeared in only a few episodes.
In the 1988 episode "The Pig Man Cometh '' of All Creatures Great and Small O'Dea played the character Rupe who, like Eli, had defective vision, clearly alluding to his role in Last of the Summer Wine.
(2005, 2006 -- 2010) A more recent addition to the ladies ' coffee - drinking set, and Pearl 's comrade - in - arms. Nelly 's never - seen husband Travis needs constant attention, which Nelly generally administers over her mobile phone. Nelly occasionally provides more "sophisticated '' viewpoints as a result of having lived further south for some time, but even she regards them with some befuddlement. June Whitfield previously made a "one off '' appearance in the series as a different character, Delphi Potts, in the 2001 Christmas Special, ' Potts in Pole Position ', married to Lother, the character of Warren Mitchell, a couple of years before she became a regular as Nelly. In Series 30, she became the object of Hobbo 's obsession when he became convinced that she was his long - lost mother, much to her annoyance. She was one of the only two regular characters (the other being Ivy) not to appear in the final episode.
(2001, 2002, 2003, 2004 -- 2005, 2007, 2008 -- 2010) He first appeared as Herman Teesdale, "the Repo man '', who is always pursuing Tom Simmonite, claiming that he owes money. (May be related to character Jack Harry Teesdale, who appeared in two episodes.)
He is determined but gullible, and Tom always evades him. From 2005 on, he has not only been mentioned by name, but also calls on Barry for social visits, with Barry not being too thrilled at this newfound friendship. In certain episodes in 2005, it is clear that he still repossesses belongings, which Glenda suggests is the reason none of his friendships lasted: he kept repossessing his friends ' goods.
The character returned in a 2007 episode of the show; and again in the 2008 New Year special, saying that he has retired from debt collecting and changed his name to Morton Beemish in order to start a new life for himself. He seeks out the friendship of his former nemesis, Tom (though Tom was still suspicious of him and would often hide from him when he saw sight of him).
In the final two seasons 30 -- 31 the character practically lives next door to Barry and Glenda as a near - lodger with Toby Mulberry, (aka The Captain).
(1992, 2001, 2002 -- 03, 2004, 2005 -- 06, 2008 -- 2010) The Captain of the local golf club where Barry is often trying to fit in as a member; but, despite his best efforts to impress him, Barry always manages to annoy or offend the Captain, either by becoming involved with some escapade with the main trio, or by some other social faux pas.
Trevor Bannister is best known for playing Mr Lucas in another comedy favourite, Are You Being Served?, with Frank Thornton from 1972 to 1979, and also starred with Brian Wilde in the short - lived Wyatt 's Watchdogs in 1988.
He had previously played a tailor in the 1992 episode ' Who 's Got Rhythm? '. The Captain returned for the 2008 New Years Special I Was A Hitman For Primrose Dairies, where he received a name, Toby, for the first time. In series 30 he moves in next door to Barry and Glenda and shortly after gains Morton Beemish (aka Herman Teesdale), the former repo man, as a near - lodger, since he 's always there doing tasks around the house. During this time his relationship with Barry appeared to improve and the two (along with Glenda) would often bond over their annoyance of Morton.
(1995, 1996, 2001, 2002 and 2004) Like a number of other characters, Norman Wisdom was originally intended to make one guest appearance in the show, and ended up as a recurring character. He originally played the hapless Billy Ingleton in the 1995 New Year special ' The Man Who Nearly Knew Pavarotti '. He proved so popular that like Auntie Wainwright before him, he was asked to appear in the following year 's special (' Extra! Extra! '). From then on, much - loved comedian Norman Wisdom occasionally pops up, sometimes for the storyline of an episode, at other times in smaller appearances. He is not always credited for smaller appearances.
Local policemen often witness the bizarre goings on, usually related to the main trio, and watch in bemusement. They are generally seen parked up around the moors and trying not to get involved with anything, instead eating (they have even been seen to have a roadside barbecue on occasion) or drinking tea. They would often be in deep conversation speculating bizarre scenarios and whether or not they would come true, only for them to become true largely down to the main trio along with other characters.
(1983, 1988 -- 2010) Kitson first appeared in the 1983 Christmas special ' Getting Sam Home ' and made 2 further guest appearances before becoming a semi-regular character from series 12 onwards. In series 29 he was finally given the name PC Cooper. Cooper tends to be the bigger - headed of the two, but he has many ingenious ways of dealing with petty crimes with minimal disruption to his relaxation. In his first episode he is shown to be a friend of Sid 's (which was the latter 's last appearance on the show before his death).
(1988, 1989, 2004 -- 2010) Emerick first appeared alongside Kitson in ' Downhill Racer '. He made one more appearance in the next series, in the episode ' Three Men and a Mangle ', and later reappeared in 2004 to partner Kitson after Tony Capstick 's death. In series 29 he was finally given the name PC Walsh. Walsh is more level - headed than Cooper and enjoys "taking the mickey '', but he tends to be a little more naïve.
(1987, 1990 -- 2004) Capstick made his first appearance in the 1987 special ' Big Day at Dream Acres ', before becoming a semi-regular alongside Kitson from series 12 in 1990, up to his death in late 2003. His last appearance was the episode ' Yours Truly -- If You 're Not Careful '. Capstick 's character was spacey and less intelligent even than the often - oblivious Cooper.
Bright, Morris; Ross, Robert (6 April 2000). Last of the Summer Wine: The Finest Vintage. London: BBC Worldwide. ISBN 0 - 563 - 55151 - 8.
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police who were ordered to enforce integration at central high school in little rock | Arkansas National Guard and the integration of Central High School - wikipedia
On May 17, 1954, the United States Supreme Court ruled that racial segregation of public schools was unconstitutional in the United States. That ruling would focus the spotlight of national attention in the United States upon the Arkansas National Guard and the integration of Central High School. The Arkansas National Guard was drawn into the conflict when Governor Orval Faubus ordered them to "Preserve the Peace '' by turning away the black students who were attempting to integrate into Little Rock 's Central High School. President Dwight D. Eisenhower reacted to this use of the Guard to foil the court - ordered integration by federalizing the entire Arkansas National Guard and using it to protect the nine black students integrating Central High School.
After a series of legal proceedings the Federal District Court ordered the Little Rock School District to proceed with its integration plans when school opened on September 4, 1957. Governor Orval Faubus ordered the Arkansas National Guard to Little Rock Central High School on September 4, 1957, because he said he had evidence (although none was shown) that there was "... imminent danger of tumult, riot and breach of peace and the doing of violence to persons and property. '' The governor initially ordered to state duty the State Headquarters Detachment, the Base Detachment at Adams Field and any other units the Adjutant General felt necessary to "accomplish the mission of maintaining or restoring law and order and to preserve the peace, health, safety and security of the citizens of Pulaski County, Arkansas. '' On September 4, Elizabeth Eckford was the only student to enter the school due to lack of communication. It is commonly but mistakenly believed that she was taking this stand on her own, but rather it was because she was the only student who did n't have a phone, so nobody could contact her to let her know the integration was n't happening until the next day.
Major General Sherman T. Clinger, the Adjutant General of Arkansas, assembled a force of 289 soldiers under command of Lieutenant Colonel Marion Johnson. On September 4, 1957, Johnson told nine black students who were attempting to enter Central High School to return home. The National Guard presence gradually decreased to a fifteen - man day and night shift. By court order, the National Guard was replaced by the Little Rock City Police on Friday, September 20, 1957.
On Monday, September 23, 1957, nine black students entered Central High. These nine students were Elizabeth Eckford, Minnijean Brown, Ernest Green, Thelma Mothershed, Melba Pattillo, Gloria Ray, Terrance Roberts, Jefferson Thomas and Carlotta Walls. When word spread that the students were inside, a crowd of approximately 1,000 gathered outside the school. There was a concern that the police would not be able to handle the crowd so for the safety of the students they were escorted back out of the school for the day. A force of 150 Guardsmen had been assembled and placed on five - minute notice to assist the police at Central, but they were not called on.
On Monday, September 23, 1957, President Dwight D. Eisenhower issued proclamation 3204 demanding anyone involved with the obstruction of justice to disperse. When his order was not followed, Eisenhower federalized the entire Arkansas National Guard the following day and unit members began assembling at home stations throughout the night. By order of the president, the National Guard was thus directed to support the integration rather than block it as the units had been before. On the 24th, elements of the 101st Airborne Division began arriving at Little Rock to provide additional support and took up positions around Central High. That same day, Adjutant General Clinger met with the commander of the Arkansas Military District and was ordered to assemble a force at Camp Robinson for duty at Central High. Those units were:
This force, consisting of 107 officers, fifteen warrant officers and 1,184 enlisted men, closed on Camp Robinson just after noon on the 25th. The National Guard soldiers were told, "Our mission is to enforce the orders of the federal courts with respect to the attendance at the public schools of Little Rock of all those who are properly enrolled, and to maintain law and order while doing so... Our individual feelings towards those court orders should have no influence on our execution of the mission. '' One Arkansas Guard major was quoted as saying, "We have been ordered to maintain the peace and that is what we intend to do. '' The remainder of Arkansas National Guard units remained at home stations, conducting daily formations and training, but taking no part in the actual operations around Central High School.
Beginning with night patrols on the 25th, the Arkansas units worked with the 101st Airborne Division, gradually taking over more of the responsibility. By the 30th the Arkansas National Guard had full responsibility for escorting the black students to and from Central High and for providing them with protection while inside the school. The majority of the Arkansas National Guard was released from active duty on October 1, 1957. The initial force of 1,200 assembled at Camp Robinson for duty at Central High School, was gradually reduced to 435 officers and men. The 1st Battalion, 153rd Infantry Regiment (referred to as Task Force 153rd Infantry in the situational reports to President Eisenhower) performed this duty.
From December 1957 through May 1958, Task Force 153rd Infantry maintained one platoon at Central High School, another on 30 minute recall at Camp Robinson, a company on one hour recall, while the remainder of the battalion remained on duty at Camp Robinson. Members of the unit were involved in breaking up assaults on members of the Little Rock Nine by white students and responding to bomb threats against the school as late as February 1958. On May 8, 1958, the last three Arkansas National Guard Soldiers withdrew from Central High School.
The Arkansas National Guard 's actions in the face of intense national scrutiny were applauded by some people on both sides of the Central High School Integration Crisis. Harry Ashmore, editor of the Arkansas Gazette newspaper, who won the Pulitzer Prize for Editorial Writing "for the forcefulness, dispassionate analysis and clarity of his editorials on the school integration conflict in Little Rock '', said that no one, whatever their beliefs on school integration, could feel anything but admiration for the way the Arkansas Guardsmen went calmly about their duties, steering clear of partisan pressure. Superintendent of Little Rock Schools, Virgil Blossom, was also quoted as saying, "I have nothing but praise for the Guardsmen and the manner in which they performed a trying job under difficult circumstances. '' They were not, however, applauded by at least one member of the Little Rock Nine. In her memoir about her experience at Central High, Melba Pattillo Beals recalls demanding a meeting with General Sherman T. Clinger of the Arkansas National Guard after the guardsmen "stood by, socializing and flirting, while we were being beaten within an inch of our lives. '' According to Beals, Clinger did not deny the charges, but merely explained that his men had to live in the community. She further described the eighteen guardsmen selected as bodyguards after this meeting as the "biggest, dumbest, most disheveled hayseeds I 'd ever seen. '' Others recall the inside - the - school guardsmen as neat with starched and pressed khakis, and dispute the allegation of beatings.
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percent of african american population in the united states | Race and ethnicity in the United States - wikipedia
The United States of America has a racially and ethnically diverse population. The United States Census officially recognizes six racial categories: White American, Black or African American, American Indian and Alaska Native, Asian American, Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander, and people of two or more races; a category called "some other race '' is also used in the census and other surveys, but is not official. The United States Census Bureau also classifies Americans as "Hispanic or Latino '' and "Not Hispanic or Latino '', which identifies Hispanic and Latino Americans as an ethnicity (not a race) distinct from others, and comprising the largest minority group in the nation.
The United States Supreme Court unanimously held that "race '' is not limited to Census designations on the "race question '' but extends to all ethnicities, and thus can include Jewish and Arab as well as Polish or Italian or Irish, etc. In fact, the Census asks an "Ancestry Question '' which covers the broader notion of ethnicity initially in the 2000 Census long form and now in the American Community Survey. The ancestry question will return in the 2020 Census.
As of July 2016, White Americans are the racial majority. African Americans are the largest racial minority, amounting to an estimated 12.7 % of the population. Hispanic and Latino Americans amount to an estimated 17.8 % of the total U.S. population, making up the largest ethnic minority. The White, non-Hispanic or Latino population make up 61.3 % of the nation 's total, with the total White population (including White Hispanics and Latinos) being 76.9 %.
White Americans are the majority in every census - defined region (Northeast, Midwest, South, West) and in every state except Hawaii, but contribute the highest proportion of the population in the Midwestern United States, at 85 % per the Population Estimates Program (PEP), or 83 % per the American Community Survey (ACS). Non-Hispanic Whites make up 79 % of the Midwest 's population, the highest ratio of any region. However, 35 % of White Americans (whether all White Americans or non-Hispanic / Latino only) live in the South, the most of any region.
55 % of the African American population lives in the South. A plurality or majority of the other official groups reside in the West. The latter region is home to 42 % of Hispanic and Latino Americans, 46 % of Asian Americans, 48 % of American Indians and Alaska Natives, 68 % of Native Hawaiians and Other Pacific Islanders, 37 % of the "two or more races '' population (Multiracial Americans), and 46 % of those self - designated as "some other race ''.
In the 2000 Census and subsequent United States Census Bureau surveys, Americans self - described as belonging to these racial groups:
Each person has two identifying attributes, racial identity and whether or not they are of Hispanic ethnicity. These categories are sociopolitical constructs and should not be interpreted as being scientific or anthropological in nature. They have been changed from one census to another, and the racial categories include both "racial '' and national - origin groups.
In 2007, the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission of the US Department of Labor finalized its update of the EEO - 1 report format and guidelines to come into an effect on September 30, 2007. In particular, this update concerns the definitions of racial / ethnic categories.
The question on Hispanic or Latino origin is separate from the question on race. Hispanic and Latino Americans have ethnic origins in the countries of Latin America, Spain, and Portugal. Latin American countries are, like the United States, racially diverse. Consequently, no separate racial category exists for Hispanic and Latino Americans, as they do not constitute a race, nor a national group. When responding to the race question on the census form, each person is asked to choose from among the same racial categories as all Americans, and are included in the numbers reported for those races.
Each racial category may contain Non-Hispanic or Latino and Hispanic or Latino Americans. For example: the White (European - American) race category contains Non-Hispanic Whites and Hispanic Whites (see White Hispanic and Latino Americans); the Black or African - American category contains Non-Hispanic Blacks and Hispanic Blacks (see Black Hispanic and Latino Americans); the Asian - American category contains Non-Hispanic Asians and Hispanic Asians (see Asian Hispanic and Latino Americans); and likewise for all the other categories. See the section on Hispanic and Latino Americans in this article.
Self - identifying as both Hispanic or Latino and not Hispanic or Latino is neither explicitly allowed nor explicitly prohibited.
In the United States since its early history, Native Americans, Africans and Europeans were considered to belong to different races. For nearly three centuries, the criteria for membership in these groups were similar, comprising a person 's appearance, their social circle (how they lived), and their known non-White ancestry. History played a part, as persons with known slave ancestors were assumed to be African (or, in later usage, black), regardless of whether they also had European ancestry.
The differences between how Native American and Black identities are defined today (blood quantum versus one - drop and political assumptions) have been based on different historical circumstances. According to the anthropologist Gerald Sider, such racial designations were a means to concentrate power, wealth, privilege and land in the hands of Whites in a society of White hegemony and privilege (Sider 1996; see also Fields 1990). The differences had little to do with biology and more to do with the history of slavery and its racism, and specific forms of White supremacy (the social, geopolitical and economic agendas of dominant Whites vis - à - vis subordinate Blacks and Native Americans). They related especially to the different social places which Blacks and Amerindians occupied in White - dominated 19th - century America. Sider suggests that the blood quantum definition of Native American identity enabled mixed - race Whites to acquire Amerindian lands during the allotment process. The one - drop rule of Black identity, enforced legally in the early 20th century, enabled Whites to preserve their agricultural labor force in the South. The contrast emerged because, as peoples transported far from their land and kinship ties on another continent, Black labor was relatively easy to control, and they became reduced to valuable commodities as agricultural laborers. In contrast, Amerindian labor was more difficult to control; moreover, Amerindians occupied large territories that became valuable as agricultural lands, especially with the invention of new technologies such as railroads. Sider thinks the blood quantum definition enhanced White acquisition of Amerindian lands in a doctrine of Manifest Destiny, which subjected Native Americans to marginalization and resulted in numerous conflicts related to American expansionism.
The political economy of race had different consequences for the descendants of aboriginal Americans and African slaves. The 19th - century blood quantum rule meant that it was relatively easier for a person of mixed Euro - Amerindian ancestry to be accepted as White. The offspring of a few generations of intermarriage between Amerindians and Whites likely would not have been considered Amerindian (at least not in a legal sense). Amerindians could have treaty rights to land, but because an individual with only one Amerindian great - grandparent no longer was classified as Amerindian, he lost a legal claim to Amerindian land, under the allotment rules of the day. According to Sider 's theory, Whites were more easily able to acquire Amerindian lands. On the other hand, the same individual who could be denied legal standing in a tribe, according to the government, because he was "too White '' to claim property rights, might still have enough visually identifiable Amerindian ancestry to be considered socially as a "half - breed '' or breed, and stigmatized by both communities.
The 20th - century one - drop rule made it relatively difficult for anyone of known Black ancestry to be accepted as White. The child of an African - American sharecropper and a White person was considered Black by the local communities. In terms of the economics of sharecropping, such a person also would likely become a sharecropper as well, thus adding to the landholder or employer 's labor force. In short, this theory suggests that in a 20th - century economy that benefited from sharecropping, it was useful to have as many Blacks as possible.
Although some scholars of the Jim Crow period agree that the 20th - century notion of invisible Blackness shifted the color line in the direction of paleness, and "expanded '' the labor force in response to Southern Blacks ' Great Migration to the North. But, others (such as the historians Joel Williamson, C. Vann Woodward, George M. Fredrickson, and Stetson Kennedy) considered the one - drop rule a consequence of the need to define Whiteness as being pure, and justifying White - on - Black oppression.
Over the centuries when Whites wielded power over both Blacks and Amerindians and believed in their inherent superiority over people of color, they created a social order of hypodescent, in which they assigned mixed - race children to the lower - status groups. They were often ignorant of the systems among Native American tribes of social classification, including kinship and hypodescent. The Omaha people, for instance, who had a patrilineal kinship system, classified all children with white fathers as "white '', and excluded them as members of the clans and tribe, unless one was formally adopted by a male member. Tribal members might care for mixed - race children of white fathers, but considered them outside the hereditary clan and kinship fundamental to tribal society.
The hypodescent social construction related to the racial caste that was associated with African slavery and the conditions of the slave societies. It was made explicit by Virginia and other colonies ' laws as early as 1662. Virginia incorporated the Roman principle of partus sequitur ventrem into slave law, saying that children of slave mothers were born into their status. Under English common law for subjects, children 's social status was determined by the father, not the mother. But the colonists put Africans outside the category of English subjects. Generally, white men were in positions of power to take sexual advantage of black women slaves. But, historian Paul Heinegg has shown that most free African - American families listed in the censuses of 1790 -- 1810 were, in fact, descended from unions between white women and African men in colonial Virginia, from the years when working classes lived and worked closely together, and before slavery had hardened as a racial caste.
In the United States, social and legal conventions developed over time by whites that classified individuals of mixed ancestry into simplified racial categories (Gossett 1997), but these were always porous. The decennial censuses conducted since 1790, after slavery was well established in the United States, included classification of persons by race: white, black, mulatto, and Indian (Nobles 2000). But, the inclusion of mulatto was an explicit acknowledgement of mixed race. In addition, before the Civil War, Virginia and some other states had legal definition of "whiteness '' that provided for people being classified as white if no more than 1 / 8 black. (For example, if not born into slavery, Thomas Jefferson 's children by his slave Sally Hemings would have been classified as legally white, as they were 7 / 8 white by ancestry. Three of the four surviving children entered white society as adults, and their descendants have identified as white.) In the late 18th and 19th centuries, people of mixed race often migrated to frontiers where societies were more open, and they might be accepted as white if satisfying obligations of citizenship.
The more familiar "one - drop rule '' was not adopted by Virginia and other states until the 20th century, but it classified persons with any known African ancestry as black (Davis 2001). Passage of such laws was often urged by white supremacists and people promoting "racial purity '' through eugenics, having forgotten the long history of multi-racial unions in the South that comprised the ancestry of many families.
In other countries in the Americas, where mixing among groups was overtly more extensive, social categories have tended to be more numerous and fluid. In some cases, people may move into or out of categories on the basis of a combination of socioeconomic status, social class, ancestry, and appearance (Mörner 1967).
The term Hispanic as an ethnonym emerged in the 20th century, with the rise of migration of laborers from Spanish - speaking countries of the western hemisphere to the United States. It includes people who may have been considered racially distinct (Black, White, Amerindian or other mixed groups) in their home countries. Today, the word "Latino '' is often used as a synonym for "Hispanic ''. Even if such categories were earlier understood as racial categories, today they have begun to represent ethno - linguistic categories (regardless of perceived race). Similarly, "Anglo '' is now used among many Hispanics to refer to non-Hispanic White Americans or European Americans, most of whom speak the English language but are not of primarily English descent.
The United States is a racially diverse country. The growth of the Hispanic population through immigration and high birth rates is noted as a partial factor for the US ' population gains in the last quarter - century. The 2000 census revealed that Native Americans had reached their highest documented population, 4.5 million, since the US was founded in 1776.
The immigrants to the New World came largely from widely separated regions of the Old World. In the Americas, the immigrant populations began to mix among themselves and with the indigenous inhabitants of the continents. In the United States, for example, most people who identify as African American have some European ancestors, as revealed by genetic studies. In one analysis of those genetic markers that have differing frequencies between continents, European ancestry ranged from an estimated 7 % for a sample of Jamaicans to ~ 23 % for a sample of African Americans from New Orleans, where there was historically a large class of mixed race (now called Louisiana Creoles) (Parra et al. 1998).
In the United States since its early history, Native Americans, African Americans, and European Americans were classified as belonging to different races. For nearly three centuries, the criteria among whites for membership in these groups were similar, comprising physical appearance, assumption of non-European ancestry, and social circle. The criteria for membership in these races diverged in the late 19th century. During and after Reconstruction, after the emancipation of slaves after the Civil War, in the effort to restore white supremacy in the South, whites began to classify anyone with "one drop '' of "black blood '', or known African ancestry, to be black. Such a legal definition was not put into law until the early 20th century in most southern states, but many established racial segregation of facilities during the Jim Crow era, after white Democrats regained control of state legislatures in the South.
Efforts to track mixing between groups led to an earlier proliferation of historical categories (such as "mulatto '' and "octaroon '' among persons with partial African descent) and "blood quantum '' distinctions, which became increasingly untethered from self - reported ancestry. In the 20th century, efforts to classify the increasingly mixed population of the United States into discrete categories generated many difficulties (Spickard 1992). By the standards used in past censuses, many mixed - race children born in the United States were classified as of a different race than one of their biological parents. In addition, a person may change personal racial identification over time because of cultural aspects, and self - ascribed race can differ from assigned race (Kressin et al. 2003).
Until the 2000 census, Latinos were required to identify as one race, and none was Latino. Partly as a result of the confusion generated by the distinction, 32.9 % (U.S. census records) of Latino respondents in the 2000 census ignored the specified racial categories and checked "some other race ''. (Mays et al. 2003 claim a figure of 42 %)
Historical trends influencing the ethnic demographics of the United States include:
In some cases, immigrants and migrants form ethnic enclaves; in others, mixture creates ethnically diverse neighborhoods.
(For demographics by specific ethnic groups rather than general race, see "Ancestry '' below.)
The majority of the more than 300 million people currently living in the United States consists of White and European Americans. The United States Census Bureau defines White people as those "having origins in any of the original peoples of Europe, the Middle East, or North Africa. '' Like all official U.S. racial categories, "White '' has a "not Hispanic or Latino '' and a "Hispanic or Latino '' component, the latter consisting mostly of White Mexican Americans and White Cuban Americans.
White Americans are the majority in 49 of the 50 states, with Hawaii as the exception. Non-Hispanic Whites are the majority in 46 states; Hawaii, New Mexico, California, and Texas (and the District of Columbia) are the exceptions. These five jurisdictions have "minority majorities '', i.e. minority groups compose the majority of the population.
The non-Hispanic White percentage (63 % in 2012) tends to decrease every year, and this sub-group is expected to become a plurality of the overall U.S. population after the year 2043. White Americans overall (non-Hispanic Whites together with White Hispanics) are projected to continue as the majority, at 73.1 % (or 303 million out of 420 million) in 2050, from currently 77.1 %.
Although a high proportion of the population is known to have multiple ancestries, in the 2000 census, the first with the option to choose more than one, most people still identified with one racial category. In the 2000 census, self - identified German Americans made up 17.1 % of the U.S. population, followed by Irish Americans at 12 %, as reported in the 2000 U.S. Census. This makes German and Irish the largest and second - largest self - reported ancestry groups in the United States. Both groups had high rates of immigration to the U.S. beginning in the mid-19th century, triggered by the Great Famine in Ireland and the failed 1848 Revolution in Germany. However, English Americans and British Americans are still considered the largest ethnic group due to a serious under count following the 2000 census whereby many English and British Americans self - identified under the new category entry ' American ' considering themselves ' indigenous ' because their families had resided in the US for so long or, if of mixed European ancestry, identified with a more recent and differentiated ethnic group.
7.2 % of the population listed their ancestry as American on the 2000 census (see American ethnicity). According to the United States Census Bureau, the number of people in the U.S. who reported American and no other ancestry increased from 12.4 million in 1990 to 20.2 million in 2000. This change in reporting represented the largest "growth '' of any ethnic group in the United States during the 1990s, but it represented how people reported themselves more than growth through birth rates, for instance, and certainly did not reflect immigration.
Most French Americans are believed descended from colonists of Catholic New France; exiled Huguenots, much fewer in number and settling in the eastern English colonies in the late 1600s and early 1700s, needed to assimilate into the majority culture and have intermarried over generations. Isleños of Louisiana and the Hispanos of the Southwest have had, in part, direct Spanish ancestry; most self - reported White Hispanics are of Mexican, Puerto Rican, and Cuban origins, each of which are multi-ethnic nations. Hispanic immigration has increased from nations of Central and South America.
Black and African Americans are citizens and residents of the United States with origins in Sub-Saharan Africa. According to the Office of Management and Budget, the grouping includes individuals who self - identify as African - American, as well as persons who emigrated from nations in the Caribbean and Sub-Saharan Africa. The grouping is thus based on geography, and may contradict or misrepresent an individual 's self - identification since not all immigrants from Sub-Saharan Africa are "Black ''. Among these racial outliers are persons from Cape Verde, Madagascar, various Hamito - Semitic populations in East Africa and the Sahel, and the Afrikaners of Southern Africa.
African Americans (also referred to as Black Americans or Afro - Americans, and formerly as American Negroes) are citizens or residents of the United States who have origins in any of the black populations of Africa. According to the 2009 American Community Survey, there were 38,093,725 Black and African Americans in the United States, representing 12.4 % of the population. In addition, there were 37,144,530 non-Hispanic blacks, which comprised 12.1 % of the population. This number increased to 42 million according to the 2010 United States Census, when including Multiracial African Americans, making up 14 % of the total U.S. population. Black and African Americans make up the second largest group in the United States, but the third largest group after White Americans and Hispanic or Latino Americans (of any race). The majority of the population (55 %) lives in the South; compared to the 2000 Census, there has also been a decrease of African Americans in the Northeast and Midwest.
Most African Americans are the direct descendants of captives from West Africa, who survived the slavery era within the boundaries of the present United States. As an adjective, the term is usually written African - American. The first West Africans were brought to Jamestown, Virginia in 1619. The English settlers treated these captives as indentured servants and released them after a number of years. This practice was gradually replaced by the system of race - based slavery used in the Caribbean. All the American colonies had slavery, but it was usually the form of personal servants in the North (where 2 % of the people were slaves), and field hands in plantations in the South (where 25 % were slaves); by the beginning of the American Revolutionary War 1 / 5th of the total population was enslaved. During the revolution, some would serve in the Continental Army or Continental Navy, while others would serve the British Empire in Lord Dunmore 's Ethiopian Regiment, and other units. By 1804, the northern states (north of the Mason -- Dixon line) had abolished slavery. However, slavery would persist in the southern states until the end of the American Civil War and the passage of the Thirteenth Amendment. Following the end of the Reconstruction Era, which saw the first African American representation in Congress, African Americans became disenfranchised and subject to Jim Crow laws, legislation that would persist until the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and Voting Rights Act of 1965 due to the Civil Rights Movement.
According to US Census Bureau data, very few African immigrants self - identify as African - American. On average, less than 5 % of African residents self - reported as "African - American '' or "Afro - American '' on the 2000 US Census. The overwhelming majority of African immigrants (~ 95 %) identified instead with their own respective ethnicities. Self - designation as "African - American '' or "Afro - American '' was highest among individuals from West Africa (4 % - 9 %), and lowest among individuals from Cape Verde, East Africa and Southern Africa (0 % - 4 %). African immigrants may also experience conflict with African Americans.
In 2008, "Hispanic or Latino origin '' was the self - identification of 47 million Americans. They chiefly have origins in the Spanish - speaking nations of Latin America. Very few also come from other places, for example: 0.2 % of Hispanic and Latino Americans were born in Asia. The group is heterogeneous in race and national ancestry.
The Census Bureau defines "Hispanic or Latino origin '' thus:
The leading country - of - origin for Hispanic Americans is Mexico (30.7 million), followed by Puerto Rico (4.2 million) (which actually has a special relationship with the US, of which its people are citizens), and Cuba (1.6 million), as of 2008. However, as of 2010, there were 1,648,968 Salvadorans in the United States, the largest of the U.S. - Central American community. Salvadorans are poised to become the third largest Hispanic group by the next census, significantly overtaking and replacing Cubans. Recent estimates already put the Salvadoran population as high as 2 million, as of 2013, the third largest Hispanic - American group.
62.4 % of Hispanic and Latino Americans identified as white. 30.5 % identified as "some other race '' (other than the ones listed). According to the PEP 91.9 % of Latinos are white, as these official estimates do not recognize "some other race ''. In the official estimates, Black or African American Hispanics are the second - largest group, with 1.9 million, or 4.0 % of the whole group. The remaining Hispanics are accounted as follows, first per the PEP: 1.6 % American Indian and Alaska Native, 1.5 % two or more races, 0.7 % Asian, and 0.03 % Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander. Per the ACS: 3.9 % two or more races, 1.9 % Black or African American, 1.0 % American Indian and Alaska Native, 0.4 % Asian, and 0.05 % Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander.
In the United States the Hispanic and Latino population has reached 58 million in 2016. According to Pew Research Center the Latino population has been the principal driver of United States demographic growth since 2000. Mexicans make up most of the Hispanic and Latino population 35,758,000. There is also a growth of Hispanics who are receiving a college education in 2015, 40 % of Hispanics age 25 and older have had a college experience. In 2000 the percentage was at a low 30 %. In all the 50 US states California houses the largest population percentage of Latinos. In 2015, 15.2 million Hispanics lived in California.
The Hispanic or Latino population is young and fast - growing, due to immigration and higher birth rates. For decades it has contributed significantly to U.S. population increases, and this is expected to continue. The Census Bureau projects that by 2050, one - quarter of the population will be Hispanic or Latino.
A third significant minority is the Asian American population, comprising 19.4 million in 2013, or 6.0 % of the U.S. population. California is home to 4.5 million Asian Americans, whereas 495,000 live in Hawaii, where they compose the plurality, at 38.5 % of the islands ' people. This is their largest share of any state. Historically first concentrated on Hawaii and the West Coast, Asian Americans now live across the country, living and working in large numbers in New York City, Chicago, Boston, Houston, and other major urban centers.
Their histories are diverse. As with the new immigration from central and eastern Europe to the East Coast from the mid-19th century on, Asians started immigrating to the United States in large numbers in the 19th century. This first major wave of immigration consisted predominantly of Chinese and Japanese laborers, but also included Korean and South Asian immigrants. Many immigrants also came during and after this period from the Philippines, which was a US colony from 1898 to 1946. Exclusion laws and policies largely prohibited and curtailed Asian immigration until the 1940s. After the US changed its immigration laws during the 1940s to 1960s to make entry easier, a much larger new wave of immigration from Asia began. Today the largest self - identified Asian American sub-groups according to census data are Chinese Americans, Filipino Americans, Indian Americans, Vietnamese Americans, Korean Americans, and Japanese Americans, among other groups.
Indigenous peoples of the Americas, particularly Native Americans, made up 0.8 % of the population in 2008, numbering 2.4 million. An additional 2.3 million persons declared part - American Indian or Alaska Native ancestry.
The legal and official designation of who is Native American has aroused controversy by demographers, tribal nations, and government officials for many decades. Federally recognized tribes and state recognized tribes set their own membership requirements; tribal enrollment may require residency on a reservation, documented lineal descent from recognized records, such as the Dawes Rolls, and other criteria. Some tribes have adopted the use of blood quantum, requiring members to have a certain percentage. The federal government requires individuals to certify documented blood quantum of ancestry for certain federal programs, such as education benefits, available to members of recognized tribes. But Census takers accept any respondent 's identification. Genetic scientists estimated that more than 15 million other Americans, including African Americans and Hispanic Americans (specifically those of Mexican heritage), may have up to one quarter of American Indian ancestry.
Once thought to face extinction as a race or culture, Native Americans of numerous tribes have achieved revival of aspects of their cultures, together with asserting their sovereignty and direction of their own affairs since the mid-20th century. Many have started language programs to revive use of traditional languages; some have established tribally controlled colleges and other schools on their reservations, so that education is expressive of their cultures. Since the late 20th century, many tribes have developed gaming casinos on their sovereign land to raise revenues for economic development, as well as to promote the education and welfare of their people through health care and construction of improved housing.
Today more than 800,000 to one million persons claim Cherokee descent in part or as full - bloods; of these, an estimated 300,000 live in California, 70,000 -- 160,000 in Oklahoma, and 15,000 in North Carolina in ancestral homelands.
The second largest tribal group is the Navajo, who call themselves Diné and live on a 16 - million acre (65,000 km2) Indian reservation covering northeast Arizona, northwest New Mexico, and southeast Utah. It is home to half of the 450,000 Navajo Nation members. The third largest group are the Lakota (Sioux) Nation, with distinct federally recognized tribes located in the states of Minnesota, Nebraska, Montana, Wyoming; and North and South Dakota.
Native Hawaiians and other Pacific Islanders numbered 427,810 in 2008, or 0.1 % of the population. Additionally, nearly as many individuals identify as having partial Native Hawaiian ancestry, for a total of 829,949 people of full or part Native Hawaiian ancestry. This group constitutes the smallest minority in the United States. More than half identify as "full - blooded '', but historically most Native Hawaiians on the island chain of Hawaii are believed to have admixture with Asian and European ancestries. But, the Census takes reporting by individuals as to how they identify.
Some demographers believe that by the year 2025, the last full - blooded Native Hawaiian will die off, leaving a culturally distinct, but racially mixed population. The total number of persons who have identified as Native Hawaiian in 2008 was more than the estimated Hawaiian population when the US annexed the islands in 1898. Native Hawaiians are receiving ancestral land reparations. Throughout Hawaii, they are working to preserve and assert adaptation of Native Hawaiian customs and the Hawaiian language. They have cultural schools solely for legally Native Hawaiian students.
According to the Arab American Institute (AAI), countries of origin for Arab Americans include Algeria, Bahrain, Comoros, Djibouti, Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco, Oman, Qatar, Palestine, Saudi Arabia, Somalia, Sudan, Syria, Tunisia, United Arab Emirates and Yemen.
There are an estimated 1.9 - 2.0 million Middle Eastern Americans according to the U.S. Census, including both Arab and non-Arab Americans, comprising 0.6 % of the total U.S. population; however, the Arab American Institute estimates a population closer to 3.6 million. U.S. Census population estimates are based on responses to the ancestry question on the census, which makes it difficult to accurately count Middle Eastern Americans. Though Middle Eastern American communities can be found in each of the 50 states, the majority live in just 10 states with nearly "one third of the total liv (ing) in California, New York, and Michigan ''. More Middle Eastern Americans live in California than any other state, but Middle Eastern Americans represent the highest percentage of the population of Michigan. In particular, Dearborn, Michigan has long been home to a high concentration of Middle Eastern Americans.
The United States Census Bureau is presently finalizing the ethnic classification of MENA populations. In 2012, prompted in part by post-9 / 11 discrimination, the American - Arab Anti-Discrimination Committee petitioned the Department of Commerce 's Minority Business Development Agency to designate the MENA populations as a minority / disadvantaged community. Following consultations with MENA organizations, the US Census Bureau announced in 2014 that it would establish a new MENA ethnic category for populations from the Middle East, North Africa and the Arab world, separate from the "white '' classification that these populations had previously sought in 1909. The expert groups, including some Jewish organizations, felt that the earlier "white '' designation no longer accurately represents MENA identity, so they successfully lobbied for a distinct categorization. This process does not currently include ethnoreligious groups such as Jews or Sikhs, as the Bureau only tabulates these groups as followers of religions rather than members of ethnic groups.
As of December 2015, the sampling strata for the new MENA category includes the Census Bureau 's working classification of 19 MENA groups, as well as Turkish, Sudanese, Somali, Mauritanian, Armenian, Cypriot, Afghan, Azerbaijani and Georgian groups.
Self - identified multiracial Americans numbered 7.0 million in 2008, or 2.3 % of the population. They have identified as any combination of races (White, Black or African American, Asian, American Indian or Alaska Native, Native Hawaiian or other Pacific Islander, "some other race '') and ethnicities. The U.S. has a growing multiracial identity movement.
While the colonies and southern states protected white fathers by making all children born to slave mothers be classified as slaves, regardless of paternity, they also banned miscegenation or interracial marriage, most notably between whites and blacks. This did little to stop interracial relationships, except as legal, consensual unions.
Demographers state that, due to new waves of immigration, the American people through the early 20th century were mostly multi-ethnic descendants of various immigrant nationalities, who maintained cultural distinctiveness until, over time, assimilation, migration and integration took place. The Civil Rights Movement through the 20th century gained passage of important legislation to enforce constitutional rights of minorities.
According to James P. Allen and Eugene Turner from California State University, Northridge, by some calculations in the 2000 Census, the multiracial population that is part white (which is the largest percentage of the multiracial population), is as follows:
A 2002 study found an average of 18.6 % European genetic contribution and 2.7 % Native American genetic contribution (with standard errors 1.5 % and 1.4 % respectively) in a sample of 232 African Americans. Meanwhile, in a sample of 187 European Americans from State College, Pennsylvania, there was an average of 0.7 % West African genetic contribution and 3.2 % Native American genetic contribution (with standard errors 0.9 % and 1.6 % respectively). Most of the non-European admixture was concentrated in 30 % of the sample, with West African admixture ranging from 2 to 20 %, with an average of 2.3 %.
In 1958 Robert Stuckert produced a statistical analysis using historical census data and immigration statistics. He concluded that the growth in the White population could not be attributed solely to births in the White population and immigration from Europe, but was also due to people identifying as white who were partly black. He concluded that 21 percent of white Americans had some recent African - American ancestors. He also concluded that the majority of Americans of known African descent were partly European and not entirely sub-Saharan African.
More recently, many different DNA studies have shown that many African Americans have European admixture, reflecting the long history in this country of the various populations. Proportions of European admixture in African - American DNA have been found in studies to be 17 % and between 10.6 % and 22.5 %. Another recent study found the average to be 21.2 %, with a standard error of 1.2 %.
The Race, Ethnicity, and Genetics Working Group of the National Human Genome Research Institute notes that "although genetic analyses of large numbers of loci can produce estimates of the percentage of a person 's ancestors coming from various continental populations, these estimates may assume a false distinctiveness of the parental populations, since human groups have exchanged mates from local to continental scales throughout history. ''
In the 2000 census, the non-standard category of "Other '' was especially intended to capture responses such as Mestizo and Mulatto, two large multiracial groups in most of the countries of origin of Hispanic and Latino Americans. However, many other responses are captured by the category.
In 2008 15.0 million people, nearly 5 % of the total U.S. population, were estimated to be "some other race '', with 95 % of them being Hispanic or Latino.
Due to this category 's non-standard status, statistics from government agencies other than the Census Bureau (for example: the Centers for Disease Control 's data on vital statistics, or the FBI 's crime statistics), but also the Bureau 's own official Population Estimates, omit the "some other race '' category and include most of the people in this group in the white population, thus including the vast majority (about 90 %) of Hispanic and Latino Americans in the white population. For an example of this, see The World Factbook, published by the Central Intelligence Agency.
The ancestry of the people of the United States of America is widely varied and includes descendants of populations from around the world. In addition to its variation, the ancestry of people of the United States is also marked by varying amounts of intermarriage between ethnic and racial groups.
While some Americans can trace their ancestry back to a single ethnic group or population in Europe, Africa, or Asia, these are often first - and second - generation Americans. Generally, the degree of mixed heritage increases the longer one 's ancestors have lived in the United States (see melting pot). In theory, there are several means available to discover the ancestry of the people residing in the United States, including genealogy, genetics, oral and written history, and analysis of Federal Population Census schedules. In practice, only few of these have been used for a larger part of the population.
According to the 2010 -- 2015 American Community Survey, the twenty largest ancestry groups in the United States were (see above for the OMB self - designation options):
These images display frequencies of self - reported ancestries, as of the 2000 U.S. Census. Regional African ancestries are not listed, though an African American map has been added from another source.
Frequency of American ancestry
Density of Asian Americans
Percent of Asian Americans
Density of African Americans
Percent of African Americans
Density of Native Hawaiian Americans
Percent of Native Hawaiian Americans
Density of Native Americans
Percent of Native Americans
Density of White Americans
Percent of White Americans
Black ancestry
Arab ancestry
Density of Hispanic ancestry
Percent of Hispanic ancestry
West Indian ancestry
These images display frequencies of self - reported European American ancestries as of the 2000 U.S. Census.
Czech ancestry
Danish ancestry
Dutch ancestry
English ancestry
Finnish ancestry
French ancestry
French Canadian ancestry
German ancestry
Greek ancestry
Hungarian ancestry
Icelandic ancestry
Irish ancestry
Italian ancestry
Lithuanian ancestry
Norwegian ancestry
Polish ancestry
Portuguese ancestry
Romanian ancestry
Russian ancestry
Scots - Irish ancestry
Scottish ancestry
Slovak ancestry
Swedish ancestry
Ukrainian ancestry
Welsh ancestry
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the hunger games mockingjay part 1 original motion picture soundtrack | The Hunger Games: Mockingjay, Part 1 -- Original Motion Picture Soundtrack - wikipedia
The Hunger Games: Mockingjay, Part 1 -- Original Motion Picture Soundtrack is the official soundtrack to the 2014 American science - fiction adventure film The Hunger Games: Mockingjay -- Part 1 curated by Lorde. The film is an adaptation of the 2010 novel by Suzanne Collins and is the third installment in The Hunger Games film series.
On July 31, 2014, it was announced that Lorde would provide a single for the film 's soundtrack album and curate the record. The track list for the soundtrack was released on October 21, 2014. Details of the fifth track were confirmed on November 3, 2014.
As the album 's curator, Lorde recruited Grace Jones, Duran Duran 's Simon Le Bon, Diplo, Miguel, The Chemical Brothers, Charli XCX, Stromae, Major Lazer and Ariana Grande to contribute to the official track list. In an interview with Billboard, she stated that her "idol '', Kanye West, had made a remix of the album 's first single, "Yellow Flicker Beat '' which would appear on the track list.
On December 3, 2014, the soundtrack was re-released digitally with "The Hanging Tree '' by James Newton Howard featuring Jennifer Lawrence as the fifteenth song on the album. The song was originally released on the score.
"Yellow Flicker Beat '' and "The Hanging Tree '' are the only songs on the album to be used in the film.
The soundtrack was released on the Australian and New Zealand iTunes store on November 14 and was released worldwide through Republic Records on November 17, 2014. on October 21, 2014, The Hunger Games: Mockingjay -- Part 1 soundtrack was revealed. There was a mystery track titled "Track 5 '' recorded by "Various Artists. '' However, the track was not intended to be a secret, as Lorde quickly explained on Twitter: "the unnamed track is n't that way because of secrecy 's sake - it 's just not quite finished. ''
On September 22, 2014, Lorde posted a photo of the single cover titled "Yellow Flicker Beat '', which was released on September 29, 2014. It peaked at No. 34 on the US Billboard Hot 100 and entered the record charts of several nations, including Australia, Canada and New Zealand. The song has received a nomination for Best Original Song at the 72nd Golden Globe Awards.
After the success of "The Hanging Tree '', composed by James Newton Howard and featuring vocals from Jennifer Lawrence, as part of the score for the film, the soundtrack was re-released digitally with "The Hanging Tree '' as the 15th track. Six days later, "The Hanging Tree '' was released as the second single from the album. Before it was released as a single, "The Hanging Tree '' debuted at No. 12 on the US Billboard Hot 100 for the week ending December 13, 2014, currently becoming the highest charting song from any of the soundtracks from The Hunger Games films on the chart. It sold 200,000 digital copies that week. The former highest charting song from The Hunger Games trilogy of films on the Hot 100 is "Eyes Open '' by Taylor Swift from the 2012 film The Hunger Games, which peaked at No. 19.
There are three promotional singles were released. The first one was "This Is Not a Game '' by The Chemical Brothers featuring Miguel, the second was "Dead Air '' by CHVRCHES. "Flicker (Kanye West Rework) '' was released as the third promotional single for the album on November 11, 2014. The song "Lucifer '' by XOV was meant to be one of the promotional singles for the soundtrack, but it was considered too "dark '' so it did n't appear on the soundtrack. It was replaced by "Animal ''.
Pitchfork Media gave the album a 7.8, stating: "Across the board, the songs sound like threads of hope escaping gloomier pasts, echoing the arc of the film 's generational heroine. It 's no coincidence that, of the 14 songs featured on Mockingjay, 11 feature female vocalists in the foreground. '' Billboard gave the soundtrack a positive review calling Lorde 's work "stellar '': "Thanks to her vision, and her grip on the series ' most important thematic elements, the 50 minutes of music behind Mockingjay Part 1 ably function as both a glance at 2014 ′ s finest purveyors of complex, downcast pop and a complement to the start of the series ' chaotic, brutal conclusion. '' Spin ranked all 14 tracks, with "This Is Not a Game '' topping their list: "Much like the British production duo 's overlooked score from the 2011 thriller, Hanna, ' Game ' tells its own story in three minutes, and sets a new bar for what soundtracks can and should be doing in terms of balancing story with songwriting, and Lorde 's part in it should n't be overlooked. After all, like the movie preaches, even the quietest voices can spark a change. ''
New York Daily News gave the album a mixed review stating it was too slow at times: "It throws echo around everything and lets dense, ambient sound creep over the voices and instruments. It 's supposed to create a sense of wariness and foreboding, but often it just makes things sound murky and diffuse. Despite bright spots, long stretches bore. ''
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what event began the space race between the us and soviet union | Space Race - Wikipedia
The Space Race refers to the 20th - century competition between two Cold War rivals, the Soviet Union (USSR) and the United States (US), for dominance in spaceflight capability. It had its origins in the missile - based nuclear arms race between the two nations that occurred following World War II, aided by captured German missile technology and personnel from the Aggregat program. The technological superiority required for such dominance was seen as necessary for national security, and symbolic of ideological superiority. The Space Race spawned pioneering efforts to launch artificial satellites, uncrewed space probes of the Moon, Venus, and Mars, and human spaceflight in low Earth orbit and to the Moon.
The Space Race began on August 2, 1955, when the Soviet Union responded to the US announcement four days earlier of intent to launch artificial satellites for the International Geophysical Year, by declaring they would also launch a satellite "in the near future ''. The Soviet Union beat the US to this, with the October 4, 1957, orbiting of Sputnik 1, and later beat the US to the first human in space, Yuri Gagarin, on April 12, 1961. The "race '' peaked with the July 20, 1969, US landing of the first humans on the Moon with Apollo 11. The USSR tried but failed crewed lunar missions, and eventually canceled them and concentrated on Earth orbital space stations.
A period of détente followed with the April 1972 agreement on a co-operative Apollo -- Soyuz Test Project, resulting in the July 1975 rendezvous in Earth orbit of a US astronaut crew with a Soviet cosmonaut crew. The end of the Space Race is harder to pinpoint than its beginning, but it was over by the December 1991 dissolution of the Soviet Union, after which true spaceflight cooperation between the US and Russia began.
The Space Race has left a legacy of Earth communications and weather satellites, and continuing human space presence on the International Space Station. It has also sparked increases in spending on education and research and development, which led to beneficial spin - off technologies.
The origins of the Space Race can be traced to Germany, beginning in the 1930s and continuing during World War II when Nazi Germany researched and built operational ballistic missiles capable of sub-orbital spaceflight. Starting in the early 1930s, during the last stages of the Weimar Republic, German aerospace engineers experimented with liquid - fueled rockets, with the goal that one day they would be capable of reaching high altitudes and traversing long distances. The head of the German Army 's Ballistics and Munitions Branch, Lieutenant Colonel Karl Emil Becker, gathered a small team of engineers that included Walter Dornberger and Leo Zanssen, to figure out how to use rockets as long - range artillery in order to get around the Treaty of Versailles ' ban on research and development of long - range cannons. Wernher von Braun, a young engineering prodigy, was recruited by Becker and Dornberger to join their secret army program at Kummersdorf - West in 1932. Von Braun dreamed of conquering outer space with rockets and did not initially see the military value in missile technology.
During the Second World War, General Dornberger was the military head of the army 's rocket program, Zanssen became the commandant of the Peenemünde army rocket center, and von Braun was the technical director of the ballistic missile program. They led the team that built the Aggregate - 4 (A-4) rocket, which became the first vehicle to reach outer space during its test flight program in 1942 and 1943. By 1943, Germany began mass - producing the A-4 as the Vergeltungswaffe 2 ("Vengeance Weapon '' 2, or more commonly, V2), a ballistic missile with a 320 kilometers (200 mi) range carrying a 1,130 kilograms (2,490 lb) warhead at 4,000 kilometers per hour (2,500 mph). Its supersonic speed meant there was no defense against it, and radar detection provided little warning. Germany used the weapon to bombard southern England and parts of Allied - liberated western Europe from 1944 until 1945. After the war, the V - 2 became the basis of early American and Soviet rocket designs.
At war 's end, American, British, and Soviet scientific intelligence teams competed to capture Germany 's rocket engineers along with the German rockets themselves and the designs on which they were based. Each of the Allies captured a share of the available members of the German rocket team, but the United States benefited the most with Operation Paperclip, recruiting von Braun and most of his engineering team, who later helped develop the American missile and space exploration programs. The United States also acquired a large number of complete V2 rockets.
The German rocket center in Peenemünde was located in the eastern part of Germany, which became the Soviet zone of occupation. On Stalin 's orders, the Soviet Union sent its best rocket engineers to this region to see what they could salvage for future weapons systems. The Soviet rocket engineers were led by Sergei Korolev. He had been involved in space clubs and early Soviet rocket design in the 1930s, but was arrested in 1938 during Joseph Stalin 's Great Purge and imprisoned for six years in Gulag. After the war, he became the USSR 's chief rocket and spacecraft engineer, essentially the Soviet counterpart to von Braun. His identity was kept a state secret throughout the Cold War, and he was identified publicly only as "the Chief Designer. '' In the West, his name was only officially revealed when he died in 1966.
After almost a year in the area around Peenemünde, Soviet officials conducted Operation Osoaviakhim and later moved more than 170 of the top captured German rocket specialists to Gorodomlya Island on Lake Seliger, about 240 kilometers (150 mi) northwest of Moscow. They were not allowed to participate in final Soviet missile design, but were used as problem - solving consultants to the Soviet engineers. They helped in the following areas: the creation of a Soviet version of the A-4; work on "organizational schemes ''; research in improving the A-4 main engine; development of a 100 - ton engine; assistance in the "layout '' of plant production rooms; and preparation of rocket assembly using German components. With their help, particularly Helmut Gröttrup 's group, Korolev reverse - engineered the A-4 and built his own version of the rocket, the R - 1, in 1948. Later, he developed his own distinct designs, though many of these designs were influenced by the Gröttrup Group 's G4 - R10 design from 1949. The Germans were eventually repatriated in 1951 -- 53.
The American professor Robert H. Goddard had worked on developing solid - fuel rockets since 1914, and demonstrated a light battlefield rocket to the US Army Signal Corps only five days before the signing of the armistice that ended World War I. He also started developing liquid - fueled rockets in 1921, yet he had not been taken seriously by the public.
Von Braun and his team were sent to the United States Army 's White Sands Proving Ground, located in New Mexico, in 1945. They set about assembling the captured V2s and began a program of launching them and instructing American engineers in their operation. These tests led to the first rocket to take photos from outer space, and the first two - stage rocket, the WAC Corporal - V2 combination, in 1949. The German rocket team was moved from Fort Bliss to the Army 's new Redstone Arsenal, located in Huntsville, Alabama, in 1950. From here, von Braun and his team developed the Army 's first operational medium - range ballistic missile, the Redstone rocket, that in slightly modified versions, launched both America 's first satellite, and the first piloted Mercury space missions. It became the basis for both the Jupiter and Saturn family of rockets.
William E. Burrows, This New Ocean, "The Other World Series '', p. 147
The Cold War (1947 -- 1991) developed between two former allies, the Soviet Union and the United States, soon after the end of the Second World War. It involved a continuing state of political conflict, military tension, proxy wars, and economic competition, primarily between the Soviet Union and its satellite states (often referred to as the Eastern Bloc), and the powers of the Western world, particularly the United States. The primary participants ' military forces never clashed directly, but expressed this conflict through military coalitions, strategic conventional force deployments, extensive aid to states deemed vulnerable, proxy wars, espionage, propaganda, a nuclear arms race, and economic and technological competitions, such as the Space Race.
In simple terms, the Cold War could be viewed as an expression of the ideological struggle between communism and capitalism. The United States faced a new uncertainty beginning in September 1949, when it lost its monopoly on the atomic bomb. American intelligence agencies discovered that the Soviet Union had exploded its first atomic bomb, with the consequence that the United States potentially could face a future nuclear war that, for the first time, might devastate its cities. Given this new danger, the United States participated in an arms race with the Soviet Union that included development of the hydrogen bomb, as well as intercontinental strategic bombers and intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) capable of delivering nuclear weapons. A new fear of communism and its sympathizers swept the United States during the 1950s, which devolved into paranoid McCarthyism. With communism spreading in China, Korea, and Eastern Europe, Americans came to feel so threatened that popular and political culture condoned extensive "witch - hunts '' to expose communist spies. Part of the American reaction to the Soviet atomic and hydrogen bomb tests included maintaining a large Air Force, under the control of the Strategic Air Command (SAC). SAC employed intercontinental strategic bombers, as well as medium - bombers based close to Soviet airspace (in western Europe and in Turkey) that were capable of delivering nuclear payloads.
For its part, the Soviet Union harbored fears of invasion. Having suffered at least 27 million casualties during World War II after being invaded by Nazi Germany in 1941, the Soviet Union was wary of its former ally, the United States, which until late 1949 was the sole possessor of atomic weapons. The United States had used these weapons operationally during World War II, and it could use them again against the Soviet Union, laying waste to its cities and military centers. Since the Americans had a much larger air force than the Soviet Union, and the United States maintained advance air bases near Soviet territory, in 1947 Stalin ordered the development of intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) in order to counter the perceived American threat.
In 1953, Korolev was given the go - ahead to develop the R - 7 Semyorka rocket, which represented a major advance from the German design. Although some of its components (notably boosters) still resembled the German G - 4, the new rocket incorporated staged design, a completely new control system, and a new fuel. It was successfully tested on August 21, 1957, and became the world 's first fully operational ICBM the following month. It was later used to launch the first satellite into space, and derivatives launched all piloted Soviet spacecraft.
The United States had multiple rocket programs divided among the different branches of the American armed services, which meant that each force developed its own ICBM program. The Air Force initiated ICBM research in 1945 with the MX - 774. However, its funding was cancelled and only three partially successful launches were conducted in 1947. In 1950, von Braun began testing the Air Force PGM - 11 Redstone rocket family at Cape Canaveral. In 1951, the Air Force began a new ICBM program called MX - 1593, and by 1955 this program was receiving top - priority funding. The MX - 1593 program evolved to become the Atlas - A, with its maiden launch occurring June 11, 1957, becoming the first successful American ICBM. Its upgraded version, the Atlas - D rocket, later served as a nuclear ICBM and as the orbital launch vehicle for Project Mercury and the remote - controlled Agena Target Vehicle used in Project Gemini.
With the Cold War as an engine for change in the ideological competition between the United States and the Soviet Union, a coherent space policy began to take shape in the United States during the late 1950s. Korolev took inspiration from the competition as well, achieving many firsts to counter the possibility that the United States might prevail.
In 1955, with both the United States and the Soviet Union building ballistic missiles that could be utilized to launch objects into space, the "starting line '' was drawn for the Space Race. In separate announcements four days apart, both nations publicly announced that they would launch artificial Earth satellites by 1957 or 1958. On July 29, 1955, James C. Hagerty, president Dwight D. Eisenhower 's press secretary, announced that the United States intended to launch "small Earth circling satellites '' between July 1, 1957, and December 31, 1958, as part of their contribution to the International Geophysical Year (IGY). Four days later, at the Sixth Congress of International Astronautical Federation in Copenhagen, scientist Leonid I. Sedov spoke to international reporters at the Soviet embassy, and announced his country 's intention to launch a satellite as well, in the "near future ''. On August 30, 1955, Korolev managed to get the Soviet Academy of Sciences to create a commission whose purpose was to beat the Americans into Earth orbit: this was the de facto start date for the Space Race. The Council of Ministers of the Soviet Union began a policy of treating development of its space program as a classified state secret.
Initially, President Eisenhower was worried that a satellite passing above a nation at over 100 kilometers (62 mi), might be construed as violating that nation 's sovereign airspace. He was concerned that the Soviet Union would accuse the Americans of an illegal overflight, thereby scoring a propaganda victory at his expense. Eisenhower and his advisors believed that a nation 's airspace sovereignty did not extend into outer space, acknowledged as the Kármán line, and he used the 1957 -- 58 International Geophysical Year launches to establish this principle in international law. Eisenhower also feared that he might cause an international incident and be called a "warmonger '' if he were to use military missiles as launchers. Therefore, he selected the untried Naval Research Laboratory 's Vanguard rocket, which was a research - only booster. This meant that von Braun 's team was not allowed to put a satellite into orbit with their Jupiter - C rocket, because of its intended use as a future military vehicle. On September 20, 1956, von Braun and his team did launch a Jupiter - C that was capable of putting a satellite into orbit, but the launch was used only as a suborbital test of nose cone reentry technology.
Korolev received word about von Braun 's 1956 Jupiter - C test, but thinking it was a satellite mission that failed, he expedited plans to get his own satellite in orbit. Since his R - 7 was substantially more powerful than any of the American boosters, he made sure to take full advantage of this capability by designing Object D as his primary satellite. It was given the designation ' D ', to distinguish it from other R - 7 payload designations ' A ', ' B ', ' V ', and ' G ' which were nuclear weapon payloads. Object D dwarfed the proposed American satellites, by having a weight of 1,400 kilograms (3,100 lb), of which 300 kilograms (660 lb) would be composed of scientific instruments that would photograph the Earth, take readings on radiation levels, and check on the planet 's magnetic field. However, things were not going along well with the design and manufacturing of the satellite, so in February 1957, Korolev sought and received permission from the Council of Ministers to create a prosteishy sputnik (PS - 1), or simple satellite. The Council also decreed that Object D be postponed until April 1958. The new sputnik was a shiny sphere that would be a much lighter craft, weighing 83.8 kilograms (185 lb) and having a 58 - centimeter (23 in) diameter. The satellite would not contain the complex instrumentation that Object D had, but had two radio transmitters operating on different short wave radio frequencies, the ability to detect if a meteoroid were to penetrate its pressure hull, and the ability to detect the density of the Earth 's thermosphere.
Korolev was buoyed by the first successful launches of his R - 7 rocket in August and September, which paved the way for him to launch his sputnik. Word came that the Americans were planning to announce a major breakthrough at an International Geophysical Year conference at the National Academy of Sciences in Washington D.C., with a paper entitled "Satellite Over the Planet '', on October 6, 1957. Korolev anticipated that von Braun might launch a Jupiter - C with a satellite payload on or around October 4 or 5, in conjunction with the paper. He hastened the launch, moving it to October 4. The launch vehicle for PS - 1, was a modified R - 7 -- vehicle 8K71PS number M1 - PS -- without much of the test equipment and radio gear that was present in the previous launches. It arrived at the Soviet missile base Tyura - Tam in September and was prepared for its mission at launch site number one. On Friday, October 4, 1957, at exactly 10: 28: 34 pm Moscow time, the R - 7, with the now named Sputnik 1 satellite, lifted off the launch pad, and placed this artificial "moon '' into an orbit a few minutes later. This "fellow traveler, '' as the name is translated in English, was a small, beeping ball, less than two feet in diameter and weighing less than 200 pounds. But the celebrations were muted at the launch control center until the down - range far east tracking station at Kamchatka received the first distinctive beep... beep... beep sounds from Sputnik 1 's radio transmitters, indicating that it was on its way to completing its first orbit. About 95 minutes after launch, the satellite flew over its launch site, and its radio signals were picked up by the engineers and military personnel at Tyura - Tam: that 's when Korolev and his team celebrated the first successful artificial satellite placed into Earth - orbit.
The Soviet success raised a great deal of concern in the United States. For example, economist Bernard Baruch wrote in an open letter titled "The Lessons of Defeat '' to the New York Herald Tribune: "While we devote our industrial and technological power to producing new model automobiles and more gadgets, the Soviet Union is conquering space... It is Russia, not the United States, who has had the imagination to hitch its wagon to the stars and the skill to reach for the moon and all but grasp it. America is worried. It should be. ''
Eisenhower ordered project Vanguard to move up its timetable and launch its satellite much sooner than originally planned. The December 6, 1957 Project Vanguard launch failure occurred at Cape Canaveral Air Force Station in Florida, broadcast live in front of a US television audience. It was a monumental failure, exploding a few seconds after launch, and it became an international joke. The satellite appeared in newspapers under the names Flopnik, Stayputnik, Kaputnik, and Dudnik. In the United Nations, the Russian delegate offered the US. representative aid "under the Soviet program of technical assistance to backwards nations. '' Only in the wake of this very public failure did von Braun 's Redstone team get the go - ahead to launch their Jupiter - C rocket as soon as they could. In Britain, the US 's Western Cold War ally, the reaction was mixed: some celebrated the fact that the Soviets had reached space first, while others feared the destructive potential that military uses of spacecraft might bring.
On January 31, 1958, nearly four months after the launch of Sputnik 1, von Braun and the United States successfully launched its first satellite on a four - stage Juno I rocket derived from the US Army 's Redstone missile, at Cape Canaveral. The satellite Explorer 1 was 30.66 pounds (13.91 kg) in mass. The payload of Explorer 1 weighed 18.35 pounds (8.32 kg). It carried a micrometeorite gauge and a Geiger - Müller tube. It passed in and out of the Earth - encompassing radiation belt with its 194 - by - 1,368 - nautical - mile (360 by 2,534 km) orbit, therefore saturating the tube 's capacity and proving what Dr. James Van Allen, a space scientist at the University of Iowa, had theorized. The belt, named the Van Allen radiation belt, is a doughnut - shaped zone of high - level radiation intensity around the Earth above the magnetic equator. Van Allen was also the man who designed and built the satellite instrumentation of Explorer 1. The satellite measured three phenomena: cosmic ray and radiation levels, the temperature in the spacecraft, and the frequency of collisions with micrometeorites. The satellite had no memory for data storage, therefore it had to transmit continuously. In March 1958 a second satellite was sent into orbit with augmented cosmic ray instruments.
On April 2, 1958, President Eisenhower reacted to the Soviet space lead in launching the first satellite, by recommending to the US Congress that a civilian agency be established to direct nonmilitary space activities. Congress, led by Senate Majority Leader Lyndon B. Johnson, responded by passing the National Aeronautics and Space Act, which Eisenhower signed into law on July 29, 1958. This law turned the National Advisory Committee on Aeronautics into the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). It also created a Civilian - Military Liaison Committee, chaired by the President, responsible for coordinating the nation 's civilian and military space programs.
On October 21, 1959, Eisenhower approved the transfer of the Army 's remaining space - related activities to NASA. On July 1, 1960, the Redstone Arsenal became NASA 's George C. Marshall Space Flight Center, with von Braun as its first director. Development of the Saturn rocket family, which when mature, gave the US parity with the Soviets in terms of lifting capability, was thus transferred to NASA.
In 1958, Korolev upgraded the R - 7 to be able to launch a 400 - kilogram (880 lb) payload to the Moon. Three secret 1958 attempts to launch Luna E-1 - class impactor probes failed. The fourth attempt, Luna 1, launched successfully on January 2, 1959, but missed the Moon. The fifth attempt on June 18 also failed at launch. The 390 - kilogram (860 lb) Luna 2 successfully impacted the Moon on September 14, 1959. The 278.5 - kilogram (614 lb) Luna 3 successfully flew by the Moon and sent back pictures of its far side on October 6, 1959.
The US reacted to the Luna program by embarking on the Ranger program in 1959, managed by NASA 's Jet Propulsion Laboratory. The Block I Ranger 1 and Ranger 2 suffered Atlas - Agena launch failures in August and November 1961. The 727 - pound (330 kg) Block II Ranger 3 launched successfully on January 26, 1962, but missed the Moon. The 730 - pound (330 kg) Ranger 4 became the first US spacecraft to reach the Moon, but its solar panels and navigational system failed near the Moon and it impacted the far side without returning any scientific data. Ranger 5 ran out of power and missed the Moon by 725 kilometers (391 nmi) on October 21, 1962. The first successful Ranger mission was the 806 - pound (366 kg) Block III Ranger 7 which impacted on July 31, 1964.
By 1959, American observers believed that the Soviet Union would be the first to get a human into space, because of the time needed to prepare for Mercury 's first launch. On April 12, 1961, the USSR surprised the world again by launching Yuri Gagarin into a single orbit around the Earth in a craft they called Vostok 1. They dubbed Gagarin the first cosmonaut, roughly translated from Russian and Greek as "sailor of the universe ''. Although he had the ability to take over manual control of his capsule in an emergency by opening an envelope he had in the cabin that contained a code that could be typed into the computer, it was flown in an automatic mode as a precaution; medical science at that time did not know what would happen to a human in the weightlessness of space. Vostok 1 orbited the Earth for 108 minutes and made its reentry over the Soviet Union, with Gagarin ejecting from the spacecraft at 7,000 meters (23,000 ft), and landing by parachute. The Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (International Federation of Aeronautics) credited Gagarin with the world 's first human space flight, although their qualifying rules for aeronautical records at the time required pilots to take off and land with their craft. For this reason, the Soviet Union omitted from their FAI submission the fact that Gagarin did not land with his capsule. When the FAI filing for Gherman Titov 's second Vostok flight in August 1961 disclosed the ejection landing technique, the FAI committee decided to investigate, and concluded that the technological accomplishment of human spaceflight lay in the safe launch, orbiting, and return, rather than the manner of landing, and revised their rules, keeping Gagarin 's and Titov 's records intact.
Gagarin became a national hero of the Soviet Union and the Eastern Bloc, and a worldwide celebrity. Moscow and other cities in the USSR held mass demonstrations, the scale of which was second only to the World War II Victory Parade of 1945. April 12 was declared Cosmonautics Day in the USSR, and is celebrated today in Russia as one of the official "Commemorative Dates of Russia. '' In 2011, it was declared the International Day of Human Space Flight by the United Nations.
The radio communication between the launch control room and Gagarin included the following dialogue at the moment of rocket launch:
Korolev: "Preliminary stage... intermediate... main... lift off! We wish you a good flight. Everything is all right. ''
Gagarin: "Поехали! '' (Poyekhali! - Let 's go!).
Gagarin 's informal poyekhali! became a historical phrase in the Eastern Bloc, used to refer to the beginning of the human space flight era.
The US Air Force had been developing a program to launch the first man in space, named Man in Space Soonest. This program studied several different types of one - man space vehicles, settling on a ballistic re-entry capsule launched on a derivative Atlas missile, and selecting a group of nine candidate pilots. After NASA 's creation, the program was transferred over to the civilian agency and renamed Project Mercury on November 26, 1958. NASA selected a new group of astronaut (from the Greek for "star sailor '') candidates from Navy, Air Force and Marine test pilots, and narrowed this down to a group of seven for the program. Capsule design and astronaut training began immediately, working toward preliminary suborbital flights on the Redstone missile, followed by orbital flights on the Atlas. Each flight series would first start uncrewed, then carry a non-human primate, then finally humans.
On May 5, 1961, Alan Shepard became the first American in space, launched in a ballistic trajectory on Mercury - Redstone 3, in a spacecraft he named Freedom 7. Though he did not achieve orbit like Gagarin, he was the first person to exercise manual control over his spacecraft 's attitude and retro - rocket firing. After his successful return, Shepard was celebrated as a national hero, honored with parades in Washington, New York and Los Angeles, and received the NASA Distinguished Service Medal from President John F. Kennedy.
... if we are to win the battle that is now going on around the world between freedom and tyranny, the dramatic achievements in space which occurred in recent weeks should have made clear to us all, as did the Sputnik in 1957, the impact of this adventure on the minds of men everywhere, who are attempting to make a determination of which road they should take... Now it is time to take longer strides -- time for a great new American enterprise -- time for this nation to take a clearly leading role in space achievement, which in many ways may hold the key to our future on Earth.
... Recognizing the head start obtained by the Soviets with their large rocket engines, which gives them many months of lead - time, and recognizing the likelihood that they will exploit this lead for some time to come in still more impressive successes, we nevertheless are required to make new efforts on our own.
John F. Kennedy, Special Message to Congress on Urgent National Needs, May 25, 1961
Before Gagarin 's flight, US President John F. Kennedy 's support for America 's crewed space program was lukewarm. Jerome Wiesner of MIT, who served as a science advisor to presidents Eisenhower and Kennedy, and himself an opponent of crewed space exploration, remarked, "If Kennedy could have opted out of a big space program without hurting the country in his judgment, he would have. '' As late as March 1961, when NASA administrator James E. Webb submitted a budget request to fund a Moon landing before 1970, Kennedy rejected it because it was simply too expensive. Some were surprised by Kennedy 's eventual support of NASA and the space program because of how often he had attacked the Eisenhower administration 's inefficiency during the election.
Gagarin 's flight changed this; now Kennedy sensed the humiliation and fear on the part of the American public over the Soviet lead. Additionally, the Bay of Pigs invasion, planned before his term began but executed during it, was an embarrassment to his administration due to the colossal failure of the American forces. Looking for something to save political face, he sent a memo dated April 20, 1961, to Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson, asking him to look into the state of America 's space program, and into programs that could offer NASA the opportunity to catch up. The two major options at the time seemed to be, either establishment of an Earth orbital space station, or a crewed landing on the Moon. Johnson, in turn, consulted with von Braun, who answered Kennedy 's questions based on his estimates of US and Soviet rocket lifting capability. Based on this, Johnson responded to Kennedy, concluding that much more was needed to reach a position of leadership, and recommending that the crewed Moon landing was far enough in the future that the US had a fighting chance to achieve it first.
Kennedy ultimately decided to pursue what became the Apollo program, and on May 25 took the opportunity to ask for Congressional support in a Cold War speech titled "Special Message on Urgent National Needs ''. Full text
He justified the program in terms of its importance to national security, and its focus of the nation 's energies on other scientific and social fields. He rallied popular support for the program in his "We choose to go to the Moon '' speech, on September 12, 1962, before a large crowd at Rice University Stadium, in Houston, Texas, near the construction site of the new Manned Spacecraft Center facility. Full text
Khrushchev responded to Kennedy 's implicit challenge with silence, refusing to publicly confirm or deny the Soviets were pursuing a "Moon race ''. As later disclosed, they pursued such a program in secret over the next nine years.
American Virgil "Gus '' Grissom repeated Shepard 's suborbital flight in Liberty Bell 7 on July 21, 1961. Almost a year after the Soviet Union put a human into orbit, astronaut John Glenn became the first American to orbit the Earth, on February 20, 1962. His Mercury - Atlas 6 mission completed three orbits in the Friendship 7 spacecraft, and splashed down safely in the Atlantic Ocean, after a tense reentry, due to what falsely appeared from the telemetry data to be a loose heat - shield. As the first American in orbit, Glenn became a national hero, and received a ticker - tape parade in New York City, reminiscent of that given for Charles Lindbergh. On February 23, 1962, President Kennedy escorted him in a parade at Cape Canaveral Air Force Station, where he awarded Glenn with the NASA service medal.
The United States launched three more Mercury flights after Glenn 's: Aurora 7 on May 24, 1962, duplicated Glenn 's three orbits; Sigma 7 on October 3, 1962, six orbits; and Faith 7 on May 15, 1963, 22 orbits (32.4 hours), the maximum capability of the spacecraft. NASA at first intended to launch one more mission, extending the spacecraft 's endurance to three days, but since this would not beat the Soviet record, it was decided instead to concentrate on developing Project Gemini.
Gherman Titov became the first Soviet cosmonaut to exercise manual control of his Vostok 2 craft on August 6, 1961. The Soviet Union demonstrated 24 - hour launch pad turnaround and the capability to launch two piloted spacecraft, Vostok 3 and Vostok 4, in essentially identical orbits, on August 11 and 12, 1962. The two spacecraft came within approximately 6.5 kilometers (4.0 mi) of one another, close enough for radio communication. Vostok 4 also set a record of nearly four days in space. Though the two craft 's orbits were as nearly identical as possible given the accuracy of the launch rocket 's guidance system, slight variations still existed which drew the two craft at first as close to each other as 6.5 kilometers (3.5 nautical miles), then as far apart as 2,850 kilometers (1,540 nautical miles). There were no maneuvering rockets on the Vostok to permit space rendezvous, required to keep two spacecraft a controlled distance apart.
The Soviet Union duplicated its dual - launch feat with Vostok 5 and Vostok 6 (June 16, 1963). This time they launched the first woman (also the first civilian), Valentina Tereshkova, into space on Vostok 6. Launching a woman was reportedly Korolev 's idea, and it was accomplished purely for propaganda value. Tereshkova was one of a small corps of female cosmonauts who were amateur parachutists, but Tereshkova was the only one to fly. The USSR did n't again open its cosmonaut corps to women until 1980, two years after the United States opened its astronaut corps to women.
The Soviets kept the details and true appearance of the Vostok capsule secret until the April 1965 Moscow Economic Exhibition, where it was first displayed without its aerodynamic nose cone concealing the spherical capsule. The "Vostok spaceship '' had been first displayed at the July 1961 Tushino air show, mounted on its launch vehicle 's third stage, with the nose cone in place. A tail section with eight fins was also added, in an apparent attempt to confuse western observers. This spurious tail section also appeared on official commemorative stamps and a documentary.
On September 20, 1963, in a speech before the United Nations General Assembly, President Kennedy proposed that the United States and the Soviet Union join forces in an effort to reach the Moon. Kennedy thus changed his mind regarding the desirability of the space race, preferring instead to ease tensions with the Soviet Union by cooperating on projects such as a joint lunar landing. Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev initially rejected Kennedy 's proposal. However, on October 2, 1997, it was reported that Khrushchev 's son Sergei claimed Khrushchev was poised to accept Kennedy 's proposal at the time of Kennedy 's assassination on November 22, 1963. During the next few weeks he reportedly concluded that both nations might realize cost benefits and technological gains from a joint venture, and decided to accept Kennedy 's offer based on a measure of rapport during their years as leaders of the world 's two superpowers, but changed his mind and dropped the idea since he did not have the same trust for Kennedy 's successor, Lyndon Johnson.
As President, Johnson steadfastly pursued the Gemini and Apollo programs, promoting them as Kennedy 's legacy to the American public. One week after Kennedy 's death, he issued an executive order renaming the Cape Canaveral and Apollo launch facilities after Kennedy.
Focused by the commitment to a Moon landing, in January 1962 the US announced Project Gemini, a two - man spacecraft that would support the later three - man Apollo by developing the key spaceflight technologies of space rendezvous and docking of two craft, flight durations of sufficient length to simulate going to the Moon and back, and extra-vehicular activity to accomplish useful work outside the spacecraft.
Meanwhile, Korolev had planned further, long - term missions for the Vostok spacecraft, and had four Vostoks in various stages of fabrication in late 1963 at his OKB - 1 facilities. At that time, the Americans announced their ambitious plans for the Project Gemini flight schedule. These plans included major advancements in spacecraft capabilities, including a two - person spacecraft, the ability to change orbits, the capacity to perform an extravehicular activity (EVA), and the goal of docking with another spacecraft. These represented major advances over the previous Mercury or Vostok capsules, and Korolev felt the need to try to beat the Americans to many of these innovations. Korolev already had begun designing the Vostok 's replacement, the next - generation Soyuz spacecraft, a multi-cosmonaut spacecraft that had at least the same capabilities as the Gemini spacecraft. Soyuz would not be available for at least three years, and it could not be called upon to deal with this new American challenge in 1964 or 1965. Political pressure in early 1964 -- which some sources claim was from Khrushchev while other sources claim was from other Communist Party officials -- pushed him to modify his four remaining Vostoks to beat the Americans to new space firsts in the size of flight crews, and the duration of missions.
The greater advances of the Soviet space program at the time allowed their space program to achieve other significant firsts, including the first EVA "spacewalk '' and the first mission performed by a crew in shirt - sleeves. Gemini took a year longer than planned to accomplish its first flight, allowing the Soviets to achieve another first, launching Voskhod 1 on October 12, 1964, the first spacecraft with a three - cosmonaut crew. The USSR touted another technological achievement during this mission: it was the first space flight during which cosmonauts performed in a shirt - sleeve - environment. However, flying without spacesuits was not due to safety improvements in the Soviet spacecraft 's environmental systems; rather this innovation was accomplished because the craft 's limited cabin space did not allow for spacesuits. Flying without spacesuits exposed the cosmonauts to significant risk in the event of potentially fatal cabin depressurization. This feat was not repeated until the US Apollo Command Module flew in 1968; this later mission was designed from the outset to safely transport three astronauts in a shirt - sleeve environment while in space.
Between October 14 -- 16, 1964, Leonid Brezhnev and a small cadre of high - ranking Communist Party officials, deposed Khrushchev as Soviet government leader a day after Voskhod 1 landed, in what was called the "Wednesday conspiracy ''. The new political leaders, along with Korolev, ended the technologically troublesome Voskhod program, cancelling Voskhod 3 and 4, which were in the planning stages, and started concentrating on the race to the Moon. Voskhod 2 ended up being Korolev 's final achievement before his death on January 14, 1966, as it became the last of the many space firsts that demonstrated the USSR 's domination in spacecraft technology during the early 1960s. According to historian Asif Siddiqi, Korolev 's accomplishments marked "the absolute zenith of the Soviet space program, one never, ever attained since. '' There was a two - year pause in Soviet piloted space flights while Voskhod 's replacement, the Soyuz spacecraft, was designed and developed.
On March 18, 1965, about a week before the first American piloted Project Gemini space flight, the USSR accelerated the competition, by launching the two - cosmonaut Voskhod 2 mission with Pavel Belyayev and Alexey Leonov. Voskhod 2 's design modifications included the addition of an inflatable airlock to allow for extravehicular activity (EVA), also known as a spacewalk, while keeping the cabin pressurized so that the capsule 's electronics would not overheat. Leonov performed the first - ever EVA as part of the mission. A fatality was narrowly avoided when Leonov 's spacesuit expanded in the vacuum of space, preventing him from re-entering the airlock. In order to overcome this, he had to partially depressurize his spacesuit to a potentially dangerous level. He succeeded in safely re-entering the ship, but he and Belyayev faced further challenges when the spacecraft 's atmospheric controls flooded the cabin with 45 % pure oxygen, which had to be lowered to acceptable levels before re-entry. The reentry involved two more challenges: an improperly timed retrorocket firing caused the Voskhod 2 to land 386 kilometers (240 mi) off its designated target area, the town of Perm; and the instrument compartment 's failure to detach from the descent apparatus caused the spacecraft to become unstable during reentry.
Though delayed a year to reach its first flight, Gemini was able to take advantage of the USSR 's two - year hiatus after Voskhod, which enabled the US to catch up and surpass the previous Soviet lead in piloted spaceflight. Gemini achieved several significant firsts during the course of ten piloted missions:
Most of the novice pilots on the early missions would command the later missions. In this way, Project Gemini built up spaceflight experience for the pool of astronauts for the Apollo lunar missions.
Korolev 's design bureau produced two prospectuses for circumlunar spaceflight (March 1962 and May 1963), the main spacecraft for which were early versions of his Soyuz design. Soviet Communist Party Central Committee Command 655 - 268 officially established two secret, competing crewed programs for circumlunar flights and lunar landings, on August 3, 1964. The circumlunar flights were planned to occur in 1967, and the landings to start in 1968.
The circumlunar program (Zond), created by Vladimir Chelomey 's design bureau OKB - 52, was to fly two cosmonauts in a stripped - down Soyuz 7K - L1, launched by Chelomey 's Proton UR - 500 rocket. The Zond sacrificed habitable cabin volume for equipment, by omitting the Soyuz orbital module. Chelomey gained favor with Khruschev by employing members of his family.
Korolev 's lunar landing program was designated N1 / L3, for its N1 super rocket and a more advanced Soyuz 7K - L3 spacecraft, also known as the lunar orbital module ("Lunniy Orbitalny Korabl '', LOK), with a crew of two. A separate lunar lander ("Lunniy Korabl '', LK), would carry a single cosmonaut to the lunar surface.
The N1 / L3 launch vehicle had three stages to Earth orbit, a fourth stage for Earth departure, and a fifth stage for lunar landing assist. The combined space vehicle was roughly the same height and takeoff mass as the three - stage US Apollo / Saturn V and exceeded its takeoff thrust by 28 %, but had only roughly half the translunar injection payload capability.
Following Khruschev 's ouster from power, Chelomey 's Zond program was merged into the N1 / L3 program.
The US and USSR began discussions on the peaceful uses of space as early as 1958, presenting issues for debate to the United Nations, which created a Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space in 1959.
On May 10, 1962, Vice President Johnson addressed the Second National Conference on the Peaceful Uses of Space revealing that the United States and the USSR both supported a resolution passed by the Political Committee of the UN General Assembly on December 1962, which not only urged member nations to "extend the rules of international law to outer space, '' but to also cooperate in its exploration. Following the passing of this resolution, Kennedy commenced his communications proposing a cooperative American / Soviet space program.
The UN ultimately created a Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, which was signed by the United States, USSR, and the United Kingdom on January 27, 1967, and went into force the following October 10.
This treaty:
The treaty remains in force, signed by 107 member states. -- As of July 2017
In 1967, both nations faced serious challenges that brought their programs to temporary halts. Both had been rushing at full - speed toward the first piloted flights of Apollo and Soyuz, without paying due diligence to growing design and manufacturing problems. The results proved fatal to both pioneering crews.
On January 27, 1967, the same day the US and USSR signed the Outer Space Treaty, the crew of the first crewed Apollo mission, Command Pilot Virgil "Gus '' Grissom, Senior Pilot Ed White, and Pilot Roger Chaffee, were killed in a fire that swept through their spacecraft cabin during a ground test, less than a month before the planned February 21 launch. An investigative board determined the fire was probably caused by an electrical spark, and quickly grew out of control, fed by the spacecraft 's pure oxygen atmosphere. Crew escape was made impossible by inability to open the plug door hatch cover against the greater - than - atmospheric internal pressure. The board also found design and construction flaws in the spacecraft, and procedural failings, including failure to appreciate the hazard of the pure - oxygen atmosphere, as well as inadequate safety procedures. All these flaws had to be corrected over the next twenty - two months until the first piloted flight could be made. Mercury and Gemini veteran Grissom had been a favored choice of Deke Slayton, NASA 's Director of Flight Crew Operations, to make the first piloted landing.
On April 24, 1967, the single pilot of Soyuz 1, Vladimir Komarov, became the first in - flight spaceflight fatality. The mission was planned to be a three - day test, to include the first Soviet docking with an unpiloted Soyuz 2, but the mission was plagued with problems. Early on, Komarov 's craft lacked sufficient electrical power because only one of two solar panels had deployed. Then the automatic attitude control system began malfunctioning and eventually failed completely, resulting in the craft spinning wildly. Komarov was able to stop the spin with the manual system, which was only partially effective. The flight controllers aborted his mission after only one day. During the emergency re-entry, a fault in the landing parachute system caused the primary chute to fail, and the reserve chute became tangled with the drogue chute; Komarov was killed on impact. Fixing the spacecraft faults caused an eighteen - month delay before piloted Soyuz flights could resume.
The United States recovered from the Apollo 1 fire, fixing the fatal flaws in an improved version of the Block II command module. The US proceeded with unpiloted test launches of the Saturn V launch vehicle (Apollo 4 and Apollo 6) and the Lunar Module (Apollo 5) during the latter half of 1967 and early 1968. Apollo 1 's mission to check out the Apollo Command / Service Module in Earth orbit was accomplished by Grissom 's backup crew commanded by Walter Schirra on Apollo 7, launched on October 11, 1968. The eleven - day mission was a total success, as the spacecraft performed a virtually flawless mission, paving the way for the United States to continue with its lunar mission schedule.
The Soviet Union also fixed the parachute and control problems with Soyuz, and the next piloted mission Soyuz 3 was launched on October 26, 1968. The goal was to complete Komarov 's rendezvous and docking mission with the un-piloted Soyuz 2. Ground controllers brought the two craft to within 200 meters (660 ft) of each other, then cosmonaut Georgy Beregovoy took control. He got within 40 meters (130 ft) of his target, but was unable to dock before expending 90 percent of his maneuvering fuel, due to a piloting error that put his spacecraft into the wrong orientation and forced Soyuz 2 to automatically turn away from his approaching craft. The first docking of Soviet spacecraft was finally realized in January 1969 by the Soyuz 4 and Soyuz 5 missions. It was the first - ever docking of two crewed spacecraft, and the first transfer of crew from one space vehicle to another.
The Soviet Zond spacecraft was not yet ready for piloted circumlunar missions in 1968, after five unsuccessful and partially successful automated test launches: Cosmos 146 on March 10, 1967; Cosmos 154 on April 8, 1967; Zond 1967A September 27, 1967; Zond 1967B on November 22, 1967. Zond 4 was launched on March 2, 1968, and successfully made a circumlunar flight. After its successful flight around the Moon, Zond 4 encountered problems with its Earth reentry on March 9, and was ordered destroyed by an explosive charge 15,000 meters (49,000 ft) over the Gulf of Guinea. The Soviet official announcement said that Zond 4 was an automated test flight which ended with its intentional destruction, due to its recovery trajectory positioning it over the Atlantic Ocean instead of over the USSR.
During the summer of 1968, the Apollo program hit another snag: the first pilot - rated Lunar Module (LM) was not ready for orbital tests in time for a December 1968 launch. NASA planners overcame this challenge by changing the mission flight order, delaying the first LM flight until March 1969, and sending Apollo 8 into lunar orbit without the LM in December. This mission was in part motivated by intelligence rumors the Soviet Union might be ready for a piloted Zond flight during late 1968. In September 1968, Zond 5 made a circumlunar flight with tortoises on board and returned to Earth, accomplishing the first successful water landing of the Soviet space program in the Indian Ocean. It also scared NASA planners, as it took them several days to figure out that it was only an automated flight, not piloted, because voice recordings were transmitted from the craft en route to the Moon. On November 10, 1968, another automated test flight, Zond 6 was launched, but this time encountered difficulties in its Earth reentry, and depressurized and deployed its parachute too early, causing it to crash - land only 16 kilometers (9.9 mi) from where it had been launched six days earlier. It turned out there was no chance of a piloted Soviet circumlunar flight during 1968, due to the unreliability of the Zonds.
On December 21, 1968, Frank Borman, James Lovell, and William Anders became the first humans to ride the Saturn V rocket into space on Apollo 8. They also became the first to leave low - Earth orbit and go to another celestial body, and entered lunar orbit on December 24. They made ten orbits in twenty hours, and transmitted one of the most watched TV broadcasts in history, with their Christmas Eve program from lunar orbit, that concluded with a reading from the biblical Book of Genesis. Two and a half hours after the broadcast, they fired their engine to perform the first trans - Earth injection to leave lunar orbit and return to the Earth. Apollo 8 safely landed in the Pacific Ocean on December 27, in NASA 's first dawn splashdown and recovery.
The American Lunar Module was finally ready for a successful piloted test flight in low Earth orbit on Apollo 9 in March 1969. The next mission, Apollo 10, conducted a "dress rehearsal '' for the first landing in May 1969, flying the LM in lunar orbit as close as 47,400 feet (14.4 km) above the surface, the point where the powered descent to the surface would begin. With the LM proven to work well, the next step was to attempt the landing.
Unknown to the Americans, the Soviet Moon program was in deep trouble. After two successive launch failures of the N1 rocket in 1969, Soviet plans for a piloted landing suffered delay. The launch pad explosion of the N - 1 on July 3, 1969, was a significant setback. The rocket hit the pad after an engine shutdown, destroying itself and the launch facility. Without the N - 1 rocket, the USSR could not send a large enough payload to the Moon to land a human and return him safely.
Apollo 11 was prepared with the goal of a July landing in the Sea of Tranquility. The crew, selected in January 1969, consisted of commander (CDR) Neil Armstrong, Command Module Pilot (CMP) Michael Collins, and Lunar Module Pilot (LMP) Edwin "Buzz '' Aldrin. They trained for the mission until just before the launch day. On July 16, 1969, at exactly 9: 32 am EDT, the Saturn V rocket, AS - 506, lifted off from Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39 in Florida.
The trip to the Moon took just over three days. After achieving orbit, Armstrong and Aldrin transferred into the Lunar Module, named Eagle, and after a landing gear inspection by Collins remaining in the Command / Service Module Columbia, began their descent. After overcoming several computer overload alarms caused by an antenna switch left in the wrong position, and a slight downrange error, Armstrong took over manual flight control at about 180 meters (590 ft), and guided the Lunar Module to a safe landing spot at 20: 18: 04 UTC, July 20, 1969 (3: 17: 04 pm CDT). The first humans on the Moon waited six hours before they left their craft. At 02: 56 UTC, July 21 (9: 56 pm CDT July 20), Armstrong became the first human to set foot on the Moon.
The first step was witnessed by at least one - fifth of the population of Earth, or about 723 million people. His first words when he stepped off the LM 's landing footpad were, "That 's one small step for (a) man, one giant leap for mankind. '' Aldrin joined him on the surface almost 20 minutes later. Altogether, they spent just under two and one - quarter hours outside their craft. The next day, they performed the first launch from another celestial body, and rendezvoused back with Columbia.
Apollo 11 left lunar orbit and returned to Earth, landing safely in the Pacific Ocean on July 24, 1969. When the spacecraft splashed down, 2,982 days had passed since Kennedy 's commitment to landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to the Earth before the end of the decade; the mission was completed with 161 days to spare. With the safe completion of the Apollo 11 mission, the Americans won the race to the Moon.
NASA had ambitious follow - on human spaceflight plans as it reached its lunar goal, but soon discovered it had expended most of its political capital to do so.
The first landing was followed by another, precision landing on Apollo 12 in November 1969. NASA had achieved its first landing goal with enough Apollo spacecraft and Saturn V launchers left for eight follow - on lunar landings through Apollo 20, conducting extended - endurance missions and transporting the landing crews in Lunar Roving Vehicles on the last five. They also planned an Apollo Applications Program to develop a longer - duration Earth orbital workshop (later named Skylab) to be constructed in orbit from a spent S - IVB upper stage, using several launches of the smaller Saturn IB launch vehicle. But planners soon decided this could be done more efficiently by using the two live stages of a Saturn V to launch the workshop pre-fabricated from an S - IVB (which was also the Saturn V third stage), which immediately removed Apollo 20. Belt - tightening budget cuts soon led NASA to cut Apollo 18 and 19 as well, but keep three extended / Lunar Rover missions. Apollo 13 encountered an in - flight spacecraft failure and had to abort its lunar landing in April 1970, returning its crew safely but temporarily grounding the program again. It resumed with four successful landings on Apollo 14 (February 1971), Apollo 15 (July 1971), Apollo 16 (April 1972), and Apollo 17 (December 1972).
In February 1969, President Richard M. Nixon convened a Space Task Group to set recommendations for the future US civilian space program, headed by his Vice President Spiro T. Agnew. Agnew was an enthusiastic proponent of NASA 's follow - on plans, and the STG recommended plans to develop a reusable Space Transportation System including a Space Shuttle, which would facilitate development of permanent space stations in Earth and lunar orbit, perhaps a base on the lunar surface, and the first human flight to Mars as early as 1986 or as late as 2000. Nixon had a better sense of the declining political support in Congress for a new Apollo - style program, which had disappeared with the achievement of the landing, and he intended to pursue detente with the USSR and China, which he hoped might ease Cold War tensions. He cut the spending proposal he sent to Congress to include funding for only the Space Shuttle, with perhaps an option to pursue the Earth orbital space station for the foreseeable future.
The USSR continued trying to perfect their N1 rocket, finally canceling it in 1976, after two more launch failures in 1971 and 1972.
Having lost the race to the Moon, the USSR decided to concentrate on orbital space stations. During 1969 and 1970, they launched six more Soyuz flights after Soyuz 3, then launched the first space station, the Salyut 1 laboratory designed by Kerim Kerimov, on April 19, 1971. Three days later, the Soyuz 10 crew attempted to dock with it, but failed to achieve a secure enough connection to safely enter the station. The Soyuz 11 crew of Vladislav Volkov, Georgi Dobrovolski and Viktor Patsayev successfully docked on June 7, and completed a record 22 - day stay. The crew became the second in - flight space fatality during their reentry on June 30. They were asphyxiated when their spacecraft 's cabin lost all pressure, shortly after undocking. The disaster was blamed on a faulty cabin pressure valve, that allowed all the air to vent into space. The crew was not wearing pressure suits and had no chance of survival once the leak occurred.
Salyut 1 's orbit was increased to prevent premature reentry, but further piloted flights were delayed while the Soyuz was redesigned to fix the new safety problem. The station re-entered the Earth 's atmosphere on October 11, after 175 days in orbit. The USSR attempted to launch a second Salyut - class station designated Durable Orbital Station - 2 (DOS - 2) on July 29, 1972, but a rocket failure caused it to fail to achieve orbit. After the DOS - 2 failure, the USSR attempted to launch four more Salyut - class stations up to 1975, with another failure due to an explosion of the final rocket stage, which punctured the station with shrapnel so that it would not hold pressure. All of the Salyuts were presented to the public as non-military scientific laboratories, but some of them were covers for the military Almaz reconnaissance stations.
The United States launched the orbital workstation Skylab 1 on May 14, 1973. It weighed 169,950 pounds (77,090 kg), was 58 feet (18 m) long by 21.7 feet (6.6 m) in diameter, with a habitable volume of 10,000 cubic feet (280 m). Skylab was damaged during the ascent to orbit, losing one of its solar panels and a meteoroid thermal shield. Subsequent crewed missions repaired the station, and the final mission 's crew, Skylab 4, set the Space Race endurance record with 84 days in orbit when the mission ended on February 8, 1974. Skylab stayed in orbit another five years before reentering the Earth 's atmosphere over the Indian Ocean and Western Australia on July 11, 1979.
In May 1972, President Richard M. Nixon and Soviet Premier Leonid Brezhnev negotiated an easing of relations known as detente, creating a temporary "thaw '' in the Cold War. In the spirit of good sportsmanship, the time seemed right for cooperation rather than competition, and the notion of a continuing "race '' began to subside.
The two nations planned a joint mission to dock the last US Apollo craft with a Soyuz, known as the Apollo - Soyuz Test Project (ASTP). To prepare, the US designed a docking module for the Apollo that was compatible with the Soviet docking system, which allowed any of their craft to dock with any other (e.g. Soyuz / Soyuz as well as Soyuz / Salyut). The module was also necessary as an airlock to allow the men to visit each other 's craft, which had incompatible cabin atmospheres. The USSR used the Soyuz 16 mission in December 1974 to prepare for ASTP.
The joint mission began when Soyuz 19 was first launched on July 15, 1975, at 12: 20 UTC, and the Apollo craft was launched with the docking module six and a half hours later. The two craft rendezvoused and docked on July 17 at 16: 19 UTC. The three astronauts conducted joint experiments with the two cosmonauts, and the crew shook hands, exchanged gifts, and visited each other 's craft.
In the 1970s, the United States began developing a new generation of reusable orbital spacecraft known as the Space Shuttle, and launched a range of uncrewed probes. The USSR continued to develop space station technology with the Salyut program and Mir (' Peace ' or ' World ', depending on the context) space station, supported by Soyuz spacecraft. They developed their own large space shuttle under the Buran program. The USSR dissolved in 1991 and the remains of its space program mainly passed to Russia. The United States and Russia worked together in space with the Shuttle -- Mir Program, and again with the International Space Station.
The Russian R - 7 rocket family, which launched the first Sputnik at the beginning of the Space Race, is still in use today. It services the International Space Station (ISS) as the launcher for both the Soyuz and Progress spacecraft. It also ferries both Russian and American crews to and from the station.
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who played jane hawking's mother in the theory of everything | The Theory of Everything (2014 film) - wikipedia
The Theory of Everything is a 2014 British biographical romantic drama film which is set at Cambridge University and details the life of the theoretical physicist Stephen Hawking. It was directed by James Marsh, and adapted by Anthony McCarten from the memoir Travelling to Infinity: My Life with Stephen by Jane Hawking, which deals with her relationship with her ex-husband, theoretical physicist Stephen Hawking, his diagnosis of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS, also known as Lou Gehrig 's disease or motor neurone disease), and his success in physics.
The film stars Eddie Redmayne and Felicity Jones, with Charlie Cox, Emily Watson, Simon McBurney, Christian McKay, Harry Lloyd, and David Thewlis featured in supporting roles. The film had its world premiere at the 2014 Toronto International Film Festival on 7 September 2014. It had its UK premiere on 1 January 2015.
The film received positive reviews, with praise for the musical score, cinematography, and the performances of Jones and especially Redmayne, which earned him nominations for a variety of accolades in award shows and film festivals; including winning the Academy Award for Best Actor. The film also received Academy Award nominations for Best Picture, Best Actress for Jones, Best Adapted Screenplay, and Best Original Score for Jóhannsson. The film received ten British Academy Film Awards (BAFTA) nominations; and won Outstanding British Film, Best Leading Actor for Redmayne, and Best Adapted Screenplay for McCarten. It received four Golden Globe Award nominations, winning the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor -- Motion Picture Drama for Redmayne, and Best Original Score for Jóhannsson. It also received three Screen Actors Guild Awards nominations; winning one for the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Leading Role for Redmayne.
At the University of Cambridge, astrophysics student Stephen Hawking begins a romantic relationship with literature student Jane Wilde. Although Stephen excels at mathematics and physics, his friends and professors are concerned over his lack of a thesis topic. After Stephen and his professor Dennis Sciama attend a lecture on black holes, Stephen speculates that black holes may have been part of the creation of the universe, and decides to write his thesis on time.
While pursuing his research, Stephen 's muscles begin to fail, eventually causing him to fall and hit his head. He learns he has motor neurone disease; he will be unable to talk, swallow, breathe, or move most of his body; and has approximately two years to live. Stephen asks what will happen to his brain. The doctor tells Stephen that the disease will not affect it or his thoughts, but that eventually, no one will know what they are. As Stephen becomes reclusive, focusing on his work, Jane confesses she loves him. She tells Stephen 's father she intends to stay with Stephen even as his condition worsens. They marry and have a son.
Stephen presents his thesis to the examination board, arguing that a black hole created the universe in a Big Bang, that it will emit heat, and that it will end in a Big Crunch. While celebrating with Jane and his friends, Stephen realises he can not walk, and begins using a wheelchair.
After having a second child, a daughter, Stephen develops a theory about the visibility of black holes, and becomes a world - renowned physicist. Jane, focusing on the children and on Stephen 's health and increasing fame, is unable to work on her own thesis and becomes frustrated. Stephen tells her he will understand if she needs help. She joins the church choir, where she meets widower Jonathan and they become close friends. She employs him as a piano teacher for her son and Jonathan befriends the entire family, helping Stephen with his illness, supporting Jane, and playing with the children.
When Jane gives birth to another son, Stephen 's mother asks Jane if the baby is Jonathan 's, which she denies. Jane sees that Jonathan overheard the conversation, and is appalled, but when they are alone, they admit their feelings for one another. Jonathan stays away from the family, but Stephen visits him, saying that Jane needs him.
While Jane and Jonathan take the children camping, Stephen is invited to attend an opera performance in Bordeaux, and contracts pneumonia. While in the hospital, the doctors tell Jane that Stephen needs a tracheotomy, which will leave him unable to speak. She agrees to the surgery.
Stephen learns to use a spelling board, and uses it to communicate with Elaine, his new nurse. He receives a computer with a built - in voice synthesiser, and uses it to write a book, A Brief History of Time, which becomes an international best - seller.
Stephen tells Jane that he has been invited to America to accept an award, and will be taking Elaine with him. Jane faces the realisation that her and Stephen 's marriage has not been working, telling him she "did her best ''. Jane and Stephen agree to divorce. Stephen goes to the lecture with Elaine, the two having fallen in love, and Jane and Jonathan reunite. At the lecture, Stephen sees a student drop a pen; he imagines getting up to return it, almost crying at the reminder of how his disease has affected him. He goes on to give an inspiring speech, saying, "There should be no boundaries to human endeavour. We are all different. However bad life may seem, there is always something you can do, and succeed at. While there 's life, there is hope ''.
Stephen invites Jane to meet Queen Elizabeth II with him to receive his Order of the Companions of Honour; they share a happy day together with their children, with Stephen saying "Look what we made ''.
An extended closing series comprises select moments from the film; shown in reverse, back to the moment Stephen first saw Jane. A final title sequence brings the lives of the lead characters up to date. Jane and Jonathan are happily married, and she has completed her PhD. She and Stephen remain close friends. Stephen declines a knighthood from the Queen and continues his research, with no plans to retire.
-- James Marsh, speaking of the film 's nature
Screenwriter Anthony McCarten had been interested in Hawking since reading his seminal book A Brief History of Time in 1988. In 2004, McCarten read Jane Hawking 's memoir Travelling to Infinity: My Life with Stephen, and subsequently began writing a screenplay adaptation of the book, with no guarantees in place. He met numerous times with Jane at her home to discuss the project. After multiple drafts, he was introduced in 2009 to producer Lisa Bruce via their mutual ICM agent, Craig Bernstein.
Bruce spent three years with McCarten, further convincing Jane Hawking to agree to a film adaptation of her book, with Bruce stating, "It was a lot of conversation, many glasses of sherry, and many pots of tea ''. On 18 April 2013, James Marsh was confirmed to direct the film, with the shooting being based in Cambridge, and at other locations in the United Kingdom, with Eddie Redmayne courted to fill the male lead of the piece. On 23 June 2013, it was revealed that Felicity Jones was confirmed to play the film 's female lead role opposite Redmayne. On 8 October 2013, it was confirmed that Emily Watson and David Thewlis had joined the cast, Christina Applegate, Kate del Castillo, Catherine Tate, and Amanda Peet were considered for the part, and that Working Title 's Tim Bevan, Eric Fellner, Lisa Bruce, and Anthony McCarten would be producing the piece.
Marsh had studied archival images to give the film its authenticity, stating, "When we had photographs and documentary footage of Stephen that related to our story, we tried to reproduce them as best we could ''. Redmayne met with Hawking himself, commenting, "Even now, when he 's unable to move, you can still see such effervescence in his eyes ''. And described portraying Hawking on - screen as a "hefty '' challenge, adding that, "The real problem with making a film is of course you do n't shoot chronologically. So it was about having to really try and chart his physical deterioration (so) you can jump into it day - to - day, whilst at the same time keeping this spark and wit and humour that he has ''.
Redmayne spent six months researching Hawking 's life, watching every piece of interview footage he could find of him. He studied Hawking 's accent and speech patterns under dialect coach Julia Wilson - Dickson to prepare for the role. Marsh stated that what Redmayne had to do was not easy. "He had to take on enormous amounts of difficult preparation, as well as embracing the difficult physicality of the role. It 's not just doing a disability. It 's actually charting the course of an illness that erodes the body, and the mind has to project out from that erosion '', he said. He added that Hawking gave him his blessing, and also revealed that, "(Hawking 's) response was very positive, so much so that he offered to lend his voice, the real voice that he uses. The voice you hear in the latter part of the story is in fact Stephen 's actual electronic voice as he uses it '', he said. It was revealed to the Toronto International Film Festival (TIFF) audience that as the lights came up at a recent screening, a nurse had wiped a tear from Hawking 's cheek.
Jane Hawking, speaking on BBC Radio 4 's Woman 's Hour, talked of meeting Jones several times while the latter prepared for the role. When Hawking saw the finished film, she was amazed to see that Jones had incorporated her mannerisms and speech patterns into her performance.
By 8 October 2013, principal photography had begun, with the shooting being done at Cambridge University, and at other locations in Cambridgeshire and across the United Kingdom. Prior to the start of principal photography, Working Title had begun shooting on the lawn in front of the New Court building from 23 September 2013 to 27 September 2013; they filmed the Cambridge May Ball scene, set in 1963. On 24 September 2013, scenes were filmed at St John 's College, The Backs in Queen 's Road, and Queen 's Green. The New Court lawn and Kitchen Bridge were included features in the filming location of the piece. The May Ball scene was the last of the outside shoots, with filming in a lecture theatre the following day, and the remaining filming completed in the studio over the final five weeks of production.
The pyrotechnic specialists Titanium Fireworks, who developed the displays for the London 2012 Olympic Games, provided three identical firework displays for the Trinity College, Cambridge May Ball scene.
Composer Jóhann Jóhannsson scored The Theory of Everything. His score in the film has been described as including "(Jóhannsson 's) signature blend of acoustic instruments and electronics ''. Jóhannsson commented that "it always involves the layers of live recordings, whether it 's orchestra or a band or solo instrument, with electronics and more ' soundscapey ' elements which can come from various sources ''. Jóhannsson 's score was highly praised, being nominated for an Academy Award for Best Original Score, a BAFTA Award for Best Film Music, a Critics ' Choice Movie Award for Best Score and a Grammy Award for Best Score Soundtrack for Visual Media, winning the Golden Globe Award for Best Original Score. The soundtrack was recorded at Abbey Road Studios.
During editing, filmmakers tried to remake Hawking 's synthesised voice, but it did not turn out as they wanted. Hawking enjoyed the film enough that he granted them permission to use his own synthesised voice, which is heard in the final film.
The film takes various dramatic liberties with the history it portrays. Writing for the film blog of UK daily newspaper The Guardian, Michelle Dean noted:
The Theory of Everything 's marketing materials will tell you it is based on Jane Hawking 's memoir of her marriage, a book published in the UK as Music to Move the Stars, and then re-issued as Travelling to Infinity. But the screenwriters rearranged the facts to suit certain dramatic conventions. And while that always happens in these based - on - a-true - story films, the scale of the departure in The Theory of Everything is unusually wide. The film becomes almost dishonest -- in a way that feels unfair to both parties, and oddly, particularly Jane Hawking herself.
In Slate, L.V. Anderson wrote that "the Stephen played by Eddie Redmayne is far gentler and more sensitive '' than suggested in Travelling to Infinity. The Slate article further noted that the character Brian, Hawking 's closest friend at Cambridge in the film, is not based on a real individual, but rather a composite of several of his real - life friends.
The film alters some of the details surrounding the beginning of Stephen and Jane 's relationship, including how they met, as well as the fact that Jane knew about Stephen 's disease before they started dating. Slate also comments that the film underplays Hawking 's stubbornness and refusal to accept outside assistance for his disorder.
For The Guardian, Dean concluded by saying:
The movie presents the demise of their relationship as a beautiful, tear - soaked, mutually respectful conversation. Of course that did n't actually happen either. Jane 's book describes a protracted breakup that comes to a head in a screaming fight on vacation. She also described devastation when Hawking announced by letter he was leaving her for his second wife, Elaine Mason. He ended up married to Mason for 10 years before that fell apart, and then he and Jane mended fences. Which, as it happens, the movie fudges too. It tries to present the rapprochement as coming when Hawking was made a Companion of Honour in 1989, but that actually happened before the couple separated.
Physicist Adrian Melott, a former student of Dennis Sciama, Hawking 's doctoral supervisor portrayed in the film, strongly criticised the portrayal of Sciama in the film.
On 8 October 2013, Universal Pictures International had acquired the rights to distribute the film internationally.
On 10 April 2014, Focus Features acquired the distribution rights to The Theory of Everything in the United States, with the plan of a 2014 limited theatrical release. publisher after, Entertainment One Films picked up the Canadian distribution rights. The first trailer of the film was released on 7 August 2014.
The Theory of Everything premiered at the Toronto International Film Festival (TIFF) on 7 September 2014, where it opened in the official sidebar section, Special Presentations.
The film had a limited release in the United States on 7 November 2014, expanded in successive weeks to Taiwan, Austria, and Germany, ahead of a United Kingdom release on 1 January 2015, before being released throughout Europe.
The Theory of Everything earned $122,873,310 worldwide, with its biggest markets coming from North America ($35.9 million), and the United Kingdom ($31.9 million). The film had a North American limited release on 7 November 2014; it was released in five theatres, and earned $207,000 on its opening weekend, for an average of $41,400 per theatre. The film was then widely released on 26 November across 802 theatres, earning US $5 million, and debuting at No. 7 at the Box Office. During its five - day Thanksgiving week, the film earned $6.4 million.
Film review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports an approval rating of 79 % based on 236 reviews, with an average rating of 7.3 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Part biopic, part love story, The Theory of Everything rises on James Marsh 's polished direction and the strength of its two leads. '' Metacritic assigned the film a weighted average score of 72 out of 100, based on 47 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''.
Catherine Shoard of The Guardian wrote, "Redmayne towers: this is an astonishing, genuinely visceral performance which bears comparison with Daniel Day - Lewis in My Left Foot ''. Lou Lumenick, in his review for The New York Post, called the film "tremendously moving and inspirational ''. Justin Chang of Variety remarked, "A stirring and bittersweet love story, inflected with tasteful good humor... '' He continued by praising the "superb performances '' from Redmayne and Jones, as well commenting very positively about Jóhannsson 's score, "whose arpeggio - like repetitions and progressions at times evoke the compositions of Philip Glass '', whilst praising John Paul Kelly 's production design, and Steven Noble 's costumes. Leslie Felperin of The Hollywood Reporter remarked, "A solid, duly moving account of their complicated relationship, spanning roughly 25 years, and made with impeccable professional polish '', praising Delhomme 's cinematography as having "lush, intricately lit compositions '', and adding "a splendor that keeps the film consistently watchable '', and Jóhannsson 's score as "dainty precision with a ineffable scientific quality about it ''. The Daily Telegraph 's Tim Robey granted the film a positive review, stating that, "In its potted appraisal of Hawking 's cosmology, The Theory of Everything bends over backwards to speak to the layman, and relies on plenty of second - hand inspiration. But it borrows from the right sources, this theory. And that 's something '', while praising Redmayne 's performance, McCarten 's script, and Delhomme 's cinematography. Deadline Hollywood 's Pete Hammond marked McCarten 's script and Marsh 's direction for praise, and of the film 's Toronto reception, wrote: "To say the response here was rapturous would not be understating the enthusiasm I heard -- not just from pundits, but also Academy voters with whom I spoke. One told me he came in with high expectations for a quality movie, and this one exceeded them ''.
The film was not without its detractors. Some criticised Marsh 's focus on Hawking 's romantic life. Alonso Duralde of The Wrap stated that "Hawking 's innovations and refusal to subscribe to outdated modes of thinking merely underscore the utter conventionality of his film biography ''. Eric Kohn of Indiewire added that "James Marsh 's biopic salutes the famous physicist 's commitment, but falls short of exploring his brilliant ideas ''. Dennis Overbye of the New York Times noted:
The movie does n't deserve any prizes for its drive - by muddling of Dr. Hawking 's scientific work, leaving viewers in the dark about exactly why he is so famous. Instead of showing how he undermined traditional notions of space and time, it panders to religious sensibilities about what his work does or does not say about the existence of God, which in fact is very little.
Writing for The Guardian 's film blog, Michelle Dean argues that the film does a disservice to Jane Wilde Hawking, by "rearrang (ing) the facts to suit certain dramatic conventions... The Theory of Everything is hell - bent on preserving the cliche ''.
The film 's producers, writer, director Marsh, and actors Redmayne and Jones were widely favoured for award season success.
The Theory of Everything received several awards and nominations following its release. At the 87th Academy Awards, it was nominated in the categories of Best Picture, Best Actor for Eddie Redmayne, Best Actress for Jones, Best Adapted Screenplay for McCarten, and Best Original Score for Jóhann Jóhannsson; with Eddie Redmayne winning the film 's sole Academy Award for his performance. The film was nominated for ten British Academy Film Awards, (winning for Best Adapted Screenplay, Best British Film, and Best Actor), five Critics ' Choice Movie Awards, and three Screen Actors Guild Awards. At the 72nd Golden Globe Awards, Redmayne won Best Actor -- Motion Picture Drama, and Jóhannsson won Best Original Score. The film, and Jones were also nominated. Production designer John Paul Kelly earned a nomination for Excellence in Production Design for a Period Film from the Art Directors Guild, while the producers were nominated for Best Theatrical Motion Picture by the Producers Guild of America.
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who has not starred in the movie pulp fiction | Pulp Fiction - Wikipedia
Pulp Fiction is a 1994 American black comedy neo-noir crime film written and directed by Quentin Tarantino, from a story by Tarantino and Roger Avary. Directed in a highly stylized manner, Pulp Fiction connects the intersecting storylines of Los Angeles mobsters, fringe players, small - time criminals, and a mysterious briefcase. The film 's title refers to the pulp magazines and hardboiled crime novels popular during the mid-20th century, known for their graphic violence and punchy dialogue.
The screenplay of Pulp Fiction was written in 1992 and 1993, and incorporated some scenes originally written by Avary for True Romance. Its plot, as in many of Tarantino 's other works, is presented out of chronological order. The film is also self - referential from its opening moments, beginning with a title card that gives two dictionary definitions of "pulp ''. Considerable screen time is devoted to monologues and casual conversations with eclectic dialogue revealing each character 's perspectives on several subjects, and the film features an ironic combination of humor and strong violence. Its script was reportedly turned down by Columbia TriStar as "too demented ''. Miramax co-chairman Harvey Weinstein was instantly enthralled with it, however, and the film became the first that Miramax fully financed.
Pulp Fiction won the Palme d'Or at the 1994 Cannes Film Festival, and was a major critical and commercial success upon its U.S. release. It was nominated for seven Oscars, including Best Picture; Tarantino and Avary won for Best Original Screenplay. John Travolta, Samuel L. Jackson, and Uma Thurman, each received Academy Award nominations for their roles and revitalized and / or elevated their careers. The nature of its development, marketing, and distribution -- and its consequent profitability -- had a sweeping effect on the field of independent cinema.
Since its release, Pulp Fiction has been widely regarded as Tarantino 's masterpiece, with particular praise singled out for its screenwriting. The film 's self - reflexivity, unconventional structure, and extensive use of homage and pastiche have led critics to describe it as a touchstone of postmodern film. It is often considered a cultural watershed, with a strong influence felt not only in later movies that adopted various elements of its style, but in several other media as well. A 2008 Entertainment Weekly list named it the best film from 1983 to 2008 and the work has appeared on many critics ' lists of the greatest films ever made. In 2013, Pulp Fiction was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant ''.
Pulp Fiction 's narrative is told out of chronological order, and follows three main interrelated stories: mob contract killer Vincent Vega is the protagonist of the first story, prizefighter Butch Coolidge is the protagonist of the second, and Vincent 's partner Jules Winnfield is the protagonist of the third. The stories intersect in various ways.
The film begins with a diner hold - up staged by a couple, then picks up the stories of Vincent, Jules, and Butch. It finally returns to where it began, in the diner. There are a total of seven narrative sequences; the three primary storylines are preceded by intertitles:
If the seven sequences were ordered chronologically, they would run: 4a, 2, 6, 1, 7, 3, 4b, 5. Sequences 1 and 7 partially overlap and are presented from different points of view, as do sequences 2 and 6. In Philip Parker 's description, the structural form is "an episodic narrative with circular events adding a beginning and end and allowing references to elements of each separate episode to be made throughout the narrative. '' Other analysts describe the structure as a "circular narrative ''.
Hitmen Jules Winnfield and Vincent Vega arrive at the apartment of Brett to retrieve a briefcase for their boss, gangster Marsellus Wallace. After Vincent checks the contents of the briefcase, Jules shoots one of Brett 's associates, then declaims a passage from the Bible before he and Vincent kill Brett. They take the briefcase to Marsellus, but have to wait while he bribes champion boxer Butch Coolidge to take a dive in his upcoming match.
The next day, Vincent purchases heroin from his drug dealer, Lance. He shoots up then drives to meet Marsellus 's wife Mia, whom Marsellus has asked Vincent to escort while he is out of town. They head to a 1950s - themed restaurant and participate in a twist contest, then return to the Wallace house with the trophy. While Vincent is in the bathroom, Mia finds his heroin, mistakes it for cocaine, snorts it, and overdoses. Vincent rushes her to Lance 's house, where they revive her with an adrenaline shot to her heart.
Butch double - crosses Marsellus and wins the bout, killing his opponent in the process. At the motel where he and his girlfriend Fabienne are lying low, Butch discovers that she has forgotten to pack his father 's gold watch, a beloved heirloom, and flies into a rage. Returning to his apartment to retrieve the watch, he notices a gun on the kitchen counter, and hears the toilet flush. Vincent exits the bathroom, and Butch shoots him dead.
As Butch waits at a traffic light in his car, Marsellus spots him by chance, and chases him into a pawnshop. The owner, Maynard, captures them at gunpoint, and ties them up in the basement. Maynard is joined by Zed, a security guard; they take Marsellus to another room to rape him, leaving the "gimp '', a silent figure in a bondage suit, to watch Butch. Butch breaks loose, and knocks out the gimp. He is about to flee, but decides to save Marsellus. As Zed rapes Marsellus, Butch kills Maynard with a katana retrieved from the pawnshop. Marsellus retrieves Maynard 's shotgun, and shoots Zed. Marsellus informs Butch that they are even, as long as he tells no one about the rape and departs Los Angeles forever. Butch picks up Fabienne on Zed 's chopper.
Some time earlier, after Vincent and Jules have executed Brett in his apartment, another man bursts out of the bathroom, and shoots wildly, missing every time; Jules and Vincent shoot him. Jules decides their survival was a miracle, which Vincent disputes. As Jules drives, Vincent accidentally shoots Brett 's associate Marvin in the face. They hide the car at the home of their associate Jimmie, who insists they deal with the problem before his wife Bonnie comes home. Marsellus sends his cleaner, Winston Wolfe, who directs Jules and Vincent to clean the car, hide the body in the trunk, dispose of their bloody clothes, and drive the car to a junk yard.
At a diner, Jules tells Vincent that he plans to retire from his life of crime, taking their "miraculous '' survival as a sign. While Vincent is in the bathroom, a couple, Pumpkin and Honey Bunny, hold up the restaurant. When Jules holds Pumpkin at gunpoint, Honey Bunny becomes hysterical and trains her gun on him; Vincent returns with his gun trained on her, creating a Mexican standoff. Jules recites the biblical passage, expresses ambivalence about his life of crime, and allows the robbers to take his cash and leave. Jules and Vincent leave the diner with the briefcase.
Roger Avary wrote the first element of what would become the Pulp Fiction screenplay in the fall of 1990:
Tarantino and Avary decided to write a short, on the theory that it would be easier to get made than a feature. But they quickly realized that nobody produces shorts, so the film became a trilogy, with one section by Tarantino, one by Avary, and one by a third director who never materialized. Each eventually expanded his section into a feature - length script.
The initial inspiration was the three - part horror anthology film Black Sabbath (1963), by Italian filmmaker Mario Bava. The Tarantino -- Avary project was provisionally titled "Black Mask, '' after the seminal hardboiled crime fiction magazine. Tarantino 's script was produced as Reservoir Dogs, his directorial debut; Avary 's, titled "Pandemonium Reigns, '' would form the basis for the "Gold Watch '' storyline of Pulp Fiction.
With work on Reservoir Dogs completed, Tarantino returned to the notion of a trilogy film: "I got the idea of doing something that novelists get a chance to do but filmmakers do n't: telling three separate stories, having characters float in and out with different weights depending on the story. '' Tarantino explains that the idea "was basically to take like the oldest chestnuts that you 've ever seen when it comes to crime stories -- the oldest stories in the book... You know, ' Vincent Vega and Marsellus Wallace 's Wife ' -- the oldest story about... the guy 's got ta go out with the big man 's wife and do n't touch her. You know, you 've seen the story a zillion times. '' "I 'm using old forms of storytelling and then purposely having them run awry '', he says. "Part of the trick is to take these movie characters, these genre characters and these genre situations and actually apply them to some of real life 's rules and see how they unravel. '' In at least one case, boxer Butch Coolidge, Tarantino had in mind a specific character from a classic Hollywood crime story: "I wanted him to be basically like Ralph Meeker as Mike Hammer in Aldrich 's Kiss Me Deadly (1955). I wanted him to be a bully and a jerk ''.
Tarantino went to work on the script for Pulp Fiction in Amsterdam in March 1992, possibly at the Winston Hotel in the Red Light District. He was joined there by Avary, who contributed "Pandemonium Reigns '' to the project and participated in its rewriting as well as the development of the new storylines that would link up with it. Two scenes originally written by Avary for the True Romance screenplay, exclusively credited to Tarantino, were incorporated into the opening of "The Bonnie Situation '': the "miraculous '' missed shots by the hidden gunman and the rear seat automobile killing. The notion of the crimeworld "cleaner '' that became the heart of the episode was inspired by a short, Curdled, that Tarantino saw at a film festival. He cast the lead actress, Angela Jones, in Pulp Fiction and later backed the filmmakers ' production of a feature - length version of Curdled. The script included a couple of made - up commercial brands that would feature often in later Tarantino films: Big Kahuna burgers (a Big Kahuna soda cup appears in Reservoir Dogs) and Red Apple cigarettes. As he worked on the script, Tarantino also accompanied Reservoir Dogs around the European film festivals. Released in the U.S. in October 1992, the picture was a critical and commercial success. In January 1993, the Pulp Fiction script was complete.
Tarantino and his producer, Lawrence Bender, brought the script to Jersey Film. Before even seeing Reservoir Dogs, Jersey had attempted to sign Tarantino for his next project. Ultimately a development deal worth around $1 million had been struck -- the deal gave A Band Apart, Bender and Tarantino 's newly formed production company, initial financing and office facilities; Jersey got a share of the project and the right to shop the script to a studio. Jersey had a distribution and "first look '' deal with Columbia TriStar, which paid Tarantino for the right to consider exercising its option. In February, Pulp Fiction appeared on a Variety list of films in preproduction at TriStar. In June, however, the studio put the script into turnaround. According to a studio executive, TriStar chief Mike Medavoy found it "too demented ''. There were suggestions that TriStar was resistant to back a film featuring a heroin user; there were also indications that the studio simply saw the project as too low - budget for its desired star - driven image. Avary -- who was about to start shooting his own directorial debut, Killing Zoe -- has said that TriStar 's objections were comprehensive, encompassing the script 's fundamental structure. He characterizes the studio 's position: "' This is the worst thing ever written. It makes no sense. Someone 's dead and then they 're alive. It 's too long, violent, and unfilmable. '... So I thought, ' That 's that! ' ''
Bender brought the script to Miramax, the formerly independent studio that had recently been acquired by Disney. Harvey Weinstein -- co-chairman of Miramax, along with his brother, Bob -- was instantly enthralled by the script and the company picked it up. Pulp Fiction, the first Miramax project to get a green light after the Disney acquisition, was budgeted at $8.5 million. It became the first movie that Miramax completely financed. Helping hold costs down was the plan Bender executed to pay all the main actors the same amount per week, regardless of their industry status. The biggest star to sign on to the project was Bruce Willis. Though he had recently appeared in several big - budget flops, he was still a major overseas draw. On the strength of his name, Miramax garnered $11 million for the film 's worldwide rights, virtually ensuring its profitability.
Principal photography commenced on September 20, 1993. The lead offscreen talent had all worked with Tarantino on Reservoir Dogs -- cinematographer Andrzej Sekuła, film editor Sally Menke, production designer David Wasco, and costume designer Betsy Heimann. According to Tarantino, "(W) e had $8 million (sic). I wanted it to look like a $20 -- 25 million movie. I wanted it to look like an epic. It 's an epic in everything -- in invention, in ambition, in length, in scope, in everything except the price tag. '' The film, he says, was shot "on 50 ASA film stock, which is the slowest stock they make. The reason we use it is that it creates an almost no - grain image, it 's lustrous. It 's the closest thing we have to 50s Technicolor. '' The largest chunk of the budget -- $150,000 -- went to creating the Jack Rabbit Slim 's set. It was built in a Culver City warehouse, where it was joined by several other sets as well as the film 's production offices. The diner sequence was shot on location in Hawthorne at the Hawthorne Grill, known for its Googie architecture. For the costumes, Tarantino took his inspiration from French director Jean - Pierre Melville, who believed that the clothes his characters wore were their symbolic suits of armor. Tarantino cast himself in a modest - sized role as he had in Reservoir Dogs. One of his pop totems, Fruit Brute, a long - discontinued General Mills cereal, also returned from the earlier film. The shoot wrapped on November 30. Before Pulp Fiction 's premiere, Tarantino convinced Avary to forfeit his agreed - on cowriting credit and accept a "story by '' credit, so the line "Written and directed by Quentin Tarantino '' could be used in advertising and onscreen.
No film score was composed for Pulp Fiction; Quentin Tarantino instead used an eclectic assortment of surf music, rock and roll, soul, and pop songs. Dick Dale 's rendition of "Misirlou '' plays during the opening credits. Tarantino chose surf music as the basic musical style for the film, but not, he insists, because of its association with surfing culture: "To me it just sounds like rock and roll, even Morricone music. It sounds like rock and roll spaghetti Western music. '' Some of the songs were suggested to Tarantino by his friends Chuck Kelley and Laura Lovelace, who were credited as music consultants. Lovelace also appeared in the film as Laura, a waitress; she reprises the role in Jackie Brown. The soundtrack album, Music from the Motion Picture Pulp Fiction, was released along with the film in 1994. The album peaked on the Billboard 200 chart at number 21. The single, Urge Overkill 's cover of the Neil Diamond song "Girl, You 'll Be a Woman Soon '', reached number 59.
Estella Tincknell describes how the particular combination of well - known and obscure recordings helps establish the film as a "self - consciously ' cool ' text. (The) use of the mono - tracked, beat - heavy style of early 1960s U.S. ' underground ' pop mixed with ' classic ' ballads such as Dusty Springfield 's ' Son of a Preacher Man ' is crucial to the film 's postmodern knowingness. '' She contrasts the soundtrack with that of Forrest Gump, the highest - grossing film of 1994, which also relies on period pop recordings: "(T) he version of ' the sixties ' offered by Pulp Fiction... is certainly not that of the publicly recognized counter-culture featured in Forrest Gump, but is, rather, a more genuinely marginal form of sub-culture based around a lifestyle -- surfing, ' hanging ' -- that is resolutely apolitical. '' The soundtrack is central, she says, to the film 's engagement with the "younger, cinematically knowledgeable spectator '' it solicits.
Pulp Fiction premiered in May 1994 at the Cannes Film Festival. The Weinsteins "hit the beach like commandos '', bringing the picture 's entire cast over. The film was unveiled at a midnight hour screening and caused a sensation. It won the Palme d'Or, the festival 's top prize, generating a further wave of publicity.
The first U.S. review of the film was published on May 23 in industry trade magazine Variety. Todd McCarthy called Pulp Fiction a "spectacularly entertaining piece of pop culture... a startling, massive success. '' From Cannes forward, Tarantino was on the road continuously, promoting the film. Over the next few months it played in smaller festivals around Europe, building buzz: Nottingham, Munich, Taormina, Locarno, Norway, and San Sebastián. Tarantino later said, "One thing that 's cool is that by breaking up the linear structure, when I watch the film with an audience, it does break (the audience 's) alpha state. It 's like, all of a sudden, ' I got ta watch this... I got ta pay attention. ' You can almost feel everybody moving in their seats. It 's actually fun to watch an audience in some ways chase after a movie. '' In late September, it opened the New York Film Festival. The New York Times published its review the day of the opening. Janet Maslin called the film a "triumphant, cleverly disorienting journey through a demimonde that springs entirely from Mr. Tarantino 's ripe imagination, a landscape of danger, shock, hilarity and vibrant local color... (He) has come up with a work of such depth, wit and blazing originality that it places him in the front ranks of American film makers. ''
On October 14, 1994, Pulp Fiction went into general release in the United States. As Peter Biskind describes, "It was not platformed, that is, it did not open in a handful of theaters and roll out slowly as word of mouth built, the traditional way of releasing an indie film; it went wide immediately, into 1,100 theaters. '' In the eyes of some cultural critics, Reservoir Dogs had given Tarantino a reputation for glamorizing violence. Miramax played with the issue in its marketing campaign: "You wo n't know the facts till you 've seen the fiction '', went one slogan. Pulp Fiction was the top - grossing film at the box office its first weekend, edging out a Sylvester Stallone vehicle, The Specialist, which was in its second week and playing at more than twice as many theaters. Against its budget of $8.5 million and about $10 million in marketing costs, Pulp Fiction wound up grossing $107.93 million at the U.S. box office, making it the first "indie '' film to surpass $100 million. Worldwide, it took in nearly $213 million. In terms of domestic grosses, it was the tenth biggest film of 1994, even though it played on substantially fewer screens than any other film in the top 20. Popular engagement with the film, such as speculation about the contents of the precious briefcase, "indicates the kind of cult status that Pulp Fiction achieved almost immediately. '' As MovieMaker puts it, "The movie was nothing less than a national cultural phenomenon. '' Abroad, as well: In Britain, where it opened a week after its U.S. release, not only was the film a big hit, but in book form its screenplay became the most successful in UK publishing history, a top - ten bestseller.
The response of major American film reviewers was widely favorable. Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun - Times described it as "so well - written in a scruffy, fanzine way that you want to rub noses in it -- the noses of those zombie writers who take ' screenwriting ' classes that teach them the formulas for ' hit films. ' '' Richard Corliss of TIME wrote, "It towers over the year 's other movies as majestically and menacingly as a gang lord at a preschool. It dares Hollywood films to be this smart about going this far. If good directors accept Tarantino 's implicit challenge, the movie theater could again be a great place to live in. '' In Newsweek, David Ansen wrote, "The miracle of Quentin Tarantino 's Pulp Fiction is how, being composed of secondhand, debased parts, it succeeds in gleaming like something new. '' "You get intoxicated by it, '' wrote Entertainment Weekly 's Owen Gleiberman, "high on the rediscovery of how pleasurable a movie can be. I 'm not sure I 've ever encountered a filmmaker who combined discipline and control with sheer wild - ass joy the way that Tarantino does. '' "There 's a special kick that comes from watching something this thrillingly alive '', wrote Peter Travers of Rolling Stone. "Pulp Fiction is indisputably great. '' Overall, the film attained exceptionally high ratings among U.S. reviewers: a 94 % score based on 78 reviews at Rotten Tomatoes with an average rating of 9.1 / 10, the site 's consensus reading, "One of the most influential films of the 1990s, Pulp Fiction is a delirious post-modern mix of neo-noir thrills, pitch - black humor, and pop - culture touchstones ''. It has an average score of 94 / 100 based on 24 reviews on Metacritic.
The Los Angeles Times was one of the few major news outlets to publish a negative review on the film 's opening weekend. Kenneth Turan wrote, "The writer - director appears to be straining for his effects. Some sequences, especially one involving bondage harnesses and homosexual rape, have the uncomfortable feeling of creative desperation, of someone who 's afraid of losing his reputation scrambling for any way to offend sensibilities. '' Some who reviewed it in the following weeks took more exception to the predominant critical reaction than to Pulp Fiction itself. While not panning the film, Stanley Kauffman of The New Republic felt that "the way that (it) has been so widely ravened up and drooled over verges on the disgusting. Pulp Fiction nourishes, abets, cultural slumming. '' Responding to comparisons between Tarantino 's film and the work of French New Wave director Jean - Luc Godard, especially his first, most famous feature, Jonathan Rosenbaum of the Chicago Reader wrote, "The fact that Pulp Fiction is garnering more extravagant raves than Breathless ever did tells you plenty about which kind of cultural references are regarded as more fruitful -- namely, the ones we already have and do n't wish to expand. '' Observing in the National Review that "(n) o film arrives with more advance hype '', John Simon was unswayed: "titillation cures neither hollowness nor shallowness ''.
Debate about the film spread beyond the review pages. Violence was often the theme. In the Washington Post, Donna Britt described how she was happy not to see Pulp Fiction on a recent weekend and thus avoid "discussing the rousing scene in which a gunshot sprays somebody 's brains around a car interior ''. Some commentators took exception to the film 's frequent use of the word "nigger ''. In the Chicago Tribune, Todd Boyd argued that the word 's recurrence "has the ability to signify the ultimate level of hipness for white males who have historically used their perception of black masculinity as the embodiment of cool ''. In Britain, James Wood, writing in The Guardian, set the tone for much subsequent criticism: "Tarantino represents the final triumph of postmodernism, which is to empty the artwork of all content, thus avoiding its capacity to do anything except helplessly represent our agonies... Only in this age could a writer as talented as Tarantino produce artworks so vacuous, so entirely stripped of any politics, metaphysics, or moral interest. ''
Around the turn of the year, Pulp Fiction was named Best Picture by the National Society of Film Critics, National Board of Review, Los Angeles Film Critics Association, Boston Society of Film Critics, Society of Texas Film Critics, Southeastern Film Critics Association, and Kansas City Film Critics Circle. Tarantino was named Best Director by all seven of those organizations as well as by the New York Film Critics Circle and Chicago Film Critics Association. The screenplay won several prizes, with various awarding bodies ascribing credit differently. At the 52nd Golden Globe Awards, Tarantino, named as sole recipient of the Best Screenplay honor, failed to mention Avary in his acceptance speech. In February 1995, the film received seven Oscar nominations -- Best Picture, Director, Actor (Travolta), Supporting Actor (Jackson), Supporting Actress (Thurman), Original Screenplay, and Film Editing. Travolta, Jackson, and Thurman were each nominated as well for the 1st Screen Actors Guild Awards, presented on February 25, but none took home the honor. At the Academy Awards ceremony the following month, Tarantino and Avary were announced as joint winners of the Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay. The furor around the film was still going strong: much of the March issue of Artforum was devoted to its critical dissection. Pulp Fiction garnered four honors at the Independent Spirit Awards, held at the end of the month -- Best Feature, Best Director, Male Lead (Jackson), and Best Screenplay (Tarantino). At the British Academy Film Awards (BAFTA), Tarantino and Avary shared the BAFTA Award for Best Original Screenplay, and Jackson won for Best Supporting Actor. The film was nominated for the Grand Prix of the Belgian Film Critics Association.
Pulp Fiction quickly came to be regarded as one of the most significant films of its era. In 1995, in a special edition of Siskel & Ebert devoted to Tarantino, Gene Siskel argued that the work posed a major challenge to the "ossification of American movies with their brutal formulas ''. In Siskel 's view,
the violent intensity of Pulp Fiction calls to mind other violent watershed films that were considered classics in their time and still are. Hitchcock 's Psycho (1960), Arthur Penn 's Bonnie and Clyde (1967), and Stanley Kubrick 's A Clockwork Orange (1971). Each film shook up a tired, bloated movie industry and used a world of lively lowlifes to reflect how dull other movies had become. And that, I predict, will be the ultimate honor for Pulp Fiction. Like all great films, it criticizes other movies.
Ken Dancyger writes that its "imitative and innovative style '' -- like that of its predecessor, Reservoir Dogs -- represents
a new phenomenon, the movie whose style is created from the context of movie life rather than real life. The consequence is twofold -- the presumption of deep knowledge on the part of the audience of those forms such as the gangster films or Westerns, horror films or adventure films. And that the parody or alteration of that film creates a new form, a different experience for the audience.
In a widely covered speech on May 31, 1995, Republican presidential candidate Bob Dole attacked the American entertainment industry for peddling "nightmares of depravity ''. Pulp Fiction was soon associated with his charges concerning gratuitous violence. Dole had not, in fact, mentioned the film; he cited two less celebrated movies based on Tarantino screenplays, Natural Born Killers and True Romance. In September 1996, Dole did accuse Pulp Fiction -- which he had not seen -- of promoting "the romance of heroin ''.
Paula Rabinowitz expresses the general film industry opinion that Pulp Fiction "simultaneously resurrected John Travolta and film noir ''. In Peter Biskind 's description, it created a "guys - with - guns frenzy ''. The film has also been labeled as a black comedy and a "neo-noir ''. Critic Geoffrey O'Brien, however, argued against the classification of Pulp Fiction into the neo-noir genre: "The old - time noir passions, the brooding melancholy and operatic death scenes, would be altogether out of place in the crisp and brightly lit wonderland that Tarantino conjures up. (It is) neither neo-noir nor a parody of noir. '' Similarly, Nicholas Christopher calls it "more gangland camp than neo-noir '', and Foster Hirsch suggests that its "trippy fantasy landscape '' characterizes it more definitively than any genre label. Regardless, the stylistic influence of Pulp Fiction soon became apparent. Less than a year after the picture 's release, British critic Jon Ronson attended the National Film School 's end - of - semester screenings and assessed the impact: "Out of the five student movies I watched, four incorporated violent shoot - outs over a soundtrack of iconoclastic 70s pop hits, two climaxed with all the main characters shooting each other at once, and one had two hitmen discussing the idiosyncrasies of The Brady Bunch before offing their victim. Not since Citizen Kane has one man appeared from relative obscurity to redefine the art of moviemaking. '' Among the first Hollywood films cited as its imitators were Destiny Turns on the Radio (1995), in which Tarantino acted, Things to Do in Denver When You 're Dead (1995), and 2 Days in the Valley (1996). It "triggered a myriad of clones '', writes Fiona Villella. Internationally, according to David Desser, it "not only influenced a British brand of noir, but extended the noir vision virtually around the world. '' Pulp Fiction 's effect on film form was still reverberating in 2007, when David Denby of The New Yorker credited it with initiating the ongoing cycle of disordered cinematic narratives.
Its impact on Hollywood was deeper still. According to Variety, the trajectory of Pulp Fiction from Cannes launch to commercial smash "forever altered the game '' of so - called independent cinema. It "cemented Miramax 's place as the reigning indie superpower '', writes Biskind. "Pulp became the Star Wars of independents, exploding expectations for what an indie film could do at the box office. '' The film 's large financial return on its small budget
transform (ed) the industry 's attitude toward the lowly indies... spawning a flock of me - too classics divisions... (S) mart studio executives suddenly woke up to the fact that grosses and market share, which got all the press, were not the same as profits... Once the studios realized that they could exploit the economies of (small) scale, they more or less gave up buying or remaking the films themselves, and either bought the distributors, as Disney had Miramax, or started their own... copy (ing) Miramax 's marketing and distribution strategies.
In 2001, Variety, noting the increasing number of actors switching back and forth between expensive studio films and low - budget independent or indie - style projects, suggested that the "watershed moment for movie stars '' came with the decision by Willis -- one of Hollywood 's highest - paid performers -- to appear in Pulp Fiction.
And its impact was even broader than that. It has been described as a "major cultural event '', an "international phenomenon '' that influenced television, music, literature, and advertising. Not long after its release, it was identified as a significant focus of attention within the growing community of Internet users. Adding Pulp Fiction to his roster of The Great Movies in 2001, Roger Ebert called it "the most influential film of the decade ''. Four years later, Time 's Corliss wrote much the same: "(unquestionably) the most influential American movie of the 90s ''.
Several scenes and images from the film achieved iconic status; in 2008, Entertainment Weekly declared, "You 'd be hard - pressed, by now, to name a moment from Quentin Tarantino 's film that is n't iconic. '' Jules and Vincent 's "Royale with Cheese '' dialogue became famous. It was referenced more than a decade and a half later in the Travolta vehicle From Paris with Love. The adrenalin shot to Mia Wallace 's heart is on Premiere 's list of "100 Greatest Movie Moments ''. The scene of Travolta and Thurman 's characters dancing has been frequently homaged, most unambiguously in the 2005 film Be Cool, starring the same two actors. The image of Travolta and Jackson 's characters standing side by side in suit and tie, pointing their guns, has also become widely familiar. In 2007, BBC News reported that "London transport workers have painted over an iconic mural by ' guerrilla artist ' Banksy... The image depicted a scene from Quentin Tarantino 's Pulp Fiction, with Samuel L. Jackson and John Travolta clutching bananas instead of guns. '' Certain lines were adopted popularly as catchphrases, in particular Marsellus 's threat, "I 'm ' a get medieval on your ass. '' Jules 's "Ezekiel '' recitation was voted the fourth greatest movie speech of all time in a 2004 poll. One of the more notable homages to Jules "Biblical '' quote was one Jackson himself played a part in, near the end of 2014 's Captain America: The Winter Soldier, Jackson 's character Col. Nick Fury, presumed dead, visits his own gravestone, on which, below Fury 's name is inscribed "The path of the righteous man... '' Ezekiel 25: 17.
Pulp Fiction now appears in several critical assessments of all - time great films. In 2008, Entertainment Weekly named it the best film of the past quarter - century. That same year, the American Film Institute 's "Ten Top Ten '' poll ranked it number 7 all - time in the gangster film genre. In 2007, it was voted 94th overall on the AFI 's 100 Years... 100 Movies list. In 2005, it was named one of Time 's "All - Time 100 Movies ''. As of January 2010, it is number 10 on Metacritic 's list of all - time highest scores. The film ranks very highly in popular surveys. A 2008 Empire poll combining the opinions of readers, movie industry professionals, and critics named Pulp Fiction the ninth - best film of all time. In a 2006 readers ' poll by the British magazine Total Film, it ranked as the number three film in history. It was voted as the fourth - greatest film of all time in a nationwide poll for Britain 's Channel 4 in 2001.
Tarantino has stated that he originally planned "to do a Black Mask movie '', referring to the magazine largely responsible for popularizing hardboiled detective fiction. "(I) t kind of went somewhere else ''. Geoffrey O'Brien sees the result as connected "rather powerfully to a parallel pulp tradition: the tales of terror and the uncanny practiced by such writers as Cornell Woolrich (and) Fredric Brown... Both dealt heavily in the realm of improbable coincidences and cruel cosmic jokes, a realm that Pulp Fiction makes its own. '' In particular, O'Brien finds a strong affinity between the intricate plot mechanics and twists of Brown 's novels and the recursive, interweaving structure of Pulp Fiction. Philip French describes the film 's narrative as a "circular movement or Möbius strip of a kind Resnais and Robbe - Grillet would admire. '' James Mottram regards crime novelist Elmore Leonard, whose influence Tarantino has acknowledged, as the film 's primary literary antecedent. He suggests that Leonard 's "rich dialogue '' is reflected in Tarantino 's "popular - culture - strewn jive ''; he also points to the acute, extremely dark sense of humor Leonard applies to the realm of violence as a source of inspiration.
Robert Kolker sees the "flourishes, the apparent witty banality of the dialogue, the goofy fracturing of temporality (as) a patina over a pastiche. The pastiche... is essentially of two films that Tarantino ca n't seem to get out of his mind: Mean Streets (1973; directed by Martin Scorsese, who loved Pulp Fiction and the way the film was told.) and The Killing (1956; directed by Stanley Kubrick). '' He contrasts Pulp Fiction with postmodern Hollywood predecessors Hudson Hawk (1991; starring Willis) and Last Action Hero (1993; starring Arnold Schwarzenegger) that "took the joke too far... simply mocked or suggested that they were smarter than the audience '' and flopped. Todd McCarthy writes that the film 's "striking widescreen compositions often contain objects in extreme close - up as well as vivid contrasts, sometimes bringing to mind the visual strategies of Sergio Leone '', an acknowledged hero of Tarantino 's. To Martin Rubin, the "expansive, brightly colored widescreen visuals '' evoke comedy directors such as Frank Tashlin and Blake Edwards.
The movie 's host of pop culture allusions, ranging from the famous image of Marilyn Monroe 's skirt flying up over a subway grating to Jules addressing a soon - to - be victim as "Flock of Seagulls '' because of his haircut, have led many critics to discuss it within the framework of postmodernism. Describing the film in 2005 as Tarantino 's "postmodern masterpiece... to date '', David Walker writes that it "is marked by its playful reverence for the 1950s... and its constantly teasing and often deferential references to other films ''. He characterizes its convoluted narrative technique as "postmodern tricksiness ''. Calling the film a "terminally hip postmodern collage '', Foster Hirsch finds Pulp Fiction far from a masterpiece: "authoritative, influential, and meaningless ''. Set "in a world that could exist only in the movies '', it is "a succulent guilty pleasure, beautifully made junk food for cinéastes ''. O'Brien, dismissing attempts to associate the movie with film noir, argues that "Pulp Fiction is more a guided tour of an infernal theme park decorated with cultural detritus, Buddy Holly and Mamie Van Doren, fragments of blaxploitation and Roger Corman and Shogun Assassin, music out of a twenty - four - hour oldies station for which all the decades since the fifties exist simultaneously. '' Catherine Constable takes the moment in which a needle filled with adrenaline is plunged into the comatose Mia 's heart as exemplary. She proposes that it "can be seen as effecting her resurrection from the dead, simultaneously recalling and undermining the Gothic convention of the vampire 's stake. On this model, the referencing of previous aesthetic forms and styles moves beyond... empty pastiche, sustaining an ' inventive and affirmative ' mode of postmodernism. ''
Mark T. Conard asks, "(W) hat is the film about? '' and answers, "American nihilism. '' Hirsch suggests, "If the film is actually about anything other than its own cleverness, it seems dedicated to the dubious thesis that hit men are part of the human family. '' Richard Alleva argues that "Pulp Fiction has about as much to do with actual criminality or violence as Cyrano de Bergerac with the realities of seventeenth - century France or The Prisoner of Zenda with Balkan politics. '' He reads the movie as a form of romance whose allure is centered in the characters ' nonnaturalistic discourse, "wise - guy literate, media - smart, obscenely epigrammatic ''. In Alan Stone 's view, the "absurd dialogue '', like that between Vincent and Jules in the scene where the former accidentally kills Marvin, "unexpectedly transforms the meaning of the violence cliché... Pulp Fiction unmasks the macho myth by making it laughable and deheroicizes the power trip glorified by standard Hollywood violence. '' Stone reads the film as "politically correct. There is no nudity and no violence directed against women... (It) celebrates interracial friendship and cultural diversity; there are strong women and strong black men, and the director swims against the current of class stereotype. ''
Where Stone sees a celebration, Kolker finds a vacuum: "The postmodern insouciance, violence, homophobia, and racism of Pulp Fiction were perfectly acceptable because the film did n't pretend seriousness and therefore did n't mock it. '' Calling it the "acme of postmodern nineties filmmaking '', he explains, "the postmodern is about surfaces; it is flattened spatiality in which event and character are in a steady state of reminding us that they are pop - cultural figures. '' According to Kolker:
That 's why Pulp Fiction was so popular. Not because all audiences got all or any of its references to Scorsese and Kubrick, but because the narrative and spatial structure of the film never threatened to go beyond themselves into signification. The film 's cycle of racist and homophobic jokes might threaten to break out into a quite nasty view of the world, but this nastiness keeps being laughed off -- by the mock intensity of the action, the prowling, confronting, perverse, confined, and airless nastiness of the world Tarantino creates.
Henry A. Giroux argues that Tarantino "empties violence of any critical social consequences, offering viewers only the immediacy of shock, humor, and irony - without - insight as elements of mediation. None of these elements gets beyond the seduction of voyeuristic gazing... (t) he facile consumption of shocking images and hallucinatory delight. ''
Regarding the violence and nihilism in the film, Pamela Demory has suggested that Pulp Fiction should be seen in light of the short stories of Flannery O'Connor, which likewise feature "religious elements, banality, and violence with grotesque humor. '' Discussing "the connection between violence and redemption, '' Demory concludes that while O'Connor's purpose is to convince readers "of the powerful force of evil in the world and of our need for grace, '' Tarantino "seeks to demonstrate that in spite of everything we have seen in the film -- all the violence, degradation, death, crime, amoral behavior -- grace is still possible; there might be still be a God who does n't judge us on merits. ''
Pulp Fiction is full of homages to other movies. "Tarantino 's characters '', writes Gary Groth, "inhabit a world where the entire landscape is composed of Hollywood product. Tarantino is a cinematic kleptomaniac -- he literally ca n't help himself. '' Two scenes in particular have prompted discussion of the film 's highly intertextual style. Many have assumed that the dance sequence at Jack Rabbit Slim 's was intended as a reference to Travolta 's star - making performance as Tony Manero in the epochal Saturday Night Fever (1977); Tarantino, however, credits a scene in the Jean - Luc Godard film Bande à part (1964) with the inspiration. According to the filmmaker,
Everybody thinks that I wrote this scene just to have John Travolta dancing. But the scene existed before John Travolta was cast. But once he was cast, it was like, "Great. We get to see John dance. All the better. ''... My favorite musical sequences have always been in Godard, because they just come out of nowhere. It 's so infectious, so friendly. And the fact that it 's not a musical, but he 's stopping the movie to have a musical sequence, makes it all the more sweet.
Jerome Charyn argues that, beyond "all the better '', Travolta 's presence is essential to the power of the scene, and of the film:
Travolta 's entire career becomes "backstory '', the myth of a movie star who has fallen out of favor, but still resides in our memory as the king of disco. We keep waiting for him to shed his paunch, put on a white polyester suit, and enter the 2001 Odyssey club in Bay Ridge, Brooklyn, where he will dance for us and never, never stop. Daniel Day - Lewis could n't have woken such a powerful longing in us. He is n't part of America 's own mad cosmology... Tony Manero (is) an angel sitting on Vince 's shoulder... (Vince and Mia 's) actual dance may be closer to the choreography of Anna Karina 's shuffle with her two bumbling gangster boyfriends in Bande à part, but even that reference is lost to us, and we 're with Tony again...
Estella Tincknell notes that while the "diner setting seems to be a simulacrum of a ' fifties ' restaurant... the twist contest is a musical sequence which evokes ' the sixties, ' while Travolta 's dance performance inevitably references ' the seventies ' and his appearance in Saturday Night Fever... The ' past ' thus becomes a more general ' pastness ' in which the stylistic signifiers of various decades are loaded in to a single moment. '' She also argues that in this passage the film "briefly shifts from its habitually ironic discourse to one that references the conventions of the classic film musical and in doing so makes it possible for the film to inhabit an affective space that goes beyond stylistic allusion. ''
The pivotal moment in which Marsellus crosses the street in front of Butch 's car and notices him evokes the scene in which Marion Crane 's boss sees her under similar circumstances in Psycho (1960). Marsellus and Butch are soon held captive by Maynard and Zed, "two sadistic honkies straight out of Deliverance '' (1972), directed by John Boorman. Zed shares a name with Sean Connery 's character in Boorman 's follow - up, the science - fiction film Zardoz (1974). When Butch decides to rescue Marsellus, in Glyn White 's words, "he finds a trove of items with film - hero resonances ''. Critics have identified these weapons with a range of possible allusions:
At the conclusion of the scene, a portentous line of Marsellus ' echoes one from the crime drama Charley Varrick (1973), directed by another of Tarantino 's heroes, Don Siegel; the name of the character who speaks it there is Maynard.
David Bell argues that far from going against the "current of class stereotype '', this scene, like Deliverance, "mobilize (s) a certain construction of poor white country folk -- and particularly their sexualization... ' rustic sexual expression often takes the form of homosexual rape ' in American movies. '' Stephen Paul Miller believes the Pulp Fiction scene goes down much easier than the one it echoes: "The buggery perpetrated is not at all as shocking as it was in Deliverance... The nineties film reduces seventies competition, horror, and taboo into an entertainingly subtle adrenaline play -- a fiction, a pulp fiction. '' Giroux reads the rape scene homage similarly: "in the end Tarantino 's use of parody is about repetition, transgression, and softening the face of violence by reducing it to the property of film history. '' In Groth 's view, the crucial difference is that "in Deliverance the rape created the film 's central moral dilemma whereas in Pulp Fiction it was merely ' the single weirdest day of (Butch 's) life. ' '' ("American Me did it too, '' Tarantino observed. "There 's like three butt - fucking scenes in American Me. That 's definitely the one to beat in that particular category! '')
Neil Fulwood focuses on Butch 's weapon selection, writing, "Here, Tarantino 's love of movies is at its most open and nonjudgemental, tipping a nod to the noble and the notorious, as well as sending up his own reputation as an enfant terrible of movie violence. Moreover, the scene makes a sly comment about the readiness of cinema to seize upon whatever is to hand for its moments of mayhem and murder. '' White asserts that "the katana he finally, and significantly, selects identifies him with... honourable heroes. '' Conard argues that the first three items symbolize a nihilism that Butch is rejecting. The traditional Japanese sword, in contrasts, represents a culture with a well - defined moral code and thus connects Butch with a more meaningful approach to life.
Robert Miklitsch argues that "Tarantino 's telephilia '' may be more central to the guiding sensibility of Pulp Fiction than the filmmaker 's love for rock ' n ' roll and even cinema:
Talking about his generation, one that came of age in the ' 70s, Tarantino has commented that the "number one thing we all shared was n't music, that was a Sixties thing. Our culture was television. '' A random list of the TV programs referenced in Pulp Fiction confirms his observation: Speed Racer, Clutch Cargo, The Brady Bunch, The Partridge Family, The Avengers, The Three Stooges, The Flintstones, I Spy, Green Acres, Kung Fu, Happy Days, and last but not least, Mia 's fictional pilot, Fox Force Five.
"The above list, with the possible exception of The Avengers, '' writes Miklitsch, "suggests that Pulp Fiction has less of an elective affinity with the cinematic avant - gardism of Godard than with mainstream network programming. '' Jonathan Rosenbaum had brought TV into his analysis of the Tarantino / Godard comparison, acknowledging that the directors were similar in wanting to cram everything they like onscreen: "But the differences between what Godard likes and what Tarantino likes and why are astronomical; it 's like comparing a combined museum, library, film archive, record shop, and department store with a jukebox, a video - rental outlet, and an issue of TV Guide. ''
Sharon Willis focuses on the way a television show (Clutch Cargo) marks the beginning of, and plays on through, the scene between young Butch and his father 's comrade - in - arms. The Vietnam War veteran is played by Christopher Walken, whose presence in the role evokes his performance as a traumatized G.I. in the Vietnam War movie The Deer Hunter (1978). Willis writes that "when Captain Koons enters the living room, we see Walken in his function as an image retrieved from a repertoire of 1970s television and movie versions of ruined masculinity in search of rehabilitation... (T) he gray light of the television presiding over the scene seems to inscribe the ghostly paternal gaze. '' Miklitsch asserts that, for some critics, the film is a "prime example of the pernicious ooze - like influence of mass culture exemplified by their bête noire: TV. '' Kolker might not disagree, arguing that "Pulp Fiction is a simulacrum of our daily exposure to television; its homophobes, thugs and perverts, sentimental boxers and pimp promoters move through a series of long - take tableaux: we watch, laugh, and remain with nothing to comprehend. ''
The combination of the mysterious suitcase lock is 666, the "number of the beast ''. Tarantino has said there is no explanation for its contents -- it is simply a MacGuffin, a pure plot device. Originally, the case was to contain diamonds, but this was seen as too mundane. For filming purposes, it contained a hidden orange light bulb that produced an otherworldly glow. In a 2007 video interview with fellow director and friend Robert Rodriguez, Tarantino purportedly "reveals '' the secret contents of the briefcase, but the film cuts out and skips the scene in the style employed in Tarantino and Rodriguez 's Grindhouse (2007), with an intertitle that reads "Missing Reel ''. The interview resumes with Rodriguez discussing how radically the "knowledge '' of the briefcase 's contents alters one 's understanding of the movie.
Despite Tarantino 's statements, many solutions to what one scholar calls this "unexplained postmodern puzzle '' have been proposed. A strong similarity has often been observed with the 1955 film noir Kiss Me Deadly. That movie, whose protagonist Tarantino has cited as a source for Butch, features a glowing briefcase housing an atomic explosive. In their review of Alex Cox 's 1984 film Repo Man in the Daily Telegraph, Nick Cowen and Hari Patience suggest that Pulp Fiction may also owe "a debt of inspiration '' to the glowing car trunk in that film. In scholar Paul Gormley 's view, this connection with Kiss Me Deadly, and a similar one with Raiders of the Lost Ark (1981), makes it possible to read the eerie glow as symbolic of violence itself. The idea that the briefcase contains Marsellus ' soul gained popular currency in the mid-1990s. Analyzing the notion, Roger Ebert dismissed it as "nothing more than a widely distributed urban legend given false credibility by the mystique of the Net ''.
Jules ritually recites what he describes as a biblical passage, Ezekiel 25: 17, before he executes someone. The passage is heard three times -- in the introductory sequence in which Jules and Vincent reclaim Marsellus ' briefcase from the doomed Brett; that same recitation a second time, at the beginning of "The Bonnie Situation '', which overlaps the end of the earlier sequence; and in the epilogue at the diner. The first version of the passage is as follows:
The path of the righteous man is beset on all sides by the inequities of the selfish and the tyranny of evil men. Blessed is he who in the name of charity and goodwill shepherds the weak through the valley of darkness, for he is truly his brother 's keeper and the finder of lost children. And I will strike down upon thee with great vengeance and furious anger those who attempt to poison and destroy my brothers. And you will know my name is the Lord when I lay my vengeance upon thee.
The second version, from the diner scene, is identical except for the final line: "And you will know I am the Lord when I lay my vengeance upon you. ''
While the final two sentences of Jules ' speech are similar to the actual cited passage, the first two are fabricated from various biblical phrases. The text of Ezekiel 25 preceding verse 17 indicates that God 's wrath is retribution for the hostility of the Philistines. In the King James version from which Jules ' speech is adapted, Ezekiel 25: 17 reads in its entirety:
And I will execute great vengeance upon them with furious rebukes; and they shall know that I am the LORD, when I shall lay my vengeance upon them.
Tarantino 's primary inspiration for the speech was the work of Japanese martial arts star Sonny Chiba. Its text and its identification as Ezekiel 25: 17 derive from an almost identical creed that appears at the beginning of the Chiba movie Karate Kiba (The Bodyguard; 1976), where it is both shown as a scrolling text and read by an offscreen narrator.
The version seen at the beginning of The Bodyguard (1976) is as follows:
The path of the righteous man and defender is beset on all sides by the iniquity of the selfish and the tyranny of evil men. Blessed is he, who in the name of charity and good will, shepherds the weak through the valley of darkness, for he is truly his brother 's keeper, and the father of lost children. And I will execute great vengeance upon them with furious anger, who poison and destroy my brothers; and they shall know that I am Chiba the Bodyguard when I shall lay my vengeance upon them! (Ezekiel 25: 17)
In the 1980s television series Kage no Gundan (Shadow Warriors), Chiba 's character would lecture the villain - of - the - week about how the world must be rid of evil before killing him. A killer delivers a similar biblical rant in Modesty Blaise, the hardback but pulp - style novel Vincent is shown with in two scenes.
Two critics who have analyzed the role of the speech find different ties between Jules ' transformation and the issue of postmodernity. Gormley argues that unlike the film 's other major characters -- Marsellus aside -- Jules is:
linked to a "thing '' beyond postmodern simulation... (T) his is perhaps most marked when he moves on from being a simulation of a Baptist preacher, spouting Ezekiel because it was "just a cool thing to say... '' In his conversion, Jules is shown to be cognizant of a place beyond this simulation, which, in this case, the film constructs as God.
Adele Reinhartz writes that the "depth of Jules 's transformation '' is indicated by the difference in his two deliveries of the passage: "In the first, he is a majestic and awe - inspiring figure, proclaiming the prophecy with fury and self - righteousness... In the second... he appears to be a different sort of man altogether... (I) n true postmodern fashion, (he) reflects on the meaning of his speech and provides several different ways that it might pertain to his current situation. '' Similar to Gormley, Conard argues that as Jules reflects on the passage, it dawns on him "that it refers to an objective framework of value and meaning that is absent from his life ''; to Conard, this contrasts with the film 's prevalent representation of a nihilistic culture. Rosenbaum finds much less in Jules 's revelation: "(T) he spiritual awakening at the end of Pulp Fiction, which Jackson performs beautifully, is a piece of jive avowedly inspired by kung - fu movies. It may make you feel good, but it certainly does n't leave you any wiser. ''
Much of Pulp Fiction 's action revolves around characters who are either in the bathroom or need to use the toilet. To a lesser extent, Tarantino 's other films also feature this narrative element. At Jack Rabbit Slim 's, Mia goes to "powder her nose '' -- literally; she snorts coke in the restroom, surrounded by a bevy of women vainly primping. Butch and Fabienne play an extended scene in their motel bathroom, he in the shower, she brushing her teeth; the next morning, but just a few seconds later in screen time, she is again brushing her teeth. As Jules and Vincent confront Brett and two of his pals, a fourth man is hiding in the bathroom -- his actions will lead to Jules ' transformative "moment of clarity ''. After Marvin 's absurd death, Vincent and Jules wash up in Jimmie 's bathroom, where they get into a contretemps over a bloody hand towel. When the diner hold - up turns into a Mexican standoff, "Honey Bunny '' whines, "I got ta go pee! ''
As described by Peter and Will Brooker, "In three significant moments Vincent retires to the bathroom (and) returns to an utterly changed world where death is threatened. '' The threat increases in magnitude as the narrative progresses chronologically, and is realized in the third instance:
In the Brookers ' analysis, "Through Vince... we see the contemporary world as utterly contingent, transformed, disastrously, in the instant you are not looking. '' Fraiman finds it particularly significant that Vincent is reading Modesty Blaise in two of these instances. She links this fact with the traditional derisive view of women as "the archetypal consumers of pulp '':
Locating popular fiction in the bathroom, Tarantino reinforces its association with shit, already suggested by the dictionary meanings of "pulp '' that preface the movie: moist, shapeless matter; also, lurid stories on cheap paper. What we have then is a series of damaging associations -- pulp, women, shit -- that taint not only male producers of mass - market fiction but also male consumers. Perched on the toilet with his book, Vincent is feminized by sitting instead of standing as well as by his trashy tastes; preoccupied by the anal, he is implicitly infantilized and homosexualized; and the seemingly inevitable result is being pulverized by Butch with a Czech M61 submachine gun. That this fate has to do with Vincent 's reading habits is strongly suggested by a slow tilt from the book on the floor directly up to the corpse spilled into the tub.
Willis reads Pulp Fiction in almost precisely the opposite direction, finding "its overarching project as a drive to turn shit into gold. This is one way of describing the project of redeeming and recycling popular culture, especially the popular culture of one 's childhood, as is Tarantino 's wont as well as his stated aim. '' Despite that, argues Fraiman, "Pulp Fiction demonstrates... that even an open pulpophile like Tarantino may continue to feel anxious and emasculated by his preferences. ''
Pulp Fiction won eight awards from a total of twenty - six nominations. Also, in the balloting by the National Society of Film Critics, Samuel L. Jackson was the runner - up in both the Best Actor and the Best Supporting Actor categories.
American Film Institute Lists
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cause im on top of the world eh | On Top of the World (Imagine Dragons song) - wikipedia
"On Top of the World '' is a song by the American rock band Imagine Dragons for their major - label debut extended play Continued Silence (2012), where it appears as the third track. The song also appears on their debut studio album Night Visions (2012) as the fifth track. "On Top of the World '' was released digitally as a single on March 18, 2013.
"On Top of the World '' primarily features guitar and piano instrumentation, with vocals performed by lead singer Dan Reynolds. Originally published in the key of C major, the song itself expresses a celebration of accomplishment for the band after striving for years to become successful. The song incorporates the chord progression of C-F-C - Dm in the verses, and F-C-G - Dm in the chorus and bridge, with the pre-chorus using Am and G to create a different break in the song. The song "On Top of the World '' is found to be a positive, upbeat track, unlike other songs found on Night Visions, including "Bleeding Out '' and "Hear Me ''.
The song is built on a sample of minimalist composer Steve Reich 's "Clapping Music '' from 1972.
Imagine Dragons performed the song live on the Australian version of The X Factor in 2013.
"On Top of the World '' was licensed for inclusion on the soundtrack of EA Sports game, FIFA 13. The band, longtime fans of the FIFA video game series, reacted positively to its inclusion in the game and stated that it would be "a lot of fun hearing the track play while we are doing bicycle kicks and screaming at the screen. '' It also served as the opening theme of the short - lived CBS comedy series Partners. "On Top of the World '' was performed by the PS22 Chorus during Barack Obama 's second United States presidential inauguration. It also featured in Konami video game Pro Evolution Soccer 2013 as well as being used in a Samsung Galaxy Note 8.0 advert.
The song was featured prominently in the film The Incredible Burt Wonderstone several times.
The song was featured in the British kids film All Stars (2013 film).
The song is featured in the Liv and Maddie episode "Twin - a-Rooney '', performed by Dove Cameron in the title role of Liv Rooney. Dove Cameron 's version appears on the compilation album Disney Channel Play It Loud.
Hunter Hayes covered the song live on his US tour.
The song was used by ESPN for their coverage of the NBA for the 2013 -- 14 NBA season.
The song was used during Cartoon Network 's 2013 Hall of Game Awards.
The song was used in trailers for the films The Croods (2013) and Island of Lemurs: Madagascar (2014).
WPVI - TV in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania uses the song to promote their morning news, Action News Mornings.
The song is used in the Coca - Cola promotional video "Moments of Happiness '', shown exclusively at the World of Coca - Cola in Atlanta, Georgia.
The song was featured in the soundtracks of Alpha and Omega: The Legend of the Saw Tooth Cave and The Angry Birds Movie.
From 2013 to 2015, Vodafone Portugal used the song in their ads for the Red phone plan.
In November 2017, Ford used this song in their Black Friday year - end event sales commercial.
As a part of the Palladia documentary Imagine Dragons: The Making of Night Visions, which originally aired on November 7, 2012, the band filmed a video of themselves performing "On Top of the World '' and subsequently uploaded it to YouTube.
On November 13, 2013 the band released an official music video for the song. The video satirizes a popular conspiracy theory that the 1969 Moon landings were faked, the footage having been directed by Stanley Kubrick, and that Kubrick then made references to the fakery in various of his subsequent films. In the video, a rock band similar to the Beatles (played by the members of Imagine Dragons) pretend to be astronauts for the faked moon landing. The taping goes awry as fans of the band stream into the sound stage and turn the event into a rock concert, much to the chagrin of Kubrick and President Richard Nixon, who is also on hand; the crowd might be discovering by being there, that the landings were fake or just be happy to be at the concert. The people at home might be agreeing now that the conspiracies were real, though just how many people are aware or not is not exactly shown. The video also briefly references another popular conspiracy theory from around the same time, that Beatles member Paul McCartney died in 1966 and was replaced by a look - alike.
The video was filmed in Provo, Utah, Imagine Dragons ' original hometown, and includes cameos from various celebrities associated with Provo or Brigham Young University, including Jon Heder, the cast of the TV show Studio C, guitarist Robbie Connolly, and members of The New Electric Sound. Whit Hertford plays Kubrick, and singer Aja Volkman, Imagine Dragons frontman Dan Reynolds ' wife, appears as Reynolds ' character 's wife.
The song peaked at 79 on the US Billboard Hot 100 and 10 on the Hot Rock Songs charts. It has also charted in the top ten in Australia (No. 10), Austria (No. 6), Netherlands (No. 10), New Zealand (No. 10), Poland (No. 7), and Portugal (No. 1). Despite having not yet been released to mainstream radio, it has received airplay on contemporary hit stations, such as 97.1 ZHT in Salt Lake City.
The song reached a million copies sold in the U.S. in April 2014. It 's the fourth million seller from the Night Visions album.
Adapted from Night Visions liner notes.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
Since May 2013 RIAA certifications for digital singles include on - demand audio and / or video song streams in addition to downloads.
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who wrote the song leader of the pack | Leader of the Pack - wikipedia
"Leader of the Pack '' is a song written by George "Shadow '' Morton, Jeff Barry, and Ellie Greenwich. It was a number one pop hit in 1964 for the American girl group The Shangri - Las. The single is one of the group 's best known songs as well as a popular cultural example of a "teenage tragedy song ''. The song was covered in 1985 by the heavy metal band Twisted Sister who had a moderate hit with their version.
The tune of "Leader of the Pack '' is credited to pop impresario George "Shadow '' Morton together with Jeff Barry and Ellie Greenwich. According to Morton, he wrote the song for the Goodies (also known as the Bunnies), but instead it was needed as a follow - up to the Shangri - Las hit "Remember (Walking in the Sand) ''. He said he did not know that he was supposed to have a second idea ready to follow up "Remember (Walking in the Sand) '' until Jerry Leiber and Mike Stoller (Red Bird Records co-owners with George Goldner) asked him, "Hey, what do you want to do for the second record? '' Morton said he "got a bottle of champagne, two cigars '' and "went into the shower, sat down, drank the champagne, smoked the cigars, and wrote the song on a shirt cardboard with my kids crayons. '' Morton claimed he credited Barry and Greenwich as co-writers for business reasons; however his recollection has been questioned by Ellie Greenwich.
The song is about a girl named Betty, who is asked by friends to confirm that she is dating Jimmy, the leader of a motorcycle gang, whose ring they see on Betty 's finger. After singing of love at first sight ("(By the way, where 'd you meet him?) I met him at the candy store / He turned around and smiled at me / You get the picture? / (Yes, we see) That 's when I fell for the Leader of the Pack ''), Betty 's heart turns to despair as she bemoans her parents ' disapproval. The parents claim Jimmy hails from "the wrong side of town '' and ask Betty to tell Jimmy goodbye and find someone new. Betty reluctantly does as she is asked, and a crushed and tearful Jimmy speeds off on his motorcycle. Moments later, Betty 's pleas for Jimmy to slow down are in vain as Jimmy crashes on a rain - slicked surface and dies.
In July 1964, Morton recorded the vocals for "Leader of the Pack '' with the Shangri - Las at the Ultrasonic Sound studio on the second floor of a Manhattan hotel. The song was produced by Morton. These vocals were dubbed over the instrumental parts, which had been previously recorded at the Ultrasonic Recording Studios in Hempstead, New York. Billy Joel, then a young session musician, said on November 16, 2010 during an interview with Howard Stern that he played piano on one of the demos for "Leader of the Pack, '' but he was not sure if any of his parts made the final recording. In fact, the piano part was played by Roger Rossi, a staff musician for Ultrasonic Recording Studios at the time. Rossi said, "I remember the date like it was yesterday, there were no written charts, so unfortunately, some musicians kept making mistakes. As I recall, it took 63 recording takes before Shadow Morton was satisfied. '' Rossi added, "By the end of the session, in take 62, I also messed up and Morton laughingly yelled out, ' Ohhhh, noooo. Not you, too! ' '' In 2007 Tony Visconti claimed that pianist Artie Butler played on the track.
According to legend, to add the authentic sound of a motorcycle engine, one was driven through the lobby of the hotel and up to the floor of the recording studio. No one was arrested, but a ticket was issued. However, in an interview four decades later, Shangri - Las lead singer Mary Weiss said the motorcycle sound was taken from an effects record. Hugh Grundy, drummer for The Zombies, recalls revving up a motorcycle backstage when the Shangri - Las performed on a U.S. tour.
"Leader of the Pack '' was released as a single by Red Bird Records, a Leiber and Stoller label, and the song hit number one on the Billboard Hot 100 on November 28, 1964. In the United Kingdom, the single was refused airplay by the BBC, probably due to its death theme, although some have speculated that it was considered likely to encourage violence between mods and rockers. It charted three times on the UK Singles Chart: number 11 in 1965; number 3 in 1972 (by which time the BBC ban had been lifted); and once again at number 7 in 1976, when its sales figures as a reissue on two different labels (Charly and Contempo) were combined to arrive at its chart position. The record also reached number 1 in Australia.
In 2004, Rolling Stone ranked the song among the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time at number 447. In the 2010 revision of the list, it was moved to number 454 as new entries were added. Billboard named the song # 9 on their list of 100 Greatest Girl Group Songs of All Time.
The song is featured in a Broadway musical based on the songs of Ellie Greenwich, Leader of the Pack, which opened in 1985. In 1990, the song was featured in the soundtrack of the Martin Scorsese film, Goodfellas.
In 1985, the heavy metal band Twisted Sister recorded a cover version of "Leader of the Pack '' from the eponymous leader 's perspective. The track was included on the group 's fourth studio album Come Out and Play. It was released as the album 's first single and was issued on Atlantic Records. The song charted at number 53 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart and reached number 47 on the UK Singles chart. In New Zealand the single reached number 45.
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why did the voting age change from 21 to 18 | Twenty - sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution - wikipedia
The Twenty - sixth Amendment (Amendment XXVI) to the United States Constitution prohibits the states and the federal government from using age as a reason for denying the right to vote to citizens of the United States who are at least eighteen years old. The drive to lower the voting age from 21 to 18 grew across the country during the 1960s, driven in large part by (1) the military draft that resulted in young men between the ages of 18 and 21 being conscripted into armed forces, primarily the U.S. Army (or voluntarily enlisting, primarily in one of the other branches of the U.S. armed forces, to avoid the draft) to support military combat operations in Vietnam, and (2) the broader student activism movement protesting the Vietnam War. The impetus for drafting an amendment to lower the voting age arose following the Supreme Court 's decision in Oregon v. Mitchell, 400 U.S. 112 (1970), which held that Congress may establish a voting age for federal elections, but not for local or state elections.
On March 23, 1971, a proposal to lower the voting age to 18 years was adopted by both houses of Congress and sent to the states for ratification. The amendment became part of the Constitution on July 1, 1971, three months and eight days after the amendment was submitted to the states for ratification, making this amendment the quickest to be ratified.
Section 1. The right of citizens of the United States, who are eighteen years of age or older, to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of age.
Section 2. The Congress shall have the power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.
Senator Harley Kilgore began advocating for a lowered voting age in 1941 in the 77th Congress. Despite the support of fellow senators, representatives, and First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt, Congress failed to pass any national change. However, public interest in lowering the vote became a topic of interest at the local level. In 1943 and 1955 respectively, the Georgia and Kentucky legislatures passed measures to lower the voting age to 18.
President Dwight D. Eisenhower, in his 1954 State of the Union address, became the first president to publicly support prohibiting age - based denials of suffrage for those 18 and older. During the 1960s, both Congress and the state legislatures came under increasing pressure to lower the minimum voting age from 21 to 18. This was in large part due to the Vietnam War, in which many young men who were ineligible to vote were conscripted to fight in the war, thus lacking any means to influence the people sending them off to risk their lives. "Old enough to fight, old enough to vote, '' was a common slogan used by proponents of lowering the voting age. The slogan traced its roots to World War II, when President Franklin D. Roosevelt lowered the military draft age to eighteen.
In 1963, the President 's Commission on Registration and Voting Participation, in its report to President Johnson, further encouraged considering lowering the voting age. Historian Thomas H. Neale argues that the move to lower the voting age followed a historical pattern similar to other extensions of the franchise; with the escalation of the war in Vietnam, constituents were mobilized and eventually a constitutional amendment passed.
In 1970, Senator Ted Kennedy proposed amending the Voting Rights Act of 1965 to lower the voting age nationally. On June 22, 1970, President Richard Nixon signed an extension of the Voting Rights Act of 1965 that required the voting age to be 18 in all federal, state, and local elections. In his statement on signing the extension, Nixon said:
Despite my misgivings about the constitutionality of this one provision, I have signed the bill. I have directed the Attorney General to cooperate fully in expediting a swift court test of the constitutionality of the 18 - year - old provision.
Subsequently, Oregon and Texas challenged the law in court, and the case came before the Supreme Court in 1970 as Oregon v. Mitchell. By this time, four states had a minimum voting age below 21: Georgia, Kentucky, Alaska and Hawaii.
During debate of the 1970 extension of the Voting Rights Act, Senator Ted Kennedy argued that the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment allowed Congress to pass national legislation lowering the voting age. In the 1966 decision of Katzenbach v. Morgan, the Supreme Court had ruled that "if Congress acts to enforce the 14th Amendment by passing a law declaring that a type of state law discriminates against a certain class of persons, the Supreme Court will let the law stand if the justices can ' perceive a basis ' for Congress 's actions ''.
President Nixon disagreed with Kennedy. In a letter to the Speaker of the House and the House minority and majority leaders, he asserted that the issue is not whether the voting age should be lowered, but how; in his own interpretation of the Katzenbach case, Nixon argued that to include age as something discriminatory would be too big of a stretch and voiced concerns that the damage of a Supreme Court decision to overturn the Voting Rights Act could be disastrous.
In Oregon v. Mitchell (1970), the Supreme Court considered whether the voting - age provisions Congress added to the Voting Rights Act in 1970 were constitutional. The Court struck down the provisions that established 18 as the voting age in state and local elections. However, the Court upheld the provision establishing the voting age as 18 in federal elections. The Court was deeply divided in this case, and a majority of justices did not agree on a rationale for the holding.
The decision resulted in states being able to maintain 21 as the voting age in state and local elections, but being required to establish separate voter rolls so that voters between 18 and 20 years old could vote in federal elections.
Although the Twenty - sixth Amendment passed faster than any other constitutional amendment, about 17 states refused to pass measures to lower their minimum voting ages after Nixon signed the 1970 extension to the Voting Rights Act. Opponents to extending the vote to youths questioned the maturity and responsibility of people at the age of 18. Professor William G. Carleton wondered why the vote was proposed for youth at a time when the period of adolescence had grown so substantially rather than in the past when people had more responsibilities at earlier ages. Carleton further criticized the move to lower the vote citing American preoccupations with youth in general, exaggerated reliance on higher education, and equating technological savvy with responsibility and intelligence. He denounced the military service argument as well, calling it a "cliche ''. Considering the ages of soldiers in the Civil War, he asserted that literacy and education were not the grounds for limiting voting; rather, common sense and the capacity to understand the political system grounded voting age restrictions.
James J. Kilpatrick, a political columnist, asserted that the states were "extorted into ratifying the Twenty - sixth Amendment ''. In his article, he claims that by passing the 1970 extension to the Voting Rights Act, Congress effectively forced the States to ratify the amendment lest they be forced to financially and bureaucratically cope with maintaining two voting registers. George Gallup also mentions the cost of registration in his article showing percentages favoring or opposing the amendment, and he draws particular attention to the lower rates of support among adults aged 30 -- 49 and over 50 (57 % and 52 % respectively) as opposed to those aged 18 -- 20 and 21 -- 29 (84 % and 73 % respectively).
On March 10, 1971, the Senate voted 94 -- 0 in favor of proposing a Constitutional amendment to guarantee that the minimum voting age could not be higher than 18. On March 23, 1971, the House of Representatives voted 401 -- 19 in favor of the proposed amendment.
Having been passed by the 92nd United States Congress, the proposed Twenty - sixth Amendment was sent to the state legislatures for their consideration. Ratification was completed on July 1, 1971, after the amendment had been ratified by the following thirty - eight states:
Having been ratified by three - fourths of the States (38), the Twenty - sixth Amendment became part of the Constitution. On July 5, 1971, the Administrator of General Services, Robert Kunzig, certified its adoption. President Nixon and Julianne Jones, Joseph W. Loyd Jr., and Paul S. Larimer of the "Young Americans in Concert '' also signed the certificate as witnesses. During the signing ceremony, held in the East Room of the White House, Nixon talked about his confidence in the youth of America.
As I meet with this group today, I sense that we can have confidence that America 's new voters, America 's young generation, will provide what America needs as we approach our 200th birthday, not just strength and not just wealth but the ' Spirit of ' 76 ' a spirit of moral courage, a spirit of high idealism in which we believe in the American dream, but in which we realize that the American dream can never be fulfilled until every American has an equal chance to fulfill it in their own life.
The amendment was subsequently ratified by the following states, bringing the total number of ratifying states to forty - three:
No action has been taken on the amendment by the states of Florida, Kentucky, Mississippi, Nevada, New Mexico, North Dakota, or Utah.
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who won the battle of pea ridge in the civil war | Battle of Pea Ridge - Wikipedia
The Battle of Pea Ridge (March 7 -- 8, 1862) (also known as the Battle of Elkhorn Tavern) was a battle of the American Civil War. It was fought at Pea Ridge in northwest Arkansas, near Leetown. Union forces, led by Brigadier - General Samuel R. Curtis, moved south from central Missouri, driving Confederate forces into northwestern Arkansas. Major - General Earl Van Dorn launched a Confederate counter-offensive, hoping to recapture northern Arkansas and Missouri. Curtis held off the Confederate attack on the first day and drove Van Dorn 's force off the field on the second. This Civil War battle, one of the few in which a Confederate army outnumbered its opponent, essentially established Union control of most of Missouri and northern Arkansas.
United States forces in Missouri during the latter part of 1861 and early 1862 had pushed the Confederate Missouri State Guard under Major - General Sterling Price out of the state. By spring 1862, Federal Brig. Gen. Samuel R. Curtis determined to pursue the Confederates into Arkansas with his Army of the Southwest.
Curtis moved his approximately 10,250 Federal soldiers and 50 artillery pieces into Benton County, Arkansas, and along Little Sugar Creek. The Federal forces consisted primarily of soldiers from Iowa, Indiana, Illinois, Missouri, and Ohio. Over half of the Union soldiers were German immigrants, grouped into the 1st and 2nd Divisions, which were under the command of Brig. Gen. Franz Sigel, himself a German immigrant. Upon learning that General Curtis would command the army instead of himself, Sigel threatened to resign, so the predominantly native - born regiments were assigned to the 3rd and 4th divisions to create an ethnic balance among divisions and their commanders.
Due to the length of his supply lines and to a lack of reinforcements Curtis needed for a further advance, he decided to remain in position and fortified an excellent defensive line on the north side of the creek, placing artillery for an expected Confederate assault from the south.
The Confederate major general, Earl Van Dorn, had been appointed as the overall commander of the Trans - Mississippi District to quell a simmering conflict between the Confederate generals Price of Missouri and Benjamin McCulloch of Texas. Van Dorn 's Trans - Mississippi District totaled approximately 16,000 men, which included 800 Indian troops, Price 's Missouri State Guard contingents and other Missouri units, and McCulloch 's contingent of cavalry, infantry, and artillery from Texas, Arkansas, Louisiana, and Missouri.
Van Dorn was aware of the Federal movements into Arkansas and was intent on destroying Curtis 's Army of the Southwest and reopening the gateway into Missouri.
He intended to flank Curtis and attack his rear, forcing Curtis to retreat north or be encircled and destroyed. Van Dorn had ordered his army to travel light so each soldier carried only three days ' rations, forty rounds of ammunition, and a blanket. Each division was allowed an ammunition train and an additional day of rations. All other supplies, including tents and cooking utensils, were to be left behind.
On March 4, 1862, instead of attacking Curtis 's position head on, Van Dorn split his army into two divisions under Price and McCulloch, ordering a march north along the Bentonville Detour to get behind Curtis and cut his lines of communication. For speed, Van Dorn left his supply trains behind, which proved a crucial decision. Amid a freezing storm, the Confederates made a three - day forced march from Fayetteville through Elm Springs and Osage Spring to Bentonville, arriving stretched out along the road, hungry and tired.
Warned by scouts and Arkansas unionists, Curtis rapidly concentrated his outlying units behind Little Sugar Creek by placing William Vandever 's 700 - man brigade who marched a remarkable 42 miles in 16 hours from Huntsville to Little Sugar Creek. But Curtis 's right flank also suffered from the mistake of General Sigel, who sent a 360 - man task force to the west, where they would miss the next three days of fighting. Sigel also withdrew a cavalry patrol from the road on which the Confederate army was advancing; however, Colonel Frederick Schaefer of the 2nd Missouri Infantry, on his own initiative, extended his patrols to cover the gap. When Van Dorn 's advance guard blundered into one of these patrols near Elm Springs, the Federals were alerted. Still, Sigel was so slow in evacuating Bentonville that his rear guard was nearly snared by Van Dorn on March 6 as he advanced.
Waiting until the Confederate advance was nearly upon him, Sigel ordered his 600 men and six guns to fall back on a road leading northeast toward Curtis 's position. The Confederate 1st Missouri Cavalry led by Elijah Gates attacked from the south to cut off Sigel 's retreat. They managed to surprise and capture a company of the 36th Illinois, but many were freed when Sigel 's withdrawing men unexpectedly bumped into them. Sigel managed to fight his way through Gates ' men, helped by a blunder by confederate Brig. Gen. James M. McIntosh.
McIntosh had planned to envelop Sigel 's force from the northwest while Gates closed the trap on the south. However, McIntosh mistakenly took his 3,000 - man cavalry brigade too far up a northerly road. After marching three miles out of his way, he turned his troopers onto the road leading east into the Little Sugar Creek valley. By the time they reached the site where Sigel 's northeast road met McIntosh 's east - bound road, the Federal general 's men had already passed the intersection thus avoiding a disaster. When the 3rd Texas Cavalry charged, they ran smack into Sigel 's main line. The Confederates lost 10 killed and about 20 wounded to Federal artillery and rifle fire and the Union position held.
Curtis placed his four small divisions astride the Telegraph or Wire Road in a fortified position atop the bluffs north of Little Sugar Creek. From the creek, the Telegraph Road went northeast to Elkhorn Tavern where it intersected the Huntsville Road leading east, and Ford Road leading west. From Elkhorn, the Wire Road continued north and down into Cross Timber Hollow before crossing the border into Missouri. From there, the Federal supply line followed the Telegraph Road northeast to St. Louis. The hamlet of Leetown lay north - west of the Telegraph Road, about halfway between Curtis 's position on the bluffs and Ford Road. Curtis made his headquarters at Pratt 's Store, located on the Wire Road between Elkhorn and Little Sugar Creek.
Van Dorn sought the Federal rear via the Bentonville Detour. This ran from Camp Stephens, west of Curtis 's position, northeast onto the Pea Ridge plateau. At Twelve Corner Church, which still stands today, Ford Road branched east to Elkhorn; the Detour continued northeast, meeting the Wire Road just north of Cross Timber Hollow. South of the Bentonville Detour, west of Cross Timber Hollow, and north of Ford Road lay the militarily impassable Big Mountain.
On the night of March 6, Col. Grenville Dodge, with Curtis 's approval, led several parties to obstruct the Bentonville Detour, felling trees on the road between Twelve Corner Church and Cross Timber Hollow. That same evening, Van Dorn 's army, Price 's Division leading, began the long march to Cross Timber Hollow. The night march was slowed by clearing Dodge 's obstructions, Van Dorn 's lack of an engineer corps, poor staff work, and the soldiers ' exhaustion.
Van Dorn had planned for both his divisions to reach Cross Timber Hollow, but by dawn, only the head of Price 's division had made it that far. Because of the delay, Van Dorn instructed McCulloch 's division to take the Ford Road from Twelve Corner Church and meet Price at Elkhorn.
That morning, Federal patrols detected both threats. Not knowing where the Confederate main body was located, Curtis sent Dodge 's brigade of Col. Eugene A. Carr 's 4th Division northeast up the Wire Road to join the 24th Missouri Infantry at Elkhorn Tavern. But Dodge, still worried about the threat to the Federal rear, had disobeyed orders and pulled his brigade back to Pratt 's Store, available to immediately reinforce Elkhorn. Curtis also sent a task force under Col. Peter J. Osterhaus north to reconnoiter along Ford Road. Osterhaus ' force consisted of Col. Nicholas Greusel 's brigade of his own 1st Division, several cavalry units led by Col. Cyrus Bussey, and twelve cannons.
McCulloch 's force consisted of a cavalry brigade under Brigadier General James McIntosh, an infantry brigade under Col. Louis Hébert, and a combined force of Cherokee, Choctaw, Chickasaw, Creek, and Seminole cavalry under Brig. Gen. Albert Pike. McCulloch 's troops swung west on the Ford Road and plowed into elements of the Federal army at a small village named Leetown, where a fierce firefight erupted.
At 11: 30 a.m. Osterhaus rode north through a belt of timber onto Foster Farm and witnessed an astonishing sight. McCulloch 's entire division was marching east on Ford Road only a few hundred yards away. Despite the odds, Osterhaus ordered Bussey 's small force to attack to buy time for his infantry brigade to deploy. Three Federal cannon began shelling the Southerners, killing at least ten. McCulloch wheeled McIntosh 's 3,000 horsemen to the south to attack. The massed Confederate charge overwhelmed Bussey 's force, stampeding them and capturing the cannons. A little further west, two companies of the 3rd Iowa ran into a Cherokee ambush and were similarly routed. The Iowa unit 's unusual killed - to - wounded ratio, 24 killed and 17 wounded, suggests that the Native American warriors killed a number of wounded Northerners. "Some, perhaps all, of Trimble 's wounded Iowans were murdered and at least eight were scalped. ''
South of the belt of timber lay Oberson 's Field, where Greusel had time to form his brigade and nine cannon on the forest edge on the south side. Sul Ross alertly led the 6th Texas Cavalry in pursuit of Bussey 's force. But when Ross rode into the field, his men were fired on and quickly fell back. Greusel shook out two companies of skirmishers from the 36th Illinois and posted them along the southern edge of the belt of timber between Oberson 's and Foster 's fields. The Federal gunners began lobbing shells over the belt of timber. Though the howitzers were fired blindly, their first shell bursts panicked the Cherokees, who rapidly retreated and could not be rallied. Meanwhile, McCulloch had formed Louis Hébert 's 4,000 - man infantry brigade across a wide front and sent them south. Hébert took control of the four regiments east of the north - south Leetown Road, while McCulloch took charge of the four regiments west of the road.
The Texan general rode forward into the belt of timber to personally reconnoiter the Federal positions, and coming into range of the Illinois skirmishers was shot through the heart. McIntosh was quickly notified that he was in command, but his staff, fearing that the death of their popular leader would dishearten his soldiers, made the unwise decision not to share the bad news with many of the subordinate officers. Without consulting Hébert, or anyone else, McIntosh impulsively led his former regiment, the dismounted 2nd Arkansas Mounted Rifles Regiment into the attack. As the unit reached the southern edge of the belt of timber, it was met with a massed volley from Greusel 's brigade and McIntosh dropped dead with a bullet in him. In the meantime, unaware that he was now in command of the division, Hébert led the left wing of the attack south into the woods. Meanwhile, the colonels of the right wing regiments withdrew to await orders from Hébert. It was about 2: 00 p.m. The blind Federal bombardment of Foster 's Farm and the breakdown in the Confederate command structure began to destroy the morale of McCulloch 's division.
Hébert 's powerful attack was stopped in the nick of time by Col. Jefferson C. Davis and the 3rd Division. Davis was originally destined for Elkhorn, but Curtis diverted his troops to Leetown after Osterhaus ' report reached him. The four Southern regiments nearly overran Davis ' leading brigade under Col. Julius White. Davis ordered a cavalry battalion to charge, but this effort was easily routed by the Southern infantry. When Col. Thomas Pattison 's brigade arrived, Davis sent them up a forest trail to envelop Hébert 's open left flank. Untroubled by the inert Confederate units on Foster 's Farm, Osterhaus was able to "box in '' Hébert 's right flank. After very hard fighting in dense woods, the Confederates, pressed from three sides, were driven back to the Ford Road. In the smoky confusion, Hébert and a small party, having become separated from the rest of the left wing, blundered through a gap in the Federal lines and got lost in the woods. Later that day, a Federal cavalry unit captured Hébert and his group.
At this point, command of McCulloch 's division would normally have devolved upon Elkanah Greer, the commander of the 3rd Texas Cavalry Regiment, but due to the prevailing command confusion, he was not notified of his superior officers ' death or capture for several hours. In the meantime, Brig. Gen. Albert Pike, technically outside the chain of command of McCulloch 's division assumed command on the Leetown battlefield around 3: 00 p.m. At 3: 30 p.m., even as Hébert was still battling in the woods, Pike decided to lead the regiments nearest to him in retreat back to Twelve Corners Church. This movement took place in total confusion, several units being left behind on the field, some marching back towards Camp Stephens, others around Big Mountain towards Van Dorn and the rest of the army. At least one regiment was at this point ordered to discard its arms and bury them for later recovery. It was only several hours later that Greer assumed command of the remaining forces and was at that point informed of Pike 's actions. Initially, he considered remaining on the battlefield but after consulting with Van Dorn decided to withdraw his forces as well and join the remainder of the army in Cross Timber Hollow.
Around 9: 30 a.m., Cearnal 's cavalry battalion in Price 's advance guard bumped into a company of the 24th Missouri Volunteer Infantry in Cross Timber Hollow. Soon after, Carr arrived at Elkhorn Tavern with Dodge 's brigade right behind. Carr spread out his regiments facing north along the edge of the plateau near the tavern and pulled the 24th Missouri back to cover their left flank at the base of Big Mountain. The Fourth Division commander then sent the 1st Iowa Battery 's four guns forward to slow the Confederate advance.
At this point, Van Dorn, instead of rushing Carr 's badly outnumbered force with all 5,000 of his available soldiers, became cautious and ordered Price to fully deploy his division, with the Missouri State Guard divisions on the right and the Confederate Missouri brigades on the left. When the Northern guns began firing, Van Dorn ordered his own artillery into action. Soon, 21 Southern guns were pounding the Iowa cannoneers. By the time Price 's infantry finally began edging uphill toward the Yankee guns, they met Carr 's men advancing downhill in an aggressive counterstroke. The Confederate advance stalled near Elkhorn, but Price 's left flank units were marching up Williams Hollow further to the east. Once this force reached the plateau, Carr 's right flank would be turned.
By 12: 30 p.m., Carr 's second brigade, Vandever 's, arrived at Elkhorn. The Federal division commander immediately launched this unit in a counterattack on Price 's right flank. Superior numbers of Southerners eventually forced Vandever to pull back a short distance uphill. At 2: 00 p.m. Van Dorn found out that McCulloch 's division would not be meeting Price 's at Elkhorn. At this time, Henry Little, on his own initiative, waved his 1st Missouri Brigade forward and the Rebel advance began to roll uphill. These events finally convinced Van Dorn to take more aggressive action. Price was wounded but remained in charge of his left wing while Van Dorn took tactical control of the Confederate right wing. But more time was lost in reorganizing Price 's division to attack. Meanwhile, Curtis was rushing small units to Carr 's assistance as quickly as he could. Carr himself was wounded three times: in the ankle, neck and arm, but refused to leave the field. In 1894 he would be awarded the Medal of Honor for his actions this day.
About 4: 30 p.m. Price 's left emerged from Williams Hollow and attacked, outflanking Carr 's line. On the right, Dodge 's brigade collapsed after putting up a terrific fight at Clemon 's farm. On the left, in equally hard fighting, Vandever 's men were steadily pushed back to the tavern and beyond. In the center, Little led his men forward into the teeth of Federal artillery. After being forced back from position after position, Vandever 's men finally halted the Confederate drive at Ruddick 's field, over a quarter mile south of the tavern. There they were joined by Dodge 's men, part of Alexander S. Asboth 's 2nd Division and Curtis. At 6: 30 p.m., Curtis launched a brief counter-attack, but soon recalled his men in the dark.
Temperatures fell rapidly after dark, making a very uncomfortable night for the men of both armies. Curtis called Davis ' 3rd Division to Ruddick 's field during the night. When Davis arrived he was put in line to the left of Carr. Sigel marched the 1st and 2nd Divisions in circles all night but finally had them camp near Pratt 's Store. Asboth, who was wounded in the last action of the day, believed that the United States Army 's position was hopeless and pressed Curtis several times during the night to retreat. Though his army was now cut off from Missouri, Curtis refused to consider retreat and confidently predicted victory in the morning.
By a night march, a number of regiments and artillery batteries from McCulloch 's Division, led by Greer, reached Van Dorn via the Bentonville Detour and Cross Timber Hollow. Van Dorn was unaware that his supply train had been mistakenly ordered back to Camp Stephens during the previous afternoon and evening. In the morning, the Confederate reserve artillery ammunition would be hopelessly out of reach.
In the early morning, Sigel sent Osterhaus to scout the open prairie to the west of Elkhorn. The colonel discovered a knoll that promised to make an excellent artillery position and reported it to Sigel. Osterhaus also suggested that the 1st and 2nd Divisions simply march up the Telegraph Road and deploy on Davis ' left, rather than retrace the route of the previous evening; Sigel agreed with his advice and his wing was put into motion. In the meantime, Davis ordered an Illinois battery to fire a few salvos into the woods opposite his position. This provoked a sharp Confederate reaction. Three Southern batteries opened fire, causing two Federal batteries to retreat and Davis to pull his men out of the open and back into the woods. This was followed by a Confederate probe which was quickly driven back.
Soon Sigel 's men extended in a long line to the left of Davis. By 8: 00 a.m., Asboth 's division took its place on the far left, then came Osterhaus, Davis and Carr, with the Federal line generally facing north. It was possibly the only time during the war an entire army was visibly deployed in one continuous line of battle from flank to flank. Sigel now massed 21 cannons on the open knoll to the west of Elkhorn. With Sigel in personal control, the Federal artillery began an extremely effective fire against the 12 Southern guns opposed to them. When the Confederate gunners pulled back under the deadly fire, Van Dorn ordered two batteries to take their place. After one of the new batteries panicked and fled, Van Dorn put its commander under arrest. But the Southern commander was unable to counter Sigel 's devastating fire. Return fire from the Confederate artillery was ineffective and few Federals were killed.
With the opposing guns rendered nearly harmless, Sigel directed his gunners to fire into the woods at the Confederate infantry. Near the base of Big Mountain the projectiles created a deadly combination of rock shrapnel and wood splinters, driving the 2nd Missouri Brigade from its positions. "It was one of the few times in the Civil War when a preparatory artillery barrage effectively softened up an enemy position and paved the way for an infantry assault. '' During the bombardment, Sigel 's infantry edged forward so that by 9: 30 a.m. his divisions had executed a right wheel and faced to the northeast. By this time Van Dorn found that his reserve artillery ammunition was with the wagon train, a six - hour march away. The Southern commander bitterly realized that he had no hope of victory and decided to retreat via the Huntsville Road. This route led east from the tavern, then turned south. With Price wounded but still in command of the rear guard, Van Dorn 's army began to move toward the Huntsville Road in some confusion.
At 10: 30 a.m., Sigel sent his two divisions forward into the attack. On the far left, Asboth 's regiments drove the 2nd Cherokee Mounted Rifles from the point of Big Mountain. Osterhaus was resisted by Little 's 1st Missouri Brigade. Soon, Curtis ordered Davis to attack in the center. Not realizing that the Confederate army was retreating past his right flank, Curtis held Carr 's mauled division in position on the right.
Van Dorn joined the retreat about 11: 00 a.m. Sometime around noon, Sigel 's soldiers met Davis ' men near Elkhorn Tavern and a great cry of "Victory '' was sent up. A number of Southerners were cut off and escaped up the Wire Road into Cross Timber Hollow. From there the infantry retraced their steps on the Bentonville Detour. Several batteries marched northeast into Missouri then south through the Ozarks. In the confusion, Curtis failed to understand that Van Dorn had escaped on the Huntsville Road. Thinking that Van Dorn had retreated via Cross Timber Hollow, he sent Sigel and some cavalry to pursue in that direction. Instead of taking the forces Curtis assigned for the pursuit, Sigel gathered both of his divisions and marched northeast toward Keetsville, Missouri. Near there, he requested that Curtis send his supply train to that place. "I am going forward not backward, '' remarked an annoyed Curtis to his staff. On March 9, Sigel finally returned to the battlefield and admitted that the Southern main body had not retreated by way of Missouri.
Federal forces reported 203 killed, 980 wounded and 201 missing for a total of 1,384 casualties. Of these, Carr 's 4th Division lost 682, almost all in its action on the first day, and Davis ' 3rd Division lost 344. Both Asboth and Carr were wounded but remained in command of their divisions. Van Dorn reported his losses as 800 killed and wounded, with between 200 and 300 prisoners, but these are probably too low. A more recent estimate is that the Confederates suffered approximately 2,000 casualties in the Battle of Pea Ridge. These losses included a large proportion of senior officers. Generals McCulloch, McIntosh, and William Y. Slack were killed or mortally wounded, and Price wounded. Among colonels, Hébert was captured, and Benjamin Rives was mortally wounded, with two other colonels captured and one wounded.
Separated from their supply train, Van Dorn 's main body retreated through very sparsely settled country for a week, living off what little food they could take from the inhabitants. They finally reunited with their supply train south of the Boston Mountains, but thousands of Price 's troops deserted and returned to Missouri. Pike meanwhile, believing that the Confederate army had been destroyed, returned to the Indian Territory. Van Dorn refused to admit that he was defeated "but only failed in my intentions ''. With the defeat at Pea Ridge, the Confederates never again seriously threatened the state of Missouri. Within weeks Van Dorn 's army was transferred across the Mississippi River to bolster the Confederate Army of Tennessee, leaving Arkansas virtually defenseless.
With his victory, Curtis sent some of his troops east of the Mississippi and proceeded with the remainder of his army to move east to West Plains, Missouri. Then he turned south into undefended northeast Arkansas. He had hopes of capturing Little Rock, but this proved impossible because of a lack of supplies and because guerrillas had cut his supply lines. Instead, following the approximate course of the White River, Curtis continued south and seized Helena, Arkansas, on July 12.
Curtis remained confident and exercised effective overall control of his outnumbered army through the two days of fighting. He was well served by three of his four division commanders, Osterhaus, Davis and Carr. His brigade commanders Dodge, Vandever and Greusel also performed well. Sigel 's generalship on the morning of March 8 was generally commended. However, his erratic behavior on other occasions and his attempt to claim credit for the victory led to a rift with Curtis. Sigel was soon transferred to a command in Virginia.
Van Dorn ignored logistics and failed to control his army. When McCulloch was killed, his division fell apart while Van Dorn absorbed himself in the tactical details of Price 's fight. His staff lost contact with his wagon train at a critical moment and committed many other errors. Of all the Southern officers, Henry Little showed the most ability, becoming the "de facto commander of Price 's division '' at the end of the battle.
The battlefield at Pea Ridge is now Pea Ridge National Military Park, founded in 1956, one of the best - preserved civil war battlefields. A reconstruction of Elkhorn Tavern, scene of the heaviest fighting, stands at the original location. The park also includes a 2.5 - mile (4 - km) section of the Trail of Tears.
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who plays soso in orange is the new black | Kimiko Glenn - wikipedia
Kimiko Elizabeth Glenn (born June 27, 1989) is an American actress and singer, known for portraying Brook Soso in the Netflix series Orange Is the New Black, Dawn Williams in the Broadway musical Waitress and Ezor in Voltron: Legendary Defender.
Glenn was born and raised in Phoenix, Arizona, with her sister Amanda. Her father, Mark, is of German, Scottish and Irish descent, and her mother, Sumiko, is Japanese. Glenn began acting at the Valley Youth Theatre in Phoenix, along with several other local theaters, when she was in the fifth grade.
She was educated at Desert Vista High School, and the Interlochen Arts Academy boarding school in Interlochen, Michigan. Glenn attended the Boston Conservatory for a year as a musical theatre major, but dropped out after she was cast in the touring company of Spring Awakening. She is in a relationship with actor Sean Grandillo.
During her freshman year of college in 2008, Glenn was cast as Thea in the first U.S. National Tour of Steven Sater and Duncan Sheik 's rock musical Spring Awakening. In 2013, Glenn booked her breakthrough role as Litchfield Penitentiary inmate Brook Soso in the Netflix comedy - drama series Orange Is the New Black. In 2014, she appeared in the Lena Dunham - directed music video "I Wanna Get Better '' for Jack Antonoff 's solo project Bleachers.
Glenn portrayed the supporting role of Liv Kurosawa in the drama - thriller film Nerve (2016), based on the young adult novel of the same name, directed by Henry Joost and Ariel Schulman. In 2016, she was cast as Dawn Williams in the Broadway transfer production of Sara Bareilles and Jessie Nelson 's musical Waitress. Preview performances began on March 25 at the Brooks Atkinson Theatre, and the show officially opened on April 24, 2016.
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when did the us invaded germany in world war 2 | Western Allied invasion of Germany - wikipedia
Decisive Allied victory
1st Allied Airborne Army 12th Army Group
21st Army Group
6th Army Group
Army Group B
Army Group G
Army Group H
The Western Allied invasion of Germany was coordinated by the Western Allies during the final months of hostilities in the European theatre of World War II. The Allied invasion of Germany started with the Western Allies crossing the Rhine River in March 1945 before fanning out and overrunning all of western Germany from the Baltic in the north to Austria in the south before the Germans surrendered on 8 May 1945. This is known as the "Central Europe Campaign '' in United States military histories.
By early 1945, events favored the Allied forces in Europe. On the Western Front the Allies had been fighting in Germany since the Battle of Aachen in October 1944 and by January had pushed the Germans back to their starting points during the Battle of the Bulge. The failure of this offensive exhausted Germany 's strategic reserve, leaving it ill - prepared to resist the final Allied campaigns in Europe. Additional losses in the Rhineland further weakened the German Army, leaving shattered remnants of units to defend the east bank of the Rhine. On 7 March, the Allies seized the last remaining intact bridge across the Rhine at Remagen, and had established a large bridgehead on the river 's east bank. During Operation Lumberjack and Operation Plunder in February -- March 1945, German casualties are estimated at 400,000 men, including 280,000 men captured as prisoners of war.
On the Eastern Front, the Soviet Red Army (including the Polish Armed Forces in the East under Soviet command) had liberated most of Poland and were within striking distance of Berlin. The initial advance into Romania, the First Jassy - Kishinev Offensive in April and May was a failure; the second Offensive in August succeeded. The Red Army also pushed deep into Hungary (the Budapest Offensive) and eastern Czechoslovakia and temporarily halted at what is now the modern German border on the Oder - Neisse line. These rapid advances on the Eastern Front destroyed additional veteran German combat units and severely limited German Führer Adolf Hitler 's ability to reinforce his Rhine defenses. As such, with the Western Allies making final preparations for their powerful offensive into the German heartland, victory was imminent.
At the very beginning of 1945, the Supreme Commander of the Allied Expeditionary Force on the Western Front, General Dwight D. Eisenhower, had 73 divisions under his command in North - western Europe, of which 49 were infantry divisions, 20 armored divisions and four airborne divisions. Forty - nine of these divisions were American, 12 British, eight French, three Canadian and one Polish. Another seven American divisions arrived during February, along with the British 5th Infantry Division and I Canadian Corps, both of which had arrived from the fighting on the Italian Front. As the invasion of Germany commenced, General Eisenhower had a total of 90 full - strength divisions under his command, with the number of armored divisions now reaching 25. The Allied front along the Rhine stretched 450 miles (720 km) from the river 's mouth at the North Sea in the Netherlands to the Swiss border in the south.
The Allied forces along this line were organized into three army groups. In the north, from the North Sea to a point about 10 miles (16 km) north of Cologne, was the 21st Army Group commanded by Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery. Within 21st Army Group the Canadian 1st Army (under Harry Crerar) held the left flank of the Allied line, with the British 2nd Army (Miles C. Dempsey) in the center and the U.S. 9th Army (William Hood Simpson) to the south. Holding the middle of the Allied line from the 9th Army 's right flank to a point about 15 miles (24 km) south of Mainz was the 12th Army Group under the command of Lieutenant General Omar Bradley. Bradley had two American armies, the U.S. 1st Army (Courtney Hodges) on the left (north) and the U.S. 3rd Army (George S. Patton) on the right (south). Completing the Allied line to the Swiss border was the 6th Army Group commanded by Lieutenant General Jacob L. Devers, with the U.S. 7th Army (Alexander Patch) in the north and the French 1st Army (Jean de Lattre de Tassigny) on the Allied right, and southernmost, flank.
As these three army groups cleared out the Wehrmacht west of the Rhine, Eisenhower began to rethink his plans for the final drive across the Rhine and into the heart of Germany. Originally, General Eisenhower had planned to draw all his forces up to the west bank of the Rhine, using the river as a natural barrier to help cover the inactive sections of his line. The main thrust beyond the river was to be made in the north by Montgomery 's 21 Army Group, elements of which were to proceed east to a juncture with the U.S. 1st Army as it made a secondary advance northeast from below the Ruhr River. If successful, this pincer movement would envelop the industrial Ruhr area, neutralizing the largest concentration of German industrial capacity left.
Facing the Allies was Oberbefehlshaber West ("Army Command West '') commanded by Generalfeldmarschall Albert Kesselring, who had taken over from Generalfeldmarschall Gerd von Rundstedt on 10 March. Although Kesselring brought an outstanding track record as a defensive strategist with him from the Italian Campaign, he did not have the resources to make a coherent defense. During the fighting west of the Rhine up to March 1945, the German Army on the Western Front had been reduced to a strength of only 26 divisions, organized into three army groups (H, B and G). Little or no reinforcement was forthcoming as the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht continued to concentrate most forces against the Soviets; it was estimated that the Germans had 214 divisions on the Eastern Front in April.
On 21 March, Army Group H headquarters became Oberbefehlshaber Nordwest ("Army Command Northwest '') commanded by Ernst Busch leaving the former Army Group H commander -- Johannes Blaskowitz -- to lead "Army Command Netherlands '' (25th Army) cut off in the Netherlands. Busch -- whose main unit was the German 1st Parachute Army -- was to form the right wing of the German defenses. In the center of the front, defending the Ruhr, Kesselring had Field Marshal Walther Model commanding Army Group B (15th Army and 5th Panzer Army) and in the south Paul Hausser 's Army Group G (7th Army, 1st Army and 19th Army).
After capturing the Ruhr, General Eisenhower planned to have the 21st Army Group continue its drive east across the plains of northern Germany to Berlin. The 12th and 6th Army Groups were to mount a subsidiary offensive to keep the Germans off balance and diminish their ability to stop the northern thrust. This secondary drive would also give Eisenhower a degree of flexibility in case the northern attack ran into difficulties.
For several reasons, Eisenhower began to readjust these plans toward the end of March. First, his headquarters received reports that Soviet forces held a bridgehead over the Oder River, 30 miles (48 km) from Berlin. Since the Allied armies on the Rhine were more than 300 miles (480 km) from Berlin, with the Elbe River, 200 miles (320 km) ahead, still to be crossed it seemed clear that the Soviets would capture Berlin long before the Western Allies could reach it. Eisenhower thus turned his attention to other objectives, most notably a rapid meet - up with the Soviets to cut the German Army in two and prevent any possibility of a unified defense. Once this was accomplished the remaining German forces could be defeated in detail.
In addition, there was the matter of the Ruhr. Although the Ruhr area still contained a significant number of Axis troops and enough industry to retain its importance as a major objective, Allied intelligence reported that much of the region 's armament industry was moving southeast, deeper into Germany. This increased the importance of the southern offensives across the Rhine.
Also focusing Eisenhower 's attention on the southern drive was concern over the "National redoubt. '' According to rumor, Hitler 's most fanatically loyal troops were preparing to make a lengthy, last - ditch stand in the natural fortresses formed by the rugged alpine mountains of southern Germany and western Austria. If they held out for a year or more, dissension between the Soviet Union and the Western Allies might give them political leverage for some kind of favorable peace settlement. In reality, by the time of the Allied Rhine crossings the Wehrmacht had suffered such severe defeats on both the Eastern and Western Fronts that it could barely manage to mount effective delaying actions, much less muster enough troops to establish a well - organized alpine resistance force. Still, Allied intelligence could not entirely discount the possibility that remnants of the German Army would attempt a suicidal last stand in the Alps. Denying this opportunity became another argument for rethinking the role of the southern drive through Germany.
Perhaps the most compelling reason for increasing the emphasis on this southern drive had more to do with the actions of Americans than those of Germans. While Montgomery was carefully and cautiously planning for the main thrust in the north, complete with massive artillery preparation and an airborne assault, American forces in the south were displaying the kind of basic aggressiveness that Eisenhower wanted to see. On 7 March, Lieutenant General Courtney Hodges 's U.S. 1st Army captured the last intact bridge over the Rhine at Remagen and steadily expanded the bridgehead.
To the south in the Saar - Palatinate region, Lieutenant General George S. Patton 's U.S. 3rd Army had dealt a devastating blow to the German 7th Army and, in conjunction with the U.S. 7th Army, had nearly destroyed the German 1st Army. In five days of battle, from 18 -- 22 March, Patton 's forces captured over 68,000 Germans. These bold actions eliminated the last German positions west of the Rhine. Although Montgomery 's drive was still planned as the main effort, Eisenhower believed that the momentum of the American forces to the south should not be squandered by having them merely hold the line at the Rhine or make only limited diversionary attacks beyond it. By the end of March, the Supreme Commander thus leaned toward a decision to place more responsibility on his southern forces. The events of the first few days of the final campaign would be enough to convince him that this was the proper course of action.
When Allied soldiers arrived in a town, its leaders and remaining residents typically used white flags, bedsheets, and tablecloths to signal surrender. The officer in charge of the unit capturing the area, typically a company or battalion, accepted responsibility over the town. Soldiers posted copies of General Eisenhower 's Proclamation No. 1, which began with "We come as a victorious army, not as oppressors. '' The proclamation demanded compliance with all orders by the commanding officer, instituted a strict curfew and limited travel, and confiscated all communications equipment and weapons. After a day or two, specialized Office of Military Government, United States (OMGUS) units took over. Soldiers requisitioned housing and office space as needed from residents. At first this was done informally with occupants evicted immediately and taking with them few personal possessions, but the process became standardized, with three hours ' notice and OMGUS personnel providing receipts for buildings ' contents. The displaced residents nonetheless had to find housing on their own.
On 19 March, Eisenhower told Bradley to prepare the 1st Army for a breakout from the Remagen bridgehead anytime after 22 March. The same day, in response to the 3rd Army 's robust showing in the Saar - Palatinate region, and to have another strong force on the Rhine 's east bank guarding the 1st Army 's flank, Bradley gave Patton the go - ahead for an assault crossing of the Rhine as soon as possible.
These were exactly the orders Patton had hoped for. The American general felt that if a sufficiently strong force could be thrown across the river and significant gains made, then Eisenhower might transfer responsibility for the main drive through Germany from Montgomery 's 21st Army Group to Bradley 's 12th. Patton also appreciated the opportunity he now had to beat Montgomery across the river and win for the 3rd Army the coveted distinction of making the first assault crossing of the Rhine in modern history. To accomplish this, he had to move quickly.
On 21 March, Patton ordered his XII Corps to prepare for an assault over the Rhine on the following night, one day before Montgomery 's scheduled crossing. While this was certainly short notice, it did not catch the XII Corps completely unaware. As soon as Patton had received the orders on the 19th to make a crossing, he had begun sending assault boats, bridging equipment, and other supplies forward from depots in Lorraine where they had been stockpiled since autumn in the expectation of just such an opportunity. Seeing this equipment moving up, his frontline soldiers did not need any orders from higher headquarters to tell them what it meant.
The location of the river - crossing assault was critical. Patton knew that the most obvious place to jump the river was at Mainz or just downstream, north of the city. The choice was obvious because the Main River, flowing northward 30 miles (48 km) east of and parallel to the Rhine, turns west and empties into the Rhine at Mainz and an advance south of the city would involve crossing two rivers rather than one. However, Patton also realized that the Germans were aware of this difficulty and would expect his attack north of Mainz. Thus, he decided to feint at Mainz while making his real effort at Nierstein and Oppenheim, 9 -- 10 mi (14 -- 16 km) south of the city. Following this primary assault, which XII Corps would undertake, VIII Corps would execute supporting crossings at Boppard and St. Goar, 25 -- 30 miles (40 -- 48 km) northwest of Mainz.
The terrain in the vicinity of Nierstein and Oppenheim was conducive to artillery support, with high ground on the west bank overlooking relatively flat land to the east. However, the same flat east bank meant that the bridgehead would have to be rapidly and powerfully reinforced and expanded beyond the river since there was no high ground for a bridgehead defense. The importance of quickly obtaining a deep bridgehead was increased by the fact that the first access to a decent road network was over 6 miles (9.7 km) inland at the town of Grossgerau.
On 22 March, with a bright moon lighting the late - night sky, elements of U.S. XII Corps ′ 5th Infantry Division began the 3rd Army 's Rhine crossing. At Nierstein assault troops did not meet any resistance. As the first boats reached the east bank, seven startled Germans surrendered and then paddled themselves unescorted to the west bank to be placed in custody. Upstream at Oppenheim, however, the effort did not proceed so casually. The first wave of boats was halfway across when the Germans began pouring machine - gun fire into their midst. An intense exchange of fire lasted for about thirty minutes as assault boats kept pushing across the river and those men who had already made it across mounted attacks against the scattered defensive strongpoints. Finally the Germans surrendered, and by midnight units moved out laterally to consolidate the crossing sites and to attack the first villages beyond the river. German resistance everywhere was sporadic, and the hastily mounted counterattacks invariably burned out quickly, causing few casualties. The Germans lacked both the manpower and the heavy equipment to make a more determined defense.
By midafternoon on 23 March, all three regiments of the 5th Infantry Division were in the bridgehead, and an attached regiment from the 90th Infantry Division was crossing. Tanks and tank destroyers had been ferried across all morning, and by evening a Treadway bridge was open to traffic. By midnight, infantry units had pushed the boundary of the bridgehead more than 5 miles (8.0 km) inland, ensuring the unqualified success of the first modern assault crossing of the Rhine.
Two more 3rd Army crossings -- both by VIII Corps -- quickly followed. In the early morning hours of 25 March, elements of the 87th Infantry Division crossed the Rhine to the north at Boppard, and then some 24 hours later elements of the 89th Infantry Division crossed 8 miles (13 km) south of Boppard at St. Goar. Although the defense of these sites was somewhat more determined than that XII Corps had faced, the difficulties of the Boppard and St. Goar crossings were compounded more by terrain than by German resistance. VIII Corps crossing sites were located along the Rhine Gorge, where the river had carved a deep chasm between two mountain ranges, creating precipitous canyon walls over 300 feet (91 m) high on both sides. In addition, the river flowed quickly and with unpredictable currents along this part of its course. Still, despite the terrain and German machine - gun and 20 millimetres (0.79 in) anti-aircraft cannon fire, VIII Corps troops managed to gain control of the east bank 's heights, and by dark on 26 March, with German resistance crumbling all along the Rhine, they were preparing to continue the drive the next morning.
Adding to the Germans ′ woes, the 6th Army Group made an assault across the Rhine on 26 March. At Worms, about 25 miles (40 km) south of Mainz, the 7th Army 's XV Corps established a bridgehead, which it consolidated with the southern shoulder of the 3rd Army 's bridgehead early the next day. After overcoming stiff initial resistance, XV Corps also advanced beyond the Rhine, opposed primarily by small German strongpoints sited in roadside villages.
On the night of 23 / 24 March, after the XII Corps ′ assault of the Rhine, Bradley had announced his success. The 12th Army Group commander said that American troops could cross the Rhine anywhere, without aerial bombardment or airborne troops, a direct jab at Montgomery whose troops were at that very moment preparing to launch their own Rhine assault following an intense and elaborate aerial and artillery preparation and with the assistance of two airborne divisions, one American, the 17th, one British, the 6th.
Field Marshal Montgomery was exhibiting his now legendary meticulous and circumspect approach to such enterprises, a lesson he had learned early in the North African Campaign against Rommel and one he could not easily forget. Thus, as his forces had approached the east bank of the river, Montgomery proceeded with one of the most intensive buildups of material and manpower of the war. His detailed plans, code - named Operation Plunder, were comparable to the Normandy invasion in terms of numbers of men and extent of equipment, supplies, and ammunition to be used. The 21st Army Group had 30 full - strength divisions, 11 each in the British 2nd and U.S. 9th Armies and eight in the Canadian 1st Army, providing Montgomery with more than 1,250,000 men.
Plunder called for the 2nd Army to cross at three locations along the 21st Army Group front -- at Rees, Xanten, and Rheinberg. The crossings would be preceded by several weeks of aerial bombing and a final massive artillery preparation. A heavy bombing campaign by USAAF and RAF forces, known as the "Interdiction of Northwest Germany '', designed primarily to destroy the lines of communication and supply connecting the Ruhr to the rest of Germany had been underway since February. The intention was to create a line from Bremen south to Neowied. The main targets were rail yards, bridges, and communication centers, with a secondary focus on fuel processing and storage facilities and other important industrial sites. During the three days leading up to Montgomery 's attack, targets in front of the 21st Army Group zone and in the Ruhr area to the southeast were pummeled by about 11,000 sorties, effectively sealing off the Ruhr while easing the burden on Montgomery 's assault forces.
Montgomery had originally planned to attach one corps of the U.S. 9th Army to the British 2nd Army, which would use only two of the corps ′ divisions for the initial assault. The rest of the 9th Army would remain in reserve until the bridgehead was ready for exploitation. The 9th Army 's commander -- Lieutenant General William Hood Simpson -- and the 2nd Army 's Lieutenant - General Miles C. Dempsey took exception to this approach. Both believed that the plan squandered the great strength in men and equipment that the 9th Army had assembled and ignored the many logistical problems of placing the 9th Army 's crossing sites within the 2nd Army 's zone.
Montgomery responded to these concerns by making a few small adjustments to the plan. Although he declined to increase the size of the American crossing force beyond two divisions, he agreed to keep it under 9th Army rather than 2nd Army control. To increase Simpson 's ability to bring his army 's strength to bear for exploitation, Montgomery also agreed to turn the bridges at Wesel, just north of the inter-army boundary, over to the 9th Army once the bridgehead had been secured.
In the southernmost sector of the 21st Army Group 's attack, the 9th Army 's assault divisions were to cross the Rhine along an 11 miles (18 km) section of the front, south of Wesel and the Lippe River. This force would block any German counterattack from the Ruhr. Because of the poor road network on the east bank of this part of the Rhine, a second 9th Army corps was to cross over the promised Wesel bridges through the British zone north of the Lippe River, which had an abundance of good roads. After driving east nearly 100 miles (160 km), this corps was to meet elements of the 1st Army near Paderborn, completing the encirclement of the Ruhr.
Another important aspect of Montgomery 's plan was Operation Varsity, in which two divisions of Major General Matthew Ridgway 's XVIII Airborne Corps were to make an airborne assault over the Rhine. In a departure from standard airborne doctrine, which called for a jump deep behind enemy lines several hours prior to an amphibious assault, Varsity ′ s drop zones were close behind the German front, within Allied artillery range. Additionally, to avoid being caught in the artillery preparation, the paratroopers would jump only after the amphibious troops had reached the Rhine 's east bank. The wisdom of putting lightly - armed paratroopers so close to the main battlefield was debated, and the plan for amphibious forces to cross the Rhine prior to the parachute drop raised questions as to the utility of making an airborne assault at all. However, Montgomery believed that the paratroopers would quickly link up with the advancing river assault forces, placing the strongest force within the bridgehead as rapidly as possible. Once the bridgehead was secured the British 6th Airborne Division would be transferred to 2nd Army control, while the U.S. 17th Airborne Division would revert to 9th Army control.
Plunder began on the evening of 23 March with the assault elements of the British 2nd Army massed against three main crossing sites: Rees in the north, Xanten in the center, and Wesel in the south. The two 9th Army divisions tasked for the assault concentrated in the Rheinberg area south of Wesel. At the northern crossing site, elements of British XXX Corps began the assault (Operation Turnscrew) about 21: 00, attempting to distract the Germans from the main crossings at Xanten in the center and Rheinberg to the south. The initial assault waves crossed the river quickly, meeting only light opposition. Meanwhile, Operation Widgeon began 2 miles (3.2 km) north of Wesel as the 2nd Army 's 1st Commando Brigade slipped across the river and waited within a mile of the city while it was demolished by one thousand tons of bombs delivered by RAF Bomber Command. Entering in the night, the commandos secured the city late on the morning of 24 March, although scattered resistance continued until dawn on the 25th. The 2nd Army 's XII Corps and the 9th Army 's XVI Corps began the main effort about 02: 00 on 24 March, following a massive artillery and air bombardment.
For the American crossing, the 9th Army commander -- Lieutenant General Simpson -- had chosen the veteran 30th and 79th Infantry Divisions of the XVI Corps. The 30th was to cross between Wesel and Rheinberg while the 79th assaulted south of Rheinberg. In reserve were the XVI Corps ′ 8th Armored Division, and 35th and 75th Infantry Divisions, as well as the 9th Army 's XIII and XIX Corps, each with three divisions. Simpson planned to commit the XIX Corps as soon as possible after the bridgehead had been secured, using the XIII Corps to hold the Rhine south of the crossing sites.
After an hour of extremely intense artillery preparation, which General Eisenhower himself viewed from the front, the 30th Infantry Division began its assault. The artillery fire had been so effective and so perfectly timed that the assault battalions merely motored their storm boats across the river and claimed the east bank against almost no resistance. As subsequent waves of troops crossed, units fanned out to take the first villages beyond the river to only the weakest of opposition. An hour later, at 03: 00, the 79th Infantry Division began its crossing upriver, achieving much the same results. As heavier equipment was ferried across the Rhine, both divisions began pushing east, penetrating 3 -- 6 miles (4.8 -- 9.7 km) into the German defensive line that day.
To the north, the British crossings had also gone well, with the ground and airborne troops linking up by nightfall. By then, the paratroopers had taken all their first day 's objectives in addition to 3,500 prisoners.
To the south, the discovery of a defensive gap in front of the 30th Infantry Division fostered the hope that a full - scale breakout would be possible on 25 March. When limited objective attacks provoked little response on the morning of the 25th, the division commander -- Major General Leland S. Hobbs -- formed two mobile task forces to make deeper thrusts with an eye toward punching through the defense altogether and breaking deep into the German rear. However, Hobbs had not fully taken into account the nearly nonexistent road network in front of the XVI Corps bridgehead. Faced with trying to make rapid advances through dense forest on rutted dirt roads and muddy trails, which could be strongly defended by a few determined soldiers and well placed roadblocks, the task forces advanced only about 2 miles (3.2 km) on the 25th. The next day they gained some more ground, and one even seized its objective, having slogged a total of 6 miles (9.7 km), but the limited progress forced Hobbs to abandon the hope for a quick breakout.
In addition to the poor roads, the 30th Division 's breakout attempts were also hampered by the German 116th Panzer Division. The only potent unit left for commitment against the Allied Rhine crossings in the north, the 116th began moving south from the Dutch - German border on 25 March against what the Germans considered their most dangerous threat, the U.S. 9th Army. The enemy armored unit began making its presence felt almost immediately, and by the end of 26 March the combination of the panzer division and the rough terrain had conspired to sharply limit the 30th Division 's forward progress. With the 79th Infantry Division meeting fierce resistance to the south, General Simpson 's only recourse was to commit some of his forces waiting on the west bank of the Rhine. Late on 26 March, the 8th Armored Division began moving into the bridgehead.
Although the armored division bolstered his offensive capacity within the bridgehead, Simpson was more interested in sending the XIX Corps across the Wesel bridges, as Montgomery had agreed, and using the better roads north of the Lippe to outflank the enemy in front of the 30th Division. Unfortunately, because of pressure from the Germans in the northern part of the 2nd Army bridgehead, the British were having trouble completing their bridges at Xanten and were therefore bringing most of their traffic across the river at Wesel. With Montgomery allowing use of the Wesel bridges to the 9th Army for only five out of every 24 hours, and with the road network north of the Lippe under 2nd Army control, General Simpson was unable to commit or maneuver sufficient forces to make a rapid flanking drive.
By 28 March, the 8th Armored Division had expanded the bridgehead by only about 3 mi (4.8 km) and still had not reached Dorsten, a town about 15 mi (24 km) east of the Rhine, whose road junction promised to expand the XVI Corps ′ offensive options. On the same day, however, Montgomery announced that the east bound roads out of Wesel would be turned over to the 9th Army on 30 March with the Rhine bridges leading into that city changing hands a day later. Also on 28 March, elements of the U.S. 17th Airborne Division -- operating north of the Lippe River in conjunction with British armored forces -- dashed to a point some 30 mi (48 km) east of Wesel, opening a corridor for the XIX Corps and handily outflanking Dorsten and the enemy to the south. General Simpson now had both the opportunity and the means to unleash the power of the 9th Army and begin in earnest the northern drive to surround the Ruhr.
Simpson began by moving elements of the XIX Corps ′ 2nd Armored Division into the XVI Corps bridgehead on 28 March with orders to cross the Lippe east of Wesel, thereby avoiding that city 's traffic jams. After passing north of the Lippe on 29 March, the 2nd Armored Division broke out late that night from the forward position that the XVIII Airborne Corps had established around Haltern, 12 mi (19 km) northeast of Dorsten. On the 30th and 31st, the 2nd Armored made an uninterrupted 40 mi (64 km) drive east to Beckum, cutting two of the Ruhr 's three remaining rail lines and severing the autobahn to Berlin. As the rest of the XIX Corps flowed into the wake of this spectacular drive, the 1st Army was completing its equally remarkable thrust around the southern and eastern edges of the Ruhr.
The 1st Army 's drive from the Remagen bridgehead began with a breakout before dawn on 25 March. German Field Marshal Walter Model -- whose Army Group B was charged with the defense of the Ruhr -- had deployed his troops heavily along the east - west Sieg River south of Cologne, thinking that the Americans would attack directly north from the Remagen bridgehead. Instead, the 1st Army struck eastward, heading for Giessen and the Lahn River, 65 mi (105 km) beyond Remagen, before turning north toward Paderborn and a linkup with the 9th Army. All three corps of the 1st Army participated in the breakout, which on the first day employed five infantry and two armored divisions. The U.S. VII Corps, on the left, had the hardest going due to the German concentration north of the bridgehead, yet its armored columns managed to advance 12 mi (19 km) beyond their line of departure. The U.S. III Corps, in the center, did not commit its armor on the first day of the breakout, but still made a gain of 4 mi (6.4 km). The U.S. V Corps on the right advanced 5 -- 8 mi (8.0 -- 12.9 km), incurring minimal casualties.
Beginning the next day, 26 March, the armored divisions of all three corps turned these initial gains into a complete breakout, shattering all opposition and roaming at will throughout the enemy 's rear areas. By the end of 28 March, General Hodges ′ 1st Army had crossed the Lahn, having driven at least 50 mi (80 km) beyond the original line of departure and capturing thousands of German soldiers in the process. Nowhere, it seemed, were the Germans able to resist in strength. On 29 March, the 1st Army turned toward Paderborn, about 80 mi (130 km) north of Giessen, its right flank covered by the 3rd Army, which had broken out of its own bridgeheads and was headed northeast toward Kassel.
A task force of the VII Corps ′ 3rd Armored Division, which included some of the new M26 Pershing heavy tanks, spearheaded the drive for Paderborn on 29 March. By attaching an infantry regiment of the 104th Infantry Division to the armored division and following the drive closely with the rest of the 104th Division, the VII Corps was well prepared to hold any territory gained. Rolling northward 45 mi (72 km) without casualties, the mobile force stopped for the night 15 mi (24 km) from its objective. Taking up the advance again the next day, it immediately ran into stiff opposition from students of an SS panzer replacement training center located near Paderborn. Equipped with about 60 tanks, the students put up a fanatical resistance, stalling the American armor all day. When the task force failed to advance on 31 March, Maj. Gen. J. Lawton Collins -- commander of the VII Corps -- asked General Simpson if his 9th Army -- driving eastward north of the Ruhr -- could provide assistance. Simpson, in turn, ordered a combat command of the 2nd Armored Division -- which had just reached Beckum -- to make a 15 mi (24 km) advance southeast to Lippstadt, midway between Beckum and the stalled 3rd Armored Division spearhead. Early in the afternoon of 1 April elements of the 2nd and 3rd Armored Divisions met at Lippstadt, linking the 9th and 1st Armies and sealing the prized Ruhr industrial complex -- along with Model 's Army Group B -- within American lines.
As March turned to April the offensive east of the Rhine was progressing in close accordance with Allied plans. All the armies assigned to cross the Rhine had elements east of the river, including the Canadian 1st Army in the north, which sent a division through the British bridgehead at Rees, and the French 1st Army in the south, which on 31 March established its own bridgehead by assault crossings at Germersheim and Speyer, about 50 mi (80 km) south of Mainz. With spectacular thrusts being made beyond the Rhine nearly every day and the enemy 's capacity to resist fading at an ever - accelerating rate, the campaign to finish Germany was transitioning into a general pursuit.
In the center of the Allied line, Eisenhower inserted a new army -- the 15th Army, under U.S. 12th Army Group control -- to hold the western edge of the Ruhr Pocket along the Rhine while the 9th and 1st Armies squeezed the remaining German defenders there from the north, east, and south. Following the reduction of the Ruhr, the 15th Army was to take over occupation duties in the region as the 9th, 1st, and 3rd Armies pushed farther into Germany.
On 28 March, as these developments unfolded, Eisenhower announced his decision to adjust his plans governing the future course of the offensive. Once the Ruhr was surrounded, he wanted the 9th Army transferred from the British 21st Army Group to the U.S. 12th Army Group. After the reduction of the Ruhr Pocket, the main thrust east would be made by Bradley 's 12th Army Group in the center, rather than by Montgomery 's 21st Army Group in the north as originally planned. Montgomery 's forces were to secure Bradley 's northern flank while Devers ′ 6th U.S. Army Group covered Bradley 's southern shoulder. Furthermore, the main objective was no longer Berlin, but Leipzig where a juncture with the Soviet Army would split the remaining German forces in two. Once this was done, the 21st Army Group would take Lübeck and Wismar on the Baltic Sea, cutting off the Germans remaining in the Jutland peninsula of Denmark, while the 6th U.S. Army Group and the 3rd Army drove south into Austria.
The British Prime Minister and Chiefs of Staff strongly opposed the new plan. Despite the Russian proximity to Berlin, they argued that the city was still a critical political, if not military, objective. Eisenhower -- supported by the American Chiefs of Staff -- disagreed. His overriding objective was the swiftest military victory possible. Should the U.S. political leadership direct him to take Berlin, or if a situation arose in which it became militarily advisable to seize the German capital, Eisenhower would do so. Otherwise, he would pursue those objectives that would end the war soonest. In addition, since Berlin and the rest of Germany had already been divided into occupation zones by representatives of the Allied governments at the Yalta Conference, Eisenhower saw no political advantage in a race for Berlin. Any ground the western Allies gained in the future Soviet zone would merely be relinquished to the Soviets after the war. In the end the campaign proceeded as Eisenhower had planned it.
The first step in realizing Eisenhower 's plan was the eradication of the Ruhr Pocket. Even before the encirclement had been completed, the Germans in the Ruhr had begun making attempts at a breakout to the east. All had been unceremoniously repulsed by the vastly superior Allied forces. Meanwhile, the 9th and 1st Armies began preparing converging attacks using the east - west Ruhr River as a boundary line. The 9th Army 's XVI Corps -- which had taken up position north of the Ruhr area after crossing the Rhine -- would be assisted in its southward drive by two divisions of the XIX Corps, the rest of which would continue to press eastward along with the XIII Corps. South of the Ruhr River, the 1st Army 's northward attack was to be executed by the XVIII Airborne Corps, which had been transferred to Hodges after Operation Varsity, and the III Corps, with the 1st Army 's V and VII Corps continuing the offensive east. The 9th Army 's sector of the Ruhr Pocket -- although only about 1 / 3 the size of the 1st Army 's sector south of the river -- contained the majority of the densely urbanized industrial area within the encirclement. The 1st Army 's area, on the other hand, was composed of rough, heavily forested terrain with a poor road network.
By 1 April, when the trap closed around the Germans in the Ruhr, their fate was sealed. In a matter of days they would all be killed or captured. On 4 April, the day it shifted to Bradley 's control, the 9th Army began its attack south toward the Ruhr River. In the south, the 1st Army 's III Corps launched its strike on the 5th, and the XVIII Airborne Corps joined in on the 6th, both pushing generally northward. German resistance, initially rather determined, dwindled rapidly. By 13 April, the 9th Army had cleared the northern part of the pocket, while elements of the XVIII Airborne Corps ′ 8th Infantry Division reached the southern bank of the Ruhr, splitting the southern section of the pocket in two. Thousands of prisoners were being taken every day; from 16 -- 18 April, when all opposition ended and the remnants of German Army Group B formally surrendered, German troops had been surrendering in droves throughout the region. Army Group B commander Walther Model committed suicide on 21 April.
The final tally of prisoners taken in the Ruhr reached 325,000, far beyond anything the Americans had anticipated. Tactical commanders hastily enclosed huge open fields with barbed wire creating makeshift prisoner of war camps, where the inmates awaited the end of the war and their chance to return home. Also looking forward to going home, tens of thousands of freed forced laborers and Allied prisoners of war further strained the American logistical system.
Meanwhile, the remaining Allied forces north, south, and east of the Ruhr had been adjusting their lines in preparation for the final advance through Germany. Under the new concept, Bradley 's 12th U.S. Army Group would make the main effort, with Hodges ′ 1st Army in the center heading east for about 130 mi (210 km) toward the city of Leipzig and the Elbe River. To the north, the 9th Army 's XIX and XIII Corps would also drive for the Elbe, toward Magdeburg, about 65 mi (105 km) north of Leipzig, although the army commander, General Simpson, hoped he would be allowed to go all the way to Berlin. To the south, Patton 's 3rd Army was to drive east to Chemnitz, about 40 mi (64 km) southeast of Leipzig, but well short of the Elbe, and then turn southeast into Austria. At the same time, General Devers ' 6th U.S. Army Group would move south through Bavaria and the Black Forest to Austria and the Alps, ending the threat of any Nazi last - ditch stand there.
On 4 April, as it paused to allow the rest of the 12th U.S. Army Group to catch up, the 3rd Army made two notable discoveries. Near the town of Merkers, elements of the 90th Infantry Division found a sealed salt mine containing a large portion of the German national treasure. The hoard included vast quantities of German paper currency, stacks of priceless paintings, piles of looted gold and silver jewelry and household objects, and an estimated $250,000,000 worth of gold bars and coins of various nations. But the other discovery made by the 3rd Army on 4 April horrified and angered those who saw it. When the 4th Armored Division and elements of the 89th Infantry Division captured the small town of Ohrdruf, a few miles south of Gotha, they found the first concentration camp taken by the western Allies.
The 4 April pause in the 3rd Army advance allowed the other armies under Bradley 's command to reach the Leine River, about 50 mi (80 km) east of Paderborn. Thus all three armies of the 12th U.S. Army Group were in a fairly even north - south line, enabling them to advance abreast of each other to the Elbe. By 9 April, both the 9th and 1st Armies had seized bridgeheads over the Leine, prompting Bradley to order an unrestricted eastward advance. On the morning of 10 April, the 12th U.S. Army Group 's drive to the Elbe began in earnest.
The Elbe River was the official eastward objective, but many American commanders still eyed Berlin. By the evening of 11 April, elements of the 9th Army 's 2nd Armored Division -- seemingly intent on demonstrating how easily their army could take that coveted prize -- had dashed 73 mi (117 km) to reach the Elbe southeast of Magdeburg, just 50 mi (80 km) short of the German capital. On 12 April, additional 9th Army elements attained the Elbe and by the next day were on the opposite bank hopefully awaiting permission to drive on to Berlin. But two days later, on 15 April, they had to abandon these hopes. Eisenhower sent Bradley his final word on the matter: the 9th Army was to stay put -- there would be no effort to take Berlin. Simpson subsequently turned his troops ' attention to mopping up pockets of local resistance.
In the center of the 12th U.S. Army Group, Hodges ′ 1st Army faced somewhat stiffer opposition, though it hardly slowed the pace. As its forces approached Leipzig, about 60 mi (97 km) south of Magdeburg and 15 mi (24 km) short of the Mulde River, the 1st Army ran into one of the few remaining centers of organized resistance. Here the Germans turned a thick defense belt of antiaircraft guns against the American ground troops with devastating effects. Through a combination of flanking movements and night attacks, First Army troops were able to destroy or bypass the guns, moving finally into Leipzig, which formally surrendered on the morning of 20 April. By the end of the day, the units that had taken Leipzig joined the rest of the 1st Army on the Mulde, where it had been ordered to halt.
Meanwhile, on the 12th U.S. Army Group 's southern flank, the 3rd Army had advanced apace, moving 30 mi (48 km) eastward to take Erfurt and Weimar, and then, by 12 April, another 30 mi (48 km) through the old 1806 Jena Napoleonic battlefield area. On that day, Eisenhower instructed Patton to halt the 3rd Army at the Mulde River, about 10 mi (16 km) short of its original objective, Chemnitz. The change resulted from an agreement between the American and Soviet military leadership based on the need to establish a readily identifiable geographical line to avoid accidental clashes between the converging Allied forces. However, as the 3rd Army began pulling up to the Mulde on 13 April, the XII Corps -- Patton 's southernmost force -- continued moving southeast alongside the 6th U.S. Army Group to clear southern Germany and move into Austria. After taking Coburg, about 50 mi (80 km) south of Erfurt, on 11 April, XII Corps troops captured Bayreuth, 35 mi (56 km) farther southeast, on 14 April.
As was the case throughout the campaign, the German ability to fight was sporadic and unpredictable during the drive to the Elbe - Mulde line. Some areas were stoutly defended while in others the enemy surrendered after little more than token resistance. By sending armored spearheads around hotly contested areas, isolating them for reduction by subsequent waves of infantry, Eisenhower 's forces maintained their eastward momentum. A German holdout force of 70,000 in the Harz Mountains -- 40 mi (64 km) north of Erfurt -- was neutralized in this way, as were the towns of Erfurt, Jena, and Leipzig.
Every unit along the Elbe - Mulde line was anxious to be the first to meet the Red Army. By the last week of April, it was well known that the Soviets were close, and dozens of American patrols were probing beyond the east bank of the Mulde, hoping to meet them. Elements of the 1st Army 's V Corps made first contact. At 11: 30 on 25 April, a small patrol from the 69th Infantry Division met a lone Russian horseman in the village of Leckwitz. Several other patrols from the 69th had similar encounters later that day, and on 26 April the division commander, Maj. Gen. Emil F. Reinhardt, met Maj. Gen. Vladimir Rusakov of the Russian 58th Guards Infantry Division at Torgau in the first official link - up ceremony.
25 April is known as Elbe Day.
While the 12th U.S. Army Group made its eastward thrust, General Devers ′ 6th U.S. Army Group to the south had the dual mission of protecting the 12th U.S. Army Group 's right flank and eliminating any German attempt to make a last stand in the Alps of southern Germany and western Austria. To accomplish both objectives, Lt. Gen. Alexander Patch 's 7th Army on Devers ′ left was to make a great arc, first driving northeastward alongside Bradley 's flank, then turning south with the 3rd Army to take Nuremberg and Munich, ultimately continuing into Austria. The French 1st Army -- under General Jean de Lattre de Tassigny -- was to attack to the south and southeast, taking Stuttgart before moving to the Swiss border and into Austria.
Initially, the opposition in the 6th U.S. Army Group 's sector was stiffer than that facing the 12th U.S. Army Group. The German forces there were simply in less disarray than those to the north. Nevertheless, the 7th Army broke out of its Rhine bridgehead, just south of Frankfurt, on 28 March, employing elements of three corps -- the XV Corps to the north, the XXI Corps in the center, and the VI Corps to the south. The XV Corps ′ 45th Infantry Division fought for six days before taking the city of Aschaffenburg, 35 mi (56 km) east of the Rhine, on 3 April. To the south, elements of the VI Corps met unexpectedly fierce resistance at Heilbronn, 40 mi (64 km) into the German rear. Despite a wide armored thrust to envelop the enemy defenses, it took nine days of intense fighting to bring Heilbronn fully under American control. Still, by 11 April 7th Army had penetrated the German defenses in depth, especially in the north, and was ready to begin its wheeling movement southeast and south. Thus, on 15 April when Eisenhower ordered Patton 's entire 3rd Army to drive southeast down the Danube River valley to Linz, and south to Salzburg and central Austria, he also instructed the 6th U.S. Army Group to make a similar turn into southern Germany and western Austria.
Advancing along this new axis the Seventh Army 's left rapidly overran Bamberg, over 100 mi (160 km) east of the Rhine, on its way to Nuremberg, about 30 mi (48 km) to the south. As its forces reached Nuremberg on 16 April, the Seventh Army ran into the same type of anti-aircraft gun defense that the 1st Army was facing at Leipzig. Only on 20 April, after breaching the ring of anti-aircraft guns and fighting house - to - house for the city, did its forces take Nuremberg.
Following the capture of Nuremberg, the 7th Army discovered little resistance as the XXI Corps ′ 12th Armored Division dashed 50 mi (80 km) to the Danube, crossing it on 22 April, followed several days later by the rest of the corps and the XV Corps as well.
Meanwhile, on the 7th Army 's right the VI Corps had moved southeast alongside the French 1st Army. In a double envelopment, the French captured Stuttgart on 21 April, and by the next day both the French and the VI Corps had elements on the Danube. Similarly, the 3rd Army on the 6th U.S. Army Group 's left flank had advanced rapidly against very little resistance, its lead elements reaching the river on 24 April.
As the 6th U.S. Army Group and the 3rd Army finished clearing southern Germany and approached Austria, it was clear to most observers, Allied and German alike, that the war was nearly over. Many towns flew white flags of surrender to spare themselves the otherwise inevitable destruction suffered by those that resisted, while German troops surrendered by the tens of thousands, sometimes as entire units.
On 30 April, elements of 7th Army 's XV and XXI Corps captured Munich, 30 miles (48 km) south of the Danube, while the first elements of its VI Corps had already entered Austria two days earlier. On 4 May, the 3rd Army 's V Corps and XII Corps advanced into Czechoslovakia, and units of the VI Corps met elements of Lieutenant General Lucian Truscott 's U.S. 5th Army on the Italian frontier, linking the European and Mediterranean Theaters. Also on 4 May, after a shift in inter-army boundaries that placed Salzburg in the 7th Army sector, that city surrendered to elements of the XV Corps. The XV Corps also captured Berchtesgaden, the town that would have been Hitler 's command post in the National Redoubt. With all passes to the Alps now sealed, however, there would be no final redoubt in Austria or anywhere else. In a few days the war in Europe would be over.
While the Allied armies in the south marched to the Alps, the 21st Army Group drove north and northeast. The right wing of the British 2nd Army reached the Elbe southeast of Hamburg on 19 April. Its left fought for a week to capture Bremen, which fell on 26 April. On 29 April, the British made an assault crossing of the Elbe, supported on the following day by the recently reattached XVIII Airborne Corps. The bridgehead expanded rapidly, and by 2 May Lubeck and Wismar, 40 -- 50 miles (64 -- 80 km) beyond the river, were in Allied hands, sealing off the Germans in the Jutland Peninsula.
On the 21st Army Group 's left, one corps of the Canadian 1st Army reached the North Sea near the Dutch - German border on 16 April, while another drove through the central Netherlands, trapping the German forces remaining in that country. However, concerned that the bypassed Germans would flood much of the nation and cause complete famine among a Dutch population already near starvation, General Eisenhower approved an agreement with the local enemy commanders to allow the Allies to air - drop food into the country in return for a local ceasefire on the battlefield. The ensuing airdrops, which began on 29 April, marked the beginning of what was to become a colossal effort to put war - torn Europe back together again.
By the end of April, the Third Reich was in tatters. Of the land still under Nazi control almost none was actually in Germany. With his escape route to the south severed by the 12th Army Group 's eastward drive and Berlin surrounded by the Soviets, Adolf Hitler committed suicide on 30 April, leaving to his successor, Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz, the task of capitulation. After attempting to strike a deal whereby he would surrender only to the Western Allies -- a proposal that was summarily rejected -- on 7 May Dönitz granted his representative, Alfred Jodl, permission to effect a complete surrender on all fronts. The appropriate documents were signed on the same day and became effective on 8 May. Despite scattered resistance from a few isolated units, the war in Europe was over.
By the beginning of the Central Europe Campaign, Allied victory in Europe was inevitable. Having gambled his future ability to defend Germany on the Ardennes offensive and lost, Hitler had no real strength left to stop the powerful Allied armies. The Western Allies still had to fight, often bitterly, for victory. Even when the hopelessness of the German situation became obvious to his most loyal subordinates, Hitler refused to admit defeat. Only when Soviet artillery was falling around his Berlin headquarters bunker did he begin to perceive the final outcome.
The crossing of the Rhine, the encirclement and reduction of the Ruhr, and the sweep to the Elbe - Mulde line and the Alps all established the final campaign on the Western Front as a showcase for Allied superiority in maneuver warfare. Drawing on the experience gained during the campaign in Normandy and the Allied advance from Paris to the Rhine, the Western Allies demonstrated in Central Europe their capability of absorbing the lessons of the past. By attaching mechanized infantry units to armored divisions, they created a hybrid of strength and mobility that served them well in the pursuit warfare through Germany. Key to the effort was the logistical support that kept these forces fueled, and the determination to maintain the forward momentum at all costs. These mobile forces made great thrusts to isolate pockets of German troops, which were mopped up by additional infantry following close behind. The Allies rapidly eroded any remaining ability to resist.
For their part, captured German soldiers often claimed to be most impressed not by American armor or infantry but by the artillery. They frequently remarked on its accuracy and the swiftness of its target acquisition -- and especially the prodigious amount of artillery ammunition expended.
In retrospect, very few questionable decisions were made concerning the execution of the campaign. For example, General Patton, the U.S. Third Army commander, potentially could have made his initial Rhine crossing north of Mainz and avoided the losses incurred crossing the Main. Further north the airborne landings during Operation Plunder in support of the 21st Army Group 's crossing of the Rhine were probably not worth the risk. But these decisions were made in good faith and had little bearing on the ultimate outcome of the campaign. On the whole, Allied plans were excellent as demonstrated by how rapidly they met their objectives.
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what is the shortest legal length of a shotgun barrel | Sawed - off shotgun - wikipedia
A sawed - off shotgun (US, CAN) also called a sawn - off shotgun (UK, IRL, AU, NZ) and a short - barreled shotgun (SBS) (U.S. legislative terminology), is a type of shotgun with a shorter gun barrel -- typically under 18 inches -- and often a shortened or absent stock. Despite the colloquial term, barrels do not, strictly speaking, have to be shortened with a saw. Barrels can be manufactured at shorter lengths as an alternative to traditional, longer barrels. This makes them easier to transport due to their smaller profile and lighter weight. The design also makes the weapon easy to maneuver in cramped spaces, a feature sought by military close quarters combat units, law enforcement SWAT team users, and home defense purposes. With modern pump action / magazine tube shotguns, the shorter barrel limits the magazine capacity of the weapon due to the magazine tube protruding beyond the barrel. Therefore, the magazine tubes are matched in length to the barrel, which causes a reduction in the number of shells that can be held in the magazine tube.
In the 1930s, the United States, Britain and Canada mandated that a proper permit be required to own these firearms. They are subject to legal restrictions depending upon jurisdiction. They also are in use by military forces and police agencies worldwide.
Compared to a standard shotgun, the sawn - off shotgun has a shorter effective range, due to a lower muzzle velocity and wider spread of shot. Despite these drawbacks, its reduced size makes it easier to maneuver and conceal. Powerful and compact, the weapon is especially suitable for use in small spaces, such as close quarters combat in a military context. Military vehicle crews use short - barreled combat shotguns as ancillary weapons. In urban combat zones, military entry teams often use entry shotguns when breaching and entering doorways.
To make shotguns less concealable, many jurisdictions have a minimum legal length for shotgun barrels. These restrictions are aimed at making concealable shotguns not available to criminals who might intend to use the weapons in the commission of robberies or other crimes. Most gun makers in the U.S. have not offered sawed - off shotguns to the public since the early 1900s, when shotguns with barrel lengths of under 18 '' were restricted, although they had been offered prior to that time without being illegally modified. Currently, aftermarket companies and Special Occupational Taxpayers exist that legally convert most name brand shotguns into such weapons, upon payment of either a $200.00 or $5.00 Federal fee for transferring ownership.
A sawed - off shotgun is often an unofficial modification of a standard shotgun. In countries where handguns are more costly or difficult to obtain, criminals might convert legally purchased or stolen shotguns into concealable weapons. For criminal organizations, the easy availability of standard hunting ammunition is another advantage of sawed - off shotguns. This practice is not limited to localities where handguns are difficult to obtain. Sawed - off shotguns might be made for a number of reasons, such as the reputation they have gained through portrayal in action movies and news reports of crime incidents.
The term is often applied to illegal weapons that are created by cutting off the barrel of a standard shotgun. This has a dramatic effect on double - barreled or single - shot shotguns because the barrel can be cut to any length. Pump - action or semi-automatic shotguns usually have a tube magazine attached to the underside of the barrel which limits the minimum barrel length to slightly longer than the length of the magazine tube, when only the barrel is modified. Although the magazine can be shortened, with a corresponding loss in magazine capacity, such a modification tends to be considerably more technically complex, involving cutting and welding or silver soldering at a bare minimum and often large diameter square threading. Repeating - fire shotguns with box magazines do not lose shell capacity when sawed off, but they are far less common than those with tubular magazines. Shotguns manufactured with barrels under the legal minimum length frequently fall into special categories.
Many nations have placed legal restrictions on sawed - off shotguns. The following are the restrictions for specific nations.
A shotgun may not have its barrel shortened so as to change the category under which that shotgun would be classified. In some states, any alteration to the length of the barrel requires permission from the Chief Commissioner of Police.
Short - barreled, manually operated shotguns (non-semi - automatics) are non-restricted as long as the barrel remains unmodified from the original factory length. There is no legal minimum for shotgun barrels as long as they are not handguns, and so shotguns with barrels as short as 8.5 inches are available in Canada.
Despite this, the act of reducing the barrel of a shotgun with a greater than 470 mm (18.5 inch) barrel below this length by sawing, cutting, or "otherwise '' (by anyone other than a recognized gun manufacturer) is prohibited.
Short barreled shotguns are universally category B weapons and therefore require a shall issue permit and Gun license (zbrojní průkaz), including the self defense category.
In Germany, the possession of a sawed - off shotgun is legal with a firearms license (Waffenbesitzkarte), just like any other firearm. Restrictions only apply to pump - action shotguns, which require a minimum barrel length of 45 cm and a minimum overall length of 90 cm to be legal. These restrictions only apply to pump - action shotguns, all others are legal to possess in any length. If the barrel length is less than 30 cm or the overall length is less than 60 cm, the firearm is considered a handgun, and treated accordingly under the law.
Shortening the barrel of a shotgun or rifle results in a presumptive five year minimum sentence of imprisonment upon conviction for a first offence, and a mandatory five - year sentence for second or subsequent offences.
Within the United Kingdom, side - by - side, over-under, bolt action and lever action shotguns are required to conform to the specification of a 24 '' minimum barrel length if held on a shotgun certificate. If held on a firearms certificate (the applicant having demonstrated ' good reason ' for possession), they must comply with the standard configuration of 12 '' minimum barrel length, 24 '' minimum overall length, common with other Section 1 firearms.
Shotguns held on a shotgun certificate must either have no magazine, or a non-removable magazine capable of holding no more than two rounds. Shotguns held on firearms certificates are not subject to any magazine restrictions.
Semi-automatic and pump action shotguns, regardless of whether they are held on shotgun or firearms certificates are always required to comply with the specification of 24 '' minimum barrel length, 40 '' minimum overall length.
Muzzleloading firearms held on firearms certificates are exempt from any restrictions on barrel and overall length. A smoothbore muzzleloader held on a shotgun certificate would be subject to the standard 24 '' minimum barrel length specification.
Under the National Firearms Act (NFA), it is illegal for a private citizen to possess a sawed - off modern smokeless powder shotgun (a shotgun with a barrel length shorter than 18 inches (46 cm) or an overall length shorter than 26 inches (66 cm)) (under U.S.C. Title II), without a tax - paid registration from the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives, requiring a background check and either a $200 or $5 tax for every transfer, depending upon the specific manufacturing circumstances of the particular sawed - off modern shotgun being transferred. Gun trusts have become an increasingly popular means of registering SBS ' with the BATFE. Short - barreled muzzleloading blackpowder shotguns, in contrast, are not illegal by federal law and require no tax - stamped permit, although they may be illegal under state law. As with all NFA regulated firearms, a new tax stamp must be purchased before every transfer. Inter-state transfers must be facilitated through a Federal Firearms Licensee (FFL) while intrastate transfers may be between two persons.
In the US, shotguns originally manufactured without shoulder stocks (and thus not legally shotguns), with a total length under 26 inches, are classified as an "Any Other Weapon '' by the BATFE and have a $5 transfer tax, if they are manufactured by a maker possessing the appropriate Class 2 Special Occupational Taxpayer Federal Firearms License. In order to convert an existing shoulder - stocked shotgun to a short - barreled shotgun or an existing pistol - grip - only shotgun to an "Any Other Weapon '', a private citizen must pay the standard $200 NFA tax.
Additional restrictions might apply in many other jurisdictions. State and local laws might entirely prohibit civilian possession of short - barrelled shotguns. (These restrictions do not apply to military and police departments.) In addition, some firearm types that would normally be considered to fall into the Short Barrel Shotgun (SBS) category are not legally considered to be a SBS. A shotgun is legally defined as a shoulder - mounted firearm that fires shot. Shotguns and shotgun receivers that have never had a buttstock of any type installed are not shotguns, as they can not be shoulder mounted. Therefore, cutting one of these below the 18 '' barrel and / or 26 '' overall length can not produce a SBS as the firearm was never a shotgun. The Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms & Explosives recognizes these firearms as being a smooth bore handgun which is an Any Other Weapon (AOW). Unlike an SBS, an AOW only carries a $5.00 tax and can be moved interstate without Federal approval. To maintain its AOW status, it must not have a buttstock (making it a SBS) or a rifled slug barrel (making it a Destructive Device (DD) if the bore is over 0.5 "). Firearms of this type are typically over 100 years old. These weapons produced with a barrel length under 18 '' are not considered sawed - off shotguns because they were not produced with a shoulder buttstock. Weapons with these specifications fall under the category of smooth bore handguns produced in heavy rifle calibers and 12 / 20 gauge shotgun calibers, contrary to illegal sawn - off shotguns and are not considered destructive devices. Any firearms capable of shooting shotgun style cartridges produced after the 18 '' minimum barrel restrictions were set into place are considered illegal sawed - off shotguns.
Historical military use of sawed - off shotguns includes use as a primary weapon for Confederate cavalry during the American Civil War. These muzzle - loaded weapons were used primarily for close - range combat and to supplement the availability of more traditional short ranged weapons such as the saber or carbine. The availability of the source weapons and the ability to use single ball, shot, or a mix of both as the situation required were reasons why they were initially desired by those establishing Confederate cavalry units. They were replaced over time as more conventional arms became available and as the tactical use of cavalry shifted towards use as mounted infantry.
In modern usage, minimum length and barrel length restrictions only apply to civilian use; military and police departments may issue short - barreled shotguns, and major manufacturers offer special models with barrels in the range of 10 to 14 inches (25 to 36 cm) as riot shotguns or combat shotguns for use in areas with restricted space. These are generally referred to as "entry shotguns '', because they are generally used for entering buildings, where the short easy handling is more important than the increased ammunition capacity of a longer shotgun. Breaching rounds provide another use for very short shotguns. These rounds are usually made of sintered powdered metal, but a normal buckshot or bird shot round will also work. A shotgun is used for breaching by placing the gun next to a door lock (0 to 2 inches away, 0 to 5 cm), and firing at a 45 degrees downward angle through the door between the lock or latch and the door frame. The impact of the projectile (s) opens a hole through the door, removing the latch or locking bolt. When through the door, the shot or sintered metal disperses quickly, and because it was aimed downwards, the risk of harming occupants on the other side of the breached door is minimized. Breaching guns used by police and the military may have barrels as short as 10 inches (25 cm), and they often have only a pistol grip rather than a full butt stock. Some models use a special cup - like muzzle extension to further minimize the risk of debris injuring the shooter. Because few rounds are fired, any sporting shotgun with a 3 - round capacity could be shortened and used as a capable breaching shotgun.
It is a common mis - perception that shortening the length of a shotgun barrel itself significantly affects the pattern or spread of the pellets. This is not true until barrel length is decreased to under 50 % of a typical barrel length. A standard length barrel (e.g., 28 ") is this long to move the center of gravity of the weapon away from the body and give it an ergonomic heft, and in order for the barrel to extend out into the shooter 's field of vision right up to the target, as well as to make the weapon more safe as it is very difficult to inadvertently point a long gun at one 's own body. The pattern is primarily affected by the type of cartridge fired and the choke, or constriction normally found at the muzzle of a shotgun barrel.
The primary reason that the pattern is altered is because cutting off the end of the barrel removes the choke, which generally only extends about two inches (about 5 cm) inward from the muzzle. This results in a cylinder bore, which causes the widest spread generally found in shotgun barrels. (See choke for more information on the impact of chokes. See shotgun shell for information on spreader loads.) See details on shot patterning.
In the United Kingdom, Australia, Canada and New Zealand, where handguns are not easily obtainable, the sawn - off shotgun was a common weapon in armed robberies during and shortly after the 1960s, and it is this use that most people associate with the weapon.
A sawn - off shotgun with exposed, manually - cocked hammers and dual triggers is known as a lupara ("wolf - shot '') in Italy, and while associated with organized crime, was originally used by Sicilian farmers and shepherds to protect their vineyards and flocks of animals. In rural areas of North India, where it is seen as a weapon of authority and prestige, it is known as a dunali, literally meaning "two pipes ''. It is especially common in Bihar, Purvanchal, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana and Punjab.
The bank robber Clyde Barrow modified his Browning A-5 shotgun by cutting the barrel down to the same length as the magazine tube, and shortening the stock by 5 to 6 inches (125 to 150 mm) to make it more concealable. A small, 10 -- 12 - inch (250 -- 300 mm) strap was attached to both ends of the butt of the gun, and was looped around his shoulder, concealing the gun between his arm and chest under his jacket in the manner of a shoulder holster. The gun was drawn up quickly and fired from the shoulder under which it was carried. Barrow dubbed it the "Whippit '', as he was able to "whip it '' out easily.
The light weight of short - barreled shotguns, particularly in configurations that lack substantial stocks, leads some users to use short ' minishells ' with lower shot and powder loading for comfortable casual use.
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list of 2006 the walt disney company films | List of Walt Disney Pictures films - wikipedia
This is a list of films released theatrically under the Walt Disney Pictures banner (known as that since 1983, with Never Cry Wolf as its first release) and films released before that under the former name of the parent company, Walt Disney Productions (1929 -- 1983). Most films listed here were distributed in the United States by the company 's distribution division, Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures (formerly known as Buena Vista Distribution Company (1953 -- 1987) and Buena Vista Pictures Distribution (1987 -- 2007)). The Disney features produced before Peter Pan (1953) were originally distributed by RKO Radio Pictures, and are now distributed by Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures.
This list is organized by release date and includes live action feature films, animated feature films (including films developed and produced by Walt Disney Animation Studios and Pixar Animation Studios), and documentary films (including titles from the True - Life Adventures series and films produced by the Disneynature label). For an exclusive list of animated films released by Walt Disney Pictures and its previous entities see List of Disney theatrical animated features.
This list is only for theatrical films released under the main Disney banner. The list does not include films released by other existing, defunct or divested labels or subsidiaries owned by Walt Disney Studios (i.e. Marvel Studios, Lucasfilm, Touchstone Pictures, Hollywood Pictures, Miramax Films, Dimension Films, ESPN Films etc.; unless they are credited as co-production partners) nor any direct - to - video releases, TV films, theatrical re-releases, or films originally released by other non-Disney studios.
Operating:
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Operating:
Defunct:
Divested (once owned by Disney):
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summary of the eye of minds by james dashner | The Eye of Minds - Wikipedia
The Eye of Minds is a 2013 teenage science fiction novel written by American author James Dashner, and the first book in The Mortality Doctrine series. The book was first published on October 8, 2013 by Delacorte Press and is set in a futuristic world where a young gamer must help stop a rogue, Kaine, hacker intent on causing mass destruction.
Of the novel, Dashner has stated that he did not view it as a "dystopian or post-apocalyptic tale '' akin to his Maze Runner series, but he did view it as having "similarities in tone and feel and spirit to The Maze Runner ''.
In the far future, mankind has developed a new interpretation of gaming set in a virtual reality known as the VirtNet, which contains several games including "Lifeblood '', a re-creation of real life. Michael and his two friends Bryson and Sarah, all three talented hackers that can use the game code to manipulate items, are employed by VNS, VirtNet Security, to track down a cyber-terrorist known as Kaine who has been trapping people inside the VirtNet, thus the gamers who are trapped commit suicide in real life by coding out their Cores, the objects that are the layer between their virtual and their real - life bodies. They also want them to find about something called The Mortality Doctrine. Using information from Cutter, a barber in the game Lifeblood, Michael and his friends hack their way into the high - end Black and Blue club. They meet Ronika, the owner, who tells them that to get to Kaine 's supposed base in Hallowed Ravine, they must walk on The Path, which can be accessed through a weak spot in the code within the game Devils of Destruction. However, creatures controlled by Kaine was known as KillSims, which suck the life out of VirtNet players ' Auras - their computer made counterparts - and leave their real - life bodies brain - dead, attack and destroy Ronika, and leave Michael with serious but occasional headaches. Then his friends get very annoyed and frustrated by Michael but do n't say anything because it 's life or death. Michael and his friends then manage to gain access to The Path through Devils of Destruction (where the people that play it are adults, partly due to the game is for those above 25 years of age, and also because the players have become barbaric), which they find very difficult to beat. Once they enter The Path, they find themselves on a massive stone disk with a riddle. After solving it, they enter an infinitely long corridor, from which the only exit is to go through a hole in the wall. At one point, Bryson is ' killed ' by some strange, empty bodies of people, that attack when people passing through unaware. Along the way, they meet Gunner Skale, a formerly legendary gamer, who helps them realize that Kaine is actually a Rogue Tangent, Tangent being the slang term used for an AI in the VirtNet. After escaping from Skale after he tries to kill them, Michael and Sarah continue on The Path, but Sarah also ' dies ' (meaning she wakes up in her Coffin - the device used to enter the VirtNet - in the real world) when she is burnt by lava, leaving Michael alone to keep going. Eventually, he reaches a crossroads, where he has a choice of either leaving The Path, or entering the Hallowed Ravine, but with a silver machine destroys his Core when he ' dies ', so that if he ' dies ', he dies in real life. After reaching Hallowed Ravine and discovering a Tangent meeting, the VNS sends agents to his location to attack. However, in the ensuing battle, with the KillSims attacking, a large number of VNS agents die. Kaine manages to bring Michael into a room, from where Michael goes away, allowed by Kaine to do so. He is attacked by KillSims, but he uses his powers for the first time to destroy, and not manipulate things. Michael suffers another headache and begs Kaine to save him. Michael then wakes up in a Coffin but realizes his body is different, and also he is in different surroundings. He finds that Kaine left him a message saying that Michael was a Tangent and that he is now the first successful subject of The Mortality Doctrine, which implants Tangent intelligence inside humans, whose intelligence are stored in a quantum computer known as "The Hive ''. He also says that since he is now human, his headaches, which were actually caused by The Decay, a condition that occurs due to a string of code implemented by the game developers, that causes Tangents to slowly break down. Michael then realizes that he had lived in the game Lifeblood Deep and when he entered his Coffin, he entered the network used by real humans, Lifeblood. He opens the door and meets Agent Weber, the VNS agent who contracted him to stop Kaine, who informs him that Bryson and Sarah are real, and also tells him to try to impersonate the human whose body he is in.
While developing The Eye of Minds, Dashner wanted to avoid creating a world that was too similar to his earlier work, the Maze Runner series. Dashner enjoyed employing the virtual reality setting, as it allowed him an "endless '' amount of worlds and settings for the novel. He drew inspiration for the book from multiple book and film sources, particularly The Matrix and Inception. Dashner has stated that he plans for the series ' story arc to only span three books, as he felt that it "really (works) out well for what I want to happen overall '' but that he does view the series as being more open to sequels than his earlier work Maze Runner.
Critical reception has been mostly positive. The School Library Journal and Booklist both gave The Eye of Minds a positive review, as both compared it positively to Dashner 's Maze Runner series, with the School Library Journal stating that it "delivers an adrenaline rush. '' The Christian Science Monitor remarked that while they occasionally grew frustrated with "Dashner 's love affair with his own slang '', they enjoyed the book greatly and thought that it would have a wide appeal. The Deseret News cautioned that The Eye of Minds had "relentless violence, blood, injury and mayhem '', but that it was also "constant tension for a debatable end reward. ''
Two sequels to The Eye of Minds have been published. The first, The Rule of Thoughts, was published on August 4, 2014. The Game of Lives was published on November 17, 2015. Dashner wanted to avoid dragging out the series. A short story has also been published, titled "Gunner Skale ''.
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when was the first weapon ready thermonuclear bomb tested | Thermonuclear weapon - wikipedia
A thermonuclear weapon is a second - generation nuclear weapon design using a secondary nuclear fusion stage consisting of implosion tamper, fusion fuel, and spark plug which is bombarded by the energy released by the detonation of a primary fission bomb within, compressing the fuel material (tritium, deuterium or lithium deuteride) and causing a fusion reaction. Some advanced designs use fast neutrons produced by this second stage to ignite a third fast fission or fusion stage. The fission bomb and fusion fuel are placed near each other in a special radiation - reflecting container called a radiation case that is designed to contain the energy of the primary charge for as long as possible. The ability of the design to ignite fusion leads to a greatly increased explosive power when compared to first generation single - stage fission weapons ("atomic '' bombs).
The device is colloquially referred to as a hydrogen bomb or, an H - bomb, because it employs the fusion of isotopes of hydrogen.
The first full - scale thermonuclear test was carried out by the United States in 1952; the concept has since been employed by most of the world 's nuclear powers in the design of their weapons. The modern design of all thermonuclear weapons in the United States is known as the Teller -- Ulam configuration for its two chief contributors, Edward Teller and Stanislaw Ulam, who developed it in 1951 for the United States, with certain concepts developed with the contribution of John von Neumann. Similar devices were developed by the Soviet Union, United Kingdom, France, and China.
As thermonuclear weapons represent the most efficient design for weapon energy yield in weapons with yields above 50 kilotons of TNT (210 TJ), virtually all the nuclear weapons of this size deployed by the five nuclear - weapon states under the Non-Proliferation Treaty today are thermonuclear weapons using the Teller -- Ulam design.
The radiation implosion mechanism exploits the temperature difference between the secondary stage 's hot, surrounding radiation channel and its relatively cool interior. This temperature difference is briefly maintained by a massive heat barrier called the "pusher '' / "tamper '', which also serves as an implosion tamper, increasing and prolonging the compression of the secondary. If made of uranium, enriched uranium or plutonium, it can capture fusion neutrons produced by the fusion reaction and undergo fission itself, increasing the overall explosive yield. In addition to that, some designs also make the radiation case out of a fissile material that undergoes fission. As a result, such bombs get a third fission stage, and the majority of current Teller -- Ulam are fission - fusion - fission weapons. Fission of the tamper or radiation case is the main contribution to the total yield and produces radioactive fission product fallout.
Detailed knowledge of fission and fusion weapons is classified to some degree in virtually every industrialized nation. In the United States, such knowledge can by default be classified as "Restricted Data '', even if it is created by persons who are not government employees or associated with weapons programs, in a legal doctrine known as "born secret '' (though the constitutional standing of the doctrine has been at times called into question; see United States v. Progressive, Inc.). Born secret is rarely invoked for cases of private speculation. The official policy of the United States Department of Energy has been not to acknowledge the leaking of design information, as such acknowledgment would potentially validate the information as accurate. In a small number of prior cases, the U.S. government has attempted to censor weapons information in the public press, with limited success. According to the New York Times, physicist Kenneth Ford defied government orders to remove classified information from his book, Building the H Bomb: A Personal History. Ford claims he used only pre-existing information and even submitted a manuscript to the government, which wanted to remove entire sections of the book for concern that foreign nations could use the information.
Though large quantities of vague data have been officially released, and larger quantities of vague data have been unofficially leaked by former bomb designers, most public descriptions of nuclear weapon design details rely to some degree on speculation, reverse engineering from known information, or comparison with similar fields of physics (inertial confinement fusion is the primary example). Such processes have resulted in a body of unclassified knowledge about nuclear bombs that is generally consistent with official unclassified information releases, related physics, and is thought to be internally consistent, though there are some points of interpretation that are still considered open. The state of public knowledge about the Teller -- Ulam design has been mostly shaped from a few specific incidents outlined in a section below.
The basic principle of the Teller -- Ulam configuration is the idea that different parts of a thermonuclear weapon can be chained together in "stages '', with the detonation of each stage providing the energy to ignite the next stage. At a bare minimum, this implies a primary section that consists of an implosion - type fission bomb (a "trigger ''), and a secondary section that consists of fusion fuel. The energy released by the primary compresses the secondary through a process called "radiation implosion '', at which point it is heated and undergoes nuclear fusion. This process could be continued, with energy from the secondary igniting a third fusion stage; Russia 's AN602 "Tsar Bomba '' is thought to have been a three - stage fission - fusion - fusion device. Theoretically by continuing this process thermonuclear weapons with arbitrarily high yield could be constructed. This contrasts with fission weapons which are limited in yield.
Surrounding the other components is a hohlraum or radiation case, a container that traps the first stage or primary 's energy inside temporarily. The outside of this radiation case, which is also normally the outside casing of the bomb, is the only direct visual evidence publicly available of any thermonuclear bomb component 's configuration. Numerous photographs of various thermonuclear bomb exteriors have been declassified.
The primary is thought to be a standard implosion method fission bomb, though likely with a core boosted by small amounts of fusion fuel (usually 50 / 50 % deuterium / tritium gas) for extra efficiency; the fusion fuel releases excess neutrons when heated and compressed, inducing additional fission. When fired, the plutonium - 239 (Pu - 239) or uranium - 235 (U-235) core would be compressed to a smaller sphere by special layers of conventional high explosives arranged around it in an explosive lens pattern, initiating the nuclear chain reaction that powers the conventional "atomic bomb ''.
The secondary is usually shown as a column of fusion fuel and other components wrapped in many layers. Around the column is first a "pusher - tamper '', a heavy layer of uranium - 238 (U-238) or lead that helps compress the fusion fuel (and, in the case of uranium, may eventually undergo fission itself). Inside this is the fusion fuel itself, usually a form of lithium deuteride, which is used because it is easier to weaponize than liquefied tritium / deuterium gas. This dry fuel, when bombarded by neutrons, produces tritium, a heavy isotope of hydrogen which can undergo nuclear fusion, along with the deuterium present in the mixture. (See the article on nuclear fusion for a more detailed technical discussion of fusion reactions.) Inside the layer of fuel is the "spark plug '', a hollow column of fissile material (plutonium - 239 or uranium - 235) often boosted by deuterium gas. The spark plug, when compressed, can itself undergo nuclear fission (because of the shape, it is not a critical mass without compression). The tertiary, if one is present, would be set below the secondary and probably be made up of the same materials.
Separating the secondary from the primary is the interstage. The fissioning primary produces four types of energy: 1) expanding hot gases from high explosive charges that implode the primary; 2) superheated plasma that was originally the bomb 's fissile material and its tamper; 3) the electromagnetic radiation; and 4) the neutrons from the primary 's nuclear detonation. The interstage is responsible for accurately modulating the transfer of energy from the primary to the secondary. It must direct the hot gases, plasma, electromagnetic radiation and neutrons toward the right place at the right time. Less than optimal interstage designs have resulted in the secondary failing to work entirely on multiple shots, known as a "fissile fizzle ''. The Koon shot of Operation Castle is a good example; a small flaw allowed the neutron flux from the primary to prematurely begin heating the secondary, weakening the compression enough to prevent any fusion.
There is very little detailed information in the open literature about the mechanism of the interstage. One of the best sources is a simplified diagram of a British thermonuclear weapon similar to the American W80 warhead. It was released by Greenpeace in a report titled "Dual Use Nuclear Technology ''. The major components and their arrangement are in the diagram, though details are almost absent; what scattered details it does include likely have intentional omissions or inaccuracies. They are labeled "End - cap and Neutron Focus Lens '' and "Reflector Wrap ''; the former channels neutrons to the U-235 / Pu - 239 Spark Plug while the latter refers to an X-ray reflector; typically a cylinder made out of an X-ray opaque material such as uranium with the primary and secondary at either end. It does not reflect like a mirror; instead, it gets heated to a high temperature by the X-ray flux from the primary, then it emits more evenly spread X-rays that travel to the secondary, causing what is known as radiation implosion. In Ivy Mike, gold was used as a coating over the uranium to enhance the blackbody effect. Next comes the "Reflector / Neutron Gun Carriage ''. The reflector seals the gap between the Neutron Focus Lens (in the center) and the outer casing near the primary. It separates the primary from the secondary and performs the same function as the previous reflector. There are about six neutron guns (seen here from Sandia National Laboratories) each poking through the outer edge of the reflector with one end in each section; all are clamped to the carriage and arranged more or less evenly around the casing 's circumference. The neutron guns are tilted so the neutron emitting end of each gun end is pointed towards the central axis of the bomb. Neutrons from each neutron gun pass through and are focused by the neutron focus lens towards the centre of primary in order to boost the initial fissioning of the plutonium. A "Polystyrene Polarizer / Plasma Source '' is also shown (see below).
The first U.S. government document to mention the interstage was only recently released to the public promoting the 2004 initiation of the Reliable Replacement Warhead Program. A graphic includes blurbs describing the potential advantage of a RRW on a part by part level, with the interstage blurb saying a new design would replace "toxic, brittle material '' and "expensive ' special ' material... (which require) unique facilities ''. The "toxic, brittle material '' is widely assumed to be beryllium which fits that description and would also moderate the neutron flux from the primary. Some material to absorb and re-radiate the X-rays in a particular manner may also be used.
Candidates for the "special material '' are polystyrene and a substance called "FOGBANK '', an unclassified codename. FOGBANK 's composition is classified, though aerogel has been suggested as a possibility. It was first used in thermonuclear weapons with the W - 76 thermonuclear warhead, and produced at a plant in the Y - 12 Complex at Oak Ridge, Tennessee for use in the W - 76. Production of FOGBANK lapsed after the W - 76 production run ended. The W - 76 Life Extension Program required more FOGBANK to be made. This was complicated by the fact that the original FOGBANK 's properties were n't fully documented, so a massive effort was mounted to re-invent the process. An impurity crucial to the properties of the old FOGBANK was omitted during the new process. Only close analysis of new and old batches revealed the nature of that impurity. The manufacturing process used acetonitrile as a solvent, which led to at least three evacuations of the FOGBANK plant in 2006. Widely used in the petroleum and pharmaceutical industries, acetonitrile is flammable and toxic. Y - 12 is the sole producer of FOGBANK.
A simplified summary of the above explanation is:
Thermonuclear weapons may or may not use a boosted primary stage, use different types of fusion fuel, and may surround the fusion fuel with beryllium (or another neutron reflecting material) instead of depleted uranium to prevent early premature fission from occurring before the secondary is optimally compressed.
The basic idea of the Teller -- Ulam configuration is that each "stage '' would undergo fission or fusion (or both) and release energy, much of which would be transferred to another stage to trigger it. How exactly the energy is "transported '' from the primary to the secondary has been the subject of some disagreement in the open press, but is thought to be transmitted through the X-rays and Gamma rays that are emitted from the fissioning primary. This energy is then used to compress the secondary. The crucial detail of how the X-rays create the pressure is the main remaining disputed point in the unclassified press. There are three proposed theories:
The radiation pressure exerted by the large quantity of X-ray photons inside the closed casing might be enough to compress the secondary. Electromagnetic radiation such as X-rays or light carries momentum and exerts a force on any surface it strikes. The pressure of radiation at the intensities seen in everyday life, such as sunlight striking a surface, is usually imperceptible, but at the extreme intensities found in a thermonuclear bomb the pressure is enormous.
For two thermonuclear bombs for which the general size and primary characteristics are well understood, the Ivy Mike test bomb and the modern W - 80 cruise missile warhead variant of the W - 61 design, the radiation pressure was calculated to be 73 million bar (atmospheres) (7.3 T Pa) for the Ivy Mike design and 1,400 million bar (140 TPa) for the W - 80.
Foam plasma pressure is the concept that Chuck Hansen introduced during the Progressive case, based on research that located declassified documents listing special foams as liner components within the radiation case of thermonuclear weapons.
The sequence of firing the weapon (with the foam) would be as follows:
This would complete the fission - fusion - fission sequence. Fusion, unlike fission, is relatively "clean '' -- it releases energy but no harmful radioactive products or large amounts of nuclear fallout. The fission reactions though, especially the last fission reaction, release a tremendous amount of fission products and fallout. If the last fission stage is omitted, by replacing the uranium tamper with one made of lead, for example, the overall explosive force is reduced by approximately half but the amount of fallout is relatively low. The neutron bomb is a hydrogen bomb with an intentionally thin tamper, allowing as much radiation as possible to escape.
Current technical criticisms of the idea of "foam plasma pressure '' focus on unclassified analysis from similar high energy physics fields that indicate that the pressure produced by such a plasma would only be a small multiplier of the basic photon pressure within the radiation case, and also that the known foam materials intrinsically have a very low absorption efficiency of the gamma ray and X-ray radiation from the primary. Most of the energy produced would be absorbed by either the walls of the radiation case or the tamper around the secondary. Analyzing the effects of that absorbed energy led to the third mechanism: ablation.
The proposed tamper - pusher ablation mechanism is that the primary compression mechanism for the thermonuclear secondary is that the outer layers of the tamper - pusher, or heavy metal casing around the thermonuclear fuel, are heated so much by the X-ray flux from the primary that they ablate away, exploding outwards at such high speed that the rest of the tamper recoils inwards at a tremendous velocity, crushing the fusion fuel and the spark plug.
Rough calculations for the basic ablation effect are relatively simple: the energy from the primary is distributed evenly onto all of the surfaces within the outer radiation case, with the components coming to a thermal equilibrium, and the effects of that thermal energy are then analyzed. The energy is mostly deposited within about one X-ray optical thickness of the tamper / pusher outer surface, and the temperature of that layer can then be calculated. The velocity at which the surface then expands outwards is calculated and, from a basic Newtonian momentum balance, the velocity at which the rest of the tamper implodes inwards.
Applying the more detailed form of those calculations to the Ivy Mike device yields vaporized pusher gas expansion velocity of 290 kilometers per second and an implosion velocity of perhaps 400 kilometers per second if 3 / 4 of the total tamper / pusher mass is ablated off, the most energy efficient proportion. For the W - 80 the gas expansion velocity is roughly 410 kilometers per second and the implosion velocity 570 kilometers per second. The pressure due to the ablating material is calculated to be 5.3 billion bar (530 T Pa) in the Ivy Mike device and 64 billion bar (6.4 P Pa) in the W - 80 device.
Comparing the three mechanisms proposed, it can be seen that:
The calculated ablation pressure is one order of magnitude greater than the higher proposed plasma pressures and nearly two orders of magnitude greater than calculated radiation pressure. No mechanism to avoid the absorption of energy into the radiation case wall and the secondary tamper has been suggested, making ablation apparently unavoidable. The other mechanisms appear to be unneeded.
United States Department of Defense official declassification reports indicate that foamed plastic materials are or may be used in radiation case liners, and despite the low direct plasma pressure they may be of use in delaying the ablation until energy has distributed evenly and a sufficient fraction has reached the secondary 's tamper / pusher.
Richard Rhodes ' book Dark Sun stated that a 1 - inch - thick (25 mm) layer of plastic foam was fixed to the lead liner of the inside of the Ivy Mike steel casing using copper nails. Rhodes quotes several designers of that bomb explaining that the plastic foam layer inside the outer case is to delay ablation and thus recoil of the outer case: if the foam were not there, metal would ablate from the inside of the outer case with a large impulse, causing the casing to recoil outwards rapidly. The purpose of the casing is to contain the explosion for as long as possible, allowing as much X-ray ablation of the metallic surface of the secondary stage as possible, so it compresses the secondary efficiently, maximizing the fusion yield. Plastic foam has a low density, so causes a smaller impulse when it ablates than metal does.
A number of possible variations to the weapon design have been proposed:
Two special variations exist that will be discussed in a subsequent section: the cryogenically cooled liquid deuterium device used for the Ivy Mike test, and the putative design of the W88 nuclear warhead -- a small, MIRVed version of the Teller -- Ulam configuration with a prolate (egg or watermelon shaped) primary and an elliptical secondary.
Most bombs do not apparently have tertiary "stages '' -- that is, third compression stage (s), which are additional fusion stages compressed by a previous fusion stage. (The fissioning of the last blanket of uranium, which provides about half the yield in large bombs, does not count as a "stage '' in this terminology.)
The U.S. tested three - stage bombs in several explosions (see Operation Redwing) but is thought to have fielded only one such tertiary model, i.e., a bomb in which a fission stage, followed by a fusion stage, finally compresses yet another fusion stage. This U.S. design was the heavy but highly efficient (i.e., nuclear weapon yield per unit bomb weight) 25 Mt B41 nuclear bomb. The Soviet Union is thought to have used multiple stages (including more than one tertiary fusion stage) in their 50 megaton (100 Mt in intended use) Tsar Bomba (however, as with other bombs, the fissionable jacket could be replaced with lead in such a bomb, and in this one, for demonstration, it was). If any hydrogen bombs have been made from configurations other than those based on the Teller -- Ulam design, the fact of it is not publicly known. (A possible exception to this is the Soviet early Sloika design).
In essence, the Teller -- Ulam configuration relies on at least two instances of implosion occurring: first, the conventional (chemical) explosives in the primary would compress the fissile core, resulting in a fission explosion many times more powerful than that which chemical explosives could achieve alone (first stage). Second, the radiation from the fissioning of the primary would be used to compress and ignite the secondary fusion stage, resulting in a fusion explosion many times more powerful than the fission explosion alone. This chain of compression could conceivably be continued with an arbitrary number of tertiary fusion stages, each igniting more fusion fuel in the next stage although this is debated (see more: Arbitrarily large yield debate). Finally, efficient bombs (but not so - called neutron bombs) end with the fissioning of the final natural uranium tamper, something that could not normally be achieved without the neutron flux provided by the fusion reactions in secondary or tertiary stages. Such designs are suggested to be capable of being scaled up to an arbitrary large yield (with apparently as many fusion stages as desired), potentially to the level of a "doomsday device. '' However, usually such weapons were not more than a dozen megatons, which was generally considered enough to destroy even most hardened practical targets (for example, a control facility such as the Cheyenne Mountain Complex). Even such large bombs have been replaced by smaller - yield bunker buster type nuclear bombs (see more: nuclear bunker buster).
As discussed above, for destruction of cities and non-hardened targets, breaking the mass of a single missile payload down into smaller MIRV bombs, in order to spread the energy of the explosions into a "pancake '' area, is far more efficient in terms of area - destruction per unit of bomb energy. This also applies to single bombs deliverable by cruise missile or other system, such as a bomber, resulting in most operational warheads in the U.S. program having yields of less than 500 kilotons.
The idea of a thermonuclear fusion bomb ignited by a smaller fission bomb was first proposed by Enrico Fermi to his colleague Edward Teller in 1941 at the start of what would become the Manhattan Project. Teller spent most of the Manhattan Project attempting to figure out how to make the design work, to some degree neglecting his assigned work on the fission bomb program. His difficult and devil 's advocate attitude in discussions led Robert Oppenheimer to sidetrack him and other "problem '' physicists into the super program to smooth his way.
Stanislaw Ulam, a co-worker of Teller, made the first key conceptual leaps towards a workable fusion design. Ulam 's two innovations that rendered the fusion bomb practical were that compression of the thermonuclear fuel before extreme heating was a practical path towards the conditions needed for fusion, and the idea of staging or placing a separate thermonuclear component outside a fission primary component, and somehow using the primary to compress the secondary. Teller then realized that the gamma and X-ray radiation produced in the primary could transfer enough energy into the secondary to create a successful implosion and fusion burn, if the whole assembly was wrapped in a hohlraum or radiation case. Teller and his various proponents and detractors later disputed the degree to which Ulam had contributed to the theories underlying this mechanism. Indeed, shortly before his death, and in a last - ditch effort to discredit Ulam 's contributions, Teller claimed that one of his own "graduate students '' had proposed the mechanism.
The "George '' shot of Operation Greenhouse of 9 May 1951 tested the basic concept for the first time on a very small scale. As the first successful (uncontrolled) release of nuclear fusion energy, which made up a small fraction of the 225 kt total yield, it raised expectations to a near certainty that the concept would work.
On November 1, 1952, the Teller -- Ulam configuration was tested at full scale in the "Ivy Mike '' shot at an island in the Enewetak Atoll, with a yield of 10.4 megatons (over 450 times more powerful than the bomb dropped on Nagasaki during World War II). The device, dubbed the Sausage, used an extra-large fission bomb as a "trigger '' and liquid deuterium -- kept in its liquid state by 20 short tons (18 metric tons) of cryogenic equipment -- as its fusion fuel, and weighed around 80 short tons (70 metric tons) altogether.
The liquid deuterium fuel of Ivy Mike was impractical for a deployable weapon, and the next advance was to use a solid lithium deuteride fusion fuel instead. In 1954 this was tested in the "Castle Bravo '' shot (the device was code - named Shrimp), which had a yield of 15 megatons (2.5 times expected) and is the largest U.S. bomb ever tested.
Efforts in the United States soon shifted towards developing miniaturized Teller -- Ulam weapons that could fit into intercontinental ballistic missiles and submarine - launched ballistic missiles. By 1960, with the W47 warhead deployed on Polaris ballistic missile submarines, megaton - class warheads were as small as 18 inches (0.5 m) in diameter and 720 pounds (320 kg) in weight. It was later found in live testing that the Polaris warhead did not work reliably and had to be redesigned. Further innovation in miniaturizing warheads was accomplished by the mid-1970s, when versions of the Teller -- Ulam design were created that could fit ten or more warheads on the end of a small MIRVed missile (see the section on the W88 below).
The Soviet thermonuclear weapons program was aided heavily by Klaus Fuchs. Fuchs ' most valuable contribution to the Soviet weapons program concerned the hydrogen bomb. The idea of a hydrogen bomb arose from discussions between Enrico Fermi and Edward Teller in 1941. From 1943 Teller lectured at Los Alamos on what he called the "super ''. Following their meeting, Fermi was convinced by Teller to present a series of lectures detailing the current state of research into thermonuclear weapons. In September 1945 Fuchs passed a synopsis of these lectures to the Soviets. This information was important to the Soviets, but not solely for the information about the US bomb project. The importance of this material was in that it confirmed that the United States were working on their own thermonuclear weapon research. Although the information provided by Fuchs regarding the thermonuclear weapons research was not seen as entirely beneficial, it still provided the Soviet Union with knowledge such as the properties of tritium. Tritium is an isotope of hydrogen with two neutrons, which allows for more efficient fusion reactions to occur during the detonation of a nuclear weapon. Discovering the properties of this radioactive material would allow the Soviet Union to develop a more powerful weapon that requires less fuel. Following Fuchs 's return, experts from the Soviet Union spent a great deal of time researching his findings for themselves. Even though the Soviets did obtain some original ideas, the findings of this research served to confirm Fuchs 's notes from the American lectures on the matter. After his return to England in mid-1946, Fuchs was not again in touch with Soviet intelligence until September 1947, when his controller confirmed the Soviet interest in thermonuclear weapons. In response Fuchs provided details of the "ongoing theoretical superbomb studies in the U.S. under the direction of Teller and Enrico Fermi at the University of Chicago. '' Fuchs obtained information regardless of the American McMahon Act, which prevented Anglo - American cooperation on nuclear weapons research. Under this act, Fuchs did not have routine access to American collaborators like Fermi and Teller. Fuchs was very close to Teller at Los Alamos, and while there Fuchs had worked on thermonuclear weapons. As Teller later recalled, "he (Fuchs) talked with me and others frequently in depth about our intensive efforts... it was easy and pleasant to discuss my work with him. He also made impressive contributions, and I learned many technical facts from him. '' Fuchs obtained the information, it energized the Soviets to direct new intelligence activities against research in Chicago. In February 1948 the Soviet Union formally began its hydrogen bomb program. A month later Fuchs again met with Feklisov, an event which "played an exceptional role in the subsequent course of the Soviet thermonuclear bomb program. '' A report of June 1953 warned that, although no indication of Soviet development of hydrogen bombs had been found, "Soviet research, development and even field testing of thermonuclear reactions based on the disclosures of Fuchs may take place by mid-1953. '' U.S. intelligence thus recognized for the first time that Fuchs ' material held invaluable information for the Soviet thermonuclear weapons program.
The first Soviet fusion design, developed by Andrei Sakharov and Vitaly Ginzburg in 1949 (before the Soviets had a working fission bomb), was dubbed the Sloika, after a Russian layer cake, and was not of the Teller -- Ulam configuration. It used alternating layers of fissile material and lithium deuteride fusion fuel spiked with tritium (this was later dubbed Sakharov 's "First Idea ''). Though nuclear fusion might have been technically achievable, it did not have the scaling property of a "staged '' weapon. Thus, such a design could not produce thermonuclear weapons whose explosive yields could be made arbitrarily large (unlike U.S. designs at that time). The fusion layer wrapped around the fission core could only moderately multiply the fission energy (modern Teller -- Ulam designs can multiply it 30-fold). Additionally, the whole fusion stage had to be imploded by conventional explosives, along with the fission core, substantially multiplying the amount of chemical explosives needed.
The first Sloika design test, RDS - 6s, was detonated in 1953 with a yield equivalent to 400 kilotons of TNT (15 -- 20 % from fusion). Attempts to use a Sloika design to achieve megaton - range results proved unfeasible. After the United States tested the "Ivy Mike '' bomb in November 1952, proving that a multimegaton bomb could be created, the Soviets searched for an additional design. The "Second Idea '', as Sakharov referred to it in his memoirs, was a previous proposal by Ginzburg in November 1948 to use lithium deuteride in the bomb, which would, in the course of being bombarded by neutrons, produce tritium and free deuterium. In late 1953 physicist Viktor Davidenko achieved the first breakthrough, that of keeping the primary and secondary parts of the bombs in separate pieces ("staging ''). The next breakthrough was discovered and developed by Sakharov and Yakov Zel'dovich, that of using the X-rays from the fission bomb to compress the secondary before fusion ("radiation implosion ''), in early 1954. Sakharov 's "Third Idea '', as the Teller -- Ulam design was known in the USSR, was tested in the shot "RDS - 37 '' in November 1955 with a yield of 1.6 megatons.
The Soviets demonstrated the power of the "staging '' concept in October 1961, when they detonated the massive and unwieldy Tsar Bomba, a 50 megaton hydrogen bomb that derived almost 97 % of its energy from fusion. It was the largest nuclear weapon developed and tested by any country.
In 1954 work began at Aldermaston to develop the British fusion bomb, with Sir William Penney in charge of the project. British knowledge on how to make a thermonuclear fusion bomb was rudimentary, and at the time the United States was not exchanging any nuclear knowledge because of the Atomic Energy Act of 1946. However, the British were allowed to observe the American Castle tests and used sampling aircraft in the mushroom clouds, providing them with clear, direct evidence of the compression produced in the secondary stages by radiation implosion.
Because of these difficulties, in 1955 British prime minister Anthony Eden agreed to a secret plan, whereby if the Aldermaston scientists failed or were greatly delayed in developing the fusion bomb, it would be replaced by an extremely large fission bomb.
In 1957 the Operation Grapple tests were carried out. The first test, Green Granite was a prototype fusion bomb, but failed to produce equivalent yields compared to the Americans and Soviets, achieving only approximately 300 kilotons. The second test Orange Herald was the modified fission bomb and produced 720 kilotons -- making it the largest fission explosion ever. At the time almost everyone (including the pilots of the plane that dropped it) thought that this was a fusion bomb. This bomb was put into service in 1958. A second prototype fusion bomb Purple Granite was used in the third test, but only produced approximately 150 kilotons.
A second set of tests was scheduled, with testing recommencing in September 1957. The first test was based on a "... new simpler design. A two stage thermonuclear bomb that had a much more powerful trigger ''. This test Grapple X Round C was exploded on November 8 and yielded approximately 1.8 megatons. On April 28, 1958 a bomb was dropped that yielded 3 megatons -- Britain 's most powerful test. Two final air burst tests on September 2 and September 11, 1958, dropped smaller bombs that yielded around 1 megaton each.
American observers had been invited to these kinds of tests. After Britain 's successful detonation of a megaton - range device (and thus demonstrating a practical understanding of the Teller -- Ulam design "secret ''), the United States agreed to exchange some of its nuclear designs with the United Kingdom, leading to the 1958 US -- UK Mutual Defence Agreement. Instead of continuing with its own design, the British were given access to the design of the smaller American Mk 28 warhead and were able to manufacture copies.
The United Kingdom had worked closely with the Americans on the Manhattan Project. British access to nuclear weapons information was cut - off by the United States at one point due to concerns about Soviet espionage. Full cooperation was not reestablished until an agreement governing the handling of secret information and other issues was signed.
The People 's Republic of China detonated its first hydrogen (thermonuclear) bomb on June 17, 1967, 32 months after detonating its first fission weapon, with a yield of 3.31 Mt. It took place in the Lop Nor Test Site, in northwest China. China had received extensive technical help from the Soviet Union to jump - start their nuclear program, but by 1960, the rift between the Soviet Union and China had become so great that the Soviet Union ceased all assistance to China.
A story in The New York Times by William Broad reported that in 1995, a supposed Chinese double agent delivered information indicating that China knew secret details of the U.S. W88 warhead, supposedly through espionage. (This line of investigation eventually resulted in the abortive trial of Wen Ho Lee.)
France 's journey in building nuclear weapons began prior to World War II in 1939. The development of nuclear weapons was slowed during the country 's German invasion. The United States did not want France to acquire expert knowledge about nuclear weaponry, which ultimately led to the Alsos Mission. The missions followed closely behind the advancing forward - front to obtain information about how close Germany was to building an atomic weapon. Following the surrender of the Nazis, Germany was divided into "zones of occupation ''. The "zone '' given to the French was suspected to contain several nuclear research facilities. The United States conducted Operation Harborage to seize any and all information about nuclear weaponry from the French. The Operation strategized to have American troops intercede advancing French army, allowing the Americans to seize any German scientists or records as well as destroy the remaining functional facilities.
In 1945, the French Atomic Energy Commission (Commissariat à l'Énergie Atomique, CEA) was founded under General Charles de Gaulle; the CEA served as the country 's atomic energy authority, overseeing commercial, military, and scientific uses of atomic power. However it was not until 1952 that a tangible goal of building plutonium reactors progressed. Two years later, a reactor was being built and a plutonium separating plant began construction shortly after. In 1954 the question about continuing to explore building an atomic bomb was raised. The French cabinet seemed to be favoring less the building of an atomic bomb. Ultimately, the Prime Minister decided to continue efforts developing an atomic bomb in secret. In late 1956, tasks were delegated between the CEA and Defense Ministry to propel atomic development such as finding a test site, providing the necessary uranium, and physical device assembly.
General Charles de Gaulle was elected the France 's Fifth Republic 's first president in 1958. De Gaulle, an avid supporter of the nuclear weapons program, approved the country 's first nuclear test to take place in one of the early months of 1960. The country 's first nuclear explosion took place on 13 February at Reggane Oasis in the Sahara Desert in French Algeria of the time. It was called "Gerboise Bleue '', translating to "Blue jerboa ''. The first explosion was detonated at a tower height of 105 meters. The bomb used a plutonium implosion design with a yield of 70 kilotons. The Reggane Oasis test site was used for three more atmospheric tests before testing activity moved to a second site, Ecker, to carry out a total of 13 underground tests into 1967.
The French nuclear testing site was moved to the unpopulated French atolls in the Pacific Ocean. The first test conducted at these new sites was the "Canopus '' test in the Fangataufa atoll in French Polynesia on 24 August 1968, the country 's first multistage thermonuclear weapon test. The bomb was detonated from a balloon at a height of 520 meters. The result of this test was significant atmospheric contamination. Very little is known about France 's development of the Teller -- Ulam design, beyond the fact that France detonated a 2.6 Mt device in the ' Canopus '' test. France reportedly had great difficulty with its initial development of the Teller - Ulam design, but it later overcame these, and is believed to have nuclear weapons equal in sophistication to the other major nuclear powers.
France and China did not sign or ratify the Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty of 1963, which banned nuclear test explosions in the atmosphere, underwater, or in outer space. Between 1966 and 1996 France carried out more than 190 nuclear tests. France 's final nuclear test took place on January 27, 1996, and then the country dismantled its Polynesian test sites. France signed the Comprehensive Nuclear - Test - Ban Treaty that same year, and then ratified the Treaty within two years.
France confirmed that its nuclear arsenal contains about 300 warheads, carried by submarine - launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs) and fighter - bombers in 2015. France has four Triomphant - class ballistic missile submarines. One ballistic missile submarine is deployed in the deep ocean, but a total of three must be in operational use at all times. The three older submarines are armed with 16 M45 missiles. The newest submarine, "Le Terrible '', was commissioned in 2010, and it has M51 missiles capable of carrying TN 75 thermonuclear warheads. The air fleet is four squadrons at four different bases. In total, there are 23 Mirage 2000N aircraft and 20 Rafales capable of carrying nuclear warheads. The M51. 1 missiles are intended to be replaced with the new M51. 2 warhead beginning in 2016, which has a 3,000 km greater range than the M51. 1.
President François Hollande announced 180 billion euros would be used from the annual defense budget to improve the country 's nuclear deterrence. France contains 13 International Monitoring System facilities that monitor for nuclear explosive activity on Earth through the use of seismic, infrasound, and hydroacoustic monitors.
France also has about 60 air - launched missiles tipped with TN 80 / TN 81 warheads with a yield of about 300 kilotons each. France 's nuclear program has been carefully designed to ensure that these weapons remain usable decades into the future. Currently, France is no longer deliberately producing critical mass materials such as plutonium and enriched uranium, but it still relies on nuclear energy for electricity, with Pu - 239 as a byproduct.
On May 11, 1998, India reportedly detonated a thermonuclear bomb in its Operation Shakti tests ("Shakti - I '', specifically). Dr. Samar Mubarakmand, a Pakistani nuclear physicist, asserted that Shakti - 1 was a successful thermonuclear test. The yield of India 's hydrogen bomb remains highly debatable among the Indian science community and the international scholars. The question of politicisation and disputes between Indian scientists further complicated the matter.
In an interview in August 2009, the director for the 1998 test site preparations, Dr. K. Santhanam claimed that the yield of the thermonuclear explosion was lower than expected and that India should therefore not rush into signing the CTBT. Other Indian scientists involved in the test have disputed Dr. K. Santhanam 's claim. International sources, using local data and citing a United States Geological Survey report compiling seismic data from 125 IRIS stations across the world, argue that the magnitudes suggested a combined yield of up to 60 kilotonnes, consistent with the Indian announced total yield of 56 kilotonnes.
Israel is alleged to possess thermonuclear weapons of the Teller -- Ulam design, but it is not known to have tested any nuclear devices, although it is widely speculated that the Vela Incident of 1979 may have been a joint Israeli -- South African nuclear test.
It is well established that Edward Teller advised and guided the Israeli establishment on general nuclear matters for some twenty years. Between 1964 and 1967, Teller made six visits to Israel where he lectured at the Tel Aviv University on general topics in theoretical physics. It took him a year to convince the CIA about Israel 's capability and finally in 1976, Carl Duckett of the CIA testified to the U.S. Congress, after receiving credible information from an "American scientist '' (Teller), on Israel 's nuclear capability. During the 1990s, Teller eventually confirmed speculations in the media that it was during his visits in the 1960s that he concluded that Israel was in possession of nuclear weapons. After he conveyed the matter to the higher level of the U.S. government, Teller reportedly said: "They (Israel) have it, and they were clever enough to trust their research and not to test, they know that to test would get them into trouble. ''
According to the scientific data received and published by PAEC, the Corps of Engineers, and Kahuta Research Laboratories (KRL), in May 1998, Pakistan carried out six underground nuclear tests in Chagai Hills and Kharan Desert in Balochistan Province (see the code - names of the tests, Chagai - I and Chagai - II). None of these boosted fission devices was the thermonuclear weapon design, according to KRL and PAEC.
North Korea claimed to have tested its miniaturised thermonuclear bomb on 6 January 2016. North Korea 's first three nuclear tests (2006, 2009 and 2013) were relatively low yield and do not appear to have been of a thermonuclear weapon design. In 2013, the South Korean Defense Ministry speculated that North Korea may be trying to develop a "hydrogen bomb '' and such a device may be North Korea 's next weapons test. In January 2016, North Korea claimed to have successfully tested a hydrogen bomb, although only a magnitude 5.1 seismic event was detected at the time of the test, a similar magnitude to the 2013 test of a 6 -- 9 kt atomic bomb. These seismic recordings cast doubt upon North Korea 's claim that a hydrogen bomb was tested and suggest it was a non-fusion nuclear test.
On 3 September 2017, the country 's state media reported that a hydrogen bomb test was conducted which resulted in "perfect success ''. According to the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), the blast resulted in an earthquake with a magnitude of 6.3, 10 times more powerful than previous nuclear tests conducted by North Korea. U.S. Intelligence released an early assessment that the yield estimate was 140 kilotons, with an uncertainty range of 70 to 280 kilotons.
On 12 September, NORSAR revised its estimate of the earthquake magnitude upward to 6.1, matching that of the CTBTO, but less powerful than the USGS estimate of 6.3. Its yield estimate was revised to 250 kilotons, while noting the estimate had some uncertainty and an undisclosed margin of error.
On 13 September, an analysis of before and after synthetic - aperture radar satellite imagery of the test site was published suggesting the test occurred under 900 metres (3,000 ft) of rock and the yield "could have been in excess of 300 kilotons ''.
The Teller -- Ulam design was for many years considered one of the top nuclear secrets, and even today it is not discussed in any detail by official publications with origins "behind the fence '' of classification. United States Department of Energy (DOE) policy has been, and continues to be, that they do not acknowledge when "leaks '' occur, because doing so would acknowledge the accuracy of the supposed leaked information. Aside from images of the warhead casing, most information in the public domain about this design is relegated to a few terse statements by the DOE and the work of a few individual investigators.
In 1972 the United States government declassified a document stating "(I) n thermonuclear (TN) weapons, a fission ' primary ' is used to trigger a TN reaction in thermonuclear fuel referred to as a ' secondary ' '', and in 1979 added, "(I) n thermonuclear weapons, radiation from a fission explosive can be contained and used to transfer energy to compress and ignite a physically separate component containing thermonuclear fuel. '' To this latter sentence the US government specified that "Any elaboration of this statement will be classified. '' The only information that may pertain to the spark plug was declassified in 1991: "Fact that fissile or fissionable materials are present in some secondaries, material unidentified, location unspecified, use unspecified, and weapons undesignated. '' In 1998 the DOE declassified the statement that "The fact that materials may be present in channels and the term ' channel filler, ' with no elaboration '', which may refer to the polystyrene foam (or an analogous substance).
Whether these statements vindicate some or all of the models presented above is up for interpretation, and official U.S. government releases about the technical details of nuclear weapons have been purposely equivocating in the past (see, e.g., Smyth Report). Other information, such as the types of fuel used in some of the early weapons, has been declassified, though precise technical information has not been.
Most of the current ideas on the workings of the Teller -- Ulam design came into public awareness after the Department of Energy (DOE) attempted to censor a magazine article by U.S. antiweapons activist Howard Morland in 1979 on the "secret of the hydrogen bomb ''. In 1978, Morland had decided that discovering and exposing this "last remaining secret '' would focus attention onto the arms race and allow citizens to feel empowered to question official statements on the importance of nuclear weapons and nuclear secrecy. Most of Morland 's ideas about how the weapon worked were compiled from highly accessible sources -- the drawings that most inspired his approach came from none other than the Encyclopedia Americana. Morland also interviewed (often informally) many former Los Alamos scientists (including Teller and Ulam, though neither gave him any useful information), and used a variety of interpersonal strategies to encourage informative responses from them (i.e., asking questions such as "Do they still use spark plugs? '' even if he was not aware what the latter term specifically referred to).
Morland eventually concluded that the "secret '' was that the primary and secondary were kept separate and that radiation pressure from the primary compressed the secondary before igniting it. When an early draft of the article, to be published in The Progressive magazine, was sent to the DOE after falling into the hands of a professor who was opposed to Morland 's goal, the DOE requested that the article not be published, and pressed for a temporary injunction. The DOE argued that Morland 's information was (1) likely derived from classified sources, (2) if not derived from classified sources, itself counted as "secret '' information under the "born secret '' clause of the 1954 Atomic Energy Act, and (3) was dangerous and would encourage nuclear proliferation.
Morland and his lawyers disagreed on all points, but the injunction was granted, as the judge in the case felt that it was safer to grant the injunction and allow Morland, et al., to appeal, which they did in United States v. The Progressive (1979).
Through a variety of more complicated circumstances, the DOE case began to wane as it became clear that some of the data they were attempting to claim as "secret '' had been published in a students ' encyclopedia a few years earlier. After another H - bomb speculator, Chuck Hansen, had his own ideas about the "secret '' (quite different from Morland 's) published in a Wisconsin newspaper, the DOE claimed that The Progressive case was moot, dropped its suit, and allowed the magazine to publish its article, which it did in November 1979. Morland had by then, however, changed his opinion of how the bomb worked, suggesting that a foam medium (the polystyrene) rather than radiation pressure was used to compress the secondary, and that in the secondary there was a spark plug of fissile material as well. He published these changes, based in part on the proceedings of the appeals trial, as a short erratum in The Progressive a month later. In 1981, Morland published a book about his experience, describing in detail the train of thought that led him to his conclusions about the "secret ''.
Morland 's work is interpreted as being at least partially correct because the DOE had sought to censor it, one of the few times they violated their usual approach of not acknowledging "secret '' material that had been released; however, to what degree it lacks information, or has incorrect information, is not known with any confidence. The difficulty that a number of nations had in developing the Teller -- Ulam design (even when they apparently understood the design, such as with the United Kingdom), makes it somewhat unlikely that this simple information alone is what provides the ability to manufacture thermonuclear weapons. Nevertheless, the ideas put forward by Morland in 1979 have been the basis for all the current speculation on the Teller -- Ulam design.
Two years before his death in 1989, Andrei Sakharov 's comments at a scientists ' forum helped begin the process for the elimination of thousands of nuclear ballistic missiles from the US and Soviet arsenals. Sakharov (1921 -- 89) was recruited into the Soviet Union 's nuclear weapons program in 1948, a year after he completed his doctorate. In 1949 the US detected the first Soviet test of a fission bomb, and the two countries embarked on a desperate race to design a thermonuclear hydrogen bomb that was a thousand times more powerful. Like his US counterparts, Sakharov justified his H - bomb work by pointing to the danger of the other country 's achieving a monopoly. But also like some of the US scientists who had worked on the Manhattan Project, he felt a responsibility to inform his nation 's leadership and then the world about the dangers from nuclear weapons. Sakharov 's first attempt to influence policy was brought about by his concern about possible genetic damage from long - lived radioactive carbon - 14 created in the atmosphere from nitrogen - 14 by the enormous fluxes of neutrons released in H - bomb tests. In 1968 a friend suggested that Sakharov write an essay about the role of the intelligentsia in world affairs. Self - publishing was the method at the time for spreading unapproved manuscripts in the Soviet Union. Many readers would create multiple copies by typing with multiple sheets of paper interleaved with carbon paper. One copy of Sakharov 's essay, "Reflections on Progress, Peaceful Coexistence, and Intellectual Freedom, '' was smuggled out of the Soviet Union and published by the New York Times. More than 18 million reprints were produced during 1968 -- 69. After the essay was published, Sakharov was barred from returning to work in the nuclear weapons program and took a research position in Moscow. In 1980, after an interview with the New York Times in which he denounced the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan the government put him beyond the reach of Western media by exiling him and his wife to Gorky. In March 1985 Gorbachev became general secretary of the Soviet Communist Party. More than a year and a half later, he persuaded the Politburo, the party 's executive committee, to allow Sakharov and Bonner to return to Moscow. Sakharov was elected as an opposition member to the Soviet Congress of People 's Deputies in 1989. Later that year he had a cardiac arrhythmia and died in his apartment. He left behind a draft of a new Soviet constitution that emphasized democracy and human rights.
In his 1995 book Dark Sun: The Making of the Hydrogen Bomb, author Richard Rhodes describes in detail the internal components of the "Ivy Mike '' Sausage device, based on information obtained from extensive interviews with the scientists and engineers who assembled it. According to Rhodes, the actual mechanism for the compression of the secondary was a combination of the radiation pressure, foam plasma pressure, and tamper - pusher ablation theories described above; the radiation from the primary heated the polyethylene foam lining the casing to a plasma, which then re-radiated radiation into the secondary 's pusher, causing its surface to ablate and driving it inwards, compressing the secondary, igniting the sparkplug, and causing the fusion reaction. The general applicability of this principle is unclear.
In 1999 a reporter for the San Jose Mercury News reported that the U.S. W88 nuclear warhead, a small MIRVed warhead used on the Trident II SLBM, had a prolate (egg or watermelon shaped) primary (code - named Komodo) and a spherical secondary (code - named Cursa) inside a specially shaped radiation case (known as the "peanut '' for its shape).
The reentry cones for the W88 and W87 are the same size, 1.75 meters (69 in) long, with a maximum diameter of 55 cm. (22 in). The higher yield of the W88 implies a larger secondary, which produces most of the yield. Putting the secondary, which is heavier than the primary, in the wider part of the cone allows it to be larger, but it also moves the center of mass aft, potentially causing aerodynamic stability problems during reentry. Dead - weight ballast must be added to the nose to move the center of mass forward.
To make the primary small enough to fit into the narrow part of the cone, its bulky insensitive high explosive charges must be replaced with more compact "non-insensitive '' high explosives that are more hazardous to handle. The higher yield of the W88, which is the last new warhead produced by the United States, thus comes at a price of higher warhead weight and higher workplace hazard. The W88 also contains tritium, which has a half life of only 12.32 years and must be repeatedly replaced. If these stories are true, it would explain the reported higher yield of the W88, 475 kilotons, compared with only 300 kilotons for the earlier W87 warhead.
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who is sancho in man of la mancha | Sancho Panza - wikipedia
Man of La Mancha (play): Irving Jacobson Tony Martinez Ernie Sabella Man of La Mancha (film):
Sancho Panza (Spanish: (ˈsantʃo ˈpanθa)) is a fictional character in the novel Don Quixote written by Spanish author Don Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra in 1605. Sancho acts as squire to Don Quixote and provides comments throughout the novel, known as sanchismos, that are a combination of broad humour, ironic Spanish proverbs, and earthy wit. "Panza '' in Spanish means "belly '' (cf. English "paunch, '' Italian "pancia '', several Italian dialects "panza '', Portuguese "pança '', French "panse '').
Before a fit of madness turned Alonso Quijano into Don Quixote, Sancho Panza was indeed his servant. When the novel begins, Sancho has been married for a long time to a woman named Teresa Cascajo and has a daughter, María Sancha (also named Marisancha, Marica, María, Sancha, and Sanchica), who is said to be old enough to be married. Sancho 's wife is described more or less as a feminine version of Sancho, both in looks and behaviour. When Don Quixote proposes Sancho to be his squire, neither he nor his family strongly oppose it.
Sancho is illiterate and proud of it but by influence of his new master, he develops considerable knowledge about some books. Sancho instead provides the earthly wisdom of Spanish proverbs, surprising his master. During the travels with Don Quixote, he keeps contact with his wife by dictating letters addressed to her.
Sancho Panza offers interpolated narrative voice throughout the tale, a literary convention invented by Cervantes. Sancho Panza is precursor to "the sidekick, '' and is symbolic of practicality over idealism. Sancho is the everyman, who, though not sharing his master 's delusional "enchantment '' until late in the novel, remains his ever - faithful companion realist, and functions as the clever sidekick. Salvador de Madariaga detected that, as the book progresses, there is a "Quixotization '' of Sancho and a "Sanchification '' of Don Quixote, so much that, when the knight recovers sanity on his deathbed, it is Sancho who tries to convince him to become pastoral shepherds.
In the novel, Don Quixote comments on the historical state and condition of Aragón and Castilla, which are vying for power in Europe. Sancho Panza represents, among other things, the quintessentially Spanish brand of skepticism of the period.
Sancho obediently follows his master, despite being sometimes puzzled by Quixote 's actions. Riding a donkey, he helps Quixote get out of various conflicts while looking forward to rewards of aventura that Quixote tells him of.
Cervantes variously names Sancho in the first book Sancho Zancas (legs); however, in the second book, he standardizes Sancho 's name in reply to the "false '' Avellaneda Quixote sequel. At one point, Sancho alludes to the "false '' Avellaneda book by addressing his wife (standardized as Teresa Panza) using the wrong name. The Sancho name does not change, but he calls his wife various names throughout the first part of the volume, and her ' true ' name is not revealed until almost the end of that portion of the novel.
Don Quixote promises Sancho the governance of an ínsula, or island. However, Sancho has never heard of this word before and does not know its meaning. Sancho has long been expecting some vague but concrete reward for this adventure and believes the word to signify the prize that will make the trouble he has been enduring worthwhile.
The two later encounter a duke and duchess who pretend to make Sancho governor of a fictional fief, la ínsula Barataria (roughly "Isle Come - cheaply ''; see Cockaigne). He eagerly accepts and leaves his master. In a letter, Don Quixote gives Sancho provincial advice on governorship gleaned from the romances he has read, thought to have been inspired by the Diálogo de Mercurio y Carón attributed to Alfonso de Valdés. Quixote 's simplistic and romantic understanding of government may have been the author using the allegorical ínsula to satirize the lack of practical learning on the part of philosopher - doctors ' placed in positions of power.
The Duke 's servants are instructed to play several pranks upon Sancho. Surprisingly, Sancho is able to rule justly (mostly), applying common (if occasionally inconsistent) sense and practical wisdom in spite of, or because of simplistic advice that Don Quixote has read about. As Sancho is abused in these staged parodies, he learns how difficult it is to rule and "resigns '' to rejoin Don Quixote and continue the adventure.
Sancho encounters Ricote ("fat cat ''), his former Morisco neighbor, who has buried a small fortune. Ricote, like all Moriscos, was expelled from Spain and has returned in disguise to retrieve the treasure he left behind. He asks Sancho for his help. Sancho, while sympathetic, refuses to betray his king.
When Don Quixote takes to his deathbed, Sancho tries to cheer him. Sancho idealistically proposes they become pastoral shepherds and thus becomes ' Quixotized '.
In addition to stage and screen adaptations of the novel itself, Sancho Panza is a major character in the play within a play in the Broadway musical Man of La Mancha, and in the film of the same name. In Man of La Mancha, the newly imprisoned Cervantes recruits his fellow prisoners to portray characters from his novel, with Cervantes himself playing Don Quixote and his manservant playing Sancho. Sancho sings the title song as a duet with Quixote, solos "The Missive '', "I like him '', and "A Little Gossip '', plus ensemble numbers "Golden Helmet of Mambrino '' and "The Dubbing ''. Actors who have played Sancho in the play include Irving Jacobson (who also sang on the original cast album), Tony Martinez (1977 and 1992 revivals), and Ernie Sabella (2002 revival). James Coco played the character in the 1972 film.
Sancho Panza of Boston was an 1855 medium clipper ship of 876 tons, built in Medford, MA by Samuel Lapham, and owned by John E. Lodge & Co. The ship was renamed Nimrod in 1863, upon sale to British owners, resold to German owners, and re-rigged as a bark. Sancho Panza was bound for Liverpool, having left Pictou, N.S. on Oct. 31, 1890, but was not heard from again.
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the doobie brothers what were once vices are now habits album | What Were Once Vices are Now Habits - wikipedia
What Were Once Vices Are Now Habits is the fourth studio album by American rock band The Doobie Brothers, released in 1974.
Tom Johnston 's "Another Park, Another Sunday '' was chosen to be the album 's first single. "It 's about losing a girl, '' stated Johnston. "I wrote the chords and played it on acoustic, and then Ted (Templeman) had some ideas for it, like running the guitars through Leslie speakers. '' The song did moderately well on the charts, peaking at # 32.
The second single released was "Eyes of Silver '', another Johnston penned tune. According to him, "Wordwise, that one really is n't that spectacular. I wrote them at the last minute. '' That song did n't have much success on the charts either. Grasping for chart action, Warner Brothers re-released the band 's first single, "Nobody ''. This release was soon overshadowed when radio stations discovered "Black Water ''. Other stations joined in and the song was officially released as a single that went on to sell over a million copies and became the Doobie Brothers ' first # 1 hit. "Black Water '' had been featured as the B - side of "Another Park, Another Sunday '' eight months earlier.
The unusual lettering on the album cover was suggested by drummer John Hartman after visiting his high school alma mater, J.E.B. Stuart in Falls Church, Virginia. The School 's newspaper, Raiders Digest, had just changed its masthead to include those stylized fonts. The cover photo is by Dan Fong, their touring "Media Coordinator ''. The cover photo was taken at a live concert on December 4, 1973, at E.A. Diddle Arena, Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green, Kentucky. (Source: http://www.doobfan.com/tour/tour_dates1.htm). He also did the cover photo for their album Takin ' It to the Streets. (Source: KCFR, NPR Interview, Denver, Dec. 2, 2014)
On the back cover, the tracks were listed in alphabetical order instead.
The Doobie Brothers:
Additional Musicians:
Album
Singles
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what's the real reason for daylight savings time | Daylight saving time - wikipedia
Daylight saving time (abbreviated DST), commonly referred to as daylight savings time in speech, and known as summer time in some countries, is the practice of advancing clocks during summer months so that evening daylight lasts longer, while sacrificing normal sunrise times. Typically, regions that use daylight saving time adjust clocks forward one hour close to the start of spring and adjust them backward in the autumn to standard time.
George Hudson proposed the idea of daylight saving in 1895. The German Empire and Austria - Hungary organized the first nationwide implementation, starting on April 30, 1916. Many countries have used it at various times since then, particularly since the energy crisis of the 1970s.
DST is generally not observed near the equator, where sunrise times do not vary enough to justify it. Some countries observe it only in some regions; for example, southern Brazil observes it while equatorial Brazil does not. Only a minority of the world 's population uses DST, because Asia and Africa generally do not observe it.
DST clock shifts sometimes complicate timekeeping and can disrupt travel, billing, record keeping, medical devices, heavy equipment, and sleep patterns. Computer software often adjusts clocks automatically, but policy changes by various jurisdictions of DST dates and timings may be confusing.
Industrialized societies generally follow a clock - based schedule for daily activities that do not change throughout the course of the year. The time of day that individuals begin and end work or school, and the coordination of mass transit, for example, usually remain constant year - round. In contrast, an agrarian society 's daily routines for work and personal conduct are more likely governed by the length of daylight hours and by solar time, which change seasonally because of the Earth 's axial tilt. North and south of the tropics daylight lasts longer in summer and shorter in winter, with the effect becoming greater the further one moves away from the tropics.
By synchronously resetting all clocks in a region to one hour ahead of standard time (one hour "fast ''), individuals who follow such a year - round schedule will wake an hour earlier than they would have otherwise; they will begin and complete daily work routines an hour earlier, and they will have available to them an extra hour of daylight after their workday activities. However, they will have one fewer hour of daylight at the start of each day, making the policy less practical during winter.
While the times of sunrise and sunset change at roughly equal rates as the seasons change, proponents of Daylight Saving Time argue that most people prefer a greater increase in daylight hours after the typical "nine to five '' workday. Supporters have also argued that DST decreases energy consumption by reducing the need for lighting and heating, but the actual effect on overall energy use is heavily disputed.
The manipulation of time at higher latitudes (for example Iceland, Nunavut or Alaska) has little impact on daily life, because the length of day and night changes more extremely throughout the seasons (in comparison to other latitudes), and thus sunrise and sunset times are significantly out of phase with standard working hours regardless of manipulations of the clock. DST is also of little use for locations near the equator, because these regions see only a small variation in daylight in the course of the year. The effect also varies according to how far east or west the location is within its time zone, with locations farther east inside the time zone benefiting more from DST than locations farther west in the same time zone.
Although they did not fix their schedules to the clock in the modern sense, ancient civilizations adjusted daily schedules to the sun more flexibly than DST does, often dividing daylight into twelve hours regardless of daytime, so that each daylight hour was longer during summer. For example, the Romans kept time with water clocks that had different scales for different months of the year: at Rome 's latitude the third hour from sunrise, hora tertia, started by modern standards at 09: 02 solar time and lasted 44 minutes at the winter solstice, but at the summer solstice it started at 06: 58 and lasted 75 minutes. After ancient times, equal - length civil hours eventually supplanted unequal, so civil time no longer varies by season. Unequal hours are still used in a few traditional settings, such as some monasteries of Mount Athos and all Jewish ceremonies.
During his time as an American envoy to France, Benjamin Franklin, publisher of the old English proverb "Early to bed, and early to rise, makes a man healthy, wealthy and wise '', anonymously published a letter suggesting that Parisians economize on candles by rising earlier to use morning sunlight. This 1784 satire proposed taxing window shutters, rationing candles, and waking the public by ringing church bells and firing cannons at sunrise. Despite common misconception, Franklin did not actually propose DST; 18th - century Europe did not even keep precise schedules. However, this soon changed as rail transport and communication networks came to require a standardization of time unknown in Franklin 's day.
Modern DST was first proposed by the New Zealand entomologist George Hudson, whose shift work job gave him leisure time to collect insects and led him to value after - hours daylight. In 1895 he presented a paper to the Wellington Philosophical Society proposing a two - hour daylight - saving shift, and after considerable interest was expressed in Christchurch, he followed up in an 1898 paper. Many publications credit DST proposal to the prominent English builder and outdoorsman William Willett, who independently conceived DST in 1905 during a pre-breakfast ride, when he observed with dismay how many Londoners slept through a large part of a summer day. An avid golfer, he also disliked cutting short his round at dusk. His solution was to advance the clock during the summer months, a proposal he published two years later. The proposal was taken up by the Liberal member of parliament (MP) Robert Pearce, who introduced the first Daylight Saving Bill to the House of Commons on February 12, 1908. A select committee was set up to examine the issue, but Pearce 's bill did not become law, and several other bills failed in the following years. Willett lobbied for the proposal in the UK until his death in 1915.
William Sword Frost, mayor of Orillia, Ontario, introduced daylight saving time in the municipality during his tenure from 1911 to 1912.
Starting on April 30, 1916, the German Empire and its World War I ally Austria - Hungary were the first to use DST (German: Sommerzeit) as a way to conserve coal during wartime. Britain, most of its allies, and many European neutrals soon followed suit. Russia and a few other countries waited until the next year, and the United States adopted it in 1918.
Broadly speaking, daylight saving time was abandoned in the years after the war (with some notable exceptions including Canada, the UK, France, and Ireland). However, it was brought back for periods of time in many different places during the following decades and commonly during World War II. It became widely adopted, particularly in North America and Europe, starting in the 1970s as a result of the 1970s energy crisis.
Since then, the world has seen many enactments, adjustments, and repeals. For specific details, an overview is available at Daylight saving time by country.
In the case of the United States, where a one - hour shift occurs at 02: 00 local time, in spring the clock jumps forward from the last instant of 01: 59 standard time to 03: 00 DST and that day has 23 hours, whereas in autumn the clock jumps backward from the last instant of 01: 59 DST to 01: 00 standard time, repeating that hour, and that day has 25 hours. A digital display of local time does not read 02: 00 exactly at the shift to summer time, but instead jumps from 01: 59: 59.9 forward to 03: 00: 00.0.
Clock shifts are usually scheduled near a weekend midnight to lessen disruption to weekday schedules. A one - hour shift is customary. Twenty - minute and two - hour shifts have been used in the past.
Coordination strategies differ when adjacent time zones shift clocks. The European Union shifts all zones at the same instant, at 01: 00 Greenwich Mean Time or 02: 00 CET or 03: 00 EET. The result of this procedure is that Eastern European Time is always one hour ahead of Central European Time, at the cost of the shift happening at different local times. In contrast most of North America shifts at 02: 00 local time, so its zones do not shift at the same instant; for example, Mountain Time is temporarily (for one hour) zero hours ahead of Pacific Time, instead of one hour ahead, in the autumn and two hours, instead of one, ahead of Pacific Time in the spring. In the past, Australian districts went even further and did not always agree on start and end dates; for example, in 2008 most DST - observing areas shifted clocks forward on October 5 but Western Australia shifted on October 26. In some cases only part of a country shifts; for example, in the U.S., Hawaii and most of Arizona do not observe DST.
Start and end dates vary with location and year. Since 1996, European Summer Time has been observed from the last Sunday in March to the last Sunday in October; previously the rules were not uniform across the European Union. Starting in 2007, most of the United States and Canada observe DST from the second Sunday in March to the first Sunday in November, almost two - thirds of the year. The 2007 U.S. change was part of the Energy Policy Act of 2005; previously, from 1987 through 2006, the start and end dates were the first Sunday in April and the last Sunday in October, and Congress retains the right to go back to the previous dates now that an energy - consumption study has been done. Proponents for permanently retaining November as the month for ending DST point to Halloween as a reason to delay the change -- to provide extra daylight on October 31.
Beginning and ending dates are roughly the reverse in the southern hemisphere. For example, mainland Chile observed DST from the second Saturday in October to the second Saturday in March, with transitions at 24: 00 local time.
As a result, time difference between two regions varies along the year because of DST. Central European Time is usually six hours later than North American Eastern Time, except a few weeks in March and October / November. Likewise, the United Kingdom and mainland Chile could be five hours apart during the northern summer, three hours during the southern summer, and four hours a few weeks per year because of mismatch of changing dates.
Daylight saving has caused controversy since it began. Winston Churchill argued that it enlarges "the opportunities for the pursuit of health and happiness among the millions of people who live in this country '' and pundits have dubbed it "Daylight Slaving Time ''. Historically, retailing, sports, and tourism interests have favored daylight saving, while agricultural and evening entertainment interests have opposed it, and its initial adoption had been prompted by energy crises and war.
The fate of Willett 's 1907 proposal illustrates several political issues involved. The proposal attracted many supporters, including Arthur Balfour, Churchill, David Lloyd George, Ramsay MacDonald, Edward VII (who used half - hour DST at Sandringham or "Sandringham time ''), the managing director of Harrods, and the manager of the National Bank. However, the opposition was stronger: it included Prime Minister H.H. Asquith, Christie (the Astronomer Royal), George Darwin, Napier Shaw (director of the Meteorological Office), many agricultural organizations, and theatre owners. After many hearings the proposal was narrowly defeated in a parliamentary committee vote in 1909. Willett 's allies introduced similar bills every year from 1911 through 1914, to no avail. The U.S. was even more skeptical: Andrew Peters introduced a DST bill to the United States House of Representatives in May 1909, but it soon died in committee.
After Germany led the way with starting DST (German: Sommerzeit) during World War I on April 30, 1916 together with its allies to alleviate hardships from wartime coal shortages and air raid blackouts, the political equation changed in other countries; the United Kingdom used DST first on May 21, 1916. U.S. retailing and manufacturing interests led by Pittsburgh industrialist Robert Garland soon began lobbying for DST, but were opposed by railroads. The U.S. 's 1917 entry to the war overcame objections, and DST was established in 1918.
The war 's end swung the pendulum back. Farmers continued to dislike DST, and many countries repealed it after the war. Britain was an exception: it retained DST nationwide but over the years adjusted transition dates for several reasons, including special rules during the 1920s and 1930s to avoid clock shifts on Easter mornings. Now under a European Community directive summer time begins annually on the last Sunday in March, which may be Easter Sunday (as in 2016). The U.S. was more typical: Congress repealed DST after 1919. President Woodrow Wilson, like Willett an avid golfer, vetoed the repeal twice but his second veto was overridden. Only a few U.S. cities retained DST locally thereafter, including New York so that its financial exchanges could maintain an hour of arbitrage trading with London, and Chicago and Cleveland to keep pace with New York. Wilson 's successor Warren G. Harding opposed DST as a "deception ''. Reasoning that people should instead get up and go to work earlier in the summer, he ordered District of Columbia federal employees to start work at 08: 00 rather than 09: 00 during summer 1922. Some businesses followed suit though many others did not; the experiment was not repeated.
Since Germany 's adoption in 1916, the world has seen many enactments, adjustments, and repeals of DST, with similar politics involved.
The history of time in the United States includes DST during both world wars, but no standardization of peacetime DST until 1966. In May 1965, for two weeks, St. Paul, Minnesota and Minneapolis, Minnesota were on different times, when the capital city decided to join most of the nation by starting Daylight Saving Time while Minneapolis opted to follow the later date set by state law. In the mid-1980s, Clorox (parent of Kingsford Charcoal) and 7 - Eleven provided the primary funding for the Daylight Saving Time Coalition behind the 1987 extension to U.S. DST, and both Idaho senators voted for it based on the premise that during DST fast - food restaurants sell more French fries, which are made from Idaho potatoes.
In 1992, after a three - year trial of daylight saving in Queensland, Australia, a referendum on daylight saving was held and defeated with a 54.5 % ' no ' vote -- with regional and rural areas strongly opposed, while those in the metropolitan south - east were in favor. In 2005, the Sporting Goods Manufacturers Association and the National Association of Convenience Stores successfully lobbied for the 2007 extension to U.S. DST. In December 2008, the Daylight Saving for South East Queensland (DS4SEQ) political party was officially registered in Queensland, advocating the implementation of a dual - time zone arrangement for daylight saving in South East Queensland while the rest of the state maintains standard time. DS4SEQ contested the March 2009 Queensland state election with 32 candidates and received one percent of the statewide primary vote, equating to around 2.5 % across the 32 electorates contested. After a three - year trial, more than 55 % of Western Australians voted against DST in 2009, with rural areas strongly opposed. On April 14, 2010, after being approached by the DS4SEQ political party, Queensland Independent member Peter Wellington, introduced the Daylight Saving for South East Queensland Referendum Bill 2010 into the Queensland parliament, calling for a referendum at the next state election on the introduction of daylight saving into South East Queensland under a dual - time zone arrangement. The Bill was defeated in the Queensland parliament on June 15, 2011.
In the UK the Royal Society for the Prevention of Accidents supports a proposal to observe SDST 's additional hour year - round, but is opposed in some industries, such as postal workers and farmers, and particularly by those living in the northern regions of the UK.
In some Muslim countries, DST is temporarily abandoned during Ramadan (the month when no food should be eaten between sunrise and sunset), since the DST would delay the evening dinner. Ramadan took place in July and August in 2012. This concerns at least Morocco, although Iran keeps DST during Ramadan. Most Muslim countries do not use DST, partially for this reason.
The 2011 declaration by Russia that it would stay in DST all year long was subsequently followed by a similar declaration from Belarus. Russia 's plan generated widespread complaints due to the dark of wintertime morning, and thus was abandoned in 2014. The country changed its clocks to Standard Time on October 26, 2014 and intends to stay there permanently.
Proponents of DST generally argue that it saves energy, promotes outdoor leisure activity in the evening (in summer), and is therefore good for physical and psychological health, reduces traffic accidents, reduces crime or is good for business. Groups that tend to support DST are urban workers, retail businesses, outdoor sports enthusiasts and businesses, tourism operators, and others who benefit from increased light during the evening in summer.
Opponents argue that actual energy savings are inconclusive, that DST increases health risks such as heart attack, that DST can disrupt morning activities, and that the act of changing clocks twice a year is economically and socially disruptive and cancels out any benefit. Farmers have tended to oppose DST.
Common agreement about the day 's layout or schedule confers so many advantages that a standard DST schedule has generally been chosen over ad hoc efforts to get up earlier. The advantages of coordination are so great that many people ignore whether DST is in effect by altering their nominal work schedules to coordinate with television broadcasts or daylight. DST is commonly not observed during most of winter, because its mornings are darker; workers may have no sunlit leisure time, and children may need to leave for school in the dark. Since DST is applied to many varying communities, its effects may be very different depending on their culture, light levels, geography, and climate; that is why it is hard to make generalized conclusions about the absolute effects of the practice. Some areas may adopt DST simply as a matter of coordination with others rather than for any direct benefits.
The period of Daylight Saving Time before the longest day is shorter than the period after, in several countries including the United States and Europe. This unequal split is an energy saving measure. For example, in the U.S. the period of Daylight Saving Time is defined by the Energy Policy Act of 2005. The period for Daylight Saving Time was extended by changing the start date from the first Sunday of April to the second Sunday of March, and the end date from the last Sunday in October to the first Sunday in November.
DST 's potential to save energy comes primarily from its effects on residential lighting, which consumes about 3.5 % of electricity in the United States and Canada. Delaying the nominal time of sunset and sunrise reduces the use of artificial light in the evening and increases it in the morning. As Franklin 's 1784 satire pointed out, lighting costs are reduced if the evening reduction outweighs the morning increase, as in high - latitude summer when most people wake up well after sunrise. An early goal of DST was to reduce evening usage of incandescent lighting, once a primary use of electricity. Although energy conservation remains an important goal, energy usage patterns have greatly changed since then, and recent research is limited and reports contradictory results. Electricity use is greatly affected by geography, climate, and economics, making it hard to generalize from single studies.
Several studies have suggested that DST increases motor fuel consumption. The 2008 DOE report found no significant increase in motor gasoline consumption due to the 2007 United States extension of DST.
A 2018 meta - analysis of 44 studies found that DST leads to electricity savings of 0.34 % during the days when DST applies. The meta - analysis furthermore found that "electricity savings are larger for countries farther away from the equator, while subtropical regions consume more electricity because of DST. ''
Retailers, sporting goods makers, and other businesses benefit from extra afternoon sunlight, as it induces customers to shop and to participate in outdoor afternoon sports. In 1984, Fortune magazine estimated that a seven - week extension of DST would yield an additional $30 million for 7 - Eleven stores, and the National Golf Foundation estimated the extension would increase golf industry revenues $200 million to $300 million. A 1999 study estimated that DST increases the revenue of the European Union 's leisure sector by about 3 %.
Conversely, DST can adversely affect farmers, parents of young children, and others whose hours are set by the sun and they have traditionally opposed the practice, although some farmers are neutral. One reason why farmers oppose DST is that grain is best harvested after dew evaporates, so when field hands arrive and leave earlier in summer their labor is less valuable. Dairy farmers are another group who complain of the change. Their cows are sensitive to the timing of milking, so delivering milk earlier disrupts their systems. Today some farmers ' groups are in favor of DST.
DST also hurts prime - time television broadcast ratings, drive - ins and other theaters.
Changing clocks and DST rules has a direct economic cost, entailing extra work to support remote meetings, computer applications and the like. For example, a 2007 North American rule change cost an estimated $500 million to $1 billion, and Utah State University economist William F. Shughart II has estimated the lost opportunity cost at around US $1.7 billion. Although it has been argued that clock shifts correlate with decreased economic efficiency, and that in 2000 the daylight - saving effect implied an estimated one - day loss of $31 billion on U.S. stock exchanges, the estimated numbers depend on the methodology. The results have been disputed, and the original authors have refuted the points raised by disputers.
In 1975 the U.S. DOT conservatively identified a 0.7 % reduction in traffic fatalities during DST, and estimated the real reduction at 1.5 % to 2 %, but the 1976 NBS review of the DOT study found no differences in traffic fatalities. In 1995 the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety estimated a reduction of 1.2 %, including a 5 % reduction in crashes fatal to pedestrians. Others have found similar reductions. Single / Double Summer Time (SDST), a variant where clocks are one hour ahead of the sun in winter and two in summer, has been projected to reduce traffic fatalities by 3 % to 4 % in the UK, compared to ordinary DST. However, accidents do increase by as much as 11 % during the two weeks that follow the end of British Summer Time. It is not clear whether sleep disruption contributes to fatal accidents immediately after the spring clock shifts. A correlation between clock shifts and traffic accidents has been observed in North America and the UK but not in Finland or Sweden. If this effect exists, it is far smaller than the overall reduction in traffic fatalities. A 2009 U.S. study found that on Mondays after the switch to DST, workers sleep an average of 40 minutes less, and are injured at work more often and more severely.
In the 1970s the U.S. Law Enforcement Assistance Administration (LEAA) found a reduction of 10 % to 13 % in Washington, D.C. 's violent crime rate during DST. However, the LEAA did not filter out other factors, and it examined only two cities and found crime reductions only in one and only in some crime categories; the DOT decided it was "impossible to conclude with any confidence that comparable benefits would be found nationwide ''. Outdoor lighting has a marginal and sometimes even contradictory influence on crime and fear of crime.
In several countries, fire safety officials encourage citizens to use the two annual clock shifts as reminders to replace batteries in smoke and carbon monoxide detectors, particularly in autumn, just before the heating and candle season causes an increase in home fires. Similar twice - yearly tasks include reviewing and practicing fire escape and family disaster plans, inspecting vehicle lights, checking storage areas for hazardous materials, reprogramming thermostats, and seasonal vaccinations. Locations without DST can instead use the first days of spring and autumn as reminders.
A 2017 study in the American Economic Journal: Applied Economics estimated that "the transition into DST caused over 30 deaths at a social cost of $275 million annually, '' primarily by increasing sleep deprivation.
DST has mixed effects on health. In societies with fixed work schedules it provides more afternoon sunlight for outdoor exercise. It alters sunlight exposure; whether this is beneficial depends on one 's location and daily schedule, as sunlight triggers vitamin D synthesis in the skin, but overexposure can lead to skin cancer. DST may help in depression by causing individuals to rise earlier, but some argue the reverse. The Retinitis Pigmentosa Foundation Fighting Blindness, chaired by blind sports magnate Gordon Gund, successfully lobbied in 1985 and 2005 for U.S. DST extensions. DST shifts are associated with higher rates of ischemic stroke in the first two days after the shift, though not in the week thereafter.
Clock shifts were found to increase the risk of heart attack by 10 percent, and to disrupt sleep and reduce its efficiency. Effects on seasonal adaptation of the circadian rhythm can be severe and last for weeks. A 2008 study found that although male suicide rates rise in the weeks after the spring transition, the relationship weakened greatly after adjusting for season. A 2008 Swedish study found that heart attacks were significantly more common the first three weekdays after the spring transition, and significantly less common the first weekday after the autumn transition. A 2013 review found little evidence that people slept more on the night after the fall DST shift, even though it is often described as allowing people to sleep for an hour longer than normal. The same review stated that the lost hour of sleep resulting from the spring shift appears to result in sleep loss for at least a week afterward. In 2015, two psychologists recommended that DST be abolished, citing its disruptive effects on sleep as one reason for this recommendation.
The government of Kazakhstan cited health complications due to clock shifts as a reason for abolishing DST in 2005. In March 2011, Dmitri Medvedev, president of Russia, claimed that "stress of changing clocks '' was the motivation for Russia to stay in DST all year long. Officials at the time talked about an annual increase in suicides.
An unexpected adverse effect of daylight saving time may lie in the fact that an extra part of morning rush hour traffic occurs before dawn and traffic emissions then cause higher air pollution than during daylight hours.
In 2017, researchers at the University of Washington and the University of Virginia reported that judges who experienced sleep deprivation as a result of DST tended to issue longer sentences.
DST 's clock shifts have the obvious disadvantage of complexity. People must remember to change their clocks; this can be time - consuming, particularly for mechanical clocks that can not be moved backward safely. People who work across time zone boundaries need to keep track of multiple DST rules, as not all locations observe DST or observe it the same way. The length of the calendar day becomes variable; it is no longer always 24 hours. Disruption to meetings, travel, broadcasts, billing systems, and records management is common, and can be expensive. During an autumn transition from 02: 00 to 01: 00, a clock reads times from 01: 00: 00 through 01: 59: 59 twice, possibly leading to confusion.
Damage to a German steel facility occurred during a DST transition in 1993, when a computer timing system linked to a radio time synchronization signal allowed molten steel to cool for one hour less than the required duration, resulting in spattering of molten steel when it was poured. Medical devices may generate adverse events that could harm patients, without being obvious to clinicians responsible for care. These problems are compounded when the DST rules themselves change; software developers must test and perhaps modify many programs, and users must install updates and restart applications. Consumers must update devices such as programmable thermostats with the correct DST rules or manually adjust the devices ' clocks. A common strategy to resolve these problems in computer systems is to express time using the Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) rather than the local time zone. For example, Unix - based computer systems use the UTC - based Unix time internally.
Some clock - shift problems could be avoided by adjusting clocks continuously or at least more gradually -- for example, Willett at first suggested weekly 20 - minute transitions -- but this would add complexity and has never been implemented.
DST inherits and can magnify the disadvantages of standard time. For example, when reading a sundial, one must compensate for it along with time zone and natural discrepancies. Also, sun - exposure guidelines such as avoiding the sun within two hours of noon become less accurate when DST is in effect.
As explained by Richard Meade in the English Journal of the (American) National Council of Teachers of English, the form daylight savings time (with an "s '') was already in 1978 much more common than the older form daylight saving time in American English ("the change has been virtually accomplished ''). Nevertheless even dictionaries such as Merriam - Webster 's, American Heritage, and Oxford, which describe actual usage instead of prescribing outdated usage (and therefore also list the newer form), still list the older form first. This is because the older form is still very common in print and preferred by many editors. ("Although daylight saving time is considered correct, daylight savings time (with an "s '') is commonly used. ") The first two words are sometimes hyphenated (daylight - saving (s) time). Merriam - Webster 's also lists the forms daylight saving (without "time ''), daylight savings (without "time ''), and daylight time.
In Britain, Willett 's 1907 proposal used the term daylight saving, but by 1911 the term summer time replaced daylight saving time in draft legislation. The same or similar expressions are used in many other languages: Sommerzeit in German, zomertijd in Dutch, kesäaika in Finnish, horario de verano or hora de verano in Spanish, heure d'été in French, and hora de verão in Portuguese. In Italy the term is ora legale, "legal time '' (legally enforced time), as opposed to "ora solare '', "solar time '', in winter.
The name of local time typically changes when DST is observed. American English replaces standard with daylight: for example, Pacific Standard Time (PST) becomes Pacific Daylight Time (PDT). In the United Kingdom, the standard term for UK time when advanced by one hour is British Summer Time (BST), and British English typically inserts summer into other time zone names, e.g. Central European Time (CET) becomes Central European Summer Time (CEST).
The North American English mnemonic "spring forward, fall back '' (also "spring ahead... '', "spring up... '', and "... fall behind '') helps people remember which direction to shift clocks.
Changes to DST rules cause problems in existing computer installations. For example, the 2007 change to DST rules in North America required that many computer systems be upgraded, with the greatest impact on e-mail and calendar programs. The upgrades required a significant effort by corporate information technologists.
Some applications standardize on UTC to avoid problems with clock shifts and time zone differences. Likewise, most modern operating systems internally handle and store all times as UTC and only convert to local time for display.
However, even if UTC is used internally, the systems still require external leap second updates and time zone information to correctly calculate local time as needed. Many systems in use today base their date / time calculations from data derived from the IANA time zone database also known as zoneinfo.
The IANA time zone database maps a name to the named location 's historical and predicted clock shifts. This database is used by many computer software systems, including most Unix - like operating systems, Java, and the Oracle RDBMS; HP 's "tztab '' database is similar but incompatible. When temporal authorities change DST rules, zoneinfo updates are installed as part of ordinary system maintenance. In Unix - like systems the TZ environment variable specifies the location name, as in TZ = ': America / New_York '. In many of those systems there is also a system - wide setting that is applied if the TZ environment variable is not set: this setting is controlled by the contents of the / etc / localtime file, which is usually a symbolic link or hard link to one of the zoneinfo files. Internal time is stored in timezone - independent epoch time; the TZ is used by each of potentially many simultaneous users and processes to independently localize time display.
Older or stripped - down systems may support only the TZ values required by POSIX, which specify at most one start and end rule explicitly in the value. For example, TZ = ' EST5EDT, M3. 2.0 / 02: 00, M11. 1.0 / 02: 00 ' specifies time for the eastern United States starting in 2007. Such a TZ value must be changed whenever DST rules change, and the new value applies to all years, mishandling some older timestamps.
As with zoneinfo, a user of Microsoft Windows configures DST by specifying the name of a location, and the operating system then consults a table of rule sets that must be updated when DST rules change. Procedures for specifying the name and updating the table vary with release. Updates are not issued for older versions of Microsoft Windows. Windows Vista supports at most two start and end rules per time zone setting. In a Canadian location observing DST, a single Vista setting supports both 1987 -- 2006 and post-2006 time stamps, but mishandles some older time stamps. Older Microsoft Windows systems usually store only a single start and end rule for each zone, so that the same Canadian setting reliably supports only post-2006 time stamps.
These limitations have caused problems. For example, before 2005, DST in Israel varied each year and was skipped some years. Windows 95 used rules correct for 1995 only, causing problems in later years. In Windows 98, Microsoft marked Israel as not having DST, forcing Israeli users to shift their computer clocks manually twice a year. The 2005 Israeli Daylight Saving Law established predictable rules using the Jewish calendar but Windows zone files could not represent the rules ' dates in a year - independent way. Partial workarounds, which mishandled older time stamps, included manually switching zone files every year and a Microsoft tool that switches zones automatically. In 2013, Israel standardized its daylight saving time according to the Gregorian calendar.
Microsoft Windows keeps the system real - time clock in local time. This causes several problems, including compatibility when multi booting with operating systems that set the clock to UTC, and double - adjusting the clock when multi booting different Windows versions, such as with a rescue boot disk. This approach is a problem even in Windows - only systems: there is no support for per - user timezone settings, only a single system - wide setting. In 2008 Microsoft hinted that future versions of Windows will partially support a Windows registry entry RealTimeIsUniversal that had been introduced many years earlier, when Windows NT supported RISC machines with UTC clocks, but had not been maintained. Since then at least two fixes related to this feature have been published by Microsoft.
The NTFS file system used by recent versions of Windows stores the file with a UTC time stamp, but displays it corrected to local -- or seasonal -- time. However, the FAT filesystem commonly used on removable devices stores only the local time. Consequently, when a file is copied from the hard disk onto separate media, its time will be set to the current local time. If the time adjustment is changed, the timestamps of the original file and the copy will be different. The same effect can be observed when compressing and uncompressing files with some file archivers. It is the NTFS file that changes seen time. This effect should be kept in mind when trying to determine if a file is a duplicate of another, although there are other methods of comparing files for equality (such as using a checksum algorithm).
A move to "permanent daylight saving time '' (staying on summer hours all year with no time shifts) is sometimes advocated, and has in fact been implemented in some jurisdictions such as Argentina, Chile, Iceland, Singapore, Uzbekistan, Belarus and Turkey. It could be a result of following the timezone of a neighbouring region, political will or other causes. Advocates cite the same advantages as normal DST without the problems associated with the twice yearly time shifts. However, many remain unconvinced of the benefits, citing the same problems and the relatively late sunrises, particularly in winter, that year - round DST entails.
Russia switched to permanent DST from 2011 to 2014, but the move proved unpopular because of the late sunrises in winter, so the country switched permanently back to "standard '' or "winter '' time in 2014. The United Kingdom also experimented with year - round summer time between 1968 and 1971, and put clocks forward by an extra hour during World War II.
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is it illegal to drink alcohol in public uk | Drinking in public - wikipedia
Social customs and laws on drinking alcohol in public vary significantly around the world. "Public '' in this context refers to outdoor spaces such as roads, walkways or parks, or in a moving vehicle. Drinking in bars, restaurants or stadiums, for example, is not generally considered to be "in public '' even though those establishments are open to the general public. In some countries, such as India, the United States and in larger regions, such as the Muslim world, public drinking is almost universally condemned or outlawed, while in other countries, such as Portugal, Spain, Germany, New Zealand, Japan and China, public drinking and public intoxication is socially acceptable, although may not be entirely legal.
Opponents of drinking in public argue that it encourages overconsumption of alcohol and binge drinking, rowdiness and violence, and propose that people should instead drink at private businesses such as public houses, bars or clubs, where a bartender may prevent overconsumption and where rowdiness can be better controlled by the fact that one is sitting down and security or bouncers may be present. Alternatively, adults may drink at home.
Proponents of drinking in public argue that it does not itself cause problems and rather that it is social problems that cause overconsumption and violence, pointing to countries that allow drinking in public but have low levels of associated overconsumption and violence. Proponents further argue that drinking in public helps normalize attitudes towards drinking and build a healthier drinking culture. Many argue that it is a right to drink in public.
Although details and penalties vary from state to state, drinking in public places directly outside licensed premises (and also in council - designated no alcohol zones) is illegal. Generally, possession of an open container of alcohol is sufficient proof of public drinking.
In New South Wales, drinking in public is legal unless an area is declared to be an alcohol - free zone. All of the New South Wales state 's 152 Local Government Council City / Shire Council Rangers and Authorised Staff are allowed to use their discretion to tip out and confiscate open containers in public streets in officially designated alcohol free zones within their own Council boundary; but not arrest nor issue Fines / Infringements for this purpose, leading many to turn a ' blind eye ' to these infractions to avoid conflict and fights.
In Austria, the possession of open containers of alcohol is legal all throughout the country by people of the legal drinking age depending on which kind of beverage it is. The legal drinking age is 16 years for beer and 18 for distilled spirits.
Some cities, like Graz in Styria or Klagenfurt in Carinthia, limit public consumption of alcohol in specific areas.
Having an open container is legal in Brazil. Drinking publicly is legal and socially accepted. However DUI laws have been enforced for the past 10 years and offenders may be arrested and lose their license. Being intoxicated in public is not an offense, and unless people were disturbed, the individual ca n't be arrested. However it 's common practice law officers conduct intoxicated individuals to a police station or take them home to avoid any further problem caused by the individual.
In Canada, with the exception of Quebec, possession of open containers of alcohol in public is generally a violation of provincial acts and municipal bylaws. Open liquor is not permitted except in private residences or on licensed premises. Open liquor is also illegal in parts of national and provincial parks, though this prohibition may not apply to campsites, as it is a temporary residence. For instance, Ontario Provincial Parks allow alcohol on campsites only.
In British Columbia and in Ontario, the penalty for possession of an open container or consumption of liquor in a public place is a fine (as per the Liquor Licence Act, ssec 31 (2)). Those caught by law enforcement officers are forced to pour out the alcoholic beverage, after which offenders are sometimes issued a verbal warning instead of a monetary penalty.
In Quebec, laws on the consumption of alcohol in public are more relaxed than in the rest of Canada. Most notably, alcohol may be consumed in public parks during a meal.
Drinking in public is illegal in Chile, though it is tolerated during New Year 's Eve.
Drinking in public is most commonly accepted.
Public consumption of alcohol beverages is accepted and legal.
In the Czech Republic, drinking in public is generally legal, but each community is entitled to restrict public drinking by ordinance. As a result of this some towns and cities, have forbidden drinking in public in order to prevent people from disorderly conduct and begging.
Drinking in public in Denmark is legal for people of all ages. It is, however, illegal to sell alcohol to a person under the age of 16, and spirit - grade (> 16.4 Vol %) alcohol to a person under the age of 18.
Many cities (Aarhus, for instance) have, however, established non-drinking - zones, typically pedestrian streets. The law forbids "disturbing of the public law and order ''. Thus general consumption is accepted. Several cafes have outdoor serving in the same zones.
In Finland, drinking in public is prohibited in built areas ("taajama ''), at border crossings, or in vehicles in use for public transport such as buses or trams. The law does not apply to restaurants, pubs and other licensed premises, or to the interior of vehicles such as taxis or limousines that are in private use. Public parks or equivalent venues are also exempt, as long as the consumption of alcohol does not cause undue public disturbance. While drinking on streets and public transport is technically illegal, in practice the authorities intervene only if a disturbance is being caused. Drinking in trains and buses is more strictly forbidden, while drinking on streets is socially accepted.
The definition of a built area depends on the definition of a locality, or "taajama '' in Finnish, which is a cluster of buildings with no less than 200 inhabitants, where the buildings are no more than 200 meters apart. This means that some areas within towns and cities may not fill the definition, making it legal to drink alcohol in public there, while some areas outside of towns and cities may have high enough population densities to be considered localities, therefore making public drinking illegal. Entering or leaving localities is marked by road signs along the major thoroughfares.
Public drinking in France is legal. Although it is illegal to sell alcohol to minors (under 18) it is not illegal for minors to consume alcohol in public. However local laws may ban public drinking or the purchase of alcohol in certain areas or at certain times.
The possession of open containers of alcohol and drinking in public (street, park etc.) is legal for people of the legal drinking age (16 for beer and wine; 18 for distilled spirits). Many cities forbid or restrict the consumption of alcohol in public transit or inside train stations. For example, the city of Hamburg made drinking on public trains and buses illegal in 2011. Deutsche Bahn forbids "excessive '' consumption of alcohol in Berlin S - Bahn stations; violations are considered a civil and not criminal matter. Similarly, BVG excludes intoxicated passengers only if they threaten operational order or safety. The Deutsche Bahn does not forbid consumption of alcohol in regional or InterCity trains.
In Hong Kong, drinking alcoholic beverages in public is legal for adults over the age of 18.
In Hungary, drinking alcohol in public is not generally illegal but some settlement has local law to ban it and it is subject to a fine, whose amount starts at about 5000Ft.
Alcohol traditionally was generally frowned upon in India by all religious entities. Drinking in public is quite unusual on the streets but on the contrary quite usual in some areas with a bar or wine store. There could be several people drinking in one corner on the street, but one may not openly carry and consume a bottle of alcohol on the streets.
The Republic of Ireland has no laws against public drinking, except that alcohol in a closed container can not be consumed within 100 m (330 ft) of the off license where it was purchased. Some towns and cities have by - laws forbidding public drinking.
The sale of alcohol in stores or off - license is illegal between the hours of 10: 00 PM and 10: 00 AM with the exception of Sunday morning, when the sale of alcohol is forbidden until 12: 00 PM. The sale of alcohol in bars and pubs is prohibited after 3: 00 AM and before 10: 00 AM, with the exception of those with special licenses, which is rare. These bars are known locally as "early houses ''. The law prohibiting the sale of alcohol on Good Friday was changed in 2018, much like the prohibition of alcohol sales on Saint Patricks ' Day being lifted in the 1970s.
Hotels, airports and trains are exceptions to all of the above, and the sale of alcohol is legal all year round.
Under the Criminal Justice (Public Order) Act 1994, it is an offence for a person to be so drunk in a public place as to be a danger to oneself or others; to do so could lead to drink being confiscated by Gardaí (police) and a Class E fine (up to € 500).
Japan has no laws forbidding public drinking, which is a common custom in cities and parks, particularly during local festivals (matsuri) and cherry blossom viewing (hanami) in spring. The legal drinking age in Japan is 20 years of age.
There is no open container law in Laos. The legal age for drinking in public in Laos is 18, there is no age restriction on private residences.
In New Zealand, public drinking is legal, although local authorities have power to pass bylaws declaring liquor - free zones, where liquor may be consumed on licensed premises and private property but not on the street or other public areas. Many towns now have such zones, usually covering their Central Business District. Consuming alcohol while driving a motor vehicle is legal, as long as the driver is not over the driver blood alcohol limit, and the alcohol is not consumed in a liquor - free zone. Similarly, passengers of motor vehicles are allowed to consume alcohol as long as they are not in a liquor - free zone. Sale of alcohol to intoxicated persons is illegal. Under the Summary Offences Act 1981 it is an offence to drink alcohol in public transport, aeroplanes and taxis unless the vehicle is a licensed premises. Most commercial flights as well as many ferries and trains serve alcohol on board.
Drinking in public is illegal in Norway and subject to fines. In many cities the police will primarily react if the use of alcohol is causing trouble and drinking in parks is quite common. Most officers will ask the drinker to empty the bottle without further reactions.
In Poland, drinking is illegal on streets, squares, in parks, on public transport, as well as other areas designated by municipal authorities, with fines starting at PLN 100. This does not apply to private parks.
According to the article 20.20 of the Offences Code of Russia, drinking in a place where it is forbidden by the federal law is punishable with a fine of 500 to 1500 rubles. The article 16 of the Federal Law # 171 - FZ "About the State Regulation of Production and Trade of Ethanol, Alcoholic and Ethanol - containing Products and about Restriction of Alcoholic Products Consumption (Drinking) '' forbids drinking in almost all public places (including entrance halls, staircases and elevators of living buildings) except bars, restaurants or other similar establishments where it is permitted to sell alcoholic products for immediate consumption.
Drinking in public is legal in Singapore, however, consumption of alcohol in a public space or non-licensed premise is restricted from 10.30 pm to 7am after the 2013 Little India riot. Sales are prohibited from supermarkets and convenience stores such as NTUC FairPrice, Giant Hypermarket, Sheng Siong, Cold Storage and 7 - Eleven from 10.30 pm to 7am.
The condition of carriage of alcohol is prohibited even between 10.30 pm and 7am on SMRT Trains and SBS Transit services.
In general, drinking in public is illegal if the drinker harms others while drinking in public. Harm is defined as using harsh language or stirring up loud noise while drinking or exercising bad drinking habits on others for no reason. Anyone reported or caught by city officials to be causing harm to others while drinking in public will be fined 100,000 won.
Since 2009, stricter laws are in force in some parts of the country that started with Seoul 's Dongjak District, which designates city parks and bus stops as no drinking areas and any drinkers caught in these areas will be advised to stop drinking by city officials.
Public drinking is only prohibited in some cities or parts of cities, regulated by local laws like in Barcelona.
The practice of botellón is relatively popular among teenagers and young adults partly in response to rising drink prices at bars or clubs, and partly because more people can meet in one place.
Public drinking is regulated by municipalities in local ordinance, setting up zones where consumption of beverages containing more than 2.25 % ABV is prohibited. These zones are usually located in city centres, around schools, churches and parks. Drinking in these zones usually result in the police confiscating any opened containers or a fine. If the person in question is also under 20 years of age, the police may confiscate all alcohol he or she is carrying. Only public spaces within these zones are regulated, excluding venues licensed to serve alcohol, and for example cars parked in the zone.
Public drinking in Switzerland is legal for everybody. Although Switzerland has a legal purchase age of 16 for beer and wine, and 18 for spirits (18 for both in Ticino), it is not illegal for a minor to consume alcohol in public by federal laws. But the cantons Aargau, Zürich, Solothurn and Bern have laws which make it illegal to give alcohol to minors under the federal purchase age laws (exceptions are made for parents).
Furthermore, cantonal laws prohibit the consumption and / or sale of alcohol at the following public places:
Drinking in public is legal in England and Wales -- one may carry a drink from a public house down the street (though it is preferred that the user requests a plastic glass to avoid danger of breakage and because the taking of the glass could be considered an offence of Theft as only the drink has been purchased), and one may purchase alcohol at an off - licence and immediately begin drinking it outside. Separately, one may drink on aeroplanes and on most National Rail train services, either purchasing alcohol on - board or consuming one 's own.
In certain public places, it may be "required '' (requested) of a person to stop drinking. It is not illegal to drink in these areas, contrary to popular misconception, but, in these areas, if requested by police to stop drinking, the individual must (may) then stop drinking and surrender the alcohol, both open and closed containers. It should be noted that Police Officers can only request that alcohol is surrendered if the drinkers are acting antisocially or they have good reason to believe they are going to do so. These are formally known as Designated Public Places Orders (DPPOs), and were allowed by The Criminal Justice and Police Act 2001 (CJPA); they are more popularly known as ' Controlled Drinking Zones ' (CDZs).
Following the election of Boris Johnson as mayor of London, the conditions of carriage on most modes of London public transportation (specifically those under the management of Transport for London - London Buses, London Underground, London Overground, Docklands Light Railway, Tramlink and more recently, the Emirates Air Line and TfL Rail) were updated to ban the carrying of open alcohol containers and the consumption of alcohol. This does not apply to non-Transport for London commuter services, including National Rail and Thames Clippers. This was supported by those who felt it would decrease antisocial behaviour, but opposed by those who argued that alcohol relieved the discomfort of a commute. The end of drinking on public transport was marked by some festivities.
The majority of Belfast is designated an alcohol - free area, with fines of up to £ 500. Under the Criminal Justice (Northern Ireland) Order 1980, it is an offence to be drunk in a public place. Furthermore, under The Justice Act (NI) 2011, police can issue a fixed penalty notice to those over the age of 18 found intoxicated in a public place. On the 12th of July public holiday this law is relaxed, unless anti-social behaviour is undertaken.
The City of Edinburgh allows the consumption of alcohol in public places but under the Edinburgh by - law, anyone drinking in public would have to stop if asked by police. In the Strathclyde region that includes Glasgow, the consumption of alcohol or possession of an open container of alcohol, in public places has been illegal since 1996. Breaking this law can mean a fine. This ban was enforced due to the increase in drink - related violent crime. In the Perth & Kinross local authority the consumption of alcohol in public places is illegal in the following places: Alyth, Crieff, Kinross, Scone, Aberfeldy, Blairgowrie, Dunkeld & Birnam, Milnathort, Coupar Angus, Errol, Perth City. Drinking publicly in these areas is chargeable offence. In St Andrews in Fife it is illegal to drink or even have an open drinks container on the street. On the spot fines can be handed out by the police. It is however legal to consume alcohol on any of the beaches in St Andrews.
In the UAE, it is against the law to be intoxicated and disorderly conduct can lead to arrest by police. Furthermore in Islam Muslims are not allowed to consume alcohol. Drunk driving is also banned, with severe penalties, including time in jail and demerit points added to the offenders ' record.
Drinking in public is illegal in many jurisdictions in the United States, with this ban usually extending to include drinking within a moving car (related to drunk driving laws).
Laws against drinking in public are known as open container laws, as the presence of an open container of alcohol is seen as evidence of drinking in public and is far easier to witness and prove than the act of drinking.
In some places and circumstances, public alcohol consumption is accepted. This includes such cities as New Orleans, Las Vegas, Indianapolis, certain college campuses, and around sporting events -- notably at a tailgate party. Open containers of alcohol are often concealed in public, traditionally inside a brown paper bag, though this does not make them legal in jurisdictions where they are outlawed. If a law enforcement officer can detect that alcohol is being consumed, the violator may be cited or arrested.
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who played an important role in america and french revolution | France in the American Revolutionary war - wikipedia
France allied with the United States during the American Revolutionary War (American War of Independence 1775 -- 1783) in 1778, declared war on Great Britain, and sent its armies and navy to fight Britain while providing money and matériel to arm the new republic. French intervention made a decisive contribution to the U.S. victory in the war. Motivated by a long - term rivalry with Britain and by revenge for its territorial losses during the French and Indian War, France began secretly sending supplies in 1775. Spain and the Netherlands joined France, making it a global war in which the British had no major allies. France incurred a debt of over 1 billion livres.
After its defeat in the Seven Years ' War in 1763, France lost its vast holdings in North America. Meanwhile, the American colonists and the British government began to fight over whether Parliament in London or the colonial assemblies had primary responsibility for taxation. The ideological conflict escalated into open warfare in 1775, at which point the American patriots took control of the colonies from the British, who refused to consider independence. France, who had been rebuilding her Navy and other forces, saw this as an opportunity to seriously weaken her perennial enemy.
France bitterly resented its loss in the Seven Years ' War and sought revenge, and wanted to keep Britain from becoming too powerful. Following the Declaration of Independence, the American Revolution was well received by both the general population and the aristocracy in France. The Revolution was perceived as the incarnation of the Enlightenment Spirit against the "English tyranny. '' Benjamin Franklin, dispatched to France in December 1776 to rally its support, was welcomed with great enthusiasm. At first, French support was covert; French agents sent the Patriots military aid (predominantly gunpowder) through a company called Rodrigue Hortalez et Compagnie, beginning in the spring of 1776. Estimates place the percentage of French supplied arms to the Americans in the Saratoga campaign up to 90 %. By 1777, over five million livres of aid had been sent to the American rebels.
Motivated by the prospect of glory in battle or animated by the sincere ideals of liberty and republicanism, volunteers like Pierre Charles L'Enfant joined the American army. The most famous was Lafayette, a charming young aristocrat who defied the king 's order and enlisted in 1777 at age 20. He became an aide to George Washington and a combat general. More importantly he solidified a favourable American view of France. Kramer argues that Lafayette provided a legitimacy for the war and confidence that there was serious European support for independence. Lafayette 's personal style was highly attractive; the young man learned quickly, adapted to the Patriot style, avoided politics, and became a fast friend of General Washington. Fifty years later, after a major career in French politics, he returned as a beloved hero of the war.
Up against the British power, the young nation lacked arms and allies, and so turned towards France. France was not directly interested in the conflict, but saw it as an opportunity to contest British power by supporting a new British opponent. Through negotiations conducted first by Silas Deane and then Benjamin Franklin, France began covert support of the American cause.
Secretly approached by Louis XVI and France 's foreign minister, the comte de Vergennes, Pierre Beaumarchais was authorized to sell gunpowder and ammunition to the Americans for close to a million pounds under the veil of the French company Rodrigue Hortalez et Compagnie. The aid given by France, much of which passed through the neutral Dutch West Indies port of Sint Eustatius, contributed to George Washington 's survival against the British onslaught in 1776 and 1777, and was a major factor in the defeat of General Burgoyne 's expedition in the Champlain corridor that ended in a British disaster at Saratoga. French ports accommodated American ships, including privateers and Continental Navy warships, that acted against British merchant ships. France provided significant economic aid, either as donations or loans, and also offered technical assistance, granting some of its military strategists "vacations '', so they could assist American troops.
Silas Deane, appointed by the Americans, and, helped by French animosity towards Britain, obtained unofficial aid, starting in early 1776. However, the goal was the total involvement of France in the war. A new delegation composed of Franklin, Deane, and Arthur Lee, was appointed to lobby for the involvement of European nations. Franklin, age 70 and already well known in French intellectual circles for his scientific discoveries, served as the chief diplomat with the title of "minister '' (the term "ambassador '' was not used). He dressed in rough frontier clothes rather than formal court dress, and met with many leading diplomats, aristocrats, intellectuals, scientists and financiers. Franklin 's image and writings caught the French imagination -- there were many images of him sold on the market -- and he became the image of the archetypal new American and a hero for aspirations for a new order inside France. When the international climate at the end of 1777 had become tenser, Habsburg Austria requested the support of France in the War of the Bavarian Succession against Prussia in line with the Franco - Austrian Alliance. France refused, causing the relationship with Austria to turn sour. Under these conditions, asking Austria to assist France in a war against the British was impossible. Attempts to rally Spain also failed: Spain did not immediately recognize potential gains, and the American revolutionary spirit was seen as threatening the legitimacy of the Spanish Crown in its own American colonies.
Public opinion in France was in favor of open war, but King Louis and his advisors were reluctant due to the possible risks and heavy expenses involved. The king 's economic and military advisors in particular remained reluctant. The French Navy was being rapidly rebuilt, but there were doubts as to how ready it was for serious conflict. Financiers Turgot and Necker warned war would be very expensive for France 's wobbly system of taxation and finance.
The Americans argued that an alliance of the United States, France, and Spain would assure a rapid defeat of the British, but Vergennes, waiting until his navy was ready, hesitated. On July 23, 1777, Vergennes decided that it was time to decide either total assistance, with war, or abandonment of the new nation. The choice, ratified by the king, was war.
The British had taken Philadelphia in 1777, but American victory at the Battle of Saratoga brought back hope to the Patriots and enthusiasm in France. The army of Burgoyne surrendered to American forces after Saratoga and France realized that the United States could be victorious. The king directed Vergennes to negotiate an alliance with the Americans.
France formally recognized the United States on February 6, 1778, with the signing of the Treaty of Alliance. Hostilities soon followed after Britain declared war on France on March 17, 1778. The British naval force, then the largest fleet afloat, and French fleet confronted each other from the beginning. The British avoided intercepting a French fleet that left Toulon under the comte d'Estaing in April for North America, fearing the French fleet at Brest might then be used to launch an invasion of Britain. France had kept the Brest fleet to protect commercial shipping in European waters, and it sailed out only after a British fleet was confirmed to have left in pursuit of d'Estaing, thus weakening the British Channel fleet. In spite of this reduction the British fleet still outnumbered the French fleet at Brest, and Admiral d'Orvilliers was instructed to avoid combat when he sailed in July. D'Orvilliers met the fleet of Admiral Augustus Keppel in the indecisive Battle of Ushant on July 27, after which both fleets returned to port for repairs.
France did consider the landing of 40,000 men in the nearby British Isles but abandoned the idea because of logistical issues. On the continent, France was protected through its alliance with Austria which, even if it did not take part in the American Revolutionary War, affirmed its diplomatic support of France.
Other nations in Europe at first refused to openly join the war but both Spain and the Dutch Republic gave unofficial support to the American cause. Vergennes was able to convince the Spanish to formally enter the war in 1779 and, in 1780, Britain declared war on the Dutch Republic over claims of Dutch violations of neutrality.
French participation in North America was initially maritime in nature and marked by some indecision on the part of its military leaders. In 1778, American and French planners organized an attempt to capture Newport, Rhode Island, then under British occupation. The attempt failed, in part because Admiral d'Estaing did not land French troops prior to sailing out of Narragansett Bay to meet the British fleet. He then sailed for Boston after his fleet was damaged in a storm. In 1779, d'Estaing again led his fleet to North America for joint operations, this time against British - held Savannah, Georgia. About 3,000 French joined with 2,000 Americans in the Siege of Savannah, in which a naval bombardment was unsuccessful. An attempted assault of the entrenched British position was repulsed with heavy losses.
Support became more notable when, in 1780, 6,000 soldiers led by Rochambeau landed at Newport, itself abandoned in 1779 by the British, where the French established a naval base. These forces were largely inactive since the fleet was closely watched by the British fleet from its bases in New York and eastern Long Island. By early 1781, with the war dragging on, French military planners were finally convinced that more significant operations would be required in North America to bring a decisive end to the war. That year 's West Indies fleet was commanded by the comte de Grasse, and specific arrangements were made to coordinate operations with him. De Grasse asked to be supplied with North American pilots and to be informed of possible operations in North America to which he might contribute. Rochambeau and Washington met at Wethersfield, Connecticut in May 1781 to discuss their options. Washington wanted to drive the British from both New York City and Virginia (the latter led first by turncoat Benedict Arnold, then by Brigadier William Phillips and eventually by Charles Cornwallis). Virginia was also seen as a potent threat that could be fought with naval assistance. These two options were dispatched to the Caribbean along with the requested pilots. Rochambeau, in a separate letter, urged de Grasse to come to the Chesapeake Bay for operations in Virginia. Following the Wethersfield conference, Rochambeau moved his army to White Plains, New York and placed his command under Washington.
De Grasse received these letters in July at roughly the same time Cornwallis was preparing to occupy Yorktown, Virginia. De Grasse concurred with Rochambeau and subsequently sent a dispatch indicating that he would reach the Chesapeake at the end of August but that agreements with the Spanish meant he could only stay until mid-October. The arrival of his dispatches prompted the Franco - American army to begin a march for Virginia. De Grasse reached the Chesapeake as planned and his troops were sent to assist Lafayette 's army in the blockade of Cornwallis. A British fleet sent to confront de Grasse 's control of the Chesapeake was defeated by the French on September 5 at the Battle of the Chesapeake and the Newport fleet delivered the French siege train to complete the allied military arrival. The Siege of Yorktown and following surrender by Cornwallis on October 19 were decisive in ending major hostilities in North America.
Other important battles between the French and the British were spaced out around the globe, from the West Indies to India. France 's navy at first dominated in the West Indies, capturing Dominica, Grenada, Saint Vincent, Montserrat, Tobago, and St. Kitts, but losing St. Lucia at the beginning of the war. A planned Franco - Spanish invasion of Jamaica was aborted after the decisive Battle of the Saintes in 1782. At the end of the war the French captured the Turks and Caicos Islands. In European waters, France and Spain joined forces with the entry of Spain into the war in 1779. An attempted invasion of Britain failed due to a variety of factors. French and Spanish forces besieged Gibraltar from 1779 to 1783, but were unsuccessful in either storming the site, or preventing repeated British relief of its garrison. They were more successful in capturing Minorca in Europe and Demerara and Essequibo in South America in February 1782.
In India, British troops gained control of French outposts in 1778 and 1779, sparking the Kingdom of Mysore, a longtime French ally, to begin the Second Anglo - Mysore War. Allied with the French, the Mysoreans for a time threatened British positions on the east coast, but that war ended status quo ante bellum in 1784. A French fleet commanded by the Bailli de Suffren fought a series of largely inconclusive battles with a British fleet under Sir Edward Hughes, and the only major military land action, the 1783 Siege of Cuddalore, was cut short by news that a preliminary peace had been signed.
Because of decisive battles on American soil, the French were in a strong position during the peace negotiations in Paris.
Starting with the Siege of Yorktown, Benjamin Franklin never informed France of the secret negotiations that took place directly between Britain and the United States. Britain acknowledged that the United States owned all the land south of the Great Lakes and east of the Mississippi River, except for Florida (which went to Spain). However, since France was not included in the American - British peace discussions, the alliance between France and the U.S. was weakened. Thus the influence of France and Spain in future negotiations was limited.
The war formally ended in September 1783 with the signing of the Treaty of Paris. France gained (or regained) territories in the Americas, Africa, and India. Losses in the 1763 Treaty of Paris and in the Treaty of Utrecht (1713) were in part regained: Tobago, Saint Lucia, the Senegal River area, as well as increased fishing rights in Terra Nova. Spain regained Florida and Minorca, but Gibraltar remained in the hands of the British.
Because the French involvement in the war was distant and naval in nature, over a billion livres tournois were spent by the French government to support the war effort, raising its overall debt to about 3.315 billion. The finances of the French state were in disastrous shape and were made worse by Jacques Necker, who, rather than increase taxes, used loans to pay off debts. State secretary in Finances Charles Alexandre de Calonne attempted to fix the deficit problem by asking for the taxation of the property of nobles and clergy but was dismissed and exiled for his ideas. The French instability further weakened the reforms that were essential in the re-establishment of stable French finances. Trade also severely declined during the war, but was revived by 1783.
The war was especially important for the prestige and pride of France, who was reinstated in the role of European arbiter. However, Great Britain, not France, became the leading trading partner of the United States. The French took pride in their cultural influence on the young country through the Enlightenment, as attested by Franklin and Jefferson, and as embodied in the Declaration of Independence in 1776 and the United States Constitution in 1787. In turn the Revolution influenced France. Liberal elites were satisfied by the victory but there were also some major consequences. European conservative Royalists and nobility had become nervous, and began to take measures in order to secure their positions. On May 22, 1781, the Decree of Ségur closed the military post offices of the upper rank to the common persons, reserving those ranks exclusively for the nobility.
In all the French spent 1.3 billion livres to support the Americans directly, in addition to the money it spent fighting Britain on land and sea outside the U.S.
France 's status as a great modern power was re-affirmed by the war, but it was detrimental to the country 's finances. Even though France 's European territories were not affected, victory in a war against Great Britain with battles like the decisive siege of Yorktown in 1781 had a large financial cost which severely degraded fragile finances and increased the national debt. France gained little except that it weakened its main strategic enemy and gained a new, fast - growing ally that could become a welcome trading partner. However, the trade never materialized, and in 1793 the United States proclaimed its neutrality in the war between Great Britain and the French Republic.
Some historians argue that France primarily sought revenge against Great Britain for the loss of territory in North America and India from the previous conflict. But Jonathan R. Dull states that France intervened because of dispassionate calculation, not because of Anglophobia or a desire to avenge the loss of Canada.
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when does next season of reign come out | Reign (season 4) - wikipedia
The fourth season of Reign, an American historical fantasy, premiered on February 10, 2017. The series, created by Stephanie SenGupta and Laurie McCarthy, airs on The CW. On December 7, 2016 the CW announced that this would be the final season and would consist of 16 episodes.
The season has Mary returned to Scotland and trying to regain power in her homeland. She has to manage her allies, such as her bastard half - brother James and the outspoken Lord Bothwell, as well as her enemies, such as the Protestant preacher John Knox. Tensions mount between Mary and Elizabeth, with Mary marrying Lord Darnley, an English Catholic claimant to the English throne, in the hopes of taking England. In France, Catherine has to protect her son, King Charles IX, from the ambitions of her daughter Queen Leeza of Spain and her younger son, Henry.
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pink floyd a delicate sound of thunder dvd | Delicate Sound of Thunder (film) - wikipedia
Delicate Sound of Thunder is a Pink Floyd concert video taken from A Momentary Lapse of Reason Tour. It was largely filmed during the concerts running from 19 August 1988 through 23 August 1988 at the Nassau Coliseum in Uniondale, New York, with some additional footage from 21 -- 22 June 1988 at the Place d'Armes of the Château de Versailles, Versailles, France (used to provide the performance of "The Great Gig in the Sky ''. Note that the Versailles show was only used for some of the video footage. The audio is from Nassau). It was released on VHS and Laserdisc formats. It has never been officially released on DVD. Each song in common with the CD release uses the same performance (except "Run Like Hell '' and "On the Turning Away '', the latter of which has a different guitar solo at the end) with the audience a little higher in the mix. The remaining three songs -- "Signs of Life '', "On the Run '', and "One Slip '' -- all come from Nassau as well. The two tracks from the A Momentary Lapse of Reason LP were recorded on 23 August 1988, while "On the Run '' was recorded on 19 August 1988. The determining factor in figuring out which of the remaining songs was from which night was the clothing differences, most notably which tie was being worn by Jon Carin.
The following songs which were part of the 1988 set were not included in the film:
Songs with asterisk (*) are included in the album version.
with:
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who wrote i don't wanna talk about it | I Do n't Want to Talk About it - Wikipedia
"I Do n't Want to Talk About It '' is a song written by Danny Whitten. It was first recorded by Crazy Horse and issued as the final track on side one of their 1971 eponymous album. It was Whitten 's signature tune, but gained more fame via its numerous cover versions, especially that by Rod Stewart.
In 1975, Rod Stewart recorded the song at Muscle Shoals Sound Studio in Sheffield, Alabama, for his album Atlantic Crossing. This became successful when it was released as a single. In the United States, it became a top fifty hit on the Billboard Hot 100 in early 1980 (# 46 pop and # 44 adult contemporary). In the United Kingdom, it topped the UK Singles Chart as a double A-side with "The First Cut Is the Deepest '' in 1977. The song is widely believed to have benefitted from being deliberately released as a budget single in order to keep the Sex Pistols ' ' God Save The Queen ' off the top of the UK Singles Chart.
In 1989, Stewart recorded a new version of "I Do n't Want to Talk About It '' for Storyteller -- The Complete Anthology: 1964 -- 1990. It was later included on Downtown Train -- Selections from the Storyteller Anthology and released as a single in 1990. It received extensive airplay on adult contemporary radio stations in the United States as an album cut, reaching number two on the Billboard Adult Contemporary chart. Stewart also sang this song as a duet with Amy Belle during his 2004 tour and it is included in his concert DVD.
In June 1988, Everything but the Girl released their version as a single and it featured on the 1988 album Idlewild. This also met with success in the UK, peaking at number three on the UK Singles Chart. It was their first British top ten hit and would remain their only one until 1995, when the remix of "Missing '' also peaked at number three. Tracey Thorn has said that Stewart had been regarded as "a heroic figure '' in her home when she was growing up, and that her brother Keith owned the "albums with grimy - sounding titles like An Old Raincoat Wo n't Ever Let You Down, and Gasoline Alley ''. She herself had "always liked Atlantic Crossing. ''
Also, in 1988, Arthur Conley, (famous for his massive 1967 hit "Sweet Soul Music '') sung his version live on Dutch television, Arthur had previously changed his name back to his birth name of Lee Roberts whilst living in Holland.
Other notable artists who have recorded versions of this song include Blue, Rita Coolidge, Billie Jo Spears, Ian Matthews, A-Mei, Pegi Young, D'ZRT, Nils Lofgren, who also helped Whitten write the song though he received no album credit for this, Dina Carroll, Joe McElderry, David Sneddon, winner of the BBC 's Fame Academy, Geoff Muldaur, Llama Farmers, Alex Parks, Indigo Girls on the Philadelphia soundtrack, and Andy Williams.
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how many episodes in season 7 of true blood | True Blood (season 7) - wikipedia
The seventh and final season of the HBO supernatural drama series True Blood premiered on June 22, 2014 and contained ten episodes. The season was ordered on July 15, 2013. At the beginning of September it was announced that it would be the final season. The season was preceded by a farewell special entitled "Farewell to Bon Temps '', in which executive producers Alan Ball and Brian Buckner united with various cast members to reminisce about the series and gave a special preview of the final season.
In the series final, Eric and Pam slaughter the entire Yakanomo members as well as and Mr. Gus (saving Sookie one last time in the process) and take Sarah Newlin hostage. Bill finally convinces Sookie to accept his passing and his choice to die, but she balks at his request to kill him with her Fae powers (which would reduce her to human and, in his eyes, give her the ' normal life ' that he believes she deserves). Bill meets with Jessica and Hoyt and requests that he be allowed to give Jessica away in marriage before his death; the wedding proceeds, with Jason, Andy, Arlene, Holly and Sookie attending. Bill makes his final peace with Andy (his last living descendant), by leaving him his house and land, with the condition that Jessica and Hoyt be allowed to live there for $1 a month rent. Seeing Jason 's real connection with Brigette, Sookie gives him her approval. After getting some advice from Reverend Daniels, she meets Bill at nighttime in the Bon Temps cemetery. Sookie ultimately refuses to give up her Fae powers, saying that, like Bill, they are a part of her. After expressing her love for him one more time, she helps Bill stake himself as he lies in the coffin in his own grave from the Civil War, then fills in the grave with dirt and walks home in tears.
A seventh season was ordered on July 15, 2013, and was later announced to be the final season. Brian Buckner continued as executive producer and showrunner.
At the end of December 2013, actor Luke Grimes, who had portrayed the vampire James in the sixth season, asked to be released from his contract over creative differences (according to cast and crew Grimes did n't want to play the role once he found out his character was going to be bisexual in season seven). Australian actor Nathan Parsons was later announced as his replacement. After having recurring roles as Ginger and Lettie Mae Thornton since the first season, both Tara Buck and Adina Porter were promoted to series regulars.
Filming on the final episode wrapped in the early hours of July 10, 2014. Charlaine Harris, author of the series of novels on which the show is based, filmed a cameo for the series finale (she was director for Eric and Pam 's commercial).
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how many times have the patriots played the vikings | New England Patriots - wikipedia
American Football League (1960 -- 1969)
National Football League (1970 -- present)
Navy Blue, Red, Silver, White
League championships (5)
Conference championships (10)
Division championships (20)
The New England Patriots are a professional American football team based in the Greater Boston region. The Patriots compete in the National Football League (NFL) as a member club of the league 's American Football Conference (AFC) East division. The team plays its home games at Gillette Stadium in the town of Foxborough, Massachusetts, which is located 21 miles (34 km) southwest of downtown Boston, Massachusetts and 20 miles (32 km) northeast of downtown Providence, Rhode Island. The Patriots are also headquartered at Gillette Stadium.
An original member of the American Football League (AFL), the Patriots joined the NFL in the 1970 merger of the two leagues. The team changed its name from the original Boston Patriots after relocating to Foxborough in 1971. The Patriots played their home games at Foxboro Stadium from 1971 to 2001, then moved to Gillette Stadium at the start of the 2002 season. The Patriots ' rivalry with the New York Jets is considered one of the most bitter rivalries in the NFL.
The Patriots have appeared in the Super Bowl ten times in franchise history, the most of any team, eight of them since the arrival of head coach Bill Belichick and quarterback Tom Brady in 2000. The Patriots have since become one of the most successful teams in NFL history, winning 15 AFC East titles in 17 seasons since 2001, without a losing season in that period. The franchise has since set numerous notable records, including most wins in a ten - year period (126, in 2003 -- 2012), an undefeated 16 - game regular season in 2007, the longest winning streak consisting of regular season and playoff games in NFL history (a 21 - game streak from October 2003 to October 2004), and the most consecutive division titles won by a team in NFL history (won nine straight division titles from 2009 to 2017). The team owns the record for most Super Bowls reached (eight) and won (five) by a head coach -- quarterback tandem. Currently, the team is tied with the 49ers and Cowboys for the second most Super Bowl wins with five, after the Steelers, who have six.
On November 16, 1959, Boston business executive Billy Sullivan was awarded the eighth and final franchise of the developing American Football League (AFL). The following winter, locals were allowed to submit ideas for the Boston football team 's official name. The most popular choice -- and the one that Sullivan selected -- was the "Boston Patriots, '' with "Patriots '' referring to those colonists of the Thirteen Colonies who rebelled against British control during the American Revolution and in July 1776 declared the United States of America an independent nation. Immediately thereafter, artist Phil Bissell of The Boston Globe developed the "Pat Patriot '' logo.
The Patriots struggled for most of their years in the AFL, and they never had a regular home stadium. Nickerson Field, Harvard Stadium, Fenway Park, and Alumni Stadium all served as home fields during their time in the American Football League. They played in only one AFL championship game, following the 1963 season, in which they lost to the San Diego Chargers 51 -- 10. They did not appear again in an AFL or NFL post-season game for another 13 years.
When the NFL and AFL merged in 1970, the Patriots were placed in the American Football Conference (AFC) East division, where they still play today. The following year, the Patriots moved to a new stadium in Foxborough, Massachusetts, which would serve as their home for the next 30 years. As a result of the move, they announced they would change their name from the Boston Patriots to the Bay State Patriots. The name was rejected by the NFL and on March 22, 1971, the team officially announced they would change its geographic name to New England.
During the 1970s, the Patriots had some success, earning a berth to the playoffs in 1976 -- as a wild card team -- and in 1978 -- as AFC East champions. They lost in the first round both times. In 1985, they returned to the playoffs, and made it all the way to Super Bowl XX, which they lost to the Chicago Bears 46 -- 10. Following their Super Bowl loss, they returned to the playoffs in 1986, but lost in the first round. The team would not make the playoffs again for eight more years. During the 1990 season, the Patriots went 1 -- 15. They changed ownership three times in the ensuing 14 years, being purchased from the Sullivan family first by Victor Kiam in 1988, who sold the team to James Orthwein in 1992. Orthwein intended to move the team to his native St. Louis, Missouri (where it would have been renamed as the St. Louis Stallions), but instead sold the team in 1994 to its current owner Robert Kraft.
Though Orthwein 's period as owner was short and controversial, he did oversee major changes to the team, first with the hiring of former New York Giants coach Bill Parcells in 1993. Orthwein and his marketing team also commissioned the NFL to develop a new visual identity and logo, and changed their primary colors from the traditional red, white and blue to blue and silver for the team uniforms. Parcells would bring the Patriots to two playoff appearances, including Super Bowl XXXI, which they lost to the Green Bay Packers by a score of 35 -- 21. Pete Carroll, Parcells 's successor, would also take the team to the playoffs twice in 1997 & 1998 before being dismissed as head coach after the 1999 season.
The Patriots ' current coach, Bill Belichick, was hired in 2000, and a new home field, Gillette Stadium, was opened in 2002. Under Belichick, the team won three Super Bowls in four years (2001, 2003, and 2004). The Patriots finished the 2007 regular season with a perfect 16 -- 0 record, becoming only the fourth team in league history to go undefeated in the regular season, and the only one since the league expanded its regular season schedule to 16 games. After advancing to Super Bowl XLII, the team 's fourth Super Bowl in seven years, the Patriots were defeated by the Giants to end their bid for a 19 -- 0 season. With the loss, the Patriots ended the year at 18 -- 1, becoming only one of three teams to go 18 -- 1 along with the 1984 San Francisco 49ers and the 1985 Chicago Bears. The Patriots ' returned to the Super Bowl in 2012 but lost again to the Giants, 21 -- 17. In 2015, they won Super Bowl XLIX, defeating the Seattle Seahawks by a score of 28 -- 24. The Patriots became the first team to reach nine Super Bowls in the 2016 -- 17 playoffs and faced the Atlanta Falcons in Super Bowl LI, which ended up paving the way for their fifth Super Bowl victory, tying them with the Dallas Cowboys and the San Francisco 49ers for the second-most in NFL history, 1 behind the Pittsburgh Steelers with 6; the game was also the first Super Bowl to go into overtime.
The Patriots became the first team to reach ten Super Bowls in the 2017 -- 18 playoffs but lost to the Philadelphia Eagles in Super Bowl LII, on February 4, 2018, at U.S. Bank Stadium in Minneapolis, Minnesota.
In terms of number of games played, the Patriots have competed most against teams either currently or formerly from the AFC East division. This includes the current teams, the New York Jets, the Miami Dolphins, and the Buffalo Bills, as well as former divisional opponents the Indianapolis Colts. Among those, however, a few run deeper than others.
The closest geographically has been the rivalry with the New York Jets. The Patriots and Jets have been in the same division (what is now the AFC East) since both teams ' foundings in 1960, and have played each other at least twice a year since then. The rivalry between the Jets and Patriots has escalated since 1996, when Patriots head coach Bill Parcells left the Patriots under controversy to become the head coach of the Jets; he was replaced by former Jets coach Pete Carroll. Four years later Carroll was fired, and Parcells 's assistant, Bill Belichick, resigned the day he was named the Jets ' head coach to become the head coach of the Patriots. Six years after that, Eric Mangini, an assistant under Belichick, became the head coach of the Jets.
Bill Belichick achieved his 200th career head coaching win (regular season and playoffs) on November 22, 2012, defeating the Jets 49 -- 19; it was his 163rd such win as Patriots coach. The Patriots defeated the Jets in Week seven of the 2015 season by a score of 30 -- 23, to give them a 6 -- 0 record to date.
The Patriots rivalry with the Baltimore / Indianapolis Colts ran through the two clubs ' tenure together in the AFC East (1970 -- 2001). The two clubs clashed in several close games, such as on December 19, 1971, as a late Patriots touchdown decided a 21 -- 17 New England win; on September 18, 1978, the Colts rallied to defeat the Patriots 34 -- 27 on Monday Night Football on a virtual one - man scoring rampage by running back Joe Washington; on September 4, 1983, the Colts defeated the Patriots in overtime 29 -- 23 in their final season in Baltimore. The Patriots defeated the Colts in back - to - back overtime games, 23 -- 17 on December 8, 1991, and 37 -- 34 on November 15, 1992.
Even though the two clubs were placed in separate divisions in the NFL 's 2002 divisional realignment, their rivalry did not diminish. At that time, both teams were among the best in the AFC, and both were led by likely Hall of Fame quarterbacks, Peyton Manning (for the Colts) and Tom Brady (for the Patriots) The teams met three times in four years (2003, 2004, 2006) in the playoffs, with the winner going on to win that season 's Super Bowl each time. The Manning portion of the rivalry began in Manning 's rookie season, 1998; in 1999 Manning suffered a bitter 31 -- 28 loss in September as the Patriots behind Drew Bledsoe erased a 28 -- 7 Colts lead, then defeated the Patriots 20 -- 15 in Indianapolis on December 12. The Brady -- Manning portion of the rivalry began on September 30, 2001, as Brady made his first NFL start in a 44 -- 13 Patriots win at Foxboro; on October 21 the Patriots defeated the Colts at the RCA Dome 38 -- 17.
After the Colts left the AFC East in 2002, they first met on November 30, 2003, in a 38 -- 34 Patriots win decided on a last - second goal line stand by the Patriots. The Colts broke a six - game Patriot winning streak in the rivalry in November 2005, then won twice in 2006; in the AFC Championship Game the Colts erased a 21 -- 6 halftime lead; the game lead tied or changed seven times in the second half before a late touchdown led to a 38 -- 34 Colts win. The November 4, 2007, meeting involved both teams being unbeaten to that point; the 8 -- 0 Patriots and the 7 -- 0 Colts. The Patriots rallied to win 24 -- 20. The Colts won again in 2008 and then erased a large Patriots lead in 2009 's 4th and 2 game. Manning 's final meeting with the Patriots as a Colt came in November 2010; a late interception sealed a 31 -- 28 Patriots win. In 2012, the Patriots faced the Colts, quarterbacked now by Andrew Luck, on November 18; the Patriots defeated the Colts 59 -- 24. The Patriots also beat the Colts on January 12, 2014, 43 -- 22. The Patriots played the Colts in the playoffs again on January 18, 2015, in the AFC title game, winning 45 -- 7.
The Patriots and the Bills were both charter members of the AFL, and even competed with each other in an AFL playoff game. They have remained divisional rivals since the NFL - AFL merger. Prior to the rise of Tom Brady, the two teams shared a mellow, yet occasionally competitive rivalry, featuring highlights from players such as O.J. Simpson, Steve Grogan, Joe Ferguson, Jim Kelly, and Drew Bledsoe. However, Brady has dominated the Bills ever since taking over as the Patriots ' franchise quarterback, holding a 26 - 3 regular season record over them. Though Patriots fans usually feel apathetic towards the Bills, Bills fans have come to despise the Patriots more than any other rival. The rivalry has remained somewhat intense in recent years with multiple players having played for both teams, the Bills usually giving their all when playing the Patriots, and the presence of Rex Ryan, who coached both the Bills and Jets and was known for his trash - talk.
The Patriots first played the Miami Dolphins in 1966 in the AFL, when Miami was one of two expansion teams to debut that year in that league. The Dolphins dominated the Patriots in the 1970s and 1990s, but the two teams remained competitive with each other for years before the rise of Tom Brady. Brady, however, struggled occasionally against the Dolphins in the 2000s before reasserting dominance in the 2010s. The Patriots and Dolphins are the only two teams in the Super Bowl era to post undefeated regular season records, with Miami going 14 - 0 in 1972 and the Patriots going 16 - 0 in 2007. Notable moments between the clubs include the Snowplow Game, three playoff matchups, and the Dolphins revealing their Wildcat offense against the Patriots.
The Ravens first met the New England Patriots in 1996, but the rivalry truly started in 2007 when the Ravens suffered a bitter 27 -- 24 loss in the Patriots ' quest for perfection. The rivalry began to escalate in 2009 when the Ravens lost to the Patriots 27 -- 21 in a game that involved a confrontation between Patriots quarterback Tom Brady and Ravens linebacker Terrell Suggs. Both players would go on to take verbal shots at each other through the media after the game. The Ravens defeated the Patriots in the 2009 AFC Wild Card playoff game, 33 -- 14. This was the first time the Ravens had ever defeated the Patriots. The Ravens faced the Patriots in week six of the 2010 season. The Patriots ended up winning 23 -- 20 in overtime; the game caused controversy from a hit to the helmet of tight end Todd Heap by Patriots safety Brandon Meriweather.
The Ravens played the Patriots for the third consecutive season in the 2012 AFC championship game, which the Ravens lost 23 -- 20. The rivalry reached a new level of friction with this, the second career playoff game between the two clubs. The Ravens clawed to a 20 -- 16 lead in the fourth quarter, but Patriots quarterback Tom Brady dove into the end zone to make the score 23 -- 20 with around 11 minutes remaining; this proved to be the winning touchdown. On the Ravens ' last possession of the game, quarterback Joe Flacco threw a pass to wide receiver Lee Evans in the corner of the end zone which looked to be the game - winning touchdown, before a last - second strip by Sterling Moore forced the ball from the hands of Evans, forcing the game to be decided on a last - minute field goal by Ravens placekicker Billy Cundiff. With 11 seconds remaining on the clock, the kicker missed the 32 - yard field goal attempt, allowing the Patriots to kill the clock on their way to Super Bowl XLVI for a rematch with the New York Giants.
The Ravens ' first regular - season win over the Patriots came on September 23, 2012. The game was emotional as receiver Torrey Smith was competing following the death of his brother in a motorcycle accident just the night before. Smith caught two touchdowns in a back and forth game; the Ravens erased a 13 -- 0 lead in the first half and led 14 -- 13, but the Patriots scored at the end of the second quarter for a 20 -- 14 lead. The lead changed twice in the third quarter and the Patriots led 30 -- 21 in the fourth, but the Ravens scored on Smith 's second touchdown catch. The Ravens were stopped on fourth down but the Patriots had to punt; in the final two minutes a pass interference penalty on Devin McCourty put the ball at the Patriots 7 - yard line; new Ravens kicker Justin Tucker booted a 27 - yard field goal on the final play; the ball sailed directly over the upright and was ruled good; the quality of officiating by replacement referees caused controversy as Bill Belichick angrily reached for one of the referees as they were leaving the field, leading to a $50,000 fine later that week.
The two teams met again on January 20, 2013, in the AFC Championship, where the Ravens won 28 -- 13. The Patriots led at halftime, 13 -- 7, but the Ravens defense gave up no points in the 2nd half. It was the first time ever that Tom Brady lost a game at home after leading at halftime, and the first time a road team beat the Patriots in the AFC Championship.
The two teams met once again at Gillette Stadium in the playoffs on January 10, 2015. The Patriots trailed by as much as 14 twice, before beating the Ravens 35 -- 31 to advance to the AFC Championship.
During the 2007 season, the New England Patriots were disciplined by the league for videotaping New York Jets ' defensive coaches ' signals from an unauthorized location during a September 9, 2007 game. Videotaping opposing coaches is not illegal in the NFL de jure, but there are designated areas allowed by the league to do such taping. After an investigation, the NFL fined Patriots head coach Bill Belichick $500,000 for his role in the incident, fined the Patriots $250,000, and docked the team their original first - round selection in the 2008 NFL Draft which would have been the 31st pick of the draft.
During the 2015 AFC Championship Game against the Indianapolis Colts, allegations arose that the Patriots were utilizing under - inflated footballs. It was even suggested that the Patriots ' staff themselves deliberately deflated the footballs to give their team an unfair advantage during the playoffs. A lengthy investigation and heated debate commenced shortly afterwards, with a full report being published in May 2015. The Wells Report found that balls provided by the Patriots, who were the home team, indeed had less pressure on average than the balls provided by the Colts. Also notable was the findings of some suggestions of communication between Tom Brady and two Patriots locker room attendants, indicating Brady was likely "generally aware '' of the situation and that the Patriots staff intentionally deflated the footballs. A later study by the American Enterprise Institute called the evidence and methodology of the Wells report "deeply flawed '' and "unreliable ''.
In the aftermath of the incident, the NFL suspended Brady without pay for the first four games of the 2015 season, fined the Patriots $1 million, and forced them to forfeit their 2016 first round draft pick and 2017 fourth round draft pick. Brady appealed his suspension, which was eventually vacated by the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York, only for the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit to reinstate it a year later for the 2016 NFL season. Brady eventually agreed to serve the suspension in 2016, but led the Patriots to win Super Bowl LI in spite of it.
Under head coach Bill Belichick, the Patriots have employed specific on - field and off - field strategies. On the field, the Patriots have typically utilized an "Erhardt -- Perkins '' offense and a "Fairbanks -- Bullough '' 3 -- 4 defense, referred to commonly as a two - gap 3 -- 4 defensive system. Their philosophy in making personnel decisions and in game planning has focused on the "team '' concept, stressing preparation, strong work ethic, versatility, and lack of individual ego. This approach, which has led to five Super Bowl victories under Belichick, was analyzed in the 2004 book Patriot Reign.
When owner Robert Kraft purchased the team in 1994, he did so for $175 million. Since then, the Patriots have sold out every home game in both Foxboro Stadium and Gillette Stadium. By 2009, the value of the franchise had increased by over $1 billion, to a Forbes magazine estimated value of $1.361 billion, third highest in the NFL only behind the Dallas Cowboys and Washington Redskins. As of July 2015, the Patriots are the seventh most valuable sports franchise in the world according to Forbes magazine.
Since 2002, the Patriots ' home stadium has been Gillette Stadium, a $350 million facility privately financed by Kraft. It houses all administrative offices for the team and its owning entity, The Kraft Group, as well as the Kraft - owned Major League Soccer team, the New England Revolution. The field, which was originally natural grass, was replaced with a FieldTurf surface during the 2006 season. The area around the stadium was developed, beginning in 2007, into a $375 million "lifestyle and entertainment center '' called Patriot Place; among its largest structures is a multi-floor restaurant and bar called CBS Scene.
Prior to 2002, the Patriots played in Foxboro Stadium dating back to 1971, the team 's second year in the NFL after the AFL -- NFL merger. During the team 's days in the American Football League, the Boston Patriots were hosted by a number of fields in or around Boston -- they played at Braves Field, Harvard Stadium, Fenway Park, and Alumni Stadium.
The Patriots original helmet logo was a simple tricorne hat, used only for the 1960 season. From 1961 to 1992, the Patriots used a logo of a Revolutionary War minuteman hiking a football. The Patriots script logo during this time consisted of a western - style font. The minuteman logo became known as the "Pat Patriot '' logo, which later became the name of the team 's mascot.
In 1979, the Patriots worked with NFL Properties to design a new, streamlined logo, to replace the complex Pat Patriot logo. The new logo featured the blue and white profile of a minuteman in a tricorne hat set against a flag showing three red stripes separated by two white stripes. Team owner Billy Sullivan decided to put the new logo up to a vote against Pat Patriot with the fans at the September 23rd home game against the San Diego Chargers, using a sound level meter to judge the crowd 's reaction. The new logo was decidedly rejected by the crowd in favor of Pat, and the concept was shelved.
In 1993, a new logo was unveiled involving the gray face of a minuteman wearing a red, white and blue hat that begins as a tricorne and transitions into a flowing banner - like design. The logo bears some superficial resemblance to the aborted 1979 logo. It became popularly known as the "Flying Elvis '' due to many observing its resemblance to the profile of a young Elvis Presley. In 2000, the blue color was darkened.
On July 3, 2013, the Patriots unveiled a new wordmark logo.
The Patriots originally wore red jerseys with white block numbering at home, and white jerseys with red block numbering on the road. Both uniforms used white pants and white helmets, first with the hat logo over the player 's number, then with the "Pat Patriot '' logo starting in 1961. A blue stripe was added to the two red helmet stripes in 1964. The numbers on both the home and away jerseys gained a blue outline in 1973. In 1979, the Patriots began the first of many sporadic runs of wearing red pants with the white jerseys. The red pants were dropped in 1981, but returned in 1984. After being dropped again in 1988, they were used again from 1990 to 1992.
The Patriots underwent a complete identity overhaul before the 1993 season, starting with the introduction of the aforementioned "Flying Elvis '' logo. The new uniforms consisted of a royal blue home jersey and a white away jersey. The helmet was silver with the Flying Elvis logo and no additional striping. Both uniforms used silver pants, originally with stripes designed to look like those flowing from the Flying Elvis, but these were changed to simple red and blue stripes after one season. When they debuted, both the home and away jerseys used red block numbers with a blue and white outline, but after one season the home uniforms switched to the now - familiar white with a red outline.
In 1995, the Patriots switched the block numbers to a more modern rounded number font with a dropshadow. The Patriots were one of the first adopters of custom numbers, a trend that would grow drastically over the next 20 years.
However, in 2000, the Patriots also became one of the only teams to drop the rounded numbers and switched back to block numbers. Also that year, the shade of blue was darkened from royal to nautical blue. The Patriots, unsatisfied with the white - on - silver road look, also took the opportunity to introduce blue pants to be worn with the white jersey, offering a better contrast. To better match the blue pants, the number on the white jersey was switched from red to blue.
In 1994, the Patriots wore the "Pat Patriot '' helmets and plain white striped pants from two seasons prior as alternates as part of the NFL 's 75th anniversary celebration. In 2002, NFL teams were allowed to add a permanent third jersey to be worn in a maximum of two games. The Patriots reintroduced a red jersey as their alternate, complimented with the old - style "Pat Patriot '' helmet. In 2003, the Patriots changed their alternate to a silver jersey with blue pants. For this uniform, the "Flying Elvis '' helmet was utilized. The uniform was identical to the white jersey with any areas of white replaced by silver. These uniforms were dropped after 2007. No alternate uniform was used in 2008. In 2009, the red alternate was reintroduced, again accompanied by the "Pat Patriot '' helmet. An alternate white road jersey was also worn with the older helmet for one game, using red numbers, in tribute to the 50th anniversary of the AFL. The red alternate gained a blue outline around the numbers in 2010 and this was worn through 2012. The Patriots retired their alternate red uniforms in 2013, thanks to a new NFL rule outlawing throwback alternate helmets.
In 2016, the Patriots took part in the NFL Color Rush program, wearing monochrome navy uniforms on September 22 against the Houston Texans.
Running backs
Wide receivers
Tight ends
Defensive linemen
Defensive backs
Special teams
Roster updated April 5, 2018 Depth chart Transactions 72 Active, 0 Inactive
The New England Patriots feature 22 former players and two contributors in their team hall of fame, established in 1991. A committee of media and staff selected 11 players for enshrinement between 1991 and 2001, before a six - year span of no selections. In 2007, in advance of the 2008 opening of The Hall at Patriot Place, the Patriots introduced a new nomination committee to select three candidates, with the winner of an Internet fan vote being enshrined in the hall of fame. In order to be eligible, players and coaches must be retired for at least four years. Beginning in 2011, and meeting every five years, a senior selection committee has the option of voting a player who has been retired for at least 25 seasons into the hall of fame.
Former owner Billy Sullivan was inducted by owner Robert Kraft in March 2009, the Patriots ' 50th season, as a contributor.
Additionally, four of these Patriots players have also been enshrined in the Pro Football Hall of Fame. The Patriots have officially retired seven uniform numbers.
Three other players enshrined in the Pro Football Hall of Fame spent part of their careers with the Patriots:
In November 1971, fans voted on a 10 - year Patriots anniversary team, which coincided with the team 's 10 years in the then - defunct American Football League: Additional selections for returner, special teamer, and coach were added in 2009:
In March 2009, as part of the Patriots ' 50th anniversary, a group of local media and other team figures selected all - decade teams for the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s:
On March 16, 2010, the Patriots Hall of Fame selection committee selected an all - decade team for the 2000s:
In 1994, a group of local media selected a 35th anniversary team:
In 2009, the Patriots Hall of Fame selection committee selected a 50th anniversary team:
Note: Statistics are correct as of the end of the 2016 NFL season.
Sporting News NFL Coach of the Year (1976)
Pro Football Weekly NFL Coach of the Year (1994) Maxwell Football Club NFL Coach of the Year (1994) UPI NFL Coach of the Year (1994) AFC Championship (1996)
Sporting News NFL Coach of the Year (2003) Pro Football Weekly NFL Coach of the Year (2003) Maxwell Football Club NFL Coach of the Year (2007) 5 Super Bowl Championships (2001, 2003, 2004, 2014, 2016) 8 AFC Championships (2001, 2003, 2004, 2007, 2011, 2014, 2016, 2017)
→ Coaching staff → Management → More NFL staffs
The Patriots NFL Cheerleaders are simply known as the Patriots Cheerleaders. In 2005, cheerleader Kristin Gauvin won Miss Massachusetts, in part from her local commitment with the Patriots.
The Patriots ' mascot is Pat Patriot, a revolutionary minuteman wearing a Patriots home jersey.
The Patriots also employ a corps known as the End Zone Militia. During each game, about ten men dressed as minutemen line the back of each end zone. When the Patriots score a touchdown, field goal, point - after - touchdown or safety, the militia behind the opposite end zone fire a volley of blanks from flintlock muskets. Per an interview with the Loren & Wally Show on WROR 105.7 FM in and around the time of Super Bowl XLIX, said shots use double the load of black powder than a regular historical reenactor does, specifically 200 grains, in order to be heard throughout the stadium. ESPN writer Josh Pahigian named this one of the top ten celebrations in the league in 2007.
The Patriots ' flagship radio station is WBZ - FM 98.5 FM, owned by CBS Radio. The larger radio network is called the New England Patriots Radio Network, whose 37 affiliate stations span seven states. Gil Santos and Gino Cappelletti were the longtime announcing team until their retirement following the conclusion of the 2012 NFL season. Santos was replaced by Bob Socci. Former Patriots QB Scott Zolak joined the radio team in the 2011 season as a sideline analyst, and in 2013, he replaced Cappelletti as color commentator.
Any preseason games not on national television are shown on CBS 's O&O WBZ - TV, who also airs the bulk of Patriots regular season games by virtue of CBS having the rights to most AFC games; CBS also has a presence at the nearby Patriot Place with the "CBS Scene '' bar / restaurant. During the regular season whenever the Patriots host an NFC team, the games are aired on Fox affiliate WFXT - TV, and NBC Sunday Night Football games are carried by the "NBC Boston '' network of stations led by WBTS - LD. Preseason games were broadcast on ABC affiliate WCVB - TV from 1995 until the change to WBZ in 2009. Don Criqui was play - by - play announcer for the 1995 -- 2012 seasons, with Randy Cross as a color commentator and Mike Lynch as a sideline reporter. Lynch was replaced by WBZ reporter Steve Burton in 2009.
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who sings get me to the church on time | Get Me to the Church on Time - Wikipedia
"Get Me to the Church on Time '' is a song composed by Frederick Loewe, with lyrics written by Alan Jay Lerner for the 1956 musical My Fair Lady, where it was introduced by Stanley Holloway.
It is sung by the cockney character Alfred P. Doolittle, the father of the show 's main character Eliza Doolittle. He has received a surprise bequest of four thousand pounds a year from an American millionaire, raising him to middle - class respectability. Consequently, he feels he must marry Eliza 's "stepmother '', the woman with whom he has been living for many years. Doolittle and his friends have one last spree before the wedding and the song is a plea to his friends not to let his drunken merriment forget his good intentions and make sure he gets to his wedding.
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where did thanos get each infinity stone from | Infinity Gems - wikipedia
The Infinity Gems, originally referred to as Soul Gems and later referred to as Infinity Stones, are six immensely powerful fictional gems appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. Whoever holds and uses all six Gems gains omnipotence, omnipresence and omniscience. The six primary Gems are the Mind Gem, the Soul Gem, the Space Gem, the Power Gem, the Time Gem and the Reality Gem. In later storylines, crossovers and other media, a seventh Gem is sometimes added.
The Gems play a prominent role in the first three phases of the Marvel Cinematic Universe, in which they are known as the Infinity Stones.
The first Infinity Gem appeared in the Marvel Universe comics in 1972, in Marvel Premiere # 1 (which also introduced the character Adam Warlock), and was originally called a "Soul Gem ''. In 1976, a second "Soul Gem '' appeared in a Captain Marvel story which also mentioned that there were six Soul Gems and that each had a different power. One year later, two more "Soul Gems '' were introduced in a Warlock crossover with Spider - Man, and the full set of six appeared as the death - obsessed villain Thanos attempted to use them to extinguish every star in the universe. In a 1988 storyline in Silver Surfer, the Elders of the Universe try to use the Soul Gems to steal the energy of the world - eating entity Galactus.
In the 1990 limited series The Thanos Quest, Thanos refers to the entire set as "Infinity Gems '' for the first time, and the gems began to take a more prominent role in the Marvel Universe. In this storyline, Thanos steals the gems and inserts them into a gold glove known as the Infinity Gauntlet. Thanos reveals the Gems to be the last remains of an omnipotent being. In the miniseries The Infinity Gauntlet, Thanos uses the Gems to become nearly omnipotent himself. He wields his power to kill half the population of the universe as a gift to his love, the cosmic embodiment of Death. Though he easily repels an attack by Earth 's heroes and other cosmic entities, the Gauntlet is stolen from him by Nebula, who undoes his mass killings. Adam Warlock recovers the Gauntlet in turn and divides the Gems among a group he calls "the Infinity Watch '', consisting of himself; the superheroes Gamora, Pip the Troll, Drax the Destroyer, Moondragon, and his former adversary Thanos. This group 's adventures in defending the gems appeared in the ongoing series Warlock and the Infinity Watch (1992 - 1995).
The Gems are next gathered by Warlock 's evil alter ego, the Magus, in The Infinity War, a 1992 limited series. The Magus is defeated by Warlock and Earth 's heroes. In 1993, a third limited series, The Infinity Crusade, described the attempts of Warlock 's "Good '' side, the Goddess, to destroy evil in the universe by destroying free will; the Gems are once more retrieved by the Infinity Watch.
Following the cancellation of the Infinity Watch series, the one - shot title Rune / Silver Surfer depicts the Gems being stolen by the extradimensional vampire Rune and dispersed throughout the Ultraverse. The Asgardian god Loki subsequently enters the Ultraverse, collects the Gems, and discovers the existence of a seventh Gem, "Ego ''. The Ego Gem, possessing the Avenger Sersi, merges with the other Gems to reform Nemesis -- the original omnipotent being whose essence formed the Gems -- and battles the Avengers and Ultraforce before being dissipated once again.
In a story arc of the Thanos ongoing series (2003 - 2004), Galactus gathers the six Gems, but accidentally allows an interdimensional parasite, named Hunger, access into the Earth - 616 universe. Thanos and Galactus banish the entity, and the Gems are scattered again with the exception of the Soul Gem, which Thanos retains for its customary custodian, Adam Warlock. In New Avengers: Illuminati, a 2007 - 2008 limited series, a cabal of Earth 's heroes gather the Gems and attempt to wish them out of existence, but discover that they must exist as part of the cosmic balance. Instead, the Illuminati divide and hide the Gems.
In a 2010 Avengers storyline, the human criminal known as the Hood steals several Gems, but is defeated by use of the remaining Gems; the Illuminati attempt to hide them again. Later, the Illuminati wield the Gems to stop another universe from collapsing into their own, but the Gems are shattered in the effort. Afterwards, the previously vanished Time Gem appears to Captain America and some of the Avengers and transports them into future realities, shattering throughout time in the process.
As a result of the Incursions, the entire Multiverse is destroyed. However, Doctor Doom combines fragments of several alternate realities into Battleworld. Doctor Strange gathers Infinity Gems from various realities into a new Infinity Gauntlet, which he leaves hidden until the surviving heroes of Earth - 616 return. The Gauntlet is subsequently claimed by T'Challa, who uses it to keep the Beyonder - enhanced Doom occupied until Mister Fantastic can disrupt his power source.
Following the destruction of the entire Multiverse and its restoration, the destroyed Infinity Gems are recreated and scattered across the universe, with their colors switched and some taking on uncut ingot forms. In Marvel Legacy # 1, the Space Gem (now colored blue) appears on Earth where a Frost Giant working for Loki steals it from a S.H.I.E.L.D. storage facility, however he is intercepted and defeated by Wolverine. Star - Lord discovers an extra-large Power Stone (now colored purple) being protected by the Nova Corps, and an alternate universe Peter Quill named Starkill has the Reality Stone (now colored red). A future version of Ghost Rider is revealed to possess a shard of the Time Stone (now colored green), while in the present the complete stone restores the ruined planet of Sakaar and is claimed by the Super-Skrull. The Mind Stone (now colored yellow) is found on Earth in the hands of petty crook Turk Barrett, and the Soul Stone (now colored orange) is mentioned to Adam Warlock to be in the hands of his dark aspect the Magus; however, Ultron is able to claim it after ambushing and killing him.
Each Gem is shaped like a small oval, and is named after, and represents, a different characteristic of existence. Possessing any single Gem grants the user the ability to command whatever aspect of existence the Gem represents. The Gems are not immutable. For instance, on two occasions, one or more of the Gems have appeared as deep pink spheres several feet in diameter, while on other occasions, the Gems have appeared in their small oval shape but with different coloring. (e.g. the Soul Gem being colored red when worn by the Gardener). In the Ultraverse, after merging into their original form of Nemesis, the Gems were again separated after a battle with Ultraforce and the Avengers. As part of the Marvel Legacy initiative, the Infinity Gems (now known as the Infinity Stones), had their colors altered to match the colors of the Infinity Stones from the Marvel Cinematic Universe.
The six Infinity Gems include:
Additional Gems have appeared in crossover media and alternate universes outside the Marvel Universe.
The Reed Richards of Earth - 616, in an attempt to "solve everything '', meets with a council of alternate universe Reeds. Three of them wear Infinity Gauntlets, which only work in concert with their respective universes.
During the "Incursion '' storyline, the Avengers travel to a parallel Earth where a pastiche on the Justice League have replaced this Earth 's Avengers who all died in a previous cataclysm. Here the Gems are all square planes which are assembled into the "Wisher 's Cube '', a composite of the concepts of the Infinity Gems and the Cosmic Cube.
After various alternate universes are combined into Battleworld, Doctor Strange gathers Infinity Gems from other universes into a new Infinity Gauntlet that works in the area where Doom has built his palace. Strange leaves the Gauntlet hidden until he has access to someone he can trust it with; after his death, the Gauntlet is claimed by T'Challa, who uses it against Doom in the final battle.
A separate section of Battleworld known as New Xandar also has a Gauntlet fought over by multiple factions until the majority of the Stones, except the Reality Stone, were taken by Thanos. Thanos eventually tracks the missing Stone to Nova Corps member Anwen Bakian. When Thanos confronts her to get the Stone, Anwen gives him a duplicate of the Reality Stone she created called the ' Death Stone '. When used along with the other five Stones, the Death Stone corrupts Thanos with black matter and turns him to dust.
In the Ultimate Marvel universe, an Infinity Gauntlet is seen in Project Pegasus. The Mind Gem (stolen by Hydra) is used by Modi (Thor 's son) to control both Director Flumm and Cassie Lang, but are stopped by the Ultimates. The Power Gem is later revealed to be in the possession of former S.H.I.E.L.D. agent Sayuri Kyota, while a second Infinity Gauntlet is recovered from an A.I.M. base by Thor and Susan Storm. Kang the Conqueror later allies himself with the Hulk, Reed Richards and Quicksilver as part of a plan to steal the two Gauntlets, which results in the destruction of the Triskelion. Quicksilver recovers two additional Gems allowing the villains to teleport away. Richards is later able to recover another of the Gems, which is found lodged in Tony Stark 's brain. He informs Stark that the Infinity Gems are needed to save the world from a coming cataclysm that will destroy the entire universe. After brainwashing Johnny Storm and forcing him to travel to the Earth 's core, the Dark Ultimates are able to recover the final gem, but are defeated by the Ultimates. The gems then shatter, rendering the Gauntlets useless.
In a reality where Doctor Doom retained the power of the Beyonder, he acquired the Infinity Gems from the Elders of the Universe and used them to defeat the Celestials in a 407 - year - long war before finally forsaking his power.
In an alternate reality where the original Fantastic Four died, a new Fantastic Four -- consisting of Spider - Man, Hulk, Wolverine and Ghost Rider -- was formed. With Iron Man replacing Ghost Rider, they were the only heroes available to fight Thanos when he initially assembled the Infinity Gauntlet. Despite Iron Man 's use of Negative Zone -- enhanced Celestial armor, Thanos still easily defeated the team until Wolverine tricked Thanos into erasing Mephisto from existence before cutting off Thanos 's left arm, and therefore the Infinity Gauntlet. With Thanos powerless, Spider - Man used the gauntlet to undo the events of Thanos 's godhood.
In the Contest of Champions miniseries, an alternate version of Tony Stark uses the Reality Gem to win the superhero civil war and affect the outcome of a presidential election. When he tries to use the Gem on Battleworld, he is killed by the Maestro, who says the Gems do not work in any universe other than their own.
The Infinity Stones are significant in the Marvel Cinematic Universe, playing important roles in several films. Director James Gunn created the backstory for the Stones in the film Guardians of the Galaxy, where the Collector explains they are the remnants of six singularities that existed before the Big Bang, which were compressed into stones after the universe began and dispersed throughout the cosmos. In the film Avengers: Infinity War, it is further explained by Wong and Doctor Strange to Tony Stark that each stone embodies and controls an essential aspect of existence.
In order of introduction, they are:
A right - handed gauntlet appears in the film Thor, where it is stored in Odin 's vault; this gauntlet was later revealed to be a fake in Thor: Ragnarok. In the mid-credits scene of Avengers: Age of Ultron, Thanos is seen wearing a left - handed gauntlet.
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when was the last episode of i love lucy | List of I Love Lucy episodes - wikipedia
I Love Lucy is an American television sitcom starring Lucille Ball, Desi Arnaz, Vivian Vance, and William Frawley. The black - and - white series originally ran from October 15, 1951, to May 6, 1957, on the Columbia Broadcasting System (CBS). All 180 episodes aired on Mondays.
In total 180 episodes of I Love Lucy were produced, plus a pilot episode. The pilot, which was not made for broadcast and did not air as part of the show 's original run, is generally not counted as one of the episodes and therefore is not listed below. It is, however, included on DVD and Blu - ray releases of the first season. Following I Love Lucy, a further 13 hour - long episodes were produced under the title of The Lucy -- Desi Comedy Hour.
Ethel wants Ricky for the club 's benefit show, but Lucy thinks a husband and wife team would be more appropriate.
Lucy 's neighbor, Miss Lewis, has her eye on Mr. Ritter, the grocer. Lucy tries her hand at playing Cupid, but Mr. Ritter thinks that her dropped hints mean that she is attracted to him! Lucy must make herself a little less desirable to scare Mr. Ritter off.
Everyone is having fun at a mirth - filled "at home '' evening with the Ricardos and Mertzes. But when the Ricardos continue singing after Fred and Ethel go back downstairs to their apartment, the Mertzes, as landlords, decide that the Ricardos ' merrymaking has gone too far. This leads to a battle between the couples: the Ricardos try to break their lease, while the Mertzes resist.
Lucy performs an unexpected stint as a ballerina, then has a lesson in burlesque from a professional comic. Included is the classic routine "Slowly I Turned ''. Mary Wickes appears as the ballet teacher.
Ricky needs a girl to act in a commercial for his television debut. Lucy immediately volunteers, but Ricky denies her. Irrepressible Lucy goes to the set anyway, and ends up in the sponsor 's "Vitameatavegamin '' health tonic commercial. As the tonic is 23 % alcohol, Lucy soon ends up completely drunk.
Ricky and Fred think doing housework is much easier than earning money. Lucy and Ethel feel the opposite. So the boys try doing the housework while the girls attempt to hold down a job at a candy factory. Problems soon arise on both fronts. Ricky and Fred cause a huge mess in the apartment by burning the clothes with irons and getting food all over the kitchen. Lucy and Ethel find themselves fighting against a speedy conveyor belt of chocolate. Elvia Allman guest stars.
Ricky has a chance to do an "at - home '' TV show, and Lucy wants to be in it. Things go well until Lucy discovers Ricky only let her do the show because the sponsor insisted.
Ricky 's still waiting for the results of his screen test, and his anxious attitude is getting on everyones nerves. Things get worse when Fred leaves a note saying he got the job, while the call still has n't come.
En route to Rome, an Italian producer offers Lucy a role in a film called Bitter Grapes. So she decides to take a job in a vineyard to absorb a little "local color. '' This episode contains the famous scene in which Lucy stomps grapes and picks a fight with her fellow stomper. However, by being away, she misses being selected for the role.
Lucy, Ricky, Fred and Ethel reminisce (via flashbacks of previous episodes) as they trim the tree on Christmas Eve. The flashbacks were all from season 2, include Lucy telling Ricky about her pregnancy in "Lucy Is Enceinte, '' Lucy, Ricky, Fred and Ethel singing in a barbershop quartet in "Lucy 's Showbiz Swan Song, '' and Ricky, Fred and Ethel franctically preparing for Lucy 's impending labor in "Lucy Goes to the Hospital. ''
Lucy promises to produce Superman (George Reeves) for Little Ricky 's fifth birthday party, but must make alternate plans when he is unable to attend. She hastily tries to impersonate Superman, but gets locked out on the balcony with the pigeons.
After season six, the series was renamed The Lucille Ball - Desi Arnaz Show for its original broadcast run and rather than airing as weekly half hour series, hour - long episodes were produced to run occasionally during the year. There were thirteen hour - long shows. The first five were broadcast as specials during the 1957 - 58 television season. The other eight episodes were broadcast as part of the Westinghouse Desilu Playhouse from October 6, 1958, to April 1, 1960. The series was subsequently broadcast in syndication as The Lucy - Desi Comedy Hour and We Love Lucy. This show had the same cast as I Love Lucy, employed many of the other same actors, and featured many famous guest stars. Of the original I Love Lucy cast, besides the principals, only Lucy 's mother appeared in any Comedy Hour episode. She appears in season 3, episode 2 ' The Ricardos Go To Japan ' as Little Ricky 's babysitter.
Note: This was originally shown as a 75 - minute episode. All future repeats were edited to an hour 's length, with the original opening and closing sequences (featuring Hedda Hopper) deleted, replaced by Desi 's brief narration at the beginning and end.
Bette Davis was originally booked as the next - door celebrity, but suffered a horseback riding accident. Bankhead was the producers ' second choice.
Note: This episode mirrored life for the Arnazes in the 1940s, as Lucy would meet Desi at the train station as she was leaving for work at a movie studio, while Desi would be headed home after working at a nightclub.
Note: This is the final episode of the show due to the divorce of Ball and Arnaz, which occurred 2 months after this episode aired. Many people who worked on I Love Lucy said that they had a feeling this would be the last episode because of the constant fighting between the two even though more episodes were planned to be produced.
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arabian sea is the part of which ocean | Arabian Sea - wikipedia
The Arabian Sea, also known as Sea of Oman, is a region of the northern Indian Ocean bounded on the north by Pakistan and Iran, on the west by the Gulf of Aden, Guardafui Channel and the Arabian Peninsula, and on the east by India. Historically the sea has been known by other names including the Erythraean Sea and the Persian Sea. Its total area is 3,862,000 km (1,491,000 sq mi) and its maximum depth is 4,652 metres (15,262 ft). The Gulf of Aden in the west, connects the Arabian Sea to the Red Sea through the strait of Bab - el - Mandeb, and the Gulf of Oman is in the northwest, connecting it to the Persian Gulf.
The Arabian Sea has been crossed by important marine trade routes since the third or second millennium BCE. Major seaports include Kandla Port, Okha Port, Mumbai Port, Nhava Sheva Port (Navi Mumbai), Mormugão Port (Goa), New Mangalore Port and Kochi Port in India, the Port of Karachi and the Gwadar Port in Pakistan, Chabahar Port in Iran and the Port of Salalah in Oman. The largest islands in the Arabian Sea include Socotra (Yemen), Masirah Island (Oman), Lakshadweep (India) and Astola Island (Pakistan).
The Arabian Sea 's surface area is about 3,862,000 km (1,491,130 sq mi). The maximum width of the Sea is approximately 2,400 km (1,490 mi), and its maximum depth is 4,652 metres (15,262 ft). The biggest river flowing into the Sea is the Indus River.
The Arabian Sea has two important branches -- the Gulf of Aden in the southwest, connecting with the Red Sea through the strait of Bab - el - Mandeb; and the Gulf of Oman to the northwest, connecting with the Persian Gulf. There are also the gulfs of Khambhat, Kutch and, Mannar on the Indian Coast.
The countries with coastlines on the Arabian Sea are Somalia, Yemen, Oman, Pakistan, India and the Maldives. There are several large cities on the sea 's coast including Male, Kavaratti, Cape Comorin (Kanyakumari), Colachel, Kovalam, Thiruvananthapuram, Kollam, Alappuzha, Kochi, Kozhikode, Kannur, Kasaragod, Mangalore, Bhatkal, Karwar, Vasco, Panjim, Malvan, Ratnagiri, Alibag, Mumbai, Daman, Valsad, Surat, Bharuch, Khambhat, Bhavnagar, Diu, Somnath, Mangrol, Porbandar, Dwarka, Okha, Jamnagar, Kandla, Gandhidham, Mundra, Koteshwar, Keti Bandar, Karachi, Ormara, Pasni, Gwadar, Chabahar, Muscat, Duqm, Salalah, Al Ghaydah, Aden, Bargal, and Hafun.
The International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Arabian Sea as follows:
The Arabian Sea historically and geographically has been referred to by many different names by Muslim and European geographers and travellers, that include Indian Sea, Persian Sea, Sindhu Sagar, (1) Erythraean Sea, Sindh Sea, and Akhzar Sea.
The Arabian Sea has been an important marine trade route since the era of the coastal sailing vessels from possibly as early as the 3rd millennium BCE, certainly the late 2nd millennium BCE through the later days known as the Age of Sail. By the time of Julius Caesar, several well - established combined land - sea trade routes depended upon water transport through the Sea around the rough inland terrain features to its north.
These routes usually began in the Far East or down river from Madhya Pradesh with transshipment via historic Bharuch (Bharakuccha), traversed past the inhospitable coast of today 's Iran then split around Hadhramaut into two streams north into the Gulf of Aden and thence into the Levant, or south into Alexandria via Red Sea ports such as Axum. Each major route involved transhipping to pack animal caravan, travel through desert country and risk of bandits and extortionate tolls by local potentates.
This southern coastal route past the rough country in the southern Arabian Peninsula (Yemen and Oman today) was significant, and the Egyptian Pharaohs built several shallow canals to service the trade, one more or less along the route of today 's Suez canal, and another from the Red Sea to the Nile River, both shallow works that were swallowed up by huge sand storms in antiquity. Later the kingdom of Axum arose in Ethiopia to rule a mercantile empire rooted in the trade with Europe via Alexandria.
The Port of Karachi is Pakistan 's largest and busiest seaport. It is located between the Karachi towns of Kiamari and Saddar.
The Gwadar Port is a warm - water, deep - sea port situated at Gwadar in Balochistan, Pakistan at the apex of the Arabian Sea and at the entrance of the Persian Gulf, about 460 km west of Karachi and approximately 75 km (47 mi) east of Pakistan 's border with Iran. The port is located on the eastern bay of a natural hammerhead - shaped peninsula jutting out into the Arabian Sea from the coastline.
Port of Salalah in Salalah, Oman is also a major port in the area. The International Task Force often uses the port as a base. There is a significant number of warships of all nations coming in and out of the port, which makes it a very safe bubble. The port handled just under 3.5 m teu (twenty - foot equivalent unit, a measure used for capacity in container transportation) in 2009.
Jawaharlal Nehru Port in Mumbai is the largest port in the Arabian Sea, and the largest container port in India. Major Indian ports in the Arabian Sea are Mundra Port, Kandla Port, Nava Sheva, Kochi Port, Mumbai Port, and Mormugão.
There are several islands in the Arabian Sea, with the most important ones being Lakshadweep Islands (India), Socotra (Yemen), Masirah (Oman) and, Astola Island (Pakistan).
The Lakshadweep Islands (formerly known as the Laccadive, Minicoy, and Aminidivi Islands) is a group of islands in the Laccadive Sea region of Arabian Sea, 200 to 440 km (120 to 270 mi) off the south western coast of India. The archipelago is a Union Territory and is governed by the Union Government of India. Lakshadweep comes from Lakshadwipa, which means "one hundred thousand islands '' in Sanskrit. The islands form the smallest Union Territory of India: their total surface area is just 32 km2 (12 sq mi). The lagoon area covers about 4,200 km2 (1,600 sq mi), the territorial waters area 20,000 km2 (7,700 sq mi) and the exclusive economic zone area 400,000 km2 (150,000 sq mi). The islands are the northernmost of the Lakshadweep - Maldives - Chagos group of islands.
Astola Island, also known as Jezira Haft Talar in Balochi, or ' Island of the Seven Hills ', is a small, uninhabited island in the northern tip of the Arabian Sea in Pakistan 's territorial waters.
Socotra also spelled Soqotra is the largest island, being part of a small archipelago of four islands. It lies some 240 kilometres (150 mi) east of the Horn of Africa and 380 kilometres (240 mi) south of the Arabian Peninsula.
Masirah is an island off the East coast of Oman.
Massive Ocean Dead Zone, an area of the ocean that was uninhabitable, located in the Gulf of Oman part of the Arabian Sea. The Dead Zone is larger than Scotland that is completely depleted of oxygen, making it the world 's largest - known dead zone.
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Arabian Sea ''. Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
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where does the time change from central to pacific | Pacific Time Zone - wikipedia
The Pacific Time Zone (PT) is a time zone encompassing parts of western Canada, the western United States, and western Mexico. Places in this zone observe standard time by subtracting eight hours from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC − 8). During daylight saving time, a time offset of UTC − 7 is used.
In the United States and Canada, this time zone is generically called the "Pacific Time Zone ''. Specifically, time in this zone is referred to as "Pacific Standard Time '' (PST) when standard time is being observed (early November to mid-March), and "Pacific Daylight Time '' (PDT) when daylight saving time (mid-March to early November) is being observed. In Mexico, the corresponding time zone is known as the Zona Noroeste (Northwest Zone) and observes the same daylight saving schedule as the U.S. and Canada. The largest city in the Pacific Time Zone is Los Angeles; the city 's metropolitan area is the largest in the zone.
The zone is two hours ahead of the Hawaii -- Aleutian Time Zone, one hour ahead of the Alaska Time Zone, one hour behind the Mountain Time Zone, two hours behind the Central Time Zone, and three hours behind the Eastern Time Zone.
Only one Canadian territory is entirely in the Pacific Time Zone:
One Canadian province and one territory are split between the Pacific Time Zone and the Mountain Time Zone:
In Mexico, the Zona Noroeste, which corresponds to Pacific Time in the United States and Canada, includes:
Two states are fully contained in the Pacific Time Zone:
Three states are split between the Pacific Time Zone and the Mountain Time Zone:
One state is split between the Pacific Time Zone and the Alaska Time Zone:
Through 2006, the local time (PST, UTC − 8) changed to daylight time (PDT, UTC − 7) at 02: 00 LST (local standard time) to 03: 00 LDT (local daylight time) on the first Sunday in April, and returned at 02: 00 LDT to 01: 00 LST on the last Sunday in October.
Effective in the U.S. in 2007 as a result of the Energy Policy Act of 2005, the local time changes from PST to PDT at 02: 00 LST to 03: 00 LDT on the second Sunday in March and the time returns at 02: 00 LDT to 01: 00 LST on the first Sunday in November. The Canadian provinces and territories that use daylight time each adopted these dates between October 2005 and February 2007. In Mexico, beginning in 2010, the portion of the country in this time zone uses the extended dates, as do some other parts. The vast majority of Mexico, however, still uses the old dates.
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1 square km is equal to how many hectare | Hectare - wikipedia
The hectare (/ ˈhɛktɛər, - tɑːr /; SI symbol: ha) is an SI accepted metric system unit of area equal to 100 ares (10,000 m) or 1 square hectometre (hm) and primarily used in the measurement of land as a metric replacement for the imperial acre. An acre is about 0.405 hectare and one hectare contains about 2.47 acres.
In 1795, when the metric system was introduced, the "are '' was defined as 100 square metres and the hectare ("hecto - '' + "are '') was thus 100 "ares '' or ⁄ km. When the metric system was further rationalised in 1960, resulting in the International System of Units (SI), the are was not included as a recognised unit. The hectare, however, remains as a non-SI unit accepted for use with the SI units, mentioned in Section 4.1 of the SI Brochure as a unit whose use is "expected to continue indefinitely ''.
The name was coined in French, from the Latin ārea.
The metric system of measurement was first given a legal basis in 1795 by the French Revolutionary government. The law of 18 Germinal, Year III (7 April 1795) defined five units of measure:
In 1960, when the metric system was updated as the International System of Units (SI), the are did not receive international recognition. The International Committee for Weights and Measures (CIPM) makes no mention of the are in the current (2006) definition of the SI, but classifies the hectare as a "Non-SI unit accepted for use with the International System of Units ''
In 1972, the European Economic Community (EEC) passed directive 71 / 354 / EEC, which catalogued the units of measure that might be used within the Community. The units that were catalogued replicated the recommendations of the CGPM, supplemented by a few other units including the are (and implicitly the hectare) whose use was limited to the measurement of land.
Many UK farmers, especially older ones, still use the acre for everyday calculations, and convert to hectares only for official (especially European Union) paperwork. Farm fields can have very long histories which are resistant to change, with names such as "the six acre field '' stretching back hundreds of years and across generations of family farmers. Some younger agricultural workers are now beginning to think in hectares as their "first language '', though this is more typical of professional consultants and managers than of traditional farming and land - owning families, and in some circles may be viewed as a social class indicator.
The names centiare, deciare, decare and hectare are derived by adding the standard metric prefixes to the original base unit of area, the are.
The centiare is one square metre.
The deciare is ten square metres.
The are (/ ɑːr / or / ɛər /) is a unit of area, equal to 100 square metres (10 m × 10 m), used for measuring land area. It was defined by older forms of the metric system, but is now outside the modern International System of Units (SI). It is still commonly used in colloquial speech to measure real estate, in particular in Indonesia, India, and in various European countries.
In Russian and other languages of the former Soviet Union, the are is called sotka (Russian: сотка: ' a hundred ', i.e. 100 m). It is used to describe the size of suburban dacha or allotment garden plots or small city parks where the hectare would be too large.
The decare (/ ˈdɛkɑːr, - ɛər /) is derived from deca and are, and is equal to 10 ares or 1000 square metres. It is used in Norway and in the former Ottoman areas of the Middle East and the Balkans (Bulgaria) as a measure of land area. Instead of the name "decare '', the names of traditional land measures are usually used, redefined as one decare:
The hectare (/ ˈhɛktɛər, - tɑːr /), although not a unit of SI, is the only named unit of area that is accepted for use within the SI. In practice the hectare is fully derived from the SI, being equivalent to a square hectometre. It is widely used throughout the world for the measurement of large areas of land, and it is the legal unit of measure in domains concerned with land ownership, planning, and management, including law (land deeds), agriculture, forestry, and town planning throughout the European Union. The United Kingdom, United States, Burma, and to some extent Canada use the acre instead.
Some countries that underwent a general conversion from traditional measurements to metric measurements (e.g. Canada) required a resurvey when units of measure in legal descriptions relating to land were converted to metric units. Others, such as South Africa, published conversion factors which were to be used particularly "when preparing consolidation diagrams by compilation ''.
In many countries, metrication redefined or clarified existing measures in terms of metric units. The following legacy units of area have been redefined as being equal to one hectare:
The most commonly used units are in bold.
One hectare is also equivalent to:
On an international rugby union field the goal lines are up to 100 metres apart. Behind the goal line is the in - goal area (which is also a playing area). This area extends between 10 and 22 metres behind the goal line, giving a maximum length of 144 metres for the playing area. The maximum width of the pitch is 70 metres, giving a maximum playing area of 10,080 square metres or 1.008 hectares.
40 ° 41 ′ 21 '' N 74 ° 2 ′ 40 '' W / 40.68917 ° N 74.04444 ° W / 40.68917; - 74.04444 (Statue of Liberty)
The Statue of Liberty, a gift from the French people to the American people dedicated on 28 October 1886 to commemorate the hundredth anniversary of the French and American Revolutions, is located on Liberty Island at the entrance to New York Harbor. Its base is built on eighteenth - century fortifications.
The distance between the apex of the bastions in the front of the base to those at the back (where the entrance to the statue is located) is approximately 100 m while the distance between the apexes of the left - hand and right - hand bastions is a little under 100 m. Thus, if a square were to enscribe the bastions, it would have sides of approximately 100 m, giving it an area of one hectare.
Athletics tracks are found in almost every country of the world. Although many tracks consist of markings on a field of suitable size, where funds permit, specialist all - weather tracks have a rubberized artificial running surface with a grass interior (as shown in the picture and diagram). The perimeter of the inside kerb of the track is a little under 400 metres, as the actual length of the track is measured 300 mm from the inside kerb. The IAAF specifications state that the radius of the kerb is 36.5 m, from which it can be calculated that the area inside the kerb is 1.035 ha.
The soccer field often found inside is normally 105 × 70 m, that is 0.73 hectares.
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main character in proust remembrance of things past | In Search of Lost Time - wikipedia
In Search of Lost Time (French: À la recherche du temps perdu) -- previously also translated as Remembrance of Things Past -- is a novel in seven volumes, written by Marcel Proust (1871 -- 1922). It is considered to be his most prominent work, known both for its length and its theme of involuntary memory, the most famous example being the "episode of the madeleine '' which occurs early in the first volume. It gained fame in English in translations by C.K. Scott Moncrieff and Terence Kilmartin as Remembrance of Things Past, but the title In Search of Lost Time, a literal rendering of the French, has gained usage since D.J. Enright adopted it for his revised translation published in 1992.
In Search of Lost Time follows the narrator 's recollections of childhood and experiences into adulthood during late 19th century to early 20th century aristocratic France, while reflecting on the loss of time and lack of meaning to the world. The novel began to take shape in 1909. Proust continued to work on it until his final illness in the autumn of 1922 forced him to break off. Proust established the structure early on, but even after volumes were initially finished he kept adding new material and edited one volume after another for publication. The last three of the seven volumes contain oversights and fragmentary or unpolished passages, as they existed only in draft form at the death of the author; the publication of these parts was overseen by his brother Robert.
The work was published in France between 1913 and 1927. Proust paid for the publication of the first volume (by the Grasset publishing house) after it had been turned down by leading editors who had been offered the manuscript in longhand. Many of its ideas, motifs and scenes are foreshadowed in Proust 's unfinished novel, Jean Santeuil (1896 -- 99), though the perspective and treatment there are different, and in his unfinished hybrid of philosophical essay and story, Contre Sainte - Beuve (1908 -- 09).
The novel had great influence on twentieth - century literature; some writers have sought to emulate it, others to parody it. In the centenary year of the novel 's first volume, Edmund White pronounced À la recherche du temps perdu "the most respected novel of the twentieth century. ''
The novel was initially published in seven volumes:
The novel recounts the experiences of the Narrator (who is never definitively named) while he is growing up, learning about art, participating in society, and falling in love.
The Narrator begins by noting, "For a long time, I went to bed early. '' He comments on the way sleep seems to alter one 's surroundings, and the way Habit makes one indifferent to them. He remembers being in his room in the family 's country home in Combray, while downstairs his parents entertain their friend Charles Swann, an elegant man of Jewish origin with strong ties to society. Due to Swann 's visit, the Narrator is deprived of his mother 's goodnight kiss, but he gets her to spend the night reading to him. This memory is the only one he has of Combray, until years later the taste of a madeleine cake dipped in tea inspires a nostalgic incident of involuntary memory. He remembers having a similar snack as a child with his invalid aunt Leonie, and it leads to more memories of Combray. He describes their servant Françoise, who is uneducated but possesses an earthy wisdom and a strong sense of both duty and tradition. He meets an elegant "lady in pink '' while visiting his uncle Adolphe. He develops a love of the theater, especially the actress Berma, and his awkward Jewish friend Bloch introduces him to the works of the writer Bergotte. He learns Swann made an unsuitable marriage but has social ambitions for his beautiful daughter Gilberte. Legrandin, a snobbish friend of the family, tries to avoid introducing the boy to his well - to - do sister. The Narrator describes two routes for country walks the child and his parents often enjoyed: the way past Swann 's home (the Méséglise way), and the Guermantes way, both containing scenes of natural beauty. Taking the Méséglise way, he sees Gilberte Swann standing in her yard with a lady in white, Mme Swann, and her supposed lover: Baron de Charlus, a friend of Swann 's. Gilberte makes a gesture that the Narrator interprets as a rude dismissal. During another walk, he spies a lesbian scene involving Mlle Vinteuil, daughter of a composer, and her friend. The Guermantes way is symbolic of the Guermantes family, the nobility of the area. The Narrator is awed by the magic of their name, and is captivated when he first sees Mme de Guermantes. He discovers how appearances conceal the true nature of things, and tries writing a description of some nearby steeples. Lying in bed, he seems transported back to these places until he awakens.
Mme Verdurin is an autocratic hostess who, aided by her husband, demands total obedience from the guests in her "little clan. '' One guest is Odette de Crecy, a former courtesan, who has met Swann and invites him to the group. Swann is too refined for such company, but Odette gradually intrigues him with her unusual style. A sonata by Vinteuil, which features a "little phrase, '' becomes the motif for their deepening relationship. The Verdurins host M. de Forcheville; their guests include Cottard, a doctor; Brichot, an academic; Saniette, the object of scorn; and a painter, M. Biche. Swann grows jealous of Odette, who now keeps him at arm 's length, and suspects an affair between her and Forcheville, aided by the Verdurins. Swann seeks respite by attending a society concert that includes Legrandin 's sister and a young Mme de Guermantes; the "little phrase '' is played and Swann realizes Odette 's love for him is gone. He tortures himself wondering about her true relationships with others, but his love for her, despite renewals, gradually diminishes. He moves on and marvels that he ever loved a woman who was not his type.
At home in Paris, the Narrator dreams of visiting Venice or the church in Balbec, a resort, but he is too unwell and instead takes walks in the Champs - Élysées, where he meets and befriends Gilberte. He holds her father, now married to Odette, in the highest esteem, and is awed by the beautiful sight of Mme Swann strolling in public. Years later, the old sights of the area are long gone, and he laments the fleeting nature of places.
The Narrator 's parents are inviting M. de Norpois, a diplomat colleague of the Narrator 's father, to dinner. With Norpois 's intervention, the Narrator is finally allowed to go see Berma perform in a play, but is disappointed by her acting. Afterwards, at dinner, he watches Norpois, who is extremely diplomatic and correct at all times, expound on society and art. The Narrator gives him a draft of his writing, but Norpois gently indicates it is not good. The Narrator continues to go to the Champs - Élysées and play with Gilberte. Her parents distrust him, so he writes to them in protest. He and Gilberte wrestle and he has an orgasm. Gilberte invites him to tea, and he becomes a regular at her house. He observes Mme Swann 's inferior social status, Swann 's lowered standards and indifference towards his wife, and Gilberte 's affection for her father. The Narrator contemplates how he has attained his wish to know the Swanns, and savors their unique style. At one of their parties he meets and befriends Bergotte, who gives his impressions of society figures and artists. But the Narrator is still unable to start writing seriously. His friend Bloch takes him to a brothel, where there is a Jewish prostitute named Rachel. He showers Mme Swann with flowers, being almost on better terms with her than with Gilberte. One day, he and Gilberte quarrel and he decides never to see her again. However, he continues to visit Mme Swann, who has become a popular hostess, with her guests including Mme Bontemps, who has a niece named Albertine. The Narrator hopes for a letter from Gilberte repairing their friendship, but gradually feels himself losing interest. He breaks down and plans to reconcile with her, but spies from afar someone resembling her walking with a boy and gives her up for good. He stops visiting her mother also, who is now a celebrated beauty admired by passersby, and years later he can recall the glamour she displayed then.
Two years later, the Narrator, his grandmother, and Françoise set out for the seaside town of Balbec. The Narrator is almost totally indifferent to Gilberte now. During the train ride, his grandmother, who only believes in proper books, lends him her favorite: the Letters of Mme de Sevigne. At Balbec, the Narrator is disappointed with the church and uncomfortable in his unfamiliar hotel room, but his grandmother comforts him. He admires the seascape, and learns about the colorful staff and customers around the hotel: Aime, the discreet headwaiter; the lift operator; M. de Stermaria and his beautiful young daughter; and M. de Cambremer and his wife, Legrandin 's sister. His grandmother encounters an old friend, the blue - blooded Mme de Villeparisis, and they renew their friendship. The three of them go for rides in the country, openly discussing art and politics. The Narrator longs for the country girls he sees alongside the roads, and has a strange feeling of unexplained memory while admiring a row of three trees. Mme de Villeparisis is joined by her glamorous great - nephew Robert de Saint - Loup, who is involved with an unsuitable woman. Despite initial awkwardness, the Narrator and his grandmother become good friends with him. Bloch, the childhood friend from Combray, turns up with his family, and acts in typically inappropriate fashion. Saint - Loup 's ultra-aristocratic and extremely rude uncle the Baron de Charlus arrives. The Narrator discovers Mme de Villeparisis, her nephew M. de Charlus, and his nephew Saint - Loup are all of the Guermantes family. Charlus ignores the Narrator, but later visits him in his room and lends him a book. The next day, the Baron speaks shockingly informally to him, then demands the book back. The Narrator ponders Saint - Loup 's attitude towards his aristocratic roots, and his relationship with his mistress, a mere actress whose recital bombed horribly with his family. One day, the Narrator sees a "little band '' of teenage girls strolling beside the sea, and becomes infatuated with them, along with an unseen hotel guest named Mlle Simonet. He joins Saint - Loup for dinner and reflects on how drunkenness affects his perceptions. Later they meet the painter Elstir, and the Narrator visits his studio. The Narrator marvels at Elstir 's method of renewing impressions of ordinary things, as well as his connections with the Verdurins (he is "M. Biche '') and Mme Swann. He discovers the painter knows the teenage girls, particularly one dark - haired beauty who is Albertine Simonet. Elstir arranges an introduction, and the Narrator becomes friends with her, as well as her friends Andrée, Rosemonde, and Gisele. The group goes for picnics and tours the countryside, as well as playing games, while the Narrator reflects on the nature of love as he becomes attracted to Albertine. Despite her rejection, they become close, although he still feels attracted to the whole group. At summer 's end, the town closes up, and the Narrator is left with his image of first seeing the girls walking beside the sea.
The Narrator 's family has moved to an apartment connected with the Guermantes residence. Françoise befriends a fellow tenant, the tailor Jupien and his niece. The Narrator is fascinated by the Guermantes and their life, and is awed by their social circle while attending another Berma performance. He begins staking out the street where Mme de Guermantes walks every day, to her evident annoyance. He decides to visit her nephew Saint - Loup at his military base, to ask to be introduced to her. After noting the landscape and his state of mind while sleeping, the Narrator meets and attends dinners with Saint - Loup 's fellow officers, where they discuss the Dreyfus Affair and the art of military strategy. But the Narrator returns home after receiving a call from his aging grandmother. Mme de Guermantes declines to see him, and he also finds he is still unable to begin writing. Saint - Loup visits on leave, and they have lunch and attend a recital with his actress mistress: Rachel, the Jewish prostitute, toward whom the unsuspecting Saint - Loup is crazed with jealousy. The Narrator then goes to Mme de Villeparisis 's salon, which is considered second - rate despite its public reputation. Legrandin attends and displays his social climbing. Bloch stridently interrogates M. de Norpois about the Dreyfus Affair, which has ripped all of society asunder, but Norpois diplomatically avoids answering. The Narrator observes Mme de Guermantes and her aristocratic bearing, as she makes caustic remarks about friends and family, including the mistresses of her husband, who is M. de Charlus 's brother. Mme Swann arrives, and the Narrator remembers a visit from Morel, the son of his uncle Adolphe 's valet, who revealed that the "lady in pink '' was Mme Swann. Charlus asks the Narrator to leave with him, and offers to make him his protégé. At home, the Narrator 's grandmother has worsened, and while walking with him she suffers a stroke.
The family seeks out the best medical help, and she is often visited by Bergotte, himself unwell, but she dies, her face reverting to its youthful appearance. Several months later, Saint - Loup, now single, convinces the Narrator to ask out the Stermaria daughter, newly divorced. Albertine visits; she has matured and they share a kiss. The Narrator then goes to see Mme de Villeparisis, where Mme de Guermantes, whom he has stopped following, invites him to dinner. The Narrator daydreams of Mme de Stermaria, but she abruptly cancels, although Saint - Loup rescues him from despair by taking him to dine with his aristocratic friends, who engage in petty gossip. Saint - Loup passes on an invitation from Charlus to come visit him. The next day, at the Guermantes 's dinner party, the Narrator admires their Elstir paintings, then meets the cream of society, including the Princess of Parma, who is an amiable simpleton. He learns more about the Guermantes: their hereditary features; their less - refined cousins the Courvoisiers; and Mme de Guermantes 's celebrated humor, artistic tastes, and exalted diction (although she does not live up to the enchantment of her name). The discussion turns to gossip about society, including Charlus and his late wife; the affair between Norpois and Mme de Villeparisis; and aristocratic lineages. Leaving, the Narrator visits Charlus, who falsely accuses him of slandering him. The Narrator stomps on Charlus 's hat and storms out, but Charlus is strangely unperturbed and gives him a ride home. Months later, the Narrator is invited to the Princesse de Guermantes 's party. He tries to verify the invitation with M. and Mme de Guermantes, but first sees something he will describe later. They will be attending the party but do not help him, and while they are chatting, Swann arrives. Now a committed Dreyfusard, he is very sick and nearing death, but the Guermantes assure him he will outlive them.
The Narrator describes what he had seen earlier: while waiting for the Guermantes to return so he could ask about his invitation, he saw Charlus encounter Jupien in their courtyard. The two then went into Jupien 's shop and had intercourse. The Narrator reflects on the nature of "inverts '', and how they are like a secret society, never able to live in the open. He compares them to flowers, whose reproduction through the aid of insects depends solely on happenstance. Arriving at the Princesse 's party, his invitation seems valid as he is greeted warmly by her. He sees Charlus exchanging knowing looks with the diplomat Vaugobert, a fellow invert. After several tries, the Narrator manages to be introduced to the Prince de Guermantes, who then walks off with Swann, causing speculation on the topic of their conversation. Mme de Saint - Euverte tries to recruit guests for her party the next day, but is subjected to scorn from some of the Guermantes. Charlus is captivated by the two young sons of M. de Guermantes 's newest mistress. Saint - Loup arrives and mentions the names of several promiscuous women to the Narrator. Swann takes the Narrator aside and reveals the Prince wanted to admit his and his wife 's pro-Dreyfus leanings. Swann is aware of his old friend Charlus 's behavior, then urges the Narrator to visit Gilberte, and departs. The Narrator leaves with M. and Mme de Guermantes, and heads home for a late - night meeting with Albertine. He grows frantic when first she is late and then calls to cancel, but he convinces her to come. He writes an indifferent letter to Gilberte, and reviews the changing social scene, which now includes Mme Swann 's salon centered on Bergotte.
He decides to return to Balbec, after learning the women mentioned by Saint - Loup will be there. At Balbec, grief at his grandmother 's suffering, which was worse than he knew, overwhelms him. He ponders the intermittencies of the heart and the ways of dealing with sad memories. His mother, even sadder, has become more like his grandmother in homage. Albertine is nearby and they begin spending time together, but he starts to suspect her of lesbianism and of lying to him about her activities. He fakes a preference for her friend Andrée to make her become more trustworthy, and it works, but he soon suspects her of knowing several scandalous women at the hotel, including Lea, an actress. On the way to visit Saint - Loup, they meet Morel, the valet 's son who is now an excellent violinist, and then the aging Charlus, who falsely claims to know Morel and goes to speak to him. The Narrator visits the Verdurins, who are renting a house from the Cambremers. On the train with him is the little clan: Brichot, who explains at length the derivation of the local place - names; Cottard, now a celebrated doctor; Saniette, still the butt of everyone 's ridicule; and a new member, Ski. The Verdurins are still haughty and dictatorial toward their guests, who are as pedantic as ever. Charlus and Morel arrive together, and Charlus 's true nature is barely concealed. The Cambremers arrive, and the Verdurins barely tolerate them.
Back at the hotel, the Narrator ruminates on sleep and time, and observes the amusing mannerisms of the staff, who are mostly aware of Charlus 's proclivities. The Narrator and Albertine hire a chauffeur and take rides in the country, leading to observations about new forms of travel as well as country life. The Narrator is unaware that the chauffeur and Morel are acquainted, and he reviews Morel 's amoral character and plans towards Jupien 's niece. The Narrator is jealously suspicious of Albertine but grows tired of her. She and the Narrator attend evening dinners at the Verdurins, taking the train with the other guests; Charlus is now a regular, despite his obliviousness to the clan 's mockery. He and Morel try to maintain the secret of their relationship, and the Narrator recounts a ploy involving a fake duel that Charlus used to control Morel. The passing station stops remind the Narrator of various people and incidents, including two failed attempts by the Prince de Guermantes to arrange liaisons with Morel; a final break between the Verdurins and Cambremers; and a misunderstanding between the Narrator, Charlus, and Bloch. The Narrator has grown weary of the area and prefers others over Albertine. But she reveals to him as they leave the train that she has plans with Mlle Vinteuil and her friend (the lesbians from Combray) which plunges him into despair. He invents a story about a broken engagement of his, to convince her to go to Paris with him, and after hesitating she suddenly agrees to go immediately. The Narrator tells his mother: he must marry Albertine.
The Narrator is living with Albertine in his family 's apartment, to Françoise 's distrust and his absent mother 's chagrin. He marvels that he has come to possess her, but has grown bored with her. He mostly stays home, but has enlisted Andrée to report on Albertine 's whereabouts, as his jealousy remains. The Narrator gets advice on fashion from Mme de Guermantes, and encounters Charlus and Morel visiting Jupien and her niece, who is being married off to Morel despite his cruelty towards her. One day, the Narrator returns from the Guermantes and finds Andrée just leaving, claiming to dislike the smell of their flowers. Albertine, who is more guarded to avoid provoking his jealousy, is maturing into an intelligent and elegant young lady. The Narrator is entranced by her beauty as she sleeps, and is only content when she is not out with others. She mentions wanting to go to the Verdurins, but the Narrator suspects an ulterior motive and analyzes her conversation for hints. He suggests she go instead to the Trocadéro with Andrée, and she reluctantly agrees. The Narrator compares dreams to wakefulness, and listens to the street vendors with Albertine, then she departs. He remembers trips she took with the chauffeur, then learns Lea the notorious actress will be at the Trocadero too. He sends Françoise to retrieve Albertine, and while waiting, he muses on music and Morel. When she returns, they go for a drive, while he pines for Venice and realizes she feels captive. He learns of Bergotte 's final illness. That evening, he sneaks off to the Verdurins to try to discover the reason for Albertine 's interest in them. He encounters Brichot on the way, and they discuss Swann, who has died. Charlus arrives and the Narrator reviews the Baron 's struggles with Morel, then learns Mlle Vinteuil and her friend are expected (although they do not come). Morel joins in performing a septet by Vinteuil, which evokes commonalities with his sonata that only the composer could create. Mme Verdurin is furious that Charlus has taken control of her party; in revenge the Verdurins persuade Morel to repudiate him, and Charlus falls temporarily ill from the shock. Returning home, the Narrator and Albertine fight about his solo visit to the Verdurins, and she denies having affairs with Lea or Mlle Vinteuil, but admits she lied on occasion to avoid arguments. He threatens to break it off, but they reconcile. He appreciates art and fashion with her, and ponders her mysteriousness. But his suspicion of her and Andrée is renewed, and they quarrel. After two awkward days and a restless night, he resolves to end the affair, but in the morning Françoise informs him: Albertine has asked for her boxes and left.
The Narrator is anguished at Albertine 's departure and absence. He dispatches Saint - Loup to convince her aunt Mme Bontemps to send her back, but Albertine insists the Narrator should ask, and she will gladly return. The Narrator lies and replies he is done with her, but she just agrees with him. He writes to her that he will marry Andrée, then hears from Saint - Loup of the failure of his mission to the aunt. Desperate, he begs Albertine to return, but receives word: she has died in a riding accident. He receives two last letters from her: one wishing him and Andrée well, and one asking if she can return. The Narrator plunges into suffering amid the many different memories of Albertine, intimately linked to all of his everyday sensations. He recalls a suspicious incident she told him of at Balbec, and asks Aime, the headwaiter, to investigate. He recalls their history together and his regrets, as well as love 's randomness. Aime reports back: Albertine often engaged in affairs with girls at Balbec. The Narrator sends him to learn more, and he reports other liaisons with girls. The Narrator wishes he could have known the true Albertine, whom he would have accepted. He begins to grow accustomed to the idea of her death, despite constant reminders that renew his grief. Andrée admits her own lesbianism but denies being with Albertine. The Narrator knows he will forget Albertine, just as he has forgotten Gilberte.
He happens to meet Gilberte again; her mother Mme Swann became Mme de Forcheville and Gilberte is now part of high society, received by the Guermantes. The Narrator finally publishes an article in Le Figaro. Andrée visits him and confesses relations with Albertine and also explains the truth behind her departure: her aunt wanted her to marry another man. The Narrator finally visits Venice with his mother, which enthralls him in every aspect. They happen to see Norpois and Mme de Villeparisis there. A telegram signed from Albertine arrives, but the Narrator is indifferent and it is only a misprint anyway. Returning home, the Narrator and his mother receive surprising news: Gilberte will marry Saint - Loup, and Jupien 's niece will be adopted by Charlus and then married to Legrandin 's nephew, an invert. There is much discussion of these marriages among society. The Narrator visits Gilberte in her new home, and is shocked to learn of Saint - Loup 's affair with Morel, among others. He despairs for their friendship.
The Narrator is staying with Gilberte at her home near Combray. They go for walks, on one of which he is stunned to learn the Méséglise way and the Guermantes way are actually linked. Gilberte also tells him she was attracted to him when young, and had made a suggestive gesture to him as he watched her. Also, it was Lea she was walking with the evening he had planned to reconcile with her. He considers Saint - Loup 's nature and reads an account of the Verdurins ' salon, deciding he has no talent for writing.
The scene shifts to a night in 1916, during World War I, when the Narrator has returned to Paris from a stay in a sanatorium and is walking the streets during a blackout. He reflects on the changed norms of art and society, with the Verdurins now highly esteemed. He recounts a 1914 visit from Saint - Loup, who was trying to enlist secretly. He recalls descriptions of the fighting he subsequently received from Saint - Loup and Gilberte, whose home was threatened. He describes a call paid on him a few days previously by Saint - Loup; they discussed military strategy. Now on the dark street, the Narrator encounters Charlus, who has completely surrendered to his impulses. Charlus reviews Morel 's betrayals and his own temptation to seek vengeance; critiques Brichot 's new fame as a writer, which has ostracized him from the Verdurins; and admits his general sympathy with Germany. The last part of the conversation draws a crowd of suspicious onlookers. After parting the Narrator seeks refuge in what appears to be hotel, where he sees someone who looks familiar leaving. Inside, he discovers it to be a male brothel, and spies Charlus using the services. The proprietor turns out to be Jupien, who expresses a perverse pride in his business. A few days later, news comes that Saint - Loup has been killed in combat. The Narrator pieces together that Saint - Loup had visited Jupien 's brothel, and ponders what might have been had he lived.
Years later, again in Paris, the Narrator goes to a party at the house of the Prince de Guermantes. On the way he sees Charlus, now a mere shell of his former self, being helped by Jupien. The paving stones at the Guermantes house inspire another incident of involuntary memory for the Narrator, quickly followed by two more. Inside, while waiting in the library, he discerns their meaning: by putting him in contact with both the past and present, the impressions allow him to gain a vantage point outside time, affording a glimpse of the true nature of things. He realizes his whole life has prepared him for the mission of describing events as fully revealed, and (finally) resolves to begin writing. Entering the party, he is shocked at the disguises old age has given to the people he knew, and at the changes in society. Legrandin is now an invert, but is no longer a snob. Bloch is a respected writer and vital figure in society. Morel has reformed and become a respected citizen. Mme de Forcheville is the mistress of M. de Guermantes. Mme Verdurin has married the Prince de Guermantes after both their spouses died. Rachel is the star of the party, abetted by Mme de Guermantes, whose social position has been eroded by her affinity for theater. Gilberte introduces her daughter to the Narrator; he is struck by the way the daughter encapsulates both the Méséglise and Guermantes ways within herself. He is spurred to writing, with help from Françoise and despite signs of approaching death. He realizes that every person carries within them the accumulated baggage of their past, and concludes that to be accurate he must describe how everyone occupies an immense range "in Time ''.
À la recherche made a decisive break with the 19th century realist and plot - driven novel, populated by people of action and people representing social and cultural groups or morals. Although parts of the novel could be read as an exploration of snobbism, deceit, jealousy and suffering and although it contains a multitude of realistic details, the focus is not on the development of a tight plot or of a coherent evolution but on a multiplicity of perspectives and on the formation of experience. The protagonists of the first volume (the narrator as a boy and Swann) are by the standards of 19th century novels, remarkably introspective and passive, nor do they trigger action from other leading characters; to contemporary readers, reared on Honoré de Balzac, Victor Hugo, and Leo Tolstoy, they would not function as centers of a plot. While there is an array of symbolism in the work, it is rarely defined through explicit "keys '' leading to moral, romantic or philosophical ideas. The significance of what is happening is often placed within the memory or in the inner contemplation of what is described. This focus on the relationship between experience, memory and writing and the radical de-emphasizing of the outward plot, have become staples of the modern novel but were almost unheard of in 1913.
Roger Shattuck elucidates an underlying principle in understanding Proust and the various themes present in his novel:
Thus the novel embodies and manifests the principle of intermittence: to live means to perceive different and often conflicting aspects of reality. This iridescence never resolves itself completely into a unitive point of view. Accordingly, it is possible to project out of the Search itself a series of putative and intermittent authors... The portraitist of an expiring society, the artist of romantic reminiscence, the narrator of the laminated "I, '' the classicist of formal structure -- all these figures are to be found in Proust...
The role of memory is central to the novel, introduced with the famous madeleine episode in the first section of the novel and in the last volume, Time Regained, a flashback similar to that caused by the madeleine is the beginning of the resolution of the story. Throughout the work many similar instances of involuntary memory, triggered by sensory experiences such as sights, sounds and smells conjure important memories for the narrator and sometimes return attention to an earlier episode of the novel. Although Proust wrote contemporaneously with Sigmund Freud, with there being many points of similarity between their thought on the structures and mechanisms of the human mind, neither author read the other.
The madeleine episode reads:
No sooner had the warm liquid mixed with the crumbs touched my palate than a shudder ran through me and I stopped, intent upon the extraordinary thing that was happening to me. An exquisite pleasure had invaded my senses, something isolated, detached, with no suggestion of its origin. And at once the vicissitudes of life had become indifferent to me, its disasters innocuous, its brevity illusory -- this new sensation having had on me the effect which love has of filling me with a precious essence; or rather this essence was not in me it was me... Whence did it come? What did it mean? How could I seize and apprehend it?... And suddenly the memory revealed itself. The taste was that of the little piece of madeleine which on Sunday mornings at Combray (because on those mornings I did not go out before mass), when I went to say good morning to her in her bedroom, my aunt Léonie used to give me, dipping it first in her own cup of tea or tisane. The sight of the little madeleine had recalled nothing to my mind before I tasted it. And all from my cup of tea.
Gilles Deleuze believed that the focus of Proust was not memory and the past but the narrator 's learning the use of "signs '' to understand and communicate ultimate reality, thereby becoming an artist. While Proust was bitterly aware of the experience of loss and exclusion -- loss of loved ones, loss of affection, friendship and innocent joy, which are dramatized in the novel through recurrent jealousy, betrayal and the death of loved ones -- his response to this, formulated after he had discovered Ruskin, was that the work of art can recapture the lost and thus save it from destruction, at least in our minds. Art triumphs over the destructive power of time. This element of his artistic thought is clearly inherited from romantic platonism, but Proust crosses it with a new intensity in describing jealousy, desire and self - doubt. (Note the last quatrain of Baudelaire 's poem "Une Charogne '': "Then, O my beauty! say to the worms who will / Devour you with kisses, / That I have kept the form and the divine essence / Of my decomposed love! '').
Proust begins his novel with the statement, "For a long time I used to go to bed early. '' This leads to lengthy discussion of his anxiety at leaving his mother at night and his attempts to force her to come and kiss him goodnight, even on nights when the family has company, culminating in a spectacular success, when his father suggests that his mother stay the night with him after he has waylaid her in the hall when she is going to bed.
His anxiety leads to manipulation, much like the manipulation employed by his invalid aunt Leonie and all the lovers in the entire book, who use the same methods of petty tyranny to manipulate and possess their loved ones.
The nature of art is a motif in the novel and is often explored at great length. Proust sets forth a theory of art in which we are all capable of producing art, if by this we mean taking the experiences of life and transforming them in a way that shows understanding and maturity. Writing, painting, and music are also discussed at great length. Morel the violinist is examined to give an example of a certain type of "artistic '' character, along with other fictional artists like the novelist Bergotte, the composer Vinteuil, and the painter Elstir.
As early as the Combray section of Swann 's Way, the narrator is concerned with his ability to write, since he desires to pursue a writing career. The transmutation of the experience of a scene in one of the family 's usual walks into a short descriptive passage is described and the sample passage given. The narrator presents this passage as an early sample of his own writing, in which he has only had to alter a few words. The question of his own genius relates to all the passages in which genius is recognized or misunderstood because it presents itself in the guise of a humble friend, rather than a passionate artiste.
The question of taste or judgement in art is also an important theme, as exemplified by Swann 's exquisite taste in art, which is often hidden from his friends who do not share it or subordinated to his love interests.
Questions pertaining to homosexuality appear throughout the novel, particularly in the later volumes. The first arrival of this theme comes in the Combray section of Swann 's Way, where the daughter of the piano teacher and composer Vinteuil is seduced and perverted, and the narrator observes her having lesbian relations in front of the portrait of her recently deceased father.
The narrator invariably suspects his lovers of liaisons with other women, a repetition of the suspicions held by Charles Swann about his mistress and eventual wife, Odette, in "Swann 's Way. '' The first chapter of "Cities of the Plain '' includes a detailed account of a sexual encounter between M. de Charlus, the novel 's most prominent male homosexual, and his tailor. Critics have often observed that while the character of the narrator is ostensibly heterosexual, Proust intimates that the narrator is a closeted homosexual. The narrator 's manner towards male homosexuality is consistently aloof, yet the narrator (or Proust?) is unaccountably knowledgeable. This strategy enables Proust to pursue themes related to male homosexuality -- in particular the nature of closetedness -- from both within and without a homosexual perspective. Proust does not designate Charlus ' homosexuality until the middle of the novel, in "Cities ''; afterwards the Baron 's ostentatiousness and flamboyance, of which he is blithely unaware, completely absorb the narrator 's perception. Lesbianism, on the other hand, tortures Swann and the narrator because it presents an inaccessible world. Whereas male homosexual desire is recognizable, insofar as it encompasses male sexuality, Odette 's and Albertine 's lesbian trysts represent Swann and the narrator 's painful exclusion from characters they desire.
There is much debate as to how great a bearing Proust 's sexuality has on understanding these aspects of the novel. Although many of Proust 's close family and friends suspected that he was homosexual, Proust never admitted this. It was only after his death that André Gide, in his publication of correspondence with Proust, made public Proust 's homosexuality. In response to Gide 's criticism that he hid his actual sexuality within his novel, Proust told Gide that "one can say anything so long as one does not say ' I '. '' The nature of Proust 's intimate relations with such individuals as Alfred Agostinelli and Reynaldo Hahn are well documented, though Proust was not "out and proud, '' except perhaps in close - knit social circles. In 1949, the critic Justin O'Brien published an article in the PMLA called "Albertine the Ambiguous: Notes on Proust 's Transposition of Sexes '' which proposed that some female characters are best understood as actually referring to young men. Strip off the feminine ending of the names of the Narrator 's lovers -- Albertine, Gilberte, Andrée -- and one has their masculine counterpart. This theory has become known as the "transposition of sexes theory '' in Proust criticism, which in turn has been challenged in Epistemology of the Closet (1990) by Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick and in "Proust 's Lesbianism '' (1999) by Elisabeth Ladenson. Feminized forms of masculine names were and are commonplace in French.
In Search of Lost Time is considered the definitive modern novel by many scholars. It has had a profound effect on subsequent writers such as the Bloomsbury Group. "Oh if I could write like that! '' marveled Virginia Woolf in 1922 (2: 525).
Literary critic Harold Bloom wrote that In Search of Lost Time is now "widely recognized as the major novel of the twentieth century. '' Vladimir Nabokov, in a 1965 interview, named the greatest prose works of the 20th century as, in order, "Joyce 's Ulysses, Kafka 's The Metamorphosis, Bely 's Petersburg, and the first half of Proust 's fairy tale In Search of Lost Time. '' J. Peder Zane 's book The Top Ten: Writers Pick Their Favorite Books, collates 125 "top 10 greatest books of all time '' lists by prominent living writers; In Search of Lost Time is placed eighth. In the 1960s, Swedish literary critic Bengt Holmqvist described the novel as "at once the last great classic of French epic prose tradition and the towering precursor of the ' nouveau roman ' '', indicating the sixties vogue of new, experimental French prose but also, by extension, other post-war attempts to fuse different planes of location, temporality and fragmented consciousness within the same novel. Pulitzer Prize - winning author Michael Chabon has called it his favorite book.
Proust 's influence (in parody) is seen in Evelyn Waugh 's A Handful of Dust (1934), in which Chapter 1 is entitled "Du Côté de Chez Beaver '' and Chapter 6 "Du Côté de Chez Tod. '' Waugh did not like Proust: in letters to Nancy Mitford in 1948, he wrote, "I am reading Proust for the first time... and am surprised to find him a mental defective '' and later, "I still think (Proust) insane... the structure must be sane & that is raving. ''
Since the publication in 1992 of a revised English translation by The Modern Library, based on a new definitive French edition (1987 -- 89), interest in Proust 's novel in the English - speaking world has increased. Two substantial new biographies have appeared in English, by Edmund White and William C. Carter, and at least two books about the experience of reading Proust have appeared by Alain de Botton and Phyllis Rose. The Proust Society of America, founded in 1997, has three chapters: at The Mercantile Library of New York City, the Mechanic 's Institute Library in San Francisco, and the Boston Athenæum Library.
The first six volumes were first translated into English by the Scotsman C.K. Scott Moncrieff under the title Remembrance of Things Past, a phrase taken from Shakespeare 's Sonnet 30; this was the first translation of the Recherche into another language. The individual volumes were Swann 's Way (1922), Within a Budding Grove (1924), The Guermantes Way (1925), Cities of the Plain (1927), The Captive (1929), and The Sweet Cheat Gone (1930). The final volume, Le Temps retrouvé, was initially published in English in the UK as Time Regained (1931), translated by Stephen Hudson (a pseudonym of Sydney Schiff), and in the US as The Past Recaptured (1932) in a translation by Frederick Blossom. Although cordial with Scott Moncrieff, Proust grudgingly remarked in a letter that Remembrance eliminated the correspondence between Temps perdu and Temps retrouvé (Painter, 352). Terence Kilmartin revised the Scott Moncrieff translation in 1981, using the new French edition of 1954. An additional revision by D.J. Enright -- that is, a revision of a revision -- was published by the Modern Library in 1992. It is based on the "La Pléiade '' edition of the French text (1987 -- 89), and rendered the title of the novel more literally as In Search of Lost Time.
In 1995, Penguin undertook a fresh translation based on the "La Pléiade '' French text (published in 1987 -- 89) of In Search of Lost Time by a team of seven different translators overseen by editor Christopher Prendergast. The six volumes were published in Britain under the Allen Lane imprint in 2002, each volume under the name of a separate translator, the first volume being American writer Lydia Davis, and the others under English translators and one Australian, James Grieve. The first four have since been published in the US under the Viking imprint and in paperback under the Penguin Classics imprint. The remaining volumes are scheduled to come out in 2018.
Both the Modern Library and Penguin translations provide a detailed plot synopsis at the end of each volume. The last volume of the Modern Library edition, Time Regained, also includes Kilmartin 's "A Guide to Proust, '' an index of the novel 's characters, persons, places, and themes. The Modern Library volumes include a handful of endnotes, and alternative versions of some of the novel 's famous episodes. The Penguin volumes each provide an extensive set of brief, non-scholarly endnotes that help identify cultural references perhaps unfamiliar to contemporary English readers. Reviews which discuss the merits of both translations can be found online at the Observer, the Telegraph, The New York Review of Books, The New York Times, TempsPerdu.com, and Reading Proust.
Most recently, Yale University Press has begun to issue In Search of Lost Time at the promised rate of one volume a year. They are based on the public domain translations of C.K. Scott Moncrieff (and probably Stephen Hudson), modernized and corrected, with extensive annotations. Swann 's Way was published in the centenary year of 2013; In the Shadow of Young Girls in Flower in 2015.
Terence Kilmartin compiled a comprehensive Reader 's Guide to the Remembrance of Things Past (1983). The Guide comprises four separate indices: an index of characters in the Remembrance; an index of actual persons; an index of places; and an index of themes. The reader is thus enabled to locate almost any reference, e.g. Berlioz, or The Arabian Nights, or Madame Verdurin in any particular scene or setting, or Versailles. The volume and page numbers are keyed to the 3 - volume Remembrance of Things Past of 1981, translated by Scott Moncrieff and revised by Kilmartin himself.
Notes
Bibliography
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difference between normal and abnormal combustion in si engine | Engine knocking - wikipedia
Knocking (also knock, detonation, spark knock, pinging or pinking) in spark - ignition internal combustion engines occurs when combustion of some of the air / fuel mixture in the cylinder does not result from propagation of the flame front ignited by the spark plug, but one or more pockets of air / fuel mixture explode outside the envelope of the normal combustion front.
The fuel - air charge is meant to be ignited by the spark plug only, and at a precise point in the piston 's stroke. Knock occurs when the peak of the combustion process no longer occurs at the optimum moment for the four - stroke cycle. The shock wave creates the characteristic metallic "pinging '' sound, and cylinder pressure increases dramatically. Effects of engine knocking range from inconsequential to completely destructive.
Knocking should not be confused with pre-ignition -- they are two separate events. However, pre-ignition is usually followed by knocking.
The phenomenon of detonation was first observed and described by Harry Ricardo during experiments carried out between 1916 and 1919 to discover the reason for failures in aircraft engines.
Under ideal conditions the common internal combustion engine burns the fuel / air mixture in the cylinder in an orderly and controlled fashion. The combustion is started by the spark plug some 10 to 40 crankshaft degrees prior to top dead center (TDC), depending on many factors including engine speed and load. This ignition advance allows time for the combustion process to develop peak pressure at the ideal time for maximum recovery of work from the expanding gases.
The spark across the spark plug 's electrodes forms a small kernel of flame approximately the size of the spark plug gap. As it grows in size, its heat output increases, which allows it to grow at an accelerating rate, expanding rapidly through the combustion chamber. This growth is due to the travel of the flame front through the combustible fuel air mix itself, and due to turbulence which rapidly stretches the burning zone into a complex of fingers of burning gas that have a much greater surface area than a simple spherical ball of flame would have. In normal combustion, this flame front moves throughout the fuel / air mixture at a rate characteristic for the particular mixture. Pressure rises smoothly to a peak, as nearly all the available fuel is consumed, then pressure falls as the piston descends. Maximum cylinder pressure is achieved a few crankshaft degrees after the piston passes TDC, so that the force applied on the piston (from the increasing pressure applied to the top surface of the piston) can give its hardest push precisely when the piston 's speed and mechanical advantage on the crank shaft gives the best recovery of force from the expanding gases, thus maximizing torque transferred to the crankshaft.
When unburned fuel / air mixture beyond the boundary of the flame front is subjected to a combination of heat and pressure for a certain duration (beyond the delay period of the fuel used), detonation may occur. Detonation is characterized by an almost instantaneous, explosive ignition of at least one pocket of fuel / air mixture outside of the flame front. A local shockwave is created around each pocket and the cylinder pressure will rise sharply, and possibly beyond its design limits causing damage.
If detonation is allowed to persist under extreme conditions or over many engine cycles, engine parts can be damaged or destroyed. The simplest deleterious effects are typically particle wear caused by moderate knocking, which may further ensue through the engine 's oil system and cause wear on other parts before being trapped by the oil filter. Such wear gives the appearance of erosion, abrasion, or a "sandblasted '' look, similar to the damage caused by hydraulic cavitation. Severe knocking can lead to catastrophic failure in the form of physical holes melted and pushed through the piston or cylinder head (i.e., rupture of the combustion chamber), either of which depressurizes the affected cylinder and introduces large metal fragments, fuel, and combustion products into the oil system. Hypereutectic pistons are known to break easily from such shock waves.
Detonation can be prevented by any or all of the following techniques:
Because pressure and temperature are strongly linked, knock can also be attenuated by controlling peak combustion chamber temperatures by compression ratio reduction, exhaust gas recirculation, appropriate calibration of the engine 's ignition timing schedule, and careful design of the engine 's combustion chambers and cooling system as well as controlling the initial air intake temperature.
The addition of certain materials such as lead and thallium will suppress detonation extremely well when certain fuels are used. The addition of tetraethyllead (TEL), a soluble organolead compound added to gasoline was common until it was discontinued for reasons of toxic pollution. Lead dust added to the intake charge will also reduce knock with various hydrocarbon fuels. Manganese compounds are also used to reduce knock with petrol fuel.
Knock is less common in cold climates. As an aftermarket solution, a water injection system can be employed to reduce combustion chamber peak temperatures and thus suppress detonation. Steam (water vapour) will suppress knock even though no added cooling is supplied.
Certain chemical changes must first occur for knock to happen, hence fuels with certain structures tend to knock easier than others. Branched chain paraffins tend to resist knock while straight chain paraffins knock easily. It has been theorized that lead, steam, and the like interfere with some of the various oxidative changes that occur during combustion and hence the reduction in knock.
Turbulence, as stated, has very important effect on knock. Engines with good turbulence tend to knock less than engines with poor turbulence. Turbulence occurs not only while the engine is inhaling but also when the mixture is compressed and burned. Many pistons are designed to use "squish '' turbulence to violently mix the air and fuel together as they are ignited and burned, which reduces knock greatly by speeding up burning and cooling the unburnt mixture. One example of this is all modern side valve or flathead engines. A considerable portion of the head space is made to come in close proximity of the piston crown, making for much turbulence near TDC. In the early days of side valve heads this was not done and a much lower compression ratio had to be used for any given fuel. Also such engines were sensitive to ignition advance and had less power.
Knocking is more or less unavoidable in diesel engines, where fuel is injected into highly compressed air towards the end of the compression stroke. There is a short lag between the fuel being injected and combustion starting. By this time there is already a quantity of fuel in the combustion chamber which will ignite first in areas of greater oxygen density prior to the combustion of the complete charge. This sudden increase in pressure and temperature causes the distinctive diesel ' knock ' or ' clatter ', some of which must be allowed for in the engine design.
Careful design of the injector pump, fuel injector, combustion chamber, piston crown and cylinder head can reduce knocking greatly, and modern engines using electronic common rail injection have very low levels of knock. Engines using indirect injection generally have lower levels of knock than direct injection engine, due to the greater dispersal of oxygen in the combustion chamber and lower injection pressures providing a more complete mixing of fuel and air. Diesels actually do not suffer exactly the same "knock '' as gasoline engines since the cause is known to be only the very fast rate of pressure rise, not unstable combustion. Diesel fuels are actually very prone to knock in gasoline engines but in the diesel engine there is no time for knock to occur because the fuel is only oxidized during the expansion cycle. In the gasoline engine the fuel is slowly oxidizing all the time while it is being compressed before the spark. This allows for changes to occur in the structure / makeup of the molecules before the very critical period of high temp / pressure.
Due to the large variation in fuel quality, a large number of engines now contain mechanisms to detect knocking and adjust timing or boost pressure accordingly in order to offer improved performance on high octane fuels while reducing the risk of engine damage caused by knock while running on low octane fuels.
An early example of this is in turbo charged Saab H engines, where a system called Automatic Performance Control was used to reduce boost pressure if it caused the engine to knock.
Various monitoring devices are commonly utilized by tuners as a method of seeing and listening to the engine in order to ascertain if a tuned vehicle is safe under load or used to re-tune a vehicle safely.
Since the avoidance of knocking combustion is so important to development engineers, a variety of simulation technologies have been developed which can identify engine design or operating conditions in which knock might be expected to occur. This then enables engineers to design ways to mitigate knocking combustion whilst maintaining a high thermal efficiency.
Since the onset of knock is sensitive to the in - cylinder pressure, temperature and autoignition chemistry associated with the local mixture compositions within the combustion chamber, simulations which account for all of these aspects have thus proven most effective in determining knock operating limits and enabling engineers to determine the most appropriate operating strategy.
The objective of knock control strategies is to attempt to optimize the trade - off between protecting the engine from damaging knock events and maximizing the engine 's output torque. Knock events are an independent random process. It is impossible to design knock controllers in a deterministic platform. A single time history simulation or experiment of knock control methods are not able to provide a repeatable measurement of controller 's performance because of the random nature of arriving knock events. Therefore, the desired trade - off must be done in a stochastic framework which could provide a suitable environment for designing and evaluating different knock control strategies performances with rigorous statistical properties.
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when was the sydney opera house built and how long did it take | Sydney Opera House - Wikipedia
The Sydney Opera House is a multi-venue performing arts centre in Sydney, New South Wales, Australia. It is one of the 20th century 's most famous and distinctive buildings.
Designed by Danish architect Jørn Utzon, the building was formally opened on 20 October 1973 after a gestation beginning with Utzon 's 1957 selection as winner of an international design competition. The government of New South Wales, led by the premier, Joseph Cahill, authorised work to begin in 1958 with Utzon directing construction. The government 's decision to build Utzon 's design is often overshadowed by circumstances that followed, including cost and scheduling overruns as well as the architect 's ultimate resignation.
The building and its surrounds occupy the whole of Bennelong Point on Sydney Harbour, between Sydney Cove and Farm Cove, adjacent to the Sydney central business district and the Royal Botanic Gardens, and close by the Sydney Harbour Bridge.
Though its name suggests a single venue, the building comprises multiple performance venues which together host well over 1,500 performances annually, attended by more than 1.2 million people. Performances are presented by numerous performing artists, including three resident companies: Opera Australia, the Sydney Theatre Company and the Sydney Symphony Orchestra. As one of the most popular visitor attractions in Australia, more than eight million people visit the site annually, and approximately 350,000 visitors take a guided tour of the building each year. The building is managed by the Sydney Opera House Trust, an agency of the New South Wales State Government.
On 28 June 2007, the Sydney Opera House became a UNESCO World Heritage Site; having been listed on the (now defunct) Register of the National Estate since 1980, the National Trust of Australia register since 1983, the City of Sydney Heritage Inventory since 2000, the New South Wales State Heritage Register since 2003, and the Australian National Heritage List since 2005.
The facility features a modern expressionist design, with a series of large precast concrete "shells '', each composed of sections of a sphere of 75.2 metres (246 ft 8.6 in) radius, forming the roofs of the structure, set on a monumental podium. The building covers 1.8 hectares (4.4 acres) of land and is 183 m (600 ft) long and 120 m (394 ft) wide at its widest point. It is supported on 588 concrete piers sunk as much as 25 m (82 ft) below sea level.
Although the roof structures are commonly referred to as "shells '' (as in this article), they are precast concrete panels supported by precast concrete ribs, not shells in a strictly structural sense. Though the shells appear uniformly white from a distance, they actually feature a subtle chevron pattern composed of 1,056,006 tiles in two colours: glossy white and matte cream. The tiles were manufactured by the Swedish company Höganäs AB which generally produced stoneware tiles for the paper - mill industry.
Apart from the tile of the shells and the glass curtain walls of the foyer spaces, the building 's exterior is largely clad with aggregate panels composed of pink granite quarried at Tarana. Significant interior surface treatments also include off - form concrete, Australian white birch plywood supplied from Wauchope in northern New South Wales, and brush box glulam.
Of the two larger spaces, the Concert Hall is in the western group of shells, the Joan Sutherland Theatre in the eastern group. The scale of the shells was chosen to reflect the internal height requirements, with low entrance spaces, rising over the seating areas up to the high stage towers. The smaller venues (the Drama Theatre, the Playhouse and the Studio) are within the podium, beneath the Concert Hall. A smaller group of shells set to the western side of the Monumental Steps houses the Bennelong Restaurant. The podium is surrounded by substantial open public spaces, and the large stone - paved forecourt area with the adjacent monumental steps is regularly used as a performance space.
The Sydney Opera House includes a number of performance venues:
Other areas (for example the northern and western foyers) are also used for performances on an occasional basis. Venues are also used for conferences, ceremonies and social functions.
The building also houses a recording studio, cafes, restaurants, bars and retail outlets. Guided tours are available, including a frequent tour of the front - of - house spaces, and a daily backstage tour that takes visitors backstage to see areas normally reserved for performers and crew members.
Planning began in the late 1940s, when Eugene Goossens, the Director of the NSW State Conservatorium of Music, lobbied for a suitable venue for large theatrical productions. The normal venue for such productions, the Sydney Town Hall, was not considered large enough. By 1954, Goossens succeeded in gaining the support of NSW Premier Joseph Cahill, who called for designs for a dedicated opera house. It was also Goossens who insisted that Bennelong Point be the site: Cahill had wanted it to be on or near Wynyard Railway Station in the northwest of the CBD.
An international design competition was launched by Cahill on 13 September 1955 and received 233 entries, representing architects from 32 countries. The criteria specified a large hall seating 3,000 and a small hall for 1,200 people, each to be designed for different uses, including full - scale operas, orchestral and choral concerts, mass meetings, lectures, ballet performances and other presentations.
The winner, announced in 1957, was Jørn Utzon, a Danish architect. According to legend the Utzon design was rescued from a final cut of 30 "rejects '' by the noted Finnish - American architect Eero Saarinen. The runner - up was an entry by firm GBQC of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. The grand prize was 5,000 Australian pounds. Utzon visited Sydney in 1957 to help supervise the project. His office moved to Palm Beach, Sydney in February 1963.
Utzon received the Pritzker Architecture Prize, architecture 's highest honour, in 2003. The Pritzker Prize citation read:
There is no doubt that the Sydney Opera House is his masterpiece. It is one of the great iconic buildings of the 20th century, an image of great beauty that has become known throughout the world -- a symbol for not only a city, but a whole country and continent.
The Fort Macquarie Tram Depot, occupying the site at the time of these plans, was demolished in 1958 and construction began in March 1959. It was built in three stages: stage I (1959 -- 1963) consisted of building the upper podium; stage II (1963 -- 1967) the construction of the outer shells; stage III (1967 -- 1973) interior design and construction.
Stage I commenced on 2 March 1959 with the construction firm Civil & Civic, monitored by the engineers Ove Arup and Partners. The government had pushed for work to begin early, fearing that funding, or public opinion, might turn against them. However, Utzon had still not completed the final designs. Major structural issues still remained unresolved. By 23 January 1961, work was running 47 weeks behind, mainly because of unexpected difficulties (inclement weather, unexpected difficulty diverting stormwater, construction beginning before proper construction drawings had been prepared, changes of original contract documents). Work on the podium was finally completed in February 1963. The forced early start led to significant later problems, not least of which was the fact that the podium columns were not strong enough to support the roof structure, and had to be re-built.
The shells of the competition entry were originally of undefined geometry, but, early in the design process, the "shells '' were perceived as a series of parabolas supported by precast concrete ribs. However, engineers Ove Arup and Partners were unable to find an acceptable solution to constructing them. The formwork for using in - situ concrete would have been prohibitively expensive, and, because there was no repetition in any of the roof forms, the construction of precast concrete for each individual section would possibly have been even more expensive.
From 1957 to 1963, the design team went through at least 12 iterations of the form of the shells trying to find an economically acceptable form (including schemes with parabolas, circular ribs and ellipsoids) before a workable solution was completed. The design work on the shells involved one of the earliest uses of computers in structural analysis, to understand the complex forces to which the shells would be subjected. The computer system was also used in the assembly of the arches. The pins in the arches were surveyed at the end of each day, and the information was entered into the computer so the next arch could be properly placed the following day. In mid-1961, the design team found a solution to the problem: the shells all being created as sections from a sphere. This solution allows arches of varying length to be cast in a common mould, and a number of arch segments of common length to be placed adjacent to one another, to form a spherical section. With whom exactly this solution originated has been the subject of some controversy. It was originally credited to Utzon. Ove Arup 's letter to Ashworth, a member of the Sydney Opera House Executive Committee, states: "Utzon came up with an idea of making all the shells of uniform curvature throughout in both directions. '' Peter Jones, the author of Ove Arup 's biography, states that "the architect and his supporters alike claimed to recall the precise eureka moment...; the engineers and some of their associates, with equal conviction, recall discussion in both central London and at Ove 's house. ''
He goes on to claim that "the existing evidence shows that Arup 's canvassed several possibilities for the geometry of the shells, from parabolas to ellipsoids and spheres. '' Yuzo Mikami, a member of the design team, presents an opposite view in his book on the project, Utzon 's Sphere. It is unlikely that the truth will ever be categorically known, but there is a clear consensus that the design team worked very well indeed for the first part of the project and that Utzon, Arup, and Ronald Jenkins (partner of Ove Arup and Partners responsible for the Opera House project) all played a very significant part in the design development.
As Peter Murray states in The Saga of the Sydney Opera House:
... the two men -- and their teams -- enjoyed a collaboration that was remarkable in its fruitfulness and, despite many traumas, was seen by most of those involved in the project as a high point of architect / engineer collaboration.
The design of the roof was tested on scale models in wind tunnels at University of Southampton and later NPL in order to establish the wind - pressure distribution around the roof shape in very high winds, which helped in the design of the roof tiles and their fixtures.
The shells were constructed by Hornibrook Group Pty Ltd, who were also responsible for construction in Stage III. Hornibrook manufactured the 2400 precast ribs and 4000 roof panels in an on - site factory and also developed the construction processes. The achievement of this solution avoided the need for expensive formwork construction by allowing the use of precast units (it also allowed the roof tiles to be prefabricated in sheets on the ground, instead of being stuck on individually at height). Ove Arup and Partners ' site engineer supervised the construction of the shells, which used an innovative adjustable steel - trussed "erection arch '' to support the different roofs before completion. On 6 April 1962, it was estimated that the Opera House would be completed between August 1964 and March 1965.
Stage III, the interiors, started with Utzon moving his entire office to Sydney in February 1963. However, there was a change of government in 1965, and the new Robert Askin government declared the project under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Public Works. Due to the Ministry 's criticism of the project 's costs and time, along with their impression of Utzon 's designs being impractical, this ultimately led to his resignation in 1966 (see below).
The cost of the project so far, even in October 1966, was still only $22.9 million, less than a quarter of the final $102 million cost. However, the projected costs for the design were at this stage much more significant.
The second stage of construction was progressing toward completion when Utzon resigned. His position was principally taken over by Peter Hall, who became largely responsible for the interior design. Other persons appointed that same year to replace Utzon were E.H. Farmer as government architect, D.S. Littlemore and Lionel Todd.
Following Utzon 's resignation, the acoustic advisor, Lothar Cremer, confirmed to the Sydney Opera House Executive Committee (SOHEC) that Utzon 's original acoustic design allowed for only 2000 seats in the main hall and further stated that increasing the number of seats to 3000 as specified in the brief would be disastrous for the acoustics. According to Peter Jones, the stage designer, Martin Carr, criticised the "shape, height and width of the stage, the physical facilities for artists, the location of the dressing rooms, the widths of doors and lifts, and the location of lighting switchboards. ''
The Opera House was formally completed in 1973, having cost $ 102 million. H.R. "Sam '' Hoare, the Hornibrook director in charge of the project, provided the following approximations in 1973: Stage I: podium Civil & Civic Pty Ltd approximately $5.5 m. Stage II: roof shells M.R. Hornibrook (NSW) Pty Ltd approximately $12.5 m. Stage III: completion The Hornibrook Group $56.5 m. Separate contracts: stage equipment, stage lighting and organ $9.0 m. Fees and other costs: $16.5 m.
The original cost and scheduling estimates in 1957 projected a cost of £ 3,500,000 ($7 million) and completion date of 26 January 1963 (Australia Day). In reality, the project was completed ten years late and 1,357 % over budget in real terms.
Before the Sydney Opera House competition, Jørn Utzon had won seven of the 18 competitions he had entered but had never seen any of his designs built. Utzon 's submitted concept for the Sydney Opera House was almost universally admired and considered groundbreaking. The Assessors Report of January 1957, stated:
The drawings submitted for this scheme are simple to the point of being diagrammatic. Nevertheless, as we have returned again and again to the study of these drawings, we are convinced that they present a concept of an Opera House which is capable of becoming one of the great buildings of the world.
For the first stage, Utzon worked successfully with the rest of the design team and the client, but, as the project progressed, the Cahill government insisted on progressive revisions. They also did not fully appreciate the costs or work involved in design and construction. Tensions between the client and the design team grew further when an early start to construction was demanded despite an incomplete design. This resulted in a continuing series of delays and setbacks while various technical engineering issues were being refined. The building was unique, and the problems with the design issues and cost increases were exacerbated by commencement of work before the completion of the final plans.
After the 1965 election of the Liberal Party, with Robert Askin becoming Premier of New South Wales, the relationship of client, architect, engineers and contractors became increasingly tense. Askin had been a "vocal critic of the project prior to gaining office. '' His new Minister for Public Works, Davis Hughes, was even less sympathetic. Elizabeth Farrelly, an Australian architecture critic, wrote that:
at an election night dinner party in Mosman, Hughes ' daughter Sue Burgoyne boasted that her father would soon sack Utzon. Hughes had no interest in art, architecture or aesthetics. A fraud, as well as a philistine, he had been exposed before Parliament and dumped as Country Party leader for 19 years of falsely claiming a university degree. The Opera House gave Hughes a second chance. For him, as for Utzon, it was all about control; about the triumph of homegrown mediocrity over foreign genius.
Differences ensued. One of the first was that Utzon believed the clients should receive information on all aspects of the design and construction through his practice, while the clients wanted a system (notably drawn in sketch form by Davis Hughes) where architect, contractors, and engineers each reported to the client directly and separately. This had great implications for procurement methods and cost control, with Utzon wishing to negotiate contracts with chosen suppliers (such as Ralph Symonds for the plywood interiors) and the New South Wales government insisting contracts be put out to tender.
Utzon was highly reluctant to respond to questions or criticism from the client 's Sydney Opera House Executive Committee (SOHEC). However, he was greatly supported throughout by a member of the committee and one of the original competition judges, Harry Ingham Ashworth. Utzon was unwilling to compromise on some aspects of his designs that the clients wanted to change.
Utzon 's ability was never in doubt, despite questions raised by Davis Hughes, who attempted to portray Utzon as an impractical dreamer. Ove Arup actually stated that Utzon was "probably the best of any I have come across in my long experience of working with architects '' and: "The Opera House could become the world 's foremost contemporary masterpiece if Utzon is given his head. ''
In October 1965, Utzon gave Hughes a schedule setting out the completion dates of parts of his work for stage III. Utzon was at this time working closely with Ralph Symonds, a manufacturer of plywood based in Sydney and highly regarded by many, despite an Arup engineer warning that Ralph Symonds 's "knowledge of the design stresses of plywood, was extremely sketchy '' and that the technical advice was "elementary to say the least and completely useless for our purposes. '' Australian architecture critic Elizabeth Farrelly has referred to Ove Arup 's project engineer Michael Lewis as having "other agendas ''. In any case, Hughes shortly after withheld permission for the construction of plywood prototypes for the interiors, and the relationship between Utzon and the client never recovered. By February 1966, Utzon was owed more than $100,000 in fees. Hughes then withheld funding so that Utzon could not even pay his own staff. The government minutes record that following several threats of resignation, Utzon finally stated to Davis Hughes: "If you do n't do it, I resign. '' Hughes replied: "I accept your resignation. Thank you very much. Goodbye. ''
Utzon left the project on 28 February 1966. He said that Hughes 's refusal to pay him any fees and the lack of collaboration caused his resignation and later famously described the situation as "Malice in Blunderland ''. In March 1966, Hughes offered him a subordinate role as "design architect '' under a panel of executive architects, without any supervisory powers over the House 's construction, but Utzon rejected this. Utzon left the country never to return.
Following the resignation, there was great controversy about who was in the right and who was in the wrong. The Sydney Morning Herald initially opined: "No architect in the world has enjoyed greater freedom than Mr Utzon. Few clients have been more patient or more generous than the people and the Government of NSW. One would not like history to record that this partnership was brought to an end by a fit of temper on the one side or by a fit of meanness on the other. '' On 17 March 1966, the Herald offered the view that: "It was not his (Utzon 's) fault that a succession of Governments and the Opera House Trust should so signally have failed to impose any control or order on the project... his concept was so daring that he himself could solve its problems only step by step... his insistence on perfection led him to alter his design as he went along. ''
The Sydney Opera House opened the way for the immensely complex geometries of some modern architecture. The design was one of the first examples of the use of computer - aided design to design complex shapes. The design techniques developed by Utzon and Arup for the Sydney Opera House have been further developed and are now used for architecture, such as works of Gehry and blobitecture, as well as most reinforced concrete structures. The design is also one of the first in the world to use araldite to glue the precast structural elements together and proved the concept for future use.
It was also a first in mechanical engineering. Another Danish firm, Steensen Varming, was responsible for designing the new air - conditioning plant, the largest in Australia at the time, supplying over 600,000 cubic feet (17,000 m) of air per minute, using the innovative idea of harnessing the harbour water to create a water - cooled heat pump system that is still in operation today.
After the resignation of Utzon, the Minister for Public Works, Davis Hughes, and the Government Architect, Ted Farmer, organised a team to bring the Sydney Opera House to completion. The architectural work was divided between three appointees who became the Hall, Todd, Littlemore partnership. David Littlemore would manage construction supervision, Lionel Todd contract documentation, while the crucial role of design became the responsibility of Peter Hall.
Peter Hall (1931 -- 1995) completed a combined arts and architecture degree at Sydney University. Upon graduation a travel scholarship enabled him to spend twelve months in Europe during which time he visited Utzon in Hellebæk. Returning to Sydney, Hall worked for the Government Architect, a branch of the NSW Public Works Department. While there he established himself as a talented design architect with a number of court and university buildings, including the Goldstein Hall at the University of New South Wales, which won the Sir John Sulman Medal in 1964.
Hall resigned from the Government Architects office in early 1966 to pursue his own practice. When approached to take on the design role, (after at least two prominent Sydney architects had declined), Hall spoke with Utzon by phone before accepting the position. Utzon reportedly told Hall: he (Hall) would not be able to finish the job and the Government would have to invite him back. Hall also sought the advice of others, including architect Don Gazzard who warned him acceptance would be a bad career move as the project would "never be his own ''.
Hall agreed to accept the role on the condition there was no possibility of Utzon returning. Even so, his appointment did not go down well with many of his fellow architects who considered that no one but Utzon should complete the Sydney Opera House. Upon Utzon 's dismissal, a rally of protest had marched to Bennelong Point. A petition was also circulated, including in the Government Architects office. Peter Hall was one of the many who had signed the petition that called for Utzon 's reinstatement.
When Hall agreed to the design role and was appointed in April 1966, he imagined he would find the design and documentation for the Stage III well advanced. What he found was an enormous amount of work ahead of him with many aspects completely unresolved by Utzon in relation to seating capacity, acoustics and structure. In addition Hall found the project had proceeded for nine years without the development of a concise client brief. To bring himself up to speed, Hall investigated concert and opera venues overseas and engaged stage consultant Ben Schlange and acoustic consultant Wilhelm Jordan, while establishing his team. In consultation with all the potential building users the first Review of Program was completed in January 1967. The most significant conclusion reached by Hall was that concert and opera were incompatible in the same hall. Although Utzon had sketched ideas using plywood for the great enclosing glass walls their structural viability was unresolved when Hall took on the design role. With the ability to delegate tasks and effectively coordinate the work of consultants, Hall guided the project for over five years until the opening day in 1973.
A former Government Architect, Peter Webber, in his book Peter Hall: the Phantom of the Opera House, concludes: when Utzon resigned no one was better qualified (than Hall) to rise to the challenge of completing the design of the Opera House.
The Sydney Opera House was formally opened by Elizabeth II, Queen of Australia, on 20 October 1973. A large crowd attended. Utzon was not invited to the ceremony, nor was his name mentioned. The opening was televised and included fireworks and a performance of Beethoven 's Symphony No. 9.
During the construction phase, lunchtime performances were often arranged for the workers, with American vocalist Paul Robeson the first artist to perform, in 1960.
Various performances were presented prior to the official opening:
After the opening:
In the late 1990s, the Sydney Opera House Trust resumed communication with Utzon in an attempt to effect a reconciliation and to secure his involvement in future changes to the building. In 1999, he was appointed by the Trust as a design consultant for future work.
In 2004, the first interior space rebuilt to an Utzon design was opened, and renamed "The Utzon Room '' in his honour. It contains an original Utzon tapestry (14.00 x 3.70 metres) called Homage to Carl Philipp Emmanuel Bach. In April 2007, he proposed a major reconstruction of the Opera Theatre, as it was then known. Utzon died on 29 November 2008.
A state memorial service, attended by Utzon 's son Jan and daughter Lin, celebrating his creative genius, was held in the Concert Hall on 25 March 2009 featuring performances, readings and recollections from prominent figures in the Australian performing arts scene.
Refurbished Western Foyer and Accessibility improvements were commissioned on 17 November 2009, the largest building project completed since Utzon was re-engaged in 1999. Designed by Utzon and his son Jan, the project provided improved ticketing, toilet and cloaking facilities. New escalators and a public lift enabled enhanced access for the disabled and families with prams. The prominent paralympian athlete Louise Sauvage was announced as the building 's "accessibility ambassador '' to advise on further improvements to aid people with disabilities.
On 29 March 2016, an original 1959 tapestry by Le Corbusier (2.18 x 3.55 metres), commissioned by Utzon to be hung in the Sydney Opera House and called Les Dés Sont Jetés (The Dice Are Cast), was finally unveiled in situ after being owned by the Utzon family and held at their home in Denmark for over 50 years. The tapestry was bought at auction by the Sydney Opera House in June 2015. It now hangs in the building 's Western Foyer and is accessible to the public.
In the second half of 2017, the Joan Sutherland Theatre was closed to replace the stage machinery and for other works. The Concert Hall is scheduled for work in 2020 - 2021.
In 1993, Constantine Koukias was commissioned by the Sydney Opera House Trust in association with REM Theatre to compose Icon, a large - scale music theatre piece for the 20th anniversary of the Sydney Opera House
During the 2000 Summer Olympics, the venue served as the focal point for the triathlon events. The event had a 1.5 km (0.9 mi) swimming loop at Farm Cove, along with competitions in the neighbouring Royal Botanical Gardens for the cycling and running portions of the event.
Since 2013, a group of residents from the nearby Bennelong Apartments (better known as ' The Toaster '), calling themselves the Sydney Opera House Concerned Citizens Group, have been campaigning against Forecourt Concerts on the grounds that they exceed noise levels outlined in the development approval (DA). In February 2017 the NSW Department of Planning and the Environment handed down a $15,000 fine to the Sydney Opera House for breach of allowed noise levels at a concert held in November 2015. However the DA was amended in 2016 to allow an increase in noise levels in the forecourt by 5 decibels. The residents opposing the concerts contend that a new DA should have been filed rather than an amendment.
The Sydney Opera House sails formed a graphic projection - screen in a lightshow mounted in connection with the International Fleet Review in Sydney Harbour on 5 October 2013.
On 31 December 2013, the venue 's 40th anniversary year, a New Year firework display was mounted for the first time in a decade.
The Sydney Opera House hosted an event, ' the biggest blind date ' on Friday 21 February 2014 that won an historic Guinness World Record.
This Wikipedia article was originally based on the Sydney Opera House, listed on the "New South Wales State Heritage Register '' published by the Government of New South Wales under CC - BY 3.0 AU licence (accessed on 3 September 2017).
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who is in charge of the premier league | Premier League - wikipedia
The Premier League is the top level of the English football league system. Contested by 20 clubs, it operates on a system of promotion and relegation with the English Football League (EFL).
The Premier League is a corporation in which the member clubs act as shareholders. Seasons run from August to May with each team playing 38 matches (playing each other home and away). Most games are played on Saturday and Sunday afternoons. It is often known outside England as the English Premier League (EPL).
The competition was formed as the FA Premier League on 20 February 1992 following the decision of clubs in the Football League First Division to break away from the Football League, founded in 1888, and take advantage of a lucrative television rights deal. The deal was worth £ 1 billion a year domestically as of 2013 -- 14, with BSkyB and BT Group securing the domestic rights to broadcast 116 and 38 games respectively. The league generates € 2.2 billion per year in domestic and international television rights. In 2014 -- 15, teams were apportioned revenues of £ 1.6 billion, rising sharply to £ 2.4 billion in 2016 -- 17.
The Premier League is the most - watched sports league in the world, broadcast in 212 territories to 643 million homes and a potential TV audience of 4.7 billion people. In the 2014 -- 15 season, the average Premier League match attendance exceeded 36,000, second highest of any professional football league behind the Bundesliga 's 43,500. Most stadium occupancies are near capacity. The Premier League ranks third in the UEFA coefficients of leagues based on performances in European competitions over the past five seasons, as of 2016.
Forty - nine clubs have competed since the inception of the Premier League in 1992. Six of them have won the title: Manchester United (13), Chelsea (5), Arsenal (3), Manchester City (3), Blackburn Rovers (1) and Leicester City (1).
Despite significant European success in the 1970s and early 1980s, the late ' 80s marked a low point for English football. Stadiums were crumbling, supporters endured poor facilities, hooliganism was rife, and English clubs were banned from European competition for five years following the Heysel Stadium disaster in 1985. The Football League First Division, the top level of English football since 1888, was behind leagues such as Italy 's Serie A and Spain 's La Liga in attendances and revenues, and several top English players had moved abroad.
By the turn of the 1990s the downward trend was starting to reverse: at the 1990 FIFA World Cup, England reached the semi-finals; UEFA, European football 's governing body, lifted the five - year ban on English clubs playing in European competitions in 1990, resulting in Manchester United lifting the UEFA Cup Winners ' Cup in 1991, and the Taylor Report on stadium safety standards, which proposed expensive upgrades to create all - seater stadiums in the aftermath of the Hillsborough disaster, was published in January of that year.
The 1980s also saw the major English clubs, led by the likes of Martin Edwards of Manchester United, Irving Scholar of Tottenham Hotspur and David Dein of Arsenal, beginning to be transformed into business ventures that applied commercial principles to the running of the clubs, which led to the increasing power of the elite clubs. By threatening to break away, the top clubs from Division One managed to increase their voting power, and took 50 % share of all television and sponsorship income in 1986. Revenue from television also became more important: the Football League received £ 6.3 million for a two - year agreement in 1986, but by 1988, in a deal agreed with ITV, the price rose to £ 44 million over four years with the leading clubs taking 75 % of the cash. The 1988 negotiations were conducted under the threat of ten clubs leaving to form a "super league '', but were eventually persuaded to stay with the top clubs taking the lion share of the deal. As stadiums improved and match attendance and revenues rose, the country 's top teams again considered leaving the Football League in order to capitalise on the influx of money into the sport.
In 1990, the managing director of London Weekend Television (LWT), Greg Dyke, met with the representatives of the "big five '' football clubs in England (Manchester United, Liverpool, Tottenham, Everton and Arsenal) over a dinner. The meeting was to pave the way for a break away from The Football League. Dyke believed that it would be more lucrative for LWT if only the larger clubs in the country were featured on national television and wanted to establish whether the clubs would be interested in a larger share of television rights money. The five clubs decided it was a good idea and decided to press ahead with it; however, the league would have no credibility without the backing of The Football Association and so David Dein of Arsenal held talks to see whether the FA were receptive to the idea. The FA did not enjoy an amicable relationship with the Football League at the time and considered it as a way to weaken the Football League 's position.
At the close of the 1991 season, a proposal was tabled for the establishment of a new league that would bring more money into the game overall. The Founder Members Agreement, signed on 17 July 1991 by the game 's top - flight clubs, established the basic principles for setting up the FA Premier League. The newly formed top division would have commercial independence from The Football Association and the Football League, giving the FA Premier League licence to negotiate its own broadcast and sponsorship agreements. The argument given at the time was that the extra income would allow English clubs to compete with teams across Europe. Although Dyke played a significant role in the creation of the Premier League, Dyke and ITV would lose out in the bidding for broadcast rights as BSkyB won with a bid of £ 304 million over five years with the BBC awarded the highlights package broadcast on Match of the Day.
In 1992, the First Division clubs resigned from the Football League en masse and on 27 May 1992 the FA Premier League was formed as a limited company working out of an office at the Football Association 's then headquarters in Lancaster Gate. This meant a break - up of the 104 - year - old Football League that had operated until then with four divisions; the Premier League would operate with a single division and the Football League with three. There was no change in competition format; the same number of teams competed in the top flight, and promotion and relegation between the Premier League and the new First Division remained the same as the old First and Second Divisions with three teams relegated from the league and three promoted.
The league held its first season in 1992 -- 93. It was composed of 22 clubs for that season. The first Premier League goal was scored by Brian Deane of Sheffield United in a 2 -- 1 win against Manchester United. The 22 inaugural members of the new Premier League were Arsenal, Aston Villa, Blackburn Rovers, Chelsea, Coventry City, Crystal Palace, Everton, Ipswich Town, Leeds United, Liverpool, Manchester City, Manchester United, Middlesbrough, Norwich City, Nottingham Forest, Oldham Athletic, Queens Park Rangers, Sheffield United, Sheffield Wednesday, Southampton, Tottenham Hotspur, and Wimbledon. Luton Town, Notts County, and West Ham United were the three teams relegated from the old first division at the end of the 1991 -- 92 season, and did not take part in the inaugural Premier League season.
One significant feature of the Premier League in the mid-2000s was the dominance of the so - called "Top Four '' clubs: Arsenal, Chelsea, Liverpool and Manchester United. During this decade, they dominated the top four spots, which came with UEFA Champions League qualification, taking all top - four places in 5 out of 6 seasons from 2003 -- 04 to 2008 -- 09 inclusive, while every season during the 2000s saw the "Big Four '' always qualifying for European competition. Arsenal went as far as winning the league without losing a single game in 2003 -- 04, the only time it has ever happened in the Premier League.
During the 2000s, only four sides outside the "Top Four '' managed to qualify for the Champions League: Leeds United (1999 -- 2000), Newcastle United (2001 -- 02 and 2002 -- 03), Everton (2004 -- 05) and Tottenham Hotspur (2009 -- 10) -- each occupying the final Champions League spot, with the exception of Newcastle in the 2002 -- 03 season, who finished third.
In May 2008 Kevin Keegan stated that "Top Four '' dominance threatened the division, "This league is in danger of becoming one of the most boring but great leagues in the world. '' Premier League chief executive Richard Scudamore said in defence: "There are a lot of different tussles that go on in the Premier League depending on whether you 're at the top, in the middle or at the bottom that make it interesting. ''
Between 2005 and 2012, there was a Premier League representative in seven of the eight Champions League finals, with only "Top Four '' clubs reaching that stage. Liverpool (2005), Manchester United (2008) and Chelsea (2012) won the competition during this period, with Arsenal (2006), Liverpool (2007), Chelsea (2008) and Manchester United (2009 and 2011) all losing Champions League finals. Leeds United were the only non - "Top Four '' side to reach the semi-finals of the Champions League, in the 2000 -- 01 season.
Additionally, between the 1999 -- 2000 and 2009 -- 10 seasons, four Premier League sides reached UEFA Cup or Europa League finals, with only Liverpool managing to win the competition in 2001. Arsenal (2000), Middlesbrough (2006) and Fulham (2010) all lost their finals.
The years following 2009 marked a shift in the structure of the "Top Four '' with Tottenham Hotspur and Manchester City both breaking into the top four places on a regular basis. In the 2009 -- 10 season, Tottenham finished fourth and became the first team to break the top four since Everton five years prior. Criticism of the gap between an elite group of "super clubs '' and the majority of the Premier League has continued, nevertheless, due to their increasing ability to spend more than the other Premier League clubs. Since the continued presence of Manchester City and Tottenham Hotspur at the top end of the table, no side has won consecutive Premier League titles.
By the end of the 2009 -- 10 season, each of the "Top Four '' clubs had revenues in excess of € 200 million, while Manchester City and Tottenham Hotspur had revenues of roughly € 150 million according to the Deloitte Football Money League. Manchester United had the largest revenue stream in the Premier League at € 349.8 million, while Aston Villa were the closest club to the new "Big Six '' with revenues of € 109.4 million.
Manchester City won the title in the 2011 -- 12 season, becoming the first club outside the "Big Four '' to win since Blackburn Rovers in the 1994 -- 95 season. That season also saw two of the "Big Four '' (Chelsea and Liverpool) finish outside the top four places for the first time since that season. The return of Manchester City as a force in English football combined with Tottenham Hotspur finishing third and then second in the 2015 -- 16 and 2016 -- 17 seasons respectively meant that many viewed the "Big Four '' as proliferating into the "Big Six ''.
With only four UEFA Champions League qualifying places available in the league, greater competition for qualification now exists, albeit from a narrow base of six clubs. In the following five seasons after the 2011 -- 12 campaign, Manchester United and Liverpool both found themselves outside of the top four three times while Chelsea finished 10th in the 2015 -- 16 season. Arsenal finished 5th in 2016 -- 17, ending their record of 20 consecutive top - four finishes.
In the 2015 -- 16 season, the top four was breached by a non-Big Six side for the first time since Everton in 2005. Leicester City were the surprise winners of the league, qualifying for the Champions League as a result. However, they were unable to follow up their title - winning season with another strong season -- finishing twelfth.
Off the pitch, the "Big Six '' wield financial power and influence, with these clubs arguing that they should be entitled to a greater share of revenue due to the greater stature of their clubs globally and the attractive football they aim to play. Objectors argue that the egalitarian revenue structure in the Premier League helps to maintain a competitive league which is vital for its future success.
The 2016 -- 17 Deloitte Football Money League report showed the financial disparity between the "Big Six '' and the rest of the division. All of the "Big Six '' had revenues greater than € 350 million, with Manchester United having the largest revenue in the league at € 676.3 million. Leicester City was the closest club to the "Big Six '' in terms of revenue, recording a figure of € 271.1 million for that season -- helped by participation in the Champions League. The eighth largest revenue generator West Ham, who did n't play in European competition, had revenues of € 213.3 million, nearly half of the fifth largest club, Liverpool (€ 424.2 million).
Due to insistence by the International Federation of Association Football (FIFA), the international governing body of football, that domestic leagues reduce the number of games clubs played, the number of clubs was reduced to 20, down from 22, in 1995 when four teams were relegated from the league and only two teams promoted. The top flight had only been expanded to 22 teams at the start of the 1991 -- 92 season -- the year prior to the formation of the Premier League.
On 8 June 2006, FIFA requested that all major European leagues, including Italy 's Serie A and Spain 's La Liga, be reduced to 18 teams by the start of the 2007 -- 08 season. The Premier League responded by announcing their intention to resist such a reduction. Ultimately, the 2007 -- 08 season kicked off again with 20 teams, as did the other major European leagues with 20 teams.
The league changed its name from the FA Premier League to simply the Premier League in 2007.
The Football Association Premier League Ltd (FAPL) is operated as a corporation and is owned by the 20 member clubs. Each club is a shareholder, with one vote each on issues such as rule changes and contracts. The clubs elect a chairman, chief executive, and board of directors to oversee the daily operations of the league. The current chairman is Sir Dave Richards, who was appointed in April 1999, and the chief executive is Richard Scudamore, appointed in November 1999. The former chairman and chief executive, John Quinton and Peter Leaver, were forced to resign in March 1999 after awarding consultancy contracts to former Sky executives Sam Chisholm and David Chance. The Football Association is not directly involved in the day - to - day operations of the Premier League, but has veto power as a special shareholder during the election of the chairman and chief executive and when new rules are adopted by the league.
The Premier League sends representatives to UEFA 's European Club Association, the number of clubs and the clubs themselves chosen according to UEFA coefficients. For the 2012 -- 13 season the Premier League has 10 representatives in the Association: Arsenal, Aston Villa, Chelsea, Everton, Fulham, Liverpool, Manchester City, Manchester United, Newcastle United and Tottenham Hotspur. The European Club Association is responsible for electing three members to UEFA 's Club Competitions Committee, which is involved in the operations of UEFA competitions such as the Champions League and UEFA Europa League.
There are 20 clubs in the Premier League. During the course of a season (from August to May) each club plays the others twice (a double round - robin system), once at their home stadium and once at that of their opponents ', for a total of 38 games. Teams receive three points for a win and one point for a draw. No points are awarded for a loss. Teams are ranked by total points, then goal difference, and then goals scored. If still equal, teams are deemed to occupy the same position. If there is a tie for the championship, for relegation, or for qualification to other competitions, a play - off match at a neutral venue decides rank. The three lowest placed teams are relegated into the EFL Championship, and the top two teams from the Championship, together with the winner of play - offs involving the third to sixth placed Championship clubs, are promoted in their place.
As of the 2009 -- 10 season qualification for the UEFA Champions League changed, the top four teams in the Premier League qualify for the UEFA Champions League, with the top three teams directly entering the group stage. Previously only the top two teams qualified automatically. The fourth - placed team enters the Champions League at the play - off round for non-champions and must win a two - legged knockout tie in order to enter the group stage.
The team placed fifth in the Premier League automatically qualifies for the UEFA Europa League, and the sixth and seventh - placed teams can also qualify, depending on the winners of the two domestic cup competitions i.e. the FA Cup and the EFL Cup. Two Europa League places are reserved for the winners of each tournament; if the winner of either the FA Cup or EFL Cup qualifies for the Champions League, then that place will go to the next - best placed finisher in the Premier League.
An exception to the usual European qualification system happened in 2005, after Liverpool won the Champions League the year before, but did not finish in a Champions League qualification place in the Premier League that season. UEFA gave special dispensation for Liverpool to enter the Champions League, giving England five qualifiers. UEFA subsequently ruled that the defending champions qualify for the competition the following year regardless of their domestic league placing. However, for those leagues with four entrants in the Champions League, this meant that if the Champions League winner finished outside the top four in its domestic league, it would qualify at the expense of the fourth - placed team in the league. At that time, no association could have more than four entrants in the Champions League. This occurred in 2012, when Chelsea -- who had won the Champions League that summer, but finished sixth in the league -- qualified for the Champions League in place of Tottenham Hotspur, who went into the Europa League.
Starting with the 2015 -- 16 season, the Europa League champion automatically qualifies for the following season 's Champions League, and the maximum number of Champions League places for any single association has increased to five. An association with four Champions League places, such as The FA, will only earn a fifth place if a club from that association that does not qualify for the Champions League through its league wins either the Champions League or Europa League.
In 2007, the Premier League became the highest ranking European League based on the performances of English teams in European competitions over a five - year period. This broke the eight - year dominance of the Spanish league, La Liga.
Between the 1992 -- 93 and the 2016 -- 17 seasons, Premier League clubs won the UEFA Champions League four times (and had five runners - up), behind Spain 's La Liga with ten wins, and Italy 's Serie A with five wins; ahead of, among others, Germany 's Bundesliga with three wins. The FIFA Club World Cup (originally called the FIFA Club World Championship) has been won once by a Premier League club (Manchester United in 2008), with two runners - up (Liverpool in 2005, Chelsea in 2012), behind Spain 's La Liga with five wins, Brazil 's Brasileirão with four wins, and Italy 's Serie A with two wins (see table here).
A system of promotion and relegation exists between the Premier League and the EFL Championship. The three lowest placed teams in the Premier League are relegated to the Championship, and the top two teams from the Championship promoted to the Premier League, with an additional team promoted after a series of play - offs involving the third, fourth, fifth and sixth placed clubs. The Premier League had 22 teams when it began in 1992, but this was reduced to the present 20 - team format in 1995.
A total of 49 clubs have played in the Premier League from its inception in 1992, up to and including the 2017 -- 18 season.
The following 20 clubs will compete in the Premier League during the 2017 -- 18 season.
: Founding member of the Premier League: Never been relegated from Premier League: One of the original 12 Football League teams: Club based in Wales
In 2011, a Welsh club participated in the Premier League for the first time after Swansea City gained promotion. The first Premier League match to be played outside England was Swansea City 's home match at the Liberty Stadium against Wigan Athletic on 20 August 2011. In 2012 -- 13, Swansea qualified for the Europa League by winning the League Cup. The number of Welsh clubs in the Premier League increased to two for the first time in 2013 -- 14, as Cardiff City gained promotion, but they were relegated after their maiden season.
Because they are members of the Football Association of Wales (FAW), the question of whether clubs like Swansea should represent England or Wales in European competitions has caused long - running discussions in UEFA. Swansea took one of England 's three available places in the Europa League in 2013 -- 14 by winning the League Cup in 2012 -- 13. The right of Welsh clubs to take up such English places was in doubt until UEFA clarified the matter in March 2012, allowing them to participate.
Participation in the Premier League by some Scottish or Irish clubs has sometimes been discussed, but without result. The idea came closest to reality in 1998, when Wimbledon received Premier League approval to relocate to Dublin, Ireland, but the move was blocked by the Football Association of Ireland. Additionally, the media occasionally discusses the idea that Scotland 's two biggest teams, Celtic and Rangers, should or will take part in the Premier League, but nothing has come of these discussions.
From 1993 to 2016, the Premier League had title sponsorship rights sold to two companies, which were Carling Brewery and Barclays Bank PLC; Barclays was the most recent title sponsor, having sponsored the Premier League from 2001 through 2016 (until 2004, the title sponsorship was held through its Barclaycard brand before shifting to its main banking brand in 2004).
Barclays ' deal with the Premier League expired at the end of the 2015 -- 16 season. The FA announced on 4 June 2015 that it would not pursue any further title sponsorship deals for the Premier League, arguing that they wanted to build a "clean '' brand for the competition more in line with those of major U.S. sports leagues.
As well as sponsorship for the league itself, the Premier League has a number of official partners and suppliers. The official ball supplier for the league is Nike who have had the contract since the 2000 -- 01 season when they took over from Mitre.
The Premier League has the highest revenue of any football league in the world, with total club revenues of € 2.48 billion in 2009 -- 10. In 2013 -- 14, due to improved television revenues and cost controls, the Premier League had net profits in excess of £ 78 million, exceeding all other football leagues. In 2010 the Premier League was awarded the Queen 's Award for Enterprise in the International Trade category for its outstanding contribution to international trade and the value it brings to English football and the United Kingdom 's broadcasting industry.
The Premier League includes some of the richest football clubs in the world. Deloitte 's "Football Money League '' listed seven Premier League clubs in the top 20 for the 2009 -- 10 season, and all 20 clubs were in the top 40 globally by the end of the 2013 -- 14 season, largely as a result of increased broadcasting revenue. From 2013, the league generates € 2.2 billion per year in domestic and international television rights.
Premier League clubs agreed in principle in December 2012, to radical new cost controls. The two proposals consist of a break - even rule and a cap on the amount clubs can increase their wage bill by each season. With the new television deals on the horizon, momentum has been growing to find ways of preventing the majority of the cash going straight to players and agents.
Central payments for the 2016 -- 17 season amounted to £ 2,398,515,773 across the 20 clubs, with each team receiving a flat participation fee of £ 35,301,989 and additional payments for TV broadcasts (£ 1,016,690 for general UK rights to match highlights, £ 1,136,083 for each live UK broadcast of their games and £ 39,090,596 for all overseas rights), commercial rights (a flat fee of £ 4,759,404) and a notional measure of "merit '' which was based upon final league position. The merit component was a nominal sum of £ 1,941,609 multiplied by each finishing place, counted from the foot of the table (e.g., Burnley finished 16th in May 2017, five places counting upwards, and received 5 × £ 1,941,609 = £ 9,708,045 merit payment).
Television has played a major role in the history of the Premier League. The League 's decision to assign broadcasting rights to BSkyB in 1992 was at the time a radical decision, but one that has paid off. At the time pay television was an almost untested proposition in the UK market, as was charging fans to watch live televised football. However, a combination of Sky 's strategy, the quality of Premier League football and the public 's appetite for the game has seen the value of the Premier League 's TV rights soar.
The Premier League sells its television rights on a collective basis. This is in contrast to some other European Leagues, including La Liga, in which each club sells its rights individually, leading to a much higher share of the total income going to the top few clubs. The money is divided into three parts: half is divided equally between the clubs; one quarter is awarded on a merit basis based on final league position, the top club getting twenty times as much as the bottom club, and equal steps all the way down the table; the final quarter is paid out as facilities fees for games that are shown on television, with the top clubs generally receiving the largest shares of this. The income from overseas rights is divided equally between the twenty clubs.
The first Sky television rights agreement was worth £ 304 million over five seasons. The next contract, negotiated to start from the 1997 -- 98 season, rose to £ 670 million over four seasons. The third contract was a £ 1.024 billion deal with BSkyB for the three seasons from 2001 -- 02 to 2003 -- 04. The league brought in £ 320 million from the sale of its international rights for the three - year period from 2004 -- 05 to 2006 -- 07. It sold the rights itself on a territory - by - territory basis. Sky 's monopoly was broken from August 2006 when Setanta Sports was awarded rights to show two out of the six packages of matches available. This occurred following an insistence by the European Commission that exclusive rights should not be sold to one television company. Sky and Setanta paid a total of £ 1.7 billion, a two - thirds increase which took many commentators by surprise as it had been widely assumed that the value of the rights had levelled off following many years of rapid growth. Setanta also hold rights to a live 3 pm match solely for Irish viewers. The BBC has retained the rights to show highlights for the same three seasons (on Match of the Day) for £ 171.6 million, a 63 per cent increase on the £ 105 million it paid for the previous three - year period. Sky and BT have agreed to jointly pay £ 84.3 million for delayed television rights to 242 games (that is the right to broadcast them in full on television and over the internet) in most cases for a period of 50 hours after 10 pm on matchday. Overseas television rights fetched £ 625 million, nearly double the previous contract. The total raised from these deals is more than £ 2.7 billion, giving Premier League clubs an average media income from league games of around £ 40 million - a-year from 2007 to 2010.
The TV rights agreement between the Premier League and Sky has faced accusations of being a cartel, and a number of court cases have arisen as a result. An investigation by the Office of Fair Trading in 2002 found BSkyB to be dominant within the pay TV sports market, but concluded that there were insufficient grounds for the claim that BSkyB had abused its dominant position. In July 1999 the Premier League 's method of selling rights collectively for all member clubs was investigated by the UK Restrictive Practices Court, who concluded that the agreement was not contrary to the public interest.
The BBC 's highlights package on Saturday and Sunday nights, as well as other evenings when fixtures justify, will run until 2016. Television rights alone for the period 2010 to 2013 have been purchased for £ 1.782 billion. On 22 June 2009, due to troubles encountered by Setanta Sports after it failed to meet a final deadline over a £ 30 million payment to the Premier League, ESPN was awarded two packages of UK rights containing a total of 46 matches that were available for the 2009 -- 10 season as well as a package of 23 matches per season from 2010 -- 11 to 2012 -- 13. On 13 June 2012, the Premier League announced that BT had been awarded 38 games a season for the 2013 -- 14 through 2015 -- 16 seasons at £ 246 million - a-year. The remaining 116 games were retained by Sky who paid £ 760 million - a-year. The total domestic rights have raised £ 3.018 billion, an increase of 70.2 % over the 2010 -- 11 to 2012 -- 13 rights. The value of the licensing deal rose by another 70.2 % in 2015, when Sky and BT paid a total of £ 5.136 billion to renew their contracts with the Premier League for another three years up to the 2018 -- 19 season.
UK highlights
Between the 1998 -- 99 season and the 2012 -- 13 season, RTÉ broadcast highlights on Premier Soccer Saturday and occasionally Premier Soccer Sunday. During then between the 2004 -- 05 season and the 2006 -- 07 season, RTÉ broadcast 15 live matches on a Saturday afternoon with each match being called Premiership Live.
In August 2016, it was announced that the BBC would be creating a new magazine - style show for the Premier League entitled The Premier League Show.
The Premier League is the most - watched football league in the world, broadcast in 212 territories to 643 million homes and a potential TV audience of 4.7 billion people,. The Premier League 's production arm, Premier League Productions, is operated by IMG Productions and produces all content for its international television partners.
The Premier League is particularly popular in Asia, where it is the most widely distributed sports programme. In Australia, Optus telecommunications holds exclusive rights to the Premier League, providing live broadcasts and online access (Fox Sports formerly held rights). In India, the matches are broadcast live on STAR Sports. In China, the broadcast rights were awarded to Super Sports in a six - year agreement that began in the 2013 -- 14 season. As of the 2013 -- 14 season, Canadian broadcast rights to the Premier League are jointly owned by Sportsnet and TSN, with both rival networks holding rights to 190 matches per season.
The Premier League is broadcast in the United States through NBC Sports. Premier League viewership has increased rapidly, with NBC and NBCSN averaging a record 479,000 viewers in the 2014 -- 15 season, up 118 % from 2012 -- 13 when coverage still aired on Fox Soccer and ESPN / ESPN2 (220,000 viewers), and NBC Sports has been widely praised for its coverage. NBC Sports reached a six - year extension with the Premier League in 2015 to broadcast the league through the 2021 -- 22 season in a deal valued at $1 billion (£ 640 million).
There has been an increasing gulf between the Premier League and the Football League. Since its split with the Football League, many established clubs in the Premier League have managed to distance themselves from their counterparts in lower leagues. Owing in large part to the disparity in revenue from television rights between the leagues, many newly promoted teams have found it difficult to avoid relegation in their first season in the Premier League. In every season except 2001 -- 02 and 2011 -- 12, at least one Premier League newcomer has been relegated back to the Football League. In 1997 -- 98 all three promoted clubs were relegated at the end of the season.
The Premier League distributes a portion of its television revenue to clubs that are relegated from the league in the form of "parachute payments ''. Starting with the 2013 -- 14 season, these payments are in excess of £ 60 million over four seasons. Though designed to help teams adjust to the loss of television revenues (the average Premier League team receives £ 55 million while the average Football League Championship club receives £ 2 million), critics maintain that the payments actually widen the gap between teams that have reached the Premier League and those that have not, leading to the common occurrence of teams "bouncing back '' soon after their relegation. For some clubs who have failed to win immediate promotion back to the Premier League, financial problems, including in some cases administration or even liquidation have followed. Further relegations down the footballing ladder have ensued for several clubs unable to cope with the gap.
As of the 2017 -- 18 season, Premier League football has been played in 58 stadiums since the formation of the division. The Hillsborough disaster in 1989 and the subsequent Taylor Report saw a recommendation that standing terraces should be abolished; as a result all stadiums in the Premier League are all - seater. Since the formation of the Premier League, football grounds in England have seen constant improvements to capacity and facilities, with some clubs moving to new - build stadiums. Nine stadiums that have seen Premier League football have now been demolished. The stadiums for the 2017 -- 18 season show a large disparity in capacity: Wembley Stadium, the temporary home of Tottenham Hotspur, has a capacity of 90,000 with Dean Court, the home of Bournemouth, having a capacity of 11,360. The combined total capacity of the Premier League in the 2017 -- 18 season is 806,033 with an average capacity of 40,302.
Stadium attendances are a significant source of regular income for Premier League clubs. For the 2016 -- 17 season, average attendances across the league clubs were 35,838 for Premier League matches with a total aggregate attendance figure of 13,618,596. This represents an increase of 14,712 from the average attendance of 21,126 recorded in the league 's first season (1992 -- 93). However, during the 1992 -- 93 season the capacities of most stadiums were reduced as clubs replaced terraces with seats in order to meet the Taylor Report 's 1994 -- 95 deadline for all - seater stadiums. The Premier League 's record average attendance of 36,144 was set during the 2007 -- 08 season. This record was then beaten in the 2013 -- 14 season recording an average attendance of 36,695 with a total attendance of just under 14 million, the highest average in England 's top flight since 1950.
Managers in the Premier League are involved in the day - to - day running of the team, including the training, team selection, and player acquisition. Their influence varies from club - to - club and is related to the ownership of the club and the relationship of the manager with fans. Managers are required to have a UEFA Pro Licence which is the final coaching qualification available, and follows the completion of the UEFA ' B ' and ' A ' Licences. The UEFA Pro Licence is required by every person who wishes to manage a club in the Premier League on a permanent basis (i.e. more than 12 weeks -- the amount of time an unqualified caretaker manager is allowed to take control). Caretaker appointments are managers that fill the gap between a managerial departure and a new appointment. Several caretaker managers have gone on to secure a permanent managerial post after performing well as a caretaker; examples include Paul Hart at Portsmouth and David Pleat at Tottenham Hotspur.
The league 's longest - serving manager was Alex Ferguson, who was in charge of Manchester United from November 1986 until his retirement at the end of the 2012 -- 13 season, meaning that he was manager for all of the first 21 seasons of the Premier League. Arsène Wenger is the league 's longest - serving current manager, having been in charge of Arsenal in the Premier League since 1996. As of the 22nd game - week of the 2017 / 2018 season, 7 managers have been sacked, the most recent being Mark Hughes of Stoke City.
There have been several studies into the reasoning behind, and effects of, managerial sackings. Most famously, Professor Sue Bridgewater of the University of Liverpool and Dr. Bas ter Weel of the University of Amsterdam, performed two separate studies which helped to explain the statistics behind managerial sackings. Bridgewater 's study found that clubs generally sack their managers upon dropping below an average of 1 point - per - game.
At the inception of the Premier League in 1992 -- 93, just eleven players named in the starting line - ups for the first round of matches hailed from outside of the United Kingdom or Ireland. By 2000 -- 01, the number of foreign players participating in the Premier League was 36 per cent of the total. In the 2004 -- 05 season the figure had increased to 45 per cent. On 26 December 1999, Chelsea became the first Premier League side to field an entirely foreign starting line - up, and on 14 February 2005 Arsenal were the first to name a completely foreign 16 - man squad for a match. By 2009, under 40 % of the players in the Premier League were English.
In response to concerns that clubs were increasingly passing over young English players in favour of foreign players, in 1999, the Home Office tightened its rules for granting work permits to players from countries outside of the European Union. A non-EU player applying for the permit must have played for his country in at least 75 per cent of its competitive ' A ' team matches for which he was available for selection during the previous two years, and his country must have averaged at least 70th place in the official FIFA world rankings over the previous two years. If a player does not meet those criteria, the club wishing to sign him may appeal.
Players may only be transferred during transfer windows that are set by the Football Association. The two transfer windows run from the last day of the season to 31 August and from 31 December to 31 January. Player registrations can not be exchanged outside these windows except under specific licence from the FA, usually on an emergency basis. As of the 2010 -- 11 season, the Premier League introduced new rules mandating that each club must register a maximum 25 - man squad of players aged over 21, with the squad list only allowed to be changed in transfer windows or in exceptional circumstances. This was to enable the ' home grown ' rule to be enacted, whereby the League would also from 2010 require at least 8 of the named 25 man squad to be made up of ' home - grown players '.
There is no team or individual salary cap in the Premier League. As a result of the increasingly lucrative television deals, player wages rose sharply following the formation of the Premier League when the average player wage was £ 75,000 per year. The average salary stands at £ 1.1 million as of the 2008 -- 09 season. As of 2015, average salaries in the Premier League are higher than for any other football league in the world.
The record transfer fee for a Premier League player has risen steadily over the lifetime of the competition. Prior to the start of the first Premier League season Alan Shearer became the first British player to command a transfer fee of more than £ 3 million. The record rose steadily in the Premier League 's first few seasons, until Alan Shearer made a record breaking £ 15 million move to Newcastle United in 1996. All three of the most expensive transfers in the sport 's history had a Premier League club on the selling or buying end, with Juventus selling Paul Pogba to Manchester United in August 2016 for a fee of £ 89 million, Tottenham Hotspur selling Gareth Bale to Real Madrid for £ 85 million in 2013, Manchester United 's sale of Cristiano Ronaldo to Real Madrid for £ 80 million in 2009, and Liverpool selling Luis Suárez to Barcelona for £ 75 million in 2014.
Italics denotes players still playing professional football, Bold denotes players still playing in the Premier League.
The Golden Boot is awarded to the top Premier League scorer at the end of each season. Former Blackburn Rovers and Newcastle United striker Alan Shearer holds the record for most Premier League goals with 260. Twenty - five players have reached the 100 - goal mark. Since the first Premier League season in 1992 -- 93, 14 different players from 10 different clubs have won or shared the top scorers title. Thierry Henry won his fourth overall scoring title by scoring 27 goals in the 2005 -- 06 season. Andrew Cole and Alan Shearer hold the record for most goals in a season (34) -- for Newcastle and Blackburn respectively. Ryan Giggs of Manchester United holds the record for scoring goals in consecutive seasons, having scored in the first 21 seasons of the league.
The Premier League maintains two trophies -- the genuine trophy (held by the reigning champions) and a spare replica. Two trophies are held in the event that two different clubs could win the League on the final day of the season. In the rare event that more than two clubs are vying for the title on the final day of the season -- then a replica won by a previous club is used.
The current Premier League trophy was created by Royal Jewellers Asprey of London. It consists of a trophy with a golden crown and a malachite plinth base. The plinth weighs 33 pounds (15 kg) and the trophy weighs 22 pounds (10.0 kg). The trophy and plinth are 76 cm (30 in) tall, 43 cm (17 in) wide and 25 cm (9.8 in) deep.
Its main body is solid sterling silver and silver gilt, while its plinth is made of malachite, a semi-precious stone. The plinth has a silver band around its circumference, upon which the names of the title - winning clubs are listed. Malachite 's green colour is also representative of the green field of play. The design of the trophy is based on the heraldry of Three Lions that is associated with English football. Two of the lions are found above the handles on either side of the trophy -- the third is symbolised by the captain of the title - winning team as he raises the trophy, and its gold crown, above his head at the end of the season. The ribbons that drape the handles are presented in the team colours of the league champions that year.
In 2004, a special gold version of the trophy was commissioned to commemorate Arsenal winning the title without a single defeat.
In addition to the winner 's trophy and the individual winner 's medals awarded to players, the Premier League also awards the monthly Manager of the Month, Player of the Month and Goal of the Month awards, as well as annual awards for Manager of the Season, Player of the Season, Golden Boot and the Golden Glove awards.. From the 2017 / 18 season, players also receive a milestone award for 100 appearances and every century there after and also players who score 50 goals and multiples thereof. Each player to reach these milestones will receive a presentation box from the Premier League containing a special medallion and a plaque commemorating their achievement.
In 2012, the Premier League celebrated its second decade by holding the 20 Seasons Awards:
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which of the following is true of the check 21 act (check clearing for the 21st century act) | Check 21 Act - wikipedia
Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC)
The Check Clearing for the 21st Century Act (or Check 21 Act) is a United States federal law, Pub. L. 108 -- 100, that was enacted on October 28, 2003 by the 108th U.S. Congress. The Check 21 Act took effect one year later on October 28, 2004. The law allows the recipient of the original paper check to create a digital version of the original check, a process known as check truncation, into an electronic format called a "substitute check '', thereby eliminating the need for further handling of the physical document. In essence, the recipient bank no longer returns the paper check, but effectively e-mails an image of both sides of the check to the bank it is drawn upon.
Consumers are most likely to see the effects of this act when they notice that certain checks (or image of) are no longer being returned to them with their monthly statement, even though other checks are still being returned. Another effect of the law is that it is now legal for anyone to use a computer scanner or mobile phone to capture images of checks and deposit them electronically, a process known as remote deposit.
Check 21 is not subject to ACH (Automated Clearing House) rules, therefore transactions are not subject to NACHA (The Electronic Payments Association) rules, regulations, fees and fines.
The Act lets banks take advantage of image technologies and electronic transport while not being dependent on other banks being ready to settle transactions with images instead of paper. The process of removing the paper check from its processing flow is called "check truncation ''. In truncation, both sides of the paper check are scanned to produce a digital image. If a paper document is still needed, these images are inserted into specially formatted documents containing a photo - reduced copy of the original checks called a "substitute check ''.
Once a check is truncated, businesses and banks can work with either the digital image or a print reproduction of it. Images can be exchanged between member banks, savings and loans, credit unions, servicers, clearinghouses, and the Federal Reserve Bank.
Not all banks have the ability to receive image files, so there are companies who offer the service. At the item processing center, the checks are sorted by machine according to the routing / transit (RT) number as presented by the magnetic ink character recognition (MICR) line, and scanned to produce a digital image. A batch file is generated and sent to the Federal Reserve Bank or presentment point for settlement or image replacement. If a substitute check is needed, the transmitting bank is responsible for the cost of generating and transporting it from the presentment point to the Federal Reserve Bank or other corresponding bank.
Check 21 has also spawned a new bank treasury management product known as remote deposit. This process allows depositing customers the ability to capture front and rear images of checks along with their respective MICR data for those being deposited. This data is then uploaded to their depositing institution, and the customer 's account is then credited. Remote deposit therefore precludes the need for merchants and other large depositors to travel to the bank (or branch) to physically make a deposit.
In addition to remote deposit, other such electronic depositing options are available to qualifying bank customers through NACHA. These options include "Point of Purchase Entry '' (POP) and "Back Office Conversion Entry '' (BOC) for retailers, and "Accounts Receivable Entry '' (ARC) for high volume remittance receivers. These transactions are not covered under the Check 21 legislation, but rather are electronic conversions of the checks ' MICR data into an ACH (Automated Clearing House) debit. This can help the depositor save on the costs of transporting checks and in bank fees. However, the liability changes from Regulation CC of the Federal Reserve to Regulation E, which provides much more protection for the account being debited and therefore more risk to the merchant and originating bank.
There are a number of patents relating to "check collection systems '', including some owned by DataTreasury.
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who appoints judges to the courts in ireland | Judiciary of the Republic of Ireland - wikipedia
The Judiciary of Ireland consist of the Supreme Court, the Court of Appeal, the High Court, the Circuit Court and the District Court. The courts apply the laws of Ireland. There are three sources of law in Ireland: the Constitution, statutory law and the common law. Under common law, trials for serious offences must usually be held before a jury. Except in exceptional circumstances, court hearings must occur in public. The High Court, the Court of Appeal, and the Supreme Court have authority, by means of judicial review, to determine the compatibility of the common law and statute law with the Constitution. Similarly, the courts may determine the compatibility of the common law with statute law.
The current system of courts is provided for in Article 34 of the Constitution of Ireland of 1937. However, it was not until the Courts (Establishment and Constitution) Act 1961 became law that this system took effect. Between 1937 and 1961 the courts provided for by the Constitution of the Irish Free State and the Courts of Justice Act 1924 continued their work under the Transitory Provisions of the Constitution of 1937, in which Articles 34 to 37 deal with the administration of justice generally.
The Courts Service Act 1998 created the Courts Service to manage the courts and associated property, and provide assistance and facilities to their users, including judges. The Courts Service also provides information to the public. The Board of the Courts Service, which oversees policy formulation and implementation, is headed by a Chief Executive Officer. Judges of the courts are independent of the service in their judicial functions and are in that capacity paid by the state and not the service.
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The Supreme Court, the Court of Appeal, and the High Court are provided for in the Constitution. The Supreme Court of Ireland is defined as the Court of Final Appeal, but usually hears appeals only on points of law. Its decisions as to the interpretation of the Constitution and the law are final. The Court of Appeal and the High Court also have authority to interpret the Constitution. The High Court also tries the most serious criminal and civil cases, and hears certain appeals from lower courts. When the high court sits as a criminal court it is called the Central Criminal Court and sits with a jury.
The Court of Appeal is the newest of the superior courts having been established in 2014. It took over the former appellant jurisdiction of the Supreme Court (in civil appeals from the High Court), and the jurisdiction of the former Court of Criminal Appeal (in criminal appeals from the High Court and the Circuit Court).
The Supreme Court, the Court of Appeal, and the High Court are the only courts specifically required by the Constitution. Other courts are established by law. Beneath the superior courts are the Circuit Court and the District Court. The Circuit Court deals with matters that must be tried before a jury. The District Court deals only with minor matters that may be tried summarily.
The Constitution provides for only two institutions in which a serious crime may be tried in the absence of a jury: a military tribunal, and a special court established by law to try serious offences whenever this is considered to be in the interests of justice or public order. Such a court has been established in the form of the Special Criminal Court, which has been used to try those accused of being members of paramilitary organisations such as the Provisional IRA, or of leading organised crime.
Judges are appointed by the President of Ireland, acting on the binding advice of the Government. The Government themselves act on the advice of the Judicial Appointments Advisory Board who submit a list of seven recommended candidates. However the government are not bound to follow the advice of the Board and may decide to appoint other qualified individuals. The Board advertises vacant positions but does not seek out candidates or conduct interviews.
Traditionally Superior and Circuit Court judges were barristers before being appointed to the bench, while District Court judges were solicitors. Michael White became the first solicitor to be appointed to the Circuit Court in 1996 and Michael Peart became the first solicitor to appointed to the High Court in 2002. White was made a High Court judge in 2011.
Judicial appointments are frequently thought to be politically motivated. In an interview in the Autumn 2012 edition of The Parchment, Mr Justice Peter Kelly head of the Commercial Court and head of the Association of Judges of Ireland said the appointments to the Supreme Court were "purely political ''. He went on to say the creation of the Judicial Appointments Advisory Board (JAAB) in 1996 "was done to create the semblance of independence as to how judges were appointed '' but "the JAAB by common consent, does n't really work ''. He continued "We all know of cases of people who would be excellent judicial appointments and are passed over in favour of people who are not so well qualified. '' He called for an independent body to appoint judges. In 2015 Mr Justice Kelly was appointed by the government as President of the High Court.
The Constitution originally mandated that judicial salaries could not be reduced as long as they remain in office. However, in 2011 the Twenty - ninth Amendment of the Constitution of Ireland inserted a clause allowing which provides that:
In O'Byrne v Minister for Finance (1959), the Supreme Court had previously found that an increase in income tax which reduced judicial pay did not violate the constitutional prohibition on the reduction of judicial pay.
The procedure for removing a judge of the Supreme Court, the Court of Appeal, or the High Court from office is specified in the Constitution, but by law the same mechanism applies to judges of the lower courts. A judge may be removed from office only for "stated misbehaviour or incapacity '' and only if a joint resolution is adopted by both houses of the Oireachtas (Parliament). After such a resolution is approved the judge is dismissed by the President. No judge has been removed from office since the foundation of the state in 1922.
In 1999 then Chief Justice Hamilton reported on the interventions of two judges, Justice Hugh O'Flaherty of the Supreme Court and Justice Cyril Kelly of the High Court, in the early release of Philip Sheedy, who had been convicted of causing death by dangerous driving. The Chief Justice described their actions as inappropriate and unwise. Following strong political reaction, and facing an Oireachtas debate on the report and a request by the executive to resign, the judges both resigned. In their resignation statements they said they had done nothing wrong, but were resigning "to restore faith in the judicial system ''.
In 2004 a motion to impeach a Circuit Court judge, Brian Curtin, was launched in the Dáil, the first time such a move has been made. This followed strong public reaction to his acquittal on charges of possession of child pornography, due to evidence seized by gardaí being ruled inadmissible, and the judge 's refusal of a Government request to resign. The Dáil established a joint committee to consider the evidence and report to the Dáil, a process that was upheld by the Supreme Court following a challenge by the judge. In November 2006, facing questioning by the committee, Judge Curtin resigned on health grounds, ending the impeachment process.
After a seven - day trial District Court judge Heather Perrin became the first judge in the history of the State to be convicted of a serious criminal offence. On the 20 November 2012 the jury at Dublin 's Circuit Court found her guilty of deception by unanimous decision after 3 and 1 / 2 hours of deliberation. The crime was committed a month before she was appointed to the judiciary while she was still a practising solicitor. She subsequently resigned as a judge.
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who was the editor of uttar pradesh first daily newspaper hindustan published 1887 | Hindustan (newspaper) - Wikipedia
Hindustan Dainik or ' ' Hindustan ' ' is an Indian Hindi - language daily newspaper and the third - largest circulated newspaper in India. It is published by Hindustan Media Ventures Limited. Earlier it was part of HT Media Ltd group, which spun off its Hindi business into a separate company named Hindustan Media Ventures Limited in December 2009. It ranks as the second largest - read daily in the country. Hindustan has 21 editions across the Hindi belt. They are spread across Delhi, Haryana (Faridabad), Bihar (Patna, Muzaffarpur, Gaya, Bhagalpur and Purnea), Jharkhand (Ranchi, Jamshedpur and Dhanbad), Uttar Pradesh (Lucknow, Varanasi, Meerut, Agra, Allahabad, Gorakhpur, Bareilly, Moradabad, Aligarh, and Kanpur) and Uttarakhand (Dehradun, Haridwar, Haldwani). Apart from these, the paper is also available in key towns like Mathura, Saharanpur, Faizabad.
In Delhi plus NCR, Hindustan is an undisputed No. 2 and has a rapidly growing even as the market is declining. Hindustan readership has grown to 120 L readers in Q4 11. As per Total Readership, Hindustan is No 2 with 385 L readers.
Currently, the major editions of Hindustan are available online in epaper format.
Hindustan dominates in Bihar with an undisputed readership of about 5 million (as per the IRS 2011, Q4). It commands a massive 73 % share of the Hindi readership market of Bihar. On 24th April 2018, Hindustan launched it 's 5th edition in Purnea. Hindustan has been the No. 1 newspaper of Jharkhand, ever since readership surveys have been reported for the state. On 13 May 2016, a reporter was shot to death.
Hindustan is expanding rapidly in the state of Uttar Pradesh, which is the largest Hindi newspaper market, and where it is the fastest growing Hindi daily. Apart from a long - standing presence in Lucknow and Varanasi, Hindustan was launched in Meerut, Agra and Kanpur in 2006. In 2008, Hindustan launched in the cities of Mathura. In 2009, Hindustan launched in Allahabad and Bareilly. In 2010, Hindustan launched in Gorakhpur as well. In 2011, Hindustan launched in Aligarh, and in 2012 in Moradabad.
Hindustan has made an entry into Uttarakhand with a printing location in Dehradun, in May 2008. This edition covers key cities in Uttarakhand and West UP (like Dehradun, Hrishikesh, Haridwar, Roorkee and Saharanpur). In Jan 2009, Hindustan started its edition in Haldwani.It has the highest numbers of readers in Uttarakhand at present.
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after 1937 supreme court decisions approving new deal legislation favored | Judicial Procedures reform bill of 1937 - wikipedia
The Judicial Procedures Reform Bill of 1937 (frequently called the "court - packing plan '') was a legislative initiative proposed by U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt to add more justices to the U.S. Supreme Court. Roosevelt 's purpose was to obtain favorable rulings regarding New Deal legislation that the court had ruled unconstitutional. The central provision of the bill would have granted the President power to appoint an additional Justice to the U.S. Supreme Court, up to a maximum of six, for every member of the court over the age of 70 years and 6 months.
In the Judiciary Act of 1869 Congress had established that the United States Supreme Court would consist of the Chief Justice and eight associate justices. During Roosevelt 's first term the Supreme Court struck down several New Deal measures as being unconstitutional. Roosevelt sought to reverse this by changing the makeup of the court through the appointment of new additional justices who he hoped would rule his legislative initiatives did not exceed the constitutional authority of the government. Since the U.S. Constitution does not define the size of the Supreme Court, Roosevelt pointed out that it was within the power of the Congress to change it. The legislation was viewed by members of both parties as an attempt to stack the court, and was opposed by many Democrats, including Vice President John Nance Garner. The bill came to be known as Roosevelt 's "court - packing plan ''.
In November 1936, Roosevelt won a sweeping reelection victory. In the months following, Roosevelt boldly proposed to reorganize the federal judiciary by adding a new justice each time a justice reached age seventy and failed to retire. The legislation was unveiled on February 5, 1937, and was the subject of Roosevelt 's 9th Fireside chat of March 9, 1937. Three weeks after the radio address the Supreme Court published an opinion upholding a Washington state minimum wage law in West Coast Hotel Co. v. Parrish. The 5 -- 4 ruling was the result of the apparently sudden jurisprudential shift by Associate Justice Owen Roberts, who joined with the wing of the bench supportive to the New Deal legislation. Since Roberts had previously ruled against most New Deal legislation, his support here was seen as a result of the political pressure the president was exerting on the court. Some interpreted his reversal as an effort to maintain the Court 's judicial independence by alleviating the political pressure to create a court more friendly to the New Deal. This reversal came to be known as "the switch in time that saved nine ''; however, recent legal - historical scholarship has called that narrative into question as Roberts 's decision and vote in the Parrish case predated both the public announcement and introduction of the 1937 bill.
Roosevelt 's legislative initiative ultimately failed. The bill was held up in the Senate Judiciary Committee by Democratic committee chair Henry F. Ashurst who delayed hearings in the Judiciary Committee saying, "No haste, no hurry, no waste, no worry -- that is the motto of this committee. '' As a result of his delaying efforts, the bill was held in committee for 165 days, and opponents of the bill credited Ashurst as instrumental in its defeat. The bill was further undermined by the untimely death of its chief advocate in the U.S. Senate, Senate Majority Leader Joseph T. Robinson. Contemporary observers broadly viewed Roosevelt 's initiative as political maneuvering. Its failure exposed the limits of Roosevelt 's abilities to push forward legislation through direct public appeal. Public perception of his efforts here was in stark contrast to the reception of his legislative efforts during his first term. Roosevelt ultimately prevailed in establishing a majority on the court friendly to his New Deal legislation, though some scholars view Roosevelt 's victory as pyrrhic.
Following the Wall Street Crash of 1929 and the onset of the Great Depression, Franklin Roosevelt won the 1932 presidential election on a promise to give America a "New Deal '' to promote national economic recovery. The 1932 election also saw a new Democratic majority sweep into both houses of Congress, giving Roosevelt legislative support for his reform platform. Both Roosevelt and the 73rd Congress called for greater governmental involvement in the economy as a way to end the depression. During the president 's first term, a series of successful challenges to various New Deal programs were launched in federal courts. It soon became clear that the overall constitutionality of much of the New Deal legislation, especially that which extended the power of the federal government, would be decided by the Supreme Court.
A minor aspect of Roosevelt 's New Deal agenda may have itself directly precipitated the showdown between the Roosevelt administration and the Supreme Court. Shortly after Roosevelt 's inauguration, Congress passed the Economy Act, a provision of which cut many government salaries, including the pensions of retired Supreme Court justices. Associate Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr., who had retired in 1932, saw his pension halved from $20,000 to $10,000 per year. The cut to their pensions appears to have dissuaded at least two older Justices, Willis Van Devanter and George Sutherland, from retirement. Both would later find many aspects of the New Deal unconstitutional.
The flurry of new law in the wake of Roosevelt 's first hundred days swamped the Justice Department with more responsibilities than it could manage. Many Justice Department lawyers were ideologically opposed to the New Deal and failed to influence either the drafting or review of much of the White House 's New Deal legislation. The ensuing struggle over ideological identity increased the ineffectiveness of the Justice Department. As Interior Secretary Harold Ickes complained, Attorney General Homer Cummings had "simply loaded it (the Justice Department) with political appointees '' at a time when it would be responsible for litigating the flood of cases arising from New Deal legal challenges.
Compounding matters, Roosevelt 's congenial Solicitor General, James Crawford Biggs (a patronage appointment chosen by Cummings), proved to be an ineffective advocate for the legislative initiatives of the New Deal. While Biggs resigned in early 1935, his successor Stanley Forman Reed proved to be little better.
This disarray at the Justice Department meant that the government 's lawyers often failed to foster viable test cases and arguments for their defense, subsequently handicapping them before the courts. As Chief Justice Charles Evans Hughes would later note, it was because much of the New Deal legislation was so poorly drafted and defended that the court did not uphold it.
Popular as well as some scholarly understanding of the Hughes Court has typically cast it as divided between a conservative and liberal faction, with two critical swing votes. The conservative Justices Pierce Butler, James Clark McReynolds, George Sutherland and Willis Van Devanter were known as "The Four Horsemen ''. Opposed to them were the liberal Justices Louis Brandeis, Benjamin Cardozo and Harlan Fiske Stone, dubbed "The Three Musketeers ''. Chief Justice Charles Evans Hughes and Justice Owen Roberts were regarded as the swing votes on the court. Some recent scholarship has eschewed these labels since they suggest more legislative, as opposed to judicial, differences. While it is true that many rulings of the 1930s Supreme Court were deeply divided, with four justices on each side and Justice Roberts as the typical swing vote, the ideological divide this represented was linked to a larger debate in U.S. jurisprudence regarding the role of the judiciary, the meaning of the Constitution, and the respective rights and prerogatives of the different branches of government in shaping the judicial outlook of the Court. At the same time, however, the perception of a conservative / liberal divide does reflect the ideological leanings of the justices themselves. As William Leuchtenburg has observed:
Some scholars disapprove of the terms "conservative '' and "liberal '', or "right, center, and left '', when applied to judges because it may suggest that they are no different from legislators; but the private correspondence of members of the Court makes clear that they thought of themselves as ideological warriors. In the fall of 1929, Taft had written one of the Four Horsemen, Justice Butler, that his most fervent hope was for "continued life of enough of the present membership... to prevent disastrous reversals of our present attitude. With Van (Devanter) and Mac (McReynolds) and Sutherland and you and Sanford, there will be five to steady the boat... '' Six counting Taft.
Whatever the political differences among the justices, the clash over the constitutionality of the New Deal initiatives was tied to clearly divergent legal philosophies which were gradually coming into competition with each other: legal formalism and legal realism. During the period c. 1900 -- c. 1920, the formalist and realist camps clashed over the nature and legitimacy of judicial authority in common law, given the lack of a central, governing authority in those legal fields other than the precedent established by case law -- i.e. the aggregate of earlier judicial decisions.
This debate spilled over into the realm of constitutional law. Realist legal scholars and judges argued that the constitution should be interpreted flexibly and judges should not use the Constitution to impede legislative experimentation. One of the most famous proponents of this concept, known as the Living Constitution, was U.S. Supreme Court justice Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr., who said in Missouri v. Holland the "case before us must be considered in the light of our whole experience and not merely in that of what was said a hundred years ago ''. The conflict between formalists and realists implicated a changing but still - persistent view of constitutional jurisprudence which viewed the U.S. Constitution as a static, universal, and general document not designed to change over time. Under this judicial philosophy, case resolution required a simple restatement of the applicable principles which were then extended to a case 's facts in order to resolve the controversy. This earlier judicial attitude came into direct conflict with the legislative reach of much of Roosevelt 's New Deal legislation. Examples of these judicial principles include:
At the same time, developing modernist ideas regarding politics and the role of government placed the role of the judiciary into flux. The courts were generally moving away from what has been called "guardian review '' -- in which judges defended the line between appropriate legislative advances and majoritarian encroachments into the private sphere of life -- toward a position of "bifurcated review ''. This approach favored sorting laws into categories that demanded deference towards other branches of government in the economic sphere, but aggressively heightened judicial scrutiny with respect to fundamental civil and political liberties. The slow transformation away from the "guardian review '' role of the judiciary brought about the ideological -- and, to a degree, generational -- rift in the 1930s judiciary. With the Judiciary Bill, Roosevelt sought to accelerate this judicial evolution by diminishing the dominance of an older generation of judges who remained attached to an earlier mode of American jurisprudence.
Roosevelt was wary of the Supreme Court early in his first term, and his administration was slow to bring constitutional challenges of New Deal legislation before the court. However, early wins for New Deal supporters came in Home Building & Loan Association v. Blaisdell and Nebbia v. New York at the start of 1934. At issue in each case were state laws relating to economic regulation. Blaisdell concerned the temporary suspension of creditor 's remedies by Minnesota in order to combat mortgage foreclosures, finding that temporal relief did not, in fact, impair the obligation of a contract. Nebbia held that New York could implement price controls on milk, in accordance with the state 's police power. While not tests of New Deal legislation themselves, the cases gave cause for relief of administration concerns about Associate Justice Owen Roberts, who voted with the majority in both cases. Roberts 's opinion for the court in Nebbia was also encouraging for the administration:
(T) his court from the early days affirmed that the power to promote the general welfare is inherent in government.
Nebbia also holds a particular significance: it was the one case in which the Court abandoned its jurisprudential distinction between the "public '' and "private '' spheres of economic activity, an essential distinction in the court 's analysis of state police power. The effect of this decision radiated outward, affecting other doctrinal methods of analysis in wage regulation, labor, and the power of the U.S. Congress to regulate commerce.
The first major test of New Deal legislation came in Panama Refining Co. v. Ryan, announced January 7, 1935. Contested in this case was the National Industrial Recovery Act, Section 9 (c), in which Congress had delegated to the President authority "to prohibit the transportation in interstate and foreign commerce of petroleum... produced or withdrawn from storage in excess of the amount permitted... by any State law ''. The NIRA passed in June 1933, and Roosevelt moved quickly to file executive orders to regulate the oil industry. Two small, independent oil producers, Panama Refining Co. and Amazon Petroleum Co. filed suit seeking an injunction to halt enforcement, arguing that the law exceeded Congress 's interstate commerce power and improperly delegated authority to the President.
The Supreme Court, by an 8 - 1 margin, agreed with the oil companies, finding that Congress had inappropriately delegated its regulatory power without both a clear statement of policy and the establishment of a specific set of standards by which the President was empowered to act. Although a loss for the Roosevelt administration and New Deal supporters, it was mitigated by the narrowness of the court 's opinion, which did not deny Congress 's authority to regulate interstate oil commerce. Chief Justice Hughes, who wrote the majority opinion, indicated that the policy which Section 9 (c) enacted was not unconstitutional and that it was only ruled unconstitutional because it was poorly worded and did not convey specific powers. The Court 's opinion indicated that Congress could resolve the unconstitutional provisions of the Act by simply adding procedural safeguards, hence the Connally Hot Oil Act of 1935 was passed into law.
Economic regulation again appeared before the Supreme Court in the Gold Clause Cases. In his first week after taking office, Roosevelt closed the nation 's banks, acting from fears that gold hoarding and international speculation posed a danger to the national monetary system. He based his actions on the Trading with the Enemy Act of 1917. Congress quickly ratified Roosevelt 's action with the Emergency Banking Act. A month later, the President issued Executive Order 6102, confiscating all gold coins, bullion, and certificates, requiring they be surrendered to the government by May 1, 1933 in exchange for currency. Congress also passed a joint resolution cancelling all gold clauses in public and private contracts, stating such clauses interfered with its power to regulate U.S. currency.
While the Roosevelt administration waited for the court to return its judgment, contingency plans were made for an unfavorable ruling. Ideas circulated within the White House to narrowly exercise the government 's power of sovereign immunity by withdrawing the right to sue the government to enforce gold clauses. Attorney General Cummings suggested the court should be immediately packed to ensure a favorable ruling. Roosevelt himself ordered the Treasury to manipulate the market to give the impression of turmoil, although Treasury Secretary Henry Morgenthau refused. Roosevelt also drew up executive orders to close all stock exchanges and prepared a radio address to the public.
On February 18, 1935, the Justices ' decisions in all three cases were announced; all supported the government 's position by a narrow 5 -- 4 majority. Chief Justice Hughes wrote the opinion for each case, finding the government had plenary power to regulate money. As such, the abrogation of both private and public contractual gold clauses was within congressional reach when such clauses represented a threat to Congress 's control of the monetary system. Speaking for the Court in the Perry case, Hughes 's opinion was remarkable: in a judicial tongue - lashing not seen since Marbury v. Madison, Hughes chided Congress for an act which, while legal, was regarded as clearly immoral. However, Hughes ultimately found the plaintiff had no cause of action, and thus no standing to sue the government.
While not itself a part of the New Deal, the Roosevelt administration kept a close eye on the challenge to the 1934 Railroad Retirement Act, Railroad Retirement Board v. Alton Railroad Co... Its similarity with the Social Security Act meant the test of the railroad pension regime would serve as an indicator of whether Roosevelt 's ambitious retirement program would be found constitutional. The railroad pension was designed to encourage older rail workers to retire, thereby creating jobs for younger railroaders desperately in need of work, although ostensibly Congress passed the act on the grounds that it would increase safety on the country 's railways.
Numerous challenges to the law were filed in the Supreme Court of the District of Columbia, and injunctions were issued on the grounds that the law was an unconstitutional regulation of an activity not connected to interstate commerce. The Supreme Court took the case without waiting for an appeal to the District of Columbia Court of Appeals.
On May 6, 1935, Justice Roberts 's 5 -- 4 opinion for the Court rejected the government 's position, dismissing the purported effect on railway safety as "without support in reason or common sense ''. Further, Roberts took issue with a provision of the act which awarded pension computation credit to former rail workers, regardless of when they had last worked in the industry. Roberts characterized the provision as "a naked appropriation of private property '' -- taking the belongings "of one and bestowing it upon another '' -- and a violation of the Due Process Clause of the Fifth Amendment.
Just three weeks after its defeat in the railroad pension case, the Roosevelt administration suffered its most severe setback, on May 27, 1935: "Black Monday ''. Chief Justice Hughes arranged for the decisions announced from the bench that day to be read in order of increasing importance. The Supreme Court ruled unanimously against Roosevelt in three cases:
The first of the three read out was Humphrey 's Executor v. United States. After taking office, President Roosevelt came to believe that William Humphrey, a Republican appointed to a six - year term on the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) in 1931, was at odds with the administration 's New Deal initiatives. Writing to request Humphrey 's resignation from the FTC in August 1933, Roosevelt openly admitted his reason for seeking his removal: "I did not feel that your mind and my mind go along together. '' This proved to be a blunder on Roosevelt 's part. When Humphrey could not be persuaded to resign, Roosevelt dismissed him from office on October 7.
Humphrey promptly filed suit to return to his appointed office and to collect backpay. The basis for his suit was the 1914 Federal Trade Commission Act, which specified that the President was only authorized to remove a FTC commissioner "for inefficiency, neglect of duty, or malfeasance in office ''. Humphrey died on February 14, 1934 and his suit was carried on by his wife -- as executor of his estate -- for backpay up to the date of his death (with interest).
Associate Justice George Sutherland read the court 's opinion, holding that Roosevelt had indeed acted outside of his authority when he fired Humphrey from the FTC, stating that Congress had intended regulatory commissions such as the FTC to be independent of executive influence.
Next announced was Louisville Joint Stock Land Bank v. Radford. The 1934 Frazier - Lemke Farm Bankruptcy Act was designed to give aid to debt - ridden farmers, allowing them to reacquire farms they had lost from foreclosure, or to petition the Bankruptcy Court within their district to suspend foreclosure proceedings. The legislation 's ultimate goal was to help those farmers scale down their mortgages.
The opinion of the court, read by Justice Louis Brandeis, struck down the act on Fifth Amendment Takings Clause grounds. The court found the act stripped the creditor of property which was held before the passage of the act, without any form of compensation, and bestowed the property upon the debtor. Further, the act allowed the debtor to remain on the mortgaged property for up to five years after declaring bankruptcy, giving the creditor no opportunity to foreclose immediately. While the states could not impair contract obligations, the federal government could -- but it could not take property in such a manner without compensating the creditor.
The final blow for the President on Black Monday fell with the reading of Schechter Poultry Corp. v. United States, which revisited the National Industrial Recovery Act, invalidating the NIRA in its entirety.
Under Section 3 of the NIRA, the President had promulgated the Live Poultry Code to regulate the New York poultry market. The Schechter brothers had been charged with criminal violations of the code and were convicted, whereupon they appealed on grounds that the NIRA was an unconstitutional delegation of legislative power to the executive, the NIRA sought to regulate business which was not engaged in interstate commerce, and that certain sections violated the Fifth Amendment Due Process Clause.
Chief Justice Hughes delivered the opinion of the unanimous court, holding that Congress had delegated too much lawmaking authority to the President without any clear guidelines or standards. Section 3 granted either trade associations or the President authority to draft "codes of fair competition '', which amounted to a capitulation of congressional legislative authority. The arrangement presented the danger that private entities, and not government officials, could engage in creating codes of law enforceable upon the public. Justice Benjamin Cardozo, who had been the lone dissent in the similar Panama case, agreed with the majority. In his concurring opinion, Cardozo described Section 3 as "delegation run riot ''.
Hughes also renewed an old method of jurisprudence concerning the "current of commerce '' theory of the Commerce Clause as expounded by Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr. in Swift v. United States. Hughes determined the poultry at issue in the case, though purchased for slaughter interstate, were not intended for any further interstate transactions after Schecter slaughtered them. Thus, the poultry were outside of Congress 's authoritative reach unless Schechter 's business had a direct and logical connection to interstate commerce, per the Shreveport Rate Case. Hughes used a direct / indirect effect analysis to determine the Schechters ' business was not within the reach of congressional regulation.
Upon learning of the unanimity of the three court decisions, Roosevelt became distressed and irritable, regarding the opinions as personal attacks. The Supreme Court 's decision in Humphrey 's Ex. particularly stunned the administration. Only nine years earlier, in Myers v. United States, the Taft Court had held the President 's power to remove executive officials was plenary. Roosevelt and his entourage viewed Sutherland 's particularly vicious criticism as an attempt to publicly shame the President and paint him as having purposefully violated the Constitution.
After the decisions came down, Roosevelt remarked at a May 31 press conference that the Schechter decision had "relegated (the nation) to a horse and buggy definition of interstate commerce ''. The comment lit a fire under the media and indignated the public. Scorned for the perceived attack on the court, Roosevelt assumed a diplomatic silence toward the court and waited for a better opportunity to press his cause with the public.
With several cases laying forth the criteria necessary to respect the due process and property rights of individuals, and statements of what constituted an appropriate delegation of legislative powers to the President, Congress quickly revised the Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA). However, New Deal supporters still wondered how the AAA would fare against Chief Justice Hughes 's restrictive view of the Commerce Clause from the Schechter decision.
The AAA received its trial in the case of United States v. Butler, announced January 6, 1936. The AAA had created an agricultural regulatory program with a supporting processing tax; the revenue raised was then specifically used to pay farmers to reduce their acreage and production, which would in turn reduce surplus harvest yields and increase prices. Officials of the Hoosac Mills Corp. argued that the AAA was as unconstitutional as the National Industrial Recovery Act, attempting to regulate activity not in interstate commerce. Specifically attacked was the use of Congress 's Taxing and Spending power undergirding the program. On January 6, 1936, the Supreme Court ruled the AAA unconstitutional by a 6 - 3 margin.
Associate Justice Roberts again delivered the opinion of a divided court, agreeing with those challenging the tax. Regarding agriculture as an essentially local activity, the court invalidated the AAA as a violation of the powers reserved to the states under the Tenth Amendment. The court also used the occasion to settle a dispute over the General Welfare Clause stemming back to the administration of George Washington, holding Congress possessed a power to tax and spend for the general welfare.
Following the undoing of the National Recovery Administration by the Schechter decision, Congress attempted to salvage the coal industry code promulgated under the National Industrial Recovery Act in the Bituminous Coal Conservation Act of 1935. The act, closely following the criteria of the Schechter ruling, declared a public interest in coal production and found it so integrated into interstate commerce as to warrant federal regulation. The code subjected the coal industry to labor, price, and practice regulations, levying a 15 percent tax on all producers with a provision to refund a significant portion of the tax for those adhering to the legislation 's dictates. James Carter, shareholder and president of the Carter Coal Co., filed suit against the board of directors when they voted to pay the tax.
On May 18, 1936, the Supreme Court ruled the act unconstitutional by a 5 - 4 margin. Associate Justice Sutherland read the Carter v. Carter Coal Company opinion, striking down the coal act in its entirety, citing the Schechter decision. Most surprising in the opinion was reliance on 19th - century cases legal scholars had thought long repudiated: Kidd v. Pearson and United States v. E.C. Knight Co.
On May 25, 1936, the Supreme Court ruled the 1934 Municipal Bankruptcy Act (also known as the Sumners - Wilcox Bill) was unconstitutional in a 5 - 4 decision. The law amended the Federal Bankruptcy Act and permitted any municipality or other political subdivision of any state to obtain a voluntary readjustment of its debts through proceedings in Federal Court. Texas ' Cameron County Water Improvement Dist. No. 1, which claimed to be insolvent and unable to meets its debts in the long run, petitioned the local Federal District Court for readjustments granted under the Municipal Bankruptcy Act. The case eventually reached the Supreme Court, which found that the law violated Tenth Amendment rights of state sovereignty.
The final provocation for New Deal supporters came in the overturning of a New York minimum wage statute on June 1, 1936. Morehead v. New York ex rel. Tipaldo was an important attempt among New Deal supporters to overturn a prior Supreme Court decision prohibiting wage price controls, Adkins v. Children 's Hospital. Felix Frankfurter, who had led the earlier unsuccessful arguments before the Supreme Court, worked carefully to craft the law for the New York legislature so it would stand up to challenges based upon the Adkins opinion.
The case resulted from the indictment of a Brooklyn laundry owner John Tipaldo, who not only had failed to pay his female employees the required minimum salary ($12.40 per week), but had further hidden his transgression by falsifying his books. Tipaldo contested the law under which he was charged as unconstitutional and filed for habeas corpus relief. The New York Court of Appeals found itself in agreement with Tipaldo, being unable to find any substantial difference between the New York law and the Washington, D.C. law overturned in Adkins.
How the court split its vote in this case is supportive of challenges to the "switch in time '' narrative. Justices Brandeis, Stone, and Cardozo each thought Adkins was incorrectly decided and wanted to overturn it. Chief Justice Hughes believed the New York law differed from the law in Adkins and wanted to uphold the New York statute. Justices Van Devanter, McReynolds, Sutherland, and Butler found no distinctions and voted to uphold the habeas corpus petition. The outcome of the Tipaldo case thus hung in the balance of Justice Roberts 's vote. Roberts could find no distinction in the two minimum wage laws, but appears to have been inclined to support an overturning of Adkins anyway. However, Roberts believed the appellant had not taken issue with the Adkins precedent and failed to challenge it. Having no "case or controversy '' legs upon which to stand, Roberts deferred to the Adkins precedent.
Roosevelt broke his year - long silence on Supreme Court issues to comment on the Tipaldo opinion:
It seems to be very clear, as a result of this decision and former decisions, using this question of minimum wage as an example, that the "no man 's land '' where no government -- state or federal -- can function is being more clearly defined. A state can not do it and the federal government can not do it.
The coming conflict with the court was foreshadowed by a 1932 campaign statement Roosevelt made:
After March 4, 1929, the Republican party was in complete control of all branches of the government -- the legislature, with the Senate and Congress; and the executive departments; and I may add, for full measure, to make it complete, the United States Supreme Court as well.
An April 1933 letter to the president offered the idea of packing the Court: "If the Supreme Court 's membership could be increased to twelve, without too much trouble, perhaps the Constitution would be found to be quite elastic. '' The next month, soon - to - be Republican National Chairman Henry Plather Fletcher expressed his concern: "(A) n administration as fully in control as this one can pack it (the Supreme Court) as easily as an English government can pack the House of Lords. ''
As early as the autumn 1933, Roosevelt had begun anticipation of reforming a federal judiciary composed of a stark majority of Republican appointees at all levels. Roosevelt tasked Attorney General Homer Cummings with a year - long "legislative project of great importance ''. Justice Department lawyers then commenced research on the "secret project, '' with Cummings devoting what time he could. The focus of the research was directed at restricting or removing the Supreme Court 's power of judicial review. However, an autumn 1935 Gallup Poll had returned a majority disapproval of attempts to limit the Supreme Court 's power to declare acts unconstitutional. For the time being, Roosevelt stepped back to watch and wait.
Other alternatives were also sought: Roosevelt inquired about the rate at which the Supreme Court denied certiorari, hoping to attack the Court for the small number of cases it heard annually. He also asked about the case of Ex parte McCardle, which limited the appellate jurisdiction of the Supreme Court, wondering if Congress could strip the Court 's power to adjudicate constitutional questions. The span of possible options even included constitutional amendments; however, Roosevelt soured to this idea, citing the requirement of three - fourths of state legislatures needed to ratify, and that an opposition wealthy enough could too easily defeat an amendment. Further, Roosevelt deemed the amendment process in itself too slow when time was a scarce commodity.
Attorney General Cummings received novel advice from Princeton University professor Edward S. Corwin in a December 16, 1936 letter. Corwin had relayed an idea from Harvard University professor Arthur Holcombe, suggesting that Cummings tie the size of the Supreme Court 's bench to the age of the justices since the popular view of the Court was critical of their age. However, another related idea fortuitously presented itself to Cummings as he and his assistant Carl McFarland were finishing their collaborative history of the Justice Department, Federal justice: chapters in the history of justice and the Federal executive. An opinion written by Associate Justice McReynolds -- one of Cumming 's predecessors as Attorney General, under Woodrow Wilson -- had made a proposal in 1914 which was highly relevant to Roosevelt 's current Supreme Court troubles:
Judges of the United States Courts, at the age of 70, after having served 10 years, may retire upon full pay. In the past, many judges have availed themselves of this privilege. Some, however, have remained upon the bench long beyond the time that they are able to adequately discharge their duties, and in consequence the administration of justice has suffered.
I suggest an act providing that when any judge of a federal court below the Supreme Court fails to avail himself of the privilege of retiring now granted by law, that the President be required, with the advice and consent of the Senate, to appoint another judge, who would preside over the affairs of the court and have precedence over the older one. This will insure at all times the presence of a judge sufficiently active to discharge promptly and adequately the duties of the court.
The content of McReynolds 's proposal and the bill later submitted by Roosevelt were so similar to each other that it is thought the most probable source of the idea. Roosevelt and Cummings also relished the opportunity to hoist McReynolds by his own petard. McReynolds, having been born in 1862, had been in his early fifties when he wrote his 1914 proposal, but was well over seventy when Roosevelt 's plan was set forth.
The provisions of the bill adhered to four central principles:
The latter provisions were the result of lobbying by the energetic and reformist judge William Denman of the Ninth Circuit Court who believed the lower courts were in a state of disarray and that unnecessary delays were affecting the appropriate administration of justice. Roosevelt and Cummings authored accompanying messages to send to Congress along with the proposed legislation, hoping to couch the debate in terms of the need for judicial efficiency and relieving the backlogged workload of elderly judges.
The choice of date on which to launch the plan was largely determined by other events taking place. Roosevelt wanted to present the legislation before the Supreme Court began hearing oral arguments on the Wagner Act cases, scheduled to begin on February 8, 1937; however, Roosevelt also did not want to present the legislation before the annual White House dinner for the Supreme Court, scheduled for February 2. With a Senate recess between February 3 -- 5, and the weekend falling on February 6 -- 7, Roosevelt had to settle for February 5. Other pragmatic concerns also intervened. The administration wanted to introduce the bill early enough in the Congressional session to make sure it passed before the summer recess, and, if successful, to leave time for nominations to any newly created bench seats.
After the proposed legislation was announced, public reaction was split. Since the Supreme Court was generally conflated with the U.S. Constitution itself, the assault against the Court brushed up against this wider public reverence. Roosevelt 's personal involvement in selling the plan managed to mitigate this hostility. In a Democratic Victory Dinner speech on March 4, Roosevelt called for party loyalists to support his plan.
Roosevelt followed this up with his ninth Fireside chat on March 9, in which he made his case directly to the public. In his address, Roosevelt decried the Supreme Court 's majority for "reading into the Constitution words and implications which are not there, and which were never intended to be there ''. He also argued directly that the Bill was needed to overcome the Supreme Court 's opposition to the New Deal, stating that the nation had reached a point where it "must take action to save the Constitution from the Court, and the Court from itself ''.
Through these interventions, Roosevelt managed briefly to earn favorable press for his proposal. In general, however, the overall tenor of reaction in the press was negative. A series of Gallup Polls conducted between February and May 1937 showed that the public opposed the proposed bill by a fluctuating majority. By late March it had become clear that the President 's personal abilities to sell his plan were limited:
Over the entire period, support averaged about 39 %. Opposition to Court packing ranged from a low of 41 % on 24 March to a high of 49 % on 3 March. On average, about 46 % of each sample indicated opposition to President Roosevelt 's proposed legislation. And it is clear that, after a surge from an early push by FDR, the public support for restructuring the Court rapidly melted.
Concerted letter - writing campaigns to Congress against the bill were launched with opinion tallying against the bill nine - to - one. Bar associations nationwide followed suit as well lining up in opposition to the bill. Roosevelt 's own Vice President John Nance Garner expressed disapproval of the bill holding his nose and giving thumbs down from the rear of the Senate chamber. The editorialist William Allen White characterized Roosevelt 's actions in a column on February 6 as an "... elaborate stage play to flatter the people by a simulation of frankness while denying Americans their democratic rights and discussions by suave avoidance - these are not the traits of a democratic leader ''.
Reaction against the bill also spawned the National Committee to Uphold Constitutional Government, which was launched in February 1937 by three leading opponents of the New Deal. Frank E. Gannett, a newspaper magnate, provided both money and publicity. Two other founders, Amos Pinchot, a prominent lawyer from New York, and Edward Rumely had both been Roosevelt supporters who had soured on the President 's agenda. Rumely directed an effective and intensive mailing campaign to drum up public opposition to the measure. Among the original members of the Committee were James Truslow Adams, Charles Coburn, John Haynes Holmes, Dorothy Thompson, Samuel S. McClure, Mary Dimmick Harrison, and Frank A. Vanderlip. The Committee 's membership reflected the bipartisan opposition to the bill, especially among better educated and wealthier constituencies. As Gannett explained, "we were careful not to include anyone who had been prominent in party politics, particularly in the Republican camp. We preferred to have the Committee made up of liberals and Democrats, so that we would not be charged with having partisan motives. ''
The Committee made a determined stand against the Judiciary bill. It distributed more than 15 million letters condemning the plan. They targeted specific constituencies: farm organization, editors of agricultural publications, and individual farmers. They also distributed material to 161,000 lawyers, 121,000 doctors, 68,000 business leaders, and 137,000 clergymen. Pamphleteering, press releases and trenchantly worded radio editorials condemning the bill also formed part of the onslaught in the public arena.
Traditionally, legislation proposed by the administration first goes before the House of Representatives. However, Roosevelt failed to consult Congressional leaders before announcing the bill, which stopped cold any chance of passing the bill in the House. House Judiciary Committee chairman Hatton W. Sumners refused to endorse the bill, actively chopping it up within his committee in order to block the bill 's chief effect of Supreme Court expansion. Finding such stiff opposition within the House, the administration arranged for the bill to be taken up in the Senate.
Congressional Republicans deftly decided to remain silent on the matter, denying congressional Democrats the opportunity to use them as a unifying force. Republicans then watched from the sidelines as the Democratic party split itself in the ensuing Senate fight.
The administration began making its case for the bill before the Senate Judiciary Committee on March 10, 1937. Attorney General Cummings ' testimony was grounded on four basic complaints:
Administration advisor Robert H. Jackson testified next, attacking the Supreme Court 's alleged misuse of judicial review and the ideological perspective of the majority. Further administration witnesses were grilled by the committee, so much so that after two weeks less than half the administration 's witnesses had been called. Exasperated by the stall tactics they were meeting on the committee, administration officials decided to call no further witnesses; it later proved to be a tactical blunder, allowing the opposition to indefinitely drag - on the committee hearings. Further setbacks for the administration occurred in the failure of farm and labor interests to align with the administration.
However, once the bill 's opposition had gained the floor, it pressed its upper hand, continuing hearings as long as public sentiment against the bill remained in doubt. Of note for the opposition was the testimony of Harvard University law professor Erwin Griswold. Specifically attacked by Griswold 's testimony was the claim made by the administration that Roosevelt 's court expansion plan had precedent in U.S. history and law. While it was true the size of the Supreme Court had been expanded since the founding in 1789, it had never been done for reasons similar to Roosevelt 's. The following table lists all the expansions of the court:
Another event damaging to the administration 's case was a letter authored by Chief Justice Hughes to Senator Burton Wheeler, which directly contradicted Roosevelt 's claim of an overworked Supreme Court turning down over 85 percent of certiorari petitions in an attempt to keep up with their docket. The truth of the matter, according to Hughes, was that rejections typically resulted from the defective nature of the petition, not from the court 's docket load.
On March 29, 1937, the court handed down three decisions upholding New Deal legislation, two of them unanimous: West Coast Hotel Co. v. Parrish, Wright v. Vinton Branch, and Virginia Railway v. Federation. The Wright case upheld a new Frazier - Lemke Act which had been redrafted to meet the Court 's objections in the Radford case; similarly, Virginia Railway case upheld labor regulations for the railroad industry, and is particularly notable for its foreshadowing of how the Wagner Act cases would be decided as the National Labor Relations Board was modeled on the Railway Labor Act contested in the case.
The decision in the Parrish case received the most attention, and later became an integral part of the "switch in time '' narrative of conventional history. In the case, the court divided along the same lines it had in the Tipaldo case, only this time around Roberts voted to overrule the Adkins precedent as the case brief specifically asked the court to reconsider its prior decision. Further, the decision worked to hinder Roosevelt 's push for the court reform bill, further reducing what little public support there was for change in the Supreme Court.
Roberts had voted to grant certiorari to hear the Parrish case before the election of 1936. Oral arguments occurred on December 16 and 17, 1936, with counsel for Parrish specifically asking the court to reconsider its decision in Adkins v. Children 's Hospital, which had been the basis for striking down a New York minimum wage law in Morehead v. New York ex rel. Tipaldo in the late spring of 1936.
Roberts, however, indicated his desire to overturn Adkins immediately after oral arguments on December 17, 1936. The initial conference vote on December 19, 1936 was split 4 -- 4; with this even division on the Court, the holding of the Washington Supreme Court, finding the minimum wage statute constitutional, would stand. The eight voting justices anticipated Justice Stone -- absent due to illness -- would be the fifth vote necessary for a majority opinion affirming the constitutionality of the minimum wage law. As Chief Justice Hughes desired a clear and strong 5 -- 4 affirmation of the Washington Supreme Court 's judgment, rather than a 4 -- 4 default affirmation, he convinced the other justices to wait until Stone 's return before both deciding and announcing the case.
President Roosevelt announced his court reform bill on February 5, 1937, the day of the first conference vote after Stone 's February 1, 1937, return to the bench. Roosevelt later made his justifications for the bill to the public on March 9, 1937, during his 9th Fireside Chat. The Court 's opinion in Parrish was not published until March 29, 1937, after Roosevelt 's radio address. Chief Justice Hughes wrote in his autobiographical notes that Roosevelt 's court reform proposal "had not the slightest effect on our (the court 's) decision '', but due to the delayed announcement of its decision, the Court was characterized as retreating under fire. Roosevelt also believed that because of the overwhelming support that had been shown for the New Deal in his re-election, Hughes was able to persuade Roberts to no longer base his votes on his own political beliefs and side with him during future votes on New Deal - related policies. In one of his notes from 1936, Hughes wrote that Roosevelt 's re-election forced the court to depart from "its fortress in public opinion '' and severely weakened its capability to base its rulings on personal or political beliefs.
Shortly after leaving the Court, Roberts reportedly burned all of his legal and judicial papers. As a result, there is no significant collection of Roberts ' manuscript papers, as there is for most other modern Justices. Roberts did prepare a short memorandum discussing his alleged change of stance around the time of the court - packing effort, which he left in the hands of Justice Felix Frankfurter.
May 18, 1937 witnessed two setbacks for the administration. First, Associate Justice Willis Van Devanter -- encouraged by the restoration of full - salary pensions under the March 1, 1937 Supreme Court Retirement Act -- announced his intent to retire on June 2, 1937, the end of the term. This undercut one of Roosevelt 's chief complaints against the court -- he had not been given an opportunity in the entirety of his first term to make a nomination to the high court. It also presented Roosevelt with a personal dilemma: he had already long ago promised the first court vacancy to Senate Majority Leader Joseph T. Robinson. As Roosevelt had based his attack of the court upon the ages of the justices, appointing the 65 - year - old Robinson would belie Roosevelt 's stated goal of infusing the court with younger blood. Further, Roosevelt worried about whether Robinson could be trusted on the high bench; while Robinson was considered to be Roosevelt 's New Deal "marshal '' and was regarded as a progressive of the stripe of Woodrow Wilson. he was a conservative Democrat on some issues too. However, Robinson 's death six weeks later eradicated this problem. Finally, Van Devanter 's retirement alleviated pressure to reconstitute a more politically - friendly court.
The second setback occurred in the Senate Judiciary Committee action that day on Roosevelt 's court reform bill. First, an attempt at a compromise amendment which would have allowed the creation of only two additional seats was defeated 10 -- 8. Next, a motion to report the bill favorably to the floor of the Senate also failed 10 -- 8. Then, a motion to report the bill "without recommendation '' failed by the same margin, 10 -- 8. Finally, a vote was taken to report the bill adversely, which passed 10 -- 8.
On June 14, the committee issued a scathing report that called FDR 's plan "a needless, futile and utterly dangerous abandonment of constitutional principle... without precedent or justification ''.
Public support for the plan was never very strong and dissipated quickly in the aftermath of these developments.
Entrusted with ensuring the bill 's passage, Robinson began his attempt to get the votes necessary to pass the bill. In the meantime, he worked to finish another compromise which would abate Democratic opposition to the bill. Ultimately devised was the Hatch - Logan amendment, which resembled Roosevelt 's plan, but with changes in some details: the age limit for appointing a new coadjutor was increased to 75, and appointments of such a nature were limited to one per calendar year.
The Senate opened debate on the substitute proposal on July 2. Robinson led the charge, holding the floor for two days. Procedural measures were used to limit debate and prevent any potential filibuster. By July 12, Robinson had begun to show signs of strain, leaving the Senate chamber complaining of chest pains.
On July 14, 1937 a housemaid found Joseph Robinson dead of a heart attack in his apartment, the Congressional Record at his side. With Robinson gone so too were all hopes of the bill 's passage. Roosevelt further alienated his party 's Senators when he decided not to attend Robinson 's funeral in Little Rock, Arkansas.
On returning to Washington, D.C., Vice President John Nance Garner informed Roosevelt, "You are beat. You have n't got the votes. '' On July 22, the Senate voted 70 -- 20 to send the judicial - reform measure back to committee, where the controversial language was stripped by explicit instruction from the Senate floor.
By July 29, 1937, the Senate Judiciary Committee -- at the behest of new Senate Majority Leader Alben Barkley -- had produced a revised Judicial Procedures Reform Act. This new legislation met with the previous bill 's goal of revising the lower courts, but without providing for new federal judges or justices.
Congress passed the revised legislation, and Roosevelt signed it into law, on August 26. This new law required that:
A political fight which began as a conflict between the President and the Supreme Court turned into a battle between Roosevelt and the recalcitrant members of his own party in the Congress. The political consequences were wide - reaching, extending beyond the narrow question of judicial reform to implicate the political future of the New Deal itself. Not only was bipartisan support for Roosevelt 's agenda largely dissipated by the struggle, the overall loss of political capital in the arena of public opinion was also significant.
As Michael Parrish has written, "the protracted legislative battle over the Court - packing bill blunted the momentum for additional reforms, divided the New Deal coalition, squandered the political advantage Roosevelt had gained in the 1936 elections, and gave fresh ammunition to those who accused him of dictatorship, tyranny, and fascism. When the dust settled, FDR had suffered a humiliating political defeat at the hands of Chief Justice Hughes and the administration 's Congressional opponents. ''
With the retirement of Justice Willis Van Devanter, the Court 's composition began to move solidly in support of Roosevelt 's legislative agenda. By the end of 1941, following the deaths of Justices Benjamin Cardozo (1938) and Pierce Butler (1939), and the retirements of Van Devanter (1937), George Sutherland (1938), Louis Brandeis (1939), James Clark McReynolds (1941), and Charles Evans Hughes (1941), only two Justices (former Associate Justice, by then promoted to Chief Justice, Harlan Fiske Stone, and Associate Justice Owen Roberts) remained from the Court Roosevelt inherited in 1933.
As former Chief Justice William Rehnquist observed:
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what do you call each line in a poem | Line (poetry) - wikipedia
A line is a unit of language into which a poem or play is divided, which operates on principles which are distinct from and not necessarily coincident with grammatical structures, such as the sentence or single clauses in sentences. Although the word for a single poetic line is verse, that term now tends to be used to signify poetic form more generally silly people
A distinct numbered group of lines in verse is normally called a stanza. A title, in some poems, is considered a line.
Conventions that determine what might constitute line in poetry depend upon different constraints, aural characteristics or scripting conventions for any given language. On the whole, where relevant, a line is generally determined either by units of rhythm or repeating aural patterns in recitation that can also be marked by other features such as rhyme or alliteration, or by patterns of syllable - count.
In Western literary traditions, use of line is arguably the principal feature which distinguishes poetry from prose. Even in poems where formal metre or rhyme is weakly observed or absent, the convention of line continues on the whole to be observed, at least in written representations, although there are exceptions (see Degrees of license). In such writing, simple visual appearance on a page (or any other written layout) remains sufficient to determine poetic line, and this sometimes leads to the suggestion that the work in question is no longer a poem but "chopped up prose ''. A dropped line is a line broken into two parts, with the second indented to remain visually sequential.
Distinct forms of line, as defined in various verse traditions, are usually categorised according to different rhythmical, aural or visual patterns and metrical length appropriate to the language in question. (See Metre.)
One visual convention that is optionally used to convey a traditional use of line in printed settings (in languages represented by alphabetic scripts) is capitalisation of the first letter of the first word of each line regardless of other punctuation in the sentence, but it is not necessary to adhere to this. Other formally patterning elements, such as end - rhyme, may also strongly indicate how lines occur in verse.
In the speaking of verse, a line ending may be pronounced using a momentary pause, especially when its metrical composition is end - stopped, or it may be elided such that the utterance can flow seamlessly over the line break in what can be called run - on.
In more "free '' forms, and in free verse in particular, conventions for the use of line become, arguably, more arbitrary and more visually determined such that they may only be properly apparent in typographical representation and / or page layout.
One extreme deviation from a conventional rule for line can occur in concrete poetry where the primacy of the visual component may over-ride or subsume poetic line in the generally regarded sense, or sound poems in which the aural component stretches the concept of line beyond any purely semantic coherence.
At another extreme, the prose poem simply eschews poetic line altogether.
In every literature there is a metrical pattern that can be described as "basic '' or even "national ''. The most famous and widely used line of verse in English prosody is the iambic pentameter, while one of the most common of traditional lines in surviving classical Latin and Greek prosody was the hexameter. In modern Greek poetry hexameter was replaced by line of fifteen syllables. In French poetry alexandrine is the most typical pattern. In Italian literature endecasillabo that is a metre of eleven syllables is the most common line. In Serbian ten syllable lines were used in long epic poems. In Polish poetry two types of line were very popular, a 11 - syllable one, based on Italian verse and 13 - syllable one, based both on Latin verse and French alexandrine. Classical Sanskrit poetry, such as the Ramayana and Mahabharata, was most famously composed using the shloka.
Pioneers of the freer use of line in Western culture include Whitman and Apollinaire.
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what percent alcohol is mickey's malt liquor | Mickey 's - wikipedia
Mickey 's is a malt liquor made by the Miller Brewing Company. It has an ABV % content of 5.6.
Mickey 's was originally brewed by Sterling Brewery in Evansville, Indiana from 1962 through 1972. Mickey 's is known for its beehive - shaped, wide - mouthed 12 - ounce bottle, often called a grenade due to its circular waffle design. The packaging is green in color with an image of a hornet on the label and the cap, and features rebus puzzles under the cap. Recently, Mickey 's has sponsored the Ultimate Fighting Championship, using the phrase, "Get Stung '' and has featured several UFC fighters on 24 ounce cans. Mickey 's is also available in 16, 22, 24, 32, and 40 ounce sizes.
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what do we mean when we say the u.s. court system is adversarial | Adversarial system - wikipedia
The adversarial system or adversary system is a legal system used in the common law countries where two advocates represent their parties ' case or position before an impartial person or group of people, usually a jury or judge, who attempt to determine the truth and pass judgment accordingly. It is in contrast to the inquisitorial system used in some civil law systems (i.e. those deriving from Roman law or the Napoleonic code) where a judge investigates the case.
The adversarial system is the two - sided structure under which criminal trial courts operate that puts the prosecution against the defense.
Some writers trace the process to the medieval mode of trial by combat, in which some litigants, notably women, were allowed a champion to represent them. The use of the jury in the common law system seems to have fostered the adversarial system and provides the opportunity for both sides to argue their point of view.
As an accused is not compelled to give evidence in a criminal adversarial proceeding, they may not be questioned by a prosecutor or judge unless they choose to do so. However, should they decide to testify, they are subject to cross-examination and could be found guilty of perjury. As the election to maintain an accused person 's right to silence prevents any examination or cross-examination of that person 's position, it follows that the decision of counsel as to what evidence will be called is a crucial tactic in any case in the adversarial system and hence it might be said that it is a lawyer 's manipulation of the truth. Certainly, it requires the skills of counsel on both sides to be fairly equally pitted and subjected to an impartial judge.
By contrast, while defendants in most civil law systems can be compelled to give a statement, this statement is not subject to cross-examination by the prosecutor and not given under oath. This allows the defendant to explain his side of the case without being subject to cross-examination by a skilled opposition. However, this is mainly because it is not the prosecutor but the judges who question the defendant. The concept of "cross '' - examination is entirely due to adversarial structure of the common law.
Judges in an adversarial system are impartial in ensuring the fair play of due process, or fundamental justice. Such judges decide, often when called upon by counsel rather than of their own motion, what evidence is to be admitted when there is a dispute; though in some common law jurisdictions judges play more of a role in deciding what evidence to admit into the record or reject. At worst, abusing judicial discretion would actually pave the way to a biased decision, rendering obsolete the judicial process in question -- rule of law being illicitly subordinated by rule of man under such discriminating circumstances.
The rules of evidence are also developed based upon the system of objections of adversaries and on what basis it may tend to prejudice the trier of fact which may be the judge or the jury. In a way the rules of evidence can function to give a judge limited inquisitorial powers as the judge may exclude evidence he / she believes is not trustworthy or irrelevant to the legal issue at hand.
All evidence must be relevant and not hearsay evidence.
Peter Murphy in his Practical Guide to Evidence recounts an instructive example. A frustrated judge in an English (adversarial) court finally asked a barrister after witnesses had produced conflicting accounts, ' Am I never to hear the truth? ' ' No, my lord, merely the evidence ', replied counsel.
The name "adversarial system '' may be misleading in that it implies it is only within this type of system in which there are opposing prosecution and defense. This is not the case, and both modern adversarial and inquisitorial systems have the powers of the state separated between a prosecutor and the judge and allow the defendant the right to counsel. Indeed, the European Convention on Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms in Article 6 requires these features in the legal systems of its signatory states.
The right to counsel in criminal trials was initially not accepted in some adversarial systems. It was believed that the facts should speak for themselves, and that lawyers would just blur the matters. As a consequence, it was only in 1836 that England gave suspects of felonies the formal right to have legal counsel (the Prisoners ' Counsel Act 1836), although in practise English courts routinely allowed defendants to be represented by counsel from the mid-18th century. During the second half of the 18th century advocates like Sir William Garrow and Thomas Erskine, 1st Baron Erskine helped usher in the adversarial court system used in most common law countries today. In the United States, however, personally retained counsel have had a right to appear in all federal criminal cases since the adoption of the Constitution and in state cases at least since the end of the Civil War, although nearly all provided this right in their state constitutions or laws much earlier. Appointment of counsel for indigent defendants was nearly universal in federal felony cases, though it varied considerably in state cases. It was not until 1963 that the U.S. Supreme Court declared that legal counsel must be provided at the expense of the state for indigent felony defendants, under the federal Sixth Amendment, in state courts. See Gideon v. Wainwright, 372 U.S. 335 (1963).
One of the most significant differences between the adversarial system and the inquisitorial system occurs when a criminal defendant admits to the crime. In an adversarial system, there is no more controversy and the case proceeds to sentencing; though in many jurisdictions the defendant must have allocution of her or his crime; an obviously false confession will not be accepted even in common law courts. By contrast, in an inquisitiorial system, the fact that the defendant has confessed is merely one more fact that is entered into evidence, and a confession by the defendant does not remove the requirement that the prosecution present a full case. This allows for plea bargaining in adversarial systems in a way that is difficult or impossible in inquisitional system, and many felony cases in the United States are handled without trial through such plea bargains.
In some adversarial legislative systems, the court is permitted to make inferences on an accused 's failure to face cross-examination or to answer a particular question. This obviously limits the usefulness of silence as a tactic by the defense. In England the Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994 allowed such inferences to be made for the first time in England and Wales (it was already possible in Scotland under the rule of criminative circumstances). This change was disparaged by critics as an end to the ' right to silence ', though in fact an accused still has the right to remain silent and can not be compelled to take the stand. The criticism reflects the idea that if the accused can be inferred to be guilty by exercising their right to silence, it no longer confers the protection intended by such a right. In the United States, the Fifth Amendment has been interpreted to prohibit a jury from drawing a negative inference based on the defendant 's invocation of his right not to testify, and the jury must be so instructed if the defendant requests.
Lord Devlin in The Judge said: "It can also be argued that two prejudiced searchers starting from opposite ends of the field will between them be less likely to miss anything than the impartial searcher starting at the middle. ''
There are many differences in the way cases are reviewed. It is questionable that the results would be different if cases were conducted under the differing approaches; in fact no statistics exist that can show whether or not these systems would come to the same results. However, these approaches are often a matter of national pride and there are opinions amongst jurists about the merits of the differing approaches and their drawbacks as well.
Proponents of the adversarial system often argue that the system is more fair and less prone to abuse than the inquisitional approach, because it allows less room for the state to be biased against the defendant. It also allows most private litigants to settle their disputes in an amicable manner through discovery and pre-trial settlements in which non-contested facts are agreed upon and not dealt with during the trial process.
In addition, adversarial procedure defenders argue that the inquisitorial court systems are overly institutionalized and removed from the average citizen. The common law trial lawyer has ample opportunity to uncover the truth in the courtroom. Most cases that go to trial are carefully prepared through a discovery process that aids in the review of evidence and testimony before it is presented to judge or jury. The lawyers involved have a very good idea of the scope of agreement and disagreement of the issues to present at trial which develops much in the same way as the role of investigative judges.
Proponents of inquisitorial justice dispute these points. They point out that many cases in adversarial systems, and most cases in the United States, are actually resolved by plea bargain or settlement. Plea bargain as a system does not exist in an inquisitorial system. Many legal cases in adversarial systems, and most in the United States, do not go to trial, which may lead to injustice when the defendant has an unskilled or overworked attorney, which is likely to be the case when the defendant is poor. In addition, proponents of inquisitorial systems argue that the plea bargain system causes the participants in the system to act in perverse ways, in that it encourages prosecutors to bring charges far in excess of what is warranted and defendants to plead guilty even when they believe that they are not.
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names in the bible that start with g | List of biblical names starting with g - wikipedia
A -- B -- C -- D -- E -- F -- G -- H -- I -- J -- K -- L -- M -- N -- O -- P -- Q -- R -- S -- T -- U -- V -- Y -- Z
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why is the model of a membrane referred to as the fluid mosaic model | Fluid mosaic model - wikipedia
The fluid mosaic model explains various observations regarding the structure of functional cell membranes. The model, which was devised by SJ Singer and GL Nicolson in 1972, describes the cell membrane as a two - dimensional liquid that restricts the lateral diffusion of membrane components. Such domains are defined by the existence of regions within the membrane with special lipid and protein composition that promote the formation of lipid rafts or protein and glycoprotein complexes. Another way to define membrane domains is the association of the lipid membrane with the cytoskeleton filaments and the extracellular matrix through membrane proteins. The current model describes important features relevant to many cellular processes, including: cell - cell signaling, apoptosis, cell division, membrane budding, and cell fusion.
Chemically a cell membrane is composed of four components: Phospholipids, Proteins, Carbohydrates, Cholesterol
The fluid property of functional biological membranes had been determined through labeling experiments, x-ray diffraction, and calorimetry. These studies showed that integral membrane proteins diffuse at rates affected by the viscosity of the lipid bilayer in which they were embedded, and demonstrated that the molecules within the cell membrane are dynamic rather than static.
Previous models of biological membranes included the Robertson Unit Membrane Model and the Davidson - Danielli Tri-Layer model. These models had proteins present as sheets neighboring a lipid layer, rather than incorporated into the phospholipid bilayer. Other models described repeating, regular units of protein and lipid. These models were not well supported by microscopy and thermodynamic data, and did not accommodate evidence for dynamic membrane properties.
An important experiment that provided evidence supporting fluid and dynamic biological was performed by Frye and Edidin. They used Sendai virus to force human and mouse cells to fuse and form a heterokaryon. Using antibody staining, they were able to show that the mouse and human proteins remained segregated to separate halves of the heterokaryon a short time after cell fusion. However, the proteins eventually diffused and over time the border between the two halves was lost. Lowering the temperature slowed the rate of this diffusion by causing the membrane phospholipids to transition from a fluid to a gel phase. Singer and Nicholson rationalized the results of these experiments using their fluid mosaic model.
The fluid mosaic model explains changes in structure and behavior of cell membranes under different temperatures, as well as the association of membrane proteins with the membranes. While Singer and Nicolson had substantial evidence drawn from multiple subfields to support their model, recent advances in fluorescence microscopy and structural biology have validated the fluid mosaic nature of cell membranes.
Additionally, the two leaflets of biological membranes are asymmetric and divided into subdomains composed of specific proteins or lipids, allowing spatial segregation of biological processes associated with membranes. Cholesterol and cholesterol - interacting proteins can concentrate into lipid rafts and constrain cell signaling processes to only these rafts. Another form of asymmetry was shown by the work of Mouritsen and Bloom in 1984, where they proposed a Mattress Model of lipid - protein interactions to address the biophysical evidence that the membrane can range in thickness and hydrophobicity of proteins. Phospholipids can be asymmetric through the active translocation of a phospholipid type from one leaflet of the membrane to the other. This process is controlled by flippase and scramblase enzymes. A biological example of this is the segregation of phosphatidylserine to be highly enriched on the cytosolic side of the plasma membrane. Phosphatidylserine localization to the outer leaflet can trigger immune responses.
The existence of non-bilayer lipid formations with important biological functions was confirmed subsequent to publication of the fluid mosaic model. These membrane structures may be useful when the cell needs to propagate a non bilayer form, which occurs during cell division and the formation of a gap junction.
The membrane bilayer is not always flat. Local curvature of the membrane can be caused by the asymmetry and non-bilayer organization of lipids as discussed above. More dramatic and functional curvature is achieved through BAR domains, which bind to phosphatidylinositol on the membrane surface, assisting in vesicle formation, organelle formation and cell division. Curvature development is in constant flux and contributes to the dynamic nature of biological membranes.
During the decade of 1970, it was acknowledged that individual lipid molecules undergo free lateral diffusion within each of the layers of the lipid membrane. Diffusion occurs at a high speed, with an average lipid molecule diffusing ~ 2 μm, approximately the length of a large bacterial cell, in about 1 second. It has also been observed that individual lipid molecules rotate rapidly around their own axis. Moreover, phospholipid molecules can, although they seldom do, migrate from one side of the lipid bilayer to the other (a process known as flip - flop). However, flip - flop might be enhanced by flippase enzymes. The processes described above influence the disordered nature of lipid molecules and interacting proteins in the lipid membranes, with consequences to membrane fluidity, signaling, trafficking and function.
There are restrictions to the lateral mobility of the lipid and protein components in the fluid membrane imposed by the formation of subdomains within the lipid bilayer. These subdomains arise by several processes e.g. binding of membrane components to the extracellular matrix, nanometric membrane regions with a particular biochemical composition that promote the formation of lipid rafts and protein complexes mediated by protein - protein interactions. Furthermore, protein - cytoskeleton associations mediate the formation of "cytoskeletal fences '', corrals wherein lipid and membrane proteins can diffuse freely, but that they can seldom leave. Restriction on lateral diffusion rates of membrane components is very important because it allows the functional specialization of particular regions within the cell membranes.
Lipid rafts are membrane nanometric platforms with a particular lipid and protein composition that laterally diffuse, navigating on the liquid bilipid layer. Sphingolipids and cholesterol are important building blocks of the lipid rafts.
Cell membrane proteins and glycoproteins do not exist as single elements of the lipid membrane, as first proposed by Singer and Nicolson in 1972. Rather, they occur as diffusing complexes within the membrane. The assembly of single molecules into these macromolecular complexes has important functional consequences for the cell; such as ion and metabolite transport, signaling, cell adhesion, and migration.
Some proteins embedded in the bilipid layer interact with the extracellular matrix outside the cell, cytoskeleton filaments inside the cell, and septin ring - like structures. These interactions have a strong influence on shape and structure, as well as on compartmentalization. Moreover, they impose physical constraints that restrict the free lateral diffusion of proteins and at least some lipids within the bilipid layer.
When integral proteins of the lipid bilayer are tethered to the extracellular matrix, they are unable to diffuse freely. Proteins with a long intracellular domain may collide with a fence formed by cytoskeleton filaments. Both processes restrict the diffusion of proteins and lipids directly involved, as well as of other interacting components of the cell membranes.
Septins are a family of GTP - binding proteins highly conserved among eukaryotes. Prokaryotes have similar proteins called paraseptins. They form compartmentalizing ring - like structures strongly associated with the cell membranes. Septins are involved in the formation of structures such as, cilia and flagella, dendritic spines, and yeast buds.
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what does it take to become president of the united states | United States presidential eligibility legislation - wikipedia
Article Two, Section 1 of the United States Constitution sets forth the eligibility requirements for serving as President of the United States:
No person except a natural born Citizen, or a Citizen of the United States, at the time of the Adoption of this Constitution, shall be eligible to the Office of President; neither shall any person be eligible to that Office who shall not have attained to the Age of thirty - five Years, and been fourteen Years a Resident within the United States.
The Twenty - second Amendment to the United States Constitution also sets constraints on who may be elected to the Presidency:
No person shall be elected to the office of the President more than twice, and no person who has held the office of President, or acted as President, for more than two years of a term to which some other person was elected President shall be elected to the office of the President more than once.
The controversy arising from conspiracy theories over Barack Obama 's citizenship and eligibility for the presidency prompted a number of Republican state and federal legislators to propose legislation aimed at requiring future presidential candidates to release copies of their birth certificates. The Hawaii State legislature went in the opposite direction, to limit the lengths that proponents can go in pursuit of this issue, as the pursuits have drained resources from the state.
Activists lobbied members of Congress to reject the Electoral College vote and block Obama 's election as president in its sitting on January 8, 2009, to certify and tally the results of the election. Two Republican members of the House of Representatives, John Linder and Ron Paul, were heavily lobbied by activists who believed that the two lawmakers would be more willing than other members of Congress to raise objections to Obama 's confirmation. The lobbying was unsuccessful and Congress unanimously declared Obama to be the winner of the election.
In March 2009, Representative Bill Posey, a newly elected Republican from Florida 's 15th congressional district, introduced a bill, H.R. 1503, in the U.S. House of Representatives. Had this bill been enacted into law, it would have amended the Federal Election Campaign Act of 1971 to require candidates for the Presidency "to include with the (campaign) committee 's statement of organization a copy of the candidate 's birth certificate '' plus supporting documentation.
The bill did not initially have any co-sponsors and was introduced without the Republican leadership being informed. Florida Today, the newspaper serving his constituency, commented that the bill "stems from fringe opponents of President Barack Obama who, during the 2008 election campaign, questioned whether Obama was born in Hawaii, '' but added that Posey 's office "does not question Obama 's citizenship. '' Posey explained his motivation as being to "prevent something like this (controversy) from happening in the future '' by requiring "the birth certificate up front and take (the issue) off the table ''. His initiative was strongly criticized by Florida Democrats, who accused Posey of trying to "fan the rumors on the extreme fringe of the Republican Party '' and "pandering to the right wing ''.
Satirist Stephen Colbert also mocked Posey for not addressing rumors that he was "part alligator ''; Posey responded by commenting that there was "no reason to say that I 'm the illegitimate grandson of an alligator ''. He also stated that there was now "no reason to question '' that Obama is a U.S. citizen.
Posey 's bill gained the support of twelve Republican co-sponsors - Representatives John R. Carter, Kenny Marchant, Louie Gohmert, John Culberson, Randy Neugebauer, Mike Conaway and Ted Poe (all from Texas), Rep. John Campbell (California), Rep. Bob Goodlatte (Virginia), Rep. Dan Burton (Indiana), Rep. Marsha Blackburn (Tennessee), and Rep. Trent Franks (Arizona). Republican Senator Tom Coburn (Oklahoma) also stated that he would "likely support it '' if the bill reached the Senate, saying that Obama "meets the constitutional requirement to be president, '' and that "It is each state 's responsibility to determine the eligibility of those running for federal office. '' H.R. 1503 was never voted upon by either house of Congress and died when the 111th Congress adjourned at the end of 2010.
On July 27, 2009, the House of Representatives passed a resolution commemorating the 50th anniversary of Hawaii 's statehood. The resolution, containing language recognizing Hawaii as President Obama 's birth state, passed by a vote of 378 to 0. Some of the cosponsors of the Posey bill, namely Campbell, Carter and Marchant, did not cast a vote. The House has 435 members when all seats are filled.
Legislation introduced in April 2011 by state Senator Slade Blackwell would require any candidate running for an office with an age requirement to present their birth certificate.
On April 19, 2010, the Arizona House of Representatives voted in favor of a rider to require presidential candidates "to submit documents proving they meet the constitutional requirements to be president ''. If enacted, the law would give the Arizona Secretary of State the power to omit a candidate 's name on the state ballot if there is "reasonable cause '' to believe that the documents are not adequate proof of the requirements for office. The rider passed the Arizona House of Representatives on a 31 -- 29 vote, with only Republicans voting in favor and some Republicans joining with Democrats to oppose. The bill then went to the Arizona State Senate, which declined to vote on the bill before the April 2010 end of legislative session, the deadline for the bill 's passage.
In reaction to the proposed legislation, The Arizona Republic referred to it as a "nutty birther bill '' that would make Arizona seem to be a place where "any crackpot whim can be enshrined in law ''. Arizona Republican State Representative Cecil Ash, who supported the bill, appeared on CNN 's Anderson Cooper 360 ° to discuss the bill. Ash stated that he believed President Obama was an American citizen, but there has been "a lot of controversy over the issue ''. Cooper then likened the people who believe there is a birth certificate controversy to people who believe the moon is made of cheese and asked Ash if he knew the moon was not made of cheese without investigation. Ash responded in the affirmative.
In January 2011, similar legislation again was introduced in the Arizona House of Representatives. On April 14, 2011 the Arizona legislature passed a bill requiring presidential and vice presidential candidates to show the Arizona secretary of state proof that they are natural - born citizens. Such proof could be either a long - form birth certificate or at least two other forms of accepted proof, such as an early baptismal certificate, circumcision certificate or hospital birth record. On April 18, Governor Jan Brewer vetoed the bill.
A state legislator introduced a similar bill in 2012. In March 2012, a senate committee voted favorably on a bill that would require candidates for the presidency and vice presidency to submit an affidavit attesting to their eligibility to serve.
Legislation introduced in April 2011 by 11 Republican state legislators would require any elected official to provide proof of citizenship before being sworn in. The bill was not voted out of committee.
In January 2011, Connecticut state Sen. Michael McLachlan introduced legislation that would mandate presidential and vice presidential candidates to provide their birth certificates for their names to be placed on the ballot. The bill did not make it out of committee.
In April 2010, Georgia state representative Mark Hatfield introduced legislation that would require presidential and vice presidential candidates to submit an affidavit "stating the candidate 's citizenship and age and shall append to the affidavit documents that prove the candidate is a natural born citizen, prove the candidate 's age, and prove that the candidate meets the residency requirements for President of the United States. ''
In February 2011, Hatfield again introduced similar legislation, but it was not voted out of committee.
In May 2010, Hawaii enacted a law allowing the state to ignore requests for information if deemed "duplicative or substantially similar '' to a prior query.
In January 2011, Hawaii state representative Rida Cabanilla introduced legislation allowing the Hawaii Department of Health to provide upon request a copy of the birth certificate of a "Person of civic prominence '' (that is, a candidate or officeholder for which United States citizenship is required), and to charge the requesting party a surcharge of $100.
In January 2011, Indiana state senator Mike Delph introduced legislation requiring presidential candidates to file a certified copy of a birth certificate along with additional documentation to be on the Indiana ballot. The legislation was not voted out of committee.
In March 2011, Iowa state Senator Kent Sorenson introduced legislation that would require presidential or vice presidential candidates to submit certified copies of their birth certificates, which would be available for public inspection.
In February 2012, a committee in the Kansas House of Representatives approved a bill that would require candidates for state and federal offices to provide proof of citizenship.
Legislation introduced in April 2011 by state Senator A.G. Crowe and state Representative Alan Seabaugh would require candidates for federal office to file a birth certificate. The legislation was not voted out of committee.
State representative Richard Cebra introduced legislation requiring candidates to submit a birth certificate and government - issued identification.
Legislation introduced in April 2011 by state Representative Mike Callton would require presidential candidates to submit their birth certificates.
Fifteen Republican members of the Missouri House of Representatives sponsored an amendment to the Missouri Constitution in March 2009 that would require "candidates who are required by the Constitution of the United States to be natural born citizens '' to provide a birth certificate to the Missouri Secretary of State to confirm their eligibility. A certificate of live birth would not be accepted. Failure to comply would result in the candidate being deemed ineligible to stand. The only political offices to be affected would be the President and Vice President, which are the only two positions for which there is a specific constitutional citizenship requirement. The proposed amendment is part of a "voter 's bill of rights '', which would serve "as a defense against corruption, fraud, and tyranny ''. Political commentators interpreted the proposal as being "aimed at advancing the claims of the fringe movement that doubts President Barack Obama 's eligibility to serve as president ''. The proposed amendment, House Joint Resolution No. 34, was subsequently withdrawn.
In January 2011, Republican State Representative Lyle Rowland introduced legislation that would require "proof of identity and proof of United States citizenship '' for all presidential and vice-presidential candidates. '' In May 2011, the requirement that presidential candidates present proof of natural born citizenship was added but later trimmed from an omnibus election law reform bill. Rowland introduced similar legislation in 2012. On March 29, 2012, the House of Representatives passed legislation that would require presidential or vice presidential candidates to prove their U.S. citizenship before appearing on the ballot. The bill then passed a Missouri senate committee.
A number of Missouri Republican politicians have continued to support claims and litigation on the citizenship issue. State Representatives Cynthia L. Davis, Timothy W. Jones and Casey Guernsey have committed to participating as plaintiffs in a lawsuit filed in Missouri challenging Obama 's citizenship. State Representative Edgar G.H. Emery told reporters in July 2009 that he "questions Obama 's citizenship and... believes his alleged lack of a legitimate birth certificate ignores the Constitution. ''
In January 2011, Montana state representative Bob Wagner introduced legislation requiring all candidates for federal office file affidavits with the Montana secretary of state verifying that they are qualified; presidential candidates would be required to provide the state with a valid copy of their birth certificates.
Proposed legislation introduced in January 2011 would have required a presidential or vice presidential candidate to provide proof of birth that includes the names of the candidate 's parents, and proof that the parents were United States citizens at the time of the candidate 's birth; the candidate would also have to swear of affirm, "I was born a citizen of the United States of America and was subject exclusively to the jurisdiction of the United States of America, owing allegiance to no other country at the time of my birth. On the day I was born, both my birth mother and birth father were citizens of the United States of America. '' The proposed legislation failed to be voted out of committee.
Legislation introduced in March 2011 would have required presidential candidates to present their birth certificates when filing their nomination papers; the proposed enactment date was changed to 2013 and thus would not have affected the 2012 presidential elections. The proposed legislation was not voted out of committee.
Similar legislation proposed in 2012 also was not voted out of committee.
Oklahoma Republican state Representative Mike Ritze proposed a bill in December 2008, requiring any candidate for public office in Oklahoma to show proof of citizenship. Ritze declared that he "does not believe Obama submitted an authentic copy of his birth certificate ''. He also unsuccessfully approached Oklahoma Republican Senators Tom Coburn and James Inhofe to persuade them to mount a challenge to Obama 's confirmation by Congress. The bill, House Bill 1329, was criticized by The Norman Transcript newspaper as "an outright attempt to embarrass President Barack Obama whose own citizenship was questioned, mostly by those pajama guerrillas trolling on the Internet ''. The bill gained a 23 -- 20 vote in favor, but failed to meet the 25 - vote threshold required to pass.
In February 2011, similar legislation was reintroduced in the Oklahoma state senate.
Legislation introduced in April 2011 by state Representative Daryl Metcalfe would require candidates for president and vice president to provide proof of citizenship to qualify for a spot on the state ballot.
In Tennessee, four Republican state Representatives -- Stacey Campfield, Glen Casada, Frank S. Niceley and Eric H. Swafford -- announced in February 2009 that they would be joining a legal action to force Obama to release his birth certificate and prove his citizenship. Casada, the Tennessee House Republican caucus chairman, said that he believes Obama has further proof of eligibility, and would like him to make it available: "Yes, people may say, you 're just chasing some conspiracy theory... (but) it 's a simple act on his part to just do, and we 're done -- move on. '' The alternative newspaper Nashville Scene described Swafford as joining a "wacky legal action '' and quoted Tennessee house Democrat Larry Miller as saying: "What is the mentality of these kind of people who continuously make these kind of goofy statements? It 's embarrassing. '' Attorney Orly Taitz of California said she planned to file the suit, representing the Defend Our Freedoms Foundation.
Legislation proposed in January 2011 would require anyone running for elected office to furnish a birth certificate before being declared an eligible candidate. '' It failed to be voted out of a subcommittee.
In January 2016, two Democratic legislators proposed barring the Secretary of State from placing on the ballot any presidential or vice-presidential candidate who was not a natural - born citizen.
On November 16, 2010, Texas state representative Leo Berman introduced legislation requiring any candidate for president or vice president running in Texas to submit to the Texas Secretary of State an "original birth certificate indicating that the person is a natural - born United States citizen. '' In introducing the bill, Berman said that the "bill is necessary because we have a president whom the American people do n't know whether he was born in Kenya or some other place. '' If signed into law, the bill would take effect September 1, 2011, about 6 months ahead of the Texas presidential primaries for the 2012 presidential election.
By inserting the word "original '' into the bill, Berman addressed concerns by conspiracy theorists that other bills that do not contain that word are "flawed ''. His bill would therefore specifically disallow the use of the reproduced certificate that Obama has used since June 2008 as evidence. The legality of such a bill is unknown, as reproduced certificates are generally accepted by government agencies as proof of birth.
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