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how to be gatorade player of the year | Gatorade Player of the Year awards - wikipedia
The Gatorade Player of the Year awards are given annually to male and female high - school student - athletes in the United States. They are given for boys ' baseball, boys ' football, girls ' softball, girls ' volleyball, boys ' basketball, girls ' basketball, boys ' cross country, girls ' cross country, boys ' soccer, girls ' soccer, boys ' track & field, and girls ' track & field.
A "State Player of the Year '' award is given to the best student - athlete in each of the twelve sports in the District of Columbia and each of the fifty states, where each sport is recognized as an interscholastic sport. Selection is based on three criteria: athletic achievement, academic excellence, and exemplary character (including sportsmanship, and participation in community and other activities). Twelve "National Player of the Year '' awards are then given, to the best student - athlete in each of the twelve sports, chosen from the state winners in the respective sport.
Finally, one male Athlete of the Year and one female Athlete of the Year are selected from the twelve National Player of the Year recipients. The two winners are voted on by a national panel that includes approximately 400 sports journalists, coaches, and others. The two athletes of the year receive their awards at a special ceremony prior to The ESPY Awards, in Los Angeles, California.
The Gatorade Company established these awards in 1985. The selection process is administered by ESPN RISE, which is ESPN 's division for high - school sports.
Past national winners include Peyton Manning and Emmitt Smith for football, LeBron James and Kobe Bryant for basketball, Allyson Felix for track and field, and Kerri Walsh for volleyball.
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what is something faster than the speed of light | Faster - than - light - wikipedia
Faster - than - light (also superluminal or FTL) communication and travel refer to the propagation of information or matter faster than the speed of light. The special theory of relativity implies that only particles with zero rest mass may travel at the speed of light. Tachyons, particles whose speed exceeds that of light, have been hypothesized but the existence of such particles would violate causality and the consensus of physicists is that such particles can not exist.
On the other hand, what some physicists refer to as "apparent '' or "effective '' FTL depends on the hypothesis that unusually distorted regions of spacetime might permit matter to reach distant locations in less time than light could in normal or undistorted spacetime. According to the current scientific theories, matter is required to travel at subluminally Slower - than - light (also subluminal or STL) speed with respect to the locally distorted spacetime region. Apparent FTL is not excluded by general relativity; however, any apparent FTL physical plausibility is speculative. Examples of apparent FTL proposals are the Alcubierre drive and the traversable wormhole.
In the context of this article, FTL is the transmission of information or matter faster than c, a constant equal to the speed of light in a vacuum, which is 299,792,458 m / s (by definition of the meter) or about 186,282.397 miles per second. This is not quite the same as traveling faster than light, since:
Neither of these phenomena violates special relativity or creates problems with causality, and thus neither qualifies as FTL as described here.
In the following examples, certain influences may appear to travel faster than light, but they do not convey energy or information faster than light, so they do not violate special relativity.
For an Earthbound observer, objects in the sky complete one revolution around the Earth in 1 day. Proxima Centauri, which is the nearest star outside the solar system, is about 4 light - years away. On a geostationary view, Proxima Centauri has a speed many times greater than c as the rim speed of an object moving in a circle is a product of the radius and angular speed. It is also possible on a geostatic view for objects such as comets to vary their speed from subluminal to superluminal and vice versa simply because the distance from the Earth varies. Comets may have orbits which take them out to more than 1000 AU. The circumference of a circle with a radius of 1000 AU is greater than one light day. In other words, a comet at such a distance is superluminal in a geostatic, and therefore non-inertial, frame.
If a laser beam is swept across a distant object, the spot of laser light can easily be made to move across the object at a speed greater than c. Similarly, a shadow projected onto a distant object can be made to move across the object faster than c. In neither case does the light travel from the source to the object faster than c, nor does any information travel faster than light.
Since there is no "retardation '' (or aberration) of the apparent position of the source of a gravitational or electric static field when the source moves with constant velocity, the static field "effect '' may seem at first glance to be "transmitted '' faster than the speed of light. However, uniform motion of the static source may be removed with a change in reference frame, causing the direction of the static field to change immediately, at all distances. This is not a change of position which "propagates '', and thus this change can not be used to transmit information from the source. No information or matter can be FTL - transmitted or propagated from source to receiver / observer by an electromagnetic field.
The rate at which two objects in motion in a single frame of reference get closer together is called the mutual or closing speed. This may approach twice the speed of light, as in the case of two particles travelling at close to the speed of light in opposite directions with respect to the reference frame.
Imagine two fast - moving particles approaching each other from opposite sides of a particle accelerator of the collider type. The closing speed would be the rate at which the distance between the two particles is decreasing. From the point of view of an observer standing at rest relative to the accelerator, this rate will be slightly less than twice the speed of light.
Special relativity does not prohibit this. It tells us that it is wrong to use Galilean relativity to compute the velocity of one of the particles, as would be measured by an observer traveling alongside the other particle. That is, special relativity gives the right formula for computing such relative velocity.
It is instructive to compute the relative velocity of particles moving at v and − v in accelerator frame, which corresponds to the closing speed of 2v > c. Expressing the speeds in units of c, β = v / c:
If a spaceship travels to a planet one light - year (as measured in the Earth 's rest frame) away from Earth at high speed, the time taken to reach that planet could be less than one year as measured by the traveller 's clock (although it will always be more than one year as measured by a clock on Earth). The value obtained by dividing the distance traveled, as determined in the Earth 's frame, by the time taken, measured by the traveller 's clock, is known as a proper speed or a proper velocity. There is no limit on the value of a proper speed as a proper speed does not represent a speed measured in a single inertial frame. A light signal that left the Earth at the same time as the traveller would always get to the destination before the traveller.
Since one might not travel faster than light, one might conclude that a human can never travel further from the Earth than 40 light - years if the traveler is active between the age of 20 and 60. A traveler would then never be able to reach more than the very few star systems which exist within the limit of 20 -- 40 light - years from the Earth. This is a mistaken conclusion: because of time dilation, the traveler can travel thousands of light - years during their 40 active years. If the spaceship accelerates at a constant 1 g (in its own changing frame of reference), it will, after 354 days, reach speeds a little under the speed of light (for an observer on Earth), and time dilation will increase their lifespan to thousands of Earth years, seen from the reference system of the Solar System, but the traveler 's subjective lifespan will not thereby change. If the traveler returns to the Earth, she or he will land thousands of years into the Earth 's future. Their speed will not be seen as higher than the speed of light by observers on Earth, and the traveler will not measure their speed as being higher than the speed of light, but will see a length contraction of the universe in their direction of travel. And as the traveler turns around to return, the Earth will seem to experience much more time than the traveler does. So, while their (ordinary) coordinate speed can not exceed c, their proper speed (distance as seen by Earth divided by their proper time) can be much greater than c. This is seen in statistical studies of muons traveling much further than c times their half - life (at rest), if traveling close to c.
The phase velocity of an electromagnetic wave, when traveling through a medium, can routinely exceed c, the vacuum velocity of light. For example, this occurs in most glasses at X-ray frequencies. However, the phase velocity of a wave corresponds to the propagation speed of a theoretical single - frequency (purely monochromatic) component of the wave at that frequency. Such a wave component must be infinite in extent and of constant amplitude (otherwise it is not truly monochromatic), and so can not convey any information. Thus a phase velocity above c does not imply the propagation of signals with a velocity above c.
The group velocity of a wave (e.g., a light beam) may also exceed c in some circumstances. In such cases, which typically at the same time involve rapid attenuation of the intensity, the maximum of the envelope of a pulse may travel with a velocity above c. However, even this situation does not imply the propagation of signals with a velocity above c, even though one may be tempted to associate pulse maxima with signals. The latter association has been shown to be misleading, because the information on the arrival of a pulse can be obtained before the pulse maximum arrives. For example, if some mechanism allows the full transmission of the leading part of a pulse while strongly attenuating the pulse maximum and everything behind (distortion), the pulse maximum is effectively shifted forward in time, while the information on the pulse does not come faster than c without this effect. However, group velocity can exceed c in some parts of a Gaussian beam in vacuum (without attenuation). The diffraction causes that the peak of pulse propagates faster, while overall power does not.
The expansion of the universe causes distant galaxies to recede from us faster than the speed of light, if proper distance and cosmological time are used to calculate the speeds of these galaxies. However, in general relativity, velocity is a local notion, so velocity calculated using comoving coordinates does not have any simple relation to velocity calculated locally. (See comoving distance for a discussion of different notions of ' velocity ' in cosmology.) Rules that apply to relative velocities in special relativity, such as the rule that relative velocities can not increase past the speed of light, do not apply to relative velocities in comoving coordinates, which are often described in terms of the "expansion of space '' between galaxies. This expansion rate is thought to have been at its peak during the inflationary epoch thought to have occurred in a tiny fraction of the second after the Big Bang (models suggest the period would have been from around 10 seconds after the Big Bang to around 10 seconds), when the universe may have rapidly expanded by a factor of around 10 to 10.
There are many galaxies visible in telescopes with red shift numbers of 1.4 or higher. All of these are currently traveling away from us at speeds greater than the speed of light. Because the Hubble parameter is decreasing with time, there can actually be cases where a galaxy that is receding from us faster than light does manage to emit a signal which reaches us eventually.
According to Tamara M. Davis, "Our effective particle horizon is the cosmic microwave background (CMB), at redshift z ∼ 1100, because we can not see beyond the surface of last scattering. Although the last scattering surface is not at any fixed comoving coordinate, the current recession velocity of the points from which the CMB was emitted is 3.2 c. At the time of emission their speed was 58.1 c, assuming (ΩM, ΩΛ) = (0.3, 0.7). Thus we routinely observe objects that are receding faster than the speed of light and the Hubble sphere is not a horizon. ''
However, because the expansion of the universe is accelerating, it is projected that most galaxies will eventually cross a type of cosmological event horizon where any light they emit past that point will never be able to reach us at any time in the infinite future, because the light never reaches a point where its "peculiar velocity '' towards us exceeds the expansion velocity away from us (these two notions of velocity are also discussed in Comoving distance # Uses of the proper distance). The current distance to this cosmological event horizon is about 16 billion light - years, meaning that a signal from an event happening at present would eventually be able to reach us in the future if the event was less than 16 billion light - years away, but the signal would never reach us if the event was more than 16 billion light - years away.
Apparent superluminal motion is observed in many radio galaxies, blazars, quasars and recently also in microquasars. The effect was predicted before it was observed by Martin Rees and can be explained as an optical illusion caused by the object partly moving in the direction of the observer, when the speed calculations assume it does not. The phenomenon does not contradict the theory of special relativity. Corrected calculations show these objects have velocities close to the speed of light (relative to our reference frame). They are the first examples of large amounts of mass moving at close to the speed of light. Earth - bound laboratories have only been able to accelerate small numbers of elementary particles to such speeds.
Certain phenomena in quantum mechanics, such as quantum entanglement, might give the superficial impression of allowing communication of information faster than light. According to the no - communication theorem these phenomena do not allow true communication; they only let two observers in different locations see the same system simultaneously, without any way of controlling what either sees. Wavefunction collapse can be viewed as an epiphenomenon of quantum decoherence, which in turn is nothing more than an effect of the underlying local time evolution of the wavefunction of a system and all of its environment. Since the underlying behavior does not violate local causality or allow FTL communication, it follows that neither does the additional effect of wavefunction collapse, whether real or apparent.
The uncertainty principle implies that individual photons may travel for short distances at speeds somewhat faster (or slower) than c, even in a vacuum; this possibility must be taken into account when enumerating Feynman diagrams for a particle interaction. However, it was shown in 2011 that a single photon may not travel faster than c. In quantum mechanics, virtual particles may travel faster than light, and this phenomenon is related to the fact that static field effects (which are mediated by virtual particles in quantum terms) may travel faster than light (see section on static fields above). However, macroscopically these fluctuations average out, so that photons do travel in straight lines over long (i.e., non-quantum) distances, and they do travel at the speed of light on average. Therefore, this does not imply the possibility of superluminal information transmission.
There have been various reports in the popular press of experiments on faster - than - light transmission in optics -- most often in the context of a kind of quantum tunnelling phenomenon. Usually, such reports deal with a phase velocity or group velocity faster than the vacuum velocity of light. However, as stated above, a superluminal phase velocity can not be used for faster - than - light transmission of information.
The Hartman effect is the tunneling effect through a barrier where the tunneling time tends to a constant for large barriers. This was first described by Thomas Hartman in 1962. This could, for instance, be the gap between two prisms. When the prisms are in contact, the light passes straight through, but when there is a gap, the light is refracted. There is a non-zero probability that the photon will tunnel across the gap rather than follow the refracted path. For large gaps between the prisms the tunnelling time approaches a constant and thus the photons appear to have crossed with a superluminal speed.
However, an analysis by Herbert G. Winful from the University of Michigan suggests that the Hartman effect can not actually be used to violate relativity by transmitting signals faster than c, because the tunnelling time "should not be linked to a velocity since evanescent waves do not propagate ''. The evanescent waves in the Hartman effect are due to virtual particles and a non-propagating static field, as mentioned in the sections above for gravity and electromagnetism.
In physics, the Casimir effect or Casimir - Polder force is a physical force exerted between separate objects due to resonance of vacuum energy in the intervening space between the objects. This is sometimes described in terms of virtual particles interacting with the objects, owing to the mathematical form of one possible way of calculating the strength of the effect. Because the strength of the force falls off rapidly with distance, it is only measurable when the distance between the objects is extremely small. Because the effect is due to virtual particles mediating a static field effect, it is subject to the comments about static fields discussed above.
The EPR paradox refers to a famous thought experiment of Einstein, Podolski and Rosen that was realized experimentally for the first time by Alain Aspect in 1981 and 1982 in the Aspect experiment. In this experiment, the measurement of the state of one of the quantum systems of an entangled pair apparently instantaneously forces the other system (which may be distant) to be measured in the complementary state. However, no information can be transmitted this way; the answer to whether or not the measurement actually affects the other quantum system comes down to which interpretation of quantum mechanics one subscribes to.
An experiment performed in 1997 by Nicolas Gisin at the University of Geneva has demonstrated non-local quantum correlations between particles separated by over 10 kilometers. But as noted earlier, the non-local correlations seen in entanglement can not actually be used to transmit classical information faster than light, so that relativistic causality is preserved; see no - communication theorem for further information. A 2008 quantum physics experiment also performed by Nicolas Gisin and his colleagues in Geneva, Switzerland has determined that in any hypothetical non-local hidden - variables theory the speed of the quantum non-local connection (what Einstein called "spooky action at a distance '') is at least 10,000 times the speed of light.
Delayed choice quantum eraser (an experiment of Marlan Scully) is a version of the EPR paradox in which the observation or not of interference after the passage of a photon through a double slit experiment depends on the conditions of observation of a second photon entangled with the first. The characteristic of this experiment is that the observation of the second photon can take place at a later time than the observation of the first photon, which may give the impression that the measurement of the later photons "retroactively '' determines whether the earlier photons show interference or not, although the interference pattern can only be seen by correlating the measurements of both members of every pair and so it ca n't be observed until both photons have been measured, ensuring that an experimenter watching only the photons going through the slit does not obtain information about the other photons in an FTL or backwards - in - time manner.
Faster - than - light communication is, by Einstein 's theory of relativity, equivalent to time travel. According to Einstein 's theory of special relativity, what we measure as the speed of light in a vacuum (or near vacuum) is actually the fundamental physical constant c. This means that all inertial observers, regardless of their relative velocity, will always measure zero - mass particles such as photons traveling at c in a vacuum. This result means that measurements of time and velocity in different frames are no longer related simply by constant shifts, but are instead related by Poincaré transformations. These transformations have important implications:
Einstein 's equations of special relativity postulate that the speed of light in vacuum is invariant in inertial frames. That is, it will be the same from any frame of reference moving at a constant speed. The equations do not specify any particular value for the speed of the light, which is an experimentally determined quantity for a fixed unit of length. Since 1983, the SI unit of length (the meter) has been defined using the speed of light.
The experimental determination has been made in vacuum. However, the vacuum we know is not the only possible vacuum which can exist. The vacuum has energy associated with it, called simply the vacuum energy, which could perhaps be altered in certain cases. When vacuum energy is lowered, light itself has been predicted to go faster than the standard value c. This is known as the Scharnhorst effect. Such a vacuum can be produced by bringing two perfectly smooth metal plates together at near atomic diameter spacing. It is called a Casimir vacuum. Calculations imply that light will go faster in such a vacuum by a minuscule amount: a photon traveling between two plates that are 1 micrometer apart would increase the photon 's speed by only about one part in 10. Accordingly, there has as yet been no experimental verification of the prediction. A recent analysis argued that the Scharnhorst effect can not be used to send information backwards in time with a single set of plates since the plates ' rest frame would define a "preferred frame '' for FTL signalling. However, with multiple pairs of plates in motion relative to one another the authors noted that they had no arguments that could "guarantee the total absence of causality violations '', and invoked Hawking 's speculative chronology protection conjecture which suggests that feedback loops of virtual particles would create "uncontrollable singularities in the renormalized quantum stress - energy '' on the boundary of any potential time machine, and thus would require a theory of quantum gravity to fully analyze. Other authors argue that Scharnhorst 's original analysis, which seemed to show the possibility of faster - than - c signals, involved approximations which may be incorrect, so that it is not clear whether this effect could actually increase signal speed at all.
The physicists Günter Nimtz and Alfons Stahlhofen, of the University of Cologne, claim to have violated relativity experimentally by transmitting photons faster than the speed of light. They say they have conducted an experiment in which microwave photons -- relatively low - energy packets of light -- travelled "instantaneously '' between a pair of prisms that had been moved up to 3 ft (1 m) apart. Their experiment involved an optical phenomenon known as "evanescent modes '', and they claim that since evanescent modes have an imaginary wave number, they represent a "mathematical analogy '' to quantum tunnelling. Nimtz has also claimed that "evanescent modes are not fully describable by the Maxwell equations and quantum mechanics have to be taken into consideration. '' Other scientists such as Herbert G. Winful and Robert Helling have argued that in fact there is nothing quantum - mechanical about Nimtz 's experiments, and that the results can be fully predicted by the equations of classical electromagnetism (Maxwell 's equations).
Nimtz told New Scientist magazine: "For the time being, this is the only violation of special relativity that I know of. '' However, other physicists say that this phenomenon does not allow information to be transmitted faster than light. Aephraim Steinberg, a quantum optics expert at the University of Toronto, Canada, uses the analogy of a train traveling from Chicago to New York, but dropping off train cars at each station along the way, so that the center of the ever - shrinking main train moves forward at each stop; in this way, the speed of the center of the train exceeds the speed of any of the individual cars.
Herbert G. Winful argues that the train analogy is a variant of the "reshaping argument '' for superluminal tunneling velocities, but he goes on to say that this argument is not actually supported by experiment or simulations, which actually show that the transmitted pulse has the same length and shape as the incident pulse. Instead, Winful argues that the group delay in tunneling is not actually the transit time for the pulse (whose spatial length must be greater than the barrier length in order for its spectrum to be narrow enough to allow tunneling), but is instead the lifetime of the energy stored in a standing wave which forms inside the barrier. Since the stored energy in the barrier is less than the energy stored in a barrier - free region of the same length due to destructive interference, the group delay for the energy to escape the barrier region is shorter than it would be in free space, which according to Winful is the explanation for apparently superluminal tunneling.
A number of authors have published papers disputing Nimtz 's claim that Einstein causality is violated by his experiments, and there are many other papers in the literature discussing why quantum tunneling is not thought to violate causality.
It was later claimed by the Keller group in Switzerland that particle tunneling does indeed occur in zero real time. Their tests involved tunneling electrons, where the group argued a relativistic prediction for tunneling time should be 500 - 600 attoseconds (an attosecond is one quintillionth (10) of a second). All that could be measured was 24 attoseconds, which is the limit of the test accuracy. Again, though, other physicists believe that tunneling experiments in which particles appear to spend anomalously short times inside the barrier are in fact fully compatible with relativity, although there is disagreement about whether the explanation involves reshaping of the wave packet or other effects.
Because of the strong empirical support for special relativity, any modifications to it must necessarily be quite subtle and difficult to measure. The best - known attempt is doubly special relativity, which posits that the Planck length is also the same in all reference frames, and is associated with the work of Giovanni Amelino - Camelia and João Magueijo.
There are speculative theories that claim inertia is produced by the combined mass of the universe (e.g., Mach 's principle), which implies that the rest frame of the universe might be preferred by conventional measurements of natural law. If confirmed, this would imply special relativity is an approximation to a more general theory, but since the relevant comparison would (by definition) be outside the observable universe, it is difficult to imagine (much less construct) experiments to test this hypothesis.
Although the theory of special relativity forbids objects to have a relative velocity greater than light speed, and general relativity reduces to special relativity in a local sense (in small regions of spacetime where curvature is negligible), general relativity does allow the space between distant objects to expand in such a way that they have a "recession velocity '' which exceeds the speed of light, and it is thought that galaxies which are at a distance of more than about 14 billion light - years from us today have a recession velocity which is faster than light. Miguel Alcubierre theorized that it would be possible to create an Alcubierre drive, in which a ship would be enclosed in a "warp bubble '' where the space at the front of the bubble is rapidly contracting and the space at the back is rapidly expanding, with the result that the bubble can reach a distant destination much faster than a light beam moving outside the bubble, but without objects inside the bubble locally traveling faster than light. However, several objections raised against the Alcubierre drive appear to rule out the possibility of actually using it in any practical fashion. Another possibility predicted by general relativity is the traversable wormhole, which could create a shortcut between arbitrarily distant points in space. As with the Alcubierre drive, travelers moving through the wormhole would not locally move faster than light travelling through the wormhole alongside them, but they would be able to reach their destination (and return to their starting location) faster than light traveling outside the wormhole.
Dr. Gerald Cleaver, associate professor of physics at Baylor University, and Richard Obousy, a Baylor graduate student, theorized that manipulating the extra spatial dimensions of string theory around a spaceship with an extremely large amount of energy would create a "bubble '' that could cause the ship to travel faster than the speed of light. To create this bubble, the physicists believe manipulating the 10th spatial dimension would alter the dark energy in three large spatial dimensions: height, width and length. Cleaver said positive dark energy is currently responsible for speeding up the expansion rate of our universe as time moves on.
In 1977, a paper on Heim theory theorized that it may be possible to travel faster than light by using magnetic fields to enter a higher - dimensional space.
The possibility that Lorentz symmetry may be violated has been seriously considered in the last two decades, particularly after the development of a realistic effective field theory that describes this possible violation, the so - called Standard - Model Extension. This general framework has allowed experimental searches by ultra-high energy cosmic - ray experiments and a wide variety of experiments in gravity, electrons, protons, neutrons, neutrinos, mesons, and photons. The breaking of rotation and boost invariance causes direction dependence in the theory as well as unconventional energy dependence that introduces novel effects, including Lorentz - violating neutrino oscillations and modifications to the dispersion relations of different particle species, which naturally could make particles move faster than light.
In some models of broken Lorentz symmetry, it is postulated that the symmetry is still built into the most fundamental laws of physics, but that spontaneous symmetry breaking of Lorentz invariance shortly after the Big Bang could have left a "relic field '' throughout the universe which causes particles to behave differently depending on their velocity relative to the field; however, there are also some models where Lorentz symmetry is broken in a more fundamental way. If Lorentz symmetry can cease to be a fundamental symmetry at Planck scale or at some other fundamental scale, it is conceivable that particles with a critical speed different from the speed of light be the ultimate constituents of matter.
In current models of Lorentz symmetry violation, the phenomenological parameters are expected to be energy - dependent. Therefore, as widely recognized, existing low - energy bounds can not be applied to high - energy phenomena; however, many searches for Lorentz violation at high energies have been carried out using the Standard - Model Extension. Lorentz symmetry violation is expected to become stronger as one gets closer to the fundamental scale.
In this approach the physical vacuum is viewed as the quantum superfluid which is essentially non-relativistic whereas the Lorentz symmetry is not an exact symmetry of nature but rather the approximate description valid only for the small fluctuations of the superfluid background. Within the framework of the approach a theory was proposed in which the physical vacuum is conjectured to be the quantum Bose liquid whose ground - state wavefunction is described by the logarithmic Schrödinger equation. It was shown that the relativistic gravitational interaction arises as the small - amplitude collective excitation mode whereas relativistic elementary particles can be described by the particle - like modes in the limit of low momenta. The important fact is that at very high velocities the behavior of the particle - like modes becomes distinct from the relativistic one - they can reach the speed of light limit at finite energy; also, faster - than - light propagation is possible without requiring moving objects to have imaginary mass.
In 2007 the MINOS collaboration reported results measuring the flight - time of 3 GeV neutrinos yielding a speed exceeding that of light by 1.8 - sigma significance. However, those measurements were considered to be statistically consistent with neutrinos traveling at the speed of light. After the detectors for the project were upgraded in 2012, MINOS corrected their initial result and found agreement with the speed of light. Further measurements are going to be conducted.
On September 22, 2011, a preprint from the OPERA Collaboration indicated detection of 17 and 28 GeV muon neutrinos, sent 730 kilometers (454 miles) from CERN near Geneva, Switzerland to the Gran Sasso National Laboratory in Italy, traveling faster than light by a relative amount of 2.48 × 10 (approximately 1 in 40,000), a statistic with 6.0 - sigma significance. On 17 November 2011, a second follow - up experiment by OPERA scientists confirmed their initial results. However, scientists were skeptical about the results of these experiments, the significance of which was disputed. In March 2012, the ICARUS collaboration failed to reproduce the OPERA results with their equipment, detecting neutrino travel time from CERN to the Gran Sasso National Laboratory indistinguishable from the speed of light. Later the OPERA team reported two flaws in their equipment set - up that had caused errors far outside their original confidence interval: a fiber optic cable attached improperly, which caused the apparently faster - than - light measurements, and a clock oscillator ticking too fast.
In special relativity, it is impossible to accelerate an object to the speed of light, or for a massive object to move at the speed of light. However, it might be possible for an object to exist which always moves faster than light. The hypothetical elementary particles with this property are called tachyonic particles. Attempts to quantize them failed to produce faster - than - light particles, and instead illustrated that their presence leads to an instability.
Various theorists have suggested that the neutrino might have a tachyonic nature, while others have disputed the possibility.
Mechanical equations to describe hypothetical exotic matter which possesses a negative mass, negative momentum, negative pressure and negative kinetic energy are
Considering E = ħ ω (\ displaystyle E = \ hbar \ omega) and p = ħ k (\ displaystyle p = \ hbar k), the energy - momentum relation of the particle is corresponding to the following dispersion relation
of a wave that can propagate in the negative index metamaterial. Interestingly, the pressure of radiation pressure in the metamaterial is negative and negative refraction, inverse Doppler effect and reverse Cherenkov effect imply that the momentum is also negative. So the wave in a negative index metamaterial can be applied to test the theory of exotic matter and negative mass. For example, the velocity equals
That is to say, such a wave can break the light barrier under certain conditions and the correctness of the prediction can be judged by comparison with experiments.
General relativity was developed after special relativity to include concepts like gravity. It maintains the principle that no object can accelerate to the speed of light in the reference frame of any coincident observer. However, it permits distortions in spacetime that allow an object to move faster than light from the point of view of a distant observer. One such distortion is the Alcubierre drive, which can be thought of as producing a ripple in spacetime that carries an object along with it. Another possible system is the wormhole, which connects two distant locations as though by a shortcut. Both distortions would need to create a very strong curvature in a highly localized region of space - time and their gravity fields would be immense. To counteract the unstable nature, and prevent the distortions from collapsing under their own ' weight ', one would need to introduce hypothetical exotic matter or negative energy.
General relativity also recognizes that any means of faster - than - light travel could also be used for time travel. This raises problems with causality. Many physicists believe that the above phenomena are impossible and that future theories of gravity will prohibit them. One theory states that stable wormholes are possible, but that any attempt to use a network of wormholes to violate causality would result in their decay. In string theory, Eric G. Gimon and Petr Hořava have argued that in a supersymmetric five - dimensional Gödel universe, quantum corrections to general relativity effectively cut off regions of spacetime with causality - violating closed timelike curves. In particular, in the quantum theory a smeared supertube is present that cuts the spacetime in such a way that, although in the full spacetime a closed timelike curve passed through every point, no complete curves exist on the interior region bounded by the tube.
In physics, the speed of light in a vacuum is assumed to be a constant. However, hypotheses exist that the speed of light is variable.
The speed of light is a dimensional quantity and so, as has been emphasized in this context by João Magueijo, it can not be measured. Measurable quantities in physics are, without exception, dimensionless, although they are often constructed as ratios of dimensional quantities. For example, when the height of a mountain is measured, what is really measured is the ratio of its height to the length of a meter stick. The conventional SI system of units is based on seven basic dimensional quantities, namely distance, mass, time, electric current, thermodynamic temperature, amount of substance, and luminous intensity. These units are defined to be independent and so can not be described in terms of each other. As an alternative to using a particular system of units, one can reduce all measurements to dimensionless quantities expressed in terms of ratios between the quantities being measured and various fundamental constants such as Newton 's constant, the speed of light and Planck 's constant; physicists can define at least 26 dimensionless constants which can be expressed in terms of these sorts of ratios and which are currently thought to be independent of one another. By manipulating the basic dimensional constants one can also construct the Planck time, Planck length and Planck energy which make a good system of units for expressing dimensional measurements, known as Planck units.
Magueijo 's proposal used a different set of units, a choice which he justifies with the claim that some equations will be simpler in these new units. In the new units he fixes the fine structure constant, a quantity which some people, using units in which the speed of light is fixed, have claimed is time - dependent. Thus in the system of units in which the fine structure constant is fixed, the observational claim is that the speed of light is time - dependent.
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who plays the prison guard in shawshank redemption | The Shawshank Redemption - wikipedia
The Shawshank Redemption is a 1994 American drama film written and directed by Frank Darabont, based on the 1982 Stephen King novella Rita Hayworth and Shawshank Redemption. It tells the story of banker Andy Dufresne (Tim Robbins), who is sentenced to life in Shawshank State Penitentiary for the murder of his wife and her lover, despite his claims of innocence. Over the following two decades, he befriends a fellow prisoner, contraband smuggler Ellis "Red '' Redding (Morgan Freeman), and becomes instrumental in a money laundering operation led by the prison warden Samuel Norton (Bob Gunton). William Sadler, Clancy Brown, Gil Bellows, and James Whitmore appear in supporting roles.
Darabont purchased the film rights to King 's story in 1987, but development did not begin until five years later when he wrote the script over an eight - week period. Two weeks after submitting his script to the Castle Rock Entertainment film studio, Darabont secured a $25 million budget to produce The Shawshank Redemption, which started pre-production in January 1993. While the film is set in Maine, principal photography took place from June to August 1993 almost entirely in Mansfield, Ohio, with the Ohio State Reformatory serving as the eponymous penitentiary. The project attracted many stars of the time for the lead roles including Tom Hanks, Tom Cruise, and Kevin Costner. Thomas Newman provided the film 's score.
While The Shawshank Redemption received positive reviews on its release, particularly for its story and the performances of Robbins and Freeman, it was a box office disappointment, earning only $16 million during its initial theatrical run. Many reasons were cited for its failure at the time, including competition from films such as Pulp Fiction and Forrest Gump, to the general unpopularity of prison films, lack of female characters, and even the title, which was considered to be confusing for audiences. Even so, it went on to receive multiple award nominations, including seven Academy Award nominations, and a theatrical re-release that, combined with international takings, increased the film 's box office gross to $58.3 million.
Over 320,000 VHS copies were shipped throughout the United States, and based on its award nominations and word of mouth, it became one of the top rented films of 1995. The broadcast rights were acquired following the purchase of Castle Rock by the Turner Broadcasting System, and it was shown regularly on the TNT network starting in 1997, further increasing its popularity. The film is now considered to be one of the greatest films of the 1990s. As of 2017, the film is still broadcast regularly, and is popular in several countries, with audience members and celebrities citing it as a source of inspiration, and naming the film as a favorite in various surveys. In 2015, the United States Library of Congress selected the film for preservation in the National Film Registry, finding it "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant ''.
In 1947 Portland, Maine, banker Andy Dufresne is convicted of murdering his wife and her lover, and sentenced to two consecutive life sentences at the Shawshank State Penitentiary. He is befriended by contraband smuggler, Ellis "Red '' Redding, an inmate serving a life sentence. Red procures a rock hammer, and later a large poster of Rita Hayworth for Andy. Working in the prison laundry, Andy is regularly assaulted and raped by "the Sisters '' and their leader, Bogs.
In 1949, Andy overhears the captain of the guards, Byron Hadley, complaining about being taxed on an inheritance and offers to help him shelter the money legally. After an assault by the Sisters nearly kills Andy, Hadley beats Bogs severely. Left crippled, Bogs is transferred to another prison, and Andy is not attacked again. Warden Samuel Norton meets Andy and reassigns him to the prison library to assist elderly inmate Brooks Hatlen. Andy 's new job is a pretext for him to begin managing financial matters for the prison employees. As time passes, the warden begins using him to handle matters for himself and a variety of people, including guards from other prisons. Andy begins writing weekly letters to the state legislature requesting funds to improve the prison 's decaying library.
Brooks is paroled in 1954 after serving 50 years, but he can not adjust to the outside world, and he commits suicide by hanging himself. Andy receives a library donation that includes a recording of The Marriage of Figaro. He plays an excerpt over the public address system, and is punished with solitary confinement. After his release from solitary, Andy explains that hope is what gets him through his time, a concept that Red dismisses. In 1963, Norton begins exploiting prison labor for public works, profiting by undercutting skilled labor costs and receiving bribes. Andy launders the money using the alias Randall Stephens.
Tommy Williams is incarcerated for burglary in 1965. Andy and Red befriend him, and Andy helps him pass his GED exam. A year later, Tommy reveals to Red and Andy that an inmate at another prison claimed responsibility for the murders for which Andy was convicted. Andy approaches Norton with this information, but he refuses to listen and sends him back to solitary confinement when he mentions the money laundering. Norton has Hadley murder Tommy under the guise of an escape attempt. Andy declines to continue the laundering, but he relents after Norton threatens to destroy the library, remove Andy 's protection from the guards, and move him to worse conditions. After two months, Andy is released from solitary confinement, and he tells Red of his dream of living in Zihuatanejo, a Mexican coastal town. Red feels Andy is being unrealistic, but promises him that if he is ever released, he will visit a specific hayfield near Buxton, Maine, and retrieve a package Andy buried there. He worries about Andy 's well - being, especially when he learns Andy asked fellow inmate Heywood to supply him with six feet (1.8 meters) of rope.
The next day at roll call, the guards find Andy 's cell empty. An irate Norton throws a rock at the poster of Raquel Welch hanging on the cell wall, revealing a tunnel that Andy dug with his rock hammer over the last 19 years. The previous night, Andy escaped through the tunnel and prison sewage pipe, using the rope to bring with him Norton 's suit, shoes, and the ledger containing details of the money laundering. While guards search for him, Andy poses as Randall Stephens and visits several banks to withdraw the laundered money, then mails the ledger and evidence of the corruption and murders at Shawshank to a local newspaper. State police arrive at Shawshank and take Hadley into custody, while Norton commits suicide to avoid arrest.
After serving 40 years, Red is paroled. He struggles to adapt to life outside prison and fears that he never will. Remembering his promise to Andy, he visits Buxton and finds a cache containing money, and a letter asking him to come to Zihuatanejo. Red violates his parole and travels to Fort Hancock, Texas, to cross the border into Mexico, admitting he finally feels hope. On a beach in Zihuatanejo he finds Andy, and the two friends are happily reunited.
The cast also includes: Mark Rolston as Bogs Diamond, the head of "The Sisters '' gang and a prison rapist; Jeffrey DeMunn as the prosecuting attorney in Dufresne 's trial; Alfonso Freeman as Fresh Fish Con; Ned Bellamy and Don McManus as, respectively, prison guards Youngblood and Wiley; and Dion Anderson as Head Bull Haig. Renee Blaine portrays Andy 's wife, and Scott Mann portrays her golf - instructor lover Glenn Quentin. Frank Medrano plays Fat Ass, one of Andy 's fellow new inmates who is beaten to death by Hadley, and Bill Bolender plays Elmo Blatch, a convict who may actually be responsible for the crimes of which Andy is accused. James Kisicki portrays a bank manager.
The film has been interpreted as being grounded in Christian mysticism. Andy is offered as a messianic, Christ - like figure, with Red describing him early in the film as having an aura that engulfs and protects him from Shawshank. The scene in which Andy and several inmates tar the prison roof can be seen as a recreation of the Last Supper, with Andy obtaining beer / wine for the twelve inmates / disciples as Freeman describes them as the "lords of all creation '' invoking Jesus ' blessing. Director Frank Darabont responded that this was not his deliberate intention, but he wanted people to find their own meaning in the film. The discovery of The Marriage of Figaro record is described in the screenplay as akin to finding the Holy Grail, bringing the prisoners to a halt, and causing the sick to rise up in their beds.
Early in the film, Warden Norton quotes Jesus Christ to describe himself to Andy, saying, "I am the light of the world '', declaring himself Andy 's savior. But this description can also reference Lucifer, the bearer of light. Indeed, the warden does not enforce the general rule of law, but chooses to enforce his own rules and punishments as he sees fit, becoming a law unto himself, like the behavior of Satan. The warden has also been compared to former United States President Richard Nixon. Norton 's appearance and public addresses can be seen to mirror Nixon 's. Similarly, Norton projects an image of a Holy man, speaking down sanctimoniously to the servile masses while running corrupt scams, like those which made Nixon infamous.
Zihuatanejo has been interpreted as an analogue for heaven or paradise. In the film, Andy describes it as a place with no memory, offering absolution from his sins by forgetting about them or allowing them to be washed away by the Pacific Ocean, whose name means "peace ''. The possibility of escaping to Zihuatanejo is only raised following Andy 's admission of guilt over his wife 's death. Similarly, Red 's freedom is only earned once he accepts he can not save himself or atone for his sins. Freeman has described Red 's story as one of salvation as he is not innocent of his crimes, unlike Andy who finds redemption. While some Christian viewers interpret Zihuatanejo as heaven, it can also be interpreted as a Nietzschean form of guiltlessness achieved outside traditional notions of good and evil, where the amnesia offered is the destruction rather than forgiveness of sin, meaning Andy 's aim is secular and atheistic. Just as Andy can be interpreted as a Christ - like figure, he can be seen as a Zarathustra - like prophet offering escape through education and the experience of freedom. Ebert argued that The Shawshank Redemption is an allegory for maintaining one 's feeling of self - worth when placed in a hopeless position. Andy 's integrity is an important theme in the story line, especially in prison, where integrity is lacking.
Robbins himself believes that the concept of Zihuatanejo resonates with audiences because it represents a form of escape that can be achieved after surviving for many years within whatever "jail '' someone finds themselves, from a bad relationship, job, or environment. Robbins said that it is important that such a place exists for us. Isaac M. Morehouse suggests that the film provides a great illustration of how characters can be free, even in prison, or unfree, even in freedom, based on their outlooks on life. Philosopher Jean - Paul Sartre described freedom as an ongoing project that requires attention and resilience, without which a person begins to be defined by others or institutions, mirroring Red 's belief that inmates become dependent on the prison to define their lives. Andy displays resilience through rebellion, by playing music over the prison loudspeaker, and refusing to continue with the money laundering scam.
Many elements can be considered as tributes to the power of cinema. In the prison theater, the inmates watch the film Gilda (1946), but this scene was originally intended to feature The Lost Weekend (1945). The interchangeability of the films used in the prison theater suggests that it is the cinematic experience and not the subject which is key to the scene, allowing the men to escape the reality of their situation. Immediately following this scene, Andy is assaulted by the Sisters in the projector room and uses a film reel to help fight them off. Then in the end of the film, Andy passes through a hole in his cell hidden by a movie poster to escape both his cell and ultimately Shawshank.
Andy 's and Red 's relationship has been described as a non-sexual love story between two men, that few other films offer, where the friendship is not built on conducting a caper, car chases, or developing a relationship with women. Philosopher Alexander Hooke argued that Andy 's and Red 's true freedom is their friendship, being able to share joy and humor with each other.
Darabont first collaborated with author Stephen King in 1983 on the short film adaptation of "The Woman in the Room '', buying the rights from him for $1 -- a Dollar Deal that King used to help new directors build a résumé by adapting his short stories. After receiving his first screenwriting credit in 1987 for A Nightmare on Elm Street 3: Dream Warriors, Darabont returned to King with $5,000 to purchase the rights to adapt Rita Hayworth and Shawshank Redemption, a 96 - page novella from King 's 1982 collection Different Seasons, written to explore genres other than the horror stories for which he was commonly known. Although King did not understand how the story, largely focused on Red contemplating his fellow prisoner Andy, could be turned into a feature film, Darabont believed it was "obvious ''.
Five years later, Darabont wrote the script over an eight - week period. He expanded on elements of King 's story. Brooks, who in the novella is a minor character who dies in a retirement home, became a tragic character who eventually hanged himself. Tommy, who in the novella trades his evidence exonerating Andy for transfer to a nicer prison, in the screenplay is murdered on the orders of Warden Norton, who is a composite of several warden characters in King 's story. Darabont opted to create a single warden character to serve as the primary antagonist. Among his inspirations, Darabont listed the works of director Frank Capra, including Mr. Smith Goes to Washington (1939) and It 's a Wonderful Life (1946), describing them as tall tales; Darabont likened The Shawshank Redemption to a tall tale more than a prison movie. He also cited Goodfellas (1990) as an inspiration on the use of dialogue to illustrate the passage of time in the script. King never cashed the $5,000 cheque from Darabont for the rights to The Shawshank Redemption; he later framed it and returned it to Darabont accompanied by a note which read: "In case you ever need bail money. Love, Steve. ''
At the time, prison - based films were not considered likely box office successes, but Darabont 's script was read by then - Castle Rock Entertainment producer Liz Glotzer, whose interest in prison stories, and reaction to the script, led her to threaten to quit if Castle Rock did not produce The Shawshank Redemption. Director and Castle Rock co-founder Rob Reiner also liked the script. He offered Darabont between $2.4 million and $3 million to allow him to direct it himself. Reiner, who had previously adapted King 's 1982 novella The Body into the 1986 film Stand by Me, planned to cast Tom Cruise as Andy and Harrison Ford as Red.
Castle Rock offered to finance any other film Darabont wanted to develop. Darabont seriously considered the offer, citing growing up poor in Los Angeles, believing it would elevate his standing in the industry, and that Castle Rock could have contractually fired him and given the film to Reiner anyway. But, he chose to remain the director, saying in a 2014 Variety interview, "you can continue to defer your dreams in exchange for money and, you know, die without ever having done the thing you set out to do ''. Reiner served as Darabont 's mentor on the project instead. Within two weeks of showing the script to Castle Rock, Darabont had a $25 million budget to make his film (taking a $750,000 screenwriting and directing salary plus a percentage of the net profits), and pre-production began in January 1993.
Freeman was cast at the suggestion of producer Liz Glotzer, who ignored the novella 's character description of a white Irishman, nicknamed "Red ''. Freeman 's character alludes to the choice when queried by Andy on why he is called Red, replying "Maybe it 's because I 'm Irish. '' Freeman opted not to research his role, saying "acting the part of someone who 's incarcerated does n't require any specific knowledge of incarceration... because men do n't change. Once you 're in that situation, you just toe whatever line you have to toe. ''
Darabont looked initially at some of his favorite actors like Gene Hackman and Robert Duvall for the role of Andy Dufresne, but they were unavailable; Clint Eastwood and Paul Newman were also considered. Tom Cruise, Tom Hanks, and Kevin Costner were offered, and passed on the role -- Hanks due to his starring role in Forrest Gump, and Costner because he had the lead in Waterworld. Johnny Depp, Nicolas Cage, and Charlie Sheen were also considered for the role at different stages. Cruise attended table readings of the script, but declined to work for the inexperienced Darabont. Darabont said he cast Robbins after seeing his performance in the 1990 psychological horror Jacob 's Ladder. When Robbins was cast, he insisted that Darabont use experienced cinematographer Roger Deakins, who had worked with him on The Hudsucker Proxy. To prepare for the role, Robbins observed caged animals at a zoo, spent an afternoon in solitary confinement, spoke with prisoners and guards, and had his arms and legs shackled for a few hours.
Cast initially as young convict Tommy, Brad Pitt dropped out following his success in Thelma & Louise (the role went to a debuting Gil Bellows); James Gandolfini passed on portraying prison rapist Bogs. Bob Gunton was filming Demolition Man (1993) when he went to audition for the role of Warden Norton. To convince the studio that Gunton was right for the part, Darabont and producer Niki Marvin arranged for him to record a screen test on a day off from Demolition Man. They had a wig made for him as his head was shaved for his Demolition Man role. Gunton wanted to portray Norton with hair as this could then be grayed to convey his on - screen aging as the film progressed. Gunton performed his screen test with Robbins, which was filmed by Deakins. After being confirmed for the role, he used the wig in the film 's early scenes until his hair re-grew. Gunton said that Marvin and Darabont saw that he understood the character which went in his favor, as did the fact his height was similar to Robbins ' allowing Andy to believably use the warden 's suit.
Portraying the head guard Byron Hadley, Clancy Brown was given the opportunity to speak with former guards by the production 's liaison officer, but declined believing it would not be a good thing to say that his brutal character was in any way inspired by Ohio state correctional officers. William Sadler, who portrays Heywood, said that Darabont had approached him in 1989 on the set of the Tales from the Crypt television series where he was a writer, about starring in the adaptation he was intending to make. Freeman 's son Alfonso has a cameo as a young Red in mug shot photos, and as a prisoner shouting "fresh fish '' as Andy arrives at Shawshank. Among the extras used in the film were the former warden and former inmates of the Reformatory, and active guards from a nearby incarceration facility. The novella 's original title attracted several people to audition for the non-existent role of Rita Hayworth, including a man in drag clothing.
On a $25 million budget, principal photography took place over three months between June and August 1993. Filming regularly required up to 18 - hour workdays, six days a week. Freeman described filming as tense, saying, "Most of the time, the tension was between the cast and director. I remember having a bad moment with the director, had a few of those. '' Freeman referred to Darabont 's requiring multiple takes of scenes which he considered had no discernible differences. For example, the scene where Andy first approaches Red to procure a rock hammer took nine hours to film, and featured Freeman throwing and catching a baseball with another inmate throughout it. The number of takes that were shot resulted in Freeman turning up to filming the following day with his arm in a sling. Freeman sometimes simply refused to do the additional takes. Robbins said that the long days were difficult. Darabont felt that making the film taught him a lot, "A director really needs to have an internal barometer to measure what any given actor needs. '' He found his most frequent struggles were with Deakins. Darabont favored more scenic shots, while Deakins felt that not showing the outside of the prison added a sense of claustrophobia, and it meant that when a wide scenic shot was used, it had more impact.
Marvin spent five months scouting prisons across the United States and Canada, looking for a site that had a timeless aesthetic, and was completely abandoned, hoping to avoid the complexity of filming the required footage, for hours each day, in an active prison with the security difficulties that would entail. Marvin eventually chose the Ohio State Reformatory in Mansfield, Ohio to serve as the fictional Shawshank State Penitentiary in Maine, citing its Gothic - style stone and brick buildings. After nearly a century of use, the facility had been closed three years earlier on New Year 's Eve, 1990, due to inhumane living conditions.
The 15 - acre reformatory, housing its own power plant and farm, was partially torn down shortly after filming was completed, leaving the main administration building and two cell blocks. Several of the interior shots of the specialized prison facilities, such as the admittance rooms and the warden 's office, were shot in the reformatory. The interior of the boarding room used by Brooks and Red was in the administration building; exterior shots of the boarding house were taken elsewhere. Internal scenes in the prison cellblocks were filmed on a soundstage built inside a nearby shuttered Westinghouse Electric factory. Since Darabont wanted the inmates ' cells to face each other, almost all the cellblock scenes were shot on a purpose - built set housed in the Westinghouse factory except for the scene featuring Elmo Blatch 's admission of guilt for the crimes for which Andy was convicted. It was filmed in one of the actual prison 's more confined cells. Scenes were also filmed in Mansfield, as well as neighboring Ashland, Ohio. The oak tree under which Andy buries his letter to Red was located near Malabar Farm State Park, in Lucas, Ohio; it was destroyed by winds in 2016.
Just as a prison in Ohio stood in for a fictional one in Maine, the beach scene showing Andy and Red 's reunion in Zihuatanejo, Mexico, was actually shot in the Caribbean on the island of Saint Croix, one of the U.S. Virgin Islands. The beach at ' Zihuatanejo ' is the Sandy Point National Wildlife Refuge, a protected area for leatherback sea turtles. Scenes shot in Upper Sandusky included the prison wood shop scene where Red and his fellow inmates hear "The Marriage of Figaro '' (the woodshop is now called the Shawshank Woodshop), and the opening court scene which was shot at the Wyandot County Courthouse. Other shooting locations included Pugh Cabin in Malabar Farm State Park, where Andy sits outside as his wife engages in an affair, Butler, Ohio which stood in for Buxton, Maine, and The Bissman Building in Mansfield, which served as the hotel where Brooks stayed following his release.
While the film portrays Andy escaping to freedom through a sewer pipe described as a "river of shit '', Robbins crawls through a mixture of water, chocolate syrup, and sawdust. The stream into which Robbins emerges was actually certified toxic by a chemist according to production designer Terence Marsh. Of the scene, Robbins said, "when you 're doing a film, you want to be a good soldier -- you do n't want to be the one that gets in the way. So you will do things as an actor that are compromising to your physical health and safety. '' As for the scene where Andy rebelliously plays music over the prison announcement system, it was Robbins ' idea for Andy to turn the music up and not shut it off. While in the finished film the inmates watch Rita Hayworth in Gilda (1946), they were originally intended to be watching Billy Wilder 's The Lost Weekend (1945), a film about the dangers of alcohol. As the footage was too costly to procure from Paramount Pictures, producer Niki Marvin approached The Shawshank Redemption 's domestic distribution rights - holder Columbia Pictures, who offered a list of lower - priced titles, one of which was Gilda.
The final cut of the theatrically released film runs for 142 minutes, and was dedicated to Allen Greene, Darabont 's former agent who died during filming from AIDS. The film 's first edit ran for nearly two and a half hours, which Glotzer considered "long '', and several scenes were cut including a longer sequence of Red adjusting to life post incarceration; Darabont said that in test screenings the audience seemed to be getting impatient with the scene as they were already convinced that Red would not make it. Another scene cut for time showed a prison guard investigating Andy 's escape tunnel; it was thought this slowed down the action. The film originally had a cold open that played out Andy 's crime, with his trial playing throughout the opening credits, but these scenes were edited together to create a more "punchy '' opening. One scripted scene, which Darabont described as his best work, was left unfilmed because of the shooting schedule. In the scene, a dreaming Red is sucked into the poster of Rita Hayworth to find himself alone and insignificant on the Pacific shore, saying "I am terrified, there is no way home. '' Darabont said that he regretted being unable to capture the scene.
In Darabont 's original vision for the end of the film Red is seen riding a bus towards the Mexican border, leaving his fate ambiguous. Glotzer insisted on including the scene of Red and Andy reuniting in Zihuatanejo. She said Darabont felt this was a "commercial, sappy '' ending, but Glotzer wanted the audience to see them together. Castle Rock agreed to finance filming for the scene without requiring its inclusion, guaranteeing Darabont the final decision. The scene originally featured a longer reunion in which Andy and Red recited dialogue from their first meeting, but Darabont said it had a "golly - gee - ai n't - we - cute '' quality and excised it. The beach reunion was test audiences ' favorite scene; both Freeman and Robbins felt it provided the necessary closure. Darabont agreed to include the scene after seeing the test audience reactions, saying: "I think it 's a magical and uplifting place for our characters to arrive at the end of their long saga... ''
The film 's score was composed by Thomas Newman. He felt that it already elicited such strong emotions without music that he found it difficult to compose one that would elevate scenes without distracting from them. The piece, "Shawshank Redemption '', plays during Andy 's escape from Shawshank and originally had a three - note motif, but Darabont felt it had too much of a "triumphal flourish '' and asked that it be toned down to a single - note motif. "So Was Red '', played following Red 's release from prison, and leading to his discovery of Andy 's cache, became one of Newman 's favorite pieces. The piece was initially written for a solo oboe, until Newman reluctantly agreed to add harmonica -- a reference to the harmonica Red receives from Andy to continue his message of hope. According to Darabont, harmonica player Tommy Morgan "casually delivered something dead - on perfect on the first take '', and this is heard in the finished film. Newman 's score was so successful that excerpts from it were used in movie trailers for years afterwards.
Leading up to its release, the film was test screened with the public. These were described as "through the roof '', and Glotzer said they were some of the best she had seen. It was decided to mostly omit Stephen King 's name from any advertising, as the studio wanted to attract a "more prestigious audience '' who might reject a film from a writer known mostly for pulp fiction works like The Shining and Cujo.
Following early September premieres at the Renaissance Theatre in Mansfield, and the Toronto International Film Festival, The Shawshank Redemption began a limited North American release on September 23, 1994. During its opening weekend, the film earned $727,000 from 33 theaters -- an average of $22,040 per theater. Following a Hollywood tradition of visiting different theaters on opening night to see the audiences view their film live, Darabont and Glotzer went to the Cinerama Dome, but found no one there. Glotzer claimed that the pair actually sold two tickets outside the theater with the promise that if the buyers did not like the film, they could ask Castle Rock for a refund. While critics praised the film, Glotzer believed that a lackluster review from the Los Angeles Times pushed crowds away. It received a wide release on October 14, 1994, expanding to a total of 944 theaters to earn $2.4 million -- an average of $2,545 per theater -- finishing as the number nine film of the weekend, behind sex - comedy Exit to Eden ($3 million), and just ahead of the historical drama Quiz Show ($2.1 million), which was in its fifth week at the cinemas. The Shawshank Redemption closed in late November 1994, after 10 weeks with an approximate total gross of $16 million. It was considered a box office bomb, failing to recoup its $25 million budget, not including marketing costs and the cinema exhibitors ' cuts.
The film was also competing with Pulp Fiction ($108 million), which also premiered October 14 following its Palme d'Or award win, and Forrest Gump ($330 million) which was in the middle of a successful 42 - week theatrical run. Both films would become quotable cultural phenomena. A general audience trend towards action films starring the likes of Bruce Willis and Arnold Schwarzenegger was also considered to work against the commercial success of The Shawshank Redemption. Freeman blamed the title, saying it was unmemorable, while Robbins recalled fans asking: "What was that Shinkshonk Reduction thing? ''. Several alternative titles had been posited before the release due to concerns that it was not a marketable title. The low box office was also blamed on a lack of female characters to broaden the audience demographic, and the general unpopularity of prison films.
After being nominated for several Oscars in early 1995, the film was re-released between February and March. In total, the film made about $28.3 million in North American theaters, and about $30 million from other markets for a worldwide total of $58.3 million. In the United States, it became the 51st - highest - grossing film of 1994, and the 21st - highest grossing R - rated film of 1994.
Despite its disappointing box - office returns, in what was then considered a risky move, Warner Home Video shipped 320,000 rental video copies throughout the United States in 1995. It went on to become one of the top rented films of the year. Positive recommendations and repeat customer viewings, and being well - received by both male and female audiences, were considered key to the film 's rental success.
Ted Turner 's Turner Broadcasting System had acquired Castle Rock in 1993, which enabled his TV channel, TNT, to obtain the cable - broadcast rights to the film. According to Glotzer, because of the low box office numbers, TNT could air the film at a very low cost, but still charge premium advertising rates. The film began airing regularly on the network in June 1997. TV airings of the film accrued record - breaking numbers, and its repeated broadcast was considered essential to turning the film into a cultural phenomenon after its poor box office performance. Darabont felt the turning point for the film 's success was the Academy Award nominations, saying "nobody had heard of the movie, and that year on the Oscar broadcast, they were mentioning this movie seven times ''. In 1996, the rights to The Shawshank Redemption were passed to Warner Bros., following the merger of its parent company Time Warner with the Turner Broadcasting System.
By 2013, The Shawshank Redemption had aired on fifteen basic cable networks, and in that year occupied 151 hours of airtime, rivaling Scarface (1983), and behind only Mrs. Doubtfire (1993). It was in the top 15 percent of movies among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 on the Spike, Up, SundanceTV, and Lifetime channels. Despite its mainly male cast it was the most watched movie on the female - targeted OWN network. In a 2014 Wall Street Journal article, it was estimated that based on the margins studios take from box office returns, home media sales, and television licensing, The Shawshank Redemption had made $100 million. Jeff Baker, then - executive vice president and general manager of Warner Bros. Home Entertainment, said that the home video sales had earned about $80 million. While Warner Bros. does not report what it earns in licensing the film for TV, in 2014 current and former executives at the studio confirmed that it was one of the highest valued assets in Warner Bros. $1.5 billion library. That same year, Gunton said that by its tenth anniversary in 2004, he was still earning six - figure residual payments, and was still earning a "substantial income '' from it, which was considered unusual so many years after its release.
The Shawshank Redemption opened to generally positive reviews. Some reviewers compared the film to other well - received prison dramas, including: Birdman of Alcatraz, One Flew Over the Cuckoo 's Nest, Cool Hand Luke, and Riot in Cell Block 11. Gene Siskel said that like One Flew Over the Cuckoo 's Nest, The Shawshank Redemption is an inspirational drama about overcoming overbearing authority.
Entertainment Weekly 's Owen Gleiberman said that Freeman makes the Red character feel genuine and "lived - in ''. Janet Maslin of The New York Times said that Freeman was quietly impressive, but lamented that Red 's role in the film had limited range, restricted to observing Andy. She considered Freeman 's commanding performance made him a much stronger figure than simply an observer. Maslin said that Freeman 's performance was especially moving when describing how dependent Red had become on living within the prison walls. Variety 's Leonard Klady suggested that Freeman had the "showier '' role, allowing him "a grace and dignity that come naturally '', without ever becoming banal, and The Washington Post 's Desson Howe called Freeman a "master '' of comedic and poignant cadence. Even Kenneth Turan 's Los Angeles Times review, which Glotzer credited with derailing the film 's box office success, praised Freeman, saying his "effortless screen presence lends Shawshank the closest thing to credibility it can manage ''.
Of Robbins ' performance, Gleiberman said that in his "laconic - good - guy, neo-Gary Cooper role, (Robbins) is unable to make Andy connect with the audience ''. Conversely, Maslin said that Andy has the more subdued role, but that Robbins portrays him intensely, and effectively depicts the character as he transitions from new prisoner to aged father figure, and Klady stated that his "riveting, unfussy... precise, honest, and seamless '' performance anchors the film. Howe said that while the character is "cheesily messianic '' for easily charming everyone to his side, comparing him to "Forrest Gump goes to jail '', Robbins exudes the perfect kind of innocence to sell the story. The Hollywood Reporter stated that both Freeman and Robbins gave outstanding, layered performances that imbued their characters with individuality, and Rolling Stone 's Peter Travers said that the pair create something "undeniably powerful and moving ''. Gunton and Brown were deemed by Klady as "extremely credible in their villainy '', Howe countered that Gunton 's warden was a clichéd character who extols religious virtues while having people murdered.
Maslin called the film an impressive directorial debut that tells a gentle tale with a surprising amount of loving care, and Klady saying the only failings came when Darabont focused for too long on supporting characters, or embellished a secondary story. The Hollywood Reporter said that both the directing and writing were crisp, while criticizing the film 's long running time. Klady said that the length and tone, while tempered by humor and unexpected events, would dampen the film 's mainstream appeal, but the story offered a fascinating portrait of the innate humanity of the inmates. Gleiberman disliked that the prisoners ' crimes were overlooked to portray them more as good guys. Turan similarly objected to what he perceived as extreme violence and rape scenes, and making most of the prisoners seem like a "bunch of swell and softhearted guys '' to cast the prison experience in a "rosy glow ''. Klady summarized the film as "estimable and haunting entertainment '', comparing it to a rough diamond with small flaws, but Howe criticized it for deviating with multiple subplots, and pandering by choosing to resolve the story with Andy 's and Red 's reunion, rather than leaving the mystery. Ebert noted that the story works because it is not about Andy as the hero, but how Red perceives him.
Deakins cinematography was routinely praised, with The Hollywood Reporter calling it "foreboding '' and "well - crafted '', and Travers saying "the everyday agonies of prison life are meticulously laid out... you can almost feel the frustration and rage seeping into the skin of the inmates ''. Gleiberman praised the choice of scenery, writing that the "moss - dark, saturated images have a redolent sensuality '' that makes the film very realistic. The Hollywood Reporter said of Newman 's score, "at its best moments, alights with radiant textures and sprightly grace notes, nicely emblematic of the film 's central theme '', and Klady describing it as "the right balance between the somber and the absurd ''.
The film was nominated for seven Academy Awards in 1995, the most for a Stephen King film adaptation: Best Picture (Marvin), Best Actor (Freeman), Best Adapted Screenplay (Darabont), Best Cinematography (Deakins), Best Editing (Richard Francis - Bruce), Best Sound Mixing (Robert J. Litt, Elliot Tyson, Michael Herbick, and Willie D. Burton), and Best Original Score (Newman, his first Academy Award nomination). It did not win in any category. It received two Golden Globe Award nominations for Best Performance by an Actor in a Motion Picture for Freeman, and Best Screenplay for Darabont.
Robbins and Freeman were both nominated for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Leading Role at the inaugural Screen Actors Guild Awards in 1995. Darabont was nominated for a Directors Guild of America award in 1994 for Best Director of a feature film, and a Writers Guild of America Award for Best Adapted Screenplay. Deakins won the American Society of Cinematographers award for Outstanding Achievement in Cinematography, while producer Niki Marvin was nominated for a 1994 Golden Laurel Award by the Producers Guild of America.
Darabont later adapted and directed two other King stories, The Green Mile (1999) and The Mist (2007). In a 2016 interview, King said that The Shawshank Redemption was his favorite adaptation of his work, alongside Stand by Me.
The oak tree, under which Andy leaves a note for Red directing him to Zihuatanejo, became a symbol of hope for its role in the film, and is considered iconic. In 2016, The New York Times reported that the tree attracted thousands of visitors annually. The tree was partially destroyed on July 29, 2011, when it was split by lightning; news of the damage was reported across the United States on newscasts, in newspapers, and on websites as far away as India. The tree was completely felled by strong winds on or around July 22, 2016, and its vestiges were cut down in April 2017. The remains were turned into The Shawshank Redemption memorabilia including rock hammers and magnets.
The prison site became a tourist attraction, with many of the rooms and props remaining including the false pipe through which Andy escapes, and a portion of the oak tree from the finale, after it was damaged in 2011. The surrounding area is also visited by fans, while local businesses market "Shawshanwiches '' and Bundt cakes in the shape of the prison. The prison itself was to be torn down completely following filming, but was eventually sold to enthusiasts for $1. According to the Mansfield / Richland County Convention and Visitors Bureau (later renamed Destination Mansfield), tourism in the area had increased every year since The Shawshank Redemption premiered, and in 2013 drew in 18,000 visitors and over $3 million to the local economy. In late August that year, a series of events were held in Mansfield to celebrate the film 's 20th anniversary including a screening of the film at the Renaissance Theatre, a bus tour of certain filming locations, and a cocktail party at the Reformatory. Cast from the film attended some of the events including Gunton, Scott Mann, Renee Blaine, and James Kisicki. As of 2017, Destination Mansfield operates the Shawshank Trail, a series of 15 marked stops around locations related to the film across Mansfield, Ashland, Upper Sandusky, and St. Croix.
Contemporary review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes offers a 91 % approval rating from 66 critics, with an average rating of 8.2 / 10. The consensus reads, "The Shawshank Redemption is an uplifting, deeply satisfying prison drama with sensitive direction and fine performances. '' The film also has a score of 80 out of 100 on Metacritic based on 20 critics indicating "generally favorable reviews ''.
In 1999, film critic Roger Ebert listed Shawshank on his list of The Great Movies. The film has been nominated for, or appeared on, the American Film Institute 's lists celebrating the top 100 film or film - related topics. In 1998, it was nominated for AFI 's 100 Years... 100 Movies list, and was No. 72 on the 2007 revised list, outranking Forrest Gump (No. 76) and Pulp Fiction (No. 94). It was also No. 23 on AFI 's 100 Years... 100 Cheers (2006) list charting inspiring films. The characters of Andy and Warden Norton received nominations for AFI 's 100 Years... 100 Heroes & Villains list; AFI 's 100 Years... 100 Movie Quotes list for "Get busy livin ', or get busy dyin ' ''; AFI 's 100 Years... 100 Songs list for "Duettino -- Sull'Aria '' (from The Marriage of Figaro); and AFI 's 100 Years of Film Scores for Newman 's work. In 2005, the Writers Guild of America listed Darabont 's screenplay at No. 22 on its list of the 101 Greatest Screenplays, and in 2014, The Shawshank Redemption was named Hollywood 's fourth favorite film, based on a survey of 2,120 Hollywood - based entertainment industry members; entertainment lawyers skewed the most towards the film. In 2017, The Daily Telegraph named it the seventeenth - best prison film ever made. The Shawshank Redemption appeared on several lists of the greatest films of the 1990s, by outlets including: Paste and NME (2012), Complex (2013), CHUD.com (2014), MSN (2015), TheWrap, Maxim, and Rolling Stone (2017).
In November 2014, the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences celebrated the film 's 20th anniversary with a special one - night screening at the Samuel Goldwyn Theater in Beverly Hills, California. In 2015, the film was selected by the United States Library of Congress to be preserved in the National Film Registry for being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant ''. Darabont responded: "I can think of no greater honor than for The Shawshank Redemption to be considered part of our country 's cinematic legacy. '' Variety said that the word "Shawshank '' could be used to instantly convey images of a prison.
Critics have sometimes struggled to define the immense public appreciation for the film. In an interview, Freeman said, "About everywhere you go, people say, ' The Shawshank Redemption -- greatest movie I ever saw ' '' and that such praise "Just comes out of them ''. Robbins said, "I swear to God, all over the world -- all over the world -- wherever I go, there are people who say, ' That movie changed my life ' ". In a separate interview, Stephen King said, "If that is n't the best (adaptation of my works), it 's one of the two or three best, and certainly, in moviegoers ' minds, it 's probably the best because it generally rates at the top of these surveys they have of movies... I never expected anything to happen with it. '' In a 2014 Variety article, Robbins claimed that South African politician Nelson Mandela told him about his love for the film, while it has been cited as a source of inspiration by several sportsmen including Jonny Wilkinson (UK), Agustín Pichot (Argentina), Al Charron (Canada), and Dan Lyle (USA), and Sarah Ferguson, the Duchess of York. Gunton said he had encountered fans in Morocco, Australia, South America, Germany, France, and Bora Bora. Director Steven Spielberg said that the film was "a chewing - gum movie -- if you step on it, it sticks to your shoe ''.
It has been the number 1 film on IMDb 's user - generated Top 250 since 2008, when it surpassed The Godfather, having remained at or near the top since the late 1990s. In the United Kingdom, readers of Empire magazine voted the film as the best of the 1990s, the greatest film of all time in 2006, and it placed number four on Empire 's 2008 list of "The 500 Greatest Movies of All Time '' and their 2017 list of "The 100 Greatest Movies ''. In March 2011, the film was voted by BBC Radio 1 and BBC Radio 1Xtra listeners as their favorite film of all time. It regularly appears on Empire 's top 100 films, was named the greatest film to not win the Academy Award for Best Picture in a 2013 poll by Sky UK (it lost to Forrest Gump), and ranked as Britain 's favorite film in a 2015 YouGov poll. When the British Film Institute analyzed the demographic breakdown of the YouGov poll, it noted that The Shawshank Redemption was not the top - ranked film in any group, but was the only film to appear in the top 15 of every age group, suggesting it is able to connect with every polled age group, unlike Pulp Fiction which fared better with younger voters, and Gone with the Wind (1939) with older voters. A 2017 poll conducted by Gatwick Airport also identified the film as the fourth - best to watch while in flight. When film critic Mark Kermode interviewed a host of United States moviegoers, they compared it to a "religious experience ''. It was also voted as New Zealand 's favorite film in a 2015 poll.
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how did the crowds react to the peaceful parade of suffragists | Woman Suffrage parade of 1913 - wikipedia
The woman suffrage parade of 1913, officially the Woman Suffrage Procession, was the first suffragist parade in Washington, D.C. Organized by the suffragist Alice Paul for the National American Woman Suffrage Association, thousands of suffragists marched down Pennsylvania Avenue in Washington, D.C., on Monday, March 3, 1913. The event was scheduled on the day before President Woodrow Wilson 's inauguration to "march in a spirit of protest against the present political organization of society, from which women are excluded, '' as the official program stated.
The march and the attention that it attracted were monumental in advancing women 's suffrage in the United States. The parade is scheduled to be depicted and honored on the redesign of the United States ten - dollar bill in 2020.
American suffragists Alice Paul and Lucy Burns spearheaded a drive to adopt a national strategy for women 's suffrage in the National American Woman Suffrage Association. Both women had been influenced by the militant tactics used by the British suffrage movement and recognized that the women from the six states that had full suffrage at the time comprised a powerful voting bloc. They submitted a proposal to Anna Howard Shaw and the NAWSA leadership at their annual convention in 1912. The leadership was not interested in changing the state - by - state strategy and rejected the idea of holding a campaign that would hold the Democratic Party responsible. Paul and Burns appealed to prominent reformer Jane Addams, who interceded on their behalf.
The women persuaded NAWSA to endorse an immense suffrage parade in Washington, D.C., to coincide with newly - elected President Woodrow Wilson 's inauguration the following March. Paul and Burns were appointed chair and vice-chair of NAWSA 's Congressional Committee. They recruited Crystal Eastman, Mary Ritter Beard, and Dora Lewis to the Committee and organized volunteers, planned for, and raised funds in preparation of the parade with little help from the NAWSA. Affiliates of NAWSA from various states organized groups to march and activities leading up to the march, such as the Suffrage Hikes.
Plans for the march were threatened when black suffragists announced they intended to participate, which lead white southern suffragists to threaten to boycott the event. One solution discussed was segregating the black suffragists in a separate section to mollify white southern delegates.
The parade itself was led by labor lawyer Inez Milholland, dressed dramatically in white and mounted on a white horse, and included nine bands, five mounted brigades, 26 floats, and close to 8,000 marchers, including many notables such as Helen Keller, who was scheduled to speak at Constitution Hall after the march. Individuals came from European nations, Canada, India, Australia, New Zealand and many other countries around the world to support the movement. Most of the women marched in groups determined by their occupation or under their respective banners. Jeannette Rankin, from Montana, marched under her state 's sign; she returned to Washington four years later as a U.S. Representative.
After a good beginning, the marchers encountered crowds, mostly male, on the street that should have been cleared for the parade. They were jeered and harassed while attempting to squeeze by the scoffing crowds, and the police, said to be of little help, sometimes even participated in the harassment. The Massachusetts and the Pennsylvania national guards stepped in. Eventually, boys from the Maryland Agricultural College created a human barrier protecting the women from the angry crowd and helping them progress forward to their destination. Over 200 people were treated for injuries at local hospitals. Still, most of the marchers finished the parade and viewed an allegorical tableau presented near the Treasury Building. The pageant was written by dramatist Hazel MacKaye and directed by Glenna Smith Tinnin.
Considerable debate exists about the segregation of black woman suffragists in the parade. A contemporaneous newspaper account indicated that Alice Paul objected to participation of "Negro '' suffragists, but Anna Howard Shaw insisted for them to be allowed to participate. In a 1974 oral history interview, Alice Paul recalled the "hurdle '' of Mary Church Terrell planning to bring a delegation from the National Association of Colored Women.
Delegations from the National Association of Colored Women and from the new Alpha Chapter of Delta Sigma Theta sorority from Howard University participated and black women marched in various state and occupational groups. While in Paul 's memory, a compromise was reached to order the parade as southern women, then the men 's section, and finally the Negro women 's section, reports in the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People paper, The Crisis, depict events unfolding quite differently, with black women protesting the plan to segregate them. What is clear is that some groups attempted, on the day of the parade, to segregate their delegations, but women like Ida B. Wells - Barnett refused to comply.
The mistreatment of the marchers by the crowd and the police caused a great furor. Alice Paul shaped the public response after the parade, portraying the incident as symbolic of systemic government mistreatment of women, stemming from their lack of a voice and political influence through the vote. She claimed the incident showed that the government 's role in women 's lives had broken down, and that it was incapable of even providing women with physical safety.
Journalist Nellie Bly, who had participated in the march, headlined her article "Suffragists are Men 's Superiors ''. Senate hearings, held by a subcommittee of the Committee on the District of Columbia, started on March 6, only three days after the march, and lasted until March 17, with the result that the District 's superintendent of police was replaced. NAWSA praised the parade and Paul 's work on it, saying "the whole movement in the country has been wonderfully furthered by the series of important events which have taken place in Washington, beginning with the great parade the day before the inauguration of the president ''.
The Woman Suffrage Procession plays a significant role in the 2004 film Iron Jawed Angels, which chronicles the strategies of Alice Paul, Lucy Burns, and the National Woman 's Party as they lobby and demonstrate for the passage of the 19th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, which would assure voting rights for all American women.
The U.S. Treasury Department announced in 2016 that an image of the Woman Suffrage Procession will appear on the back of a newly designed $10 bill along with images of Lucretia Mott, Sojourner Truth, Susan B. Anthony, Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Alice Paul. Designs for new $5, $10 and $20 bills will be unveiled in 2020 in conjunction with the 100th anniversary of American women winning the right to vote via the Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution.
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rights for washington dc are covered by amendment | District of Columbia Voting Rights amendment - wikipedia
The District of Columbia Voting Rights Amendment was a proposed amendment to the United States Constitution that would have given the District of Columbia full representation in the United States Congress, full representation in the Electoral College system, and full participation in the process by which the Constitution is amended.
This proposed amendment was proposed by the Congress on August 22, 1978. It was ratified by only 16 states by the time of its expiration on August 22, 1985, 22 ratifications short of the needed 38 in order for the proposed amendment to have been adopted.
This amendment is also notable for being the most recent amendment to have been sent to the states for their consideration.
Section 1. For purposes of representation in the Congress, election of the President and Vice President, and article V of this Constitution, the District constituting the seat of government of the United States shall be treated as though it were a State.
Section 2. The exercise of the rights and powers conferred under this article shall be by the people of the District constituting the seat of government, and as shall be provided by the Congress.
Section 3. The twenty - third article of amendment to the Constitution of the United States is hereby repealed.
Section 4. This article shall be inoperative, unless it shall have been ratified as an amendment to the Constitution by the legislatures of three - fourths of the several States within seven years from the date of its submission.
Representative Don Edwards of California proposed House Joint Resolution 554 in the 95th Congress. The United States House of Representatives passed it on March 2, 1978, by a 289 -- 127 vote, with 18 not voting. The United States Senate passed it on August 22, 1978, by a 67 -- 32 vote, with 1 not voting. With that, the District of Columbia Voting Rights Amendment was submitted to the state legislatures for ratification. The Congress, via Section 4, included in the text of the proposed amendment the requirement that ratification by three - fourths (38) of the states be completed within seven years following its passage by the Congress (i.e., August 22, 1985) in order for the proposed amendment to become part of the Constitution. By placing the ratification deadline in the text of the proposed amendment the deadline could not be extended, as had been done regarding the Equal Rights Amendment.
Ratification by the legislatures of at least 38 of the 50 states by August 22, 1985, was necessary for the District of Columbia Voting Rights Amendment to become part of the Constitution. During the seven - year period specified by Congress it was ratified by only 16 states and so failed to be adopted. The amendment was ratified by the following states:
Had it been adopted, this proposed amendment would have given Washington, D.C. full representation in both houses of the Congress. Also, this proposed amendment would have repealed the Twenty - third Amendment. The Twenty - third Amendment does not allow Washington, D.C. to have more electoral votes "than the least populous State '', nor does it grant Washington, D.C. any role in the election of a President by the House of Representatives (or that of the Vice President by the Senate). In contrast, this proposed amendment would have provided Washington, D.C. full participation in the Electoral College. It may have been the case that this amendment would have been interpreted such that selection of the Speaker of the House and the President pro tempore of the Senate would have explicitly and Constitutionally necessarily involved participation of the relevant Congressional representatives of the D.C. Finally, the proposed amendment would have also allowed the Council of the District of Columbia, the Congress, or the people of Washington, D.C. (depending on how this proposed amendment would have been interpreted) to decide whether to ratify any proposed amendment to the Constitution, or to apply to the Congress for a convention to propose amendments to the United States Constitution, just as a state 's legislature can pursuant to the Constitutional amendment process. The amendment would neither have made Washington, D.C. a state, nor affected Congress 's authority over it.
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what is the climate in the united states | Climate of the United States - Wikipedia
The climate of the United States varies due to differences in latitude, and a range of geographic features, including mountains and deserts. West of the 100th meridian, much of the US is semi-arid to desert in the far southwestern US, and Mediterranean along the California coast. East of the 100th meridian, the climate is humid continental in the northern areas east through New England, to humid subtropical in the Gulf and South Atlantic regions. Southern Florida is tropical, as is Hawaii and the US Virgin Islands. Higher - elevation areas of the Rocky Mountains, the Wasatch, Sierra Nevada, and Cascade Range are alpine. The West Coast areas in coastal Oregon and Washington are oceanic climate. The state of Alaska, on the northwestern corner of the North American continent, is largely subarctic climate, but with a subpolar oceanic climate in the southeast (Alaska Panhandle), southwestern peninsula and Aleutian Islands.
The primary drivers of weather in the contiguous United States are the seasonal change in the solar angle, the migration north / south of the subtropical highs, and the seasonal change in the position of the polar jet stream.
In the Northern Hemisphere summer the Subtropical high pressure systems move northward and closer to the United States mainland. In the Atlantic Ocean, the "Bermuda High '' creates a south - southwest flow of warm, humid air over the eastern, southern and central United States - resulting in warm to hot temperatures, high humidity and occasional thunderstorm activity. In the Pacific Ocean high pressure builds toward the California coast resulting in a northwesterly airflow creating the typical sunny, dry, and stable weather conditions along the West Coast.
In the Northern Hemisphere winter, the subtropical highs retreat southward. The polar jet stream (and associated conflict zone between cold, dry air masses from Canada and warm, moist air masses from the Gulf of Mexico) drops further southward into the United States - bringing more precipitation and periods of disturbed weather, as well as colder or mild air masses. Areas in the southern US (Florida, the Gulf Coast, the Desert Southwest, and southern California) however, often have more stable weather, as the polar jet stream 's impact does not usually reach that far south. Weather systems, be they high - pressure systems (anticyclones), low - pressure systems (cyclones) or fronts (boundaries between air masses of differing temperature, humidity and most commonly, both) are faster - moving and more intense in the winter / colder months than in the summer / warmer months, when the belt of lows and storms generally move into southern Canada.
The Gulf of Alaska is the origination area of many storms that enter the United States. Such "North Pacific lows '' enter the US through the Pacific Northwest, then move eastward across the northern Rocky Mountains, northern Great Plains, upper Midwest, Great Lakes and New England states. Across the central states from late fall to spring, "Panhandle hook '' storms move from the central Rockies into the Oklahoma / Texas panhandle areas, then northeast toward the Great Lakes. They generate unusually large temperature contrasts, and often bring heavy Gulf moisture northward, resulting sometimes in cold conditions and possibly - heavy snow or ice north and west of the storm track, and warm conditions, heavy rains and potentially - severe thunderstorms south and east of the storm track - often simultaneously. Across the northern states in winter usually from Montana eastward, "Alberta clipper '' storms track east and bring light to moderate snowfalls from the Great Lakes to New England, and often, windy and severe Arctic outbreaks behind them. When winter - season Canadian cold air masses drop unusually far southward, "Gulf lows '' can develop in or near the Gulf of Mexico, then track eastward or northeastward across the Southern states, or nearby Gulf or South Atlantic waters. They often bring rain, but on rare occasions can bring ice to areas of the interior southern states.
In the cold season (generally November to March), most precipitation occurs in conjunction with organized low - pressure systems and associated fronts. In the summer, storms are much more localized, with short - duration thunderstorms common in many areas east of the 100th meridian. In the warm season, storm systems affecting a large area are less frequent, and weather conditions are more solar (sun) controlled, with the greatest chance for thunderstorm and severe weather activity during peak heating hours, mostly between 3 PM and 9 PM local time. From May to August especially, often - overnight mesoscale - convective - system (MCS) thunderstorm complexes, usually associated with frontal activity, can deliver significant to flooding rainfall amounts from the Dakotas / Nebraska eastward across Iowa / Minnesota to the Great Lakes states. From late summer into fall (mostly August to October), tropical cyclones sometimes approach or cross the Gulf and Atlantic states, bringing high winds, heavy rainfall, and storm surges (often topped with battering waves) to coastal areas.
The Southwest has a hot desert climate, at lower elevations. Cities like Phoenix, Las Vegas, Yuma, and Palm Springs have average highs over 100 ° F (38 ° C) during the summer months and lows in the 60s. In winter, daily temperatures in the southwest are cooler with highs in the 50s and 60s F, and lows in the 40s F. Northern Arizona and New Mexico, central and northern Nevada and most of Utah (outside higher mountain areas) have a semi-desert climate, but with colder and snowier winters than points south due to higher elevations. As in other desert climates, the dry air results in large differences (sometimes over 40 F) between daytime high and nighttime low temperatures.
The coast of California has a Mediterranean climate. Daily high temperatures range from 70 to 80 ° F (21 to 27 ° C) in the summer to 50 to 65 ° F (10 to 16 ° C) in winter, with low temperatures from the 60 ° F (16 ° C) s in summer to the mid 40s F in winter. (citation needed). Like most Mediterranean climates, much of coastal California has a wet winter and dry summer. Early summers can often bring cool, overcast weather (fog and low stratus clouds) to coastal California. As such, the warmest summer weather is delayed until August, even September in many areas of the California coast; on average, September is the warmest month in San Francisco, CA. Upwelling of cold Pacific waters also contributes to the frequent cool spring and early summer weather in coastal California. In California 's inland river valleys (Bakersfield, Sacramento areas), the wet - winter, dry - summer pattern remains, but winters are cooler and more prone to occasional frost or freeze, while summers are much hotter, with blazing sunshine and daytime high temperatures not uncommonly in the 90s ° F to over 100 ° F (38 ° C).
The Gulf and South Atlantic states have a humid subtropical climate with mostly mild winters and hot, humid summers. Most of the Florida peninsula including Miami and Jacksonville, along with other coastal cities like Houston, New Orleans, Savannah, Charleston and Wilmington all have average summer highs in the lower 90s F, and lows generally from 70 to 75 ° F (21 to 24 ° C); combined with moist tropical air, this creates the sultry summer weather conditions typical found here. In the interior South, in cities like Raleigh, NC, Atlanta, Birmingham, AL, Nashville TN, San Antonio, TX, and Jackson, average summer highs and lows are similar to coastal areas, white some areas of interior eastern Texas having highs in the upper 90s F. In winter, average daily high temperatures range from the 40 ° F (4 ° C) s (upper South: northern Arkansas, Kentucky and Virginia), to the 60 ° F (16 ° C) s along the Gulf Coast and South Atlantic coast (Charleston southward), with 70 ° F (21 ° C) s in central and southern Florida and far southern Texas. Average daily lows in winter range from 20 ° F (− 7 ° C) s north to 40 ° F (4 ° C) s along the Gulf and far South Atlantic coasts, with 50 ° F (10 ° C) s in Florida and coastal south Texas.
Southern Florida has a tropical climate, with all months having a mean temperature of higher than 65 ° F (18 ° C), a wet season from May through October, and a dry season from November through April. In cities like Fort Lauderdale, Miami, Key West, Naples, and Palm Beach average daily highs range from the mid 70 ° F (21 ° C) s in winter to the upper 80 ° F (32 ° C) s in summer. Average overnight lows range from the upper 50 ° F (10 ° C) s in winter to the mid and upper 70 ° F (21 ° C) s in summer. Southern Florida is the warmest region of the US mainland in winter.
The region from the southern Plains, to the lower Midwest, eastward to the central East Coast (the New York City / coastal Connecticut region southward to Virginia) has a temperate climate, with cool to cold winters and long hot summers. Daytime highs range from 80 to 90 ° F (27 to 32 ° C) in summer to 35 to 50 ° F (2 to 10 ° C) in winter. Lows range from the 60 ° F (16 ° C) s in summer to 25 to 35 ° F (− 4 to 2 ° C) in winter. Cities in this region include Wichita, Kansas, St. Louis, Springfield, Illinois, Indianapolis, Indiana, Columbus, Ohio, Pittsburgh, Philadelphia, Washington, D.C., Richmond, Virginia, New York City, New Haven, Connecticut, and Atlantic City, New Jersey. Precipitation is spread fairly evenly throughout the year, though as one travels from Indiana westward there is an increasingly prominent early - summer concentration, with a May maximum in northern Texas and Oklahoma, and a June maximum increasingly evident from (central / northern) Indiana westward to Kansas. As one travels from east to west across Texas, Oklahoma and Kansas, average annual precipitation steadily decreases. Far western Texas (El Paso area) is desert, and average annual precipitation is less than twenty inches (510 mm) in westernmost Kansas and the Oklahoma Panhandle, where the climate qualifies as semi-arid.
In the lower Midwest (and southern Plains states, especially), temperatures can rise or drop rapidly; winds can be extreme; and clashing air masses, including hot, dry air of Mexican and / or Southwestern origin, warm, moist air from the Gulf of Mexico and cold, dry air from Canada can spawn severe thunderstorms and tornadoes, particularly from April to June. The "dryline, '' separating hot, dry air of Mexican / Southwestern U.S. origin from warm, moist air from the Gulf of Mexico, often causes severe, occasionally violent, thunderstorms to fire in central and eastern Texas, Oklahoma and Kansas; these sometimes contribute toward the hailstorms and tornado outbreaks that the Southern Plains are well known for. Reflecting these air - mass conflicts, central Oklahoma, including the Oklahoma City and Moore - Norman areas, has the highest frequency of tornadoes per unit land area on planet Earth, with May the highest - risk month for tornadoes throughout "Tornado Alley, '' from northern Texas north - northeastward toward western and central Iowa.
The northern half of the Great Plains (Nebraska northward), northern Midwest, Great Lakes, and New England states have a humid continental climate. Here there are four distinct seasons, with warm to hot summers, and cold and often - snowy winters. Average daily high temperatures range from 10 ° F (− 12 ° C) s (in North Dakota, and central and northern Minnesota) to 30 ° F (− 1 ° C) s in winter to 70 to 80 ° F (21 to 27 ° C) s in summer, while overnight lows range from below 0 ° F (− 18 ° C) in winter (in North Dakota and much of Minnesota) to 50 to 60 ° F (10 to 16 ° C) s in summer. In the New England states, precipitation is evenly distributed around the year, with a slight late fall - early winter (November -- December) maximum along the New England coast from Boston, MA northward due to intense early - winter storms. In the Great Lakes states, cold Arctic air in winter crossing the relatively warmer lake waters can result in frequent and sometimes very heavy "lake effect '' snow, especially on the eastern and southern shores of the Great Lakes (for example, in western Michigan 's Lower Peninsula and in the Buffalo, NY area). Cities in this area include Minneapolis, MN, Omaha, NE, Sioux Falls, SD, Fargo, Chicago, Cleveland, Buffalo, Albany, Boston, Concord, Augusta, Maine. As one travels from east to west across Nebraska, South Dakota and North Dakota, average annual precipitation steadily decreases, and the westernmost counties of these states have a semi-arid climate, with about or just over 15 inches of precipitation per year, on average (see climate data for Williston, ND, Rapid City, SD and Scottsbluff, NE).
In the upper Midwest and northern Plains states, temperatures may rise or fall rapidly, and winds (from warm - season thunderstorms or larger - scale low - pressure systems) can be strong to extreme. Here, air - mass conflicts primarily involve warm, moist air from the Gulf of Mexico, clashing with cool to cold, dry air from Canada, with only occasional intrusions of hot, dry air from the southwest. The conflicts between Canadian and Gulf air commonly produce severe thunderstorms (including hailstorms, especially on the western Plains) and tornadoes, particularly in May and June. In the northern Plains and North Central states generally, June is the year 's wettest month on average, owing to maximum shower and thunderstorm activity. Also, June is the highest - risk month for severe weather throughout North Dakota, South Dakota, Minnesota, Iowa, Wisconsin and northern Illinois. (citation needed)
The Pacific Northwest has a oceanic climate. The climate is wet and cool in autumn, winter, and spring, and stable and drier in the summer months, especially July and August. On average, the wettest month is typically November or December; the driest, July. In the summer months, average highs in cities like Seattle and Portland are from 70 to 79 ° F (21 to 26 ° C) with lows from 50 to 59 ° F (10 to 15 ° C), while in winter daily highs are from 40 to 49 ° F (4 to 9 ° C) and overnight lows from 30 to 39 ° F (− 1 to 4 ° C). (citation needed)
In winter, the Pacific Northwest (especially coastal districts and other areas west, i.e. on the prevailing windward side, of the Olympic and Cascade mountain ranges), experiences a mostly overcast, wet and cool climate, but without severe cold like that found in the interior northern U.S. (i.e. Minnesota / North Dakota). At lower elevations, winter precipitation falls mostly as rain. However, snow does occur even at the lowest elevations, primarily when Pacific moisture interacts with cold air intruding into the Pacific Northwest from western Canada (i.e. Alberta and interior British Columbia). In Seattle, WA and Portland, OR, winter - season snowfall varies greatly from one winter season to the next; in Seattle, the average winter - season snowfall is about 7 inches. In January 1950 (also the coldest January and winter month in Seattle history), Seattle received an unprecedented monthly snowfall of over 57 inches. Summers in the Pacific Northwest are generally cool, especially along the coastline. The Great Basin and Columbia Plateau (the Intermontane Plateaus) are arid or semiarid regions, with high summer temperatures in the 90s to occasionally over 100 at lower elevations (e.g. at Boise, ID), with annual precipitation averaging less than 15 inches (380 mm) as a result of the rain shadow of the Sierra Nevada and Cascades. (citation needed). Both coastal and interior areas of Oregon and Washington, and southern Idaho, have a wet - winter, dry - summer precipitation pattern, but traveling eastward into Montana and Wyoming, this transitions progressively toward relatively drier winters and a May and eventually June precipitation maximum, the latter characteristic of the Northern Plains and much of the upper Midwest (i.e. both Dakotas, Nebraska, Iowa and Minnesota).
The characteristics of precipitation across the United States differ significantly across the United States and its possessions. Late summer and fall extratropical cyclones bring a majority of the precipitation which falls across western, southern, and southeast Alaska annually. During the fall, winter, and spring, Pacific storm systems bring most of Hawaii and the western United States much of their precipitation. Most of Florida has a subtropical monsoon rainfall pattern (wet summer and dry winter).
In the central and upper eastern United States, precipitation is evenly distributed throughout the year, although summer rainfall increases as one moves southeastward. Lake - effect snows add to precipitation potential downwind of the Great Lakes, as well as Great Salt Lake and the Finger Lakes during the cold season. The average snow to liquid ratio across the contiguous United States is 13: 1, meaning 13 inches (330 mm) of snow melts down to 1 inch (25 mm) of water. The El Niño - Southern Oscillation affects the precipitation distribution, by altering rainfall patterns across the West, Midwest, the Southeast, and throughout the tropics.
During the summer, the Southwest monsoon combined with Gulf of California and Gulf of Mexico moisture moving around the subtropical ridge in the Atlantic Ocean bring the promise of afternoon and evening thunderstorms to the southern tier of the country as well as the Great Plains. Equatorward of the subtropical ridge, tropical cyclones enhance precipitation (mostly from August to October) across southern and eastern sections of the country, as well as Puerto Rico, the United States Virgin Islands, the Northern Mariana Islands, Guam, and American Samoa. Over the top of the ridge, the jet stream brings a summer precipitation maximum to the Great Lakes. Large thunderstorm areas known as mesoscale convective complexes move through the Plains, Midwest, and Great Lakes during the warm season, contributing up to 10 % of the annual precipitation to the region.
In northern Alaska, tundra and arctic conditions predominate, and the temperature has fallen as low as − 80 ° F (− 62 ° C). On the other end of the spectrum, Death Valley, California once reached 134 ° F (56.7 ° C), officially the highest temperature ever recorded on Earth.
On average, the mountains of the western states receive the highest levels of snowfall on Earth. The greatest annual snowfall level is at Mount Rainier in Washington, at 692 inches (1,758 cm); the record there was 1,122 inches (2,850 cm) in the winter of 1971 -- 72. This record was broken by the Mt. Baker Ski Area in northwestern Washington which reported 1,140 inches (2,896 cm) of snowfall for the 1998 - 99 snowfall season. Other places with significant snowfall outside the Cascade Range are the Wasatch Mountains, near the Great Salt Lake and the Sierra Nevada, near Lake Tahoe.
Along the coastal mountain ranges in the Pacific Northwest, rainfall is greater than anywhere else in the continental US, with Quinault Ranger Station in Washington having an average of 137 inches (3,480 mm). Hawaii receives even more, with 460 inches (11,684 mm) measured annually, on average, on Mount Waialeale, in Kauai. The Sonoran Desert in the southwest is home to the driest locale in the US. Yuma, Arizona, has an average of 2.63 inches (67 mm) of precipitation each year.
The Great Plains, the Midwest and the southern United States - because of contrasting air masses - have frequent severe thunderstorms and tornado outbreaks during spring and summer. In central portions of the US, tornadoes are more common than anywhere else on Earth and touch down most commonly in the spring and summer. The strip of land from north Texas north to Nebraska and east into Southern Michigan is known as Tornado Alley, where many houses have tornado shelters and many towns have tornado sirens. Stretching across Mississippi and Alabama, Dixie Alley has experienced tornadoes and violent thunderstorms, with peak tornado season coming on as early as February and waning by May. Florida also reports many tornadoes but these are rarely very strong. The southern US has a second tornado season during the Fall. In general, the area at greatest risk for tornadoes migrates northward from February to June, peaking in the Gulf States in February and March, the Ohio Valley and lower Midwest in April, southern and central Plains and central Midwest in May, and Northern Plains and upper Midwest (Dakotas, Minnesota and Wisconsin) in June.
The Appalachian region and the Midwest experience the worst floods. Widespread severe flooding is rare. Some exceptions include the Great Mississippi Flood of 1927, the Great Flood of 1993, and widespread flooding and mudslides caused by the 1982 -- 83 El Niño event in the western United States. Localized flooding can, however, occur anywhere, and mudslides from heavy rain can cause problems in any mountainous area, particularly the Southwest. The narrow canyons of many mountain areas in the west and severe thunderstorm activity during the monsoon season in summer leads to sometimes devastating flash floods as well, while Nor'easter snowstorms can bring activity to a halt in the New England and Great Lakes regions.
In 2013, the US sustains $10 billion annually in damage from floods.
The Southwest has the worst droughts; one is thought to have lasted over 500 years and to have decimated the Anasazi people. Large stretches of desert shrub in the west can fuel the spread of wildfires. Although severe drought is rare, it has occasionally caused major problems, such as during the Dust Bowl (1931 -- 1942), which coincided with the Great Depression. Farmland failed throughout the Plains, entire regions were virtually depopulated, and dust storms ravaged the land. More recently, the western US experienced widespread drought from 1999 to 2004.
In terms of deaths from heatwaves, 7,415 losses occurred from 1999 to 2010, a mean of 618 per year. A disproportionate number of men, a full 68 % of deaths, versus women have been affected. The highest yearly total of heat - related deaths in that period was 1999 while the lowest was 2004. In terms of deaths from waves of cold temperatures, the same gender inequality exists (66 % of hypothermia - related deaths in 2002 were of males). From 1979 2002, 16,555 deaths occurred due to exposure to excessive cold temperatures, a mean of 689 per year.
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indiana jones and the last crusade the holy grail | Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade - wikipedia
Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade is a 1989 American action - adventure film directed by Steven Spielberg, from a story co-written by executive producer George Lucas. It is the third installment in the Indiana Jones franchise. Harrison Ford reprises the title role and Sean Connery plays Indiana 's father, Henry Jones, Sr. Other cast members featured include Alison Doody, Denholm Elliott, Julian Glover, River Phoenix, and John Rhys - Davies. In the film, set largely in 1938, Indiana searches for his father, a Holy Grail scholar, who has been kidnapped by Nazis.
After the mixed reaction to Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom, Spielberg chose to compensate with a film that toned down the violence and gore. During the five years between Temple of Doom and Last Crusade, he and executive producer Lucas reviewed several scripts before accepting Jeffrey Boam 's. Filming locations included Spain, Italy, the United Kingdom, Turkey and Jordan.
The film was released in North America on May 24, 1989 to mostly positive reviews and a financial success, earning $474.2 million at the worldwide box office totals. It won an Academy Award for Best Sound Editing.
In 1912, thirteen - year - old Indiana Jones is horseback riding with his Boy Scout troop at Arches National Park in Utah. While scouting caves, Indy discovers a group of grave robbers who have found a golden crucifix belonging to Coronado and steals it from them, hoping to donate it to a museum. The men give chase through a passing circus train, leaving Indy with a bloody cut across his chin from a bullwhip and a new phobia of snakes. Indy escapes, but the local sheriff makes him return the cross to the robbers. Impressed with Indy 's bravery, the leader of the robbers gives Indy his fedora, and tells him that he may have lost this battle, but that he does n't have to like it.
In 1938, Indy recovers the cross off the coast of Portugal and donates it to Marcus Brody 's museum. Later, Indy is introduced to Walter Donovan, who informs him that his father, Henry Jones, Sr., has vanished while searching for the Holy Grail, using an incomplete inscription as his guide. Indy then receives Henry 's Grail diary via mail from Venice. Realizing that he would not have sent the diary unless he was in trouble, Indy and Marcus travel to Venice, where they meet Henry 's Austrian colleague, Dr. Elsa Schneider. Beneath the library where Henry was last seen, Indy and Elsa discover the tomb of a First Crusade knight, which also contains a complete version of the inscription that Henry had used, this one revealing the location of the Grail. They flee, however, when the catacombs are set aflame by the Brotherhood of the Cruciform Sword, a secret society that protects the Grail from evildoers. Indy and Elsa capture one of the Brotherhood, Kazim, and Indy tells him that his goal is only to find his father and that he has no interest in finding the Grail. Kazim tells him that Henry is being held in Castle Brunwald on the Austrian - German border. Marcus later reveals a map drawn by Henry of the route to the Grail, which begins in Alexandretta. Indy removes the pages containing the map from the diary, gives it to Marcus for safekeeping and sends Marcus to İskenderun, the city built on the ruins of Alexandretta to rendezvous with their old friend Sallah, and he and Elsa head to Castle Brunwald.
At Castle Brunwald, Indy rescues Henry, but learns that Elsa and Donovan are actually working with the Nazis, and are using him to find the Grail for them. Meanwhile, Marcus is captured in Hatay, while waiting with Sallah. The Joneses escape from Castle Brunwald. Henry tells Indy that to reach the Grail, one must face three booby traps and his diary contains the clues to guide them through the challenges safely. They recover the diary from Elsa at a book burning rally in Berlin. They then board a Zeppelin to leave Germany, but the Nazis soon discover the Joneses are aboard and they escape in a parasite biplane. They crash while engaging in a dogfight with Luftwaffe fighters.
The two meet up with Sallah in Hatay, where they learn of Marcus 's abduction. The Nazis are already moving toward the Grail 's location, using the map possessed by Marcus. In exchange for a Rolls - Royce, the Sultan of Hatay has given the Nazis full access to his equipment for the expedition, including a large tank. Indy, Henry, and Sallah find the Nazi expedition, which is ambushed by the Brotherhood. During the battle, Henry is captured by SS Colonel Ernst Vogel while attempting to rescue Marcus from the tank; Kazim and his comrades are killed. The younger Jones pursues the tank on horseback and, with the aid of Sallah, saves Henry and Marcus. He is then caught up in a fight with Vogel, and barely escapes before the tank goes over a cliff, sending Vogel to his death.
Indy, Henry, Marcus, and Sallah catch up with the surviving Nazis, led by Donovan and Elsa, who have found the temple where the Grail is kept but are unable to pass through the three protective booby traps. Donovan mortally wounds Henry in order to force Indy to risk his life in the traps to find the Grail and use its healing power to save Henry. Using the information in the diary and followed by Donovan and Elsa, Indy safely overcomes the traps and reaches the Grail 's chamber, which is guarded by a knight. He has been kept alive for seven hundred years by the power of the Grail, which is hidden among dozens of false Grails; only the true Grail brings life, while a false one claims it. Elsa purposefully selects the most princely grail, a golden chalice studded with emeralds, for Donovan, who ages into dust after drinking from it, proving it to be false. Indy selects the true Grail, a simple pewter cup, which the knight warns can not be taken beyond the temple 's entrance. Indy fills the Grail with holy water and takes it to Henry, which heals him instantly. Elsa, disregarding the knight 's warning, then takes the Grail and attempts to leave with it. The temple begins to collapse and Elsa falls to her death trying to recover the Grail after it is dropped down a chasm. Indy nearly suffers the same fate but Henry persuades him to let it go. The Joneses, Marcus, and Sallah escape the temple and ride off into the sunset.
Lucas and Spielberg had intended to make a trilogy of Indiana Jones films since Lucas had first pitched Raiders of the Lost Ark to Spielberg in 1977. After the mixed critical and public reaction to Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom, Spielberg decided to complete the trilogy to fulfill his promise to Lucas and "to apologize for the second one ''. The pair had the intention of revitalizing the series by evoking the spirit and tone of Raiders of the Lost Ark. Throughout the film 's development and pre-production, Spielberg admitted he was "consciously regressing '' in making the film. Due to his commitment to the film, the director had to drop out of directing Big and Rain Man.
Lucas initially suggested making the film "a haunted mansion movie '', for which Romancing the Stone writer Diane Thomas wrote a script. Spielberg rejected the idea because of the similarity to Poltergeist, which he had co-written and produced. Lucas first introduced the Holy Grail in an idea for the film 's prologue, which was to be set in Scotland. He intended the Grail to have a pagan basis, with the rest of the film revolving around a separate Christian artifact in Africa. Spielberg did not care for the Grail idea, which he found too esoteric, even after Lucas suggested giving it healing powers and the ability to grant immortality. In September 1984, Lucas completed an eight - page treatment titled Indiana Jones and the Monkey King, which he soon followed with an 11 - page outline. The story saw Indiana battling a ghost in Scotland before finding the Fountain of Youth in Africa.
Chris Columbus -- who had written the Spielberg - produced Gremlins, The Goonies, and Young Sherlock Holmes -- was hired to write the script. His first draft, dated May 3, 1985, changed the main plot device to a Garden of Immortal Peaches. It begins in 1937, with Indiana battling the murderous ghost of Baron Seamus Seagrove III in Scotland. Indiana travels to Mozambique to aid Dr. Clare Clarke (a Katharine Hepburn - type according to Lucas), who has found a 200 - year - old pygmy. The pygmy is kidnapped by the Nazis during a boat chase, and Indiana, Clare and Scraggy Brier -- an old friend of Indiana -- travel up the Zambezi river to rescue him. Indiana is killed in the climactic battle but is resurrected by the Monkey King. Other characters include a cannibalistic African tribe; Nazi Sergeant Gutterbuhg, who has a mechanical arm; Betsy, a stowaway student who is suicidally in love with Indiana; and a pirate leader named Kezure (described as a Toshiro Mifune - type), who dies eating a peach because he is not pure of heart.
Columbus 's second draft, dated August 6, 1985, removed Betsy and featured Dash -- an expatriate bar owner for whom the Nazis work -- and the Monkey King as villains. The Monkey King forces Indiana and Dash to play chess with real people and disintegrates each person who is captured. Indiana subsequently battles the undead, destroys the Monkey King 's rod, and marries Clare. Location scouting commenced in Africa but Spielberg and Lucas abandoned Monkey King because of its negative depiction of African natives, and because the script was too unrealistic. Spielberg acknowledged that it made him "... feel very old, too old to direct it. '' Columbus 's script was leaked onto the Internet in 1997, and many believed it was an early draft for the fourth film because it was mistakenly dated to 1995.
Unsatisfied, Spielberg suggested introducing Indiana 's father, Henry Jones, Sr. Lucas was dubious, believing the Grail should be the story 's focus, but Spielberg convinced him that the father -- son relationship would serve as a great metaphor in Indiana 's search for the artifact. Spielberg hired Menno Meyjes, who had worked on Spielberg 's The Color Purple and Empire of the Sun, to begin a new script on January 1, 1986. Meyjes completed his script ten months later. It depicted Indiana searching for his father in Montségur, where he meets a nun named Chantal. Indiana travels to Venice, takes the Orient Express to Istanbul, and continues by train to Petra, where he meets Sallah and reunites with his father. Together they find the grail. At the climax, a Nazi villain touches the Grail and explodes; when Henry touches it, he ascends a stairway to Heaven. Chantal chooses to stay on Earth because of her love for Indiana. In a revised draft dated two months later, Indiana finds his father in Krak des Chevaliers, the Nazi leader is a woman named Greta von Grimm, and Indiana battles a demon at the Grail site, which he defeats with a dagger inscribed with "God is King ''. The prologue in both drafts has Indiana in Mexico battling for possession of Montezuma 's death mask with a man who owns gorillas as pets.
Spielberg suggested Innerspace writer Jeffrey Boam perform the next rewrite. Boam spent two weeks reworking the story with Lucas, which yielded a treatment that is largely similar to the final film. Boam told Lucas that Indiana should find his father in the middle of the story. "Given the fact that it 's the third film in the series, you could n't just end with them obtaining the object. That 's how the first two films ended, '' he said, "So I thought, let them lose the Grail, and let the father -- son relationship be the main point. It 's an archaeological search for Indy 's own identity and coming to accept his father is more what it 's about (than the quest for the Grail). '' Boam said he felt there was not enough character development in the previous films. In Boam 's first draft, dated September 1987, the film is set in 1939. The prologue has adult Indiana retrieving an Aztec relic for a museum curator in Mexico and features the circus train. Henry and Elsa (who is described as having dark hair) were searching for the Grail on behalf of the Chandler Foundation, before Henry went missing. The character of Kazim is here named Kemal, and is an agent of the Republic of Hatay, which seeks the grail for its own. Kemal shoots Henry and dies drinking from the wrong chalice. The Grail Knight battles Indiana on horseback, while Vogel is crushed by a boulder when stealing the Grail.
Boam 's February 23, 1988 rewrite utilized many of Connery 's comic suggestions. It included the prologue that was eventually filmed; Lucas had to convince Spielberg to show Indiana as a boy because of the mixed response to Empire of the Sun, which was about a young boy. Spielberg -- who was later awarded the Distinguished Eagle Scout Award -- had the idea of making Indiana a Boy Scout. Indiana 's mother, named Margaret in this version, dismisses Indiana when he returns home with the Cross of Coronado, while his father is on a long distance call. Walter Chandler of the Chandler Foundation features, but is not the main villain; he plunges to his death in the tank. Elsa introduces Indiana and Brody to a large Venetian family that knows Henry. Leni Riefenstahl appears at the Nazi rally in Berlin. Vogel is beheaded by the traps guarding the Grail. Kemal tries to blow up the Grail Temple during a comic fight in which gunpowder is repeatedly lit and extinguished. Elsa shoots Henry, then dies drinking from the wrong Grail, and Indiana rescues his father from falling into the chasm while grasping for the Grail. Boam 's revision of March 1 showed Henry causing the seagulls to strike the plane, and has Henry saving Indiana at the end.
Between an undated "Amblin '' revision and a rewrite by Tom Stoppard (under the pen name Barry Watson) dated May 8, 1988, further changes were made. Stoppard polished most of the dialogue, and created the "Panama Hat '' character to link the prologue 's segments featuring the young and adult Indianas. The Venetian family is cut. Kemal is renamed Kazim and now wants to protect the grail rather than find it. Chandler is renamed Donovan. The scene of Brody being captured is added. Vogel now dies in the tank, while Donovan shoots Henry and then drinks from the false grail, and Elsa falls into the chasm. The Grail trials are expanded to include the stone - stepping and leap of faith.
Principal photography began on May 16, 1988, in the Tabernas Desert in Spain 's Almería province. Spielberg originally had planned the chase to be a short sequence shot over two days, but he drew up storyboards to make the scene an action - packed centerpiece. Thinking he would not surpass the truck chase from Raiders of the Lost Ark (because the truck was much faster than the tank), he felt this sequence should be more story - based and needed to show Indiana and Henry helping each other. He later said he had more fun storyboarding the sequence than filming it. The second unit had begun filming two weeks before. After approximately ten days, the production moved to Bellas Artes to film the scenes set in the Sultan of Hatay 's palace. Cabo de Gata - Níjar Natural Park was used for the road, tunnel and beach sequence in which birds strike the plane. The shoot 's Spanish portion wrapped on June 2, 1988, in Guadix, Granada, with filming of Brody 's capture at İskenderun train station. The filmmakers built a mosque near the station for atmosphere, rather than adding it as a visual effect.
Filming for the castle interiors took place in the United Kingdom from June 5 to 10, 1988, at Elstree Studios in Borehamwood, England. On June 16 Lawrence Hall, London, was used for the airport interiors. Filming returned to Elstree the next day to capture the motorcycle escape, continuing at the studio for interior scenes until July 18. One day was spent at North Weald Airfield on June 29 to film Indiana leaving for Venice. Ford and Connery acted much of the Zeppelin table conversation without trousers on because of the overheated set. Spielberg, Marshall and Kennedy interrupted the shoot to make a plea to the Parliament of the United Kingdom to support the economically "depressed '' British studios. July 20 -- 22 was spent filming the temple interiors. The temple set, which took six weeks to build, was supported on 80 feet of hydraulics and ten gimbals for use during the earthquake scene. Resetting between takes took twenty minutes while the hydraulics were put to their starting positions and the cracks filled with plaster. The shot of the Grail falling to the temple floor -- causing the first crack to appear -- was attempted on the full - size set, but proved too difficult. Instead, crews built a separate floor section that incorporated a pre-scored crack sealed with plaster. It took several takes to throw the Grail from six feet onto the right part of the crack. July 25 -- 26 was spent on night shoots at Stowe School, Stowe, Buckinghamshire, for the Nazi rally.
Filming resumed two days later at Elstree, where Spielberg swiftly filmed the library, Portuguese freighter, and catacombs sequences. The steamship fight in the prologue 's 1938 portion was filmed in three days on a sixty - by - forty - feet deck built on gimbals at Elstree. A dozen dump tanks -- each holding three hundred imperial gallons (360 U.S. gallons; 3000 lb.) of water -- were used in the scene. Henry 's house was filmed at Mill Hill, London. Indiana and Kazim 's fight in Venice in front of a ship 's propeller was filmed in a water tank at Elstree. Spielberg used a long focus lens to make it appear the actors were closer to the propeller than they really were. Two days later, on August 4, another portion of the boat chase using Hacker Craft sport boats, was filmed at Tilbury Docks in Essex. The shot of the boats passing between two ships was achieved by first cabling the ships off so they would be safe. The ships were moved together while the boats passed between, close enough that one of the boats scraped the sides of the ships. An empty speedboat containing dummies was launched from a floating platform between the ships amid fire and smoke that helped obscure the platform. The stunt was performed twice because the boat landed too short of the camera in the first attempt. The following day, filming in England wrapped at the Royal Masonic School in Rickmansworth, which doubled for Indiana 's college (as it had in Raiders of the Lost Ark).
Shooting in Venice took place on August 8. For scenes such as Indiana and Brody greeting Elsa, shots of the boat chase, and Kazim telling Indiana where his father is, Robert Watts gained control of the Grand Canal from 7 am to 1 pm, sealing off tourists for as long as possible. Cinematographer Douglas Slocombe positioned the camera to ensure no satellite dishes would be visible. San Barnaba di Venezia served as the library 's exterior. The next day, filming moved to the ancient city of Petra, Jordan, where Al Khazneh (The Treasury) stood in for the temple housing the Grail. The cast and crew became guests of King Hussein and Queen Noor. The Treasury had previously appeared in Sinbad and the Eye of the Tiger. The main cast completed their scenes that week, after 63 days of filming.
The second unit filmed part of the prologue 's 1912 segment from August 29 to September 3. The main unit began two days later with the circus train sequence at Alamosa, Colorado, on the Cumbres and Toltec Scenic Railroad. They filmed at Pagosa Springs on September 7, and then at Cortez on September 10. From September 14 to 16, filming of Indiana falling into the train carriages took place in Los Angeles. The production then moved to Utah 's Arches National Park to shoot more of the opening. A house in Antonito, Colorado was used for the Jones family home. The production had intended to film at Mesa Verde National Park, but Native American representatives had religious objections to its use. When Spielberg and editor Michael Kahn viewed a rough cut of the film in late 1988, they felt it suffered from a lack of action. The motorcycle chase was shot during post-production at Mount Tamalpais and Fairfax near Skywalker Ranch. The closing shot of Indiana, Henry, Sallah and Brody riding into the sunset was filmed in Amarillo, Texas in early 1989.
Mechanical effects supervisor George Gibbs said the film was the most difficult one of his career. He visited a museum to negotiate renting a small French World War I tank, but decided he wanted to make one. The tank was based on the Tank Mark VIII, which was 36 feet (11 m) long and weighed 28 short tons (25 t). Gibbs built the tank over the framework of a 28 - short - ton (25 t) excavator and added 7 - short - ton (6.4 t) tracks that were driven by two automatic hydraulic pumps, each connected to a Range Rover V8 engine. Gibbs built the tank from steel rather than aluminum or fiberglass because it would allow the realistically suspensionless vehicle to endure the rocky surfaces. Unlike its historical counterpart, which had only the two side guns, the tank had a turret gun added as well. It took four months to build and was transported to Almería on a Short Belfast plane and then a low loader truck.
The tank broke down twice. The distributor 's rotor arm broke and a replacement had to be sourced from Madrid. Then two of the device 's valves used to cool the oil exploded, due to solder melting and mixing with the oil. It was very hot in the tank, despite the installation of ten fans, and the lack of suspension meant the driver was unable to stop shaking during filming breaks. The tank only moved at 10 to 12 miles per hour (16 to 19 km / h), which Vic Armstrong said made it difficult to film Indiana riding a horse against the tank while making it appear faster. A smaller section of the tank 's top made from aluminum and which used rubber tracks was used for close - ups. It was built from a searchlight trailer, weighed eight tons, and was towed by a four - wheel drive truck. It had safety nets on each end to prevent injury to those falling off. A quarter - scale model by Gibbs was driven over a 50 - foot (15 m) cliff on location; Industrial Light & Magic created further shots of the tank 's destruction with models and miniatures.
Michael Lantieri, mechanical effects supervisor for the 1912 scenes, noted the difficulty in shooting the train sequence. "You ca n't just stop a train, '' he said, "If it misses its mark, it takes blocks and blocks to stop it and back up. '' Lantieri hid handles for the actors and stuntmen to grab onto when leaping from carriage to carriage. The carriage interiors shot at Universal Studios Hollywood were built on tubes that inflated and deflated to create a rocking motion. For the close - up of the rhinoceros that strikes at (and misses) Indiana, a foam and fiberglass animatronic was made in London. When Spielberg decided he wanted it to move, the prop was sent to John Carl Buechler in Los Angeles, who resculpted it over three days to blink, snarl, snort and wiggle its ears. The giraffes were also created in London. Because steam locomotives are very loud, Lantieri 's crew would respond to first assistant director David Tomblin 's radioed directions by making the giraffes nod or shake their heads to his questions, which amused the crew. For the villains ' cars, Lantieri selected a 1914 Ford Model T, a 1919 Ford Model T truck and a 1916 Saxon Model 14, fitting each with a Ford Pinto V6 engine. Sacks of dust were hung under the cars to create a dustier environment.
Spielberg used doves for the seagulls that Henry scares into striking the German plane because the real gulls used in the first take did not fly. In December 1988, Lucasfilm ordered 1,000 disease - free gray rats for the catacombs scenes from the company that supplied the snakes and bugs for the previous films. Within five months, 5,000 rats had been bred for the sequence; 1,000 mechanical rats stood in for those that were set on fire. Several thousand snakes of five breeds -- including a boa constrictor -- were used for the train scene, in addition to rubber ones onto which Phoenix could fall. The snakes would slither from their crates, requiring the crew to dig through sawdust after filming to find and return them. Two lions were used, which became nervous because of the rocking motion and flickering lights.
Costume designer Anthony Powell found it a challenge to create Connery 's costume because the script required the character to wear the same clothes throughout. Powell thought about his own grandfather and incorporated tweed suits and fishing hats. Powell felt it necessary for Henry to wear glasses, but did not want to hide Connery 's eyes, so chose rimless ones. He could not find any suitable, so he had them specially made. The Nazi costumes were genuine and were found in Eastern Europe by Powell 's co-designer Joanna Johnston, to whom he gave research pictures and drawings for reference. The motorcycles used in the chase from the castle were a mixed bag: the scout model with sidecar in which Indy and Henry escape was an original Dnepr, complete with machine gun pintle on the sidecar, while the pursuing vehicles were more modern machines dressed up with equipment and logos to make them resemble German army models. Gibbs used Swiss Pilatus P - 2 army training planes standing in for Messerschmitt Bf - 109s. He built a device based on an internal combustion engine to simulate gunfire, which was safer and less expensive than firing blanks. Baking soda was applied to Connery to create Henry 's bullet wound. Vinegar was applied to create the foaming effect as the water from the Grail washes it away. At least one reproduction Kubelwagen was used during filming despite the film being set two years prior to manufacture of said vehicles.
Industrial Light & Magic (ILM) built an eight - foot foam model of the Zeppelin to complement shots of Ford and Connery climbing into the biplane. A biplane model with a two - foot wingspan was used for the shot of the biplane detaching. Stop motion animation was used for the shot of the German fighter 's wings breaking off as it crashes through the tunnel. The tunnel was a 210 feet model that occupied 14 of ILM 's parking spaces for two months. It was built in eight - foot sections, with hinges allowing each section to be opened to film through. Ford and Connery were filmed against bluescreen; the sequence required their car to have a dirty windscreen, but to make the integration easier this was removed and later composited into the shot. Dust and shadows were animated onto shots of the plane miniature to make it appear as if it disturbed rocks and dirt before it exploded. Several hundred tim - birds were used in the background shots of the seagulls striking the other plane; for the closer shots, ILM dropped feather - coated crosses onto the camera. These only looked convincing because the scene 's quick cuts merely required shapes that suggested gulls. ILM 's Wes Takahashi supervised the film 's effects sequences.
Spielberg devised the three trials that guard the Grail. For the first, the blades under which Indiana ducks like a penitent man were a mix of practical and miniature blades created by Gibbs and ILM. For the second trial, in which Indiana spells "Iehova '' on stable stepping stones, it was intended to have a tarantula crawl up Indiana after he mistakenly steps on "J ''. This was filmed and deemed unsatisfactory, so ILM filmed a stuntman hanging through a hole that appears in the floor, 30 feet above a cavern. As this was dark, it did not matter that the matte painting and models were rushed late in production. The third trial, the leap of faith that Indiana makes over an apparently impassable ravine after discovering a bridge hidden by forced perspective, was created with a model bridge and painted backgrounds. This was cheaper than building a full - size set. A puppet of Ford was used to create a shadow on the 9 - foot - tall (2.7 m) by 13 - foot - wide (4.0 m) model because Ford had filmed the scene against bluescreen, which did not incorporate the shaft of light from the entrance.
Spielberg wanted Donovan 's death shown in one shot, so it would not look like an actor having makeup applied between takes. Inflatable pads were applied to Julian Glover 's forehead and cheeks that made his eyes seem to recede during the character 's initial decomposition, as well as a mechanical wig that grew his hair. The shot of Donovan 's death was created over three months by morphing together three puppets of Donovan in separate stages of decay, a technique ILM mastered on Willow (1988). A fourth puppet was used for the decaying clothes, because the puppet 's torso mechanics had been exposed. Complications arose because Alison Doody 's double had not been filmed for the scene 's latter two elements, so the background and hair from the first shot had to be used throughout, with the other faces mapped over it. Donovan 's skeleton was hung on wires like a marionette; it required several takes to film it crashing against the wall because not all the pieces released upon impact.
Ben Burtt designed the sound effects. He recorded chickens for the sounds of the rats, and digitally manipulated the noise made by a Styrofoam cup for the castle fire. He rode in a biplane to record the sounds for the dogfight sequence, and visited the demolition of a wind turbine for the plane crashes. Burtt wanted an echoing gunshot for Donovan wounding Henry, so he fired a. 357 Magnum in Skywalker Ranch 's underground car park, just as Lucas drove in. A rubber balloon was used for the earthquake tremors at the temple. The film was released in selected theaters in the 70 mm Full - Field Sound format, which allowed sounds to not only move from side to side, but also from the theater 's front to its rear.
Matte paintings of the Austrian castle and German airport were based on real buildings; the Austrian castle was a small West German castle that was made to look larger. Rain was created by filming granulated Borax soap against black at high speed. It was only lightly double exposed into the shots so it would not resemble snow. The lightning was animated. The airport used was at San Francisco 's Treasure Island, which already had appropriate art deco architecture. ILM added a control tower, Nazi banners, vintage automobiles and a sign stating "Berlin Flughafen ''. The establishing shot of the Hatayan city at dusk was created by filming silhouetted cutouts that were backlit and obscured by smoke. Matte paintings were used for the sky and to give the appearance of fill light in the shadows and rim light on the edges of the buildings.
A son 's relationship with his estranged father is a common theme in Spielberg 's films, including E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial and Hook.
The film 's exploration of fathers and sons coupled with its use of religious imagery is comparable to two other 1989 films, Star Trek V: The Final Frontier and Field of Dreams. Writing for The New York Times, Caryn James felt the combination in these films reflected New Age concerns, where the worship of God was equated to searching for fathers. James felt that neither Indiana or his father is preoccupied with finding the Grail or defeating the evil Nazis, but that, rather, both seek professional respect for one another in their boys ' own adventure. James contrasted the temple 's biblically epic destruction with the more effective and quiet conversation between the Joneses at the film 's end. James noted that Indiana 's mother does not appear in the prologue, being portrayed as already having died before the film 's events began.
The 1912 prologue refers to events in the lives of Indiana 's creators. When Indiana cracks the bullwhip to defend himself against a lion, he accidentally lashes and scars his chin. Ford gained this scar in a car accident as a young man. Indiana taking his nickname from his pet Alaskan Malamute is a reference to the character being named after Lucas 's dog. The train carriage Indiana enters is named "Doctor Fantasy 's Magic Caboose '', which was the name producer Frank Marshall used when performing magic tricks. Spielberg suggested the idea, Marshall came up with the false - bottomed box through which Indiana escapes, and production designer Elliott Scott suggested the trick be done in a single, uninterrupted shot. Spielberg intended the shot of Henry with his umbrella -- after he causes the bird strike on the German plane -- to evoke Ryan 's Daughter.
The film 's teaser trailer debuted in November 1988 with Scrooged and The Naked Gun. Rob MacGregor wrote the tie - in novelization that was released in June 1989; it sold enough copies to be included on the New York Times Best Seller list. MacGregor went on to write the first six Indiana Jones prequel novels during the 1990s. Following the film 's release, Ford donated Indiana 's fedora and jacket to the Smithsonian Institution 's National Museum of American History.
No toys were made to promote the film; Indiana Jones "never happened on the toy level '', said Larry Carlat, senior editor of the journal Children 's Business. Rather, Lucasfilm promoted Indiana as a lifestyle symbol, selling tie - in fedoras, shirts, jackets and watches. Two video games based on the film were released by LucasArts in 1989: Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade: The Graphic Adventure and Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade: The Action Game. A third game was produced by Taito and released in 1991 for the Nintendo Entertainment System. Ryder Windham wrote another novelization, released in April 2008 by Scholastic, to coincide with the release of Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull. Hasbro released toys based on The Last Crusade in July 2008.
The film was released in North America on Wednesday, May 24, 1989, in 2,327 theaters, earning a record $37,031,573 over the 4 - day Memorial Day weekend. Its 3 - day opening weekend figure of $29,355,021 was surpassed later that year by Ghostbusters II and Batman, which grossed more in its opening 3 days than The Last Crusade in 4. Its Saturday gross of $11,181,429 was the first time a film had made over $10 million. It broke the record for the best seven - day performance, with $50.2 million, added another record with $77 million after twelve days, and earned a $100 million in a record nineteen days. In France, the film broke a record by selling a million admissions within two and a half weeks.
The film eventually grossed $197,171,806 in North America and $277 million internationally, for a worldwide total of $474,171,806. At the time of its release, the film was the 11th highest - grossing film of all time. Despite competition from Batman, The Last Crusade became the highest - grossing film worldwide in 1989. In North America, Batman took top position. Behind Kingdom of the Crystal Skull and Raiders, The Last Crusade is the third - highest grossing Indiana Jones film in North America, though it is also behind Temple of Doom when adjusting for inflation. Box Office Mojo estimates that the film sold over 49 million tickets in North America.
The film opened to mostly positive reviews. It was panned by Andrew Sarris in The New York Observer, David Denby in New York magazine, Stanley Kauffmann in The New Republic and Georgia Brown in The Village Voice. Jonathan Rosenbaum of the Chicago Reader called the film "soulless ''. The Washington Post reviewed the film twice; Hal Hinson 's review on the day of the film 's release was negative, describing it as "nearly all chases and dull exposition ''. Although he praised Ford and Connery, he felt the film 's exploration of Indiana 's character took away his mystery and that Spielberg should not have tried to mature his storytelling. Two days later, Desson Thomson published a positive review praising the film 's adventure and action, as well as the father -- son relationship 's thematic depth. Joseph McBride of Variety observed the "Cartoonlike Nazi villains of Raiders have been replaced by more genuinely frightening Nazis led by Julian Glover and Michael Byrne, '' and found the moment where Indiana meets Hitler "chilling ''. In his biography of Spielberg, McBride added the film was less "racist '' than its predecessors.
Peter Travers of Rolling Stone said the film was "the wildest and wittiest Indy of them all ''. Richard Corliss of Time and David Ansen of Newsweek praised it, as did Vincent Canby of The New York Times. "Though it seems to have the manner of some magically reconstituted B - movie of an earlier era, The Last Crusade is an endearing original, '' Canby wrote, deeming the revelation Indiana had a father who was not proud of him to be a "comic surprise ''. Canby believed that while the film did not match the previous two in its pacing, it still had "hilariously off - the - wall sequences '' such as the circus train chase. He also said that Spielberg was maturing by focusing on the father -- son relationship, a call echoed by McBride in Variety. Roger Ebert praised the scene depicting Indiana as a Boy Scout with the Cross of Coronado; he compared it to the "style of illustration that appeared in the boys ' adventure magazines of the 1940s '', saying that Spielberg "must have been paging through his old issues of Boys ' Life magazine... the feeling that you can stumble over astounding adventures just by going on a hike with your Scout troop. Spielberg lights the scene in the strong, basic colors of old pulp magazines. '' The Hollywood Reporter felt Connery and Ford deserved Academy Award nominations.
The film was evaluated positively after its release. Internet reviewer James Berardinelli wrote that while the film did not reach the heights of Raiders of the Lost Ark, it "(avoided) the lows of The Temple of Doom. A fitting end to the original trilogy, Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade captures some of the sense of fun that infused the first movie while using the addition of Sean Connery to up the comedic ante and provide a father / son dynamic. '' Neil Smith of the BBC praised the action, but said the drama and comedy between the Joneses was more memorable. He noted, "The emphasis on the Jones boys means Julian Glover 's venal villain and Alison Doody 's treacherous beauty are sidelined, while the climax (becomes) one booby - trapped tomb too many. '' Based on 55 reviews listed by Rotten Tomatoes, 88 % of critics praised the film, giving it an average score of 8 / 10. This is based on 68 reviews -- 60 fresh and 8 rotten. Metacritic calculated an average rating of 65 / 100, based on 14 reviews.
The film won the Academy Award for Best Sound Editing; it also received nominations for Best Original Score and Best Sound (Ben Burtt, Gary Summers, Shawn Murphy and Tony Dawe), but lost to The Little Mermaid and Glory respectively. Sean Connery received a Golden Globe Award nomination for Best Supporting Actor. Connery and the visual and sound effects teams were also nominated at the 43rd British Academy Film Awards. The film won the 1990 Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation, and was nominated for Best Motion Picture Drama at the Young Artist Awards. John Williams ' score won a BMI Award, and was nominated for a Grammy Award.
The prologue depicting Indiana in his youth inspired Lucas to create The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles television series, which featured Sean Patrick Flanery as the young adult Indiana and Corey Carrier as the 8 - to 10 - year - old Indiana. The 13 - year - old incarnation played by Phoenix in the film was the focus of a Young Indiana Jones series of young adult novels that began in 1990; by the ninth novel, the series had become a tie - in to the television show. German author Wolfgang Hohlbein revisited the 1912 prologue in one of his novels, in which Indiana encounters the lead grave robber -- whom Hohlbein christens Jake -- in 1943. The film 's ending begins the 1995 comic series Indiana Jones and the Spear of Destiny, which moves forward to depict Indiana and his father searching for the Holy Lance in Ireland in 1945. Spielberg intended to have Connery cameo as Henry in Kingdom of the Crystal Skull (2008), but Connery turned it down as he had retired.
Petra 's use for the movie 's climactic scenes greatly contributed to its popularity as an international tourist destination. Before the film 's release, only a few thousand visitors per year made the trip; since then it has grown to almost a million annually. Shops and hotels near the site play up the connection, and it is mentioned prominently in itineraries of locations used in the film series. Jordan 's tourism board mentions the connection on its website. In 2012 the satirical news site The Pan-Arabia Enquirer ran a mock story claiming that the board had officially renamed Petra "That Place from Indiana Jones '' to reflect how the world more commonly refers to it.
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what do the letters on a plane mean | Tail number - wikipedia
A tail number refers to an identification number painted on an aircraft, frequently on the tail.
Tail numbers can represent:
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who plays matthew williams in hawaii five o | Matthew Lawrence - wikipedia
Matthew William Lawrence (born February 11, 1980) is an American actor and singer known for his roles as Chris Hillard in Mrs. Doubtfire, Jack Hunter in Boy Meets World, and Matt Roman in Brotherly Love.
Lawrence was born in Abington Township, Pennsylvania, the son of Donna Lynn (née Shaw), a personnel manager, and Joseph Lawrence, Sr., an insurance broker. His family 's surname was changed to Lawrence from Mignogna before he was born. He is of half Italian descent. He is the middle - born of three boys; with two brothers, Joey Lawrence and Andy, both of whom are also actors. Lawrence attended classes at Abington Friends School.
Lawrence began acting in the mid-1980s, his first role being that of Danny Carrington in Dynasty. He continued as a child actor through the early 1990s, appearing in many television and feature film roles, including the 1993 Robin Williams comedy Mrs. Doubtfire and the mid-1990s television series Superhuman Samurai Syber - Squad. In addition, he maintained starring roles in Brotherly Love, which starred his real life brothers, and Boy Meets World where he played Jack Hunter. Lawrence also appeared alongside Rob Schneider in The Hot Chick. He reprised his role as Jack Hunter in Girl Meets World.
Lawrence 's singing debut was in 1986, when he and Joey performed at the 1986 Macy 's Thanksgiving Day Parade. (Matt sang at the 1991 Macy 's Parade as well.) Other musical Matt rarities can be found on two Gimme A Break episodes (Nell 's Secret Admirer; Johnny B. Goode & The Window; Part 1; Rock & Roll Music), two Brotherly Love episodes (A Roman Holiday; Silent Night, Art Attack; Pigeon On Your Car) and his last musical moment on Boy Meets World (As Time Goes By; This Dame). Except for Silent Night and This Dame, Matt also played guitar on the remaining three.
In 2011, Lawrence guest - starred on his brother 's sitcom ABC Family 's Melissa & Joey.
In 2015, he reprised his role as Jack Hunter in the series Girl Meets World, a spin - off / sequel of Boy Meets World.
In 2017 Matt started a band with Joey and Andy called Still 3. They released their debut single "Lose Myself ''.
He was previously engaged to Heidi Mueller from 2004 to 2006. He has been dating professional dancer Cheryl Burke since February 2017. On May 3, 2018, they got engaged.
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the period known as the renaissance roughly covers the time from | Renaissance - wikipedia
The Renaissance (UK: / rɪˈneɪsəns /, US: / rɛnəˈsɑːns /) is a period in European history, covering the span between the 14th and 17th centuries. It is an extension of the Middle Ages, and is bridged by the Age of Enlightenment to modern history. It grew in fragments, with the very first traces found seemingly in Italy, coming to cover much of Europe, for some scholars marking the beginning of the modern age.
The intellectual basis of the Renaissance was its own invented version of humanism, derived from the concept of Roman Humanitas and the rediscovery of classical Greek philosophy, such as that of Protagoras, who said that "Man is the measure of all things. '' This new thinking became manifest in art, architecture, politics, science and literature. Early examples were the development of perspective in oil painting and the recycled knowledge of how to make concrete. Although the invention of metal movable type sped the dissemination of ideas from the later 15th century, the changes of the Renaissance were not uniformly experienced across Europe.
As a cultural movement, the Renaissance encompassed innovative flowering of Latin and vernacular literatures, beginning with the 14th - century resurgence of learning based on classical sources, which contemporaries credited to Petrarch; the development of linear perspective and other techniques of rendering a more natural reality in painting; and gradual but widespread educational reform. In politics, the Renaissance contributed to the development of the customs and conventions of diplomacy, and in science to an increased reliance on observation and inductive reasoning. Although the Renaissance saw revolutions in many intellectual pursuits, as well as social and political upheaval, it is perhaps best known for its artistic developments and the contributions of such polymaths as Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo, who inspired the term "Renaissance man ''.
The Renaissance began in Florence, in the 14th century. Various theories have been proposed to account for its origins and characteristics, focusing on a variety of factors including the social and civic peculiarities of Florence at the time: its political structure; the patronage of its dominant family, the Medici; and the migration of Greek scholars and texts to Italy following the Fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks. Other major centres were northern Italian city - states such as Venice, Genoa, Milan, Bologna, and finally Rome during the Renaissance Papacy.
The Renaissance has a long and complex historiography, and, in line with general scepticism of discrete periodizations, there has been much debate among historians reacting to the 19th - century glorification of the "Renaissance '' and individual culture heroes as "Renaissance men '', questioning the usefulness of Renaissance as a term and as a historical delineation. The art historian Erwin Panofsky observed of this resistance to the concept of "Renaissance '':
It is perhaps no accident that the factuality of the Italian Renaissance has been most vigorously questioned by those who are not obliged to take a professional interest in the aesthetic aspects of civilization -- historians of economic and social developments, political and religious situations, and, most particularly, natural science -- but only exceptionally by students of literature and hardly ever by historians of Art.
Some observers have called into question whether the Renaissance was a cultural "advance '' from the Middle Ages, instead seeing it as a period of pessimism and nostalgia for classical antiquity, while social and economic historians, especially of the longue durée, have instead focused on the continuity between the two eras, which are linked, as Panofsky observed, "by a thousand ties ''.
The word Renaissance, literally meaning "Rebirth '' in French, first appeared in English in the 1830s. The word also occurs in Jules Michelet 's 1855 work, Histoire de France. The word Renaissance has also been extended to other historical and cultural movements, such as the Carolingian Renaissance and the Renaissance of the 12th century.
The Renaissance was a cultural movement that profoundly affected European intellectual life in the early modern period. Beginning in Italy, and spreading to the rest of Europe by the 16th century, its influence was felt in literature, philosophy, art, music, politics, science, religion, and other aspects of intellectual inquiry. Renaissance scholars employed the humanist method in study, and searched for realism and human emotion in art.
Renaissance humanists such as Poggio Bracciolini sought out in Europe 's monastic libraries the Latin literary, historical, and oratorical texts of Antiquity, while the Fall of Constantinople (1453) generated a wave of émigré Greek scholars bringing precious manuscripts in ancient Greek, many of which had fallen into obscurity in the West. It is in their new focus on literary and historical texts that Renaissance scholars differed so markedly from the medieval scholars of the Renaissance of the 12th century, who had focused on studying Greek and Arabic works of natural sciences, philosophy and mathematics, rather than on such cultural texts.
In the revival of neo-Platonism Renaissance humanists did not reject Christianity; quite the contrary, many of the Renaissance 's greatest works were devoted to it, and the Church patronized many works of Renaissance art. However, a subtle shift took place in the way that intellectuals approached religion that was reflected in many other areas of cultural life. In addition, many Greek Christian works, including the Greek New Testament, were brought back from Byzantium to Western Europe and engaged Western scholars for the first time since late antiquity. This new engagement with Greek Christian works, and particularly the return to the original Greek of the New Testament promoted by humanists Lorenzo Valla and Erasmus, would help pave the way for the Protestant Reformation.
Well after the first artistic return to classicism had been exemplified in the sculpture of Nicola Pisano, Florentine painters led by Masaccio strove to portray the human form realistically, developing techniques to render perspective and light more naturally. Political philosophers, most famously Niccolò Machiavelli, sought to describe political life as it really was, that is to understand it rationally. A critical contribution to Italian Renaissance humanism Giovanni Pico della Mirandola wrote the famous text "De hominis dignitate '' (Oration on the Dignity of Man, 1486), which consists of a series of theses on philosophy, natural thought, faith and magic defended against any opponent on the grounds of reason. In addition to studying classical Latin and Greek, Renaissance authors also began increasingly to use vernacular languages; combined with the introduction of printing, this would allow many more people access to books, especially the Bible.
In all, the Renaissance could be viewed as an attempt by intellectuals to study and improve the secular and worldly, both through the revival of ideas from antiquity, and through novel approaches to thought. Some scholars, such as Rodney Stark, play down the Renaissance in favor of the earlier innovations of the Italian city - states in the High Middle Ages, which married responsive government, Christianity and the birth of capitalism. This analysis argues that, whereas the great European states (France and Spain) were absolutist monarchies, and others were under direct Church control, the independent city republics of Italy took over the principles of capitalism invented on monastic estates and set off a vast unprecedented commercial revolution that preceded and financed the Renaissance.
Many argue that the ideas characterizing the Renaissance had their origin in late 13th - century Florence, in particular with the writings of Dante Alighieri (1265 -- 1321) and Petrarch (1304 -- 1374), as well as the paintings of Giotto di Bondone (1267 -- 1337). Some writers date the Renaissance quite precisely; one proposed starting point is 1401, when the rival geniuses Lorenzo Ghiberti and Filippo Brunelleschi competed for the contract to build the bronze doors for the Baptistery of the Florence Cathedral (Ghiberti won). Others see more general competition between artists and polymaths such as Brunelleschi, Ghiberti, Donatello, and Masaccio for artistic commissions as sparking the creativity of the Renaissance. Yet it remains much debated why the Renaissance began in Italy, and why it began when it did. Accordingly, several theories have been put forward to explain its origins.
During the Renaissance, money and art went hand in hand. Artists depended entirely on patrons while the patrons needed money to foster artistic talent. Wealth was brought to Italy in the 14th, 15th, and 16th centuries by expanding trade into Asia and Europe. Silver mining in Tyrol increased the flow of money. Luxuries from the Eastern world, brought home during the Crusades, increased the prosperity of Genoa and Venice.
Jules Michelet defined the 16th - century Renaissance in France as a period in Europe 's cultural history that represented a break from the Middle Ages, creating a modern understanding of humanity and its place in the world.
In stark contrast to the High Middle Ages, when Latin scholars focused almost entirely on studying Greek and Arabic works of natural science, philosophy and mathematics, Renaissance scholars were most interested in recovering and studying Latin and Greek literary, historical, and oratorical texts. Broadly speaking, this began in the 14th century with a Latin phase, when Renaissance scholars such as Petrarch, Coluccio Salutati (1331 -- 1406), Niccolò de ' Niccoli (1364 -- 1437) and Poggio Bracciolini (1380 -- 1459) scoured the libraries of Europe in search of works by such Latin authors as Cicero, Lucretius, Livy and Seneca. By the early 15th century, the bulk of such Latin literature had been recovered; the Greek phase of Renaissance humanism was under way, as Western European scholars turned to recovering ancient Greek literary, historical, oratorical and theological texts.
Unlike with Latin texts, which had been preserved and studied in Western Europe since late antiquity, the study of ancient Greek texts was very limited in medieval Western Europe. Ancient Greek works on science, maths and philosophy had been studied since the High Middle Ages in Western Europe and in the medieval Islamic world (normally in translation), but Greek literary, oratorical and historical works (such as Homer, the Greek dramatists, Demosthenes and Thucydides) were not studied in either the Latin or medieval Islamic worlds; in the Middle Ages these sorts of texts were only studied by Byzantine scholars. One of the greatest achievements of Renaissance scholars was to bring this entire class of Greek cultural works back into Western Europe for the first time since late antiquity. Arab logicians had inherited Greek ideas after they had invaded and conquered Egypt and the Levant. Their translations and commentaries on these ideas worked their way through the Arab West into Iberia and Sicily, which became important centers for this transmission of ideas. From the 11th to the 13th century, many schools dedicated to the translation of philosophical and scientific works from Classical Arabic to Medieval Latin were established in Iberia. Most notably the Toledo School of Translators. This work of translation from Islamic culture, though largely unplanned and disorganized, constituted one of the greatest transmissions of ideas in history. This movement to reintegrate the regular study of Greek literary, historical, oratorical and theological texts back into the Western European curriculum is usually dated to the 1396 invitation from Coluccio Salutati to the Byzantine diplomat and scholar Manuel Chrysoloras (c. 1355 -- 1415) to teach Greek in Florence. This legacy was continued by a number of expatriate Greek scholars, from Basilios Bessarion to Leo Allatius.
The unique political structures of late Middle Ages Italy have led some to theorize that its unusual social climate allowed the emergence of a rare cultural efflorescence. Italy did not exist as a political entity in the early modern period. Instead, it was divided into smaller city states and territories: the Kingdom of Naples controlled the south, the Republic of Florence and the Papal States at the center, the Milanese and the Genoese to the north and west respectively, and the Venetians to the east. Fifteenth - century Italy was one of the most urbanised areas in Europe. Many of its cities stood among the ruins of ancient Roman buildings; it seems likely that the classical nature of the Renaissance was linked to its origin in the Roman Empire 's heartland.
Historian and political philosopher Quentin Skinner points out that Otto of Freising (c. 1114 -- 1158), a German bishop visiting north Italy during the 12th century, noticed a widespread new form of political and social organization, observing that Italy appeared to have exited from Feudalism so that its society was based on merchants and commerce. Linked to this was anti-monarchical thinking, represented in the famous early Renaissance fresco cycle Allegory of Good and Bad Government in Siena by Ambrogio Lorenzetti (painted 1338 -- 1340), whose strong message is about the virtues of fairness, justice, republicanism and good administration. Holding both Church and Empire at bay, these city republics were devoted to notions of liberty. Skinner reports that there were many defences of liberty such as the Matteo Palmieri (1406 -- 1475) celebration of Florentine genius not only in art, sculpture and architecture, but "the remarkable efflorescence of moral, social and political philosophy that occurred in Florence at the same time ''.
Even cities and states beyond central Italy, such as the Republic of Florence at this time, were also notable for their merchant Republics, especially the Republic of Venice. Although in practice these were oligarchical, and bore little resemblance to a modern democracy, they did have democratic features and were responsive states, with forms of participation in governance and belief in liberty. The relative political freedom they afforded was conducive to academic and artistic advancement. Likewise, the position of Italian cities such as Venice as great trading centres made them intellectual crossroads. Merchants brought with them ideas from far corners of the globe, particularly the Levant. Venice was Europe 's gateway to trade with the East, and a producer of fine glass, while Florence was a capital of textiles. The wealth such business brought to Italy meant large public and private artistic projects could be commissioned and individuals had more leisure time for study.
One theory that has been advanced is that the devastation in Florence caused by the Black Death, which hit Europe between 1348 and 1350, resulted in a shift in the world view of people in 14th - century Italy. Italy was particularly badly hit by the plague, and it has been speculated that the resulting familiarity with death caused thinkers to dwell more on their lives on Earth, rather than on spirituality and the afterlife. It has also been argued that the Black Death prompted a new wave of piety, manifested in the sponsorship of religious works of art. However, this does not fully explain why the Renaissance occurred specifically in Italy in the 14th century. The Black Death was a pandemic that affected all of Europe in the ways described, not only Italy. The Renaissance 's emergence in Italy was most likely the result of the complex interaction of the above factors.
The plague was carried by fleas on sailing vessels returning from the ports of Asia, spreading quickly due to lack of proper sanitation: the population of England, then about 4.2 million, lost 1.4 million people to the bubonic plague. Florence 's population was nearly halved in the year 1347. As a result of the decimation in the populace the value of the working class increased, and commoners came to enjoy more freedom. To answer the increased need for labor, workers traveled in search of the most favorable position economically.
The demographic decline due to the plague had economic consequences: the prices of food dropped and land values declined by 30 to 40 % in most parts of Europe between 1350 and 1400. Landholders faced a great loss, but for ordinary men and women it was a windfall. The survivors of the plague found not only that the prices of food were cheaper but also that lands were more abundant, and many of them inherited property from their dead relatives.
The spread of disease was significantly more rampant in areas of poverty. Epidemics ravaged cities, particularly children. Plagues were easily spread by lice, unsanitary drinking water, armies, or by poor sanitation. Children were hit the hardest because many diseases, such as typhus and syphilis, target the immune system, leaving young children without a fighting chance. Children in city dwellings were more affected by the spread of disease than the children of the wealthy.
The Black Death caused greater upheaval to Florence 's social and political structure than later epidemics. Despite a significant number of deaths among members of the ruling classes, the government of Florence continued to function during this period. Formal meetings of elected representatives were suspended during the height of the epidemic due to the chaotic conditions in the city, but a small group of officials was appointed to conduct the affairs of the city, which ensured continuity of government.
It has long been a matter of debate why the Renaissance began in Florence, and not elsewhere in Italy. Scholars have noted several features unique to Florentine cultural life that may have caused such a cultural movement. Many have emphasized the role played by the Medici, a banking family and later ducal ruling house, in patronizing and stimulating the arts. Lorenzo de ' Medici (1449 -- 1492) was the catalyst for an enormous amount of arts patronage, encouraging his countrymen to commission works from the leading artists of Florence, including Leonardo da Vinci, Sandro Botticelli, and Michelangelo Buonarroti. Works by Neri di Bicci, Botticelli, da Vinci and Filippino Lippi had been commissioned additionally by the convent di San Donato agli Scopeti of the Augustinians order in Florence.
The Renaissance was certainly underway before Lorenzo de ' Medici came to power -- indeed, before the Medici family itself achieved hegemony in Florentine society. Some historians have postulated that Florence was the birthplace of the Renaissance as a result of luck, i.e. because "Great Men '' were born there by chance: Leonardo da Vinci, Botticelli and Michelangelo were all born in Tuscany. Arguing that such chance seems improbable, other historians have contended that these "Great Men '' were only able to rise to prominence because of the prevailing cultural conditions at the time.
In some ways humanism was not a philosophy but a method of learning. In contrast to the medieval scholastic mode, which focused on resolving contradictions between authors, humanists would study ancient texts in the original and appraise them through a combination of reasoning and empirical evidence. Humanist education was based on the programme of ' Studia Humanitatis ', the study of five humanities: poetry, grammar, history, moral philosophy and rhetoric. Although historians have sometimes struggled to define humanism precisely, most have settled on "a middle of the road definition... the movement to recover, interpret, and assimilate the language, literature, learning and values of ancient Greece and Rome ''. Above all, humanists asserted "the genius of man... the unique and extraordinary ability of the human mind ''.
Humanist scholars shaped the intellectual landscape throughout the early modern period. Political philosophers such as Niccolò Machiavelli and Thomas More revived the ideas of Greek and Roman thinkers and applied them in critiques of contemporary government. Pico della Mirandola wrote the "manifesto '' of the Renaissance, the Oration on the Dignity of Man, a vibrant defence of thinking. Matteo Palmieri (1406 -- 1475), another humanist, is most known for his work Della vita civile ("On Civic Life ''; printed 1528), which advocated civic humanism, and for his influence in refining the Tuscan vernacular to the same level as Latin. Palmieri drew on Roman philosophers and theorists, especially Cicero, who, like Palmieri, lived an active public life as a citizen and official, as well as a theorist and philosopher and also Quintilian. Perhaps the most succinct expression of his perspective on humanism is in a 1465 poetic work La città di vita, but an earlier work, Della vita civile (On Civic Life), is more wide - ranging. Composed as a series of dialogues set in a country house in the Mugello countryside outside Florence during the plague of 1430, Palmieri expounds on the qualities of the ideal citizen. The dialogues include ideas about how children develop mentally and physically, how citizens can conduct themselves morally, how citizens and states can ensure probity in public life, and an important debate on the difference between that which is pragmatically useful and that which is honest.
The humanists believed that it is important to transcend to the afterlife with a perfect mind and body, which could be attained with education. The purpose of humanism was to create a universal man whose person combined intellectual and physical excellence and who was capable of functioning honorably in virtually any situation. This ideology was referred to as the uomo universale, an ancient Greco - Roman ideal. Education during the Renaissance was mainly composed of ancient literature and history as it was thought that the classics provided moral instruction and an intensive understanding of human behavior.
Renaissance art marks a cultural rebirth at the close of the Middle Ages and rise of the Modern world. One of the distinguishing features of Renaissance art was its development of highly realistic linear perspective. Giotto di Bondone (1267 -- 1337) is credited with first treating a painting as a window into space, but it was not until the demonstrations of architect Filippo Brunelleschi (1377 -- 1446) and the subsequent writings of Leon Battista Alberti (1404 -- 1472) that perspective was formalized as an artistic technique.
The development of perspective was part of a wider trend towards realism in the arts. Painters developed other techniques, studying light, shadow, and, famously in the case of Leonardo da Vinci, human anatomy. Underlying these changes in artistic method was a renewed desire to depict the beauty of nature and to unravel the axioms of aesthetics, with the works of Leonardo, Michelangelo and Raphael representing artistic pinnacles that were much imitated by other artists. Other notable artists include Sandro Botticelli, working for the Medici in Florence, Donatello, another Florentine, and Titian in Venice, among others.
In the Netherlands, a particularly vibrant artistic culture developed. The work of Hugo van der Goes and Jan van Eyck was particularly influential on the development of painting in Italy, both technically with the introduction of oil paint and canvas, and stylistically in terms of naturalism in representation (see Renaissance in the Netherlands). Later, the work of Pieter Brueghel the Elder would inspire artists to depict themes of everyday life.
In architecture, Filippo Brunelleschi was foremost in studying the remains of ancient classical buildings. With rediscovered knowledge from the 1st - century writer Vitruvius and the flourishing discipline of mathematics, Brunelleschi formulated the Renaissance style that emulated and improved on classical forms. His major feat of engineering was building the dome of the Florence Cathedral. Another building demonstrating this style is the church of St. Andrew in Mantua, built by Alberti. The outstanding architectural work of the High Renaissance was the rebuilding of St. Peter 's Basilica, combining the skills of Bramante, Michelangelo, Raphael, Sangallo and Maderno.
During the Renaissance, architects aimed to use columns, pilasters, and entablatures as an integrated system. The Roman orders types of columns are used: Tuscan, Doric, Ionic, Corinthian and Composite. These can either be structural, supporting an arcade or architrave, or purely decorative, set against a wall in the form of pilasters. One of the first buildings to use pilasters as an integrated system was in the Old Sacristy (1421 -- 1440) by Brunelleschi. Arches, semi-circular or (in the Mannerist style) segmental, are often used in arcades, supported on piers or columns with capitals. There may be a section of entablature between the capital and the springing of the arch. Alberti was one of the first to use the arch on a monumental. Renaissance vaults do not have ribs; they are semi-circular or segmental and on a square plan, unlike the Gothic vault, which is frequently rectangular.
Renaissance artists were not pagans, although they admired antiquity and kept some ideas and symbols of the medieval past. Nicola Pisano (c. 1220 -- c. 1278) imitated classical forms by portraying scenes from the Bible. His Annunciation, from the Baptistry at Pisa, demonstrates that classical models influenced Italian art before the Renaissance took root as a literary movement
The rediscovery of ancient texts and the invention of printing democratized learning and allowed a faster propagation of more widely distributed ideas. In the first period of the Italian Renaissance, humanists favoured the study of humanities over natural philosophy or applied mathematics, and their reverence for classical sources further enshrined the Aristotelian and Ptolemaic views of the universe. Writing around 1450, Nicholas Cusanus anticipated the heliocentric worldview of Copernicus, but in a philosophical fashion.
Science and art were intermingled in the early Renaissance, with polymath artists such as Leonardo da Vinci making observational drawings of anatomy and nature. Da Vinci set up controlled experiments in water flow, medical dissection, and systematic study of movement and aerodynamics, and he devised principles of research method that led Fritjof Capra to classify him as the "father of modern science ''. Other examples of Da Vinci 's contribution during this period include machines designed to saw marbles and lift monoliths and new discoveries in acoustics, botany, geology, anatomy and mechanics.
A suitable environment had developed to question scientific doctrine. The discovery in 1492 of the New World by Christopher Columbus challenged the classical worldview. The works of Ptolemy (in geography) and Galen (in medicine) were found to not always match everyday observations. As the Protestant Reformation and Counter-Reformation clashed, the Northern Renaissance showed a decisive shift in focus from Aristotelean natural philosophy to chemistry and the biological sciences (botany, anatomy, and medicine). The willingness to question previously held truths and search for new answers resulted in a period of major scientific advancements.
Some view this as a "scientific revolution '', heralding the beginning of the modern age, others as an acceleration of a continuous process stretching from the ancient world to the present day. Significant scientific advances were made during this time by Galileo Galilei, Tycho Brahe and Johannes Kepler. Copernicus, in De Revolutionibus, posited that the Earth moved around the Sun. De humani corporis fabrica (On the Workings of the Human Body), by Andreas Vesalius, gave a new confidence to the role of dissection, observation, and the mechanistic view of anatomy.
Another important development was in the process for discovery, the scientific method, focusing on empirical evidence and the importance of mathematics, while discarding Aristotelian science. Early and influential proponents of these ideas included Copernicus, Galileo, and Francis Bacon. The new scientific method led to great contributions in the fields of astronomy, physics, biology, and anatomy.
Applied innovation extended to commerce. At the end of the 15th century Luca Pacioli published the first work on bookkeeping, making him the founder of accounting.
From this changing society emerged a common, unifying musical language, in particular the polyphonic style of the Franco - Flemish school. The development of printing made distribution of music possible on a wide scale. Demand for music as entertainment and as an activity for educated amateurs increased with the emergence of a bourgeois class. Dissemination of chansons, motets, and masses throughout Europe coincided with the unification of polyphonic practice into the fluid style that culminated in the second half of the sixteenth century in the work of composers such as Palestrina, Lassus, Victoria and William Byrd.
The new ideals of humanism, although more secular in some aspects, developed against a Christian backdrop, especially in the Northern Renaissance. Much, if not most, of the new art was commissioned by or in dedication to the Church. However, the Renaissance had a profound effect on contemporary theology, particularly in the way people perceived the relationship between man and God. Many of the period 's foremost theologians were followers of the humanist method, including Erasmus, Zwingli, Thomas More, Martin Luther, and John Calvin.
The Renaissance began in times of religious turmoil. The late Middle Ages was a period of political intrigue surrounding the Papacy, culminating in the Western Schism, in which three men simultaneously claimed to be true Bishop of Rome. While the schism was resolved by the Council of Constance (1414), a resulting reform movement known as Conciliarism sought to limit the power of the pope. Although the papacy eventually emerged supreme in ecclesiastical matters by the Fifth Council of the Lateran (1511), it was dogged by continued accusations of corruption, most famously in the person of Pope Alexander VI, who was accused variously of simony, nepotism and fathering four children (most of whom were married off, presumably for the consolidation of power) while a cardinal.
Churchmen such as Erasmus and Luther proposed reform to the Church, often based on humanist textual criticism of the New Testament. In October 1517 Luther published the 95 Theses, challenging papal authority and criticizing its perceived corruption, particularly with regard to instances of sold indulgences. The 95 Theses led to the Reformation, a break with the Roman Catholic Church that previously claimed hegemony in Western Europe. Humanism and the Renaissance therefore played a direct role in sparking the Reformation, as well as in many other contemporaneous religious debates and conflicts.
Pope Paul III came to the papal throne (1534 -- 1549) after the sack of Rome in 1527, with uncertainties prevalent in the Catholic Church following the Protestant Reformation. Nicolaus Copernicus dedicated De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres) to Paul III, who became the grandfather of Alessandro Farnese (cardinal), who had paintings by Titian, Michelangelo, and Raphael, as well as an important collection of drawings, and who commissioned the masterpiece of Giulio Clovio, arguably the last major illuminated manuscript, the Farnese Hours.
By the 15th century, writers, artists, and architects in Italy were well aware of the transformations that were taking place and were using phrases such as modi antichi (in the antique manner) or alle romana et alla antica (in the manner of the Romans and the ancients) to describe their work. In the 1330s Petrarch referred to pre-Christian times as antiqua (ancient) and to the Christian period as nova (new). From Petrarch 's Italian perspective, this new period (which included his own time) was an age of national eclipse. Leonardo Bruni was the first to use tripartite periodization in his History of the Florentine People (1442). Bruni 's first two periods were based on those of Petrarch, but he added a third period because he believed that Italy was no longer in a state of decline. Flavio Biondo used a similar framework in Decades of History from the Deterioration of the Roman Empire (1439 -- 1453).
Humanist historians argued that contemporary scholarship restored direct links to the classical period, thus bypassing the Medieval period, which they then named for the first time the "Middle Ages ''. The term first appears in Latin in 1469 as media tempestas (middle times). The term la rinascita (rebirth) first appeared, however, in its broad sense in Giorgio Vasari 's Lives of the Artists, 1550, revised 1568. Vasari divides the age into three phases: the first phase contains Cimabue, Giotto, and Arnolfo di Cambio; the second phase contains Masaccio, Brunelleschi, and Donatello; the third centers on Leonardo da Vinci and culminates with Michelangelo. It was not just the growing awareness of classical antiquity that drove this development, according to Vasari, but also the growing desire to study and imitate nature.
In the 15th century, the Renaissance spread rapidly from its birthplace in Florence to the rest of Italy and soon to the rest of Europe. The invention of the printing press by German printer Johannes Gutenberg allowed the rapid transmission of these new ideas. As it spread, its ideas diversified and changed, being adapted to local culture. In the 20th century, scholars began to break the Renaissance into regional and national movements.
The Renaissance in Northern Europe has been termed the "Northern Renaissance ''. While Renaissance ideas were moving north from Italy, there was a simultaneous southward spread of some areas of innovation, particularly in music. The music of the 15th century Burgundian School defined the beginning of the Renaissance in music, and the polyphony of the Netherlanders, as it moved with the musicians themselves into Italy, formed the core of the first true international style in music since the standardization of Gregorian Chant in the 9th century. The culmination of the Netherlandish school was in the music of the Italian composer Palestrina. At the end of the 16th century Italy again became a center of musical innovation, with the development of the polychoral style of the Venetian School, which spread northward into Germany around 1600.
The paintings of the Italian Renaissance differed from those of the Northern Renaissance. Italian Renaissance artists were among the first to paint secular scenes, breaking away from the purely religious art of medieval painters. Northern Renaissance artists initially remained focused on religious subjects, such as the contemporary religious upheaval portrayed by Albrecht Dürer. Later, the works of Pieter Bruegel influenced artists to paint scenes of daily life rather than religious or classical themes. It was also during the Northern Renaissance that Flemish brothers Hubert and Jan van Eyck perfected the oil painting technique, which enabled artists to produce strong colors on a hard surface that could survive for centuries. A feature of the Northern Renaissance was its use of the vernacular in place of Latin or Greek, which allowed greater freedom of expression. This movement had started in Italy with the decisive influence of Dante Alighieri on the development of vernacular languages; in fact the focus on writing in Italian has neglected a major source of Florentine ideas expressed in Latin. The spread of the printing press technology boosted the Renaissance in Northern Europe as elsewhere, with Venice becoming a world center of printing.
In England, the sixteenth century marked the beginning of the English Renaissance with the work of writers William Shakespeare, Christopher Marlowe, Edmund Spenser, Sir Thomas More, Francis Bacon, Sir Philip Sidney, as well as great artists, architects (such as Inigo Jones who introduced Italianate architecture to England), and composers such as Thomas Tallis, John Taverner, and William Byrd.
The word "Renaissance '' is borrowed from the French language, where it means "re-birth ''. It was first used in the eighteenth century and was later popularized by French historian Jules Michelet (1798 -- 1874) in his 1855 work, Histoire de France (History of France).
In 1495 the Italian Renaissance arrived in France, imported by King Charles VIII after his invasion of Italy. A factor that promoted the spread of secularism was the inability of the Church to offer assistance against the Black Death. Francis I imported Italian art and artists, including Leonardo da Vinci, and built ornate palaces at great expense. Writers such as François Rabelais, Pierre de Ronsard, Joachim du Bellay and Michel de Montaigne, painters such as Jean Clouet, and musicians such as Jean Mouton also borrowed from the spirit of the Renaissance.
In 1533, a fourteen - year - old Caterina de ' Medici (1519 -- 1589), born in Florence to Lorenzo II de ' Medici and Madeleine de la Tour d'Auvergne, married Henry II of France, second son of King Francis I and Queen Claude. Though she became famous and infamous for her role in France 's religious wars, she made a direct contribution in bringing arts, sciences and music (including the origins of ballet) to the French court from her native Florence.
In the second half of the 15th century, the Renaissance spirit spread to Germany and the Low Countries, where the development of the printing press (ca. 1450) and early Renaissance artists such as the painters Jan van Eyck (1395 -- 1441) and Hieronymus Bosch (1450 -- 1516) and the composers Johannes Ockeghem (1410 -- 1497), Jacob Obrecht (1457 -- 1505) and Josquin des Prez (1455 -- 1521) predated the influence from Italy. In the early Protestant areas of the country humanism became closely linked to the turmoil of the Protestant Reformation, and the art and writing of the German Renaissance frequently reflected this dispute. However, the gothic style and medieval scholastic philosophy remained exclusively until the turn of the 16th century. Emperor Maximilian I of Habsburg (ruling 1493 -- 1519) was the first truly Renaissance monarch of the Holy Roman Empire.
Culture in the Netherlands at the end of the 15th century was influenced by the Italian Renaissance through trade via Bruges, which made Flanders wealthy. Its nobles commissioned artists who became known across Europe. In science, the anatomist Andreas Vesalius led the way; in cartography, Gerardus Mercator 's map assisted explorers and navigators. In art, Dutch and Flemish Renaissance painting ranged from the strange work of Hieronymus Bosch to the everyday life depictions of Pieter Brueghel the Elder.
The Renaissance arrived in the Iberian peninsula through the Mediterranean possessions of the Aragonese Crown and the city of Valencia. Many early Spanish Renaissance writers come from the Kingdom of Aragon, including Ausiàs March and Joanot Martorell. In the Kingdom of Castile, the early Renaissance was heavily influenced by the Italian humanism, starting with writers and poets such as the Marquis of Santillana, who introduced the new Italian poetry to Spain in the early 15th century. Other writers, such as Jorge Manrique, Fernando de Rojas, Juan del Encina, Juan Boscán Almogáver and Garcilaso de la Vega, kept a close resemblance to the Italian canon. Miguel de Cervantes 's masterpiece Don Quixote is credited as the first Western novel. Renaissance humanism flourished in the early 16th century, with influential writers such as philosopher Juan Luis Vives, grammarian Antonio de Nebrija and natural historian Pedro de Mexía.
Later Spanish Renaissance tended towards religious themes and mysticism, with poets such as fray Luis de León, Teresa of Ávila and John of the Cross, and treated issues related to the exploration of the New World, with chroniclers and writers such as Inca Garcilaso de la Vega and Bartolomé de las Casas, giving rise to a body of work, now known as Spanish Renaissance literature. The late Renaissance in Spain produced artists such as El Greco and composers such as Tomás Luis de Victoria and Antonio de Cabezón.
Although Italian Renaissance had a modest impact in Portuguese arts, Portugal was influential in broadening the European worldview, stimulating humanist inquiry. Renaissance arrived through the influence of wealthy Italian and Flemish merchants who invested in the profitable commerce overseas. As the pioneer headquarters of European exploration, Lisbon flourished in the late 15th century, attracting experts who made several breakthroughs in mathematics, astronomy and naval technology, including Pedro Nunes, João de Castro, Abraham Zacuto and Martin Behaim. Cartographers Pedro Reinel, Lopo Homem, Estêvão Gomes and Diogo Ribeiro made crucial advances in mapping the world. Apothecary Tomé Pires and physicians Garcia de Orta and Cristóvão da Costa collected and published works on plants and medicines, soon translated by Flemish pioneer botanist Carolus Clusius.
In architecture, the huge profits of the spice trade financed a sumptuous composite style in the first decades of the 16th century, the Manueline, incorporating maritime elements. The primary painters were Nuno Gonçalves, Gregório Lopes and Vasco Fernandes. In music, Pedro de Escobar and Duarte Lobo produced four songbooks, including the Cancioneiro de Elvas. In literature, Sá de Miranda introduced Italian forms of verse. Bernardim Ribeiro developed pastoral romance, plays by Gil Vicente fused it with popular culture, reporting the changing times, and Luís de Camões inscribed the Portuguese feats overseas in the epic poem Os Lusíadas. Travel literature especially flourished: João de Barros, Castanheda, António Galvão, Gaspar Correia, Duarte Barbosa, and Fernão Mendes Pinto, among others, described new lands and were translated and spread with the new printing press. After joining the Portuguese exploration of Brazil in 1500, Amerigo Vespucci coined the term New World, in his letters to Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco de ' Medici.
The intense international exchange produced several cosmopolitan humanist scholars, including Francisco de Holanda, André de Resende and Damião de Góis, a friend of Erasmus who wrote with rare independence on the reign of King Manuel I. Diogo and André de Gouveia made relevant teaching reforms via France. Foreign news and products in the Portuguese factory in Antwerp attracted the interest of Thomas More and Dürer to the wider world. There, profits and know - how helped nurture the Dutch Renaissance and Golden Age, especially after the arrival of the wealthy cultured Jewish community expelled from Portugal.
After Italy, Hungary was the first European country where the renaissance appeared. The Renaissance style came directly from Italy during the Quattrocento to Hungary first in the Central European region, thanks to the development of early Hungarian - Italian relationships -- not only in dynastic connections, but also in cultural, humanistic and commercial relations -- growing in strength from the 14th century. The relationship between Hungarian and Italian Gothic styles was a second reason -- exaggerated breakthrough of walls is avoided, preferring clean and light structures. Large - scale building schemes provided ample and long term work for the artists, for example, the building of the Friss (New) Castle in Buda, the castles of Visegrád, Tata and Várpalota. In Sigismund 's court there were patrons such as Pipo Spano, a descendant of the Scolari family of Florence, who invited Manetto Ammanatini and Masolino da Pannicale to Hungary.
The new Italian trend combined with existing national traditions to create a particular local Renaissance art. Acceptance of Renaissance art was furthered by the continuous arrival of humanist thought in the country. Many young Hungarians studying at Italian universities came closer to the Florentine humanist center, so a direct connection with Florence evolved. The growing number of Italian traders moving to Hungary, specially to Buda, helped this process. New thoughts were carried by the humanist prelates, among them Vitéz János, archbishop of Esztergom, one of the founders of Hungarian humanism. During the long reign of emperor Sigismund of Luxemburg the Royal Castle of Buda became probably the largest Gothic palace of the late Middle Ages. King Matthias Corvinus (r. 1458 -- 1490) rebuilt the palace in early Renaissance style and further expanded it.
After the marriage in 1476 of King Matthias to Beatrice of Naples, Buda became one of the most important artistic centres of the Renaissance north of the Alps. The most important humanists living in Matthias ' court were Antonio Bonfini and the famous Hungarian poet Janus Pannonius. András Hess set up a printing press in Buda in 1472. Matthias Corvinus 's library, the Bibliotheca Corviniana, was Europe 's greatest collections of secular books: historical chronicles, philosophic and scientific works in the 15th century. His library was second only in size to the Vatican Library. (However, the Vatican Library mainly contained Bibles and religious materials.)
In 1489, Bartolomeo della Fonte of Florence wrote that Lorenzo de ' Medici founded his own Greek - Latin library encouraged by the example of the Hungarian king. Corvinus 's library is part of UNESCO World Heritage. Other important figures of Hungarian Renaissance include Bálint Balassi (poet), Sebestyén Tinódi Lantos (poet), Bálint Bakfark (composer and lutenist), and Master MS (fresco painter).
An early Italian humanist who came to Poland in the mid-15th century was Filippo Buonaccorsi. Many Italian artists came to Poland with Bona Sforza of Milan, when she married King Sigismund I the Old in 1518. This was supported by temporarily strengthened monarchies in both areas, as well as by newly established universities. The Polish Renaissance lasted from the late 15th to the late 16th century and was the Golden Age of Polish culture. Ruled by the Jagiellon dynasty, the Kingdom of Poland (from 1569 known as the Polish -- Lithuanian Commonwealth) actively participated in the broad European Renaissance. The multi-national Polish state experienced a substantial period of cultural growth thanks in part to a century without major wars -- aside from conflicts in the sparsely populated eastern and southern borderlands. The Reformation spread peacefully throughout the country (giving rise to the Polish Brethren), while living conditions improved, cities grew, and exports of agricultural products enriched the population, especially the nobility (szlachta) who gained dominance in the new political system of Golden Liberty. The Polish Renaissance architecture has three periods of development.
The greatest monument of this style in the territory of the former Duchy of Pomerania is the Ducal Castle in Szczecin.
Renaissance trends from Italy and Central Europe influenced Russia in many ways. Their influence was rather limited, however, due to the large distances between Russia and the main European cultural centers and the strong adherence of Russians to their Orthodox traditions and Byzantine legacy.
Prince Ivan III introduced Renaissance architecture to Russia by inviting a number of architects from Italy, who brought new construction techniques and some Renaissance style elements with them, while in general following the traditional designs of Russian architecture. In 1475 the Bolognese architect Aristotele Fioravanti came to rebuild the Cathedral of the Dormition in the Moscow Kremlin, which had been damaged in an earthquake. Fioravanti was given the 12th - century Vladimir Cathedral as a model, and he produced a design combining traditional Russian style with a Renaissance sense of spaciousness, proportion and symmetry.
In 1485 Ivan III commissioned the building of the royal residence, Terem Palace, within the Kremlin, with Aloisio da Milano as the architect of the first three floors. He and other Italian architects also contributed to the construction of the Kremlin walls and towers. The small banquet hall of the Russian Tsars, called the Palace of Facets because of its facetted upper story, is the work of two Italians, Marco Ruffo and Pietro Solario, and shows a more Italian style. In 1505, an Italian known in Russia as Aleviz Novyi or Aleviz Fryazin arrived in Moscow. He may have been the Venetian sculptor, Alevisio Lamberti da Montagne. He built 12 churches for Ivan III, including the Cathedral of the Archangel, a building remarkable for the successful blending of Russian tradition, Orthodox requirements and Renaissance style. It is believed that the Cathedral of the Metropolitan Peter in Vysokopetrovsky Monastery, another work of Aleviz Novyi, later served as an inspiration for the so - called octagon - on - tetragon architectural form in the Moscow Baroque of the late 17th century.
Between the early 16th and the late 17th centuries, an original tradition of stone tented roof architecture developed in Russia. It was quite unique and different from the contemporary Renaissance architecture elsewhere in Europe, though some research terms the style ' Russian Gothic ' and compares it with the European Gothic architecture of the earlier period. The Italians, with their advanced technology, may have influenced the invention of the stone tented roof (the wooden tents were known in Russia and Europe long before). According to one hypothesis, an Italian architect called Petrok Maly may have been an author of the Ascension Church in Kolomenskoye, one of the earliest and most prominent tented roof churches.
By the 17th century the influence of Renaissance painting resulted in Russian icons becoming slightly more realistic, while still following most of the old icon painting canons, as seen in the works of Bogdan Saltanov, Simon Ushakov, Gury Nikitin, Karp Zolotaryov and other Russian artists of the era. Gradually the new type of secular portrait painting appeared, called parsúna (from "persona '' -- person), which was transitional style between abstract iconographics and real paintings.
In the mid 16th - century Russians adopted printing from Central Europe, with Ivan Fyodorov being the first known Russian printer. In the 17th century printing became widespread, and woodcuts became especially popular. That led to the development of a special form of folk art known as lubok printing, which persisted in Russia well into the 19th century.
A number of technologies from the European Renaissance period were adopted by Russia rather early and subsequently perfected to become a part of a strong domestic tradition. Mostly these were military technologies, such as cannon casting adopted by at least the 15th century. The Tsar Cannon, which is the world 's largest bombard by caliber, is a masterpiece of Russian cannon making. It was cast in 1586 by Andrey Chokhov and is notable for its rich, decorative relief. Another technology, that according to one hypothesis originally was brought from Europe by the Italians, resulted in the development of vodka, the national beverage of Russia. As early as 1386 Genoese ambassadors brought the first aqua vitae ("water of life '') to Moscow and presented it to Grand Duke Dmitry Donskoy. The Genoese likely developed this beverage with the help of the alchemists of Provence, who used an Arab - invented distillation apparatus to convert grape must into alcohol. A Moscovite monk called Isidore used this technology to produce the first original Russian vodka c. 1430.
The Italian artist and critic Giorgio Vasari (1511 -- 1574) first used the term rinascita retrospectively in his book The Lives of the Artists (published 1550). In the book Vasari attempted to define what he described as a break with the barbarities of gothic art: the arts (he held) had fallen into decay with the collapse of the Roman Empire and only the Tuscan artists, beginning with Cimabue (1240 -- 1301) and Giotto (1267 -- 1337) began to reverse this decline in the arts. Vasari saw antique art as central to the rebirth of Italian art.
However, only in the 19th century did the French word Renaissance achieve popularity in describing the self - conscious cultural movement based on revival of Roman models that began in the late - 13th century. French historian Jules Michelet (1798 -- 1874) defined "The Renaissance '' in his 1855 work Histoire de France as an entire historical period, whereas previously it had been used in a more limited sense. For Michelet, the Renaissance was more a development in science than in art and culture. He asserted that it spanned the period from Columbus to Copernicus to Galileo; that is, from the end of the 15th century to the middle of the 17th century. Moreover, Michelet distinguished between what he called, "the bizarre and monstrous '' quality of the Middle Ages and the democratic values that he, as a vocal Republican, chose to see in its character. A French nationalist, Michelet also sought to claim the Renaissance as a French movement.
The Swiss historian Jacob Burckhardt (1818 -- 1897) in his The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy (1860), by contrast, defined the Renaissance as the period between Giotto and Michelangelo in Italy, that is, the 14th to mid-16th centuries. He saw in the Renaissance the emergence of the modern spirit of individuality, which the Middle Ages had stifled. His book was widely read and became influential in the development of the modern interpretation of the Italian Renaissance. However, Buckhardt has been accused of setting forth a linear Whiggish view of history in seeing the Renaissance as the origin of the modern world.
More recently, some historians have been much less keen to define the Renaissance as a historical age, or even as a coherent cultural movement. The historian Randolph Starn, of the University of California Berkeley, stated in 1998:
"Rather than a period with definitive beginnings and endings and consistent content in between, the Renaissance can be (and occasionally has been) seen as a movement of practices and ideas to which specific groups and identifiable persons variously responded in different times and places. It would be in this sense a network of diverse, sometimes converging, sometimes conflicting cultures, not a single, time - bound culture ''.
There is debate about the extent to which the Renaissance improved on the culture of the Middle Ages. Both Michelet and Burckhardt were keen to describe the progress made in the Renaissance towards the modern age. Burckhardt likened the change to a veil being removed from man 's eyes, allowing him to see clearly.
In the Middle Ages both sides of human consciousness -- that which was turned within as that which was turned without -- lay dreaming or half awake beneath a common veil. The veil was woven of faith, illusion, and childish prepossession, through which the world and history were seen clad in strange hues.
On the other hand, many historians now point out that most of the negative social factors popularly associated with the medieval period -- poverty, warfare, religious and political persecution, for example -- seem to have worsened in this era, which saw the rise of Machiavellian politics, the Wars of Religion, the corrupt Borgia Popes, and the intensified witch - hunts of the 16th century. Many people who lived during the Renaissance did not view it as the "golden age '' imagined by certain 19th - century authors, but were concerned by these social maladies. Significantly, though, the artists, writers, and patrons involved in the cultural movements in question believed they were living in a new era that was a clean break from the Middle Ages. Some Marxist historians prefer to describe the Renaissance in material terms, holding the view that the changes in art, literature, and philosophy were part of a general economic trend from feudalism towards capitalism, resulting in a bourgeois class with leisure time to devote to the arts.
Johan Huizinga (1872 -- 1945) acknowledged the existence of the Renaissance but questioned whether it was a positive change. In his book The Waning of the Middle Ages, he argued that the Renaissance was a period of decline from the High Middle Ages, destroying much that was important. The Latin language, for instance, had evolved greatly from the classical period and was still a living language used in the church and elsewhere. The Renaissance obsession with classical purity halted its further evolution and saw Latin revert to its classical form. Robert S. Lopez has contended that it was a period of deep economic recession. Meanwhile, George Sarton and Lynn Thorndike have both argued that scientific progress was perhaps less original than has traditionally been supposed. Finally, Joan Kelly argued that the Renaissance led to greater gender dichotomy, lessening the agency women had had during the Middle Ages.
Some historians have begun to consider the word Renaissance to be unnecessarily loaded, implying an unambiguously positive rebirth from the supposedly more primitive "Dark Ages '', the Middle Ages. Most historians now prefer to use the term "early modern '' for this period, a more neutral designation that highlights the period as a transitional one between the Middle Ages and the modern era. Others such as Roger Osborne have come to consider the Italian Renaissance as a repository of the myths and ideals of western history in general, and instead of rebirth of ancient ideas as a period of great innovation.
The term Renaissance has also been used to define periods outside of the 15th and 16th centuries. Charles H. Haskins (1870 -- 1937), for example, made a case for a Renaissance of the 12th century. Other historians have argued for a Carolingian Renaissance in the 8th and 9th centuries, and still later for an Ottonian Renaissance in the 10th century. Other periods of cultural rebirth have also been termed "renaissances '', such as the Bengal Renaissance, Tamil Renaissance, Nepal Bhasa renaissance, al - Nahda or the Harlem Renaissance.
Rapid accumulation of knowledge, which has characterized the development of science since the 17th century, had never occurred before that time. The new kind of scientific activity emerged only in a few countries of Western Europe, and it was restricted to that small area for about two hundred years. (Since the 19th century, scientific knowledge has been assimilated by the rest of the world).
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who plays the mother on the tv show 911 | 9 - 1 - 1 (tv series) - Wikipedia
9 - 1 - 1 is an American procedural drama television series created by Ryan Murphy, Brad Falchuk and Tim Minear which follows the lives of Los Angeles first responders: cops, paramedics, firefighters and dispatchers. The series premiered on January 3, 2018, on the Fox network, during the 2017 -- 18 television season. The series is produced by 20th Century Fox Television, with Murphy, Falchuck, Minear and Bradley Buecker as executive producers. Minear also serves as showrunner and Buecker directed the premiere episode. On January 16, 2018, the series was renewed for a second season.
In October 2017, Angela Bassett, Connie Britton, and Peter Krause joined the main cast. Later that month, it was announced that Oliver Stark, Aisha Hinds, Kenneth Choi, and Rockmond Dunbar had been cast in regular roles.
The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 70 % approval rating, with an average rating of 5.19 / 10 based on 23 reviews. Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned a score of 60 out of 100 based on 21 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''.
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who played dr greene's daughter on er | List of supporting characters in ER - wikipedia
This is a list of supporting fictional characters in the medical drama ER.
Shiri Appleby Season 1, Episode 1 - Teen with etopic pregnancy
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how many rings does steve kerr have in the nba | Steve Kerr - wikipedia
Stephen Douglas Kerr (born September 27, 1965) is an American professional basketball coach and former player. He is the current head coach of the Golden State Warriors. Kerr is an five - time NBA champion, winning three titles with the Chicago Bulls and two with the San Antonio Spurs as a player, as well as three with the Warriors as a head coach. Kerr has the highest career three - point percentage (45.4 %) in NBA history for any player with at least 250 three - pointers made. He also held the NBA record for highest three - point percentage in a season at 52.4 %, until the record was broken by Kyle Korver in 2010.
On June 2, 2007, the Phoenix Suns named Kerr the team 's President of Basketball Operations and General Manager. Kerr helped Managing Partner Robert Sarver buy the Suns in 2004 and became one of Sarver 's trusted basketball advisors. Kerr announced his retirement from the Suns in June 2010. Afterwards, Kerr returned as a color commentator for NBA on TNT until 2014, when he pursued a career in coaching.
On May 14, 2014, the Golden State Warriors named Kerr the team 's head coach. On April 4, 2015, with a win over the Dallas Mavericks, Kerr broke the NBA record for the most regular season wins for a rookie coach. The Warriors went on to win the 2015 NBA Finals, making Kerr the first rookie coach to win a championship since Pat Riley in the 1982 NBA Finals. On April 13, 2016, the Warriors broke the record for the most wins in an NBA season, breaking a record previously held by Kerr 's 1995 - 1996 Chicago Bulls. The Warriors returned to the Finals for three straight years, losing in 2016 and winning again in 2017 and 2018.
Kerr was born in Beirut, Lebanon to Malcolm H. Kerr, an American academic who specialized in the Middle East, and his wife, Ann (Zwicker). He has three siblings. His grandfather, Stanley Kerr, volunteered with the Near East Relief after the Armenian Genocide and rescued women and orphans in Aleppo and Marash before eventually settling in Beirut. Kerr spent much of his childhood in Lebanon and other Middle Eastern countries. He attended Cairo American College in Egypt, the American Community School in Beirut, Lebanon, and Palisades High School (now Palisades Charter High School) in Los Angeles.
His 52 - year - old father Malcolm was murdered by the Islamic Jihad (later, elements of Islamic Jihad formed Hezbollah) on the morning of January 18, 1984, while he was serving as president of the American University of Beirut. His father was shot twice in the back of his head, by gunmen using suppressed handguns, in the hallway outside his office. Kerr was 18 years old at the time, and a college freshman; regarding his father 's death, he has said: "Before my father was killed, my life was impenetrable. Bad things happened to other people. '' The Kerr family sued the Iranian government under the Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act of 1996. While warming up for a game at Arizona State in 1988, Kerr had to deal with a number of fans in the crowd chanting "PLO '' and "your father 's history ''. Though tearful, Kerr scored 20 points in the first half, making all six of his three - point attempts. The athletic director of Arizona State, Charles Harris, sent a letter of apology to Kerr a few days later.
Kerr graduated from the University of Arizona in 1988 with a Bachelor of General Studies, with emphasis on history, sociology and English.
Minimally recruited out of high school, Kerr played basketball for the University of Arizona from 1983 to 1988. In the summer of 1986, Kerr was named to the USA Basketball team that competed in the FIBA World Championship in Spain. The team was the last American Men 's Senior Team composed strictly of amateur players to capture a gold medal. He injured his knee in the tournament, forcing him to miss an entire season (1986 -- 87) at Arizona. After returning to the team, Kerr became a fan favorite due to his leadership and long - range shooting. He helped the Wildcats reach the Final Four of the NCAA Division I basketball tournament in 1988 along with fellow All - American teammate Sean Elliott. Kerr also set an NCAA record for 3 - point percentage in a season (114 -- 199, 57.3 %).
Kerr was selected by the Phoenix Suns in the second round of the 1988 NBA draft. He was traded to the Cleveland Cavaliers in 1989. He spent over three seasons (1989 -- 92) there and then part of the 1992 -- 93 season with the Orlando Magic.
In 1993, he signed with the Chicago Bulls. The Bulls made the playoffs in the 1993 -- 94 and 1994 -- 95 seasons, but without Michael Jordan 's presence for all of 1994 and much of 1995, the team could not advance to the Finals. However, with Jordan back full - time for the 1995 -- 96 season, the Bulls set a then NBA - record of 72 -- 10 and defeated the Seattle SuperSonics in the 1996 NBA Finals.
Kerr played a major part of the Bulls ' championship victory in the 1997 NBA Finals against the Utah Jazz. In the final seconds of Game 6 with the score tied at 86, he took a pass from Jordan and hit the title - winner. The Bulls won, earning the franchise 's fifth title. Kerr also won the 3 - Point Shootout at the 1997 All - Star Game.
In the last minute of Game 2 of the 1998 NBA Finals against Utah, Kerr missed a 3 - pointer, grabbed his own rebound and made a pass to Michael Jordan who made a crucial three - point play, putting them in the lead for good. The play helped Chicago win the game and tie the series at 1. The Bulls won the series in 6 games.
In January 1999, Kerr was acquired by the San Antonio Spurs in a sign - and - trade deal with the Bulls, whereby Chuck Person and a first - round pick in the 2000 NBA draft was sent to Chicago. The Spurs reached 1999 NBA Finals and won their first NBA Championship with a 4 -- 1 series victory over the New York Knicks. Kerr became one of two players to win four straight NBA titles without being a part of the 1960s Boston Celtics dynasty -- the other being Frank Saul, who won four straight with Rochester and Minneapolis from 1951 -- 54. Kerr and Saul are also the only two players in NBA history to have won two championships with two different teams in consecutive seasons.
Kerr was traded to the Portland Trail Blazers alongside Derek Anderson on July 24, 2001, in a deal that brought Steve Smith to the Spurs. He would remain in Portland for the 2001 -- 02 season, playing in 65 games.
After his brief stint in Portland, he was traded back to San Antonio, along with Erick Barkley and a 2003 2nd - round pick, in exchange for Charles Smith, Amal McCaskill, and Antonio Daniels on August 2, 2002. He supported the Spurs from the bench in nearly every game (75) the following year, in what would be his final season in the league. In Game 6 of the 2003 Western Conference Finals against the Dallas Mavericks, Kerr made four second - half three - pointers that helped eliminate Dallas. The Spurs eventually won the NBA championship by beating the New Jersey Nets in the 2003 NBA Finals, 4 -- 2.
Kerr announced his retirement after the 2003 NBA Finals. He played 910 regular - season games but started only 30 of them, 20 of those games coming in the 1991 -- 92 season. His career totals are: 5,437 points (6 ppg), 1,060 rebounds (1.2 rpg), and 1,658 assists (1.8 apg). He also retired as the league 's all - time leader in three - point shooting percentage for a season (. 524 in 1994 -- 95) and career (. 454).
In 2003, Kerr became a broadcast analyst for Turner Network Television (TNT), offering commentary alongside renowned analyst Marv Albert. During his tenure, he performed a segment sponsored by Coors Light called Steve 's Refreshing Thoughts in which he brought up interesting facts in NBA history. This segment continued through sponsorship, and became known as Steve Wonders, sponsored by Sprint. In the same time period, Kerr also contributed to Yahoo! as an NBA commentator.
He has provided his voice for the in - game commentary of EA Sports video games NBA Live 06, NBA Live 07, NBA Live 08, NBA Live 09 and NBA Live 10 with Albert. He has also provided his voice as a color analyst for NBA 2K12, NBA 2K13, NBA 2K14 and NBA 2K15. He remains a commentator in NBA 2K15 despite becoming the Golden State Warriors coach for the 2014 -- 15 season several months prior to the game 's release.
Kerr left broadcasting in 2007 to work as a general manager for the Phoenix Suns, but it was confirmed on June 28, 2010 that he would return as an NBA analyst for TNT starting with the 2010 -- 11 NBA season. Since 2011, Kerr has also called the NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Championship on Turner Sports and CBS, teaming up with lead broadcasters Jim Nantz and Clark Kellogg for the First Four and Final Four games, and with Albert in other rounds.
Kerr was a regular contributor to the website Grantland from 2011 until it closed in 2015.
On April 15, 2004, Kerr was announced as a member of a potential group of buyers that would acquire his old team, the Suns, from Jerry Colangelo for $300 million. He became part of Suns management, acting as a consultant. During the 2006 NBA All - Star Weekend, he was a member of the San Antonio team that won the Shooting Stars Competition.
On June 2, 2007, Kerr announced his departure from his broadcasting position at TNT and his commentating position at Yahoo! to assume duties as the general manager of the Phoenix Suns beginning with the 2007 -- 2008 season. On February 6, 2008, reports surfaced that Kerr was planning to trade Suns forward Shawn Marion and guard Marcus Banks to the Miami Heat in exchange for Shaquille O'Neal, which he did. The Suns were eliminated by the San Antonio Spurs in five games in the first round of the playoffs.
On December 10, 2008, Kerr continued to remake the Suns roster by trading away Boris Diaw, Raja Bell, and Sean Singletary to the Charlotte Bobcats in exchange for Jason Richardson, Jared Dudley, and the Bobcats ' 2010 second - round draft pick, which was used to draft Gani Lawal of Georgia Tech. On June 25, 2009, Kerr traded O'Neal to the Cleveland Cavaliers for Ben Wallace, Sasha Pavlovic, a future second - round draft pick and cash.
On May 5, 2010, the Suns wore Los Suns jerseys in Game 2 against the Spurs to be united against the controversial Arizona immigration law. Kerr himself compared the law to Nazi Germany.
On June 15, 2010, Kerr stepped down as president and general manager of the Suns, but still owned a 1 % share of the Suns ' organization that he kept until 2014.
On May 14, 2014, Kerr reached an agreement to become the head coach for the Golden State Warriors, succeeding Mark Jackson. Kerr coached in the 2014 Summer League for the Warriors. During the 2014 -- 15 season, the team 's offense employed elements of the triangle offense from his playing days in Chicago under Phil Jackson, the spacing and pace of Gregg Popovich in San Antonio, and the uptempo principles Mike D'Antoni and later Alvin Gentry used in Phoenix when Kerr was the GM.
After the Warriors beat the Houston Rockets to win their 14th consecutive game, Kerr became the first coach to start his career with a 19 -- 2 record. This beat out Al Cervi and his 18 -- 2 start with the Syracuse Nationals. On December 10, 2014, Kerr became the first NBA rookie head coach to win 21 of his first 23 games. He was named the head coach of the Western Conference team for the 2015 NBA All - Star Game after Golden State had the best record in the conference. On April 4, the Warriors beat the Dallas Mavericks 123 -- 110 to clinch home - court advantage throughout the playoffs, and Kerr got his 63rd win of the season to become the highest winning rookie head coach in NBA history, passing Tom Thibodeau and his 62 wins with the Chicago Bulls in the 2010 -- 11 season. In the NBA Coach of the Year voting, Kerr was runner - up to Mike Budenholzer.
The Warriors ultimately finished with one of the best regular seasons in NBA history, and the greatest in the team 's 69 - year history. Golden State ended with an overall record of 67 -- 15, becoming the 10th team to win 67 or more games in a single season. It was the first time the Warriors had ever won as many as 60 games in a season; their previous high was 59 in the 1975 -- 76 season. The Warriors also ended with a 39 -- 2 home record, which is tied for the second best home record in NBA history. The Warriors were first in defensive efficiency for the season and second in offensive efficiency, barely missing the mark that the Julius Erving -- led Sixers achieved by being first in both offensive and defensive efficiency. They became the first team in NBA history to have two win streaks over 15 at home (18 and 19).
In the opening round of the playoffs against the New Orleans Pelicans, Kerr led the Warriors to their first four - game playoff sweep since the 1975 NBA Finals. Afterwards, the team surpassed the Memphis Grizzlies (4 -- 2, in the second round). Down 2 -- 1 in the series, Kerr made an unconventional adjustment in Game 4 to leave the Grizzlies ' Tony Allen open and have his defender, center Andrew Bogut, guard the interior. His strategy was lauded after Allen, Memphis ' best wing defender, was benched and limited to 16 minutes after missing wide open shots. The Warriors then defeated the Houston Rockets (4 -- 1, in the Western Conference Finals), making the NBA Finals for the first time in 40 years.
The Warriors faced the Cleveland Cavaliers in the Finals. Kerr and rival coach David Blatt were both in their first season as NBA head coaches, and this was the first time a pair of rookie head coaches faced each other in the NBA Finals since the NBA 's first year of existence, in 1947 with Eddie Gottlieb of the Philadelphia Warriors and Harold Olsen of the Chicago Stags competing. After the Warriors went down 2 -- 1 to Cleveland, Kerr started swingman Andre Iguodala in place of Bogut, jump - starting their stagnant offense for a 103 -- 82 road win that evened the series. It was Iguodala 's first start of the season, and the small unit came to be known as the Death Lineup. After the game, Kerr admitted to lying to the press in response to pregame questions about potential changes to his starting lineup. The Warriors went on to win the championship in six games, defeating the Cavaliers, 4 -- 2, in the series, to give Kerr his sixth championship and first as a head coach.
After the first two days of the defending champion Warriors ' training camp, Kerr took an indefinite leave of absence to rehabilitate his back, which had caused problems since the 2015 NBA Finals. Around this time, assistant coach Luke Walton assumed Kerr 's coaching duties. Kerr missed all of 2015 and most of January 2016, although technically the NBA credited Walton 's win - loss record to Kerr. Kerr said "I think it 's ridiculous '', when asked about getting all of Walton 's wins. On January 22, 2016, Kerr returned to coaching after missing 43 games, but warned he might need to miss games occasionally if there was a recurrence of the headaches and pain related to the spinal fluid leak that sidelined him. The Warriors went 39 -- 4 with interim coach Luke Walton. The Warriors went 34 - 5 after Kerr returned to coaching. Golden State broke the 1995 -- 96 Chicago Bulls 72 -- 10 record by winning 73 games. Kerr became the first person in NBA history to be a part of 70 - win teams as a player and head coach. He was named 2015 -- 16 NBA Coach of the Year. Kerr would lead the Warriors to the 2016 NBA Finals where they would again face the Cleveland Cavaliers. The Warriors lost in seven games.
On November 20, 2016, the NBA announced that Kerr had been fined $25,000 for public criticism of officiating during a radio interview with KNBR 680 on November 17. Kerr missed time during the 2017 playoffs due to recurring back issues. Associate head coach Mike Brown has acted as acting head coach during periods of Kerr 's absence, and Brown continued head coaching into the playoffs leading the Warriors to a 12 -- 0 record in the postseason. Kerr returned for the 2017 NBA Finals where he led the Warriors to victory over the Cleveland Cavaliers in five games. The Warriors finished the playoffs with a 16 -- 1 record, the best postseason winning percentage in NBA history. Kerr is the fourth coach in NBA history to win two championships in his first three seasons of coaching. Kerr won his third championship as a head coach when the Warriors defeated the Cleveland Cavaliers in the 2018 NBA Finals in four games to give Kerr his eighth championship of his career.
Kerr is third on the Warriors ' all - time wins list behind Don Nelson and Eddie Gottlieb, and only Nelson has won more games in the West Coast portion of Warriors history.
He married Margot Kerr, his college sweetheart, in 1990. The couple has three children: Nick, Maddy and Matthew.
Since the conclusion of the 2016 U.S. presidential election, Kerr has been critical of Donald Trump and his election victory. In an interview following the election, Kerr voiced the opinion that Trump 's rise to power was based on insults against women and minorities. He compared Trump 's campaign performances and the crude responses of his supporters to The Jerry Springer Show. Although he expressed hope that Trump would be a good president, he made clear his "disgust '' with Trump 's disrespectful public discourse and his disappointment with the election results.
(#) denotes interim head coach.
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what area of italy did the renaissance began | Italian Renaissance - wikipedia
Transition from the Middle Ages to the Modern era
Timeline
The Italian Renaissance (Italian: Rinascimento (rinaʃʃiˈmento)) was a period of European history that began in the 14th century (Trecento) and lasted until the 17th century (Seicento), marking the transition from the Medieval period to Modernity. The French word renaissance (Rinascimento in Italian) means "Rebirth '' and defines the period as one of cultural revival and renewed interest in classical antiquity after the centuries labeled the Dark Ages by Renaissance humanists. The Renaissance author Giorgio Vasari used the term "Rebirth '' in his Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects but the concept became widespread only in the 19th century, after the works of scholars such as Jules Michelet and Jacob Burckhardt.
The European Renaissance began in Tuscany (Central Italy), and centred in the city of Florence. Florence, one of the several city - states of the peninsula, rose to economic prominence by providing credit for European monarchs and laying down the groundwork for capitalism and banking. The Renaissance later spread to Venice, heart of a mediterranean empire and in control of the trade routes with the east since the participation in the crusades and the voyages of Marco Polo, where the remains of ancient Greek culture were brought together and provided humanist scholars with new texts. Finally the Renaissance had a significant effect on the Papal States and Rome, largely rebuilt by Humanist and Renaissance popes (such as Alexander VI and Julius II), who were frequently involved in Italian politics, in arbitrating disputes between competing colonial powers and in opposing the Reformation.
The Italian Renaissance is best known for its achievements in painting, architecture, sculpture, literature, music, philosophy, science and exploration. Italy became the recognized European leader in all these areas by the late 15th century, during the Peace of Lodi (1454 - 1494) agreed between Italian states. The Italian Renaissance peaked in the mid-16th century as domestic disputes and foreign invasions plunged the region into the turmoil of the Italian Wars (1494 - 1559). Following this conflict, smaller Italian states lost their independence and entered a period known as "foreign domination ''. However, the ideas and ideals of the Italian Renaissance endured and spread into the rest of Europe, setting off the Northern Renaissance. Italian explorers from the maritime republics served under the auspices of European monarchs, ushering the Age of discovery. The most famous among them are Cristopher Columbus who served for Spain, Giovanni da Verrazzano for France, Amerigo Vespucci for Portugal, and John Cabot for England. Italian universities attracted polymaths and scholars such as Copernicus, Vesalius, Galileo and Torricelli, playing a key role in the scientific revolution. Various events and dates of the 17th century, such as the conclusion of the European Wars of Religion in 1648, have been proposed for the end of the Renaissance.
Accounts of Renaissance literature usually begin with the three great poets of the 14th century: Dante Alighieri (Divine Comedy), Petrarch (Canzoniere) and Boccaccio (Decameron). Famous vernacular poets of the Renaissance include the renaissance epic authors Luigi Pulci (author of Morgante), Matteo Maria Boiardo (Orlando Innamorato), Ludovico Ariosto (Orlando Furioso) and Torquato Tasso (Jerusalem Delivered). 15th century writers such as the poet Poliziano and the Platonist philosopher Marsilio Ficino made extensive translations from both Latin and Greek. In the early 16th century, Castiglione laid out his vision of the ideal gentleman and lady in The Book of the Courtier, while Machiavelli cast a jaundiced eye on "la verità effettuale della cosa '' -- the actual truth of things -- in The Prince, composed, in humanistic style, chiefly of parallel ancient and modern examples of Virtù. Historians of the period include Machiavelli himself, his friend and critic Francesco Guicciardini and Giovanni Botero (The Reason of State). The Aldine Press, founded by the printer Aldo Manuzio, active in Venice, developed Italic type and portable printed books that could be carried in one 's pocket, as well as being the first to publish editions of books in Ancient Greek. Venice also became the birthplace of the Commedia dell'Arte.
Italian Renaissance art exercised a dominant influence on subsequent European painting and sculpture for centuries afterwards, with artists such as Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Raphael, Donatello, Giotto di Bondone, Masaccio, Fra Angelico, Piero della Francesca, Domenico Ghirlandaio, Perugino, Botticelli, and Titian. The same is true for architecture, as practiced by Brunelleschi, Leon Battista Alberti, Andrea Palladio, and Bramante. Their works include, to name only a few, the Florence Cathedral, St. Peter 's Basilica in Rome, and the Tempio Malatestiano in Rimini, as well as several private residences. The musical era of the Italian Renaissance was defined by the Roman School and later by the Venetian School and the birth of Opera in Florence. In philosophy, thinkers such as Galileo, Machiavelli, Giordano Bruno and Pico della Mirandola, emphasized naturalism and humanism, thus rejecting dogma and scholasticism.
By the Late Middle Ages (circa 1300 onward), Latium, the former heartland of the Roman Empire, and southern Italy were generally poorer than the North. Rome was a city of ancient ruins, and the Papal States were loosely administered, and vulnerable to external interference such as that of France, and later Spain. The Papacy was affronted when the Avignon Papacy was created in southern France as a consequence of pressure from King Philip the Fair of France. In the south, Sicily had for some time been under foreign domination, by the Arabs and then the Normans. Sicily had prospered for 150 years during the Emirate of Sicily and later for two centuries during the Norman Kingdom and the Hohenstaufen Kingdom, but had declined by the late Middle Ages.
In contrast, Northern and Central Italy had become far more prosperous, and it has been calculated that the region was among the richest of Europe. The Crusades had built lasting trade links to the Levant, and the Fourth Crusade had done much to destroy the Byzantine Roman Empire as a commercial rival to the Venetians and Genoese. The main trade routes from the east passed through the Byzantine Empire or the Arab lands and onward to the ports of Genoa, Pisa, and Venice. Luxury goods bought in the Levant, such as spices, dyes, and silks were imported to Italy and then resold throughout Europe. Moreover, the inland city - states profited from the rich agricultural land of the Po valley. From France, Germany, and the Low Countries, through the medium of the Champagne fairs, land and river trade routes brought goods such as wool, wheat, and precious metals into the region. The extensive trade that stretched from Egypt to the Baltic generated substantial surpluses that allowed significant investment in mining and agriculture. Thus, while northern Italy was not richer in resources than many other parts of Europe, the level of development, stimulated by trade, allowed it to prosper. In particular, Florence became one of the wealthiest of the cities of Northern Italy, mainly due to its woolen textile production, developed under the supervision of its dominant trade guild, the Arte della Lana. Wool was imported from Northern Europe (and in the 16th century from Spain) and together with dyes from the east were used to make high quality textiles.
The Italian trade routes that covered the Mediterranean and beyond were also major conduits of culture and knowledge. The recovery of lost Greek classics (and, to a lesser extent, Arab advancements on them) following the Crusader conquest of the Byzantine heartlands, revitalized medieval philosophy in the Renaissance of the 12th century, just as the refugee Byzantine scholars who migrated to Italy during and following the Turkish conquest of the Byzantines between the 12th and 15th centuries were important in sparking the new linguistic studies of the Renaissance, in newly created academies in Florence and Venice. Humanist scholars searched monastic libraries for ancient manuscripts and recovered Tacitus and other Latin authors. The rediscovery of Vitruvius meant that the architectural principles of Antiquity could be observed once more, and Renaissance artists were encouraged, in the atmosphere of humanist optimism, to excel the achievements of the Ancients, like Apelles, of whom they read.
In the 13th century, much of Europe experienced strong economic growth. The trade routes of the Italian states linked with those of established Mediterranean ports and eventually the Hanseatic League of the Baltic and northern regions of Europe to create a network economy in Europe for the first time since the 4th century. The city - states of Italy expanded greatly during this period and grew in power to become de facto fully independent of the Holy Roman Empire; apart from the Kingdom of Naples, outside powers kept their armies out of Italy. During this period, the modern commercial infrastructure developed, with double - entry book - keeping, joint stock companies, an international banking system, a systematized foreign exchange market, insurance, and government debt. Florence became the centre of this financial industry and the gold florin became the main currency of international trade.
The new mercantile governing class, who gained their position through financial skill, adapted to their purposes the feudal aristocratic model that had dominated Europe in the Middle Ages. A feature of the High Middle Ages in Northern Italy was the rise of the urban communes which had broken from the control by bishops and local counts. In much of the region, the landed nobility was poorer than the urban patriarchs in the High Medieval money economy whose inflationary rise left land - holding aristocrats impoverished. The increase in trade during the early Renaissance enhanced these characteristics. The decline of feudalism and the rise of cities influenced each other; for example, the demand for luxury goods led to an increase in trade, which led to greater numbers of tradesmen becoming wealthy, who, in turn, demanded more luxury goods. This atmosphere of assumed luxury of the time created a need for the creation of visual symbols of wealth, an important way to show a family 's affluence and taste.
This change also gave the merchants almost complete control of the governments of the Italian city - states, again enhancing trade. One of the most important effects of this political control was security. Those that grew extremely wealthy in a feudal state ran constant risk of running afoul of the monarchy and having their lands confiscated, as famously occurred to Jacques Coeur in France. The northern states also kept many medieval laws that severely hampered commerce, such as those against usury, and prohibitions on trading with non-Christians. In the city - states of Italy, these laws were repealed or rewritten.
The 14th century saw a series of catastrophes that caused the European economy to go into recession. The Medieval Warm Period was ending as the transition to the Little Ice Age began. This change in climate saw agricultural output decline significantly, leading to repeated famines, exacerbated by the rapid population growth of the earlier era. The Hundred Years ' War between England and France disrupted trade throughout northwest Europe, most notably when, in 1345, King Edward III of England repudiated his debts, contributing to the collapse of the two largest Florentine banks, those of the Bardi and Peruzzi. In the east, war was also disrupting trade routes, as the Ottoman Empire began to expand throughout the region. Most devastating, though, was the Black Death that decimated the populations of the densely populated cities of Northern Italy and returned at intervals thereafter. Florence, for instance, which had a pre-plague population of 45,000 decreased over the next 47 years by 25 -- 50 %. Widespread disorder followed, including a revolt of Florentine textile workers, the ciompi, in 1378.
It was during this period of instability that the Renaissance authors such as Dante and Petrarch lived, and the first stirrings of Renaissance art were to be seen, notably in the realism of Giotto. Paradoxically, some of these disasters would help establish the Renaissance. The Black Death wiped out a third of Europe 's population. The resulting labour shortage increased wages and the reduced population was therefore much wealthier, better fed, and, significantly, had more surplus money to spend on luxury goods. As incidences of the plague began to decline in the early 15th century, Europe 's devastated population once again began to grow. The new demand for products and services also helped create a growing class of bankers, merchants, and skilled artisans. The horrors of the Black Death and the seeming inability of the Church to provide relief would contribute to a decline of church influence. Additionally, the collapse of the Bardi and Peruzzi banks would open the way for the Medici to rise to prominence in Florence. Roberto Sabatino Lopez argues that the economic collapse was a crucial cause of the Renaissance. According to this view, in a more prosperous era, businessmen would have quickly reinvested their earnings in order to make more money in a climate favourable to investment. However, in the leaner years of the 14th century, the wealthy found few promising investment opportunities for their earnings and instead chose to spend more on culture and art.
Another popular explanation for the Italian Renaissance is the thesis, first advanced by historian Hans Baron, that states that the primary impetus of the early Renaissance was the long - running series of wars between Florence and Milan. By the late 14th century, Milan had become a centralized monarchy under the control of the Visconti family. Giangaleazzo Visconti, who ruled the city from 1378 to 1402, was renowned both for his cruelty and for his abilities, and set about building an empire in Northern Italy. He launched a long series of wars, with Milan steadily conquering neighbouring states and defeating the various coalitions led by Florence that sought in vain to halt the advance. This culminated in the 1402 siege of Florence, when it looked as though the city was doomed to fall, before Giangaleazzo suddenly died and his empire collapsed.
Baron 's thesis suggests that during these long wars, the leading figures of Florence rallied the people by presenting the war as one between the free republic and a despotic monarchy, between the ideals of the Greek and Roman Republics and those of the Roman Empire and Medieval kingdoms. For Baron, the most important figure in crafting this ideology was Leonardo Bruni. This time of crisis in Florence was the period when the most influential figures of the early Renaissance were coming of age, such as Ghiberti, Donatello, Masolino, and Brunelleschi. Inculcated with this republican ideology they later went on to advocate republican ideas that were to have an enormous impact on the Renaissance.
Northern Italy and upper Central Italy were divided into a number of warring city - states, the most powerful being Milan, Florence, Pisa, Siena, Genoa, Ferrara, Mantua, Verona and Venice. High Medieval Northern Italy was further divided by the long - running battle for supremacy between the forces of the Papacy and of the Holy Roman Empire: each city aligned itself with one faction or the other, yet was divided internally between the two warring parties, Guelfs and Ghibellines. Warfare between the states was common, invasion from outside Italy confined to intermittent sorties of Holy Roman Emperors. Renaissance politics developed from this background. Since the 13th century, as armies became primarily composed of mercenaries, prosperous city - states could field considerable forces, despite their low populations. In the course of the 15th century, the most powerful city - states annexed their smaller neighbors. Florence took Pisa in 1406, Venice captured Padua and Verona, while the Duchy of Milan annexed a number of nearby areas including Pavia and Parma.
The first part of the Renaissance saw almost constant warfare on land and sea as the city - states vied for preeminence. On land, these wars were primarily fought by armies of mercenaries known as condottieri, bands of soldiers drawn from around Europe, but especially Germany and Switzerland, led largely by Italian captains. The mercenaries were not willing to risk their lives unduly, and war became one largely of sieges and maneuvering, occasioning few pitched battles. It was also in the interest of mercenaries on both sides to prolong any conflict, to continue their employment. Mercenaries were also a constant threat to their employers; if not paid, they often turned on their patron. If it became obvious that a state was entirely dependent on mercenaries, the temptation was great for the mercenaries to take over the running of it themselves -- this occurred on a number of occasions.
At sea, Italian city - states sent many fleets out to do battle. The main contenders were Pisa, Genoa, and Venice, but after a long conflict the Genoese succeeded in reducing Pisa. Venice proved to be a more powerful adversary, and with the decline of Genoese power during the 15th century Venice became pre-eminent on the seas. In response to threats from the landward side, from the early 15th century Venice developed an increased interest in controlling the terrafirma as the Venetian Renaissance opened.
On land, decades of fighting saw Florence, Milan and Venice emerge as the dominant players, and these three powers finally set aside their differences and agreed to the Peace of Lodi in 1454, which saw relative calm brought to the region for the first time in centuries. This peace would hold for the next forty years, and Venice 's unquestioned hegemony over the sea also led to unprecedented peace for much of the rest of the 15th century. In the beginning of the 15th century, adventurer and traders such as Niccolò Da Conti (1395 -- 1469) traveled as far as Southeast Asia and back, bringing fresh knowledge on the state of the world, presaging further European voyages of exploration in the years to come.
Until the late 14th century, prior to the Medici, Florence 's leading family were the House of Albizzi. In 1293 the Ordinances of Justice were enacted which effectively became the constitution of the republic of Florence throughout the Italian Renaissance. The city 's numerous luxurious palazzi were becoming surrounded by townhouses, built by the ever prospering merchant class. In 1298, one of the leading banking families of Europe, the Bonsignoris, were bankrupted and so the city of Siena lost her status as the banking center of Europe to Florence.
The main challengers of the Albizzi family were the Medicis, first under Giovanni de ' Medici, later under his son Cosimo di Giovanni de ' Medici. The Medici controlled the Medici bank -- then Europe 's largest bank -- and an array of other enterprises in Florence and elsewhere. In 1433, the Albizzi managed to have Cosimo exiled. The next year, however, saw a pro-Medici Signoria elected and Cosimo returned. The Medici became the town 's leading family, a position they would hold for the next three centuries. Florence remained a republic until 1537, traditionally marking the end of the High Renaissance in Florence, but the instruments of republican government were firmly under the control of the Medici and their allies, save during the intervals after 1494 and 1527. Cosimo and Lorenzo rarely held official posts, but were the unquestioned leaders.
Cosimo de ' Medici was highly popular among the citizenry, mainly for bringing an era of stability and prosperity to the town. One of his most important accomplishments was negotiating the Peace of Lodi with Francesco Sforza ending the decades of war with Milan and bringing stability to much of Northern Italy. Cosimo was also an important patron of the arts, directly and indirectly, by the influential example he set.
Cosimo was succeeded by his sickly son Piero de ' Medici, who died after five years in charge of the city. In 1469 the reins of power passed to Cosimo 's twenty - one - year - old grandson Lorenzo, who would become known as "Lorenzo the Magnificent. '' Lorenzo was the first of the family to be educated from an early age in the humanist tradition and is best known as one of the Renaissance 's most important patrons of the arts. Under Lorenzo, the Medici rule was formalized with the creation of a new Council of Seventy, which Lorenzo headed. The republican institutions continued, but they lost all power. Lorenzo was less successful than his illustrious forebears in business, and the Medici commercial empire was slowly eroded. Lorenzo continued the alliance with Milan, but relations with the papacy soured, and in 1478, Papal agents allied with the Pazzi family in an attempt to assassinate Lorenzo. Although the plot failed, Lorenzo 's young brother, Giuliano, was killed, and the failed assassination led to a war with the Papacy and was used as justification to further centralize power in Lorenzo 's hands.
Renaissance ideals first spread from Florence to the neighbouring states of Tuscany such as Siena and Lucca. The Tuscan culture soon became the model for all the states of Northern Italy, and the Tuscan variety of Italian came to predominate throughout the region, especially in literature. In 1447 Francesco Sforza came to power in Milan and rapidly transformed that still medieval city into a major centre of art and learning that drew Leone Battista Alberti. Venice, one of the wealthiest cities due to its control of the Adriatic Sea, also became a centre for Renaissance culture, especially architecture. Smaller courts brought Renaissance patronage to lesser cities, which developed their characteristic arts: Ferrara, Mantua under the Gonzaga, and Urbino under Federico da Montefeltro. In Naples, the Renaissance was ushered in under the patronage of Alfonso I who conquered Naples in 1443 and encouraged artists like Francesco Laurana and Antonello da Messina and writers like the poet Jacopo Sannazaro and the humanist scholar Angelo Poliziano.
In 1417 the Papacy returned to Rome, but that once imperial city remained poor and largely in ruins through the first years of the Renaissance. The great transformation began under Pope Nicholas V, who became pontiff in 1447. He launched a dramatic rebuilding effort that would eventually see much of the city renewed. The humanist scholar Aeneas Silvius Piccolomini became Pope Pius II in 1458. As the papacy fell under the control of the wealthy families, such as the Medici and the Borgias the spirit of Renaissance art and philosophy came to dominate the Vatican. Pope Sixtus IV continued Nicholas ' work, most famously ordering the construction of the Sistine Chapel. The popes also became increasingly secular rulers as the Papal States were forged into a centralized power by a series of "warrior popes ''.
The nature of the Renaissance also changed in the late 15th century. The Renaissance ideal was fully adopted by the ruling classes and the aristocracy. In the early Renaissance artists were seen as craftsmen with little prestige or recognition. By the later Renaissance the top figures wielded great influence and could charge great fees. A flourishing trade in Renaissance art developed. While in the early Renaissance many of the leading artists were of lower - or middle - class origins, increasingly they became aristocrats.
As a cultural movement, the Italian Renaissance affected only a small part of the population. Italy was the most urbanized region of Europe, but three quarters of the people were still rural peasants. For this section of the population, life remained essentially unchanged from the Middle Ages. Classic feudalism had never been prominent in Northern Italy, and most peasants worked on private farms or as sharecroppers. Some scholars see a trend towards refeudalization in the later Renaissance as the urban elites turned themselves into landed aristocrats.
The situation differed in the cities. These were dominated by a commercial elite; as exclusive as the aristocracy of any Medieval kingdom. This group became the main patrons of and audience for Renaissance culture. Below them there was a large class of artisans and guild members who lived comfortable lives and had significant power in the republican governments. This was in sharp contrast to the rest of Europe where artisans were firmly in the lower class. Literate and educated, this group did participate in the Renaissance culture. The largest section of the urban population was the urban poor of semi-skilled workers and the unemployed. Like the peasants, the Renaissance had little effect on them. Historians debate how easy it was to move between these groups during the Italian Renaissance. Examples of individuals who rose from humble beginnings can be instanced, but Burke notes two major studies in this area that have found that the data do not clearly demonstrate an increase in social mobility. Most historians feel that early in the Renaissance social mobility was quite high, but that it faded over the course of the 15th century. Inequality in society was very high. An upper - class figure would control hundreds of times more income than a servant or labourer. Some historians see this unequal distribution of wealth as important to the Renaissance, as art patronage relies on the very wealthy.
The Renaissance was not a period of great social or economic change, only of cultural and ideological development. It only touched a small fraction of the population, and in modern times this has led many historians, such as any that follow historical materialism, to reduce the importance of the Renaissance in human history. These historians tend to think in terms of "Early Modern Europe '' instead. Roger Osborne argues that "The Renaissance is a difficult concept for historians because the history of Europe quite suddenly turns into a history of Italian painting, sculpture and architecture. ''
The end of the Renaissance is as imprecisely marked as its starting point. For many, the rise to power in Florence of the austere monk Girolamo Savonarola in 1494 - 1498 marks the end of the city 's flourishing; for others, the triumphant return of the Medici marks the beginning of the late phase in the arts called Mannerism. Other accounts trace the end of the Italian Renaissance to the French invasions of the early 16th century and the subsequent conflict between France and Spanish rulers for control of Italian territory. Savonarola rode to power on a widespread backlash over the secularism and indulgence of the Renaissance -- his brief rule saw many works of art destroyed in the "Bonfire of the Vanities '' in the centre of Florence. With the Medici returned to power, now as Grand Dukes of Tuscany, the counter movement in the church continued. In 1542 the Sacred Congregation of the Inquisition was formed and a few years later the Index Librorum Prohibitorum banned a wide array of Renaissance works of literature, which marks the end of the illuminated manuscript together with Giulio Clovio, who is considered the greatest illuminator of the Italian High Renaissance, and arguably the last very notable artist in the long tradition of the illuminated manuscript, before some modern revivals.
Equally important was the end of stability with a series of foreign invasions of Italy known as the Italian Wars that would continue for several decades. These began with the 1494 invasion by France that wreaked widespread devastation on Northern Italy and ended the independence of many of the city - states. Most damaging was the May 6, 1527, Spanish and German troops ' sacking Rome that for two decades all but ended the role of the Papacy as the largest patron of Renaissance art and architecture.
While the Italian Renaissance was fading, the Northern Renaissance adopted many of its ideals and transformed its styles. A number of Italy 's greatest artists chose to emigrate. The most notable example was Leonardo da Vinci who left for France in 1516, but teams of lesser artists invited to transform the Château de Fontainebleau created the school of Fontainebleau that infused the style of the Italian Renaissance in France. From Fontainebleau, the new styles, transformed by Mannerism, brought the Renaissance to Antwerp and thence throughout Northern Europe.
This spread north was also representative of a larger trend. No longer was the Mediterranean Europe 's most important trade route. In 1498, Vasco da Gama reached India, and from that date the primary route of goods from the Orient was through the Atlantic ports of Lisbon, Seville, Nantes, Bristol, and London.
The thirteenth - century Italian literary revolution helped set the stage for the Renaissance. Prior to the Renaissance, the Italian language was not the literary language in Italy. It was only in the 13th century that Italian authors began writing in their native language rather than Latin, French, or Provençal. The 1250s saw a major change in Italian poetry as the Dolce Stil Novo (Sweet New Style, which emphasized Platonic rather than courtly love) came into its own, pioneered by poets like Guittone d'Arezzo and Guido Guinizelli. Especially in poetry, major changes in Italian literature had been taking place decades before the Renaissance truly began.
With the printing of books initiated in Venice by Aldus Manutius, an increasing number of works began to be published in the Italian language in addition to the flood of Latin and Greek texts that constituted the mainstream of the Italian Renaissance. The source for these works expanded beyond works of theology and towards the pre-Christian eras of Imperial Rome and Ancient Greece. This is not to say that no religious works were published in this period: Dante Alighieri 's The Divine Comedy reflects a distinctly medieval world view. Christianity remained a major influence for artists and authors, with the classics coming into their own as a second primary influence.
In the early Italian Renaissance, much of the focus was on translating and studying classic works from Latin and Greek. Renaissance authors were not content to rest on the laurels of ancient authors, however. Many authors attempted to integrate the methods and styles of the ancient Greeks into their own works. Among the most emulated Romans are Cicero, Horace, Sallust, and Virgil. Among the Greeks, Aristotle, Homer, and Plato were now being read in the original for the first time since the 4th century, though Greek compositions were few.
The literature and poetry of the Renaissance was largely influenced by the developing science and philosophy. The humanist Francesco Petrarch, a key figure in the renewed sense of scholarship, was also an accomplished poet, publishing several important works of poetry. He wrote poetry in Latin, notably the Punic War epic Africa, but is today remembered for his works in the Italian vernacular, especially the Canzoniere, a collection of love sonnets dedicated to his unrequited love Laura. He was the foremost writer of sonnets in Italian, and translations of his work into English by Thomas Wyatt established the sonnet form in that country, where it was employed by William Shakespeare and countless other poets.
Petrarch 's disciple, Giovanni Boccaccio, became a major author in his own right. His major work was the Decameron, a collection of 100 stories told by ten storytellers who have fled to the outskirts of Florence to escape the black plague over ten nights. The Decameron in particular and Boccaccio 's work in general were a major source of inspiration and plots for many English authors in the Renaissance, including Geoffrey Chaucer and William Shakespeare.
Aside from Christianity, classical antiquity, and scholarship, a fourth influence on Renaissance literature was politics. The political philosopher Niccolò Machiavelli 's most famous works are Discourses on Livy, Florentine Histories and finally The Prince, which has become so well known in Western society that the term "Machiavellian '' has come to refer to the realpolitik advocated by the book. However, what is ordinarily called "Machiavellianism '' is a simplified textbook view of this single work rather than an accurate term for his philosophy. Further, it is not at all clear that Machiavelli himself was the apologist for immorality as whom he is often portrayed: the basic problem is the apparent contradiction between the monarchism of The Prince and the republicanism of the Discourses. Regardless, along with many other Renaissance works, The Prince remains a relevant and influential work of literature today.
One role of Petrarch is as the founder of a new method of scholarship, Renaissance Humanism.
Petrarch encouraged the study of the Latin classics and carried his copy of Homer about, at a loss to find someone to teach him to read Greek. An essential step in the humanist education being propounded by scholars like Pico della Mirandola was the hunting down of lost or forgotten manuscripts that were known only by reputation. These endeavors were greatly aided by the wealth of Italian patricians, merchant - princes and despots, who would spend substantial sums building libraries. Discovering the past had become fashionable and it was a passionate affair pervading the upper reaches of society. I go, said Cyriac of Ancona, I go to awake the dead. As the Greek works were acquired, manuscripts found, libraries and museums formed, the age of the printing press was dawning. The works of Antiquity were translated from Greek and Latin into the contemporary modern languages throughout Europe, finding a receptive middle - class audience, which might be, like Shakespeare, "with little Latin and less Greek ''.
While concern for philosophy, art and literature all increased greatly in the Renaissance the period is usually seen as one of scientific backwardness. The reverence for classical sources further enshrined the Aristotelian and Ptolemaic views of the universe. Humanism stressed that nature came to be viewed as an animate spiritual creation that was not governed by laws or mathematics. At the same time philosophy lost much of its rigour as the rules of logic and deduction were seen as secondary to intuition and emotion.
According to some recent scholarship, the ' father of modern science ' is Leonardo da Vinci whose experiments and clear scientific method earn him this title, Italian universities such as Padua, Bologna and Pisa were scientific centres of renown and with many northern European students, the science of the Renaissance moved to Northern Europe and flourished there, with such figures as Copernicus, Francis Bacon, and Descartes. Galileo, a contemporary of Bacon and Descartes, made an immense contribution to scientific thought and experimentation, paving the way for the scientific revolution that later flourished in Northern Europe. Bodies were also stolen from gallows and examined by many like Vesalius, a professor of anatomy. This allowed them to create accurate skeleton models and correct previously believed theories. For example, many thought that the human jawbone was made up of two bones, as they had seen this on animals. However through examining human corpses they were able to understand that humans actually have only one.
In painting, the false dawn of Giotto 's Trecento realism, his fully three - dimensional figures occupying a rational space, and his humanist interest in expressing the individual personality rather than the iconic images, was followed by a retreat into conservative late Gothic conventions.
The Italian Renaissance in painting began anew, in Florence and Tuscany, with the frescoes of Masaccio, then the panel paintings and frescos of Piero della Francesca and Paolo Uccello which began to enhance the realism of their work by using new techniques in perspective, thus representing three dimensions in two - dimensional art more authentically. Piero della Francesca wrote treatises on scientific perspective. The creation of credible space allowed artists to also focus on the accurate representation of the human body and on naturalistic landscapes. Masaccio 's figures have a plasticity unknown up to that point in time. Compared to the flatness of Gothic painting, his pictures were revolutionary. Around 1459 San Zeno Altarpiece (Mantegna), it was probably the first good example of Renaissance painting in Northern Italy a model for all Verona 's painters, for example Girolamo dai Libri. At the turn of the 16th century, especially in Northern Italy, artists also began to use new techniques in the manipulation of light and darkness, such as the tone contrast evident in many of Titian 's portraits and the development of sfumato and chiaroscuro by Leonardo da Vinci and Giorgione. The period also saw the first secular (non-religious) themes. There has been much debate as to the degree of secularism in the Renaissance, which had been emphasized by early 20th - century writers like Jacob Burckhardt, based on, among other things, the presence of a relatively small number of mythological paintings. Those of Botticelli, notably The Birth of Venus and Primavera, are now among the best known, although he was deeply religious (becoming a follower of Savonarola) and the great majority of his output was of traditional religious paintings or portraits.
In sculpture, Donatello 's (1386 -- 1466) study of classical sculpture led to his development of classicizing positions (such as the contrapposto pose) and subject matter (like the unsupported nude -- his second sculpture of David was the first free - standing bronze nude created in Europe since the Roman Empire.) The progress made by Donatello was influential on all who followed; perhaps the greatest of whom is Michelangelo, whose David of 1500 is also a male nude study; more naturalistic than Donatello 's and with greater emotional intensity. Both sculptures are standing in contrapposto, their weight shifted to one leg.
The period known as the High Renaissance represents the culmination of the goals of the earlier period, namely the accurate representation of figures in space rendered with credible motion and in an appropriately decorous style. The most famous painters from this phase are Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, and Michelangelo. Their images are among the most widely known works of art in the world. Leonardo 's Last Supper, Raphael 's The School of Athens and Michelangelo 's Sistine Chapel Ceiling are the masterpieces of the period.
High Renaissance painting evolved into Mannerism, especially in Florence. Mannerist artists, who consciously rebelled against the principles of High Renaissance, tend to represent elongated figures in illogical spaces. Modern scholarship has recognized the capacity of Mannerist art to convey strong (often religious) emotion where the High Renaissance failed to do so. Some of the main artists of this period are Pontormo, Bronzino, Rosso Fiorentino, Parmigianino and Raphael 's pupil Giulio Romano.
In Florence, the Renaissance style was introduced with a revolutionary but incomplete monument in Rimini by Leone Battista Alberti. Some of the earliest buildings showing Renaissance characteristics are Filippo Brunelleschi 's church of San Lorenzo and the Pazzi Chapel. The interior of Santo Spirito expresses a new sense of light, clarity and spaciousness, which is typical of the early Italian Renaissance. Its architecture reflects the philosophy of Humanism, the enlightenment and clarity of mind as opposed to the darkness and spirituality of the Middle Ages. The revival of classical antiquity can best be illustrated by the Palazzo Rucellai. Here the pilasters follow the superposition of classical orders, with Doric capitals on the ground floor, Ionic capitals on the piano nobile and Corinthian capitals on the uppermost floor.
In Mantua, Leone Battista Alberti ushered in the new antique style, though his culminating work, Sant'Andrea, was not begun until 1472, after the architect 's death.
The High Renaissance, as we call the style today, was introduced to Rome with Donato Bramante 's Tempietto at San Pietro in Montorio (1502) and his original centrally planned St. Peter 's Basilica (1506), which was the most notable architectural commission of the era, influenced by almost all notable Renaissance artists, including Michelangelo and Giacomo della Porta. The beginning of the late Renaissance in 1550 was marked by the development of a new column order by Andrea Palladio. Colossal columns that were two or more stories tall decorated the facades.
In Italy during the 14th century there was an explosion of musical activity that corresponded in scope and level of innovation to the activity in the other arts. Although musicologists typically group the music of the Trecento (music of the 14th century) with the late medieval period, it included features which align with the early Renaissance in important ways: an increasing emphasis on secular sources, styles and forms; a spreading of culture away from ecclesiastical institutions to the nobility, and even to the common people; and a quick development of entirely new techniques. The principal forms were the Trecento madrigal, the caccia, and the ballata. Overall, the musical style of the period is sometimes labelled as the "Italian ars nova. '' From the early 15th century to the middle of the 16th century, the center of innovation in sacred music was in the Low Countries, and a flood of talented composers came to Italy from this region. Many of them sang in either the papal choir in Rome or the choirs at the numerous chapels of the aristocracy, in Rome, Venice, Florence, Milan, Ferrara and elsewhere; and they brought their polyphonic style with them, influencing many native Italian composers during their stay.
The predominant forms of church music during the period were the mass and the motet. By far the most famous composer of church music in 16th century Italy was Palestrina, the most prominent member of the Roman School, whose style of smooth, emotionally cool polyphony was to become the defining sound of the late 16th century, at least for generations of 19th - and 20th century musicologists. Other Italian composers of the late 16th century focused on composing the main secular form of the era, the madrigal: and for almost a hundred years these secular songs for multiple singers were distributed all over Europe. Composers of madrigals included Jacques Arcadelt, at the beginning of the age, Cipriano de Rore, in the middle of the century, and Luca Marenzio, Philippe de Monte, Carlo Gesualdo, and Claudio Monteverdi at the end of the era. Italy was also a centre of innovation in instrumental music. By the early 16th century keyboard improvisation came to be greatly valued, and numerous composers of virtuoso keyboard music appeared. Many familiar instruments were invented and perfected in late Renaissance Italy, such as the violin, the earliest forms of which came into use in the 1550s.
By the late 16th century Italy was the musical centre of Europe. Almost all of the innovations which were to define the transition to the Baroque period originated in northern Italy in the last few decades of the century. In Venice, the polychoral productions of the Venetian School, and associated instrumental music, moved north into Germany; in Florence, the Florentine Camerata developed monody, the important precursor to opera, which itself first appeared around 1600; and the avant - garde, manneristic style of the Ferrara school, which migrated to Naples and elsewhere through the music of Carlo Gesualdo, was to be the final statement of the polyphonic vocal music of the Renaissance.
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who came first barry allen or wally west | Flash (Comics) - wikipedia
The Flash (or simply Flash) is the name of several superheroes appearing in comic books published by DC Comics. Created by writer Gardner Fox and artist Harry Lampert, the original Flash first appeared in Flash Comics # 1 (cover date January 1940 / release month November 1939). Nicknamed the "Scarlet Speedster '', all incarnations of the Flash possess "super speed '', which includes the ability to run, move, and think extremely fast, use superhuman reflexes, and seemingly violate certain laws of physics.
Thus far, at least four different characters -- each of whom somehow gained the power of "the speed force '' -- have assumed the mantle of the Flash in DC 's history: college athlete Jay Garrick (1940 -- 1951, 1961 -- 2011, 2017 -- present), forensic scientist Barry Allen (1956 -- 1985, 2008 -- present), Barry 's nephew Wally West (1986 -- 2011, 2016 -- present), and Barry 's grandson Bart Allen (2006 -- 2007). Each incarnation of the Flash has been a key member of at least one of DC 's premier teams: the Justice Society of America, the Justice League, and the Teen Titans.
The Flash is one of DC Comics ' most popular characters and has been integral to the publisher 's many reality - changing "crisis '' storylines over the years. The original meeting of the Golden Age Flash Jay Garrick and Silver Age Flash Barry Allen in "Flash of Two Worlds '' (1961) introduced the Multiverse storytelling concept to DC readers, which would become the basis for many DC stories in the years to come.
Like his Justice League colleagues Wonder Woman, Superman and Batman, the Flash has a distinctive cast of adversaries, including the various Rogues (unique among DC supervillains for their code of honor) and the various psychopathic "speedsters '' who go by the names Reverse - Flash or Zoom. Other supporting characters in Flash stories include Barry 's wife Iris West, Wally 's wife Linda Park, Bart 's girlfriend Valerie Perez, friendly fellow speedster Max Mercury, and Central City police department members David Singh and Patty Spivot.
A staple of the comic book DC Universe, the Flash has been adapted to numerous DC films, video games, animated series, and live - action television shows. In live action, Barry Allen has been portrayed by Rod Haase for the 1979 television special Legends of the Superheroes, John Wesley Shipp and Grant Gustin in the 1990 The Flash series and the 2014 The Flash series, respectively, as well as by Ezra Miller in the DC Extended Universe series of films, beginning with Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice (2016). Shipp also portrays a version of Jay Garrick in the 2014 The Flash series. The various incarnations of the Flash also feature in animated series such as Superman: The Animated Series, Justice League, Batman: The Brave and the Bold and Young Justice, as well as the DC Universe Animated Original Movies series.
The Flash first appeared in the Golden Age Flash Comics # 1 (January 1940), from All - American Publications, one of three companies that would eventually merge to form DC Comics. Created by writer Gardner Fox and artist Harry Lampert, this Flash was Jay Garrick, a college student who gained his speed through the inhalation of hard water vapors. When re-introduced in the 1960s Garrick 's origin was modified slightly, gaining his powers through exposure to heavy water.
Jay Garrick was a popular character in the 1940s, supporting both Flash Comics and All - Flash Quarterly (later published bi-monthly as simply All - Flash); co-starring in Comic Cavalcade; and being a charter member of the Justice Society of America, the first superhero team, whose adventures ran in All Star Comics. With superheroes ' post-war decline in popularity, Flash Comics was canceled with issue # 104 (1949) which featured an Evil version of the Flash called the Rival. The Justice Society 's final Golden Age story ran in All Star Comics # 57 (1951; the title itself continued, as All Star Western).
In 1956, DC Comics successfully revived superheroes, ushering in what became known as the Silver Age of comic books. Rather than bringing back the same Golden Age heroes, DC rethought them as new characters for the modern age. The Flash was the first revival, in the aptly named tryout comic book Showcase # 4 (Oct. 1956).
This new Flash was (Barry Allen), a police scientist who gained super-speed when bathed by chemicals after a shelf of them was struck by lightning. He adopted the name The Scarlet Speedster after reading a comic book featuring the Golden Age Flash. After several more appearances in Showcase, Allen 's character was given his own title, The Flash, the first issue of which was # 105 (resuming where Flash Comics had left off). Barry Allen and the new Flash were created by writers Robert Kanigher and John Broome and cartoonist Carmine Infantino.
The Silver Age Flash proved popular enough that several other Golden Age heroes were revived in new incarnations (see: Green Lantern). A new superhero team, the Justice League of America, was also created, with the Flash as a main, charter member.
Barry Allen 's title also introduced a much - imitated plot device into superhero comics when it was revealed that Garrick and Allen existed on fictional parallel worlds. Their powers allowed them to cross the dimensional boundary between worlds, and the men became good friends. Flash of Two Worlds (The Flash (vol. 1) # 123) was the first crossover in which a Golden Age character met a Silver Age character. Soon, there were crossovers between the entire Justice League and the Justice Society; their respective teams began an annual get - together which endured from the early 1960s until the mid-1980s.
Allen 's adventures continued in his own title until the event of Crisis on Infinite Earths. The Flash ended as a series with issue # 350. Allen 's life had become considerably confused in the early 1980s, and DC elected to end his adventures and pass the mantle on to another character. Allen died heroically in Crisis on Infinite Earths # 8 (1985). Thanks to his ability to travel through time, he would continue to appear occasionally in the years to come.
The third Flash was Wally West, introduced in The Flash (vol. 1) # 110 (Dec. 1959) as Kid Flash. West, Allen 's nephew by marriage, gained the Flash 's powers through an accident identical to Allen 's. Adopting the identity of Kid Flash, he maintained membership in the Teen Titans for years. Following Allen 's death, West adopted the Flash identity in Crisis on Infinite Earths # 12 and was given his own series, beginning with The Flash (vol. 2) # 1 in 1987. Many issues began with the catchphrase: "My name is Wally West. I 'm the fastest man alive. ''
Due to the Infinite Crisis miniseries and the "One Year Later '' jump in time in the DC Universe, DC canceled The Flash (vol. 2) in January 2006 at # 230. A new series, The Flash: The Fastest Man Alive, began on June 21, 2006. The initial story arc of this series, written by Danny Bilson and Paul De Meo with art by Ken Lashley, focused on Bart Allen 's acceptance of the role of the Flash.
Flash: Fastest Man Alive was canceled with issue # 13. In its place The Flash (vol. 2) was revived with issue # 231, with Mark Waid as the initial writer. Waid also wrote All - Flash # 1, which acted as the bridge between the two series. DC had solicited Flash: Fastest Man Alive through issue # 15. All Flash # 1 replaced issue # 14 and The Flash (vol. 2) # 231 replaced issue # 15 in title and interior creative team only. The covers and cover artists were as solicited by DC, and the information text released was devoid of any plot information.
In 2009, Barry Allen made a full - fledged return to the DCU - proper in The Flash: Rebirth, a six - issue miniseries by Geoff Johns and Ethan Van Sciver.
While several other individuals have used the name Flash, these have lived either on other parallel worlds, or in the future. Jay Garrick, Barry Allen, and Wally West are the best - known exemplars of the identity. The signature wingdings are never absent.
Jay Garrick was a college student in 1938 who accidentally inhaled heavy water vapors after taking a smoke break inside his laboratory where he had been working. As a result, he found that he could run at superhuman speed and had similarly fast reflexes. After a brief career as a college football star, he donned a red shirt with a lightning bolt and a stylized metal helmet with wings (based on images of the Greek deity Hermes), and began to fight crime as the Flash. His first case involved battling the "Faultless Four '', a group of blackmailers. Garrick kept his identity secret for years without a mask by continually vibrating his body while in public so that any photograph of his face would be blurred. Although originally from Earth - Two, he was incorporated into the history of New Earth following the Crisis on Infinite Earths and is still active as the Flash operating out of Keystone City. He is a member of the Justice Society.
Barry Allen is an assistant scientist from the Criminal and Forensic Science Division of Central City Police Department. Barry had a reputation for being very slow, deliberate, and frequently late, which frustrated his fiancée, Iris West. One night, as he was preparing to leave work, a freak lightning bolt struck a nearby shelf in his lab and doused him with a cocktail of unnamed chemicals. As a result, Barry found that he could run extremely fast and had matching reflexes. He donned a set of red tights sporting a lightning bolt (reminiscent of the original Fawcett Comics Captain Marvel), dubbed himself the Flash (after his childhood hero, Jay Garrick), and became a crimefighter active in Central City. In his civilian identity, he stores the costume compressed in a special ring via the use of a special gas that could compress cloth fibers to a very small fraction of their normal size.
Barry sacrificed his life for the universe in the 1985 maxi - series Crisis on Infinite Earths, and remained dead for over twenty years after that story 's publication. With the 2008 series Final Crisis, Barry returned to the DC Universe and returned to full prominence as the Flash in the 2009 series The Flash: Rebirth, which was soon after followed by a new volume of The Flash ongoing series, where Barry 's adventures as the Scarlet Speedster are currently published.
Wallace Rudolph "Wally '' West is the nephew of both Iris West and Barry Allen, by marriage, and was introduced in The Flash (vol. 1) # 110 (1959). When West was about ten years old, he was visiting his uncle 's police laboratory, and the freak accident that gave Allen his powers repeated itself, bathing West in electrically - charged chemicals. Now possessing the same powers as his uncle, West donned a copy of his uncle 's outfit and became the young, crime fighter, Kid Flash. After the events of Crisis on Infinite Earths where Barry Allen was killed, Wally took over as the fastest man alive. Following the events of Infinite Crisis, Wally, his wife Linda, and their twins left Earth for an unknown dimension.
Wally, his wife and twins were pulled back from the Speed Force by the Legion of Super-Heroes at the conclusion of The Lightning Saga. This set the stage for Wally West 's return as the Flash after the events of The Flash: Fastest Man Alive # 13 (see Bart Allen), in All Flash # 1, and with The Flash (vol. 2) series, which resumed with issue # 231 in August 2007. It subsequently ends with issue # 247, and West, along with all the other Flash characters, play a large role in 2009 's The Flash: Rebirth. He briefly appears in the Blackest Night story arc but shortly after the New 52 was launched and the character was nowhere to be seen. He is back as the Flash in DC Rebirth and joined the Titans.
Bartholomew Henry "Bart '' Allen II is the grandson of Barry Allen and his wife Iris. Bart suffered from accelerated aging and, as a result, was raised in a virtual reality machine until Iris took him back in time to get help from the then - current Flash, Wally West. With Wally 's help, Bart 's aging slowed, and he took the name Impulse. After he was shot in the knee by Deathstroke, Bart changed both his attitude and his costume, taking the mantle of Kid Flash. During the events of Infinite Crisis, the Speed Force vanished, taking with it all the speedsters save Jay Garrick. Bart returned, four years older, and for a year claimed that he was depowered from the event. However, the Speed Force had not disappeared completely, but had been absorbed into Bart 's body; essentially, he now contained all of the Speed Force.
Bart 's costume as the Flash was a clone of his grandfather 's, similarly stylized to Wally West 's. Not long after taking the mantle of the Flash, Bart was killed by the Rogues in the thirteenth (and final) issue of The Flash: The Fastest Man Alive. However, he was later resurrected in the 31st century in Final Crisis: Legion of 3 Worlds # 3 by Brainiac 5 to combat Superboy - Prime and the Legion of Super-Villains. Bart returned to the past and played a large role in The Flash: Rebirth.
Dark Flash is a Doppelganger of The Flash from Earth - X. His true identity has not yet been revealed. The Dark Flash is scheduled to be a villain for the crossover event between The Flash, Supergirl, Green Arrow and The Legends. He is n't a Flash from the future that becomes the good Flash, He is just a version.
Daughter of the speedster Johnny Quick, Jesse Chambers becomes a speeding superhero like her father. She later meets Wally West, the Flash, who asks her to be his replacement if something were to happen to him (as part of an elaborate plan on his part, trying to force Bart Allen to take his role in the legacy of the Flash more seriously). She briefly assumes the mantle of the Flash, after Wally enters the Speed Force.
John Fox was a historian for the National Academy of Science in Central City in the 27th Century. He was sent back in time to get the help of one or more of the three Flashes (Garrick, Allen, West), in order to defeat the radioactive villain Mota back in Fox 's own time period. (Each Flash had individually fought Mota over the course of several years in the 20th century.) Fox 's mission was a failure, but during his return trip, the tachyon radiation that sent him through the time stream gave him superspeed. He defeated Mota as a new iteration of the Flash and operated as his century 's Flash for a time. Shortly after, he moved to the 853rd century and joined "Justice Legion A '' (also known as Justice Legion Alpha) as seen in the DC One Million series of books. The name "John Fox '' is combined from the names of seminal comic book writers John Broome, who co-created the Barry Allen and Wally West Flashes, and Gardner Fox, who co-created the Jay Garrick Flash.
The father of Sela Allen, his wife and daughter were captured by Cobalt Blue. He is forced to watch his wife die and his daughter become crippled. As he and Max Mercury kill Cobalt Blue, a child takes Cobalt Blue 's power gem and kills Allen. This Flash is one of the two destined Flashes to be killed by Cobalt Blue.
Sela Allen is an ordinary human in the 23rd century until Cobalt Blue steals electrical impulses away from her, causing her to become as slow to the world as the world is to the Flash. Hoping to restore her, her father takes her into the Speed Force. When her father is killed, she appears as a living manifestation of the Speed Force, able to lend speed to various people and objects, but unable to physically interact with the world.
Blaine Allen and his son live on the colony world of Petrus in the 28th century. In an attempt to end the Allen blood line, Cobalt Blue injects Allen 's son Jace with a virus. Lacking super speed, Jace was unable to shake off the virus. In despair, Blaine takes his son to the Speed Force in the hopes that it would accept him. It takes Blaine instead and grants super speed to Jace so that he can shake off the sickness.
Jace Allen gains super speed when his father brings him into the Speed Force to attempt to cure him of a virus injected into his body by Cobalt Blue in an attempt to end the Allen bloodline. In memory of his father, Jace assumes the mantle of the Flash and continues the feud against Cobalt Blue.
After an alien creature invades Earth, a history buff named Kriyad travels back in time from the 98th century to acquire a Green Lantern power ring. He fails, so he tries to capture the Flash 's speed instead. After being beaten by Barry Allen (The Flash (vol. 1) # 309, May 1982), he travels back further in time and uses the chemicals from the clothes Barry Allen was wearing when he gained his powers to give himself super speed. Kryiad later sacrifices his life to defeat the alien creature.
Bizarro - Flash was created when Bizarro cloned Flash. He had a costume the reverse colors of Flash 's, however he had a mallet symbol because Flash was holding one when he was cloned. The modern version of Bizarro Flash has the symbol of a thunderbolt - shaped mustard stain. He has the powers of the Flash but he is completely intangible.
All incarnations of the Flash can move, think, and react at light speeds as well as having superhuman endurance that allows them to run incredible distances. Some, notably later versions, can vibrate so fast that they can pass through walls in a process called quantum tunneling, travel through time and can also lend and borrow speed. Speedsters can also heal more rapidly than an average human.
On several occasions, the Flash has raced against Superman, either to determine who is faster or as part of a mutual effort to thwart some type of threat; these races, however, often resulted in ties because of outside circumstances. Writer Jim Shooter and artist Curt Swan crafted the story "Superman 's Race With the Flash! '' in Superman # 199 (Aug. 1967) which featured the first race between the Flash and Superman. Writer E. Nelson Bridwell and artist Ross Andru produced "The Race to the End of the Universe '', a follow - up story four months later in The Flash # 175 (Dec. 1967). However, after the DC Universe revision after Crisis on Infinite Earths, the Flash does successfully beat Superman in a race in Adventures of Superman # 463 with the explanation that Superman is not accustomed to running at high speed for extended periods of time since flying is more versatile and less strenuous, which means the far more practiced Flash has the advantage. After Final Crisis in Flash: Rebirth # 3 the Flash is shown as being significantly faster than Superman, able to outrun him as Superman struggles to keep up with him. He reveals that all the close races between them before had been "for charity ''. In the Smallville episode "Run '', Flash is not only able to run faster than a pre-Superman Clark Kent but can match Clark 's top speed while running backwards.
While various incarnations of the Flash have proven their ability to run at light speed, the ability to steal speed from other objects allows respective Flashes to even significantly surpass this velocity. In Flash: The Human Race Wally is shown absorbing kinetic energy to an extent enabling him to move faster than teleportation and run from the end of the universe back to earth in less than a Planck instant (Planck time).
Speedsters may at times use the ability to speed - read at incredible rates and in doing so, process vast amounts of information. Whatever knowledge they acquire in this manner is usually temporary. Their ability to think fast also allows them some immunity to telepathy, as their thoughts operate at a rate too rapid for telepaths such as Martian Manhunter or Gorilla Grodd to read or influence their minds.
Flashes and other super-speedsters also have the ability to speak to one another at a highly accelerated rate. This is often done to have private conversations in front of non-fast people (as when Flash speaks to Superman about his ability to serve both the Titans and the JLA in The Titans # 2). Speed - talking is also sometimes used for comedic effect where Flash becomes so excited that he begins talking faster and faster until his words become a jumble of noise. He also has the ability to change the vibration of his vocal cords making it so he can change how his voice sounds to others.
While not having the physical strength of his comrades and enemies, Flash has shown to be able to use his speed to exert incredible momentum into physical attacks. In Injustice: Gods Among Us, Flash uses these kinds of attacks as many of his special moves.
The Flash has also claimed that he can process thoughts in less than an attosecond. At times he is able to throw lightning created by his super speed and make speed vortexes.
Some flashes also have the ability to create speed avatars (i.e. duplicates) and these avatars have sometimes been sent to different timelines to complete a particular mission. (Barry Allen exhibits this ability in the live action series "The Flash '').
He can also be seen negating the effects of the anti-life equation, when he freed Iris - West from its control (probably due to his connection with the speed force).
It is said that Wally West has reached the velocity of 23,759,449,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 (about 24 tredecillion) × c (the speed of light) and he could only do this with the help of every human being on earth moving so the speed force was joined through everyone. With that speed he was able to not only run from planet to planet but different galaxies and universes at what would be considered a blink of an eye.
In the final issue of 52, a new Multiverse is revealed, originally consisting of 52 identical realities. Among the parallel realities shown is one designated "Earth - 2 ''. As a result of Mister Mind "eating '' aspects of this reality, it takes on visual aspects similar to the pre-Crisis Earth - 2, including the Flash among other Justice Society of America characters. The names of the characters and the team are not mentioned in the panel in which they appear, but the Flash is visually similar to the Jay Garrick Flash. Based on comments by Grant Morrison, this alternate universe is not the pre-Crisis Earth - 2.
A variant of the Flash -- a superfast college student named Mary Maxwell -- was seen in the Elseworld book Just Imagine Stan Lee Creating The Flash.
The Flash of Earth - D, Rei was a Japanese man who idolized Barry Allen, whose stories only existed in comic books on this world. Rei was inspired by Allen to become the Flash, much like Allen was inspired to become the Flash by his idol, Jay Garrick. Allen and Rei met during the "Crisis on Infinite Earths '' when Barry was coming back from the 30th century and arrived in the wrong universe. As Earth - D was under attack by the shadow demons, Barry called on the Justice League and Tanaka called on the Justice Alliance, his world 's version of the Justice League. They built a cosmic treadmill and were able to evacuate much of Earth - D 's population. The Justice League left, but 39 seconds later, Earth - D perished.
Rei made his only appearance in Legends of the DC Universe: Crisis on Infinite Earths (February 1999). The story was written by Marv Wolfman, with art by Paul Ryan (pencils) and Bob McLeod (ink).
The young, female Flash of the Tangent Universe is not a speedster, but instead "the first child born in space '' and a being made up of and able to control light. As a side effect, she can move at the speed of light, which actually makes her faster than most of the other Post-Crisis Flashes, as only Wally West has ever survived a light - speed run without becoming trapped in the Speed Force. She recently reappeared in Justice League of America # 16, somehow summoned out of the paper ' green lantern ' of her universe -- an artifact that survived the Crisis that erased the Tangent Universe from existence. Lia Nelson also appeared in Countdown: Arena battling two versions of the Flash from other Earths within the Multiverse. In the 52 - Earth Multiverse, the Tangent Universe is designated Earth - 9.
In Superman & Batman: Generations 2, three different Flashes appear: Wally West as Kid Flash in 1964, Wally 's cousin Carrie as Kid Flash in 1986, and Jay West, the son of Wally and his wife Magda as the fifth Flash in 2008. Barry Allen makes a cameo appearance out of costume in 1964.
Ali Rayner - West, aka Green Lightning, is a descendant of both Kyle Rayner and Wally West. She has both a power ring and superspeed, as seen in Green Lantern: Circle of Fire. She was a living construct created by Kyle Rayner 's subconscious, who later re-fused into his mind.
A teenage version of Jesse Chambers appears as the Flash of the Ame - Comi universe. As with most of the other characters of that Earth, she sports an Anime - inspired costume.
The 1980s series Captain Carrot and His Amazing Zoo Crew! presented the parallel Earth of "Earth - C - Minus '', a world populated by funny animal superheroes that paralleled the mainstream DC Universe. Earth - C - Minus was the home of the Crash, a turtle with super-speed powers similar to those of Barry Allen 's, and a member of his world 's superhero team, the Just'a Lotta Animals. The Crash as a youth had read comics about Earth - C 's Terrific Whatzit, similar to how Barry Allen enjoyed comics about Earth - Two 's Jay Garrick.
An African - American teenager named Danica Williams appears as the Flash in the Justice League Beyond series, acting as Wally West 's successor during the 2040s (following the events of Batman Beyond). She is employed at the Flash Museum in Central City, and like Barry Allen, is chronically late. She later enters into a relationship with Billy Batson, who is the secret identity of the superhero, Captain Marvel.
The following writers have been involved in the ongoing The Flash and Flash Comics series:
The comics and characters have been nominated for and won several awards over the years, including:
Throughout his 70 - year history, the Flash has appeared in numerous media. The Flash has been included in multiple animated features, such as Superfriends and Justice League, as well as his own live action television series and some guest star appearances on Smallville (as the Bart Allen / Impulse version.) There are numerous videos that feature the character.
Numerous references to the Flash are presented on the television show The Big Bang Theory. A particular reference is main character Sheldon Cooper 's Flash t - shirt, which has become a staple of merchandise clothing. In the season 1 episode The Middle - Earth Paradigm, the four main male characters on the show all independently dress up for a Halloween party as the Flash before deciding that they ca n't all be the Flash so no one gets to. In the season 10 episode The Birthday Synchronicity, Sheldon bought a Flash onesie for Howard & Bernadette 's newborn.
In season 3 of Lost, in the episode "Catch - 22 '', Charlie and Hurley debate over who would win a footrace between The Flash and Superman.
The false name Barry Allen is used by character of con artist Frank Abagnale, Jr. (posing as a Secret Service Agent), in the movie Catch Me If You Can. When a coffee shop waiter notices the notes of FBI agent Carl Hanratty, he reveals that Barry Allen is the Flash, giving Carl a vital clue to his unknown subject 's identity.
In 2006, a near - pristine copy of Flash Comics # 1 was sold in a Heritage Auction for $ 273,125. The same book was then sold privately for $450,000 in 2010.
Renan Kanbay wears a Flash costume while playing Carrie, the manager of a comic book store, in Joe Lipari 's Dream Job (2011).
The band Jim 's Big Ego wrote the song "The Ballad of Barry Allen '' detailing the hardship having to watch time moving so slowly from the perspective of Allen. The frontman of the band, Jim Infantino is the nephew of Flash artist Carmine Infantino.
In the film Daddy Day Care, one of the day care kids named Tony wore a Flash costume for the majority of the film.
In the My Little Pony: Friendship Is Magic episode "Power Ponies '', Pinkie Pie becomes a superhero based on the Flash called Fili - Second.
In an episode of The Simpsons, Comic Book Guy dresses as The Flash while running in a marathon. He says "No one can outrun the Flash '' but ends up falling in a pothole and gets stuck.
Like Batman, Superman, and Green Lantern, the Flash has a reputation for having fought a distinctive and memorable rogues gallery of supervillains. In the Flash 's case, some of these villains have adopted the term "Flash 's Rogues Gallery '' as an official title, and insist on being called "Rogues '' rather than "supervillains '' or similar names. At times, various combinations of the Rogues have banded together to commit crimes or take revenge on the Flash, usually under the leadership of Captain Cold.
The Rogues are known for their communal style relationship, socializing together and operating under a strict moral code, sometimes brutally enforced by Captain Cold. Such "rules '' include "no drugs '' and, except in very dire situations or on unique occasions, "no killing ''.
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who makes pixel 2 and pixel 2 xl | Pixel 2 - wikipedia
Pixel 2: H: 145.7 mm (5.74 in) W: 69.7 mm (2.74 in) D: 7.8 mm (0.31 in)
Pixel 2: 5 in (130 mm) FHD AMOLED, 1920 × 1080 (441 ppi) Pixel 2 XL: 6 in (150 mm) QHD P - OLED, 2880 × 1440 (538 ppi)
Pixel 2 and Pixel 2 XL are Android smartphones designed, developed and marketed by Google. They were announced during a Google event on October 4, 2017, as the successors to the Pixel and Pixel XL. They were released on October 19, 2017, and serve as the second set of smartphones in the Google Pixel hardware line.
In early March 2017, Google 's Rick Osterloh confirmed that they would bring a "next - gen '' Pixel phone later that year. He stated it would "stay premium '' and that there would be no "cheap Pixel ''.
Google originally intended to use HTC to manufacture both their 2017 flagships, but later shifted to LG to manufacture the bigger Pixel 2 XL. The unreleased device that was supposed to be the Pixel 2 XL under the codename "Muskie '', was later re-developed by HTC into the HTC U11+.
The Google Pixel 2 and Pixel 2 XL are currently carried in the United States by Verizon and Project Fi.
The back of the Pixel 2 and Pixel 2 XL is made from aluminum with a thin "premium coating '' of plastic and has a top section made from glass to provide wireless transmissivity. Unlike the original Pixel XL, which was simply an enlarged version of the Pixel design with no other changes, the Pixel 2 XL 's external design differs from its smaller sibling, employing a taller 18: 9 P - OLED display instead of the Pixel 2 's 16: 9 AMOLED.
The Pixel 2 and Pixel 2 XL are both powered by the Qualcomm Snapdragon 835, coupled with 4 GB LPDDR4X RAM. They both come in storage options of 64 or 128 GB.
The Pixel 2 has a 5 - inch (130 mm) AMOLED display panel with 1920 × 1080 resolution, coming in at around 441 ppi, while the Pixel 2 XL comes with a 6 - inch (150 mm) P - OLED display panel with a 18: 9 aspect ratio and a 2880 × 1440 resolution at 538 ppi.
Both phones have a 12.2 megapixel rear camera capable of recording 4K video at 30 FPS, 1080p video at 120 FPS, and 720p video at 240 FPS. The camera also contains phase - detection autofocus, laser autofocus, and HDR+ processing. The Pixel 2 and Pixel 2 XL also include the Intel - designed Pixel Visual Core image processor for faster and lower power image processing, though it was not enabled until Android 8.1 was released in January 2018. The camera does not allow capturing Raw images and lacks manual controls. Unlike Apple 's iPhone 8 and iPhone X, the Pixels do not have support for 4K video at 60 FPS, as the processor is not powerful enough. Although the camera has Optical Image Stabilization it is unable to remove some high frequency vibrations that other smartphones are able to remove. Pixel 2 owners receive free unlimited storage for all photos and videos taken on the phone in original quality through the end of 2020, with unlimited high - quality storage continuing afterwards.
The Pixel 2 and Pixel 2 XL support USB Power Delivery quick charging, have a fingerprint sensor on the rear, IP67 dust and water resistance and are Daydream - ready.
The phones ship with stock Android 8.0 "Oreo '' on launch. Google has promised three years of software and security updates, making it closer to the average four years of support that Apple provides for its iPhones.
The new Pixels also include a feature called "Active Edge ''. With this, the Google Assistant can be launched by squeezing the phone 's sides, similar to the HTC U11 's "Edge Sense '' feature.
This phone was also released with the new Google Lens app, which is designed to bring up relevant information using visual analysis by the camera. Pixel 2 and Pixel 2 XL also automatically reverse searches songs which are playing around the device.
Android 8.1 Oreo was released for the Pixel 2 and Pixel 2 XL on December 5, 2017.
The Pixel 2 camera received a score of 98 from DxOMark, making it the highest performing mobile device camera at the end of 2017, and was overtaken in March 2018 by Samsung 's Galaxy S9+.
The Pixel 2 and the Pixel 2 XL received mixed reviews. The phone was praised for the camera quality and water resistance, but was criticized for the removal of the headphone jack, particularly after Google mocked Apple for doing the same with its iPhone 7 phone at the launch of the first generation Pixel phone just 12 months prior. Google was also criticized for the price of the USB - C to 3.5 mm headphone adapter it sells, which costs US $20 while Apple 's Lightning to 3.5 mm adapter costs US $9, as well as for not including headphones with the phone. However, news outlets noted that because USB - C is a standard interface, unlike Lightning, there are a variety of third - party adapters that retail for less than Google 's official one. Google later dropped the price of the adapter to US $9, keeping the price in - line with Apple 's offering.
YouTuber JerryRigEverything, who performs durability tests on various smartphones, criticized Google for their design choice with the antenna lines on the sides of the handset. When he bent the Pixel 2, it cracked at the antenna line near the middle of the phone, voiding its water resistance and warranty, while most other phones from competitors pass his bend test. This does not apply to the Pixel 2 XL.
The design of the smaller Pixel 2 was regarded as plain, and its big chunky bezels were not well received, considering that earlier 2017 phones like the Samsung Galaxy S8 and LG G6 had moved to nearly bezel-less screens.
The Pixel 2 XL screen became infamous for quality control issues, a flaw shared with the LG V30 which also has the same manufacturer and P - OLED screen type. The Pixel 2 XL has a blue tint visible on the screen when the phone is viewed at an angle. Many were dissatisfied and it was speculated that Google had installed the polarizer incorrectly. However, when Google addressed the tint, they stated that it was a design choice to have the blue tint to go along with the cooler color temperature used by the screen (it is calibrated to a D67 white point, which is 6700K).
Vlad Savov of The Verge has complained of under - saturated and distorted OLED displays, and there have also been reports of screen burn - in on some Pixel 2 XL units.
The Pixel 2 XL also suffers from a "black smear '' problem, which occurs when a group of black pixels transition to colored ones, and tend to linger for a while, before changing to their expected state.
Google conducted an investigation and said that a software update would be coming soon that would add a new mode for more saturated colors, reducing the maximum brightness of the Pixel 2 XL devices by 50 cd / m to reduce load on the display, and fading out the navigation bar after a period of inactivity. The November security patch came with three new screen modes that Google promised earlier, although Google has also said that further enhancements would be included in a separate software update to be released in December. Google also extended device warranty to two years for both devices worldwide.
The Pixel 2 XL has an issue where the screen may flash randomly. It occurs when the phone is locked or unlocked. The issue was fixed in the June system software update, but returned back with the July update.
Hundreds of Pixel 2 and Pixel 2 XL owners have been complaining of high - pitched and clicking sounds coming from the phone. Google investigated the issue and recommended turning off NFC to temporarily fix the problem until a software update comes out. The November security patch fixed the clicking sound as well as the KRACK WPA2 Wi - Fi security issue, however, it did not fix the buzzing sounds heard during calls on some devices. Google has promised a fix in a future update.
The Pixel 2 XL has a volume flaw that reduces the sound level of audio clips sent through messaging apps such as Google Allo, Instagram, and Telegram among others. Google is aware of the problem and is looking into it.
Some of the USB - C to 3.5 mm adapters for the headphones do not work. In some cases, rebooting the phone can fix the issue temporarily. Google is offering replacements for the faulty adapters.
Some Pixel 2 XL suffer from speaker rattling when playing content or even during phone calls.
Multiple users reported that the microphone can randomly stop working. A possible solution is to blow into the microphone.
Some units suffer from Bluetooth connectivity issues.
There is an issue where Google Assistant does not work with some Bluetooth headphones.
The Pixel 2 XL comes with a charger capable of fast charging at 18 W, but the phone is not able to charge at more than 10.5 W, taking two and a half hours for a full charge. Below 20 ° C (68 ° F) the charging speed is just a mere 3 - 4W, but the phone will still display "Charging rapidly '', which is misleading.
The phones are known to randomly reboot. Google promised a fix in the coming weeks. The random reboots are believed to be caused by the LTE modem. The Android 8.1 release in 2017 did not fix the problem.
The Android 8.1 update introduces a regression in the Pixel 2 XL making the fingerprint sensor slower. Google is investigating the issue.
The phones have issues with Wi - Fi mesh networks, where disconnects are common. Google is already investigating this issue.
Users started reporting battery drain issues after the February security update. The battery drain become worse after the April security updates. Google is looking for a fix.
Users are reporting proximity sensor issues. Google is aware of the issue and looking for a fix.
Some users are having issues making calls and receiving MMS messages. Google claims these issues are fixed but users are still complaining about them.
The Pixel 2 produces blurry panoramas. Google has known about this issue since December 2017, but has not been able to deliver a fix. There is a workaround for this issue but it requires root, and a full wipe as the phone can not be rooted without full wipe. Google has promised a fix later in 2018.
The June OTA update introduces a performance regression making the phone much slower to wake up from sleep. Google is already aware of the issue and looking for a fix.
The camera has an issue where it sometimes shows "fatal camera error ''. Google is aware of the issue and working on a fix.
Some Pixel 2 XL devices also fail to register touch near the edges of the screen. Android 8.1 fixes this issue.
Some Pixel 2 XL units suffer from poor audio recording quality. The recorded audio is high - pitched and distorted. Android 8.1 fixes this issue.
Some Pixel 2 XL devices were shipped to consumers without an operating system, rendering them unusable.
Many users are reporting that unlocked devices have a locked bootloader. Google fixed the issue, but the solution includes factory resetting the device.
In the United States, Verizon and Project Fi are the exclusive carriers for the Pixel 2 and Pixel 2 XL. They are available direct - to - consumer for use on any wireless network through Google 's online store, or from Best Buy and Target.
On March 21, 2018, Google did a temporary offer if a consumer financed a Pixel for 2 years the consumer receives $200 cashback, to compete with the Samsung Galaxy S9 and iPhone X. The promotion ended March 31, 2018.
On July 9th, 2018, Google reduced the Pixel 2 XL price significantly.
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who was the leader of new jersey colony | List of colonial Governors of New Jersey - wikipedia
The territory which would later become the state of New Jersey was settled by Dutch and Swedish colonists in the early seventeenth century. In 1664, at the onset of the Second Anglo - Dutch War, English forces under Richard Nicolls ousted the Dutch from control of New Netherland (present - day New York, New Jersey, and Delaware), and the territory was divided into several newly defined English colonies. Despite one brief year when the Dutch retook the colony (1673 -- 74), New Jersey would remain an English possession until the American colonies declared independence in 1776.
In 1664, James, Duke of York (later King James II) divided New Jersey, granting a portion to two men, Sir George Carteret and John Berkeley, 1st Baron Berkeley of Stratton, who supported the monarchy 's cause during the English Civil War (1642 -- 49) and Interregnum (1649 -- 60). Carteret and Berkeley subsequently sold their interests to two groups of proprietors, thus creating two provinces: East Jersey and the West Jersey. The exact location of the border between West Jersey and East Jersey was often a matter of dispute. The two provinces would be distinct political divisions from 1674 to 1702.
West Jersey was largely a Quaker colony due to the influence of Pennsylvania founder William Penn and its prominent Quaker investors. Many of its early settlers were Quakers who came directly from England, Scotland, and Ireland to escape religious persecution. Although a number of the East Jersey proprietors in England were Quakers and First Governor Robert Barclay of Aberdeenshire Scotland (Ury served by proxy) was a leading Quaker theologian, the Quaker influence on the East Jersey government was insignificant. Many of East Jersey 's early settlers came from other colonies in the Western Hemisphere, especially New England, Long Island, and the West Indies. Elizabethtown and Newark in particular had a strong Puritan character. East Jersey 's Monmouth Tract, south of the Raritan River, was developed primarily by Quakers from Long Island.
In 1702, both divisions of New Jersey were reunited as one royal colony by Queen Anne with a royal governor appointed by the Crown. Until 1738, this Province of New Jersey shared its royal governor with the neighboring Province of New York. The Province of New Jersey was governed by appointed governors until 1776. William Franklin, the province 's last royal governor before the American Revolution (1775 -- 83), was marginalized in the last year of his tenure, as the province was run de facto by the Provincial Congress of New Jersey. In June 1776, the Provincial Congress formally deposed Franklin and had him arrested, adopted a state constitution, and reorganized the province into an independent state. The constitution granted the vote to all inhabitants who had a certain level of wealth, including single women and blacks (until 1807). The newly formed State of New Jersey elected William Livingston as its first governor on 31 August 1776 -- a position to which he would be reelected until his death in 1790. New Jersey was one of the original Thirteen Colonies, and was the third colony to ratify the constitution forming the United States of America. It thereby was admitted into the new federation as a state on 18 December 1787. On 20 November 1789 New Jersey became the first state to ratify the Bill of Rights.
New Netherland (Dutch: Nieuw - Nederland) was the seventeenth - century colonial province of the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands and the Dutch West India Company. It claimed territories along the eastern coast of North America from the Delmarva Peninsula to southwestern Cape Cod. Settled areas of New Netherland now constitute the states of New York, New Jersey, Delaware, and Connecticut as well as parts of Pennsylvania and Rhode Island. The provincial capital New Amsterdam was located at the southern tip of the island of Manhattan at Upper New York Bay.
New Netherland was conceived as a private business venture to exploit the North American fur trade. By the 1650s, the colony experienced dramatic growth and became a major port for trade in the North Atlantic. The leader of the Dutch colony was known by the title Director or Director - General. On 27 August 1664, four English frigates commanded by Richard Nicolls sailed into New Amsterdam 's harbor and demanded the surrender of New Netherland. This event sparked the Second Anglo - Dutch War, which led to the transfer of the territory to England per the Treaty of Breda.
New Sweden (Swedish: Nya Sverige, Finnish: Uusi - Ruotsi) was a Swedish colony along the Delaware River from 1638 to 1655 that included territory in present - day Delaware, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania. After being dismissed as director of New Netherland by the Dutch West India Company (WIC), Peter Minuit was recruited by Willem Usselincx, Samuel Blommaert and the Swedish government to create the first Swedish colony in the New World. The Swedes sought to expand their influence by creating an agricultural (tobacco) and fur - trading colony, and thus bypassing French and English merchants.
The New Sweden Company was chartered and included Swedish, Finnish, Dutch, and German stockholders. Minuit and his company arrived on the Fogel Grip and Kalmar Nyckel at Swedes ' Landing (now Wilmington, Delaware) in the spring of 1638. Willem Kieft, Director of New Netherland, objected to the Swedish presence, but Minuit ignored his protests knowing that the Dutch were militarily impotent. The colony would establish Fort Nya Elfsborg, near present - day Salem, New Jersey, in 1643.
In May 1654, Swedish militia captured the Fort Casimir, a Dutch defense located near present - day New Castle, Delaware. As a reprisal, the Dutch Director - General Peter Stuyvesant sent an army to the Delaware River, which compelled the surrender of the Swedish forts and settlements in 1655. The Swedish settlers continued to enjoy local autonomy, retaining their own militia, religion, court, and lands, however, until the English conquest of the New Netherland colony on 24 June 1664.
In 1634, Charles I of England granted a charter to Sir Edmund Plowden, to establish a colony in North America north of lands granted to Lord Baltimore for the Maryland colony in 1633. The charter empowered Plowden to assume the title Lord Earl Palatinate, Governor and Captain - General of the Province of New Albion in North America, and poorly defined the boundaries of the New Albion colony. It is believed that the colony would have covered territory within present - day New Jersey, New York, Delaware, and Maryland.
Captain Thomas Young and his nephew, Robert Evelyn, explored and charted the valley of the Delaware River (which they called the Charles River) in the 1630s. Plowden took several years to raise funds, and recruit settlers and "adventurers. '' In 1642, Plowden and several men sailed from England with aim to settle the colony. This attempt ended in an unsuccessful mutiny, and for the next seven years Plowden remained in Virginia managing the affairs of the intended colony, and selling land rights to adventurers and speculators.
Plowden returned to England in 1649 to raise funds, and promote the colony as a refuge for Roman Catholics exiled during the English Civil War. Despite further attempts to return to his colony, Plowden was confined in a debtors prison and died a pauper in 1659. A notation on John Farrar 's 1651 map of Virginia references Plowden 's patent for the colony, and labels the Delaware River as "this river the Lord Ployden hath a patten of and calls it New Albion but the Swedes are planted in it and have a great trade of Furrs. ''
With the 1664 surrender of New Netherland by Peter Stuyvesant, and under the authority and instruction James, Duke of York, Richard Nicolls assumed the position as Deputy - Governor of New Netherland (including Dutch settlements in New Jersey). His first acts were to guarantee the Dutch colonists their property rights and religious freedom. Nicolls implemented the English common law and a legal code. Nicholls would remain governor until 1668, but the Duke of York granted part of the New Netherland territory (that between the Hudson and Delaware rivers, present day New Jersey), to Sir George Carteret and John Berkeley for their devoted service to the Duke of York and his brother Charles II during the English Civil War.
This territory would be called the Province of New Caesaria, or New Jersey after Jersey in the English Channel -- one of the last strongholds of the Royalist forces in the English Civil War. (see Name of Jersey) As a result of this grant, Carteret and Berkeley became the two English Lords Proprietor of New Jersey. By the 1665 Concession and Agreement, the Lords Proprietor outlined the distribution of power in the province, offered religious freedom to all inhabitants, and established a system of quit - rents, annual fees paid by settlers in return for land. The two Lords Proprietor selected Carteret 's brother Philip as the province 's first governor.
In 1673, during the Third Anglo - Dutch War, the Dutch were able to recapture New Amsterdam (renamed "New York '' by the British) under Admiral Cornelis Evertsen the Youngest and Captain Anthony Colve. Evertsen had renamed the city "New Orange ''. Evertsen returned to the Netherlands in July 1674, and was accused of disobeying his orders. Evertsen had been instructed not to retake New Amsterdam, but instead, to conquer the British colonies of Saint Helena and Cayenne (now French Guiana). In 1674, the Dutch were compelled to relinquish New Amsterdam to the British under the terms of the Second Treaty of Westminster.
After the British regained New Jersey and New York, New Jersey was restored as a proprietary colony and was divided into two provinces -- East Jersey and West Jersey. In 1674, Berkeley sold his interest in West Jersey to Edward Byllynge and John Fenwick (1618 -- 83). Fenwick rushed to the colony to establish a settlement, Fenwick 's Colony, that would become Salem. Due to Byllynge 's financial difficulties encountered in his attempts to assert his title to the colony, he sought investment from William Penn, and others. Title issues were settled in 1676 with the negotiation of the Quintipartite Deed between Carteret, Penn, Byllynge, Nicholas Lucas, and Gawen Lawrie dividing the colony into East and West Jersey. West Jersey was largely a Quaker venture focused on the settlement of the lower Delaware River area, and was associated with William Penn and prominent figures in the colonization of the Pennsylvania. After Carteret 's death, his heirs sold his interest in East Jersey to twelve investors, eleven of whom were members of the Religious Society of Friends (Quakers), who asked the Quaker apologist Robert Barclay to serve as governor. The settlement of East Jersey, and its commercial and political development was chiefly connected to New England and New York.
This arrangement lasted for approximately thirty years, but because of issues of administration, the proprietors of both colonies surrendered their right to government to Queen Anne. On 17 April 1702, New Jersey was transformed into a crown colony. The proprietors would retain their land rights until the East Jersey proprietors dissolved their corporation (then New Jersey 's oldest) in 1998. The West Jersey Proprietors, currently the second oldest corporation in North America, continues as an activity entity based in Burlington, New Jersey.
For a brief period beginning in 1688, New York, East Jersey and West Jersey came under the short - lived Dominion of New England. New York and New Jersey were largely overseen by a Lieutenant Governor and army captain, Francis Nicholson. The Proprietors of East Jersey were angered by the revocation of their charters, but retained their property and petitioned Andros, the governor of the dominion, for manorial rights. The colony proved too large for a single governor to administer, and Andros was highly unpopular.
After news of the Glorious Revolution in England reached Boston in 1689, the anti-Catholic Puritans in New England, and Dutch Calvinists in New York launched a revolt against Andros, arresting him and his officers out of fear that Andros sought to impose popery on the colony. Leisler 's Rebellion in New York City deposed Nicholson in what amounted to an ethnic war between English newcomers and the Dutch who were old settlers. After these events, the colonies reverted to their previous forms of governance until 1702.
Shortly after ascending to the British throne, Queen Anne (1665 -- 1714) reunited East Jersey and West Jersey as a royal colony and appointed her cousin Edward Hyde, Viscount Cornbury, as the province 's first Royal Governor. In 1702, the governments of the two proprietary colonies had surrendered their authority to the Crown which reorganized New Jersey into a crown colony with a government that consisted of a governor and twelve - member council appointed by the British monarch, and a twenty - four - member assembly whose members were elected by colonists who were qualified to vote by owning at least 1,000 acres of land.
For the next four decades, New Jersey and New York shared one royal governor. Because the crown 's representatives were generally incompetent or corrupt, and the royal governor often ignored New Jersey and its affairs, the colonists had substantial autonomy, and the proprietors continued to wield considerable power through the retained control of land titles and sales. The relationship between many of the Royal Governors and the provincial assembly was often hostile. The assembly would simply respond to disagreements over legislation by using its appropriation power to withhold the governor 's salary. Several historians point towards a factionalism which defined the colonial government, but the factions have been described as inchoate and characterized by shifting alliances between the colony 's various ethnic, religious, proprietary, and landowning groups.
During this period, the population of the colony began to expand, from 14,000 in 1700 to nearly 52,000 by 1740. It was a diverse colony, as Queen Anne and Royal Governor Hunter began to important Palatine Germans into New York 's Hudson Valley in a plan to produce naval stores. Many of these German families eventually settled in New Jersey. West Jersey 's colonists included Irish, English, Welsh and Scottish Quakers and the descendants of Swedish and Finnish colonists from the former New Sweden colony. Dutch and Huguenot families from New York settled in the valleys of the Raritan River and Hackensack River, and in the northwestern New Jersey 's Minisink region. New Englanders from Connecticut and Long Island, and English planters from Barbados arrived with African slaves. Because of its liberal grant of religious freedom, the colony 's diversity was also reflected in its religious plurality, with a strong presence of Dutch Reformed, Lutheran, Huguenot, Quaker, Puritan, Congregationalist, Presbyterian, Baptist, and Anglican churches.
After tensions were provoked with the Penn 's Walking Purchase in 1737, relations between colonists and the region 's Native American tribes became increasingly hostile. During these years, colonists left the seacoast cities and settled the colony 's northwestern wilderness. Much of the provincial government 's actions during this time was organizing the wilderness into townships often named after English and colonial political figures. By the 1750s, violent raids against these settlers, and fears that the French were supporting these hostilities led to the French and Indian War.
During this time, the colonial government provided generous monetary rewards to colonists who killed Indians, established a line of fortifications in the Minisink (i.e., the upper valley of the Delaware River), and mustered military units (the New Jersey Frontier Guard and 1st New Jersey Regiment) to defend this frontier and carry out punitive raids on Indian villages. Hostilities began to subside with the Treaty of Easton in October 1758, negotiated by New Jersey Royal Governor Francis Bernard, Pennsylvania Attorney - General Benjamin Chew, and chiefs of 13 Native American nations, led by Teedyuscung.
New Jersey was the only province to have two colleges established during the colonial period, and the colony 's governors were influential in their establishment. Governors John Hamilton, John Reading, and Jonathan Belcher aided the establishment of The College of New Jersey (now Princeton University) which was founded in 1746 in Elizabethtown by a group of Great Awakening "New Lighters '' that included Jonathan Dickinson, Aaron Burr, Sr. and Peter Van Brugh Livingston. In 1756, the school moved to Princeton. In 1766, Governor William Franklin issued the charters to establish Queens College (now Rutgers University) in New Brunswick to "educate the youth in language, liberal, the divinity, and useful arts and sciences '' and for the training of future ministers for the Dutch Reformed Church. Franklin issued a second charter in 1770 after the college 's trustees requested amendments.
In the last year of William Franklin 's tenure, his power was diminished and he became marginalized by the rebellious sentiment rising in the colony 's residents. The province was being run de facto by the Provincial Congress of New Jersey (1775 -- 76). While colonial militia had put Franklin under house arrest in January 1776, he would not be formally deposed until June 1776 when the colony 's Provincial Congress had him imprisoned. Franklin considered the Provincial Congress to be an "illegal assembly. '' Under the direction of its president Samuel Tucker (1721 -- 89), the Provincial Congress proceeded to adopt a state constitution and reorganize the province into an independent state. The newly formed State of New Jersey elected William Livingston as its first governor on 31 August 1776.
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which is taller empire state or sears tower | List of tallest buildings in the United States - wikipedia
This list of the tallest buildings in the United States includes all buildings of 700 ft (213 m) or higher by architectural height, excluding antennas. Additional lists include buildings by pinnacle height, including antennas, with an overall height of 800 ft (244 m) or higher, as well as skyscrapers under construction, approved, and proposed.
The world 's first skyscraper was built in Chicago in 1885. Since then, the United States has been home to some of the world 's tallest skyscrapers. New York City, specifically the borough of Manhattan, notably has the tallest skyline in the country. Eleven American buildings have held the title of tallest building in the world (9 in New York City). New York City and Chicago have always been the centers of American skyscraper building. The 10 - story Home Insurance Building, built in Chicago in 1885, is regarded as the world 's first skyscraper; the building was constructed using a novel steel - loadbearing frame which became a standard of the industry worldwide.
As of 2018, One World Trade Center in New York City is considered to be the tallest skyscraper in the United States. Its spire brings the structure to a symbolic height of 1,776 feet (541 m), connoting the year The Declaration of Independence was signed, though the tip of the structure actually is measured at 1,792 ft (546 m). However, using the more common criterion for the height of a building (the roof, not antenna) the observation deck elevation and highest occupied floor of One World Trade Center are surpassed by Chicago 's Willis Tower (formerly and still commonly known as the Sears Tower) and 432 Park Avenue.
Prior to the September 11, 2001 attacks in New York City, the twin towers of the World Trade Center occupied the second and third positions on the list below, behind Willis Tower. The North Tower stood at 1,368 feet (417 m), while the South Tower was 1,362 feet (415 m) tall. If they were still standing today, they would occupy the fourth and fifth positions on the list below, with their replacement -- One World Trade Center -- being excluded.
There are numerous supertall buildings both proposed and under construction throughout the country, concentrated in New York City and Chicago. Projects in New York include the Central Park Tower and 111 West 57th Street, while in Chicago, proposed structures include the Vista Tower, which will be approximately 95 stories and about 1,186 feet (361 m) tall; Wolf Point along the Chicago River; the Thompson Center Redevelopment, a 115 story tower that will be 1,706 feet (520 m) tall, the proposed 2,000 foot (610 m) Gateway Tower located in the Streeterville neighborhood near Navy Pier, and a Rafael Vinoly - designed tower. Other tall buildings that are either proposed or under construction include the 1,121 - foot - tall (342 m) Comcast Technology Center in Philadelphia, the 1,070 - foot - tall (330 m) Salesforce Tower in San Francisco, and the 1,010 - foot - tall (310 m) One Bayfront Plaza and One Brickell City Centre in Miami.
This list ranks completed and topped out buildings in the United States that stand at least 700 feet (213 m) tall, based on standard height measurement which includes spires and architectural details, but excludes antenna masts. An equal sign (=) following a rank indicates the same height between two or more buildings. The "Year '' column indicates the year in which a building was completed.
This lists ranks completed and topped out buildings in the United States that stand at least 800 feet (244 m) tall based on pinnacle height measurement, which includes antenna masts. Standard architectural height measurement, which excludes antennas in building height, is included for comparative purposes.
* Indicates building is still under construction, but has been topped out.
American cities with at least 15 completed skyscrapers over 400 feet (122 meters) high (as of January 2017).
This lists buildings that are under construction in the United States and are planned to rise at least 700 feet (213 m). Buildings that have already been topped out are excluded.
* Table entries with dashes (--) indicate that information regarding building dates of completion has not yet been released.
This lists buildings that are proposed for construction in the United States and are planned to rise at least 700 feet (213 m). A floor count of 50 stories is used as the cutoff for buildings whose heights have not yet been released by their developers.
* Table entries with dashes (--) indicate that information regarding building heights, floor counts or dates of completion has not yet been released.
This table lists the 10 tallest buildings in the United States that have been demolished, destroyed, or are undergoing demolition.
This is a list of the history of the tallest buildings in the United States.
This lists buildings that once held the title of tallest building in the United States.
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when did the game of thrones books end | A Song of Ice and Fire - wikipedia
A Song of Ice and Fire is a series of epic fantasy novels by the American novelist and screenwriter George R.R. Martin. He began the first volume of the series, A Game of Thrones, in 1991 and had it published in 1996. Martin, who initially envisioned the series as a trilogy, has published five out of a planned seven volumes. The fifth and most recent volume of the series published in 2011, A Dance with Dragons, took Martin five years to write. He is still writing the sixth novel, The Winds of Winter.
A Song of Ice and Fire takes place on the fictional continents Westeros and Essos. The point of view of each chapter in the story is a limited perspective of a range of characters growing from nine, in the first novel, to thirty - one by the fifth. Three main stories interweave a dynastic war among several families for control of Westeros, the rising threat of the supernatural Others in the northernmost reaches of Westeros, and the ambition of Daenerys Targaryen, the deposed king 's exiled daughter, to assume the Iron Throne.
Martin 's inspirations included the Wars of the Roses and the French historical novels The Accursed Kings by Maurice Druon. A Song of Ice and Fire received praise for its diverse portrayal of women and religion, as well as its realism. An assortment of disparate and subjective points of view confronts the reader, and the success or survival of point of view characters is never assured. Within the often morally ambiguous world of A Song of Ice and Fire, questions concerning loyalty, pride, human sexuality, piety, and the morality of violence frequently arise.
As of April 2015, the books have sold more than 60 million copies worldwide and, as of January 2017, have been translated into 47 languages. The fourth and fifth volumes reached the top of The New York Times Best Seller lists upon their releases. Among the many derived works are several prequel novellas, a TV series, a comic book adaptation, and several card, board, and video games.
A Song of Ice and Fire takes place in a fictional world in which seasons last for years and end unpredictably. Nearly three centuries before the events of the first novel (see backstory), the Seven Kingdoms of Westeros were united under the Targaryen dynasty by Aegon I and his sisters Visenya and Rhaenys, with Aegon Targaryen becoming the first king of the whole of the continent of Westeros, save for the southerly Dorne. At the beginning of A Game of Thrones, 15 peaceful years have passed since the rebellion led by Robert Baratheon deposed and killed the last Targaryen king, Aerys II, and proclaimed Robert king of the Seven Kingdoms, with a nine year long summer coming to an end.
The principal story chronicles the power struggle for the Iron Throne among the great Houses of Westeros following the death of King Robert in A Game of Thrones. Robert 's heir apparent, the 13 - year old Joffrey, is immediately proclaimed king through the machinations of his mother, Queen Cersei Lannister. When Lord Eddard "Ned '' Stark, Robert 's chief advisor, discovers that Joffrey and his siblings are the product of incest between Cersei and her twin brother Jaime "The Kingslayer '' Lannister, Eddard is executed for treason. In response, Robert 's brothers Stannis and Renly both lay separate claims to the throne. During this period of instability, two of the Seven Kingdoms of Westeros attempt to become independent from the Iron Throne: Eddard 's eldest son Robb is proclaimed King in the North, while Balon Greyjoy desires to recover the sovereignty of his region, the Iron Islands. The so - called "War of the Five Kings '' is in full progress by the middle of the second book, A Clash of Kings.
The second story takes place in the far north of Westeros, where an 8,000 - year - old wall of ice, simply called "the Wall '', defends the Seven Kingdoms from the Others. The Wall 's sentinels, the Sworn Brotherhood of the Night 's Watch, also protect the realm from the incursions of the "wildlings '' or "Free Folk '', who are humans living north of the Wall. The Night 's Watch story is told primarily through the point of view of Jon Snow, Eddard 's bastard son. Jon follows the footsteps of his uncle Benjen Stark and joins the Watch at a young age, rising quickly through the ranks, eventually becoming Lord Commander of the Night 's Watch. In the third volume, A Storm of Swords, the Night 's Watch storyline becomes increasingly entangled with the War of the Five Kings.
The third story follows Daenerys Targaryen, daughter of Aerys, the last Targaryen king. On the continent of Essos, east of Westeros across the Narrow Sea, Daenerys is married off by her elder brother Viserys Targaryen to a powerful warlord, but slowly becomes an independent and intelligent ruler in her own right. Her rise to power is aided by the historic birth of three dragons, hatched from eggs given to her as wedding gifts. The three dragons soon become not only a symbol of her bloodline, but also devastating weapons of war.
Books in the Ice and Fire series are first published in hardcover and are later re-released as paperback editions. In the UK, Harper Voyager publishes special slipcased editions. The series has also been translated into more than 30 languages. All page totals given below are for the US first editions.
George R.R. Martin was already a successful fantasy and sci - fi author and TV writer before writing his A Song of Ice and Fire book series. Martin had published his first short story in 1971 and his first novel in 1977. By the mid-1990s, he had won three Hugo Awards, two Nebula Awards, and other awards for his short fiction. Although his early books were well received within the fantasy fiction community, his readership remained relatively small and Martin took on jobs as a writer in Hollywood in the mid-1980s. He worked principally on the revival of The Twilight Zone throughout 1986 and on Beauty and the Beast until 1990, but he also developed his own TV pilots and wrote feature film scripts. He grew frustrated that his pilots and screenplays were not getting made and that TV - related production limitations like budgets and episode lengths were forcing him to cut characters and trim battle scenes. This pushed Martin back towards writing books, where he did not have to worry about compromising the size of his imagination. Admiring the works of J.R.R. Tolkien in his childhood, he wanted to write an epic fantasy, though he did not have any specific ideas.
When Martin was between Hollywood projects in the summer of 1991, he started writing a new science fiction novel called Avalon. After three chapters, he had a vivid idea of a boy seeing a man 's beheading and finding direwolves in the snow, which would eventually become the first non-prologue chapter of A Game of Thrones. Putting Avalon aside, Martin finished this chapter in a few days and grew certain that it was part of a longer story. After a few more chapters, Martin perceived his new book as a fantasy story and started making maps and genealogies. However, the writing of this book was interrupted for a few years when Martin returned to Hollywood to produce his TV series Doorways that ABC had ordered but ultimately never aired.
In 1994, Martin gave to his agent, Kirby McCauley, the first 200 pages and a two - page story projection as part of a planned trilogy with the novels A Dance with Dragons and The Winds of Winter intended to follow. When Martin had still not reached the novel 's end at 1400 manuscript pages, he felt that the series needed to be four and eventually six books long, which he imagined as two linked trilogies of one long story. Martin chose A Song of Ice and Fire as the overall series title: Martin saw the struggle of the cold Others and the fiery dragons as one possible meaning for "Ice and Fire '', whereas the word "song '' had previously appeared in Martin 's book titles A Song for Lya and Songs the Dead Men Sing, stemming from his obsessions with songs. Martin also named Robert Frost 's 1920 poem "Fire and Ice '' and cultural associations such as passion versus betrayal as possible influences for the series ' title.
The revised finished manuscript for A Game of Thrones was 1088 pages long (without the appendices), with the publication following in August 1996. Wheel of Time author Robert Jordan had written a short endorsement for the cover that was influential in ensuring the book 's and hence series ' early success with fantasy readers. Blood of the Dragon, a pre-release sample novella drawn from Daenerys 's chapters, went on to win the 1997 Hugo Award for Best Novella.
The 300 pages removed from the A Game of Thrones manuscript served as the opening of the second book, entitled A Clash of Kings. It was released in February 1999 in the United States, with a manuscript length (without appendices) of 1184 pages. A Clash of Kings was the first book of the Ice and Fire series to make the best - seller lists, reaching 13 on The New York Times Best Seller list in 1999. After the success of The Lord of the Rings films, Martin received his first inquiries to the rights of the Ice and Fire series from various producers and filmmakers.
Martin was several months late turning in the third book, A Storm of Swords. The last chapter he had written was about the "Red Wedding '', a pivotal scene notable for its violence (see Themes: Violence and death). A Storm of Swords was 1521 pages in manuscript (without appendices), causing problems for many of Martin 's publishers around the world. Bantam Books published A Storm of Swords in a single volume in the United States in November 2000, whereas some other - language editions were divided into two, three, or even four volumes. A Storm of Swords debuted at number 12 in the New York Times bestseller list.
After A Game of Thrones, A Clash of Kings, and A Storm of Swords, Martin originally intended to write three more books. The fourth book, tentatively titled A Dance with Dragons, was to focus on Daenerys Targaryen 's return to Westeros and the associated conflicts. Martin wanted to set this story five years after A Storm of Swords so that the younger characters could grow older and the dragons grow larger. Agreeing with his publishers early on that the new book should be shorter than A Storm of Swords, Martin set out to write the novel closer in length to A Clash of Kings. A long prologue was to establish what had happened in the meantime, initially just as one chapter of Aeron Damphair on the Iron Islands at the Kingsmoot. Since the events on the Iron Islands were to have an impact in the book and could not be told with existing POV characters, Martin eventually introduced three new viewpoints.
In 2001, Martin was still optimistic that the fourth installment might be released in the last quarter of 2002. However, the five - year gap did not work for all characters during writing. On one hand, Martin was unsatisfied with covering the events during the gap solely through flashbacks and internal retrospection. On the other hand, it was implausible to have nothing happen for five years. After working on the book for about a year, Martin realized he needed an additional interim book, which he called A Feast for Crows. The book would pick up the story immediately after the third book, and Martin scrapped the idea of a five - year gap. The material of the written 250 - page prologue was mixed in as new viewpoint characters from Dorne and the Iron Islands. These expanded storylines and the resulting story interactions complicated the plot for Martin.
The manuscript length of A Feast for Crows eventually surpassed A Storm of Swords. Martin was reluctant to make the necessary deep cuts to get the book down to publishable length, as that would have compromised the story he had in mind. Printing the book in "microtype on onion skin paper and giving each reader a magnifying glass '' was also not an option for him. On the other hand, Martin rejected the publishers ' idea of splitting the narrative chronologically into A Feast for Crows, Parts One and Two. Being already late with the book, Martin had not even started writing all characters ' stories and also objected to ending the first book without any resolution for its many viewpoint characters as in previous books.
With the characters spread out across the world, a friend suggested that Martin divide the story geographically into two volumes, of which A Feast for Crows would be the first. This approach would give Martin the room to complete his commenced story arcs as he had originally intended, which he still felt was the best approach years later. Martin moved the unfinished characters ' stories set in the east (Essos) and north (Winterfell and the Wall) into the next book, A Dance with Dragons, and left A Feast for Crows to cover the events on Westeros, King 's Landing, the Riverlands, Dorne, and the Iron Islands. Both books begin immediately after the end of A Storm of Swords, running in parallel instead of sequentially, and involve different casts of characters with only little overlap. Martin split Arya 's chapters into both books after having already moved the three other most popular characters (Jon Snow, Tyrion, and Daenerys) into A Dance with Dragons.
Upon its release in October 2005 in the UK and November 2005 in the US, A Feast for Crows went straight to the top of The New York Times bestseller list. Among the positive reviewers was Lev Grossman of Time, who dubbed Martin "the American Tolkien ''. However, fans and critics alike were disappointed with the story split that left the fates of several popular characters unresolved after A Storm of Swords ' cliffhanger ending. With A Dance with Dragons said to be half - finished, Martin mentioned in the epilogue of A Feast for Crows that the next volume would be released by the next year. However, planned release dates were repeatedly pushed back. Meanwhile, HBO acquired the rights to turn Ice and Fire into a dramatic series in 2007 and aired the first of ten episodes covering A Game of Thrones in April 2011.
With around 1600 pages in manuscript length, A Dance with Dragons was eventually published in July 2011 after six years of writing, longer in page count and writing time than any of the preceding four novels. The story of A Dance with Dragons catches up and goes beyond A Feast for Crows around two - thirds into the book, but nevertheless covers less story than Martin had intended, omitting at least one planned large battle sequence and leaving several character threads ending in cliff - hangers. Martin attributed the delay mainly to his untangling "the Meereenese knot '', which the interviewer understood as "making the chronology and characters mesh up as various threads converged on (Daenerys) ''. Martin also acknowledged spending too much time on rewriting and perfecting the story, but soundly rejected the theories of some of his critics that he had lost interest in the series or would bide his time to make more money.
Martin believes the last two volumes of the series will be big books of 1500 manuscript pages each. The sixth book will be called The Winds of Winter, taking the title of the last book of the originally planned trilogy. Displeased with the provisional title A Time for Wolves for the final volume, Martin ultimately announced A Dream of Spring as the title for the seventh book in 2006. Martin said in March 2012 that the final two novels will take readers farther north than any of the previous books, and that the Others will appear in the book.
The Winds of Winter will resolve the Dance with Dragons cliffhangers early on and "will open with the two big battles that (the fifth book) was building up to, the battle in the ice and the battle (...) of Slaver 's Bay. And then take it from there. '' By the middle of 2010, Martin had already finished five chapters of The Winds of Winter from the viewpoints of Sansa Stark, Arya Stark, Arianne Martell, and Aeron Greyjoy, accumulating to around 100 completed pages. After the publication of A Dance with Dragons in 2011, Martin announced he would return to writing in January 2012. He spent the meantime on book tours, conventions, and continued working on his The World of Ice & Fire companion guide and a new Tales of Dunk and Egg novella.
In December 2011, Martin posted a chapter from The Winds of Winter from the viewpoint of Theon Greyjoy; several other chapters have been made public since. Four hundred pages of the sixth novel have been written as of October 2012, although Martin considers only 200 as "really finished ''; the rest needs revising. In 2011, Martin gave three years as a realistic estimate for finishing the sixth book at a good pace, but said ultimately the book "will be done when it 's done '', acknowledging that his publication estimates had been too optimistic in the past. Martin did not intend to separate the characters geographically again.
In 2015 there were indications that the book would be published before the sixth season of the HBO show but in early January 2016 Martin confirmed that he had not met an end - of - year deadline that he had established with his publisher for release of the book before the sixth season. He added that there was "a lot still left to write '' and that completion of the book was "months away still... if the writing goes well. '' Martin also revealed there had been a previous deadline of October 2015 that he had considered achievable in May 2015, and that in September 2015 he had still considered the end - of - year deadline achievable. He further confirmed that some of the plot of the book might be revealed in the upcoming season of Game of Thrones. In February 2016, Martin stated that he dropped all his editing projects except for Wild Cards, and that he would not be writing any teleplays, screenplays, short stories, introductions or forewords before delivering The Winds of Winter.
During the Guadalajara International Book Fair in Mexico in early December 2016, Martin offered the following hint as to the tone of this book:
There are a lot of dark chapters right now... I 've been telling you for 20 years that winter was coming. Winter is the time when things die, and cold and ice and darkness fill the world, so this is not going to be the happy feel - good that people may be hoping for. Some of the characters (are) in very dark places.
Martin is firm about ending the series with the seventh novel "until I decide not to be firm ''. With his stated goal of telling the story from beginning to end, he will not truncate the story to fit into an arbitrary number of volumes. He knows the ending in broad strokes as well as the future of the main characters, and will finish the series with bittersweet elements where not everyone will live happily ever after. Martin hopes to write an ending similar to The Lord of the Rings that he felt gave the story a satisfying depth and resonance. On the other hand, Martin noted the challenge to avoid a situation like the finale of the TV series Lost, which left some fans disappointed by deviating too far from their own theories and desires. In 2015, Martin said that he was not writing A Dream of Spring together with The Winds of Winter, and in early 2016, he said he did not believe A Dream of Spring would be published before the last season of the HBO show.
Martin offered the following hint as to how the series would conclude during a Q&A at the Guadalajara International Book Fair. "I 'm not going to tell you how I 'm going to end my book, but I suspect the overall flavor is going to be as much bittersweet as it is happy. ''
Early during the development of the TV series, Martin told major plot points to producers David Benioff and D.B. Weiss. (The New York Times reported in 2011 that, at age 62, Martin was by all accounts in robust health.) Martin was confident he would have published at least The Winds of Winter before the TV series overtook him. Nevertheless, there was general concern about whether Martin would be able to stay ahead of the show. As a result, head writers Benioff and Weiss learned more future plot points from Martin in 2013 to help them set up the show 's new possible seasons. This included the end stories for all the core characters. Deviations from the books ' storylines are also being considered, but a two - year show hiatus to wait for new books is not an option for them as the child actors continue to grow and the show 's popularity would wane. Martin indicated he would not permit another writer to finish the book series. On January 2, 2016, Martin confirmed that the sixth volume would not be published before the start of the sixth season of the HBO series.
Regarding A Song of Ice and Fire as his magnum opus, Martin is certain never to write anything on this scale again and would only return to this fictional universe in the context of stand - alone novels. He prefers to write stories about characters from other Ice and Fire periods of history such as his Tales of Dunk and Egg project, instead of continuing the series directly. A possible future side project is a prequel set during Aegon 's conquest of Westeros. Martin said he would love to return to writing short stories, novellas, novelettes, and stand - alone novels from diverse genres such as science fiction, horror, fantasy, or even a murder mystery. However, he will see if his audience follows him after publishing his next project.
George R.R. Martin believes the most profound influences to be the ones experienced in childhood. Having read H.P. Lovecraft, Robert E. Howard, Robert A. Heinlein, Eric Frank Russell, Andre Norton, Isaac Asimov, Fritz Leiber, and Mervyn Peake in his youth, Martin never categorized these authors ' literature into science fiction, fantasy, or horror and will write from any genre as a result. Martin classified A Song of Ice and Fire as "epic fantasy '', and specifically named Tad Williams as very influential for the writing of the series. One of his favorite authors is Jack Vance, although Martin considered the series not particularly Vancean.
The medieval setting has been the traditional background for epic fantasy. However, where historical fiction leaves versed readers knowing the historical outcome, original characters may increase suspense and empathy for the readers. Yet Martin felt historical fiction, particularly when set during the Middle Ages, had an excitement, grittiness, and a realness to it that was absent in fantasy with a similar backdrop. Thus, he wanted to combine the realism of historical fiction with the magic appeal of the best fantasies, subduing magic in favor of battles and political intrigue. He also decided to avoid the conventional good versus evil setting typical for the genre, using the fight between Achilles and Hector in Homer 's Iliad, where no one stands out as either a hero or a villain, as an example of what he wants to achieve with his books.
Martin is widely credited with broadening the fantasy fiction genre for adult content, including incest, paedophilia, and adultery. For The Washington Post 's Writing for The Atlantic, Amber Taylor assessed the novels as hard fantasy with vulnerable characters to which readers become emotionally attached. CNN found in 2000 that Martin 's mature descriptions were "far more frank than those found in the works of other fantasy authors '', although Martin assessed the fantasy genre to have become rougher - edged a decade later and that some writers ' work was going beyond the mature themes of his novels. Adam Roberts called Martin 's series the most successful and popular example of the emerging subgenre of grimdark fantasy, influencing other writers associated with that style, such as Joe Abercrombie.
Setting out to write something on an epic scale, Martin projected to write three books of 800 manuscript pages in the very early stages of the series. His original 1990s contract specified one - year deadlines for his previous literary works, but Martin only realized later that his new books were longer and hence required more writing time. In 2000, Martin planned to take 18 months to two years for each volume and projected the last of the planned six books to be released five or six years later. However, with the Ice and Fire series evolving into the biggest and most ambitious story he has ever attempted writing, he still has two more books to write as of 2016. Martin said he needed to be in his own office in Santa Fe, New Mexico to immerse himself in the fictional world and write. As of 2011, Martin was still typing his fiction on a DOS computer with WordStar 4.0 software. He begins each day at 10 am with rewriting and polishing the previous day 's work, and may write all day or struggle to write anything. Excised material and previous old versions are saved to be possibly re-inserted at a later time.
Martin set the Ice and Fire story in a secondary world inspired by Tolkien 's writing. Unlike Tolkien, who created entire languages, mythologies, and histories for Middle - earth long before writing The Lord of the Rings, Martin usually starts with a rough sketch of an imaginary world that he improvises into a workable fictional setting along the way. He described his writing as coming from a subconscious level in "almost a daydreaming process '', and his stories, which have a mythic rather than a scientific core, draw from emotion instead of rationality. Martin employs maps and a cast list topping 60 pages in the fourth volume, but keeps most information in his mind. His imagined backstory remains subject to change until published, and only the novels count as canon. Martin does not intend to publish his private notes after the series is finished.
Martin drew much inspiration from actual history for the series, having several bookcases filled with medieval history for research and visiting historic European landmarks. For an American who speaks only English, the history of England proved the easiest source of medieval history for him, giving the series a British rather than a German or Spanish historic flavor. For example, Ned and Robb Stark resemble Richard, 3rd Duke of York and his son Edward IV, and Queen Cersei resembles both Margaret of Anjou and Elizabeth Woodville. Martin immersed himself in many diverse medieval topics such as clothing, food, feasting, and tournaments, to have the facts at hand if needed during writing. The series was in particular influenced by the Hundred Years ' War, the Crusades, the Albigensian Crusade, and the Wars of the Roses, although Martin refrained from making any direct adaptations. Martin was also inspired by the French historical novels The Accursed Kings by Maurice Druon, which are about the French monarchy in the 13th and 14th centuries.
The story is written to follow principal landmarks with an ultimate destination, but leaves Martin room for improvisation. On occasion, improvised details significantly affected the planned story. By the fourth book, Martin kept more private notes than ever before to keep track of the many subplots, which became so detailed and sprawling by the fifth book as to be unwieldy. Martin 's editors, copy editors, and readers monitor for accidental mistakes, although some errors have slipped into publication. For instance, Martin has inconsistently referred to certain characters ' eye colors, and has described a horse as being of one sex and then another.
The books are divided into chapters, each one narrated in the third person limited through the eyes of a point of view character, an approach Martin learned himself as a young journalism student. Beginning with nine POV characters in A Game of Thrones, the number of POV characters grows to a total of 31 in A Dance with Dragons (see table). The short - lived one - time POV characters are mostly restricted to the prologue and epilogue. David Orr of The New York Times noted the story importance of "the Starks (good guys), the Targaryens (at least one good guy, or girl), the Lannisters (conniving), the Greyjoys (mostly conniving), the Baratheons (mixed bag), the Tyrells (unclear) and the Martells (ditto), most of whom are feverishly endeavoring to advance their ambitions and ruin their enemies, preferably unto death ''. However, as Time 's Lev Grossman noted, readers "experience the struggle for Westeros from all sides at once '', such that "every fight is both triumph and tragedy (...) and everybody is both hero and villain at the same time ''.
Modeled on The Lord of the Rings, the Ice and Fire story begins with a tight focus on a small group (with everyone in Winterfell, except Daenerys) and then splits into separate stories. The storylines are to converge again, but finding the turning point in this complex series has been difficult for Martin and has slowed down his writing. Depending on the interview, Martin is said to have reached the turning point in A Dance with Dragons, or to not quite have reached it yet in the books. The series ' structure of multiple POVs and interwoven storylines was inspired by Wild Cards, a multi-authored shared universe book series edited by Martin since 1985. As the sole author, Martin begins each new book with an outline of the chapter order and may write a few successive chapters from a single character 's viewpoint instead of working chronologically. The chapters are later rearranged to optimize character intercutting, chronology, and suspense.
Influenced by his television and film scripting background, Martin tries to keep readers engrossed by ending each Ice and Fire chapter with a tense or revelational moment, a twist or a cliffhanger, similar to a TV act break. Scriptwriting has also taught him the technique of "cutting out the fat and leaving the muscle '', which is the final stage of completing a book, a technique that brought the page count in A Dance with Dragons down almost eighty pages. Dividing the continuous Ice and Fire story into books is much harder for Martin. Each book shall represent a phase of the journey that ends in closure for most characters. A smaller portion of characters is left with clear - cut cliffhangers to make sure readers come back for the next installment, although A Dance with Dragons had more cliffhangers than Martin originally intended. Both one - time and regular POV characters are designed to have full character arcs ending in tragedy or triumph, and are written to hold the readers ' interest and not be skipped in reading. Main characters are killed off so that the reader will not rely on the hero to come through unscathed and will instead feel the character 's fear with each page turn.
The unresolved larger narrative arc encourages speculation about future story events. According to Martin, much of the key to Ice and Fire 's future lies over a dozen years in the fictional past, of which each volume reveals more. Events planned from the beginning are foreshadowed, although Martin is careful not to make the story predictable. The viewpoint characters, who serve as unreliable narrators, may clarify or provide different perspectives on past events. Therefore, what the readers believe to be true may not necessarily be true.
Regarding the characters as the heart of the story, Martin planned the epic Ice and Fire fantasy to have a large cast of characters and many different settings from the beginning. A Feast for Crows has a 63 - page list of characters, with many of the thousands of characters mentioned only in passing or disappearing from view for long stretches. When Martin adds a new family to the ever - growing number of genealogies in the appendices, he devises a secret about the personality or fate of the family members. However, their backstory remains subject to change until written down in the story. Martin drew most character inspiration from history (without directly translating historical figures) and his own experiences, but also from the manners of his friends, acquaintances, and people of public interest. Martin aims to "make my characters real and to make them human, characters who have good and bad, noble and selfish well - mixed in their natures ''. Jeff VanderMeer of the Los Angeles Times remarked that "Martin 's devotion to fully inhabiting his characters, for better or worse, creates the unstoppable momentum in his novels and contains an implied criticism of Tolkien 's moral simplicity '' (see Themes: Moral ambiguity).
Martin deliberately ignored the writing rule of never giving two characters names starting with the same letter. Instead, character names reflect the naming systems in various European family histories, where particular names were associated with specific royal houses and where even the secondary families assigned the same names repeatedly. The Ice and Fire story therefore has children called "Robert '' in honor of King Robert of House Baratheon, a "Brandon '' in every other generation of the Starks in commemoration of Brandon the Builder (of the Wall), and the syllable "Ty '' commonly occurring in given names of House Lannister. Confident that readers would pay attention, Martin distinguished people sharing a given name by adding numbers or locations to their given names (e.g. Henry V of England). The family names were designed in association with ethnic groups (see backstory): the First Men in the North of Westeros had very simply descriptive names like Stark and Strong, whereas the descendants of the Andal invaders in the South have more elaborate, undescriptive house names like Lannister or Arryn, and the Targaryens and Valyrians from the Eastern continent have the most exotic names with the letter Y.
All characters are designed to speak with their own internal voices to capture their views of the world. The Atlantic pondered whether Martin ultimately intended the readers to sympathize with characters on both sides of the Lannister -- Stark feud long before plot developments force them to make their emotional choices. Contrary to most conventional epic fantasies, the Ice and Fire characters are vulnerable so that, according to The Atlantic, the reader "can not be sure that good shall triumph, which makes those instances where it does all the more exulting. '' Martin gets emotionally involved in the characters ' lives during writing, which makes the chapters with dreadful events sometimes very difficult to write. Seeing the world through the characters ' eyes requires a certain amount of empathy with them, including the villains, all of whom he has said he loves as if they were his own children. Martin found that some characters had minds of their own and took his writing in different directions. He returns to the intended story if it does not work out, but these detours sometimes prove more rewarding for him.
Arya Stark, Tyrion Lannister, Jon Snow, and Daenerys Targaryen generate the most feedback from readers. Martin has stated that Tyrion is his personal favorite, as the grayest of the gray characters, with his cunning and wit making him the most fun to write. Martin has also said that Bran Stark is the hardest character to write. As the character most deeply involved in magic, Bran 's story needs to be handled carefully within the supernatural aspects of the books. Bran is also the youngest viewpoint character, and has to deal with the series ' adult themes like grief, loneliness, and anger. Martin set out to have the young characters grow up faster between chapters, but, as it was implausible for a character to take two months to respond, a finished book represents very little time passed. Martin hoped the planned five - year break would ease the situation and age the children to almost adults in terms of the Seven Kingdoms, but he later dropped the five - year gap (see section Bridging the timeline gap).
Although modern fantasy may often embrace strangeness, the Ice and Fire series is generally praised for what is perceived as a sort of medieval realism. Believing that magic should be used moderately in the epic fantasy genre, Martin set out to make the story feel more like historical fiction than contemporary fantasy, with less emphasis on magic and sorcery and more on battles, political intrigue, and the characters. Though the amount of magic has gradually increased throughout the story, the series is still to end with less overt magic than most contemporary fantasies. In Martin 's eyes, literary effective magic needs to represent strange and dangerous forces beyond human comprehension, not advanced alien technologies or formulaic spells. As such, the characters understand only the natural aspects of their world, but not the magical elements like the Others.
Since Martin drew on historical sources to build the Ice and Fire world, Damien G. Walter of The Guardian saw a strong resemblance between Westeros and England in the period of the Wars of the Roses. The Atlantic 's Adam Serwer regarded A Song of Ice and Fire as "more a story of politics than one of heroism, a story about humanity wrestling with its baser obsessions than fulfilling its glorious potential '', where the emergent power struggle stems from the feudal system 's repression and not from the fight between good and evil. Martin not only wanted to reflect the frictions of the medieval class structures in the novels, but also explore the consequences of the leaders ' decisions, as general goodness does not automatically make competent leaders and vice versa.
A common theme in the fantasy genre is the battle between good and evil, which Martin rejects for not mirroring the real world. Attracted to gray characters, Martin instead endorses William Faulkner 's view that only the human heart in conflict with itself was worth writing about. Martin explores the questions of redemption and character change in the Ice and Fire series. The multiple viewpoint structure allows characters to be explored from many sides, such that the supposed villains can provide their viewpoint.
Although fantasy comes from an imaginative realm, Martin sees an honest necessity to reflect the real world where people die sometimes ugly deaths, even beloved people. Main characters are killed off so that the reader will not expect the supposed hero to survive, and instead will feel the same tension and fear that the characters might. The novels also reflect the substantial death rates in war. The deaths of supernumerary extras or orcs have no major effect on readers, whereas a friend 's death has much more emotional impact. Martin prefers a hero 's sacrifice to say something profound about human nature.
According to Martin, the fantasy genre rarely focuses on sex and sexuality, instead often treating sexuality in a juvenile way or neglecting it completely. Martin, however, considers sexuality an important driving force in human life that should not be excluded from the narrative. Providing sensory detail for an immersive experience is more important than plot advancement for Martin, who aims to let the readers experience the novels ' sex scenes, "whether it 's a great transcendent, exciting, mind blowing sex, or whether it 's disturbing, twisted, dark sex, or disappointing perfunctory sex. '' Martin was fascinated by medieval contrasts where knights venerated their ladies with poems and wore their favors in tournaments while their armies mindlessly raped women in wartime. The non-existent concept of adolescence in the Middle Ages served as a model for Daenerys ' sexual activity at the age of 13 in the books. The novels also allude to the incestuous practices in the Ptolemaic dynasty of Ancient Egypt to keep their bloodlines pure.
Martin provides a variety of female characters to explore the place of women in a patriarchal society. Writing all characters as human beings with the same basic needs, dreams, and influences, his female characters are to cover the same wide spectrum of human traits as the males.
Science Fiction Weekly stated in 2000 that "few would dispute that Martin 's most monumental achievement to date has been the groundbreaking A Song of Ice and Fire historical fantasy series '', for which reviews have been "orders of magnitude better '' than for his previous works, as Martin described to The New Yorker. In 2007, Weird Tales magazine described the series as a "superb fantasy saga '' that "raised Martin to a whole new level of success ''. Shortly before the release of A Dance with Dragons in 2011, Bill Sheehan of The Washington Post was sure that "no work of fantasy has generated such anticipation since Harry Potter 's final duel with Voldemort '', and Ethan Sacks of Daily News saw the series turning Martin into a darling of literary critics as well as mainstream readers, which was "rare for a fantasy genre that 's often dismissed as garbage not fit to line the bottom of a dragon 's cage ''. Salon.com 's Andrew Leonard stated:
The success is all the more remarkable because (the series debuted) without mass market publicity or any kind of buzz in the fantasy / SF scene. George R.R. Martin earned his following the hard way, by word of mouth, by hooking his characters into the psyche of his readers to an extent that most writers of fantasy only dream of.
Publishers Weekly noted in 2000 that "Martin may not rival Tolkien or Robert Jordan, but he ranks with such accomplished medievalists of fantasy as Poul Anderson and Gordon Dickson. '' After the fourth volume came out in 2005, Time 's Lev Grossman considered Martin a "major force for evolution in fantasy '' and proclaimed him "the American Tolkien '', explaining that, although Martin was "(not) the best known of America 's straight - up fantasy writers '' at the time and would "never win a Pulitzer or a National Book Award... his skill as a crafter of narrative exceeds that of almost any literary novelist writing today ''. As Grossman said in 2011, the phrase American Tolkien "has stuck to (Martin), as it was meant to '', being picked up by the media including The New York Times ("He 's much better than that ''), the New Yorker, Entertainment Weekly ("an acclaim that borders on fantasy blasphemy ''), The Globe and Mail, and USA Today. Time magazine named Martin one of the 100 most influential people in the world in 2011, and USA Today named George R.R. Martin their Author of the Year 2011.
According to The Globe and Mail 's John Barber, Martin manages simultaneously to master and transcend the genre so that "Critics applaud the depth of his characterizations and lack of cliché in books that are nonetheless replete with dwarves and dragons ''. Publishers Weekly gave favorable reviews to the first three Ice and Fire novels at their points of release, saying that A Game of Thrones had "superbly developed characters, accomplished prose and sheer bloody - mindedness '', that A Clash of Kings was "notable particularly for the lived - in quality of (their fictional world and) for the comparatively modest role of magic '', and that A Storm of Swords was one "of the more rewarding examples of gigantism in contemporary fantasy ''. However, they found that A Feast For Crows as the fourth installment "sorely misses its other half. The slim pickings here are tasty, but in no way satisfying. '' Their review for A Dance with Dragons repeated points of criticism for the fourth volume, and said that, although "The new volume has a similar feel to Feast '', "Martin keeps it fresh by focusing on popular characters (who were) notably absent from the previous book. ''
According to the Los Angeles Times, "Martin 's brilliance in evoking atmosphere through description is an enduring hallmark of his fiction, the settings much more than just props on a painted stage '', and the novels captivate readers with "complex storylines, fascinating characters, great dialogue, perfect pacing, and the willingness to kill off even his major characters ''. CNN remarked that "the story weaves through differing points of view in a skillful mix of observation, narration and well - crafted dialogue that illuminates both character and plot with fascinating style '', and David Orr of The New York Times found that "All of his hundreds of characters have grace notes of history and personality that advance a plot line. Every town has an elaborately recalled series of triumphs and troubles. '' Salon. com 's Andrew Leonard "could n't stop reading Martin because my desire to know what was going to happen combined with my absolute inability to guess what would happen and left me helpless before his sorcery. At the end, I felt shaken and exhausted. '' The Christian Science Monitor advised reading the novels with an A Song of Ice and Fire encyclopedia at hand to "catch all the layered, subtle hints and details that (Martin) leaves throughout his books. If you pay attention, you will be rewarded and questions will be answered. ''
Among the most critical voices were Sam Jordison and Michael Hann, both of The Guardian. Jordison detailed his misgivings about A Game of Thrones in a 2009 review and summarized "It 's daft. It 's unsophisticated. It 's cartoonish. And yet, I could n't stop reading... Archaic absurdity aside, Martin 's writing is excellent. His dialogue is snappy and frequently funny. His descriptive prose is immediate and atmospheric, especially when it comes to building a sense of deliciously dark foreboding (of the long impending winter). '' Hann did not consider the novels to stand out from the general fantasy genre, despite Martin 's alterations to fantasy convention, although he rediscovered his childhood 's views:
That when things are, on the whole, pretty crappy (in the real world), it 's a deep joy to dive headfirst into something so completely immersive, something from which there is no need to surface from hours at a time. And if that immersion involves dragons, magic, wraiths from beyond death, shapeshifting wolves and banished princes, so be it.
The reported overall sales figures of the A Song of Ice and Fire series vary. The New Yorker said in April 2011 (before the publication of A Dance with Dragons) that more than 15 million Ice and Fire books had been sold worldwide, a figure repeated by The Globe and Mail in July 2011. Reuters reported in September 2013 that the books including print, digital and audio versions have sold more than 24 million copies in North America. The Wall Street Journal reported more than six million sold copies in North America by May 2011. USA Today reported 8.5 million copies in print and digital overall in July 2011, and over 12 million sold copies in print in December 2011. The series has been translated into more than 20 languages; USA Today reported the fifth book to be translated into over 40 languages. Forbes estimated that Martin was the 12th highest - earning author worldwide in 2011 at $15 million.
Martin 's publishers initially expected A Game of Thrones to be a best - seller, but the first installment did not even reach any lower positions in bestseller list. This left Martin unsurprised, as it is "a fool 's game to think anything is going to be successful or to count on it ''. However, the book slowly won the passionate advocacy of independent booksellers and the book 's popularity grew by word of mouth. The series ' popularity skyrocketed in subsequent volumes, with the second and third volume making The New York Times Best Seller lists in 1999 and 2000, respectively. The series gained Martin 's old writings new attention, and Martin 's American publisher Bantam Spectra was to reprint his out - of - print solo novels.
The fourth installment, A Feast for Crows, was an immediate best - seller at its 2005 release, hitting number one on "The New York Times '' hardcover fiction bestseller list November 27, 2005, which for a fantasy novel suggested that Martin 's books were attracting mainstream readers. The paperback edition of A Game of Thrones reached its 34th printing in 2010, surpassing the one million mark. Before it even premiered, the TV series had boosted sales of the book series, with Ice and Fire approaching triple - digit growth in year - on - year sales. Bantam was looking forward to seeing the tie - ins boost sales further, and Martin 's British publisher Harper Voyager expected readers to rediscover their other epic fantasy literature. With a reported 4.5 million copies of the first four volumes in print in early 2011, the four volumes re-appeared on the paperback fiction bestseller lists in the second quarter of 2011.
At its point of publication in July 2011, A Dance with Dragons was in its sixth print with more than 650,000 hardbacks in print. It also had the highest single and first - day sales of any new fiction title published in 2011 at that point, with 170,000 hardcovers, 110,000 e-books, and 18,000 audio books reportedly sold on the first day. A Dance with Dragons reached the top of The New York Times bestseller list on July 31, 2011. Unlike most other big titles, the fifth volume sold more physical than digital copies early on, but nevertheless, Martin became the tenth author to sell 1 million Amazon Kindle e-books. All five volumes and the four - volume boxed set were among the top 100 best - selling books in the United States in 2011 and 2012.
The TV series has contributed significantly boosting sales of both the books and collectibles like box - sets, merchandise, and other items. The TV series also contributed in increasing the geographic coverage of the books, introducing new customers in emerging countries like India and Brazil to the book series. All this has significantly increased the overall book sales.
During the 1980s and early 1990s, Martin 's novels had slowly earned him a reputation in science fiction circles, although he said to only have received a few fans ' letters a year in the pre-internet days. The publication of A Game of Thrones caused Martin 's following to grow, with fan sites springing up and a Trekkie - like society of followers evolving that meet regularly. Westeros.org, one of the main Ice and Fire fansites with about seventeen thousand registered members as of 2011, was established in 1999 by a Swedish - based fan of Cuban - American descent, Elio M. García, Jr., and his girlfriend; their involvement with Martin 's work has now become semi-professional. The Brotherhood Without Banners, an unofficial fan club operating globally, was formed in 2001. Their founders and other longtime members are among Martin 's good friends.
Martin runs an official website and administers a lively blog with the assistance of Ty Franck. He also interacts with fandom by answering emails and letters, although he stated in 2005 that their sheer numbers might leave them unanswered for years. Since there are different types of conventions nowadays, he tends to go to three or four science - fiction conventions a year simply to go back to his roots and meet friends. He does not read message boards anymore, so that his writing will not be influenced by fans foreseeing twists and interpreting characters differently from what he intended.
While Martin calls the majority of his fans "great '', and enjoys interacting with them, some of them turned against him because of the six years it took to release A Dance with Dragons. A movement of disaffected fans called GRRuMblers formed in 2009, creating sites such as Finish the Book, George and Is Winter Coming?. When fans ' vocal impatience for A Dance with Dragons peaked shortly after, Martin issued a statement called "To My Detractors '' on his blog that received media attention. The New York Times noted that it was not uncommon for Martin to be mobbed at book signings either. The New Yorker called this "an astonishing amount of effort to devote to denouncing the author of books one professes to love. Few contemporary authors can claim to have inspired such passion. ''
Martin has written several prequel novellas. The Tales of Dunk and Egg series, three novellas set ninety years before the events of the novel series, feature the adventures of Ser Duncan the Tall and his squire "Egg '', the later King Aegon V Targaryen. The stories have no direct connection to the plot of A Song of Ice and Fire, although both characters are mentioned in A Storm of Swords and A Feast For Crows, respectively. The first installment, The Hedge Knight, was published in the 1998 anthology Legends. The Sworn Sword followed in 2003, published in Legends II. Both were later adapted into graphic novels. The third novella, titled The Mystery Knight, was first published in the 2010 anthology Warriors, and is planned to be adapted as a graphic novel as well. Martin planned to release the first three novellas as one collection in 2014. Up to eight further Dunk and Egg installments are planned.
The novella The Princess and the Queen or, the Blacks and the Greens appeared in Tor Books 's 2013 anthology Dangerous Women, and explains some of the Targaryen backstory two centuries before the events of the novels. The Rogue Prince, or, the King 's Brother, published in the 2014 anthology Rogues, is itself a prequel to the events of The Princess and the Queen.
Chapter sets from the novels were also compiled into three novellas that were released between 1996 and 2003 by Asimov 's Science Fiction and Dragon:
With the popularity of the series growing, HBO optioned A Song of Ice and Fire for a television adaptation in 2007. A pilot episode was produced in late 2009, and a series commitment for nine further episodes was made in March 2010. The series, titled Game of Thrones, premiered in April 2011 to great acclaim and ratings (see Game of Thrones: Reception). The network picked up the show for a second season covering A Clash of Kings two days later. Shortly after the conclusion of the first season, the show received 13 Emmy Award nominations, including Outstanding Drama Series, winning Outstanding Main Title Design and Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series for Peter Dinklage 's portrayal of Tyrion Lannister. HBO announced a renewal for a third season in April 2012, ten days after the season 2 premiere. Due to the length of the corresponding book, the third season only covered roughly the first half of A Storm of Swords.
Shortly after the season 3 premiere in March 2013, the network announced that Game of Thrones would be returning for a fourth season, which would cover the second half of A Storm of Swords along with the beginnings of A Feast for Crows and A Dance With Dragons. Game of Thrones was nominated for 15 Emmy Awards for season 3. Two days after the fourth season premiered in April 2014, HBO renewed Game of Thrones for a fifth and sixth season. Season 5 premiered on April 12, 2015 and set a Guinness World Records for winning the highest number of Emmy Awards for a series in a single season and year, winning 12 out of 24 nominations, including Outstanding Drama Series. These episodes were watched by 8 million viewers, setting a record number for the series. The sixth season premiered on April 24, 2016. These episodes received the most nominations for the 68th Primetime Emmy Awards with 23, winning 12, including the award for Outstanding Drama Series.
A Song of Ice and Fire spawned an industry of spin - off products. Fantasy Flight Games released a collectible card game, a board game, and two collections of artwork inspired by the Ice and Fire series. Various roleplaying game products were released by Guardians of Order and Green Ronin. Dynamite Entertainment adapted A Game of Thrones into a same - titled monthly comic in 2011. Several video games are available or in production, including A Game of Thrones: Genesis (2011) and Game of Thrones (2012) by Cyanide; both received mediocre ratings from critics. A social network game titled Game of Thrones Ascent (2013) by Disruptor Beam allows players to live the life of a noble during the series ' period setting. Random House released an official map book called The Lands of Ice and Fire, which includes old and new maps of the Ice and Fire world. The companion book The World of Ice & Fire by Martin and the Westeros.org owners Elio M. García Jr. and Linda Antonsson was published in October 2014. Other licensed products include full - sized weapon reproductions, a range of collectable figures, Westeros coinage reproductions, and a large number of gift and collectible items based on the HBO television series. The popularity of the HBO series has made its version of the Iron Throne an icon of the entire media franchise.
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where are they now hells kitchen season 13 | Hell 's kitchen (Us season 13) - wikipedia
Season 13 of the American competitive reality television series Hell 's Kitchen premiered on September 10, 2014 on Fox. The prize was a head chef position at Gordon Ramsay 's Pub & Grill at Caesars Atlantic City. Gordon Ramsay returned as head chef and Andi van Willigan and James Avery returned as sous chefs. However, Jean - Philippe Susilovic did not return as maitre d ' and was replaced by Marino Monferrato. It also marks the first time since 2010 that two seasons of Hell 's Kitchen aired in the same year. Kitchen Supervisor La Tasha McCutchen from Winter Haven, Florida won the competition, becoming the first winner since Christina Wilson, Holli Ugalde and Dave Levey to completely avoid nomination for elimination throughout the entire season. This is also the first time that the series had a new narrator. However, the identity of the new narrator was never revealed.
The chefs battle against each other in an epic gladiator showdown at the Colosseum while Ramsay watches from the balcony.
Eighteen chefs competed in season 13 for the first time since season 10.
Each episode consists of a challenge with a reward, a service and an elimination.
The season began with the contestants being transported to the Cinerama Dome theater in Los Angeles, where they first viewed a short film that had an introduction by Chef Ramsay and detailed the careers of several former contestants including season 10 winner Christina Wilson, season 9 winner Paul Niedermann and season 7 runner - up Jason "Jay '' Santos before informing this season 's contestants of the challenges they would face.
Team challenge / signature dish They were then immediately given their first challenge: to make their signature dishes for Chef Ramsay (at the Le Cordon Bleu college across the street) and present them in front of a large cinema audience. As the contestants cooked their dishes, JP was scolded by Ramsay for finishing his dish with over twenty minutes remaining, resulting in Ramsay forcing him to make it again. The first time ever, instead of giving 1 point to a perfect dish, the dishes were rated on a scale of 1 -- 5. Denine 's inside - out chicken parmesan and JR 's rockfish taco with mango slaw and lemon aioli both received 3 points. In the next round, Sade 's wild mushroom and pea risotto got 2 points whilst JP 's Boston baked haddock with lemon beurre blanc sauce and fingerling potatoes got 1 point; he was even threatened with elimination. The women kept the lead as Ashley 's deconstructed chicken and chorizo taco received 3 points but Frank 's filet mignon Bordelaise got 1 point but in the next round the points were tied as La Tasha 's grilled hickory watermelon got 1 point whilst Fernando 's pan seared pigeon with sweet potato puree impressed receiving 4 points. The women took the lead again as Roe 's Kobe beef filet got 4 points whilst Sterling 's shrimp and grits still got a respectable 3 points. The scores were tied again as Jennifer 's pan roasted duck breast got 2 points and Steve 's rack of lamb got 3 points. Both Katie 's pan seared halibut and Bryant 's wild mushroom roulade received 4 points and the scores were still tied as both Janai 's lobster - stuffed lamb rack and Aaron 's hazel nut financier got 1 point. In the final round, Santos 's skate wing with beurre noisette got 3 points, but Kalen 's seared sea scallops got 4 points which secured a 24 -- 23 victory, making it the fourth season in a row the women won the signature dish challenge.
Reward / punishment: The women were treated to a meal at the Hotel Bel - Air hosted by Wolfgang Puck while the men were taken to Hell 's Kitchen and made to set up the dorms. During the punishment, JR annoyed his teammates by not doing as much work as the other men. As a final punishment, they had to unload the women 's luggage upon their arrival. The women began studying the cooking manuals, while the men quickly fell asleep.
Service: For the opening night, several celebrities were in attendance including Greg Grunberg, Scott Grimes, Paul Feig, Bob Guiney and Eva La Rue. In addition, a tableside appetizer of prawn scampi was served by Denine and Sterling. The women turned in a virtually flawless performance, with the only notable error being Janai mistakenly serving 8 scallops for an order instead of 10 and they finished dinner service after what Chef Ramsay said was by far the best - ever performance by a team on the opening night of a Hell 's Kitchen season, with Ashley and Roe having flawless performances on the meat station. The men 's service, however, was a complete disaster. They were stalled from the beginning by Aaron 's inability to cook the risotto and JR and JP serving raw scallops and raw lobster respectively; Aaron was eventually able to get the risottos out with help from Fernando. Steve did well on the meat station, but further mistakes by JR and JP saw the two tossed out of service. Fernando took over the fish station, but immediately served up raw halibut, which caused Ramsay to throw all the men out of service. With the men having served no entrees, they were deemed the clear losers and told to nominate two chefs for elimination.
Elimination: After some deliberation, Bryant revealed to Chef Ramsay that they nominated Aaron and JP. After hearing from the two, Chef Ramsay eliminated JP for his general ineptitude in both the signature dish challenge and the service, in addition to taking no accountability for his faults (he attempted to blame Aaron for the failure of the men 's service).
Team challenge: After getting an early morning wake - up from some lifeguards, the teams were brought outside Hell 's Kitchen, where a series of sand sculptures had been set up. Chef Ramsay revealed that buried in each sculpture were several geoducks and that the first part of the challenge was to tear apart the sculptures and retrieve the geoducks. The men retrieved 12 to the women 's 10, after which Ramsay told the men that while they had n't won anything yet, they would have more to work with in the next part, which involved creating a geoduck sashimi dish. Ramsay stipulated that each dish had to weigh between 199 and 201 g (7.02 and 7.09 oz) and that the first team to 15 dishes would win. The women narrowly won their 2nd challenge in a row, as their more meticulous approach paid off over the men 's faster but more haphazard style.
Reward / punishment: The women were treated to a dinner on a boat with Chef Ramsay, before getting to enjoy a relaxing day on the beach. The men received a barrage of punishments including being forced to clean up all the sand outside Hell 's Kitchen, then eating a meal of salted cod with a gefilte fish sauce, followed by cleaning and preparing the geoduck special for that night 's service and finally setting up both kitchens. During the meal, Sterling 's constant chatter got on Bryant 's nerves, leading to a heated argument.
Service: The service again had a tableside appetizer, this time of geoduck chowder served by Aaron and Kalen. The men had another poor service; despite a good performance by Bryant on the appetizers, Steve made several mistakes on the fish station, serving up raw and overcooked fish and then the duo of Fernando and Sterling put up a poor performance on the meat station, repeatedly getting their times wrong and undercooking the meat. The team managed to get some entrees out, but progress was far too slow for Chef Ramsay 's liking and he threw the men out after Sterling revealed that he was nearly five minutes behind on a pork loin. The women, meanwhile, were unable to repeat their performance of the previous episode; Janai got the team off to a disastrous start by constantly serving up bland, overcooked risottos and refusing to give the other women times, which caused Denine to serve undercooked scallops. Ramsay ordered all the women into the pantry to regroup, after which they finished the appetizers and Jennifer and La Tasha were able to get the meat entrees out perfectly. However, Denine kept making mistakes on the fish station, which caused Ramsay to throw the whole team out. Ramsay was angry that the blue team had performed poorly again, but especially disappointed that the women had fallen apart so quickly after the previous service. As a result, each team was told to nominate two chefs for elimination.
Elimination: Ramsay asked Sade and Frank for their respective team 's nominees. The women nominated Denine and Janai. Sterling nominated himself for the men and despite suggestions for Steve to be nominated, Bryant persuaded the others to put up Fernando, the other person on the meat station. After speaking to the four nominees, Ramsay eliminated Janai for being the women 's worst performer in both of the first two services, as well as her inability to cook risotto properly and poor communication with her team.
Team challenge: After a night in which Steve and Sterling had a fierce argument, the teams were brought into the dining room and told that they had to improve their communication if they wanted to improve in services. Chef Ramsay therefore gave each chef a jacket with a recipe printed on the back, which they would need to rely on their team - mates to read to them. Each team has the same set of recipe jackets, in which only the recipe itself - -- not the name of the item - -- is given. After the 45 minutes given to cook ran out, each member present their dishes, in which Chef Ramsay judges on their quality, with the best dish earning the point for their team. The men earned their first challenge victory winning 6 - 4.
Reward / punishment: The men spent the day ziplining at Venice Beach, before having a meal served to them by Marino at the Erwin Hotel. The women, in addition to prepping both kitchens, had to bring several large bags of coffee beans into Hell 's Kitchen, before grinding them down for that night 's filet steak special. During the punishment, Denine further angered her teammates by refusing to do any of the work and, as if that was not enough, caused a small fire while preparing the appetizer ingredients.
Service: In tonight 's service, Wendy Williams, Shaunie O'Neal and Elisabeth Röhm were special guests. A tableside appetizer of coffee - crusted filet mignon was served by Fernando and Roe. Both teams flew through appetizers without any trouble thanks to vocal leadership from JR and Sade (though Katie was getting annoyed with her whilst she did well on appetizers), only to get stalled immediately on the entrees. In the blue kitchen, Bryant served mushy, overcooked fish on the first table, and Frank burnt the garnishes, leading Chef Ramsay to order the team into the pantry for a meeting. However, Bryant undercooked his next order of fish, causing Ramsay to throw him and his partner on the fish station, Sterling (who was angered, as he felt he had done nothing wrong), out of service. The team started getting the entrees out after Steve took over the fish, but Frank was also thrown out for not only burning another set of garnishes, but bringing it up three minutes early. Despite this, the team was able to successfully complete the service. For the women, Kalen kept undercooking the meat, in large part because she constantly opened the oven door to check on it, which sous chef Andi rebuked her for. The team eventually got their first entrees out, but on Wendy Williams ' table Kalen overcooked the meat and La Tasha also served up raw salmon. This was the last straw for Ramsay, who threw the entire team out. Despite having three chefs ejected, the men were named the winners for finishing their first service and Ramsay, further disappointed that the women had not been able to repeat their performance in the first service, told the women to nominate two chefs for elimination.
Elimination: The women quickly agreed on Kalen as being most at fault for the loss; despite suggestions for La Tasha to be nominated for the raw fish she served, Ashley named Denine as the women 's second nominee for being Kalen 's meat station partner and not helping her (despite Denine offering help and Kalen refusing it). After hearing from both nominees, Chef Ramsay decided to give Kalen another chance and eliminated Denine for her bad attitude and succession of poor performances.
During the recap of the previous episode, Denine 's jacket was hung and her photo was burned.
Jennifer collapses - continued: Jennifer returned at the beginning of the episode, after collapsing due to dehydration at the end of the previous episode.
Team challenge: The teams were summoned to a culinary school graduation ceremony. Chef Ramsay announced that the teams will be serving brunch to the graduates and their families, starting in 20 minutes. Both teams pushed out their appetizers quickly and moved on to entrees. The women had problems with crepes but corrected them. Bryant kept having issues with the florentine. The men were out of sync, but Sterling started directing them and brought them back together. The women completed service first by a matter of seconds and won the challenge.
Reward / punishment: The women were flown to San Francisco to dine at Chef Dominique Crenn 's restaurant. Crenn is the only female holder of two Michelin stars in the United States. The men had to grind and stuff chorizo sausages for service.
Before service, Aaron, Steve and Santos met and reflected on the previous service. After Chef Ramsay had thrown out half of their team, they were able to complete the service and therefore they seemed to be immune from elimination, win or lose. They decided to set that scenario up again by trying to deliberately sabotage the others and get them eliminated one - by - one.
Service: Several celebrities are in attendance included Nestor Serrano, Adam Ferrara, Kendall Schmidt, the Los Angeles Sparks team and Chris Bosh. The teams started off well with Ashley and Steve on hot appetizers despite some minor mistakes. Ramsay caught Frank with his hands behind his back, checking his look in the mirror. Ramsay scolded Steve for bringing the hot appetizers before Sterling on cold appetizers, but both recovered. Kalen was having trouble on the fish station. Ramsay forced Kalen and Roe to sit out and eat one order of overcooked scallops whilst the rest of the women continued, with Katie and Sade doing especially well on the meat station. On the men 's side, the meat station kept messing up the fish station. Santos served raw salmon to the Sparks and was forced to shout what the acronym "VIP '' ("Very Important Person '') stands for four times. Ramsay threw out half of the men, keeping Aaron, Bryant, Steve and Sterling, proving that their sabotage plan was working. The women won for finishing their service with no one thrown out, but Ramsay told them that their victory was not worth the celebration, as they still had issues that had to be worked out as a result of tonight 's service.
Elimination: After much discussion, the men nominated JR (for his bad service on meat) and Steve (for serving soupy risotto early in the service). Ramsay added Frank, for seemingly taking a backseat in the service. Ramsay eliminated JR, saying he was just not ready to be his head chef, given he had failed to show any growth or assertiveness in any of the 4 services.
Team challenge: The teams were each given five dishes cooked with unusual proteins, and told to divide into three pairs plus one individual (which ended up being Sade and Aaron), who would taste each dish and identify which protein was used. Additionally, each team would have one pair go twice. Whoever did this in the shortest amount of time would win. For winning the previous service, the red team got to decide whether they wanted to go first or second, and they chose to go first. Katie and Roe agreed to go twice, but on both turns, they ate up a lot of time, while the others got through at a reasonable speed. Ultimately, they finished in 7: 41 and the blue team had that long to complete the challenge. As with the red team, the pair that went twice, Santos and Fernando, took the longest, while the others finished quickly; Bryant and Frank identified their protein (elk) in one attempt and Sterling identified alligator as Aaron 's protein. Although Santos and Fernando made nearly a dozen incorrect guesses on the final protein of duck (including guessing rabbit twice), they ultimately finished with 34 seconds to spare, giving the men their second challenge win.
Reward / punishment: The men spent the day at the Annenberg Beach House, where they met four Olympic gold medal winners. The women had to bring in pizza ingredients for that night 's family service, hand - grate the cheese and then drink protein shakes made up of boiled chicken, sardines, scallops and eggs. During the last part of the punishment, an argument broke out between Jennifer and Sade after Sade 's graphic descriptions of the appearance and taste of the shake caused Jennifer to vomit.
Service: Chef Ramsay 's own mother, Helen Cosgrove, along with Mary Murphy, Jim Jefferies and Asia Monet Ray were in attendance for family night. The two teams each ran a "make your own pizza '' station in the dining room, manned by Fernando and Santos and Ashley and Jennifer. The men had some initial speed bumps due to the slowness of the pizza station and Aaron serving raw scallops on the last table of appetizers, but otherwise had a largely trouble - free service. The women, however, were stalled from early on by Kalen and Katie 's troubles on the appetizer station. Due to their repeated mistakes and slow work, La Tasha had to jump over and take control of the station. Things did not get much better on the entrees; despite flawless runs by La Tasha and Sade on the meat and fish station respectively, Roe was very slow on the garnishes, brought several incorrect orders up and had poor communication with Chef Ramsay. This ultimately resulted in the men finishing five tables ahead of the women and while Ramsay still had criticisms for the men 's performances, singling out Aaron in particular, he told the women that they were clearly the losers and told them to nominate two chefs for elimination based on overall performance, not just this service.
Elimination: The team nominated the two chefs on the appetizer station, Kalen and Katie. Chef Ramsay told them that he wanted them to base their decision off their overall history, not just the night 's service and asked Katie who the weakest two members of the team were; to Ramsay 's shock (and despite his indications that Roe should have been the second nominee), Katie admitted that the initial decision was correct. While Chef Ramsay initially appeared inclined to eliminate Katie, feeling that her self - nomination proved she had no belief in herself, he ultimately eliminated Kalen for her succession of bad performances, refusal to admit having made any mistakes in service and being named as the women 's weakest link by every single member when Ramsay polled them.
Team challenge: Chef Ramsay led the teams outside Hell 's Kitchen, where an animal pen had been set up. He then told them that the challenge was to split into pairs. Sterling sat out due to his team having an extra member. Each team will catch an animal and then choose a side to go with the protein. The teams completed this without much difficulty, despite Steve accidentally catching a goat rather than a sheep and were then told that each member of the pairs would cook their own dish with that protein, before presenting one to a judging panel composed of Ramsay and chefs Jon Shook and Vinny Dotolo, who would award between 1 and 5 stars. Sterling opted to join Aaron and Santos in cooking pork. The red team took an early lead, as La Tasha and Sade 's dishes got 11 and 10 stars, respectively, while Fernando and Steve got just 10 and 9 stars. Sterling also got 9 stars, leaving Roe well - placed to win the challenge for the red team. Unfortunately, her poorly - presented and overly sweet pork dish got just 4 stars, giving the men a 28 - 25 victory.
Reward / punishment: The men were sent to a vineyard in Santa Barbara where they enjoyed a meal, before Marino joined them and demonstrated wine - tasting techniques. The women had to prepare stock for the following night 's service, which involved sawing up bones, draining the marrow and then returning to the stock pots every half - hour (for which a giant alarm clock was placed in the dorms) to strain and stir it.
Service: South Park co-creator Trey Parker was a guest in addition to the members of the Dine LA Board of Directors which includes Yuta Tsunoda, Jimmy Shaw, Aiden Demarest, David Lefevre, Sang Yoon and John Sedlar. Frank and La Tasha were assigned to handle tableside appetizers. The men got through appetizers without too much trouble, despite Steve having some issues cooking the scallops, which required Chef Ramsay to show him how to cook them properly. Entrees proved more troublesome, however, with Steve serving up raw halibut and Santos forgetting an order of lamb and serving an undercooked wellington. Ramsay pulled them into the pantry and ordered them to get their act together, but both were subsequently ejected from service after further mistakes. After that, the team eventually pulled together and completed service. The women was backed up from the start by Katie 's troubles on the fish station, as she repeatedly proved unable to cook the scallops. Roe also made repeated errors on the appetizers and after the duo simultaneously served Ramsay with severely overcooked scallops (with Katie only further angering Ramsay by trying to deny there was anything wrong with them) and a risotto with no salt and too much garlic, they were ejected. Ashley took over the fish station, only to be ejected herself for overcooking the next order. After that, the team managed to complete service. Despite the service being completed on both sides with no further ejections, Ramsay felt that both teams had gone backwards since the previous service and declared that there was no winning team. He then told each team to nominate two chefs for elimination, emphasizing that they were to nominate based on overall performance, not just this service.
Elimination: The men immediately decided on Sterling as their weakest member (much to his confusion and anger, as he had not been ejected from any of the three prior services), soon followed by Steve as the second nominee. The women on the other hand were unable to come to a decision, with Katie and Roe being put up as potential nominees for their weak performances, and Jennifer and Sade for their abrasive attitudes. As a result, Ramsay reiterated his emphasis and ordered them into the red kitchen to make a firm decision, and they decided on Katie and Roe. After hearing from all four nominees (in which Sterling angrily attacked Steve for persuading the other men to gang up on him), Ramsay decided to eliminate Katie for her lack of confidence and feeling she did not have the strength to compete in Hell 's Kitchen, but praised her cooking ability.
During the recap of the previous episode, Katie 's jacket was hung and her photo was burned.
Team change: Continuing from the previous episode 's cliffhanger, Ramsay, after telling Roe to go back in line, told Sterling to remove his jacket and said that while the other men clearly gave up on him (unlike Chef Ramsay), he still had potential. Consequently, Sterling was moved to the women 's team in an attempt to even out the numbers.
Team challenge: The following morning, the teams arrived in the dining room to find a giant map of Italy, spotlighting the cuisine the country is well - known for. To spotlight another famous aspect of Italian culture, opera, an ensemble of opera singers, revealed from behind the map, gave the chefs a brief performance. Ramsay then revealed that the challenge would involve cooking six classic Italian dishes, with one chef from each team choosing to face off against a rival from the other team. The dishes that each pair will cook is hidden on the back of each scroll held by each singer, which bears the name of a famous opera. (This selection method is similar in format to the Southern Gospel challenge in Season 10, episode 14.) Celestino Drago, the owner - chef of Drago Central was brought in as a guest judge for this challenge. Jennifer and Steve were first to face each other, with tortellini dishes, and while both were felt to be good, Jennifer 's was deemed to have the edge. Ashley and Fernando both made saltimbocca, and Fernando took the point due to Ashley incorrectly using basil as the main herb rather than sage. Neither Aaron nor Sade earned a point for their linguine dishes, which were both felt to be terrible. La Tasha took the point for her spaghetti carbonara, as Santos 's was deemed bland. Both Frank and Roe earned compliments for their cheese manicotti dishes, but Chef Drago felt that Frank 's was narrowly better. The final round saw Bryant and Sterling face off with fettuccine alfredo dishes and while Bryant 's was criticized for being over-sized and over-complicated, Sterling altered his dish so heavily that it barely even resembled an Italian dish (making it more like a Southern dish), resulting in Bryant taking the winning point.
Reward / punishment: The blue team were given $3,000 ($500 each) to go on a shopping spree at American Rag Cie, before having a meal at Cecconi 's restaurant. The red team had to prepare both kitchens for that night 's service, including breaking down squid for a squid ink tortellini dish. During the punishment, Sterling 's constant chatter annoyed the others so much, even sous chef Andi had to tell him to shut up.
Service: A delegation from the Italian Consulate was in attendance in addition to Kelis and Louis Lombardi. Bryant and Sade were assigned to serve a tableside appetizer of clams. Both proved a little slow at doing this and Sade compounded the situation by spilling an order on the floor, earning the ire of both Marino and Chef Ramsay. Service was rocky on both sides; Steve got the blue team off to a bad start when he served a bland, soupy risotto, while Frank served up raw steak and severely overcooked chicken on the first table of entrées. Both were able to recover after their initial mistakes, but Aaron had trouble on the fish station throughout the night, constantly having trouble getting the dishes up in time and angrily shoving the other men aside when they tried to help him. Despite their troubles, the blue team eventually finished service with no ejections. On the red team, Jennifer managed to get all the appetizers out with no errors, but Sade 's problems on the tableside appetizer caused a ripple effect in the kitchen, as the team struggled to get time their orders correctly and Roe served raw steaks. When an order of calamari was returned from the consulate table for being severely undercooked, it offended Ramsay to a point where he threw the entire team out. Despite the blue team finishing service with no ejections, their performance was not deemed worthy of winning due to major mistakes being made on every station and both teams were again named the losers and told to nominate two chefs for elimination.
During the recap of the previous episode, Ashley 's jacket was hung and her photo was burned.
Team change: Continuing from the previous episode 's cliffhanger, Ramsay announced that he had decided to make further changes, so he sent Frank to the red team and Sade to the blue team.
Team challenge: The teams were brought outside to meet special VIP guests who arrived via limousine. They turned out to be dogs and their trainers from the American Kennel Club, who were there for a Hell 's Kitchen dog show. The teams had to create a tasting menu consisting of two appetizers and three entrees and submit them for judging by a panel of chefs. Sade was under the mistaken impression that the entrees would be served to the dogs and made a chopped up dish that resembled dog food. However, since the blue team had an extra member and had to drop a dish, her team quickly decided not to submit her dish for judging. Sterling 's crab cake appetizer was the clear winner for the red team while Fernando 's prawn appetizer had enough potential to get a point for the blue team. Jennifer 's Chilean sea bass beat out Steve and Bryant 's pork chop wins the second entree slot over Roe 's anemic surf & turf. With both teams tied, it 's down to Frank and Santos 's duck dishes which both had their flaws (inconsistently cooked duck pieces vs a burnt potato, respectively). In the end, Frank 's dish wins it for the red team.
Reward / punishment: The red team was treated to a trip to San Diego where they saw a show at SeaWorld and dine at the Searsucker Restaurant. The blue team had to bathe the dogs and set up a runway for Hell 's Kitchen 's first ever "Best In Show '' dog competition.
Service: Ramsay stressed the importance of timing for this service, as the dog show was going to run in three acts and the appetizers were to be served after the first act and would not continue until all were served and the same went for entrées after the second act. Both teams got off to a decent start, although in the blue kitchen, Fernando jumped the gun and started cooking his scallops before Ramsay ordered them to be fired, forgetting Ramsay 's rules on how the service would work, though Fernando then proved himself as he did well on fish and while La Tasha took on a firm leadership role for the red team, new teammate Frank had trouble preparing the Caesar salads to Ramsay 's standards to his teammates ' disbelief. Despite these minor setbacks, both teams served all their appetizers, allowing the show to continue, and Ramsay even said to the blue team that "that was the best first 40 minutes of any service so far. '' On entrées, Sterling in the red kitchen messed up the first order on the meat station, prompting La Tasha to jump in and help him, while in the blue kitchen, Steve did well on the meat station, though he inexplicably kept calling out to Santos on garnish but did not say anything to him, much to the latter 's annoyance. Things went generally smoothly until Santos messed up the garnish on one of their last dishes, while Sterling, Jennifer on fish and Roe on garnish simultaneously delivered unacceptable food to the pass for the last ticket, prompting a delay for the show. Eventually, both teams managed to complete service and the dog show concluded. In the post-mortem after service, Ramsay that, despite the mistakes, he was generally impressed with the service from both sides, but decided that the blue team were slightly better, naming them the winners, and he asked the red team for two nominees for elimination.
Elimination: The red team quickly decided on Frank as their first nominee, as they felt that his trouble making salads meant that he would have further trouble down the line. However, for their second nominee, they were torn between Sterling (for his trouble on the meat station and because La Tasha appeared to just take over rather than help him) and Roe (for messing up the last table 's garnish as well as her generally poor performances of late); ultimately, Frank revealed the nominees as himself and Sterling. After hearing from both nominees (including an apparently long - winded speech from Frank), Ramsay ordered both of them to "take your jackets... and yourselves, back in line ''; having finally gotten a strong service, Ramsay decided not to eliminate anyone.
Team challenge: After Frank writes a letter in appreciation to Chef Ramsay, both teams are presented with the "Hell 's Kitchen Craps '' challenge (introduced in season 6), where each contestant rolls a die (which has letters on each of its twelve sides). After each roll, the contestant has ten seconds to choose an ingredient starting with the according letter. Breaking with tradition, Chef Ramsay announced prior to the challenge that the winner of the challenge will spend the day and night in Las Vegas, flying there on private jet. During the challenge, the teams had some slight trouble in attempting to select the ingredients without wanting to sound too "typical '' for a signature dish. Given the uneven numbers between the red and blue teams, Frank rolled twice, selecting complicated ingredients both times which frustrated his teammates (especially Jennifer). In the end, the Red team had picked potatoes, duck, lime, lemons, heirloom tomatoes and pine nuts, while the blue team had selected easier ones, such as cauliflower, Chilean sea bass, leeks, mache, daikon and tomatoes. After the ingredients had been selected, Chef Ramsay gave the teams the traditional 45 minutes to prepare the dishes. While the Red Team faced creativity issues with preparing the dish (especially Frank, who had picked the more complicated ingredients during an imaginative burst), Sade commandeered the blue kitchen, wanting to make up for her failure in the previous challenge. With the dishes prepared, Chef Ramsay suddenly decided he 'd name one member of each team as the ' hero, ' having the red and blue teams decide, in two minutes, which of the best respective dish, out of the others, Chef Ramsay would prove. The blue team ignored Sade 's dish in favor of Fernando and Bryant 's, while the Red Team quickly and decisively decided on La Tasha. La Tasha presented her dish, a roasted duck with heirloom tomatoes cover and side potatoes seared in duck fat, while Bryant 's dish was a sea bass over a cauliflower puree, with tomatoes seasoned in olive oil and salt and pepper. Despite being a tough challenge -- La Tasha 's dish managed to put all the flavors together and Bryant 's dish was cooked to perfection -- Chef Ramsay ultimately decided in La Tasha 's favor, revealing Bryant 's flaw, the daikon, which was clearly unseasoned and makes a positive remark about Sade 's dish (which the team refused to even taste), which he said would have won the challenge for the Blue Team.
Reward / punishment: As promised, the red team was treated to a private jet trip to Las Vegas, with a check - in to a luxury mega-suite at the Planet Hollywood Resort & Casino. They also received an appetizer service, a visit to the pool and dinner service at Chef Ramsay 's restaurant, BurGR. Meanwhile, the blue team spent the day carrying ice packs and replacing the kitchen 's ice machines, as well as prepping a king - sized halibut for the upcoming dinner service. During the punishment, Sade constantly complained about her dish not making it and the fact it was the fifth time she was serving punishment due to her team 's performance, which increased tensions in the blue team. The blue team were also made to take a delivery of ingredients at 3: 00 am.
Steve 's exit: After the punishment, Steve suffered an injury to his right knee, possibly a muscular distension, which required medical attention and being taken to the hospital via ambulance. After Chef Ramsay visited him, Steve was informed it was unfortunate, but he was forced to leave for the rest of the season to recover. Still, Chef Ramsay reminded Steve he was the strongest member of the Blue Team and that he had to leave with his head high, leaving open the possibility for Steve to return in a future season.
Service: The night 's dinner service included VIP service to Stewart Copeland of The Police for the blue kitchen and Steven Tyler of Aerosmith for the red kitchen. To further motivate them, Ramsay informed both kitchens they had to ' rock the service '. Other guests included ex-Eagles band member Don Felder, and Gena Lee Nolin from Baywatch. The dinner service also included a table - side steak entrée being prepared by Sterling for the red team and Fernando for the blue team. Both teams started out strongly with their appetizers, but Frank had clear issues with scallops, as well as overcooked lobster, prompting Chef Ramsay to call the whole red team to the pantry for a brief meeting. Frank had more difficulties as he focused on the lobster and totally forgot about the scallops, which forced La Tasha to intervene. The Blue kitchen proceeded without issues to entrées, while the red kitchen had a slower start after Frank 's earlier disruption. Frank disrupted progress again after he served Chef Ramsay an overcooked salmon, then proceeded to overcook several others, while the blue kitchen flawlessly completed their service seven tables ahead. Frank, clearly crumbling, then accidentally sent Chef Ramsay a raw salmon, stirring his anger and prompting him to relocate four of the already finished blue team members to the red kitchen to finish the service. The blue team were clearly declared the winners, with Aaron declaring the service dedicated to Steve. The red team 's loss was put squarely on Frank 's shoulders due to his awful performance.
Elimination: Right after the end of the service, Frank apologized to everyone on the red team, as well as, Chef Ramsay for his awful dinner service performance. The red team was then asked to nominate two chefs, based not only on that night 's performance, but also on the season as a whole so far. However, seconds after the contestants leave for their dorms, Chef Ramsay called both teams back into the kitchen and remarked Steve had been forced to leave due to his injuries, something that would normally be regarded as the elimination of the evening. However, he then continued on to say that he would be making an exception to that rule and called Sterling, Jennifer, Roe and La Tasha forwards and had them "say goodbye... to Frank. '' Chef Ramsay mentioned Frank 's letter, but criticized his recent kitchen performance which cost him his stay in Hell 's Kitchen. He then reminded both Red and Blue teams that they needed to start giving him their best and he would not accept anything less than that. Frank 's departure marks the second time in the history of Hell 's Kitchen that a chef was eliminated during the post-service meeting (the first being Tennille Middleton from Season 6.
Team challenge: A group of Bollywood dancers performed for the teams. Then Chef Ramsay announced that today 's theme would be Indian cuisine. Each team was presented with a tablet showing a list of four main ingredients next to a 15 puzzle showing fifteen other ingredients and an empty space. Roe and Aaron were selected by their teams to rearrange their puzzles to produce a desired list of ingredients for each main ingredient. To fill in the empty space, the chef who was assigned that main ingredient was able to select their choice from a given list of ingredients. The teams had 30 minutes to work, then presented their dishes to Ramsay and a guest judge, who gave the teams equal overall scores. To break the tie, they determined the single dish which had scored the highest. That dish was prepared by Jennifer, thereby giving the win to the red team.
Reward / punishment: The red team gets a spa day, while the blue team prepares for dinner service and cleans outside. Sade is frustrated by constantly being on a losing team, causing her team to become increasingly frustrated with her complaints.
Service: Before service, Chef Ramsay gives Sade a pep talk. Billy Gibbons, Uzo Aduba and Lisa Guerrero were guests for this service. The menu includes Indian - inspired dishes. The red team has an almost perfect service with the only minor hiccups being Jennifer having trouble on the Garnish station delivering flatbreads in time forcing Sterling to come help her out and Roe starting a small fire on the fish station. The same could not be said for the blue team as Aaron had a lot of trouble on the fish station mostly due to Bryant trying to help him, but only caused confusion on the station by serving up raw scallops and cold lobster tail to the pass passing the blame on Aaron when confronted. Sade also did not get along with either Bryant or Aaron on their respective stations. Later Aaron sent up even more undercooked fish followed by cold garnish from Bryant. Owing to the number of mistakes on the fish station and communication problems in the blue kitchen, Chef Ramsay declared the red team winner and asked the blue team to come up with two nominees for elimination based on everything they had seen.
Elimination: Aaron started by nominating himself due to his bad night on fish and even admitting that he is the one on the blue team that has had the most ups and downs. He also nominated Bryant due to not owning up to his mistakes in the dinner service and his bad attitude. However, Bryant blows up hearing this, feeling that he should not be up on the chopping block and argues that Fernando is the second weakest on the team mostly due to he had been nominated before, but the nominations ultimately stays. Santos revealed the nominees to Ramsay and when Aaron starts to plead why he should stay, he openly says that he does not want to be there anymore as he feels he needs more time to grow and also states that being Ramsay 's next head chef would n't bring him any closer to his own goal; his wishes are ultimately granted. Ramsay, calling the departure "disappointing '' and saying that he 's never seen anyone quit Hell 's Kitchen (despite Andrew Forster from Season 7 and Gina Aloise from Season 11 both quitting despite leaving for non-medical reasons) and then asks the remaining chefs if anyone else wants to quit. They all decide they want to stay and he sends them on their way.
Team challenge: The chefs were called outside bright and early by sous chef James to meet Chef Ramsay. Ramsay announced that it was time for the annual "Blind Taste Test, '' where the contestants needed to identify four different ingredients only by taste. However, this year there was a twist, and two dunk tanks full of water were revealed to the teams. One chef from each team would sit over one of the tanks, and another member from each team would taste; if a taster got three ingredients wrong, their teammate would be dunked once, and if they got all four wrong, their teammate would be dunked a second time. First, Santos and Roe tasted with La Tasha and Bryant sitting at the dunk tanks. Roe was only able to identify one ingredient (resulting in La Tasha getting dunked once), while Santos was not able to identify a single ingredient (resulting in two dunks for Bryant), leaving the Red team leading 1 -- 0. Next up, Sterling and Fernando tasted with Roe and Santos sitting at the dunk tanks. Fernando, like Santos, was not able to identify a single ingredient, sending Santos into the tank twice. Sterling got two out of 4 right, saving Roe from being dunked altogether and putting the Red team further ahead with a score of 3 -- 0. In the next round, Jennifer was up against Sade with Sterling and Fernando sitting on the dunk tanks. While Jennifer did not identify a single ingredient, dunking Sterling twice, Sade got the first point for the blue team, with just one dunk for Fernando, putting the score at 3 -- 1. Lastly, it was La Tasha up against Bryant with Jennifer and Sade sitting on the dunk tanks. La Tasha only got one point (Jennifer getting dunked once) while Bryant managed to get the impressive score of 3 out of 4 ingredients correct (saving Sade from dunking) and ending it in a tie (4 -- 4). For the tiebreaker, the teams each chose one of their teammates for a sudden - death match, but the good news was that no one would have to sit at the dunk tanks for this round. The Red team chose Roe while the Blue team chose Bryant. Bryant missed on the first ingredient, fennel, but Roe identified it correctly, thus winning the challenge for her team.
Reward / punishment: Thanks to Roe, the red team enjoys a relaxing day at the Santa Monica Pier and lunch at "The Lobster ''. The blue team cleans the dorms and the kitchens.
When the red team returned, both teams were summoned to Chef Ramsay 's office, where he announced that they would be holding a private five - course dinner service to honor a select group of decorated firefighters. There would be one 12 - top table for each team and each chef would be assigned to lead a course, with the stipulation that all 24 dishes from a course had to be served by both teams at the same time.
Service: Fernando and Roe were assigned the first course, a scallop risotto. On the red side, Roe seasoned the scallops way ahead of when they would be fired, drying them out, and also forgot to plate two of the twelve portions. Meanwhile, in the blue kitchen, they fell two portions short of risotto for the twelve plates, though they were able to quickly make two new portions to complete the course. On the tuna nicoise course, led by Santos and Jennifer, Santos was too slow in the dining room explaining the dish to the guests, and annoyed his teammates with his hands - off approach to leadership. Jennifer had problems getting Sterling to follow her orders, as well as problems taking control. During the pan-seared salmon entree course, led by Sterling and Sade, Sade overcooked all twelve of the salmon portions while she was out introducing the dish (due to the pans being too hot); luckily, they still had enough salmon left to recover. In the Red kitchen, Sterling 's lack of leadership meant that Jennifer, La Tasha and Roe did almost everything for him. On the New York steak course, which was led by Bryant and La Tasha, there were no major problems, save for Santos slicing the blue team 's meat incorrectly and shredding some of the meat as a result. The dinner service ended with both tables satisfied, but Ramsay himself was not. He refused to declare a winning team since there were too many mistakes in both kitchens, especially at this stage in the game. He then asked each team to come up with two nominees for elimination.
Elimination: Both teams had their fair share of struggles in choosing nominees. The red team easily nominated Sterling (for lack of leadership on his course); however, they had trouble choosing between Roe (for inconsistencies in earlier services) and Jennifer (for having a hard time to get Sterling to help her doing her course). They eventually chose Roe, much to her dismay. On the blue team, they had to choose between Fernando (for being short on risotto), Santos (for his hands - off approach to leadership), or Sade (for overcooking the salmon). They ended up choosing Fernando and Santos. After Chef Ramsay had heard from each of the four nominees, he called Sterling and Roe forward, only to tell them to go back in line. He then sent Santos back in line immediately after them, thus eliminating Fernando. Ramsay noted, before taking his jacket, that while he felt that Fernando cooked fantastic dishes, he was not yet ready to lead a brigade.
Team challenge: The chefs were told they need to make two servings of their own amuse - bouche that were going to be judged Chef Ramsay and Epicurious Editor - in - Chief Tanya Steel and scored on a scale of 1 -- 5. The red team was told that they needed to drop one of their amuse - bouche since they had an extra chef. Sterling voluntarily took his own dish out of the running as he felt his plating was not up to par with the others. La Tasha went up first with her pan-seared scallops with sweet - corn, crab and crispy prosciutto and impressed the judges earning her 7 points. Next up, Roe with her seared Ahi - Tuna with black garlic and ginger sauce; however, she disappointed as her dish was way too salty, earning only 4 points. Last up for the red team is Jennifer with her marinated prawn head and coconut milk; she gets criticized for it being too rich on flavor and using the head, she earns a mediocre 5 points, making the red team 's point total 16. First up for the blue team is Bryant with his grilled scallop with charred corn and pea tendril and wasabi caviar it gets praise for creativity, but is a little overcooked; however, it still earns 7 points. Next up is Santos with his Fennel - crusted Ahi - tuna and artichoke heart with dragonfruit infused with pomegranate juice gets praise for taste, but criticized for using too many ingredients however it still earns 7 points. Last up is Sade whose pan-seared tuna with Napa cabbage and passion fruit earns a whole 9 points despite worries from Gordon Ramsay and Tanya Steel that Cabbage and passion fruit would not work, ending the score on 23.
Reward / punishment: The blue team is rewarded with a trip to Catalina Island in their own helicopter and a lunch at "Blue Water Grill ''. The red team prepared coconuts for the next dinner service 's special. During prep of the coconuts Jennifer discovers that she is allergic to fresh coconut milk and is rushed to the hospital after she has trouble breathing. She returns the day after in time for dinner service.
Service: Lorenzo Lamas, Colin Walker and the band Big Bad Voodoo Daddy were guests in addition to Lou Diamond Phillips, who was a VIP guest. All the tables are served an amuse - bouche of Ahi - tuna. Both kitchens start strong on the appetizers with Sade and Santos serving in a good pace in the blue kitchen and Roe and Sterling right behind them in the red kitchen. However after some time Sterling in the red kitchen serves up a portion of scallops seared on only one side. While Sterling re-fires his scallops, the blue team starts sending their first entrees of the night out without any problems except a lack of communication. When Sterling sends up his re-fired scallops and one of them is raw, Ramsay suggests that they change stations, however Sterling is reluctant to get anybody else to work fish as he feels he needs to show he can handle it. This forces Ramsay to pull the entire team inside the pantry where Sterling agrees that if he messes up one more time Roe can take over his station. He brings up another unacceptable tray of scallops and Roe overtakes his station while he takes over garnish from La Tasha. After that, both teams still run smoothly with a couple of mishaps such as Santos in the blue kitchen bringing up a tray of burnt scallops for Lou Diamond Phillips ' table and getting a warning in the pantry by Ramsay. Jennifer also gets a little overwhelmed by the amount of meat that are on order, however, both team finishes with no one thrown out.
Elimination: Chef Ramsay told both teams that it was not a bad service, but that he had expected more and that he had already made a decision. He called Sterling forward and told him that he has been a phenomenal competitor, but he is not ready for the Head chef job and asked him to leave Hell 's Kitchen but keep his jacket, which led to a teary elimination by Sterling and the other six chefs as well. This is the second time this season a chef is eliminated during a post-service meeting (Frank was eliminated in episode 10) and the third in the 13 seasons of Hell 's Kitchen (Following Tennille from Season 6). He also was paid a retrospective montage (which is normally reserved for black jacket chefs) like Rachel from Season 2, Robert and Sabrina from Season 6, Carrie and Natalie from Season 9 and Nedra from Season 11 - additionally, he was the second chef after Louross from Season 4 to not receive the walk of shame, instead having a shot of him casually walking out the door with his bags. Ramsay then asked both teams to come up with one nominee for elimination. The blue team easily nominated Santos as he was the only one having problems in the kitchen that night while Roe tried to pressure La Tasha to nominate Jennifer since she was overwhelmed on the meat station, to no avail, as both Jennifer and La Tasha nominated Roe due to the reason that she had the worst performance other than Sterling. After both chefs had pleaded their cases, Ramsay asks both of them to take their jackets off only to give them both black jackets. Then he calls Jennifer up and comments about the number of times she has been to hospital during her stay, but also gives her a black jacket. La Tasha, Bryant and lastly Sade are given black jackets as well.
Challenge: The contestants were all tasked with making a steak dish, which would be judged by Chef Ramsay, along with guests Bruce Simon and Todd Simon, the owners of Omaha Steaks. However, each dish would be primarily judged by its appearance, eaten only if they felt the dish looked favorable. Sade 's, Santos ' and Roe 's dishes passed the appearance test, while Bryant 's, La Tasha 's and Jennifer 's dishes all failed, thus disqualified from tasting. Roe 's ribeye and filet mignon was deemed delicious. Sade had cooked her steak nicely, but the judges felt that the spices ruined the taste. Santos ' dish was also deemed to be perfect in appearance and taste, but in the end, Roe 's dish won the challenge.
Reward / punishment: Roe attended a photo shoot for an Omaha Steaks billboard campaign, featuring her winning dish, followed by a $1,000 shopping spree at Surfas (a Los Angeles kitchen goods retailer). The others had to butcher a huge side of beef weighing around 200 pounds.
Service: In that night 's dinner service, the team would be competing against James, Andi and Ramsay himself. Penn Jillette and Steve Blake were guests for this service. Ramsay 's team did a strong job. James and Andi even had interviews in the confessional room as if they were actual contestants and not sous chefs, most likely because they were competing. Their only problem was James falling behind on orders and needlessly attempting to plate, but they managed to quickly recover. The Black Jackets got off to a mediocre start with Santos over-seasoning a salad and La Tasha overcooking the scallops and cold lobster tail, but thanks to Bryant 's strong performance, the team recovered, although things for the black jackets got worse on entrées, with even Roe undercooking her own dish and a chicken and Santos struggling to help her out, with Ramsay criticizing the team for their lack of coordination. In the end, Chef Ramsay 's team finished five tables ahead of them and had a much better performance than the black jackets. Ramsay felt their service was uneven and further criticized the team for their problems with communication and listening, and felt it was just dead air.
Elimination: In a now - incredibly rare occasion, Ramsay deemed Bryant to be the Best of the Worst as he was the only one who did not get yelled at once and instructed him to nominate two chefs for elimination. Bryant, while briefly thinking about nominating La Tasha, decided to nominate Santos for getting lost during service and Roe for her poor performance on the meat station. In the end, Ramsay eliminated Santos feeling he has no fight back and for his declining performances in the past three services. Santos ' elimination marks the first black jacket elimination that was not paid in retrospective montage, not counting Josh Wahler from Season 3 who was eliminated during service.
Challenge: The five remaining contestants were tasked to make a meal for 40 glampers in which the winner would be determined by who got the most votes. During the cooking, La Tasha got stressed out, did not talk to the glampers, fell behind the other contestants and was the last to finish. When the votes were counted, Bryant was announced as the winner with Roe ending up second.
Reward / punishment: Bryant was rewarded with a glamping trip in Los Angeles for a night and get to choose one other chef to join him. He chooses Sade as he wanted to find out what her weaknesses were while the other chefs went to the Hollywood Hills to clean the place and returned to Hell 's Kitchen for their recycling day. During the recycling task, La Tasha had a very hard time keeping herself from throwing up.
Service: LeVar Burton, Keegan - Michael Key, Bellamy Young and members of the Coast Guard were in attendance. For their first service as one team it starts off well, but they soon hit a couple of speed bumps as Jennifer is scolded for not asking Roe to help her on the fish station as she has nothing to do and when she finally asks for her for helps she sends up two lobster tails that were cold and raw in the middle. Right after Bryant sends up a bland scallop salad with water in it, the appetizers goes smooth. On the entrées, Jennifer forgets the clams for the halibut while Roe sends up under - seasoned garnish twice which forces Sade to start the two lambs as Chef Ramsay ca n't flip the order. On the next attempt, Roe is on time with the garnish but Sade 's lamb is undercooked. On the last ticket, Sade miscommunicates to Jennifer that she could cook the fish as she was 8 minutes away with the wellingtons.
Elimination: Ramsay was disappointed by the final five performance as he felt he had a group of amateurs in the kitchen and asked them to come up with two for elimination based on everything. They choose Roe for her problems in the kitchen that night and her worse performances earlier in the competition and Jennifer as she had problems on the fish station and problems with communication. After hearing from both chefs, Ramsay eliminates Roe as he felt that while she started off strong, her rocky performances had become too much for Ramsay to handle but acknowledged her hard work.
Challenge: The contestants ' loved ones show up on a television screen, including Bryant 's wife and daughter, La Tasha 's mother, Jennifer 's fiancé, son and daughter and Sade 's mother and auntie and then they (as well as La Tasha 's father) showed up in the dining room to catch up. He then introduced to them the taste - it now make - it challenge. In the end, Jennifer won by correctly identifying the three elements of the dish while Sade came in a close second.
Reward / punishment: Jennifer goes with her fiancé and kids for lunch at Mr. Chow followed by chocolate tasting at Vosges. The remaining three had to clean out and pack the dorms and set up the dining room for the 200th dinner service.
Service: Tonight 's dinner service was the 200th dinner service. In addition to being a black - tie affair like the 100th dinner service, Rock Harper (season 3 winner), Christina Wilson (season 10 winner), Jay Santos (season 7 runner - up), Jon Scallion (season 11 second runner - up) and Elise Wims (season 9 second runner - up) were all dining as customers in the dining room. Ricky Schroder, Hanson, Sydney Leroux and Kelly Hansen were also dining as guests as well. First, Sade ran the pass, when Sade asked Jennifer how long on chicken, Jennifer was slow to reply with the duo conflicting and in addition Jennifer burned the chicken skin, Sade managed to spot that Andi put clams instead of mussels in the capellini and spotted a mistake on the ticket from Marino. Next up was La Tasha who failed to notice the difference between a sea bass and a halibut but called out Bryant for being slow on garnish and showing disrespect towards her. Jennifer was the third contestant to run the pass but Sade got confused when Jennifer called out an order and the team was slow to give Jennifer a time on their respective stations. Jennifer spotted Bryant 's undercooked mashed potatoes but failed to notice the missing duxelles in the wellingtons but rebounded by keeping entrées moving at a consistent pace. Bryant was last to run the pass and, concerned that Andi was out to sabotage him (as she had with the other three), mistook the two halibut for two sea bass -- causing a brief argument between him and Ramsay. He did, however, notice the difference between cauliflower and celery root puree and successfully completes the dinner service. Ramsay praised the contestants for their strong performances and acknowledging that he has the right final four and sent them upstairs while he was thinking about who should be in the final two. When the contestants were out on the patio, La Tasha was annoyed at Bryant running his egotism.
Continuing from last episode Bryant and La Tasha started working on their menus. While Bryant kept his menu very simple, La Tasha decided to take a more adventurous approach to hers. The next day, they were invited to a day of relaxation in Palm Springs by Chef Ramsay and accompanied by maitre d ' Marino Monferrato.
Challenge: When Bryant and La Tasha returned to Los Angeles they were greeted by a woman from the airport who told them that their ride had not arrived yet, but they were escorted to a room that when she came back it was revealed that they needed to cook 5 unique dishes with one cold appetizer and hot appetizer, and three entrées featuring beef chicken and fish in front of a live audience and had only one hour with the assistance of Sous chefs Andi and James. La Tasha won the challenge 42 -- 39 - which included a perfect score on one of her entrée dishes.
Reward: La Tasha got the first pick of the last eight chefs eliminated. La Tasha 's first pick was Sade followed by Roe, Fernando and last Ashley. While Bryant picked Jennifer, Sterling, Santos, and Frank was left as the last pick. This did n't surprise Frank due to his awful last dinner service performance.
Service: During pre-service, Frank burned all of Bryant 's nuts, an item he added after suggestion from Sterling and Frank and they needed to redo them all over. During the tasting of both menus, Chef Ramsay gave mostly positive feedback to Bryant 's menu, while he had his fair share of critiques for La Tasha 's menu as there was too much elements on the plates -- a problem that was quickly rectified. In addition to the finalists ' families, Margaret Cho, Aisha Tyler, Tory Belleci, Sharon Lawrence and Traci Bingham also appeared as guests. During service in the blue kitchen Frank almost immediately stalled the kitchen as he had problems executing the simple menu until Bryant switched him with Sterling on the garnish station. In the red kitchen Roe had problems on the first ticket serving up too little garnish but rebounded fast. Fernando had problems most of the night on the fish station both with timing and communication and got accused by Ramsay for trying to sabotage La Tasha 's dinner service. After he served up raw salmon, La Tasha replaced him with Roe and the rest of the red service went without incident. The same could not be said for the blue kitchen as Frank after having problems on the appetizer station, now started having problems on garnish, forcing Bryant to throw him out -- a decision that Ramsay agreed with.
Winner: Ramsay congratulated the chefs for a complete service and told them that it would be a "virtually impossible decision '' to determine a winner. After analyzing the service and overall performance, he called both of them into his office where he praised La Tasha for her consistency and praised Bryant for his strong finish despite some of the setbacks earlier in the service. After that, he asked them to go to their doors where La Tasha 's opened making her the 13th winner of Hell 's Kitchen with Bryant taking his defeat graciously. In the closing segment, Ramsay went on to shake hands with Frank and asked him what happened during the service.
Frank would go on to appear on the Food Network show Chopped, competing in the thirty - seventh - season episode "A Frog Leg Up. '' Here, he was chopped (eliminated) in the entrée round after serving undercooked gnocchi to the judges.
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is there a second season of 21 thunder | 21 Thunder - wikipedia
21 Thunder is a Canadian television drama series produced for CBC Television. The story follows star players of an under - 21 academy for the fictional Montreal Thunder soccer team in Montreal, Quebec. The series was created by Adrian Wills, Riley Adams, and Kenneth Hirsch in 2016. It features an ensemble cast that includes, among others, RJ Fetherstonhaugh, Colm Feore, Stephanie Bennett, Emmanuel Kabongo, and Conrad Pla. The series premiered in Canada on July 31, 2017, to generally positive reviews.
The creators of the show -- Adrian Wills, Riley Adams, and Kenneth Hirsch -- briefly considered focusing their series on basketball or hockey, before settling on soccer. Hirsch explained this decision in an interview with the Montreal Gazette:
We realized very quickly that every Canadian can relate one way or another to soccer. Either you play it or you watch it... Also, look at any soccer field across Canada and that field reflects huge diversity, of cultural background, of different segments of society.
In September 2016, CBC announced it had commissioned a one - hour drama series that would follow the star players of an under - 21 soccer academy in Montreal. The series was filmed on location, in Montreal, throughout 2016. Later, in a press release, CBC stated that the series will "offer audiences a fresh and diverse perspective on the world 's most popular sport. ''
The series has received generally positive reviews; John Doyle of The Globe and Mail called it "highly enjoyable and addictive, even if you 're just a casual soccer fan. '' Further, Doyle wrote that "... it 's not the male - centric drama you might expect. There is a sharp edge to the female characters. Mostly it is fast, action - packed, sort - of realistic and gripping. It 's fine entertainment, and it 's one of those dramas about sports that succeeds. ''
Johanna Schneller of the Toronto Star wrote a less enthusiastic review, in which she claimed that the series "has promise, but not many kicks, '' concluding that "the show is freshest when it keeps its head in the game. ''
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stimulation of the histamine (h1) receptors often results in | Histamine H1 receptor - wikipedia
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NP_000852 NP_001091681 NP_001091682 NP_001091683
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The H receptor is a histamine receptor belonging to the family of rhodopsin - like G - protein - coupled receptors. This receptor is activated by the biogenic amine histamine. It is expressed in smooth muscles, on vascular endothelial cells, in the heart, and in the central nervous system. The H receptor is linked to an intracellular G - protein (G) that activates phospholipase C and the phosphatidylinositol (PIP2) signalling pathway. Antihistamines, which act on this receptor, are used as anti-allergy drugs. The crystal structure of the receptor has been determined (shown on the right) and used to discover new histamine H receptor ligands in structure - based virtual screening studies.
The expression of NF - κB, the transcription factor that regulates inflammatory processes, is promoted by the constitutive activity of the H receptor as well as by agonists that bind at the receptor. H - antihistamines have been shown to attenuate NF - κB expression and mitigate certain inflammatory processes in associated cells.
Histamine H receptors are activated by endogenous histamine, which is released by neurons that have their cell bodies in the tuberomammillary nucleus of the hypothalamus. The histaminergic neurons of the tuberomammillary nucleus become active during the ' wake ' cycle, firing at approximately 2 Hz; during slow wave sleep, this firing rate drops to approximately 0.5 Hz. Finally, during REM sleep, histaminergic neurons stop firing altogether. It has been reported that histaminergic neurons have the most wake - selective firing pattern of all known neuronal types.
The tuberomammillary nucleus is a histaminergic nucleus that strongly regulates the sleep - wake cycle. H - antihistamines that cross the blood - brain barrier inhibit H receptor activity on neurons that project from the tuberomammillary nucleus. This action is responsible for the drowsiness effect associated with these drugs.
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where did they build the structure used in biosphere 2 | Biosphere 2 - wikipedia
Biosphere 2 is an American Earth system science research facility located in Oracle, Arizona. It has been owned by the University of Arizona since 2011. Its mission is to serve as a center for research, outreach, teaching, and lifelong learning about Earth, its living systems, and its place in the universe. It is a 3.14 - acre (1.27 - hectare) structure originally built to be an artificial, materially closed ecological system, or vivarium. It remains the largest closed system ever created.
Biosphere 2 was originally meant to demonstrate the viability of closed ecological systems to support and maintain human life in outer space. It was designed to explore the web of interactions within life systems in a structure with different areas based on various biological biomes. In addition to the several biomes and living quarters for people, there was an agricultural area and work space to study the interactions between humans, farming, technology and the rest of nature as a new kind of laboratory for the study of the global ecology. Its mission was a two - year closure experiment with a crew of eight humans ("biospherians ''). Long - term it was seen as a precursor to gain knowledge about the use of closed biospheres in space colonization. As an experimental ecological facility it allowed the study and manipulation of a mini biospheric system without harming Earth 's biosphere. Its seven biome areas were a 1,900 - square - meter (20,000 sq ft) rainforest, an 850 - square - meter (9,100 sq ft) ocean with a coral reef, a 450 - square - meter (4,800 sq ft) mangrove wetlands, a 1,300 - square - metre (14,000 sq ft) savannah grassland, a 1,400 - square - meter (15,000 sq ft) fog desert, and two anthropogenic biomes: a 2,500 - square - meter (27,000 sq ft) agricultural system and a human habitat with living spaces, laboratories and workshops. Below ground was an extensive part of the technical infrastructure. Heating and cooling water circulated through independent piping systems and passive solar input through the glass space frame panels covering most of the facility, and electrical power was supplied into Biosphere 2 from an onsite natural gas energy center.
Biosphere 2 was only used twice for its original intended purposes as a closed - system experiment: once from 1991 to 1993, and the second time from March to September 1994. Both attempts, though heavily publicized, ran into problems including low amounts of food and oxygen, die - offs of many animals and plants included in the experiment (though this was anticipated since the project used a strategy of deliberately "species - packing '' anticipating losses as the biomes developed), group dynamic tensions among the resident crew, outside politics and a power struggle over management and direction of the project. Nevertheless, the closure experiments set world records in closed ecological systems, agricultural production, health improvements with the high nutrient and low caloric diet the crew followed, and insights into the self - organization of complex biomic systems and atmospheric dynamics. The second closure experiment achieved total food sufficiency and did not require injection of oxygen.
In June 1994, during the middle of the second experiment, the managing company, Space Biosphere Ventures, was dissolved, and the facility was left in limbo. Columbia University assumed management of the facility in 1995 and used it to run experiments until 2003. It then looked in danger of being demolished to make way for housing and retail stores, but was taken over for research by the University of Arizona in 2007 and they took full ownership of the structure in 2011.
Biosphere 2 was originally constructed between 1987 and 1991 by Space Biosphere Ventures, a joint venture whose principal officers were John P. Allen, inventor and executive chairman; Margaret Augustine, CEO; Marie Harding, vice-president of finance; Abigail Alling, vice president of research; Mark Nelson, director of space and environmental applications, William F. Dempster, director of system engineering, and Norberto Alvarez - Romo, vice president of mission control. Project funding came primarily from the joint venture 's financial partner, Ed Bass 's Decisions Investment. The project cost US $200 million from 1985 to 2007.
It was named "Biosphere 2 '' because it was meant to be the second fully self - sufficient biosphere, after the Earth itself.
The glass and spaceframe facility is located in Oracle, Arizona at the base of the Santa Catalina Mountains, about 50 minutes north of Tucson. Its elevation is around 4,000 feet (1,200 m) above sea level.
The above - ground physical structure of Biosphere 2 was made of steel tubing and high - performance glass and steel frames. The frame and glazing materials were designed and made to specification by a firm run by a one - time associate of Buckminster Fuller, Peter Jon Pearce (Pearce Structures, Inc.). The window seals and structures had to be designed to be almost perfectly airtight, such that the air exchange would be extremely low, permitting tracking of subtle changes over time. The patented airtight sealing methods, developed by Pearce and William Dempster, achieved a remarkable leak rate of less than 10 % per year. Without such tight closure, the slow decline of oxygen which occurred at a rate of less than 1 / 4 % per month during the first two - year closure experiment might not have been observed.
During the day, the heat from the sun caused the air inside to expand and during the night it cooled and contracted. To avoid having to deal with the huge forces that maintaining a constant volume would create, the structure had large diaphragms kept in domes called "lungs '' or variable volume structures.
Since opening a window was not an option, the structure also required a sophisticated system to regulate temperatures within desired parameters, which varied for the different biomic areas. Though cooling was the largest energy need, heating had to be supplied in the winter and closed loop pipes and air handlers were key parts of the energy system. An energy center on site provided electricity and heated and cooled water, employing natural gas and backup generators, ammonia chillers and water cooling towers.
The first closed mission lasted from September 26, 1991 to September 26, 1993. The crew were: medical doctor and researcher Roy Walford, Jane Poynter, Taber MacCallum, Mark Nelson, Sally Silverstone, Abigail Alling, Mark Van Thillo, and Linda Leigh.
The agricultural system produced 83 % of the total diet, which included crops of bananas, papayas, sweet potatoes, beets, peanuts, lablab and cowpea beans, rice, and wheat. No toxic chemicals could be used, since they would impact health and water and nutrients were recycled back into the farm soils. Especially during the first year the eight inhabitants reported continual hunger. Calculations indicated that Biosphere 2 's farm was amongst the highest producing in the world "exceeding by more than five times that of the most efficient agrarian communities of Indonesia, southern China, and Bangladesh. ''
They consumed the same low - calorie, nutrient - dense diet which Roy Walford had studied in his research on extending lifespan through diet. Medical markers indicated the health of the crew during the two years was excellent. They showed the same improvement in health indices such as lowering of blood cholesterol, blood pressure, enhancement of immune system. They lost an average of 16 % of their pre-entry body weight before stabilizing and regaining some weight during their second year. Subsequent studies showed that the biospherians ' metabolism became more efficient at extracting nutrients from their food as an adaptation to the low - calorie, high nutrient diet. "The overall health of the biospherians crews inside Biosphere 2 confirm that the original design of the Biosphere 2 technosphere systems did avoid a buildup of toxins, and the bioregenerative technologies and life systems inside Biosphere 2 maintained a healthy environment. ''
Some of the domestic animals that were included in the agricultural area during the first mission included four African pygmy goats and one billy goat, 35 hens and three roosters (a mix of Indian jungle fowl (Gallus gallus), Japanese silky bantam, and a hybrid of these), two sows and one boar Ossabaw dwarf pigs, as well as tilapia fish grown in a rice and azolla pond system originating millennia ago in China.
A strategy of "species - packing '' was practiced to ensure that food webs and ecological function could be maintained if some species did not survive. The fog desert area became more chaparral in character due to condensation from the space frame. The savannah was seasonally active; its biomass was cut and stored by the crew as part of their management of carbon dioxide. Rainforest pioneer species grew rapidly, but trees there and in the savannah suffered from etiolation and weakness caused by lack of stress wood, normally created in response to winds in natural conditions. Corals reproduced in the ocean area, and crew helped maintain ocean system health by hand - harvesting algae from the corals, manipulating calcium carbonate and pH levels to prevent the ocean becoming too acidic, and by installing an improved protein skimmer to supplement the algae turf scrubber system originally installed to remove excess nutrients. The mangrove area developed rapidly but with less understory than a typical wetland possibly because of reduced light levels. Nevertheless, it was judged to be a successful analogue to the Everglades area of Florida where the mangroves and marsh plants were collected.
Biosphere 2 because of its small size and buffers, concentration of organic materials and life, had greater fluctuations and more rapid biogeochemical cycles than are found in Earth 's biosphere. Most of the introduced vertebrate species and virtually all of the pollinating insects died, though there was reproduction of plants and animals. Insect pests, like cockroaches, flourished. Many insects had been included in original species mixes in the biomes but a globally invasive tramp ant species, Paratrechina longicornis, unintentionally sealed in, had come to dominate other ant species. The planned ecological succession in the rainforest and strategies to protect the area from harsh incident sunlight and salt aerosols from the ocean worked well, and a surprising amount of the original biodiversity persisted. Biosphere 2 in its early ecological development was likened to an island ecology.
Much of the evidence for isolated human groups comes from psychological studies of scientists overwintering in Antarctic research stations. The study of this phenomenon is "confined environment psychology '', and according to Jane Poynter it was known to be a challenge and often crews split into factions.
Before the first closure mission was half over, the group had split into two factions and, according to Poynter, people who had been intimate friends had become implacable enemies, barely on speaking terms. Others point out that the crew continued to work together as a team to achieve the experiment 's goals, mindful that any action that harmed Biosphere 2 might imperil their own health. This is in contrast to other expeditions where internal frictions can lead to unconscious sabotage of each other and the overall mission. All of the crew felt a very strong and visceral bond with their living world. They kept air and water quality, atmospheric dynamics and health of the life systems constantly in their attention in a very visceral and profound way. This intimate "metabolic connection '' enabled the crew to discern and respond to even subtle changes in the living systems. (Alling et al., 2002; Alling and Nelson, 1993). "Appreciation of the value of biosphere interconnectedness and interdependency was appreciated as both an everyday beauty and a challenging reality '', Walford later acknowledged "I do n't like some of them, but we were a hell of a team. That was the nature of the factionalism... but despite that, we ran the damn thing and we cooperated totally ''.
The factions inside the bubble formed from a rift and power struggle between the joint venture partners on how the science should proceed, as biospherics or as specialist ecosystem studies (perceived as reductionist). The faction that included Poynter felt strongly that increasing research should be prioritized over degree of closure. The other faction backed project management and the overall mission objectives. On February 14, a portion of the Scientific Advisory Committee (SAC) resigned. Time Magazine wrote: "Now, the veneer of credibility, already bruised by allegations of tamper - prone data, secret food caches and smuggled supplies, has cracked... the two - year experiment in self - sufficiency is starting to look less like science and more like a $150 million stunt ''. In fact, the SAC was dissolved because it had deviated from its mandate to review and improve scientific research and became involved in advocating management changes. A majority of the SAC members chose to remain as consultants to Biosphere 2. The SAC 's recommendations in their report were implemented including a new Director of Research (Dr. Jack Corliss), allowing import / export of scientific samples and equipment through the facility airlocks to increase research and decrease crew labor, and to generate a formal research program. Some sixty - four projects were included in the research program that Walford and Alling spearheaded developing.
Undoubtedly the lack of oxygen and the calorie - restricted, nutrient - dense diet contributed to low morale. The Alling faction feared that the Poynter group were prepared to go so far as to import food, if it meant making them fitter to carry out research projects. They considered that would be a project failure by definition.
In November 1992, the hungry Biospherians began eating seed stocks that had not been grown inside the Biosphere 2. Poynter made Chris Helms, PR Director for the enterprise, aware of this. She was promptly dismissed by Margret Augustine, CEO of Space Biospheres Ventures, and told to come out of the biosphere. This order was, however, never carried out. Poynter writes that she simply decided to stay put, correctly reasoning that the order could not be enforced without effectively terminating the closure.
Isolated groups tend to attach greater significance to group dynamic and personal emotional fluctuations common in all groups. Some reports from polar station crews exaggerated psychological problems. So, although some of the first closure team thought they were depressed, psychological examination of the biospherians showed no depression and fit the explorer / adventurer profile, with both women and men testing very similar to astronauts. One of the psychologists noted, "If I was lost in the Amazon and was looking for a guide to get out, and to survive with, then (the biospherian crew) would be top choices. ''
Among the problems and miscalculations encountered in the first mission were unanticipated condensation making the "desert '' too wet, population explosions of greenhouse ants and cockroaches, morning glories overgrowing the rainforest area, blocking out other plants and less sunlight (40 - 50 % of outside light) entering the facility than originally anticipated. Biospherians intervened to control invasive plants when needed to preserve biodiversity, functioning as "keystone predators ''. In addition, construction itself was a challenge; for example, it was difficult to manipulate the bodies of water to have waves and tidal changes. Engineers came up with innovative solutions to supplement natural functions the Earth 's biosphere normally performs, e.g. vacuum pumps to create gentle waves in the ocean without endangering marine biota, sophisticated heating and cooling systems. All the technology was selected to minimize outgassing and discharge of harmful substances which might damage Biosphere 2 's life.
There was controversy when the public learned that the project had allowed an injured member to leave and return, carrying new material inside. The team claimed the only new supplies brought in were plastic bags, but others accused them of bringing food and other items. More criticism was raised when it was learned that, likewise, the project injected oxygen in January 1993 to make up for a failure in the balance of the system that resulted in the amount of oxygen steadily declining. Some thought that these criticisms ignored that Biosphere 2 was an experiment where the unexpected would occur, adding to knowledge of how complex ecologies develop and interact, not a demonstration where everything was known in advance. H.T. Odum noted: "The management process during 1992 - 1993 using data to develop theory, test it with simulation, and apply corrective actions was in the best scientific tradition. Yet some journalists crucified the management in the public press, treating the project as if it was an Olympic contest to see how much could be done without opening the doors ''.
The oxygen inside the facility, which began at 20.9 %, fell at a steady pace and after 16 months was down to 14.5 %. This is equivalent to the oxygen availability at an elevation of 4,080 meters (13,400 ft). Since some biospherians were starting to have symptoms like sleep apnea and fatigue, Walford and the medical team decided to boost oxygen with injections in January and August 1993. The oxygen decline and minimal response of the crew indicated that changes in air pressure are what trigger human adaptation responses. These studies enhanced the biomedical research program.
Managing CO levels was a particular challenge, and a source of controversy regarding the Biosphere 2 project 's alleged misrepresentation to the public. Daily fluctuation of carbon dioxide dynamics was typically 600 ppm because of the strong drawdown during sunlight hours by plant photosynthesis, followed by a similar rise during the nighttime when system respiration dominated. As expected, there was also a strong seasonal signature to CO levels, with wintertime levels as high as 4,000 - 4,500 ppm and summertime levels near 1,000 ppm. The crew worked to manage the CO by occasionally turning on a CO scrubber, activating and de-activating the desert and savannah through control of irrigation water, cutting and storing biomass to sequester carbon, and utilizing all potential planting areas with fast - growing species to increase system photosynthesis. In November 1991, investigative reporting in the Village Voice alleged that the crew had secretly installed the CO scrubber device, and claimed that this violated Biosphere 2 's advertised goal of recycling all materials naturally. Others pointed out there was nothing secret about the carbon dioxide device and it constituted another technical system augmenting ecological processes. The carbon precipitator could reverse the chemical reactions and thus release the stored carbon dioxide in later years when the facility might need additional carbon.
Many suspected the drop in oxygen was due to microbes in the soil. The soils were selected to have enough carbon to provide for the plants of the ecosystems to grow from infancy to maturity, a plant mass increase of perhaps 20 tons (18,000 kg). The release rate of that soil carbon as carbon dioxide by respiration of soil microbes was an unknown that the Biosphere 2 experiment was designed to reveal. Subsequent research showed that Biosphere 2 's farm soils had reached a more stable ratio of carbon and nitrogen, lowering the rate of CO release, by 1998.
The respiration rate was faster than the photosynthesis (possibly in part due to relatively low light penetration through the glazed structure and the fact that Biosphere 2 started with a small but rapidly increasing plant biomass) resulting in a slow decrease of oxygen. A mystery accompanied the oxygen decline: the corresponding increase in carbon dioxide did not appear. This concealed the underlying process until an investigation by Jeff Severinghaus and Wallace Broecker of Columbia University 's Lamont Doherty Earth Observatory using isotopic analysis showed that carbon dioxide was reacting with exposed concrete inside Biosphere 2 to form calcium carbonate, thereby sequestering both carbon and oxygen.
During the transition period between missions, extensive research and system improvements had been undertaken. Concrete was sealed to prevent uptake of carbon dioxide. The second mission began on March 6, 1994, with an announced run of ten months. The crew was Norberto Alvarez - Romo (Capt.), John Druitt, Matt Finn, Pascale Maslin, Charlotte Godfrey, Rodrigo Romo and Tilak Mahato. The second crew achieved complete sufficiency in food production.
On April 1, 1994 a severe dispute within the management team led to the ousting of the on - site management by federal marshals serving a restraining order, and financier Ed Bass hired Stephen Bannon, manager of the Bannon & Co. investment banking team from Beverly Hills, California, to run Space Biospheres Ventures. Some biospherians and staff were concerned about Bannon, who had previously investigated cost overruns at the site. Two former Biosphere 2 crew members flew back to Arizona to protest the hire and broke into the compound to warn current crew members that Bannon and the new management would jeopardize their safety.
At 3 am on April 5, 1994, Abigail Alling and Mark Van Thillo, members of the first crew, allegedly vandalized the project from outside, opening one double - airlock door and three single door emergency exits, leaving them open for approximately fifteen minutes. Five panes of glass were also broken. Alling later told the Chicago Tribune that she "considered the Biosphere to be in an emergency state... In no way was it sabotage. It was my responsibility. '' About 10 % of the biosphere 's air was exchanged with the outside during this time, according to systems analyst Donella Meadows, who received a communication from Ms. Alling in which she explained that she and Van Thillo judged it their ethical duty to give those inside the choice of continuing with the drastically changed human experiment or leaving, as they did n't know what the crew had been told of the new situation. "On April 1, 1994, at approximately 10 AM... limousines arrived on the biosphere site... with two investment bankers hired by Mr. Bass... They arrived with a temporary restraining order to take over direct control of the project... With them were 6 - 8 police officers hired by the Bass organization... They immediately changed locks on the offices... All communication systems were changed (telephone and access codes), and (we) were prevented from receiving any data regarding safety, operations, and research of Biosphere 2. '' Alling emphasized several times in her letter that the "bankers '' who suddenly took over "knew nothing technically or scientifically, and little about the biospherian crew. ''
Four days later, the captain Norberto Alvarez - Romo (by then married to Biosphere 2 chief executive Margaret Augustine) precipitously left the Biosphere for a "family emergency '' after his wife 's suspension. He was replaced by Bernd Zabel, who had been nominated as captain of the first mission but who was replaced at the last minute. Two months later, Matt Smith replaced Matt Finn.
The ownership and management company Space Biospheres Ventures was officially dissolved on June 1, 1994. This left the scientific and business management of the mission to the interim turnaround team, who had been contracted by the financial partner, Decisions Investment Co.
Mission 2 was ended prematurely on September 6, 1994. No further total system science has emerged from Biosphere 2 as the facility was changed by Columbia University from a closed ecological system to a "flow - through '' system where CO could be manipulated at desired levels.
Steve Bannon left Biosphere 2 after two years, but his departure was marked by a civil lawsuit filed against Space Biosphere Ventures by the former crew members who had broken in. During a 1996 trial, Bannon testified that he had called one of the plaintiffs, Abigail Alling, a "self - centered, deluded young woman '' and a "bimbo. '' He also testified that when the woman submitted a five - page complaint outlining safety problems at the site, he promised to shove the complaint "down her fucking throat. '' Bannon attributed this to "hard feelings and broken dreams. '' At the end of the trial, the jury found for the plaintiffs and ordered Space Biosphere Ventures to pay them $600,000, but also ordered the plaintiffs to pay the company $40,089 for the damage they had caused. Some have observed that Bannon orchestrated the hostile take - over and destruction of Biosphere 2 as a revolutionary total system global ecology laboratory, not because of any interest in ecological science.
A special issue of the Ecological Engineering journal edited by Marino and Howard T. Odum (1999), published as "Biosphere 2: Research Past and Present '' (Elsevier, 1999) represents the most comprehensive assemblage of collected papers and findings from Biosphere 2. The papers range from calibrated models that describe the system metabolism, hydrologic balance, and heat and humidity, to papers that describe rainforest, mangrove, ocean, and agronomic system development in this carbon dioxide - rich environment. Though several dissertations and many scientific papers used data from the early closure experiments at Biosphere 2, much of the original data has never been analyzed and is unavailable or lost, perhaps due to scientific politics and in - fighting.
Some of the controversy at Biosphere 2 stemmed from the long - standing division in science between analytic, reductionist science and integrative, holistic science.
Rebecca Reider expanded her history of science thesis at Harvard into a book on Biosphere 2. She noted that because Biosphere 2 's creators were perceived as outsiders to academic science, the project was scrutinized but sometimes poorly understood in the media. She noted that Biosphere 2 broke a number of unspoken taboos: "' Science ' could be performed only by official scientists, only the right high priests could interpret nature for everyone else.... ' Science ' was separate from art (and the thinking mind was separate from the emotional heart)... ' Science ' required some neat intellectual boundary between humans and nature; it did not necessarily involve humans learning to live with the world around them. Finally, ' science ' must follow a specific method: think up a hypothesis, test it and get some numbers to prove you were right ''. After Columbia University assumed management, the scrutiny ceased because it was assumed they were "proper '' scientists.
The dichotomy is a false one as there are many valid approaches to science. John Allen, the inventor of Biosphere 2, wrote: "Four basic ways uneasily co-exist in science to deal with understanding complex systems: (1) prolonged naturalist observation, description of observed regularities and classification of parts... (2) analyzing component parts of the object of study, formulating restricted hypotheses, and then, holding all else other than the chosen part as constant as possible, measure changes produced by measured impacts... (3) accept complexity as an irreducible element, and then to search for the organized structure that enables us to examine the entity as a whole, to ascertain its specific laws or regularities... (4) Put into an operating model a synthesis of these three approaches, together with test principles of engineering, to test the validity of the existent thinking 's predictive powers, and to provide a fecund base for new observations. This full interplay of observation, analysis and structuring to make a working apparatus in order to test and extend our knowledge of biospherics is the approach we used to create Biosphere 2. This interplay of all four scientific approaches is required to study Earth 's biosphere, the most complex entity yet encountered. ''
One view of Biosphere 2 was that it was "the most exciting scientific project to be undertaken in the U.S. since President John F. Kennedy launched us toward the moon ''. Others called it "New Age drivel masquerading as science ''. John Allen and Roy Walford did have mainstream credentials. John Allen held a degree in Metallurgical - Mining Engineering from the Colorado School of Mines, and an MBA from the Harvard Business School. Roy Walford received his doctorate of medicine from the University of Chicago and taught at UCLA as a Professor of Pathology for 35 years. Mark Nelson obtained his Ph. D. in 1998 under Professor H.T. Odum in ecological engineering further developing the constructed wetlands used to treat and recycle sewage in Biosphere 2, to coral reef protection along the Yucatán coast where the corals were collected. Linda Leigh obtained her PhD with a dissertation on biodiversity and the Biosphere 2 rainforest working with Odum. Abigail Alling, Mark van Thillo and Sally Silverstone helped start the Biosphere Foundation where they worked on coral reef and marine conservation and sustainable agricultural systems. Jane Poynter and Taber MacCallum co-founded Paragon Space Development Corporation which has studied the first mini-closed system and the first full animal life cycle in space and assisted in setting world records in high altitude descents.
Questioning the credentials of the participants (despite the contribution in the preparation phase of Biosphere 2 of worldwide top - level scientists and among others the Russian Academy of Sciences), Marc Cooper wrote that "the group that built, conceived, and directs the Biosphere project is not a group of high - tech researchers on the cutting edge of science but a clique of recycled theater performers that evolved out of an authoritarian -- and decidedly non-scientific -- personality cult ''. He was referring to the Synergia Ranch in New Mexico, where indeed many of the Biospherians did practice theater under John Allen 's leadership, and began to develop the ideas behind Biosphere 2. They also founded the Institute of Ecotechnics and began innovative field projects in challenging biomes to advance the healthy integration of human technologies and the environment where many of the biospherian candidates gained experience in operating real - time complex projects.
One of their own scientific consultants was earlier critical. Dr. Ghillean Prance, director of the Royal Botanical Gardens in Kew, designed the rainforest biome inside the Biosphere. Although he later changed his opinion, acknowledging the unique scope of this experiment and contributed to its success as a consultant, in a 1983 interview (8 years before the start of the experiment), Prance said, "I was attracted to the Institute of Ecotechnics because funds for research were being cut and the institute seemed to have a lot of money which it was willing to spend freely. Along with others, I was ill - used. Their interest in science is not genuine. They seem to have some sort of secret agenda, they seem to be guided by some sort of religious or philosophical system. '' Prance went on in the 1991 newspaper interview to say "they are visionaries.,. And maybe to fulfill their vision they have become somewhat cultlike. But they are not a cult, per se... I am interested in ecological restoration systems. And I think all sorts of scientific things can come of this experiment, far beyond the space goal... When they came to me with this new project, they seemed so well organized, so inspired, I simply decided to forget the past. You should n't hold their past against them. ''
Poynter in her memoir rebuts the critique that because some of the creative team of Biosphere 2 were n't highly credentialed scientists, that that ad hominem argument invalidates the results of the endeavor. ""Some reporters hurled accusations that we were unscientific. Apparently because many of the SBV managers were not themselves degreed scientists, this called into question the entire validity of the project, even though some of the world 's best scientists were working vigorously on the project 's design and operation. The critique was not fair. Since leaving Biosphere 2, I have run a small business for ten years that sent experiments on the shuttle and to the space station, and is designing life support systems for the replacement shuttle and future moon base. I do not have a degree, not even an MBA from Harvard, as John (Allen) had. I hire scientists and top engineers. Our company 's credibility is not called into question because of my credentials: we are judged on the quality of our work ''. H.T. Odum noted that mavericks, outsiders have often contributed to the development of science: "The original management of Biosphere 2 was regarded by many scientists as untrained for lack of scientific degrees, even though they had engaged in a preparatory study program for a decade, interacting with the international community of scientists including the Russians involved with closed systems. The history of science has many examples where people of atypical background open science in new directions, in this case implementing mesocosm organization and ecological engineering with fresh hypotheses ''.
The Biosphere 2 Science Advisory Committee, chaired by Tom Lovejoy of the Smithsonian Institution, in its report of August 1992 reported: "The committee is in agreement that the conception and construction of Biosphere 2 were acts of vision and courage. The scale of Biosphere 2 is unique and Biosphere 2 is already providing unexpected scientific results not possible through other means (notably the documented, unexpected decline in atmospheric oxygen levels.) Biosphere 2 will make important scientific contributions in the fields of biogeochemical cycling, the ecology of closed ecological systems, and restoration ecology. '' Columbia University assembled outside scientists to evaluate the potential of the facility after they took over management, and concluded the following: "A group of world - class scientists got together and decided the Biosphere 2 facility is an exceptional laboratory for addressing critical questions relative to the future of Earth and its environment. ''
In December 1995 the Biosphere 2 owners transferred management to Columbia University of New York City which embarked on a successful eight - year run at the Biosphere 2 campus. Columbia ran Biosphere 2 as a research site and campus until 2003. Subsequently, management reverted to the owners.
In 1996, Columbia University changed the virtually airtight, materially closed structure designed for closed system research, to a "flow - through '' system, and halted closed system research. They manipulated carbon dioxide levels for global warming research, and injected desired amounts of carbon dioxide, venting as needed. During Columbia 's tenure, students from Columbia and other colleges and universities would often spend one semester at the site.
Important research during Columbia 's tenure demonstrated the devastating impacts on coral reefs from elevated atmospheric CO2 and acidification that will result from continued global climate change. Frank Press, former president of the National Academy of Sciences, described these interactions between atmosphere and ocean, taking advantage of the highly controllable ocean mesocosm of Biosphere 2, as the "first unequivocal experimental confirmation of the human impact on the planet ''.
Studies in Biosphere 2 's terrestrial biomes showed that a saturation point was reached with elevated CO2 beyond which they are unable to uptake more. The studies ' authors noted that the striking differences between the Biosphere 2 rainforest and desert biomes in their whole system responses "illustrates the importance of large - scale experimental research in the study of complex global change issues ''.
In January 2005, Decisions Investments Corporation, owner of Biosphere 2, announced that the project 's 1,600 - acre (650 ha) campus was for sale. They preferred a research use to be found for the complex but were not excluding buyers with different intentions, such as big universities, churches, resorts, and spas. In June 2007 the site was sold for $50 million to CDO Ranching & Development, L.P. 1,500 houses and a resort hotel were planned, but the main structure was still to be available for research and educational use.
On June 26, 2007, the University of Arizona announced it would take over research at the Biosphere 2. The announcement ended fears that the structure would be demolished. University officials said private gifts and grants enabled them to cover research and operating costs for three years with the possibility of extending funding for ten years. It was extended for ten years, and is now engaged in research projects including research into the terrestrial water cycle and how it relates to ecology, atmospheric science, soil geochemistry, and climate change. In June 2011, the university announced that it would assume full ownership of Biosphere 2, effective July 1.
CDO Ranching & Development donated the land, Biosphere buildings and several other support and administrative buildings. The Philecology Foundation (a nonprofit research foundation founded by Ed Bass) pledged US $20 million for the ongoing science and operations.
There are many small - scale research projects at Biosphere 2, as well as several large - scale research projects including:
((subst: saved_book)) Nelson, Mark Pushing Our Limits: Insights from Biosphere 2 University of Arizona Press Tucson AZ 2018
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the functional layer of the endometrium is shed in response to | Endometrium - wikipedia
The endometrium is the inner epithelial layer, along with its mucous membrane, of the mammalian uterus. It has a basal layer and a functional layer; the functional layer thickens and then is sloughed during the menstrual cycle or estrous cycle. During pregnancy, the glands and blood vessels in the endometrium further increase in size and number. Vascular spaces fuse and become interconnected, forming the placenta, which supplies oxygen and nutrition to the embryo and fetus. The presence of commensal bacteria in the uterus and endometrium has been identified.
The endometrium consists of a single layer of columnar epithelium plus the stroma on which it rests. The stroma is a layer of connective tissue that varies in thickness according to hormonal influences. Simple tubular uterine glands reach from the endometrial surface through to the base of the stroma, which also carries a rich blood supply of spiral arteries. In a woman of reproductive age, two layers of endometrium can be distinguished. These two layers occur only in endometrium lining the cavity of the uterus, not in the lining of the uterine (Fallopian) tubes:
In the absence of progesterone, the arteries supplying blood to the functional layer constrict, so that cells in that layer become ischaemic and die, leading to menstruation.
It is possible to identify the phase of the menstrual cycle by reference to either the ovarian cycle or the uterine cycle by observing histological differences at each phase -- for example in the ovarian cycle:
The endometrium is the innermost glandular layer and functions as a lining for the uterus, preventing adhesions between the opposed walls of the myometrium, thereby maintaining the patency of the uterine cavity. During the menstrual cycle or estrous cycle, the endometrium grows to a thick, blood vessel - rich, glandular tissue layer. This represents an optimal environment for the implantation of a blastocyst upon its arrival in the uterus. The endometrium is central, echogenic (detectable using ultrasound scanners), and has an average thickness of 6.7 mm.
During pregnancy, the glands and blood vessels in the endometrium further increase in size and number. Vascular spaces fuse and become interconnected, forming the placenta, which supplies oxygen and nutrition to the embryo and fetus.
The endometrial lining undergoes cyclic regeneration. Humans and great apes display the menstrual cycle, whereas most other mammals are subject to an estrous cycle. In both cases, the endometrium initially proliferates under the influence of estrogen. However, once ovulation occurs, the ovary (specifically the corpus luteum) will produce much larger amounts of progesterone. This changes the proliferative pattern of the endometrium to a secretory lining. Eventually, the secretory lining provides a hospitable environment for one or more blastocysts.
Upon fertilization, the egg may implant into the uterine wall and provide feedback to the body with human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG). HCG provides continued feedback throughout pregnancy by maintaining the corpus luteum, which will continue its role of releasing progesterone and estrogen. The endometrial lining is either reabsorbed (estrous cycle) or shed (menstrual cycle). In the latter case, the process of shedding involves the breaking down of the lining, the tearing of small connective blood vessels, and the loss of the tissue and blood that had constituted it through the vagina. The entire process occurs over a period of several days. Menstruation may be accompanied by a series of uterine contractions; these help expel the menstrual endometrium.
In case of implantation, however, the endometrial lining is neither absorbed nor shed. Instead, it remains as decidua. The decidua becomes part of the placenta; it provides support and protection for the gestation.
If there is inadequate stimulation of the lining, due to lack of hormones, the endometrium remains thin and inactive. In humans, this will result in amenorrhea, or the absence of a menstrual period. After menopause, the lining is often described as being atrophic. In contrast, endometrium that is chronically exposed to estrogens, but not to progesterone, may become hyperplastic. Long - term use of oral contraceptives with highly potent progestins can also induce endometrial atrophy.
In humans, the cycle of building and shedding the endometrial lining lasts an average of 28 days. The endometrium develops at different rates in different mammals. Various factors including the seasons, climate, and stress can affect its development. The endometrium itself produces certain hormones at different stages of the cycle and this affects other parts of the reproductive system.
About 20,000 protein coding genes are expressed in human cells and some 70 % of these genes are expressed in the normal endometrium. Just over 100 of these genes are more specifically expressed in the endometrium with only a handfull genes being highly endometrium specific. The corresponding specific proteins are expressed in the glandular and stromal cells of the endometrial mucosa. The expression of many of these proteins vary depending on the menstrual cycle, for example the progestorone receptor and thyrotropin - releasing hormone both expressed in the proliferative phase, and PAEP expressed in the secretory phase. Other proteins such as the HOX11 protein that is required for female fertility, is expressed in endometrial stroma cells throughout the menstrual cycle. Certain specific proteins such as the estrogen receptor are also expressed in other types of female tissue types, such as the cervix, fallopian tubes, ovaries and breast.
Chorionic tissue can result in marked endometrial changes, known as an Arias - Stella reaction, that have an appearance similar to cancer. Historically, this change was diagnosed as endometrial cancer and it is important only in so far as it should not be misdiagnosed as cancer.
Thin endometrium may be defined as an endometrial thickness of less than 8 mm. It usually occurs after menopause. Treatments that can improve endometrial thickness include Vitamin E, L - arginine and sildenafil citrate.
Gene expression profiling using cDNA microarray can be used for the diagnosis of endometrial disorders. The European Menopause and Andropause Society (EMAS) released Guidelines with detailed information to assess the endometrium.
An endometrial thickness (EMT) of less than 7 mm decreases the pregnancy rate in in vitro fertilization by an odds ratio of approximately 0.4 compared to an EMT of over 7 mm. However, such low thickness rarely occurs, and any routine use of this parameter is regarded as not justified.
Observation of the endometrium by transvaginal ultrasonography is used when administering fertility medication, such as in in vitro fertilization. At the time of embryo transfer, it is favorable to have an endometrium of a thickness of between 7 and 14 mm with a triple - line configuration, which means that the endometrium contains a hyperechoic (usually displayed as light) line in the middle surrounded by two more hypoechoic (darker) lines. A triple - line endometrium reflects the separation of the stratum basalis and functionalis layers, and is also observed in the periovulatory period secondary to rising estradiol levels, and disappears after ovulation.
The endometrium was once thought to be sterile. Instead, a resident, non-pathogenic, and diverse population of microorganisms are present in healthy tissue. The uterus and its tissues are not sterile.
The first studies of flora colonizing the human endometrium were published in 2015, were on special populations, and were too small from which to generalize. In one study of 58 women undergoing hysterectomy, investigators looked for 12 species of bacteria; Lactobacillus and Prevotella were the most commonly detected species and overall density was much lower than vaginal colonization. In another study of 22 infertile women undergoing fertility treatments, Lactobacillus and Flavobacterium were most prevalent, and characteristics of the flora were roughly similar in women who became pregnant and those who did n't.
The initial stages of human embryogenesis
Vertical section of mucous membrane of human uterus.
Endometrioid adenocarcinoma from biopsy. H&E stain.
Micrograph of the endometrium.
Micrograph of decidualized endometrium due to exogenous progesterone. H&E stain.
Micrograph of decidualized endometrium due to exogenous progesterone. H&E stain.
Micrograph showing endometrial stromal condensation, a finding seen in menses.
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is it illegal to drink in public in london | Drinking in public - wikipedia
Social customs and laws on drinking alcohol in public vary significantly around the world. "Public '' in this context refers to outdoor spaces such as roads, walkways or parks, or in a moving vehicle. Drinking in bars, restaurants or stadiums, for example, is not generally considered to be "in public '' even though those establishments are open to the general public. In some countries, such as India, the United States and in larger regions, such as the Muslim world, public drinking is almost universally condemned or outlawed, while in other countries, such as Portugal, Spain, Germany, New Zealand, Japan and China, public drinking and public intoxication is socially acceptable, although may not be entirely legal.
Opponents of drinking in public argue that it encourages overconsumption of alcohol and binge drinking, rowdiness and violence, and propose that people should instead drink at private businesses such as public houses, bars or clubs, where a bartender may prevent overconsumption and where rowdiness can be better controlled by the fact that one is sitting down and security or bouncers may be present. Alternatively, adults may drink at home.
Proponents of drinking in public argue that it does not itself cause problems and rather that it is social problems that cause overconsumption and violence, pointing to countries that allow drinking in public but have low levels of associated overconsumption and violence. Proponents further argue that drinking in public helps normalize attitudes towards drinking and build a healthier drinking culture. Many argue that it is a right to drink in public.
Although details and penalties vary from state to state, drinking in public places directly outside licensed premises (and also in council - designated no alcohol zones) is illegal. Generally, possession of an open container of alcohol is sufficient proof of public drinking.
In New South Wales, drinking in public is legal unless an area is declared to be an alcohol - free zone. All of the New South Wales state 's 152 Local Government Council City / Shire Council Rangers and Authorised Staff are allowed to use their discretion to tip out and confiscate open containers in public streets in officially designated alcohol free zones within their own Council boundary; but not arrest nor issue Fines / Infringements for this purpose, leading many to turn a ' blind eye ' to these infractions to avoid conflict and fights.
In Austria, the possession of open containers of alcohol is legal all throughout the country by people of the legal drinking age depending on which kind of beverage it is. The legal drinking age is 16 years for beer and 18 for distilled spirits.
Some cities, like Graz in Styria or Klagenfurt in Carinthia, limit public consumption of alcohol in specific areas.
Having an open container is legal in Brazil. Drinking publicly is legal and socially accepted. However DUI laws have been enforced for the past 10 years and offenders may be arrested and lose their license. Being intoxicated in public is not an offense, and unless people were disturbed, the individual ca n't be arrested. However it 's common practice law officers conduct intoxicated individuals to a police station or take them home to avoid any further problem caused by the individual.
In Canada, with the exception of Quebec, possession of open containers of alcohol in public is generally a violation of provincial acts and municipal bylaws. Open liquor is not permitted except in private residences or on licensed premises. Open liquor is also illegal in parts of national and provincial parks, though this prohibition may not apply to campsites, as it is a temporary residence. For instance, Ontario Provincial Parks allow alcohol on campsites only.
In British Columbia and in Ontario, the penalty for possession of an open container or consumption of liquor in a public place is a fine (as per the Liquor Licence Act, ssec 31 (2)). Those caught by law enforcement officers are forced to pour out the alcoholic beverage, after which offenders are sometimes issued a verbal warning instead of a monetary penalty.
In Quebec, laws on the consumption of alcohol in public are more relaxed than in the rest of Canada. Most notably, alcohol may be consumed in public parks during a meal.
Drinking in public is illegal in Chile, though it is tolerated during New Year 's Eve.
Drinking in public is most commonly accepted.
Public consumption of alcohol beverages is accepted and legal.
In the Czech Republic, drinking in public is generally legal, but each community is entitled to restrict public drinking by ordinance. As a result of this some towns and cities, have forbidden drinking in public in order to prevent people from disorderly conduct and begging.
Drinking in public in Denmark is legal for people of all ages. It is, however, illegal to sell alcohol to a person under the age of 16, and spirit - grade (> 16.4 Vol %) alcohol to a person under the age of 18.
Many cities (Aarhus, for instance) have, however, established non-drinking - zones, typically pedestrian streets. The law forbids "disturbing of the public law and order ''. Thus general consumption is accepted. Several cafes have outdoor serving in the same zones.
In Finland, drinking in public is prohibited in built areas ("taajama ''), at border crossings, or in vehicles in use for public transport such as buses or trams. The law does not apply to restaurants, pubs and other licensed premises, or to the interior of vehicles such as taxis or limousines that are in private use. Public parks or equivalent venues are also exempt, as long as the consumption of alcohol does not cause undue public disturbance. While drinking on streets and public transport is technically illegal, in practice the authorities intervene only if a disturbance is being caused. Drinking in trains and buses is more strictly forbidden, while drinking on streets is socially accepted.
The definition of a built area depends on the definition of a locality, or "taajama '' in Finnish, which is a cluster of buildings with no less than 200 inhabitants, where the buildings are no more than 200 meters apart. This means that some areas within towns and cities may not fill the definition, making it legal to drink alcohol in public there, while some areas outside of towns and cities may have high enough population densities to be considered localities, therefore making public drinking illegal. Entering or leaving localities is marked by road signs along the major thoroughfares.
Public drinking in France is legal. Although it is illegal to sell alcohol to minors (under 18) it is not illegal for minors to consume alcohol in public. However local laws may ban public drinking or the purchase of alcohol in certain areas or at certain times.
The possession of open containers of alcohol and drinking in public (street, park etc.) is legal for people of the legal drinking age (16 for beer and wine; 18 for distilled spirits). Many cities forbid or restrict the consumption of alcohol in public transit or inside train stations. For example, the city of Hamburg made drinking on public trains and buses illegal in 2011. Deutsche Bahn forbids "excessive '' consumption of alcohol in Berlin S - Bahn stations; violations are considered a civil and not criminal matter. Similarly, BVG excludes intoxicated passengers only if they threaten operational order or safety. The Deutsche Bahn does not forbid consumption of alcohol in regional or InterCity trains.
In Hong Kong, drinking alcoholic beverages in public is legal for adults over the age of 18.
In Hungary, drinking alcohol in public is not generally illegal but some settlement has local law to ban it and it is subject to a fine, whose amount starts at about 5000Ft.
Alcohol traditionally was generally frowned upon in India by all religious entities. Drinking in public is quite unusual on the streets but on the contrary quite usual in some areas with a bar or wine store. There could be several people drinking in one corner on the street, but one may not openly carry and consume a bottle of alcohol on the streets.
The Republic of Ireland has no laws against public drinking, except that alcohol in a closed container can not be consumed within 100 m (330 ft) of the off license where it was purchased. Some towns and cities have by - laws forbidding public drinking.
The sale of alcohol in stores or off - license is illegal between the hours of 10: 00 PM and 10: 00 AM with the exception of Sunday morning, when the sale of alcohol is forbidden until 12: 00 PM. The sale of alcohol in bars and pubs is prohibited after 3: 00 AM and before 10: 00 AM, with the exception of those with special licenses, which is rare. These bars are known locally as "early houses ''. The law prohibiting the sale of alcohol on Good Friday was changed in 2018, much like the prohibition of alcohol sales on Saint Patricks ' Day being lifted in the 1970s.
Hotels, airports and trains are exceptions to all of the above, and the sale of alcohol is legal all year round.
Under the Criminal Justice (Public Order) Act 1994, it is an offence for a person to be so drunk in a public place as to be a danger to oneself or others; to do so could lead to drink being confiscated by Gardaí (police) and a Class E fine (up to € 500).
Japan has no laws forbidding public drinking, which is a common custom in cities and parks, particularly during local festivals (matsuri) and cherry blossom viewing (hanami) in spring. The legal drinking age in Japan is 20 years of age.
There is no open container law in Laos. The legal age for drinking in public in Laos is 18, there is no age restriction on private residences.
In New Zealand, public drinking is legal, although local authorities have power to pass bylaws declaring liquor - free zones, where liquor may be consumed on licensed premises and private property but not on the street or other public areas. Many towns now have such zones, usually covering their Central Business District. Consuming alcohol while driving a motor vehicle is legal, as long as the driver is not over the driver blood alcohol limit, and the alcohol is not consumed in a liquor - free zone. Similarly, passengers of motor vehicles are allowed to consume alcohol as long as they are not in a liquor - free zone. Sale of alcohol to intoxicated persons is illegal. Under the Summary Offences Act 1981 it is an offence to drink alcohol in public transport, aeroplanes and taxis unless the vehicle is a licensed premises. Most commercial flights as well as many ferries and trains serve alcohol on board.
Drinking in public is illegal in Norway and subject to fines. In many cities the police will primarily react if the use of alcohol is causing trouble and drinking in parks is quite common. Most officers will ask the drinker to empty the bottle without further reactions.
In Poland, drinking is illegal on streets, squares, in parks, on public transport, as well as other areas designated by municipal authorities, with fines starting at PLN 100. This does not apply to private parks.
According to the article 20.20 of the Offences Code of Russia, drinking in a place where it is forbidden by the federal law is punishable with a fine of 500 to 1500 rubles. The article 16 of the Federal Law # 171 - FZ "About the State Regulation of Production and Trade of Ethanol, Alcoholic and Ethanol - containing Products and about Restriction of Alcoholic Products Consumption (Drinking) '' forbids drinking in almost all public places (including entrance halls, staircases and elevators of living buildings) except bars, restaurants or other similar establishments where it is permitted to sell alcoholic products for immediate consumption.
Drinking in public is legal in Singapore, however, consumption of alcohol in a public space or non-licensed premise is restricted from 10.30 pm to 7am after the 2013 Little India riot. A permit will be required to consume alcohol during restricted hours in public places. Sales are prohibited from supermarkets and convenience stores such as NTUC FairPrice, Giant Hypermarket, Sheng Siong, Cold Storage and 7 - Eleven from 10.30 pm to 7am.
The condition of carriage of alcohol is prohibited even between 10.30 pm and 7am on SMRT Trains and SBS Transit services.
In general, drinking in public is illegal if the drinker harms others while drinking in public. Harm is defined as using harsh language or stirring up loud noise while drinking or exercising bad drinking habits on others for no reason. Anyone reported or caught by city officials to be causing harm to others while drinking in public will be fined 100,000 won.
Since 2009, stricter laws are in force in some parts of the country that started with Seoul 's Dongjak District, which designates city parks and bus stops as no drinking areas and any drinkers caught in these areas will be advised to stop drinking by city officials.
Public drinking is only prohibited in some cities or parts of cities, regulated by local laws like in Barcelona.
The practice of botellón is relatively popular among teenagers and young adults partly in response to rising drink prices at bars or clubs, and partly because more people can meet in one place.
Public drinking is regulated by municipalities in local ordinance, setting up zones where consumption of beverages containing more than 2.25 % ABV is prohibited. These zones are usually located in city centres, around schools, churches and parks. Drinking in these zones usually result in the police confiscating any opened containers or a fine. If the person in question is also under 20 years of age, the police may confiscate all alcohol he or she is carrying. Only public spaces within these zones are regulated, excluding venues licensed to serve alcohol, and for example cars parked in the zone.
Public drinking in Switzerland is legal for everybody. Although Switzerland has a legal purchase age of 16 for beer and wine, and 18 for spirits (18 for both in Ticino), it is not illegal for a minor to consume alcohol in public by federal laws. But the cantons Aargau, Zürich, Solothurn and Bern have laws which make it illegal to give alcohol to minors under the federal purchase age laws (exceptions are made for parents).
Furthermore, cantonal laws prohibit the consumption and / or sale of alcohol at the following public places:
Drinking in public is legal in England and Wales -- one may carry a drink from a public house down the street (though it is preferred that the user requests a plastic glass to avoid danger of breakage and because the taking of the glass could be considered an offence of Theft as only the drink has been purchased), and one may purchase alcohol at an off - licence and immediately begin drinking it outside. Separately, one may drink on aeroplanes and on most National Rail train services, either purchasing alcohol on - board or consuming one 's own.
In certain public places, it may be "required '' (requested) of a person to stop drinking. It is not illegal to drink in these areas, contrary to popular misconception, but, in these areas, if requested by police to stop drinking, the individual must (may) then stop drinking and surrender the alcohol, both open and closed containers. It should be noted that Police Officers can only request that alcohol is surrendered if the drinkers are acting antisocially or they have good reason to believe they are going to do so. These are formally known as Designated Public Places Orders (DPPOs), and were allowed by The Criminal Justice and Police Act 2001 (CJPA); they are more popularly known as ' Controlled Drinking Zones ' (CDZs).
Following the election of Boris Johnson as mayor of London, the conditions of carriage on most modes of London public transportation (specifically those under the management of Transport for London - London Buses, London Underground, London Overground, Docklands Light Railway, Tramlink and more recently, the Emirates Air Line and TfL Rail) were updated to ban the carrying of open alcohol containers and the consumption of alcohol. This does not apply to non-Transport for London commuter services, including National Rail and Thames Clippers. This was supported by those who felt it would decrease antisocial behaviour, but opposed by those who argued that alcohol relieved the discomfort of a commute. The end of drinking on public transport was marked by some festivities.
The majority of Belfast is designated an alcohol - free area, with fines of up to £ 500. Under the Criminal Justice (Northern Ireland) Order 1980, it is an offence to be drunk in a public place. Furthermore, under The Justice Act (NI) 2011, police can issue a fixed penalty notice to those over the age of 18 found intoxicated in a public place. On the 12th of July public holiday this law is relaxed, unless anti-social behaviour is undertaken.
The City of Edinburgh allows the consumption of alcohol in public places but under the Edinburgh by - law, anyone drinking in public would have to stop if asked by police. In the Strathclyde region that includes Glasgow, the consumption of alcohol or possession of an open container of alcohol, in public places has been illegal since 1996. Breaking this law can mean a fine. This ban was enforced due to the increase in drink - related violent crime. In the Perth & Kinross local authority the consumption of alcohol in public places is illegal in the following places: Alyth, Crieff, Kinross, Scone, Aberfeldy, Blairgowrie, Dunkeld & Birnam, Milnathort, Coupar Angus, Errol, Perth City. Drinking publicly in these areas is chargeable offence. In St Andrews in Fife it is illegal to drink or even have an open drinks container on the street. On the spot fines can be handed out by the police. It is however legal to consume alcohol on any of the beaches in St Andrews.
In the UAE, it is against the law to be intoxicated and disorderly conduct can lead to arrest by police. Furthermore in Islam Muslims are not allowed to consume alcohol. Drunk driving is also banned, with severe penalties, including time in jail and demerit points added to the offenders ' record.
Drinking in public is illegal in many jurisdictions in the United States, with this ban usually extending to include drinking within a moving car (related to drunk driving laws).
Laws against drinking in public are known as open container laws, as the presence of an open container of alcohol is seen as evidence of drinking in public and is far easier to witness and prove than the act of drinking.
In some places and circumstances, public alcohol consumption is accepted. This includes such cities as New Orleans, Las Vegas, Indianapolis, certain college campuses, and around sporting events -- notably at a tailgate party. Open containers of alcohol are often concealed in public, traditionally inside a brown paper bag, though this does not make them legal in jurisdictions where they are outlawed. If a law enforcement officer can detect that alcohol is being consumed, the violator may be cited or arrested.
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can you finish a uno game on a wild card | Uno (card game) - wikipedia
Uno (/ ˈuːnoʊ /; from Italian and Spanish for ' one ') (stylized as UNO) is an American shedding - type card game that is played with a specially printed deck. The game 's general principles put it into the Crazy Eights family of card games. The game was originally developed in 1971 by Merle Robbins in Reading, Ohio, a suburb of Cincinnati. It has been a Mattel brand since 1992. When his family and friends began to play more and more, he spent $8,000 to have 5,000 copies of the game made. He sold it from his barbershop at first, and local businesses began to sell it as well. Robins later sold the rights to UNO to a group of friends headed by Robert Tezak, a funeral parlor owner in Joliet, Illinois, for $50,000 plus royalties of 10 cents per game. Tezak formed International Games, Inc., to market UNO, with offices behind his funeral parlor. The games were produced by Lewis Saltzman of Saltzman Printers in Maywood, Illinois. In 1992, International Games became part of the Mattel family of companies.
The aim of the game is to be the first player to score 500 points, achieved (usually over several rounds of play) by a player discarding all of their cards and earning points corresponding to the value of the remaining cards still held by the other players. Action cards (Skip, Draw Two and Reverse) are worth 20 Points while Wild and Wild Draw Four cards are worth 50 Points.
The deck consists of 108 cards, of which there are 25 of each color (red, green, blue, and yellow), each color having two of each rank except zero. The ranks in each color are zero to nine, "Skip '', "Draw Two '', and "Reverse '' (the last three being "action cards ''). In addition, the deck contains four each of "Wild '' and "Wild Draw Four '' cards.
To start a hand, seven cards are dealt to each player, with the top card of the deck flipped over and set aside to begin the discard pile. The player to the dealer 's left plays first, unless the first card on the discard pile is an action or Wild card (see below). On a player 's turn, they must do one of the following:
Play proceeds clockwise around the table.
Action and Wild cards have the following effects:
A player who plays their next - to - last - card must call "Uno '' as a warning to the other players.
The first player to get rid of their last card ("going out '') wins the hand and scores points for the cards held by the other players. Number cards count their face value, all action cards count 20, and Wild and Wild Draw Four cards count 50. If a Draw Two or Wild Draw Four card is played to go out, the next player in sequence must draw the appropriate number of cards before the score is tallied.
The first player to score 500 points wins the game.
In a two - player game, the Reverse card acts like a Skip card; when played, the other player misses a turn.
The following rules are commonly used by players to alter the game:
A strategy at Uno may be offensive (aiming to go out), or defensive (aiming to minimize the value of one 's hand, in the event that another player goes out, thus getting those points). Part of the skill of playing Uno is knowing when to adopt an offensive or defensive strategy.
An offensive strategy would be holding on to Wild and Wild Draw Four cards, because they can be played near the end of the hand in order to go out (when it 's harder to play a matching card). However, a defensive strategy would advise getting rid of such cards early, because they have a high point value.
A defensive strategy would advise playing a high card in order to reduce the point value of the hand. However, an offensive strategy would suggest playing a 0 when the player wants to continue on the current color, because it is less likely to be matched by another 0 of a different color (there is only one 0 of each color, but two of each 1 -- 9).
A player holding only one card is required to call out "Uno '' or risk being penalized if caught. A player who calls "Uno '' risks being the target of concerted action by the other players, who may be able to use action cards to prevent that player from going out. Depending on the level and seriousness of play, some players may deliberately avoid saying "Uno '', in the hope of avoiding detection and then going out on the next turn. For this reason, it is useful to conceal how many cards are in your hand, and to keep track of how many cards every other player holds.
Little has been published on the optimal strategy for the game of Uno. Simulations of games may shed some light on the matter. Attempts to reduce point count in a player 's hands can be "read '' by other players if too transparent. This information can be exploited by other players, and it follows that a mixed strategy may be more appropriate.
Some work has been done into the psychology of Uno as it relates to individual and group behavior. Players may exhibit physical tells, in which a subtle, often repeated, cue inadvertently reveals their state of mind during a game. Alternatively, they may change their playing style, switching from an aggressive card - shedding strategy to a more subdued one, or vice versa.
The new Uno action cards bear symbols which denote their action, except for the Wild cards which still bear the word "Wild. '' Before the design change, such cards in English versions of the game had letters only. Especially old English versions can be denoted by the absence of the white rim that surrounds the edge of most Uno cards. Other versions use symbols and images in both old and new designs, especially ones with Wild cards that do not bear the word "Wild ''. The Xbox 360 version of the game uses the new English style of the cards. There are also language - free versions of the newer styles that do not bear the word "Wild '' but have the same styling. There is a new version called "Uno Mod '' where the cards have symbols instead of letters or numbers. This version also comes in a red and white case. It is one of several "Mod '' games by Mattel, the others being Othello (game) Mod, Apples to Apples Mod, Phase 10 Mod, and Skip - Bo Mod.
There are many different themes and versions of Uno. These theme games may come with slightly different directions and special cards.
Note: * indicates HIT Entertainment character, by which Mattel acquired HIT in 2012.
Card sets only have 36 cards designed for children at least 3 years of age. These sets come in several variants, based on titles for children. My First Uno versions:
Uno versions available on the Xbox 360:
Several sports teams each have 112 - card sets, featuring players from those teams. The special cards in each deck vary depending on the card set itself. The following teams have confirmed Uno sets.
Many variations from standard gameplay exist, such as Elimination Uno, Speed Uno, French Uno, Pirate Uno, and Pakistani Uno.
A variation of Uno that includes math and the player having to say "Dos! '' when they have 2 cards left. This spinoff of Uno was introduced in 2018.
Uno is a member of the shedding family of card games. The shedding family of card games consists of games where the objective is to get rid of all your cards while preventing the other players from getting rid of their cards.
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who becomes vice president if vice president dies | United States Presidential line of succession - wikipedia
The United States presidential line of succession is the order in which persons may become or act as President of the United States if the incumbent President becomes incapacitated, dies, resigns, or is removed from office (by impeachment by the House of Representatives and subsequent conviction by the Senate). The line of succession is set by the United States Constitution and the Presidential Succession Act of 1947 as subsequently amended to include newly created cabinet offices. The succession follows the order of Vice President, Speaker of the House of Representatives, President pro tempore of the Senate, and then the heads of federal executive departments who form the Cabinet of the United States. The Cabinet currently has fifteen members, beginning with the Secretary of State, and followed by the rest in the order of their positions ' creation. Those heads of department who are ineligible to act as President are also ineligible to succeed the President by succession, for example most commonly if they are not a natural - born U.S. citizen.
Several constitutional law experts have raised questions as to the constitutionality of the provisions that the Speaker of the House and the President pro tempore of the Senate succeed to the presidency, and in 2003 the Continuity of Government Commission raised a number of other issues with the current line of succession.
The current presidential order of succession is as follows:
Cabinet officers are in line according to the chronological order of their department 's creation or the department of which their department is the successor (the Department of Defense being successor to the Department of War, and the Department of Health and Human Services being successor to the Department of Health, Education and Welfare).
To be eligible to serve as President, a person must be a natural - born U.S. citizen, at least 35 years of age, and a resident within the United States for at least 14 years. These eligibility requirements are specified both in the U.S. Constitution, Article II, Section 1, Clause 5, and in the Presidential Succession Act of 1947 (3 U.S.C. § 19 (e)).
Acting officers may be eligible. In 2009, the Continuity of Government Commission, a private non-partisan think tank, reported,
The language in the current Presidential Succession Act is less clear than that of the 1886 Act with respect to Senate confirmation. The 1886 Act refers to "such officers as shall have been appointed by the advice and consent of the Senate to the office therein named... '' The current act merely refers to "officers appointed, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate. '' Read literally, this means that the current act allows for acting secretaries to be in the line of succession as long as they are confirmed by the Senate for a post (even for example, the second or third in command within a department). It is common for a second in command to become acting secretary when the secretary leaves office. Though there is some dispute over this provision, the language clearly permits acting secretaries to be placed in the line of succession. (We have spoken to acting secretaries who told us they had been placed in the line of succession.)
Two months after succeeding Franklin D. Roosevelt, President Harry S. Truman proposed that the Speaker of the House and the President pro tempore of the Senate be granted priority in the line of succession over the Cabinet so as to ensure the President would not be able to appoint his successor to the Presidency.
The Secretary of State and the other Cabinet officials are appointed by the President, while the Speaker of the House and the President pro tempore of the Senate are elected officials. The Speaker is chosen by the U.S. House of Representatives, and every Speaker has been a member of that body for the duration of their term as Speaker, though this is not technically a requirement; the President pro tempore is chosen by the U.S. Senate and customarily the Senator of the majority party with the longest record of continuous service fills this position. The Congress approved this change and inserted the Speaker and President pro tempore in line, ahead of the members of the Cabinet in the order in which their positions were established.
In his speech supporting the changes, Truman noted that the House of Representatives is more likely to be in political agreement with the President and Vice President than the Senate. The succession of a Republican to a Democratic Presidency would further complicate an already unstable political situation. However, when the changes to the succession were signed into law, they placed Republican House Speaker Joseph W. Martin first in the line of succession after the Vice President.
Some of Truman 's critics said that his ordering of the Speaker before the President pro tempore was motivated by his dislike of the then - current holder of the latter rank, Senator Kenneth McKellar. Further motivation may have been provided by Truman 's preference for House Speaker Sam Rayburn to be next in the line of succession, rather than Secretary of State Edward R. Stettinius, Jr.
The line of succession is mentioned in three places in the Constitution:
Article II, Section 1 of the United States Constitution provides that:
In case of the removal of the President from office, or of his death, resignation, or inability to discharge the powers and duties of the said office, the same shall devolve on the Vice President... until the disability be removed, or a President elected.
This originally left open the question whether "the same '' refers to "the said office '' or only "the powers and duties of the said office. '' Some historians, including Edward Corwin and John D. Feerick, have argued that the framers ' intention was that the Vice President would remain Vice President while executing the powers and duties of the Presidency; however, there is also much evidence to the contrary, the most compelling of which is Article I, section 3, of the Constitution itself, the relevant text of which reads:
The Vice President of the United States shall be President of the Senate, but shall have no vote, unless they be equally divided. The Senate shall chuse (sic) their other officers, and also a President pro tempore, in the absence of the Vice President, or when he shall exercise the office of President of the United States.
This text appears to answer the hypothetical question of whether the office or merely the powers of the Presidency devolved upon the Vice President on his succession. Thus, the 25th Amendment merely restates and reaffirms the validity of existing precedent, apart from adding new protocols for Presidential disability. Not everyone agreed with this interpretation when it was first actually tested, and it was left to Vice President John Tyler, the first presidential successor in U.S. history, to establish the precedent that was respected in the absence of the 25th Amendment.
Upon the death of President William Henry Harrison in 1841 and after a brief hesitation, Tyler took the position that he was the President and not merely acting President upon taking the presidential oath of office. However, some contempories -- including John Quincy Adams, Henry Clay and other members of Congress Whig party leaders and even Tyler 's own cabinet -- believed that he was only acting as President and did not have the office itself.
Nonetheless, Tyler adhered to his position, even returning, unopened, mail addressed to the "Acting President of the United States '' sent by his detractors. Tyler 's view ultimately prevailed when the Senate voted to accept the title "President, '' and this precedent was followed thereafter. The question was finally resolved by Section 1 of the 25th Amendment, which specifies that "In case of the removal of the President from office or of his death or resignation, the Vice President shall become President. '' The Amendment does not specify whether officers other than the Vice President can become President rather than Acting President in the same set of circumstances. The Presidential Succession Act refers only to other officers acting as President rather than becoming President.
The Presidential Succession Act of 1792 was the first succession law passed by Congress. The act was contentious because the Federalists did not want the then Secretary of State, Thomas Jefferson, who had become the leader of the Democratic - Republicans, to follow the Vice President in the succession. There were also separation of powers concerns over including the Chief Justice of the United States in the line. The compromise they worked out established the President pro tempore of the Senate as next in line after the Vice President, followed by the Speaker of the House of Representatives.
In either case, these officers were to "act as President of the United States until the disability be removed or a president be elected. '' The Act called for a special election to be held in November of the year in which dual vacancies occurred (unless the vacancies occurred after the first Wednesday in October, in which case the election would occur the following year; or unless the vacancies occurred within the last year of the presidential term, in which case the next election would take place as regularly scheduled). The people elected President and Vice President in such a special election would have served a full four - year term beginning on March 4 of the next year, but no such election ever took place.
In 1881, after the death of President Garfield, and in 1885, after the death of Vice President Hendricks, there had been no President pro tempore in office, and as the new House of Representatives had yet to convene, no Speaker either, leaving no one at all in the line of succession after the vice president. When Congress convened in December 1885, President Cleveland asked for a revision of the 1792 act, which was passed in 1886. Congress replaced the President pro tempore and Speaker with officers of the President 's Cabinet with the Secretary of State first in line. In the first 100 years of the United States, six former Secretaries of State had gone on to be elected President, while only two congressional leaders had advanced to that office. As a result, changing the order of the line of succession seemed reasonable.
The Presidential Succession Act of 1947, signed into law by President Harry S. Truman, added the Speaker of the House and President pro tempore back in the line, but switched the two from the 1792 order. It remains the sequence used today. Since the reorganization of the military in 1947 had merged the War Department (which governed the Army) with the Department of the Navy into the Department of Defense, the Secretary of Defense took the place in the order of succession previously held by the Secretary of War. The office of Secretary of the Navy, which had existed as a Cabinet - level position since 1798, had become subordinate to the Secretary of Defense in the military reorganization, and so was dropped from the line of succession in the 1947 Succession Act.
Until 1971, the Postmaster General, the head of the Post Office Department, was a member of the Cabinet, initially the last in the presidential line of succession before new officers were added. Once the Post Office Department was re-organized into the United States Postal Service, a special agency independent of the executive branch, the Postmaster General ceased to be a member of the Cabinet and was thus removed from the line of succession.
The United States Department of Homeland Security was created in 2002. On March 9, 2006, pursuant to the renewal of the Patriot Act as Pub. L. 109 -- 177, the Secretary of Homeland Security was added to the line of succession. The order of Cabinet members in the line has always been the same as the order in which their respective departments were established. Despite custom, many in Congress had wanted the Secretary to be placed at number eight on the list -- below the Attorney General, above the Secretary of the Interior, and in the position held by the Secretary of the Navy prior to the creation of the Secretary of Defense -- because the Secretary, already in charge of disaster relief and security, would presumably be more prepared to take over the presidency than some of the other Cabinet secretaries. Despite this, the 2006 law explicitly specifies that the "Secretary of Homeland Security '' follows the "Secretary of Veterans Affairs '' in the succession, effectively at the end of the list.
While nine Vice Presidents have succeeded to the office upon the death or resignation of the President, and two Vice Presidents have temporarily served as acting President, no other officer has ever been called upon to act as President. On March 4, 1849, President Zachary Taylor 's term began, but he declined to be sworn in on a Sunday, citing religious beliefs, and the Vice President was not sworn either. As the last President pro tempore of the Senate, David Rice Atchison was thought by some to be next in line after the Vice President, and his tombstone claims that he was US President for the day. However, Atchison took no oath of office to the presidency either, and his term as Senate President pro tempore had by then expired.
In 1865, when Andrew Johnson assumed the Presidency on the death of Abraham Lincoln, the office of Vice President became vacant. At that time, the Senate President pro tempore was next in line to the presidency. In 1868, Johnson was impeached by the House of Representatives and subjected to trial in the Senate, and if he had been convicted and thereby removed from office, Senate President pro tempore Benjamin Wade would have become acting President. This posed a conflict of interest, as Wade 's "guilty '' vote could have been decisive in removing Johnson from office and giving himself presidential powers and duties. (Johnson was acquitted by a one - vote margin.)
In his book The Shadow Presidents, which he published in 1979, Michael Medved describes a situation that arose prior to the 1916 election, when the First World War was raging in Europe. In view of the contemporary international turmoil, President Woodrow Wilson thought that if he lost the election it would be better for his opponent to begin his administration straight away, instead of waiting through the lame duck period, which at that time had a duration of almost four months. President Wilson and his aides formed a plan to exploit the rule of succession so that his rival Charles Evans Hughes could take over the Presidency as soon as the result of the election was clear. The plan was that Wilson would appoint Hughes to the post of Secretary of State. Wilson and his Vice President Thomas R. Marshall would then resign, and as the Secretary of State was at that time designated next in line of succession, Hughes would become President immediately. As it happened, President Wilson won re-election, so the plan was never put into action.
Since the 25th Amendment 's ratification, its Second Section, which addresses Vice Presidential succession as noted above, has been invoked twice.
During the 1973 Vice Presidential vacancy, House Speaker Carl Albert was first in line. As the Watergate scandal made President Nixon 's removal or resignation possible, Albert would have become Acting President and -- under Title 3, Section 19 (c) of the U.S. Code -- would have been able to "act as President until the expiration of the then current Presidential term '' on January 20, 1977. Albert openly questioned whether it was appropriate for him, a Democrat, to assume the powers and duties of the presidency when there was a public mandate for the Presidency to be held by a Republican. Albert announced that should he need to assume the Presidential powers and duties, he would do so only as a caretaker. However, with the nomination and confirmation of Gerald Ford to the Vice Presidency, which marked the first time the Second Section of the Twenty - fifth Amendment was invoked, these series of events were never tested. Albert again became first - in - line during the first four months of Ford 's Presidency, before the confirmation of Vice President Nelson Rockefeller, which marked the second time Section 2 of the Twenty - fifth Amendment was invoked.
In 1981, when President Ronald Reagan was shot, Vice President George H.W. Bush was traveling in Texas. Secretary of State Alexander Haig responded to a reporter 's question regarding who was running the government by stating:
Constitutionally, gentlemen, you have the President, the Vice President and the Secretary of State in that order, and should the President decide he wants to transfer the helm to the Vice President, he will do so. He has not done that. As of now, I am in control here, in the White House, pending return of the Vice President and in close touch with him. If something came up, I would check with him, of course.
A bitter dispute ensued over the meaning of Haig 's remarks. Most people believed that Haig was referring to the line of succession and erroneously claimed to have temporary Presidential authority, due to his implied reference to the Constitution. Haig and his supporters, noting his familiarity with the line of succession from his time as White House Chief of Staff during Richard Nixon 's resignation, said he only meant that he was the highest - ranking officer of the Executive branch on - site, managing things temporarily until the Vice President returned to Washington.
Several constitutional law experts have raised questions as to the constitutionality of the provisions that the Speaker of the House and the President pro tempore of the Senate succeed to the presidency. James Madison, one of the authors of the Constitution, raised similar constitutional questions about the Presidential Succession Act of 1792 in a 1792 letter to Edmund Pendleton. Two of these issues can be summarized:
In 2003 the Continuity of Government Commission suggested that the current law has "at least seven significant issues... that warrant attention '', specifically:
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who plays the wildling woman in game of thrones | Natalia Tena - wikipedia
Natalia Gastiain Tena (born 1 November 1984) is an English actress and musician. She played Nymphadora Tonks in the Harry Potter film series, and the wildling Osha in the HBO series Game of Thrones.
Tena is the lead singer and accordionist of Molotov Jukebox. The band released their debut album Carnival Flower (2014), in Spring 2014, featuring their single "Neon Lights ''. Their second studio album, Tropical Gypsy (2016), was released on April 15, 2016 and was preceded by its lead single, "Pineapple Girl ''. It was promoted on the band 's Tropical Gypsy Tour in April and May 2016.
Natalia Gastiain Tena was born in London the daughter of Spanish parents María, a secretary, and Jesús, a carpenter. She is of Extremaduran descent on her mother 's side and Basque descent on her father 's side. She is fluent in Spanish and Basque. She studied at the boarding school, Bedales.
Tena was taught the piano by her mother at five years old, influenced by Chuck Berry 's music. Afterwards, at 18, Natalia moved back to London and busked on the London Underground. While working with a theatre group called KneeHigh, where they were allowed to pick an instrument to play, Tena decided to learn the accordion.
Natalia made her professional debut as Ellie in About a Boy (2002), and began acting full - time in 2003. She has played lead roles in stage adaptations of Gone to Earth in 2004, and Nights at the Circus in 2006.
In 2007, Natalia appeared in the film adaptation of Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix playing the character Nymphadora Tonks. Natalia reprised this role in its sequels Harry Potter and the Half - Blood Prince, in 2009, Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows -- Part 1 in 2010 and Part 2 in 2011.
She hosted a behind - the - scenes featurette entitled "Trailing Tonks '' for the subsequent DVD and Blu - ray release, and is credited as producer and director of the featurette, in which she also performs an original Christmas - themed blues song on guitar, which she composed while working as a busker on the London Underground.
In 2011 she played a lead role in the Scottish Film You Instead. She also appears as Osha in HBO 's Game of Thrones. In March 2013, she starred in the official music video for Lapalux 's single "Without You (ft. Kerry Leatham) ''.
In 2015, Natalia starred as the lead, Jennifer Preston, in the British mini-series Residue. In 2017, Natalia was cast as Sara Morten in the CBS drama Wisdom of the Crowd.
She is close friends with Oona Chaplin.
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a large urban area that contains more than one city it dominates the geographic region it occupies | Geography of Mexico - wikipedia
The geography of Mexico describes the geographic features of Mexico, a country in the Americas. Mexico is located at about 23 ° N and 102 ° W in the southern portion of North America. From its farthest land points, Mexico is a little over 3,200 km (2,000 mi) in length. Mexico is bounded to the north by the United States (specifically, from west to east, by California, Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas), to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean, to the east by the Gulf of Mexico, and to the southeast by Belize, Guatemala, and the Caribbean Sea. The northernmost constituent of Latin America, it is the most populous Spanish - speaking country in the world. Mexico is the world 's 13th largest country, three times the size of Texas.
Almost all of Mexico is on the North American Plate, with small parts of the Baja California Peninsula in the northwest on the Pacific and Cocos Plates. Some geographers include the portion east of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec including the Yucatán Peninsula within North America. This portion includes Campeche, Chiapas, Tabasco, Quintana Roo, and Yucatán, representing 12.1 percent of the country 's total area. Alternatively, the Trans - Mexican Volcanic Belt may be said to delimit the region physiographically on the north. Geopolitically, Mexico is generally not considered part of Central America. Politically, Mexico is divided into thirty - one states and a federal district, which serves as the national capital.
As well as numerous neighbouring islands, Mexican territory includes the more remote Isla Guadalupe and the Islas Revillagigedo in the Pacific. Mexico 's total area covers 1,972,550 square kilometers, including approximately 6,000 square kilometers of islands in the Pacific Ocean, Gulf of Mexico, Caribbean Sea, and Gulf of California (see the map.) On its north, Mexico shares a 5000 - kilometer border with the United States. The meandering Río Bravo del Norte (known as the Rio Grande in the United States) defines the border from Ciudad Juárez east to the Gulf of Mexico. A series of natural and artificial markers delineate the United States - Mexican border west from Ciudad Juárez to the Pacific Ocean. The Mexico - U.S. boundary is jointly administered by the International Boundary and Water Commission. On its south, Mexico shares an 871 kilometer border with Guatemala and a 251 - kilometer border with Belize.
Mexico has a 9,330 kilometer coastline, of which 7,338 kilometers face the Pacific Ocean and the Gulf of California, and the remaining 2,805 kilometers front the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea. Mexico 's exclusive economic zone (EEZ), which extends 200 nautical miles (370 km) off each coast, covers approximately 2.7 million square kilometers. The landmass of Mexico dramatically narrows as it moves in a southeasterly direction from the United States border and then abruptly curves northward before ending in the 500 - kilometer - long Yucatán Peninsula. Indeed, the state capital of Yucatán, Mérida, is farther north than Mexico City or Guadalajara.
Beginning approximately 50 kilometres (31 mi) from the United States border, the Sierra Madre Occidental extends about 1,250 kilometres (780 mi) south to the Río Santiago, where it merges with the Cordillera Neovolcánica range that runs east - west across central Mexico. The Sierra Madre Occidental lies approximately 300 kilometres (190 mi) inland from the west coast of Mexico at its northern end but approaches to within fifty kilometers of the coast near the Cordillera Neovolcánica. The northwest coastal plain is the name given the lowland area between the Sierra Madre Occidental and the Gulf of California. The Sierra Madre Occidental averages 2,250 metres (7,380 ft) in elevation, with peaks reaching 3,000 metres (9,800 ft).
The Sierra Madre Oriental starts at the Big Bend region of the border with the U.S. state of Texas and continues 1,350 kilometres (840 mi) until reaching Cofre de Perote, one of the major peaks of the Cordillera Neovolcánica. As is the case with the Sierra Madre Occidental, the Sierra Madre Oriental comes progressively closer to the coastline as it approaches its southern terminus, reaching to within 75 kilometres (47 mi) of the Gulf of Mexico. The northeast coastal plain extends from the eastern slope of the Sierra Madre Oriental to the Gulf of Mexico. The median elevation of the Sierra Madre Oriental is 2,200 metres (7,200 ft), with some peaks at 3,000 metres (9,800 ft).
The Mexican Altiplano, stretching from the United States border to the Cordillera Neovolcánica, occupies the vast expanse of land between the eastern and western sierra madres. A low east - west range divides the altiplano into northern and southern sections. These two sections, previously called the Mesa del Norte and Mesa Central, are now regarded by geographers as sections of one altiplano. The northern altiplano averages 1,100 meters in elevation and continues south from the Río Bravo del Norte through the states of Zacatecas and San Luis Potosí. Various narrow, isolated ridges cross the plateaus of the northern altiplano. Numerous depressions dot the region, the largest of which is the Bolsón de Mapimí. The southern Altiplano is higher than its northern counterpart, averaging 2,000 metres (6,600 ft) in elevation. The southern altiplano contains numerous valleys originally formed by ancient lakes. Several of Mexico 's most prominent cities, including Mexico City and Guadalajara, are located in the valleys of the southern Altiplano.
One other significant mountain range, the Peninsular Ranges, cuts across the landscape of the northern half of Mexico. A southern extension of the California coastal ranges that parallel California 's coast, the Mexican portion of the Peninsular Ranges extends from the United States border to the southern tip of the Baja California Peninsula, a distance of 1,430 kilometres (890 mi). Peaks in the California system range in altitude from 2,200 metres (7,200 ft) in the north to only 250 metres (820 ft) near La Paz in the south. Narrow lowlands are found on the Pacific Ocean and the Gulf of California sides of the mountains. The Cordillera Neovolcánica is a belt 900 kilometres (560 mi) long and 130 kilometres (81 mi) wide, extending from the Pacific Ocean to the Gulf of Mexico. The Cordillera Neovolcánica begins at the Río Grande de Santiago and continues south to Colima, where it turns east along the nineteenth parallel to the central portion of the state of Veracruz. The region is distinguished by considerable seismic activity and contains Mexico 's highest volcanic peaks. This range contains three peaks exceeding 5,000 metres (16,000 ft): Pico de Orizaba (Citlaltépetl) -- the third highest mountain in North America -- and Popocatépetl and Iztaccíhuatl near Mexico City. The Cordillera Neovolcánica is regarded as the geological dividing line between North America and Central America.
Several important mountain ranges dominate the landscape of southern and southeastern Mexico. The Sierra Madre del Sur extends 1,200 kilometers along Mexico 's southern coast from the southwestern part of the Cordillera Neovolcánica to the nearly flat isthmus of Tehuantepec. Mountains in this range average 2,000 meters in elevation. The range averages 100 kilometers wide, but widens to 150 kilometers in the state of Oaxaca. The narrow southwest coastal plain extends from the Sierra Madre del Sur to the Pacific Ocean. The Sierra Madre de Oaxaca begins at Pico de Orizaba and extends in a southeasterly direction for 300 kilometers until reaching the isthmus of Tehuantepec. Peaks in the Sierra Madre de Oaxaca average 2,500 meters in elevation, with some peaks exceeding 3,000 meters. South of the isthmus of Tehuantepec, the Sierra Madre de Chiapas runs 280 kilometers along the Pacific Coast from the Oaxaca - Chiapas border to Mexico 's border with Guatemala. Although average elevation is only 1,500 meters, one peak -- Volcán de Tacuma -- exceeds 4,000 meters in elevation. Finally, the Meseta Central de Chiapas extends 250 kilometers through the central part of Chiapas to Guatemala. The average height of peaks of the Meseta Central de Chiapas is 2,000 meters. The Chiapas central valley separates the Meseta Central de Chiapas and the Sierra Madre de Chiapas.
Mexico has nearly 150 rivers, two - thirds of which empty into the Pacific Ocean and the remainder of which flow into the Gulf of Mexico or the Caribbean Sea. Despite this apparent abundance of water, water volume is unevenly distributed throughout the country. Indeed, five rivers -- the Usumacinta, Grijalva, Papaloapán, Coatzacoalcos, and Pánuco -- account for 52 percent of Mexico 's average annual volume of surface water. All five rivers flow into the Gulf of Mexico; only the Río Pánuco is outside southeastern Mexico, which contains approximately 15 percent of national territory and 12 percent of the national population. In contrast, northern and central Mexico, with 47 percent of the national area and almost 60 percent of Mexico 's population, have less than 10 percent of the country 's water resources.
Situated atop three of the large tectonic plates that constitute the Earth 's surface, Mexico is one of the most seismologically active regions on earth. The motion of these plates causes earthquakes and volcanic activity.
Most of the Mexican landmass rests on the westward moving North American plate. The Pacific Ocean floor off southern Mexico, however, is being carried northeast by the underlying motion of the Cocos Plate. Ocean floor material is relatively dense; when it strikes the lighter granite of the Mexican landmass, the ocean floor is forced under the landmass, creating the deep Middle America Trench that lies off Mexico 's southern coast. The westward moving land atop the North American plate is slowed and crumpled where it meets the Cocos plate, creating the mountain ranges of southern Mexico. The subduction of the Cocos plate accounts for the frequency of earthquakes near Mexico 's southern coast. As the rocks constituting the ocean floor are forced down, they melt, and the molten material is forced up through weaknesses in the surface rock, creating the volcanoes in the Cordillera Neovolcánica across central Mexico.
Areas of Mexico 's coastline on the Gulf of California, including the Baja California Peninsula, are riding northwestward on the Pacific plate. Rather than one plate subducting, the Pacific and North American plates grind past each other, creating a slip fault that is the southern extension of the San Andreas fault in California. Motion along this fault in the past pulled Baja California away from the coast, creating the Gulf of California. Continued motion along this fault is the source of earthquakes in western Mexico.
Mexico has a long history of destructive earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. In September 1985, an earthquake measuring 8.0 on the moment magnitude scale and centered in the subduction zone off Acapulco killed more than 4,000 people in Mexico City, more than 300 kilometers away. Volcán de Colima, south of Guadalajara, erupted in 1994, and El Chichón, in southern Mexico, underwent a violent eruption in 1983. Parícutin in northwest Mexico began as puffs of smoke in a cornfield in 1943; a decade later the volcano was 424 meters high. Although dormant for decades, Popocatépetl and Iztaccíhuatl ("smoking warrior '' and "white lady, '' respectively, in Nahuatl) occasionally send out puffs of smoke clearly visible in Mexico City, a reminder to the capital 's inhabitants that volcanic activity is near. Popocatépetl showed renewed activity in 1995 and 1996, forcing the evacuation of several nearby villages and causing concern by seismologists and government officials about the effect that a large - scale eruption might have on the heavily populated region nearby.
The Tropic of Cancer effectively divides the country into temperate and tropical zones. Land north of the twenty - fourth parallel experiences cooler temperatures during the winter months. South of the twenty - fourth parallel, temperatures are fairly constant year round and vary solely as a function of elevation.
Areas south of the twentieth - fourth parallel with elevations up to 1,000 meters (3,281 ft) (the southern parts of both coastal plains as well as the Yucatán Peninsula), have a yearly median temperature between 24 and 28 ° C (75.2 and 82.4 ° F). Temperatures here remain high throughout the year, with only a 5 ° C (9 ° F) difference between winter and summer median temperatures. Although low - lying areas north of the twentieth - fourth parallel are hot and humid during the summer, they generally have lower yearly temperature averages (from 20 to 24 ° C or 68.0 to 75.2 ° F) because of more moderate conditions during the winter.
Between 1,000 and 2,000 meters (3,281 and 6,562 ft), one encounters yearly average temperatures between 16 and 20 ° C (60.8 and 68.0 ° F). Towns and cities at this elevation south of the twenty - fourth parallel have relatively constant, pleasant temperatures throughout the year, whereas more northerly locations experience sizeable seasonal variations. Above 2,000 meters (6,562 ft), temperatures drop as low as an average yearly range between 8 and 12 ° C (46.4 and 53.6 ° F) in the Cordillera Neovolcánica. At 2,300 meters (7,546 ft), Mexico City has a yearly median temperature of 15 ° C (59 ° F) with pleasant summers and mild winters. Average daily highs and lows for May, the warmest month, are 26 and 12 ° C (78.8 and 53.6 ° F), and average daily highs and lows for January, the coldest month, are 19 and 6 ° C (66.2 and 42.8 ° F).
Rainfall varies widely both by location and season. Arid or semiarid conditions are encountered in the Baja California Peninsula, the northwestern state of Sonora, the northern altiplano, and also significant portions of the southern altiplano. Rainfall in these regions averages between 300 and 600 millimeters (11.8 and 23.6 in) per year, although even less in some areas, particularly in the state of Baja California. Average rainfall totals are between 600 and 1,000 millimeters (23.6 and 39.4 in) in most of the major populated areas of the southern altiplano, including Mexico City and Guadalajara. Low - lying areas along the Gulf of Mexico receive in excess of 1,000 millimeters (39.4 in) of rainfall in an average year, with the wettest region being the southeastern state of Tabasco, which typically receives approximately 2,000 millimeters (78.7 in) of rainfall on an annual basis. Parts of the northern altiplano, highlands and high peaks in the Sierra Madres receive yearly snowfall. Citlaltépetl, Popocatépetl and Iztaccíhuatl continue to support glaciers, the largest of which is the Gran Glaciar Norte.
Mexico has pronounced wet and dry seasons. Most of the country experiences a rainy season from June to mid-October and significantly less rain during the remainder of the year. February and July generally are the driest and wettest months, respectively. Mexico City, for example, receives an average of only 5 millimeters (0.2 in) of rain during February but more than 160 millimeters (6.3 in) in July. Coastal areas, especially those along the Gulf of Mexico, experience the largest amounts of rain in September. Tabasco typically records more than 300 millimeters (11.8 in) of rain during that month. A small coastal area of northwestern coastal Mexico around Tijuana has a Mediterranean climate with considerable coastal fog and a rainy season that occurs in winter.
Mexico lies squarely within the hurricane belt, and all regions of both coasts are susceptible to these storms from June through November. Hurricanes on the Pacific coast are often less violent than those affecting Mexico 's eastern coastline. Several hurricanes per year strike the Caribbean and Gulf of Mexico coastline, however, and these storms bring high winds, heavy rain, extensive damage, and occasional loss of life. Hurricane Gilbert passed directly over Cancún in September 1988, with winds in excess of 200 kilometers per hour (124 mph), producing major damage to hotels in the resort area. It then struck northeast Mexico, where flooding from the heavy rain killed dozens in the Monterrey area and caused extensive damage to livestock and vegetable crops.
Mexico faces significant environmental challenges damaging nearly all sections of the country. Vast expanses of southern and southeastern tropical forests have been denuded for cattle - raising and agriculture. For example, tropical forests covered almost half of the state of Tabasco in 1940 but less than 10 % by the late 1980s. During the same period, pastureland increased from 20 to 60 % of the state 's total area. Analysts reported similar conditions in other tropical sections of Mexico. Deforestation and desertification has contributed to serious levels of soil erosion nationwide. In 1985 the government classified almost 17 % of all land as totally eroded, 31 % in an accelerated state of erosion, and 38 % demonstrating signs of incipient erosion. Mexico has developed a Biodiversity Action Plan to address issues of endangered species and habitats that merit protection.
Soil destruction is particularly pronounced in the north and northwest, with more than 60 % of land considered in a total or accelerated state of erosion. Fragile because of its semiarid and arid character, the soil of the region has become increasingly damaged through excessive cattle - raising and irrigation with waters containing high levels of salinity. The result is a mounting problem of desertification throughout the region.
Mexico 's vast coastline faces a different, but no less difficult, series of environmental problems. For example, inadequately regulated petroleum exploitation in the Coatzacoalcos - Minatitlán zone in the Gulf of Mexico has caused serious damage to the waters and fisheries of Río Coatzacoalcos. The deadly explosion that racked a working - class neighborhood in Guadalajara in April 1992 serves as an appropriate symbol of environmental damage in Mexico. More than 1,000 barrels (160 m) of gasoline seeped from a corroded Mexican Petroleum (Petróleos Mexicanos -- Pemex) pipeline into the municipal sewer system, where it combined with gases and industrial residuals to produce a massive explosion that killed 190 persons and injured nearly 1,500 others.
Mexico City confronts authorities with perhaps their most daunting environmental challenge. Geography and extreme population levels have combined to produce one of the world 's most polluted urban areas. Mexico City sits in a valley surrounded on three sides by mountains, which serve to trap contaminants produced by the metropolitan area 's 15 million residents. One government study in the late 1980s determined that nearly 5 million tons of contaminants were emitted annually in the atmosphere, a tenfold increase over the previous decade. Carbons and hydrocarbons from the region 's more than 3 million vehicles account for approximately 80 % of these contaminants, with another 15 %, primarily of sulfur and nitrogen, coming from industrial plants. The resulting dangerous mix is responsible for a wide range of respiratory illnesses. One study of twelve urban areas worldwide in the mid-1980s concluded that the residents of Mexico City had the highest levels of lead and cadmium in their blood. The volume of pollutants from Mexico City has damaged the surrounding ecosystem as well. For example, wastewater from Mexico City that flows north and is used for irrigation in the state of Hidalgo has been linked to congenital birth defects and high levels of gastrointestinal diseases in that state.
Beginning in the mid-1980s, the government enacted numerous antipollution policies in Mexico City with varied degrees of success. Measures such as vehicle emissions inspections, the introduction of unleaded gasoline, and the installation of catalytic converters on new vehicles helped reduce pollution generated by trucks and buses. In contrast, one of the government 's most prominent actions, the No Driving Day program, may have inadvertently contributed to higher pollution levels. Under the program, metropolitan area residents were prohibited from driving their vehicles one day each work week based on the last number of their license plate. However, those with the resources to do so purchased additional automobiles to use on the day their principal vehicle was prohibited from driving, thus adding to the region 's vehicle stock. Thermal inversions reached such dangerous levels at various times in the mid-1990s that the government declared pollution emergencies, necessitating sharp temporary cutbacks in vehicle use and industrial production.
Climate: varies from tropical to desert.
Terrain: high, rugged mountains; low coastal plains; high plateaus; desert.
Elevation extremes:
Natural resources: petroleum, silver, copper, gold, lead, zinc, natural gas and timber.
Land use:
Irrigated land: 64,600 km (2009)
Total renewable water resources: 457.2 km
Natural hazards: Tsunamis and tropical cyclones along the Pacific coast, volcanoes and destructive earthquakes in the center and south, and hurricanes on the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean coasts. volcanism: volcanic activity in the central - southern part of the country; the volcanoes in Baja California are mostly dormant; Colima (elev. 3,850 m), which erupted in 2010, is Mexico 's most active volcano and is responsible for causing periodic evacuations of nearby villagers; it has been deemed a "Decade Volcano '' by the International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth 's Interior, worthy of study due to its explosive history and close proximity to human populations; Popocatepetl (elev. 5,426 m) poses a threat to Mexico City; other historically active volcanoes include Barcena, Ceboruco, El Chichon, Michoacan - Guanajuato, Pico de Orizaba, San Martin, Socorro, and Tacana
Environment -- current issues: Natural fresh water resources scarce and polluted in north, inaccessible and poor quality in center and extreme southeast; raw sewage and industrial effluents polluting rivers in urban areas; deforestation; widespread erosion; desertification; serious air pollution in the national capital and urban centers along the US - Mexico border; land subsudence in Valley of Mexico caused by groundwater delpletion.
Environment -- international agreements: Party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change - Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Marine Life Conservation, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands, Whaling.
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what is the genetic code for hazel eyes | Eye color - wikipedia
Eye color is a polygenic phenotypic character determined by two distinct factors: the pigmentation of the eye 's iris and the frequency - dependence of the scattering of light by the turbid medium in the stroma of the iris.
In humans, the pigmentation of the iris varies from light brown to black, depending on the concentration of melanin in the iris pigment epithelium (located on the back of the iris), the melanin content within the iris stroma (located at the front of the iris), and the cellular density of the stroma. The appearance of blue and green, as well as hazel eyes, results from the Tyndall scattering of light in the stroma, a phenomenon similar to that which accounts for the blueness of the sky called Rayleigh scattering. Neither blue nor green pigments are ever present in the human iris or ocular fluid. Eye color is thus an instance of structural color and varies depending on the lighting conditions, especially for lighter - colored eyes.
The brightly colored eyes of many bird species result from the presence of other pigments, such as pteridines, purines, and carotenoids. Humans and other animals have many phenotypic variations in eye color. The genetics of eye color are complicated, and color is determined by multiple genes. So far, as many as 15 genes have been associated with eye color inheritance. Some of the eye - color genes include OCA2 and HERC2. The earlier belief that blue eye color is a simple recessive trait has been shown to be incorrect. The genetics of eye color are so complex that almost any parent - child combination of eye colors can occur. However, OCA2 gene polymorphism, close to proximal 5 ′ regulatory region, explains most human eye - color variation.
Eye color is an inherited trait influenced by more than one gene. These genes are sought using associations to small changes in the genes themselves and in neighboring genes. These changes are known as single - nucleotide polymorphisms or SNPs. The actual number of genes that contribute to eye color is currently unknown, but there are a few likely candidates. A study in Rotterdam (2009) found that it was possible to predict eye color with more than 90 % accuracy for brown and blue using just six SNPs. There is evidence that as many as 16 different genes could be responsible for eye color in humans; however, the main two genes associated with eye color variation are OCA2 and HERC2, and both are localized in Chromosome 15.
The gene OCA2 (OMIM: 203200), when in a variant form, causes the pink eye color and hypopigmentation common in human albinism. (The name of the gene is derived from the disorder it causes, oculocutaneous albinism type II.) Different SNPs within OCA2 are strongly associated with blue and green eyes as well as variations in freckling, mole counts, hair and skin tone. The polymorphisms may be in an OCA2 regulatory sequence, where they may influence the expression of the gene product, which in turn affects pigmentation. A specific mutation within the HERC2 gene, a gene that regulates OCA2 expression, is partly responsible for blue eyes. Other genes implicated in eye color variation are SLC24A4 and TYR. A 2010 study on eye color variation into hue and saturation values using high - resolution digital full - eye photographs found three new loci for a total of ten genes, and now about 50 % of eye colour variation can be explained.
Blue eyes with a brown spot, green eyes, and gray eyes are caused by an entirely different part of the genome.
People of European descent show the greatest variety in eye color of any population worldwide. Recent advances in ancient DNA technology have revealed some of the history of eye color in Europe. All European Mesolithic hunter - gatherer remains so far investigated have shown genetic markers for light - colored eyes, in the case of western and central European hunter - gatherers combined with dark skin color. The later additions to the European gene pool, the Early Neolithic farmers from Anatolia and the Yamnaya Copper Age / Bronze Age pastoralists (possibly the Proto - Indo - European population) from the area north of the Black Sea appear to have had much higher incidences of dark eye color alleles, and alleles giving rise to lighter skin, than the original European population.
Iris color can provide a large amount of information about a person, and a classification of colors may be useful in documenting pathological changes or determining how a person may respond to ocular pharmaceuticals. Classification systems have ranged from a basic light or dark description to detailed gradings employing photographic standards for comparison. Others have attempted to set objective standards of color comparison.
Eye colors range from the darkest shades of brown to the lightest tints of blue. To meet the need for standardized classification, at once simple yet detailed enough for research purposes, Seddon et al. developed a graded system based on the predominant iris color and the amount of brown or yellow pigment present. There are three pigment colors that determine, depending on their proportion, the outward appearance of the iris, along with structural color. Green irises, for example, have blue and some yellow. Brown irises contain mostly brown. Some eyes have a dark ring around the iris, called a limbal ring.
Eye color in non-human animals is regulated differently. For example, instead of blue as in humans, autosomal recessive eye color in the skink species Corucia zebrata is black, and the autosomal dominant color is yellow - green.
As the perception of color depends on viewing conditions (e.g., the amount and kind of illumination, as well as the hue of the surrounding environment), so does the perception of eye color.
Most new - born babies who have European ancestry have light - colored eyes. As the child develops, melanocytes (cells found within the iris of human eyes, as well as skin and hair follicles) slowly begin to produce melanin. Because melanocyte cells continually produce pigment, in theory eye color can be changed. Adult eye color is usually established between 3 and 6 months of age, though this can be later. Observing the iris of an infant from the side using only transmitted light with no reflection from the back of the iris, it is possible to detect the presence or absence of low levels of melanin. An iris that appears blue under this method of observation is more likely to remain blue as the infant ages. An iris that appears golden contains some melanin even at this early age and is likely to turn from blue to green or brown as the infant ages.
Changes (lightening or darkening) of eye colors during early childhood, puberty, pregnancy, and sometimes after serious trauma (like heterochromia) do represent cause for a plausible argument stating that some eyes can or do change, based on chemical reactions and hormonal changes within the body.
Studies on Caucasian twins, both fraternal and identical, have shown that eye color over time can be subject to change, and major demelanization of the iris may also be genetically determined. Most eye - color changes have been observed or reported in the Caucasian population with hazel and amber eyes.
Carleton Coon created a chart by the original Martin scale. The numbering is reversed on the scale below in the (later) Martin -- Schultz scale, which is (still) used in physical anthropology.
Light and light - mixed eyes (16 -- 12 in Martin scale)
Pure light (16 -- 15 in Martin scale)
Light - mixed (14 -- 12 in Martin scale)
Mixed eyes (11 -- 7 in Martin scale) Mixture of light eyes (blue, gray or green) with brown when light and brown appearance is at the same level.
Dark and dark - mixed eyes (6 -- 1 in Martin scale)
Amber eyes are of a solid color and have a strong yellowish / golden and russet / coppery tint. This may be due to the deposition of the yellow pigment called lipochrome in the iris (which is also found in green eyes). Amber eyes should not be confused with hazel eyes; although hazel eyes may contain specks of amber or gold, they usually tend to comprise many other colors, including green, brown and orange. Also, hazel eyes may appear to shift in color and consist of flecks and ripples, while amber eyes are of a solid gold hue. Even though amber is considered to be like gold, some people have russet or copper colored amber eyes that many people mistake for hazel, though hazel tends to be duller and contains green with red / gold flecks, as mentioned above. Amber eyes may also contain amounts of very light gold - ish gray.
The eyes of some pigeons contain yellow fluorescing pigments known as pteridines. The bright yellow eyes of the great horned owl are thought to be due to the presence of the pteridine pigment xanthopterin within certain chromatophores (called xanthophores) located in the iris stroma. In humans, yellowish specks or patches are thought to be due to the pigment lipofuscin, also known as lipochrome. Many animals such as canines, domestic cats, owls, eagles, pigeons and fish have amber eyes as a common color, whereas in humans this color occurs less frequently.
There is no blue pigmentation either in the iris or in the ocular fluid. Dissection reveals that the iris pigment epithelium is brownish black due to the presence of melanin. Unlike brown eyes, blue eyes have low concentrations of melanin in the stroma of the iris, which lies in front of the dark epithelium. Longer wavelengths of light tend to be absorbed by the dark underlying epithelium, while shorter wavelengths are reflected and undergo Rayleigh scattering in the turbid medium of the stroma. This is the same frequency - dependence of scattering that accounts for the blue appearance of the sky. The result is a "Tyndall blue '' structural color that varies with external lighting conditions.
In humans, the inheritance pattern followed by blue eyes is considered similar to that of a recessive trait (in general, eye color inheritance is considered a polygenic trait, meaning that it is controlled by the interactions of several genes, not just one). In 2008, new research tracked down a single genetic mutation that leads to blue eyes. "Originally, we all had brown eyes, '' said Eiberg. Eiberg and colleagues suggested in a study published in Human Genetics that a mutation in the 86th intron of the HERC2 gene, which is hypothesized to interact with the OCA2 gene promoter, reduced expression of OCA2 with subsequent reduction in melanin production. The authors suggest that the mutation may have arisen in the northwestern part of the Black Sea region, but add that it is "difficult to calculate the age of the mutation. ''
Blue eyes are common in northern and eastern Europe, particularly around the Baltic Sea. Blue eyes are also found in southern Europe, Central Asia, South Asia, North Africa and West Asia. In West Asia, a proportion of Israelis are of Ashkenazi origin, among whom the trait is relatively elevated (a study taken in 1911 found that 53.7 % of Ukrainian Jews had blue eyes).
A Birman kitten with distinctive sapphire blue eyes.
Jungle crow
The first blue - eyed koala known to be born in captivity.
The same DNA sequence in the region of the OCA2 gene among blue - eyed people suggests they may have a single common ancestor.
DNA studies on ancient human remains confirm that light skin, hair and eyes were present at least tens of thousands of years ago on Neanderthals, who lived in Eurasia for 500,000 years. As of 2016, the earliest light - pigmented and blue - eyed remains of Homo Sapiens were found in 7,700 years old Mesolithic hunter - gatherers from Motala, Sweden.
A 2002 study found that the prevalence of blue eye color among the white population in the United States to be 33.8 % for those born from 1936 through 1951 compared with 57.4 percent for those born from 1899 through 1905. As of 2006, one out of every six people, or 16.6 % of the total population, and 22.3 % of whites, has blue eyes. Blue eyes are continuing to become less common among American children.
Blue eyes are rare in mammals; one example is the recently discovered marsupial, the blue - eyed spotted cuscus (Spilocuscus wilsoni). The trait is hitherto known only from a single primate other than humans -- Sclater 's lemur (Eulemur flavifrons) of Madagascar. While some cats and dogs have blue eyes, this is usually due to another mutation that is associated with deafness. But in cats alone, there are four identified gene mutations that produce blue eyes, some of which are associated with congenital neurological disorders. The mutation found in the Siamese cats is associated with strabismus (crossed eyes). The mutation found in blue - eyed solid white cats (where the coat color is caused by the gene for "epistatic white '') is linked with deafness. However, there are phenotypically identical, but genotypically different, blue - eyed white cats (where the coat color is caused by the gene for white spotting) where the coat color is not strongly associated with deafness. In the blue - eyed Ojos Azules breed, there may be other neurological defects. Blue - eyed non-white cats of unknown genotype also occur at random in the cat population.
In humans, brown eyes result from a relatively high concentration of melanin in the stroma of the iris, which causes light of both shorter and longer wavelengths to be absorbed.
Dark brown eyes are dominant in humans and in many parts of the world, it is nearly the only iris color present. Dark pigment of brown eyes is common in Europe, South Europe, East Asia, Southeast Asia, Central Asia, South Asia, West Asia, Oceania, Africa, Americas, etc. as well as parts of Eastern Europe and Southern Europe. The majority of people in the world overall have brown eyes to dark brown eyes.
Light or medium - pigmented brown eyes can also be commonly found in South Europe, among the Americas, and parts of Central Asia (Middle East and South Asia).
Like blue eyes, gray eyes have a dark epithelium at the back of the iris and a relatively clear stroma at the front. One possible explanation for the difference in the appearance of gray and blue eyes is that gray eyes have larger deposits of collagen in the stroma, so that the light that is reflected from the epithelium undergoes Mie scattering (which is not strongly frequency - dependent) rather than Rayleigh scattering (in which shorter wavelengths of light are scattered more). This would be analogous to the change in the color of the sky, from the blue given by the Rayleigh scattering of sunlight by small gas molecules when the sky is clear, to the gray caused by Mie scattering of large water droplets when the sky is cloudy. Alternatively, it has been suggested that gray and blue eyes might differ in the concentration of melanin at the front of the stroma.
Gray eyes are most common in Northern and Eastern Europe. Gray eyes can also be found among the Algerian Shawia people of the Aurès Mountains in Northwest Africa, in the Middle East, Central Asia, and South Asia. Under magnification, gray eyes exhibit small amounts of yellow and brown color in the iris.
As with blue eyes, the color of green eyes does not result simply from the pigmentation of the iris. The green color is caused by the combination of: 1) an amber or light brown pigmentation in the stroma of the iris (which has a low or moderate concentration of melanin) with: 2) a blue shade created by the Rayleigh scattering of reflected light. Green eyes contain the yellowish pigment lipochrome.
Green eyes probably result from the interaction of multiple variants within the OCA2 and other genes. They were present in south Siberia during the Bronze Age.
They are most common in Northern, Western and Central Europe. In Ireland and Scotland 14 % of people have brown eyes and 86 % have either blue or green eyes, In Iceland, 89 % of women and 87 % of men have either blue or green eye color. A study of Icelandic and Dutch adults found green eyes to be much more prevalent in women than in men. Among European Americans, green eyes are most common among those of recent Celtic and Germanic ancestry, about 16 %. 37.2 % of Italians from Verona and 56 % of Slovenes have blue / green eyes.
Green eyes are common in Tabby cats as well as the Chinchilla Longhair and its shorthaired equivalents are notable for their black - rimmed sea - green eyes.
Hazel eyes are due to a combination of Rayleigh scattering and a moderate amount of melanin in the iris ' anterior border layer. Hazel eyes often appear to shift in color from a brown to a green. Although hazel mostly consists of brown and green, the dominant color in the eye can either be brown / gold or green. This is how many people mistake hazel eyes to be amber and vice versa. This can sometimes produce a multicolored iris, i.e., an eye that is light brown / amber near the pupil and charcoal or dark green on the outer part of the iris (or vice versa) when observed in sunlight.
Definitions of the eye color hazel vary: it is sometimes considered to be synonymous with light brown or gold, as in the color of a hazelnut shell.
Hazel eyes occur throughout Caucasoid populations, in particular in regions where blue, green and brown eyed peoples are intermixed.
The eyes of people with severe forms of albinism may appear red under certain lighting conditions owing to the extremely low quantities of melanin, allowing the blood vessels to show through. In addition, flash photography can sometimes cause a "red - eye effect '', in which the very bright light from a flash reflects off the retina, which is abundantly vascular, causing the pupil to appear red in the photograph. Although the deep blue eyes of some people such as Elizabeth Taylor can appear violet at certain times, "true '' violet - colored eyes occur only due to albinism.
Those with lighter iris color have been found to have a higher prevalence of age - related macular degeneration (ARMD) than those with darker iris color; lighter eye color is also associated with an increased risk of ARMD progression. A gray iris may indicate the presence of a uveitis, and an increased risk of uveal melanoma has been found in those with blue, green or gray eyes. However, a study in 2000 suggests that people with dark brown eyes are at increased risk of developing cataracts and therefore should protect their eyes from direct exposure to sunlight.
Wilson 's disease involves a mutation of the gene coding for the enzyme ATPase 7B, which prevents copper within the liver from entering the Golgi apparatus in cells. Instead, the copper accumulates in the liver and in other tissues, including the iris of the eye. This results in the formation of Kayser -- Fleischer rings, which are dark rings that encircle the periphery of the iris.
Eye color outside of the iris may also be symptomatic of disease. Yellowing of the sclera (the "whites of the eyes '') is associated with jaundice, and may be symptomatic of liver diseases such as cirrhosis or hepatitis. A blue coloration of the sclera may also be symptomatic of disease. In general, any sudden changes in the color of the sclera should be addressed by a medical professional.
Aniridia is a congenital condition characterized by an extremely underdeveloped iris, which appears absent on superficial examination.
Normally, there is a thick layer of melanin on the back of the iris. Even people with the lightest blue eyes, with no melanin on the front of the iris at all, have dark brown coloration on the back of it, to prevent light from scattering around inside the eye. In those with milder forms of albinism, the color of the iris is typically blue but can vary from blue to brown. In severe forms of albinism, there is no pigment on the back of the iris, and light from inside the eye can pass through the iris to the front. In these cases, the only color seen is the red from the hemoglobin of the blood in the capillaries of the iris. Such albinos have pink eyes, as do albino rabbits, mice, or any other animal with a total lack of melanin. Transillumination defects can almost always be observed during an eye examination due to lack of iridial pigmentation. The ocular albino also lacks normal amounts of melanin in the retina as well, which allows more light than normal to reflect off the retina and out of the eye. Because of this, the pupillary reflex is much more pronounced in albino individuals, and this can emphasize the red eye effect in photographs.
Heterochromia (heterochromia iridum or heterochromia iridis) is an eye condition in which one iris is a different color from the other (complete heterochromia), or where a part of one iris is a different color from the remainder (partial heterochromia or sectoral heterochromia). It is a result of the relative excess or lack of pigment within an iris or part of an iris, which may be inherited or acquired by disease or injury. This uncommon condition usually results due to uneven melanin content. A number of causes are responsible, including genetic, such as chimerism, Horner 's syndrome and Waardenburg syndrome.
A chimera can have two different colored eyes just like any two siblings can -- because each cell has different eye color genes. A mosaic can have two different colored eyes if the DNA difference happens to be in an eye - color gene.
There are many other possible reasons for having two different - colored eyes. For example, the film actor Lee Van Cleef was born with one blue eye and one green eye, a trait that reportedly was common in his family, suggesting that it was a genetic trait. This anomaly, which film producers thought would be disturbing to film audiences, was "corrected '' by having Van Cleef wear brown contact lenses. David Bowie, on the other hand, had the appearance of different eye colors due to an injury that caused one pupil to be permanently dilated.
Another hypothesis about heterochromia is that it can result from a viral infection in utero affecting the development of one eye, possibly through some sort of genetic mutation. Occasionally, heterochromia can be a sign of a serious medical condition.
A common cause in females with heterochromia is X-inactivation, which can result in a number of heterochromatic traits, such as calico cats. Trauma and certain medications, such as some prostaglandin analogues, can also cause increased pigmentation in one eye. On occasion, a difference in eye color is caused by blood staining the iris after injury.
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who issued gold coins for the first time | Coinage of India - Wikipedia
Coinage of India, issued by imperial dynasties and middle kingdoms, began anywhere between 6th century BCE to 1st millennium BCE and consisted mainly of copper and silver coins in its initial stage. Scholars remain divided over the origins of Indian coinage.
Cowry shells was first used in India as commodity money. The Indus Valley Civilization dates back between 2500 BCE and 1750 BCE. What is known, however, is that metal currency was minted in India well before the Mauryan Empire (322 -- 185 BCE), and as radio carbon dating indicates, before the 5th century BCE.
The practice of minted coins spread to the Indo - Gangetic Plain from West Asia. The coins of this period were called Puranas, Karshapanas or Pana. These earliest Indian coins, however, are unlike those circulated in West Asia, were not disk - shaped but rather stamped bars of metal, suggesting that the innovation of stamped currency was added to a pre-existing form of token currency which had already been present in the Mahajanapada kingdoms of the Indian Iron Age. Mahajanapadas that minted their own coins included Gandhara, Kuntala, Kuru, Panchala, Shakya, Surasena and Surashtra.
The tradition of Indian coinage was further influenced by the coming of Turkic and Mughal invaders in India. The East India Company introduced uniform coinage in the 19th century CE, and these coins were later imitated by the modern nation states of Republic of India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, and Bangladesh. Numismatics plays a valuable role in determining certain period of Indian history.
Punch - marked coins are a type of early Coinage of India, dating to between about the 6th and 2nd centuries BCE.
The first coins in India were minted around the 6th century BCE by the Mahajanapadas of the Indo - Gangetic Plain, and certainly before the invasion of Alexander the Great in the 4th century BCE. The coins of this period were punch - marked coins called Puranas, Karshapanas or Pana. Several of these coins had a single symbol, for example, Saurashtra had a humped bull, and Dakshin Panchala had a Swastika, others, like Magadha, had several symbols. These coins were made of silver of a standard weight but with an irregular shape. This was gained by cutting up silver bars and then making the correct weight by cutting the edges of the coin.
They are mentioned in the Manu, Panini, and Buddhist Jataka stories and lasted three centuries longer in the south than the north (600 BCE -- 300 CE).
The Mauryan Empire coins were punch marked with the royal standard to ascertain their authenticity. The Arthashastra, written by Kautilya, mentions minting of coins but also indicates that the violation of the Imperial Maurya standards by private enterprises may have been an offence. Kautilya also seemed to advocate a theory of bimetallism for coinage, which involved the use of two metals, copper and silver, under one government.
Hoard of mostly Mauryan coins.
Silver punch mark coin of the Maurya empire, with symbols of wheel and elephant. 3rd century BCE.
Mauryan coin with arched hill symbol on reverse.
Mauryan Empire coin. Circa late 4th - 2nd century BCE.
Mauryan Empire, Emperor Salisuka or later. Circa 207 - 194 BCE.
Punch marked coins were replaced at the fall of the Maurya Empire by cast, die - struck coins. Each individual coins was first cast by pouring a molten metal, usually copper or silver, into a cavity formed by two molds. These were then usually die - struck while still hot, first on just one side, and then later on the two sides. The coin devices are Indian, but it is thought that this coin technology was introduced from the West, either from the Achaemenid Empire or from the neighboring Greco - Bactrian kingdom.
The Indo - Greek kings introduced Greek types, and among them the portrait head, into the Indian coinage, and their example was followed for eight centuries. Every coin has some mark of authority in it, this is what known as "types ''. It appears on every Greek and Roman coin. Demetrios was the first Bactrian king to strike square copper coins of the Indian type, with a legend in Greek on the obverse, and in Kharoshthi on the reverse. Copper coins, square for the most part, are very numerous. The devices are almost entirely Greek, and must have been engraved by Greeks, or Indians trained in the Greek traditions. The rare gold staters and the splendid tetradrachms of Bactria disappear. The silver coins of the Indo - Greeks, as these later princes may conveniently be called, are the didrachm and the hemidrachm. With the exception of certain square hemidrachms of Apollodotos and Philoxenos, they are all round, are struck to the Persian (or Indian) standard, and all have inscriptions in both Greek and Kharoshthi characters.
Coinage of Indo - Greek kingdom began to increasingly influence coins from other regions of India by the 1st century BCE. By this time a large number of tribes, dynasties and kingdoms began issuing their coins; Prākrit legends began to appear. The extensive coinage of the Kushan empire (1st -- 3rd centuries CE) continued to influence the coinage of the Guptas (320 to 550 CE) and the later rulers of Kashmir.
During the early rise of Roman trade with India up to 120 ships were setting sail every year from Myos Hormos to India. Gold coins, used for this trade, was apparently being recycled by the Kushan empire for their own coinage. In the 1st century CE, the Roman writer Pliny the Elder complained about the vast sums of money leaving the Roman empire for India:
The trade was particularly focused around the regions of Gujarat, ruled by the Western Satraps, and the tip of the Indian peninsular in Southern India. Large hoards of Roman coins have been found and especially in the busy maritime trading centers of South India. The South Indian kings reissued Roman - like coinage in their own name, either producing their own copies or defacing real ones in order to signify their sovereignty.
During the Indo - Scythians period whose era begins from 200 BCE to 400 CE, a new kind of the coins of two dynasties were very popular in circulation in various parts of the then India and parts of central and northern South Asia (Sogdiana, Bactria, Arachosia, Gandhara, Sindh, Kashmir, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar). These dynasties were Saka and The Pahlavas. After the conquest of Bactria by the Sakas in 135 BCE there must have been considerable intercourse sometimes of a friendly, sometimes of a hostile character, between them and the Parthians, who occupied the neighboring territory.
Maues, whose coins are found only in the Punjab, was the first king of what may be called the Azes group of princes. His silver is not plentiful; the finest type is that with a "biga '' (two - horsed chariot) on the obverse, and this type belongs to a square Hemi drachm, the only square aka silver coin known. His most common copper coins, with an elephant 's head on the obverse and a "Caduceus '' (staff of the god Hermes) on the reverse are imitated from a round copper coin of Demetrius. On another copper square coin of Maues the king is represented on horseback. This striking device is characteristic both of the Saka and Pahlava coinage; it first appears in a slightly different form on coins of the Indo - Greek Hippostratos; the Gupta kings adopted it for their "horseman '' type, and it reappears in Medieval India on the coins of numerous Hindu kingdoms until the 14th century CE.
Kanishka 's copper coinage which came into the scene during 100 -- 200 CE was of two types: one had the usual "standing king '' obverse, and on the rarer second type the king is sitting on a throne. At about the same time there was Huvishka 's copper coinage which was more varied; on the reverse, as on Kanishka 's copper, there was always one of the numerous deities; on the obverse the king was portrayed (1) riding on an elephant, or (2) reclining on a couch, or (3) seated cross-legged, or (4) seated with arms raised.
The Gupta Empire produced large numbers of gold coins depicting the Gupta kings performing various rituals, as well as silver coins clearly influenced by those of the earlier Western Satraps by Chandragupta II.
The splendid gold coinage of Guptas, with its many types and infinite varieties and its inscriptions in Sanskrit, are the finest examples of the purely Indian art that we possess. Their era starts from around 320 with Chandragupta I 's accession to the throne. Son of Chandragupta I - Samudragupta, the real founder of the Gupta Empire had coinage made of gold only. There were seven different varieties of coins that appeared during his reign. Out of them the archer type is the most common and characteristic type of the Gupta dynasty coins, which were struck by at least eight succeeding kings and was a standard type in the kingdom.
The silver coinage of Guptas starts with the overthrow of the Western Satraps by Chandragupta II. Kumaragupta and Skandagupta continued with the old type of coins (the Garuda and the Peacock types) and also introduced some other new types. The copper coinage was mostly confined to the era of Chandragupta II and was more original in design. Eight out of the nine types known to have been struck by him have a figure of Garuda and the name of the King on it. The gradual deterioration in design and execution of the gold coins and the disappearance of silver money, bear ample evidence to their curtailed territory. The percentage of gold in Indian coins under the reign of Gupta rulers showed a steady financial decline over the centuries as it decreases from 90 % pure gold under Chandragupta I (319 - 335) to a mere 75 - 80 % under Skandagupta (467).
The coins of various Rajput princes 's ruling in Hindustan and Central India were usually of gold, copper or billon, very rarely silver. These coins had the familiar goddess of wealth, Lakshmi on the obverse. In these coins, the Goddess was shown with four arms than the usual two arms of the Gupta coins; the reverse carried the Nagari legend. The seated bull and horseman were almost invariable devices on Rajput copper and bullion coins.
Political orders in Medieval India were based on a relationship and association of power by which the supreme ruler, especially a monarch was able to influence the actions of the subjects.
In order for the relationship to work, it had to be expressed and communicated in the best possible way. In other words, power was by nature declarative from the point of view of its intelligibility and comprehensibility to the audience and required modes of communication to take effect by means of which sovereign power was articulated in the 16th century India.
An examination was done of a series of coins officially issued and circulated by the Mughal emperor Akbar (r 1556 - 1605) to illustrate and project a particular view of time, religion, and political supremacy being fundamental and co-existing in nature.
Coins constitute part of the evidence that project the transmission of religious and political ideas in the last quarter of the 16th century.
The word ' Alf ' refers to the millennium. The following are the extraordinary decisions, though bizarre, were taken by King Akbar.
The order was a major departure and extremely unconventional and eccentric from the norm of striking coins in medieval India. Till the advent of Alf, all gold and silver coins had been stuck with figure of the current hijri year.
Akbar 's courtier and critic, Abdul Badani, presents and explains in brevity the motive for these unconventional decisions while describing the events that took place in 990 hijri (1582 CE):
And having thus convinced himself that the thousand years from the prophethood of the apostle (B'isat I Paighambar) the duration for which Islam (lit. religion) would last was now over, and nothing prevented him from articulating the desires he so secretly held in his heart, and the space became empty of the theologians (ulema) and mystics (mashaikh) who had carried awe and dignity and no need was felt for them: he (Akbar) felt himself at liberty to refute the principles of Islam and to institute new regulations, obsolete and corrupt but considered precious by his pernicious beliefs. The first order, which was given to write the date Alf on coins (Dar Sikka tank half Navisand) and to write the Tarikh - i - Alfi (history of the millennium) from the demise (Rihlat) of the prophet (Badauni II: 301).
The evidence, both textual and numismatic, actually makes it clear that Akbar 's decisions to mint the Alf coins and commission the Tarikh - i - Alfi were based on a new communication and interpretation of the terminal dates of the Islamic millennium.
What the evidence does n't explain is the source of the idea as well as the reason for persisting with the same date on the imperial coinage even after the critical year had passed.
Queen Kumaradevi and King Chandragupta I on a coin of their son Samudragupta 380 CE.
Gold coin of Gupta era, depicting a Gupta king holding a bow, 300 CE.
Maratha Empire, Chhatrapati Shivaji, Gold hon, c. 1674 -- 80 CE.
Silver Rupee coin of Rudra Simha of Ahom kingdom, 1696 CE.
Maratha Kingdom of Baroda, Sayaji Rao III, 1870 CE.
Gold coin of Raja Raja Chola I, 985 -- 1014 CE.
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who is the existing prime minister of pakistan | List of Prime ministers of Pakistan - Wikipedia
Parliament
Executive:
Judiciary
The Prime Minister of Pakistan (Urdu: وزِیرِ اعظم -- Wazīr - ē Aʿẓam, Urdu pronunciation: (ʋəˈziːr - ˌeː ˈɑː. zəm); Turkish lit. "Grand Vizier ''), is the popularly elected politician who is the chief executive of the Government of Pakistan. The Prime Minister is vested with the responsibility of running the administration through his appointed federal cabinet, formulating national policies to ensure the safeguard of the interests of the nation and its people through the Council of Common Interests as well as making the decision to call nationwide general elections for the bicameral Parliament of Pakistan.
Since 1947, Pakistan has had eighteen prime ministers, aside from the appointed caretaker prime ministers who were only mandated to oversee the system until the election process was finished. In Pakistan 's parliamentary system, the Prime Minister is sworn - in by the President and usually is the Chairman or / the President of the party or coalition that has a majority in the National Assembly -- the lower house of Pakistan Parliament.
After the Partition of India on the midnight of 14 / 15 August 1947, Pakistan followed the British system by creating the post of Prime Minister based at the Prime Minister 's Secretariat. The then Governor - General of Pakistan, Muhammad Ali Jinnah, took advice from the Founding Fathers of the nation and appointed Liaquat Ali Khan to establish and lead his administration on 15 August 1947. Before the presidential system in 1960, seven prime ministers had served between 1947 until martial law in 1958. In 1971, the office was again revived but ceased to exist shortly. Executive powers and authority was given to the Prime Minister when the full set of the Constitution of Pakistan was promulgated in 1973 but the post was ceased from its effective operations after another martial law in 1977. After the general elections held in 1985, the office came to its existence. Between 1988 -- 99, the office was held by Benazir Bhutto of the PPP and Nawaz Sharif of PML (N), each holding the office for two non-consecutive terms between 1988 and 1999: Bhutto during 1988 -- 90 and 1993 -- 96; and Sharif during 1990 -- 93 and 1997 -- 99.
The premiership of I.I. Chundrigar was the shortest in Pakistan 's history, serving only 55 days of his term. At approximately five years and four months in total, Sharif is the longest - serving Prime Minister. Sharif was re-elected for a third non-consecutive term on 5 June 2013, which is a record in the history of Pakistan. The national politics in Pakistan was mostly dominated by the army department of the Pakistan Armed Forces throughout its history, but it is now dominated by the political parties.
After the general elections held in 2002, Zafarullah Khan Jamali was invited to form his administration as its Prime Minister. After the Supreme Court of Pakistan 's rulings to disqualified the Prime Minister Yousaf Raza Gillani in 2012, the business of his administration was looked after by Pervez Ashraf until the caretaker administration was setup under Mir Hazar Khoso.
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ir and trade unions are 2 faces of a coin discuss | Opposition to trade unions - wikipedia
Opposition to trade unions comes from a variety of groups in society and there are many different types of argument on which this opposition is based.
The economist Milton Friedman, Nobel Prize winner and advocate of laissez - faire capitalism, believed that unionization frequently produces higher wages at the expense of fewer jobs, and that, if some industries are unionized while others are not, wages will decline in non-unionized industries.
By raising the price of labor, the wage rate, above the equilibrium price, unemployment rises. This is because it is no longer worthwhile for businesses to employ those laborers whose work is worth less than the minimum wage rate set by the unions.
Trade unions often benefit insider workers, those having a secure job and high productivity, at the cost of outsider workers, consumers of the goods or services produced, and the shareholders of the unionized business. The ones who are likely to lose the most from a trade union are those who are unemployed or at the risk of unemployment or who are not able to get the job that they want in a particular field.
Advocates of unions claim that the higher wages that unions demand can be paid for through company profits. However, as Milton Friedman pointed out, profits are only very rarely high enough. 80 % of national income is wages, and only about 6 % is profits after tax, providing very little room for higher wages, even if profits could be totally used up. Moreover, profits are invested leading to an increase in capital: which raises the value of labor, increasing wages. If profits were totally removed, this source of wage increase would be removed.
According to The New York Times, wages in 2012 fell to a record low of 43.5 percent.
Friedrich Hayek argued that the effect of union activities to influence pricing is potentially very harmful, making the market system ineffective.
By causing wage increases above the market rate, unions increase the cost to businesses, causing them to raise their prices, leading to a general increase in the price level. Austrian economists such as Robert P. Murphy, however, dispute this, arguing that the increase in the cost of labor simply means that less of other goods can be bought. He writes:
If unions succeed in wage hikes, and employers raise the prices they charge consumers to maintain their own profit margins, and the supply of money remains the same, then something else has to "give. '' Either the prices of goods and services in nonunion sectors have to fall and offset the union sector hikes, or people 's cash balances need to fall, in terms of their purchasing power.
Some trade unions, such as the Teamsters, have been criticized for involvement with organized crime.
The argument that unionized workers raise their own wages above their natural rate at the expense of their businesses or other workers assumes that unions never raise productivity to compensate for higher wages. Unions are capable of raising productivity by reducing turnover, by increasing coordination between workers and management, and by increasing workers ' motivation. Many unions raise the productivity of their workers, and some even raise it enough to make up for wage increases.
Another argument raised by union supporters is that unionized workers will spend their higher wages, driving economic growth and creating new jobs. Union opponents respond that this is an example of the broken window fallacy; union supporters assume that money is more valuable in the hands of unionized workers than in the hands of whoever else would obtain it in the union 's absence. There is some evidence that this is not a fallacy, as greater wealth equality seems to be correlated with greater economic growth. Union supporters counter that unions, if organized without violence or government help, are part of the free market; if unions can win higher wages for their workers without coercion, those wages are legitimate.
Trade unions take strike actions that result in the disruption of public services -- as demonstrated in the British Winter of Discontent. However, where applicable, this may be logically inferred to be the very purpose of strike action per se.
In some cases, unions ' strike have led to violent clashes with police and with strikebreakers. See the article on the UK miners ' strike of the 1980s.
A consequence of unions ' zeal to guard their special interests is that some unions have actively lobbied for racist and anti-immigration policies. An example is the creation of the notorious Asiatic Exclusion League, which was composed mainly of the various labor unions. The Pictorial History of American Labor observes,
The early A.F. of L. did not draw the color line, but expressed an "ideal of solidarity irrespective of race. '' Before long, however, the feeling changed. Whether a tendency to exclude black workers from craft unions was based more on fear of competition or racial prejudice carried over from slave days, it is difficult to decide. But the developing exclusion of the Negro worker from many neighbor unions brought with it serious problems -- not just for the black worker seeking job security, but for the white worker seeking the same end... The record shows that black workers... have been used to break strikes. This availability has usually ended when the black worker has been shown that the union is open to black as well as white.
However, in a study called The Black Worker, Spero and Harris observe that more strikes (in American labor history) have been broken by white workers than by black workers. Most blacks were barred from membership in the AFL not because of their skin color, but because they never had a chance to learn a skill, and "most A.F. of L. unions did not admit unskilled mass - production workers. '' While the AFL - CIO is the modern version of the AFL, it is much more open to membership by women, immigrants, and different nationalities. Other unions, such as the Industrial Workers of the World and the International Longshore and Warehouse Union, were created without regard to race from the very start.
Specific countries, especially countries run by Communist parties, while still having unions in name, do not allow for independent trade unions, just as they rarely allow for independent businesses. These state - run trade unions do not function in the same way as independent trade unions and generally do not hold any kind of collective bargaining power, acting to ensure the smooth running of Government industry.
Attempts to reduce the effects of trade unions may include union busting activities by private companies or state action including governments of authoritarian regimes such as in Adolf Hitler 's Nazi Germany and Burma 's military dictator, Ne Win. Many democratic governments have also attempted to limit the effects of unions, although success has been mixed.
It has been argued, particularly by market anarchists, that government intervention in the economy has been decidedly anti-union, even in economies like the United States or the European Union. Kevin Carson maintains that the most effective union tactics are either criminalized or displaced by state policy in most countries. Trade unions established themselves through sitdown strikes, sympathy strikes, secondary boycotts, and hot cargo agreements; these tactics are all illegal in most industrialized countries. Similarly, the original unions doubled as social welfare organization, using union funds to provide healthcare and pensions to workers and welfare to the unemployed. By adopting various welfare - state measures, governments made the populace less dependent on unions.
The political left is often associated with support for trade unionism. However, some groups and individuals have taken a less positive view. In the nineteenth century, a belief in the iron law of wages led some socialists to reject trade unionism and strike action as ineffective. In this view, any increase in wages would lead manufacturers to raise prices leaving workers no better off in real terms. Karl Marx wrote a pamphlet, "Wages, Price and Profit '', to counter this idea, which had been put forward in the International Workingmen 's Association by a follower of Robert Owen.
Some early Social Democrats were also skeptical of trade unionism. Usual criticisms were that unions split workers into sections rather than organising them as a class; that they were dominated by relatively privileged skilled workers who were mainly concerned to defend their sectional interests; and that industrial action and organisation were incapable of bringing about fundamental social change. H.M. Hyndman of the Social Democratic Federation summed up some of these views when he wrote in The Historical Basis of Socialism in England (1883):
Hyndman went on to urge workers to devote "the Trade Union funds wasted on strikes or petty funds '' instead to the building up of a strong Socialist Party on the German model. Other social democrats however were more convinced than Hyndman of the utility of Trade Union action.
Trade unionism is criticised by those of council communist and left communist tendencies. Here, trade unionism is seen as being more useful to capitalists than to workers, and as a kind of "safety - valve '' that helps to keep working - class discontent within reformist channels and prevent it from evolving into revolutionary action. They think that a global state composed of workers ' councils to be the ultimate union to where all workers in the world belong; unions that organize based on trade further divide the working class and act as a mechanism to allow the working class to vent concerns without actually uniting and becoming revolutionary. In contrast to other left critiques of trade unionism, these tendencies do not accept that the problems they identify could be remedied by changing the structure, leadership or objectives of trade unions. They argue that trade unionism is inherently reformist because it is sectarian and is not founded in the workplace itself and that revolutionary action is possible only if workers act outside trade unionism through workers ' councils or other channels.
There is also a philosophical difference between the craft unionism of many AFL - type unions, and the industrial unionism of organizations such as the Industrial Workers of the World. Industrial unionists decry a practice that they call "union scabbing, '' in which craft unionists are required by the no - strike clause in their contracts to cross the picket lines of other unions.
There is also the left critique of the tendencies of some labor unions to become bureaucratic and for the union leaders and staff to become detached from the needs and interests of the rank and file union members, in contrast to the practices of union democracy. The Labor Notes, in the United States, is an example of an organization that attempts to fight this bureaucratic tendency.
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caltex woolworths fuel outlets with a star mart or star shop | Caltex Woolworths - wikipedia
Caltex Woolworths is an Australian chain of petrol station, operated by Caltex Australia and Woolworths Limited in a joint venture. In Victoria, it traded as Caltex Safeway until Woolworths scrapped the name in late 2008.
As of end of financial year 2015, there are 516 Woolworths - operated sites and about 100 Caltex - operated Star Mart / Star Shop sites which accept Woolworth fuel discounts.
In December 2016, Woolworths announced it had agreed to sell its own operated sites to BP for AU $1.75 billion, and would enter into a franchise agreement.
Woolworths ' foray into the petrol business began in 1996 with a Woolworths Plus Petrol station in Dubbo, New South Wales.
In 2003, Woolworths announced a joint venture with Caltex. Caltex would supply fuel to the outlets and they would be co-branded. All Woolworths Petrol and selected Caltex sites near Woolworths supermarkets were rebranded accordingly.
In late 2014, Woolworths and Caltex revised the terms of their alliance, with the changes affecting the 131 Caltex - operated sites. 92 of the sites would be rebranded as either as Star Mart or Star Shop convenience stores while continuing to accept the Woolworths fuel discount redemption while the remainder would exit the Caltex -- Woolworths alliance entirely.
In December 2016, Woolworths announced it would sell its own operated sites to BP for AU $1.75 billion, and would enter into a franchise agreement to retain its branded stores at the sites. A new format under the brand "Metro at BP '' is planned to be introduced for up to 200 sites. The sale, subject to shareholder and regulatory approval, is due to be completed by 2 January 2018.
Caltex Woolworths offers a 4 ¢ per litre discount off the pump price for customers who present a docket, obtained after spending a qualifying amount of $30 or more at Woolworths and Safeway supermarkets and Tasmanian Big W department stores (Previously nationwide; mainland Big W stores stopped issuing fuel dockets in September 2010).
The offer initially involved an escalating scale of discount off the price of petrol, depending on the amount spent to qualify -- $30.00 - $59.99 for 2 ¢ per litre, $60.00 - $149.99 for 4 ¢ per litre, and $150.00 and above for 6 ¢ per litre. However, the offer eventually settled on a median 4 ¢ per litre discount with purchases of $30.00 and over, after the launch of rival Coles ' equivalent fuel discount offer through Coles Express service stations in 2003.
The 4 ¢ per litre discount is doubled to 8 ¢ if a petrol buyer also purchases goods to the value of at least $5 at the petrol station convenience store and pays for both petrol and goods in the same transaction.
In 2008, Woolworths launched its Everyday Rewards loyalty card. With the card, customers can obtain their fuel discount vouchers by swiping their cards at Woolworths, Safeway and Big W (Tasmania only) checkouts nationwide and then redeem the discount by swiping their cards at Caltex Woolworths petrol stations.
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intercalated discs contain two types of junctions essential for cardiac muscle function. they are | Intercalated disc - wikipedia
Intercalated discs are microscopic identifying features of cardiac muscle. Cardiac muscle consists of individual heart muscle cells (cardiomyocytes) connected by intercalated discs to work as a single functional organ or syncytium. By contrast, skeletal muscle consists of multinucleated muscle fibers and exhibit no intercalated discs. Intercalated discs support synchronized contraction of cardiac tissue. They occur at the Z line of the sarcomere and can be visualized easily when observing a longitudinal section of the tissue.
Three types of cell junction make up an intercalated disc -- fascia adherens, desmosomes and gap junctions.
Molecular, biological, and comprehensive studies have shown that intercalated discs consist for the most part of mixed type adherens junctions, termed composite junctions or areae compositae (singular area composita). These represent an amalgamation of typical desmosomal and fascia adherens proteins (in contrast to various epithelia). Thus cardiomyocyte adherens junctions differ from epithelial adherens junctions and desmosomes.
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function of nucleus in plant and animal cell | Cell nucleus - wikipedia
In cell biology, the nucleus (pl. nuclei; from Latin nucleus or nuculeus, meaning kernel or seed) is a membrane - enclosed organelle found in eukaryotic cells. Eukaryotes usually have a single nucleus, but a few cell types, such as mammalian red blood cells, have no nuclei, and a few others including osteoclasts have many.
Cell nuclei contain most of the cell 's genetic material, organized as multiple long linear DNA molecules in a complex with a large variety of proteins, such as histones, to form chromosomes. The genes within these chromosomes are the cell 's nuclear genome and are structured in such a way to promote cell function. The nucleus maintains the integrity of genes and controls the activities of the cell by regulating gene expression -- the nucleus is, therefore, the control center of the cell. The main structures making up the nucleus are the nuclear envelope, a double membrane that encloses the entire organelle and isolates its contents from the cellular cytoplasm, and the nuclear matrix (which includes the nuclear lamina), a network within the nucleus that adds mechanical support, much like the cytoskeleton, which supports the cell as a whole.
Because the nuclear envelope is impermeable to large molecules, nuclear pores are required to regulate nuclear transport of molecules across the envelope. The pores cross both nuclear membranes, providing a channel through which larger molecules must be actively transported by carrier proteins while allowing free movement of small molecules and ions. Movement of large molecules such as proteins and RNA through the pores is required for both gene expression and the maintenance of chromosomes. Although the interior of the nucleus does not contain any membrane - bound subcompartments, its contents are not uniform, and a number of sub-nuclear bodies exist, made up of unique proteins, RNA molecules, and particular parts of the chromosomes. The best - known of these is the nucleolus, which is mainly involved in the assembly of ribosomes. After being produced in the nucleolus, ribosomes are exported to the cytoplasm where they translate mRNA.
The nucleus was the first organelle to be discovered. What is most likely the oldest preserved drawing dates back to the early microscopist Antonie van Leeuwenhoek (1632 -- 1723). He observed a "lumen '', the nucleus, in the red blood cells of salmon. Unlike mammalian red blood cells, those of other vertebrates still contain nuclei.
The nucleus was also described by Franz Bauer in 1804 and in more detail in 1831 by Scottish botanist Robert Brown in a talk at the Linnean Society of London. Brown was studying orchids under microscope when he observed an opaque area, which he called the "areola '' or "nucleus '', in the cells of the flower 's outer layer.
He did not suggest a potential function. In 1838, Matthias Schleiden proposed that the nucleus plays a role in generating cells, thus he introduced the name "cytoblast '' (cell builder). He believed that he had observed new cells assembling around "cytoblasts ''. Franz Meyen was a strong opponent of this view, having already described cells multiplying by division and believing that many cells would have no nuclei. The idea that cells can be generated de novo, by the "cytoblast '' or otherwise, contradicted work by Robert Remak (1852) and Rudolf Virchow (1855) who decisively propagated the new paradigm that cells are generated solely by cells ("Omnis cellula e cellula ''). The function of the nucleus remained unclear.
Between 1877 and 1878, Oscar Hertwig published several studies on the fertilization of sea urchin eggs, showing that the nucleus of the sperm enters the oocyte and fuses with its nucleus. This was the first time it was suggested that an individual develops from a (single) nucleated cell. This was in contradiction to Ernst Haeckel 's theory that the complete phylogeny of a species would be repeated during embryonic development, including generation of the first nucleated cell from a "monerula '', a structureless mass of primordial mucus ("Urschleim ''). Therefore, the necessity of the sperm nucleus for fertilization was discussed for quite some time. However, Hertwig confirmed his observation in other animal groups, including amphibians and molluscs. Eduard Strasburger produced the same results for plants in 1884. This paved the way to assign the nucleus an important role in heredity. In 1873, August Weismann postulated the equivalence of the maternal and paternal germ cells for heredity. The function of the nucleus as carrier of genetic information became clear only later, after mitosis was discovered and the Mendelian rules were rediscovered at the beginning of the 20th century; the chromosome theory of heredity was therefore developed.
The nucleus is the largest cellular organelle in animal cells. In mammalian cells, the average diameter of the nucleus is approximately 6 micrometres (μm), which occupies about 10 % of the total cell volume. The viscous liquid within it is called nucleoplasm (or karyolymph), and is similar in composition to the cytosol found outside the nucleus. It appears as a dense, roughly spherical or irregular organelle. The composition by dry weight of the nucleus is approximately: DNA 9 %, RNA 1 %, Histone Protein 11 %, Residual Protein 14 %, Acidic Proteins 65 %.
In some types of white blood cells specifically most granulocytes the nucleus is lobated and can be present as a bi-lobed, tri-lobed or multi-lobed organelle.
The nuclear envelope, otherwise known as nuclear membrane, consists of two cellular membranes, an inner and an outer membrane, arranged parallel to one another and separated by 10 to 50 nanometres (nm). The nuclear envelope completely encloses the nucleus and separates the cell 's genetic material from the surrounding cytoplasm, serving as a barrier to prevent macromolecules from diffusing freely between the nucleoplasm and the cytoplasm. The outer nuclear membrane is continuous with the membrane of the rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER), and is similarly studded with ribosomes. The space between the membranes is called the perinuclear space and is continuous with the RER lumen.
Nuclear pores, which provide aqueous channels through the envelope, are composed of multiple proteins, collectively referred to as nucleoporins. The pores are about 125 million daltons in molecular weight and consist of around 50 (in yeast) to several hundred proteins (in vertebrates). The pores are 100 nm in total diameter; however, the gap through which molecules freely diffuse is only about 9 nm wide, due to the presence of regulatory systems within the center of the pore. This size selectively allows the passage of small water - soluble molecules while preventing larger molecules, such as nucleic acids and larger proteins, from inappropriately entering or exiting the nucleus. These large molecules must be actively transported into the nucleus instead. The nucleus of a typical mammalian cell will have about 3000 to 4000 pores throughout its envelope, each of which contains an eightfold - symmetric ring - shaped structure at a position where the inner and outer membranes fuse. Attached to the ring is a structure called the nuclear basket that extends into the nucleoplasm, and a series of filamentous extensions that reach into the cytoplasm. Both structures serve to mediate binding to nuclear transport proteins.
Most proteins, ribosomal subunits, and some DNAs are transported through the pore complexes in a process mediated by a family of transport factors known as karyopherins. Those karyopherins that mediate movement into the nucleus are also called importins, whereas those that mediate movement out of the nucleus are called exportins. Most karyopherins interact directly with their cargo, although some use adaptor proteins. Steroid hormones such as cortisol and aldosterone, as well as other small lipid - soluble molecules involved in intercellular signaling, can diffuse through the cell membrane and into the cytoplasm, where they bind nuclear receptor proteins that are trafficked into the nucleus. There they serve as transcription factors when bound to their ligand; in the absence of a ligand, many such receptors function as histone deacetylases that repress gene expression.
In animal cells, two networks of intermediate filaments provide the nucleus with mechanical support: The nuclear lamina forms an organized meshwork on the internal face of the envelope, while less organized support is provided on the cytosolic face of the envelope. Both systems provide structural support for the nuclear envelope and anchoring sites for chromosomes and nuclear pores.
The nuclear lamina is composed mostly of lamin proteins. Like all proteins, lamins are synthesized in the cytoplasm and later transported to the nucleus interior, where they are assembled before being incorporated into the existing network of nuclear lamina. Lamins found on the cytosolic face of the membrane, such as emerin and nesprin, bind to the cytoskeleton to provide structural support. Lamins are also found inside the nucleoplasm where they form another regular structure, known as the nucleoplasmic veil, that is visible using fluorescence microscopy. The actual function of the veil is not clear, although it is excluded from the nucleolus and is present during interphase. Lamin structures that make up the veil, such as LEM3, bind chromatin and disrupting their structure inhibits transcription of protein - coding genes.
Like the components of other intermediate filaments, the lamin monomer contains an alpha - helical domain used by two monomers to coil around each other, forming a dimer structure called a coiled coil. Two of these dimer structures then join side by side, in an antiparallel arrangement, to form a tetramer called a protofilament. Eight of these protofilaments form a lateral arrangement that is twisted to form a ropelike filament. These filaments can be assembled or disassembled in a dynamic manner, meaning that changes in the length of the filament depend on the competing rates of filament addition and removal.
Mutations in lamin genes leading to defects in filament assembly cause a group of rare genetic disorders known as laminopathies. The most notable laminopathy is the family of diseases known as progeria, which causes the appearance of premature aging in its sufferers. The exact mechanism by which the associated biochemical changes give rise to the aged phenotype is not well understood.
The cell nucleus contains the majority of the cell 's genetic material in the form of multiple linear DNA molecules organized into structures called chromosomes. Each human cell contains roughly two meters of DNA. During most of the cell cycle these are organized in a DNA - protein complex known as chromatin, and during cell division the chromatin can be seen to form the well - defined chromosomes familiar from a karyotype. A small fraction of the cell 's genes are located instead in the mitochondria.
There are two types of chromatin. Euchromatin is the less compact DNA form, and contains genes that are frequently expressed by the cell. The other type, heterochromatin, is the more compact form, and contains DNA that is infrequently transcribed. This structure is further categorized into facultative heterochromatin, consisting of genes that are organized as heterochromatin only in certain cell types or at certain stages of development, and constitutive heterochromatin that consists of chromosome structural components such as telomeres and centromeres. During interphase the chromatin organizes itself into discrete individual patches, called chromosome territories. Active genes, which are generally found in the euchromatic region of the chromosome, tend to be located towards the chromosome 's territory boundary.
Antibodies to certain types of chromatin organization, in particular, nucleosomes, have been associated with a number of autoimmune diseases, such as systemic lupus erythematosus. These are known as anti-nuclear antibodies (ANA) and have also been observed in concert with multiple sclerosis as part of general immune system dysfunction. As in the case of progeria, the role played by the antibodies in inducing the symptoms of autoimmune diseases is not obvious.
The nucleolus is a discrete densely stained structure found in the nucleus. It is not surrounded by a membrane, and is sometimes called a suborganelle. It forms around tandem repeats of rDNA, DNA coding for ribosomal RNA (rRNA). These regions are called nucleolar organizer regions (NOR). The main roles of the nucleolus are to synthesize rRNA and assemble ribosomes. The structural cohesion of the nucleolus depends on its activity, as ribosomal assembly in the nucleolus results in the transient association of nucleolar components, facilitating further ribosomal assembly, and hence further association. This model is supported by observations that inactivation of rDNA results in intermingling of nucleolar structures.
In the first step of ribosome assembly, a protein called RNA polymerase I transcribes rDNA, which forms a large pre-rRNA precursor. This is cleaved into the subunits 5.8 S, 18S, and 28S rRNA. The transcription, post-transcriptional processing, and assembly of rRNA occurs in the nucleolus, aided by small nucleolar RNA (snoRNA) molecules, some of which are derived from spliced introns from messenger RNAs encoding genes related to ribosomal function. The assembled ribosomal subunits are the largest structures passed through the nuclear pores.
When observed under the electron microscope, the nucleolus can be seen to consist of three distinguishable regions: the innermost fibrillar centers (FCs), surrounded by the dense fibrillar component (DFC), which in turn is bordered by the granular component (GC). Transcription of the rDNA occurs either in the FC or at the FC - DFC boundary, and, therefore, when rDNA transcription in the cell is increased, more FCs are detected. Most of the cleavage and modification of rRNAs occurs in the DFC, while the latter steps involving protein assembly onto the ribosomal subunits occur in the GC.
Besides the nucleolus, the nucleus contains a number of other non-membrane - delineated bodies. These include Cajal bodies, Gemini of coiled bodies, polymorphic interphase karyosomal association (PIKA), promyelocytic leukaemia (PML) bodies, paraspeckles, and splicing speckles. Although little is known about a number of these domains, they are significant in that they show that the nucleoplasm is not a uniform mixture, but rather contains organized functional subdomains.
Other subnuclear structures appear as part of abnormal disease processes. For example, the presence of small intranuclear rods has been reported in some cases of nemaline myopathy. This condition typically results from mutations in actin, and the rods themselves consist of mutant actin as well as other cytoskeletal proteins.
A nucleus typically contains between 1 and 10 compact structures called Cajal bodies or coiled bodies (CB), whose diameter measures between 0.2 μm and 2.0 μm depending on the cell type and species. When seen under an electron microscope, they resemble balls of tangled thread and are dense foci of distribution for the protein coilin. CBs are involved in a number of different roles relating to RNA processing, specifically small nucleolar RNA (snoRNA) and small nuclear RNA (snRNA) maturation, and histone mRNA modification.
Similar to Cajal bodies are Gemini of Cajal bodies, or gems, whose name is derived from the Gemini constellation in reference to their close "twin '' relationship with CBs. Gems are similar in size and shape to CBs, and in fact are virtually indistinguishable under the microscope. Unlike CBs, gems do not contain small nuclear ribonucleoproteins (snRNPs), but do contain a protein called survival of motor neuron (SMN) whose function relates to snRNP biogenesis. Gems are believed to assist CBs in snRNP biogenesis, though it has also been suggested from microscopy evidence that CBs and gems are different manifestations of the same structure. Later ultrastructural studies have shown gems to be twins of Cajal bodies with the difference being in the coilin component; Cajal bodies are SMN positive and coilin positive, and gems are SMN positive and coilin negative.
RAFA domains, or polymorphic interphase karyosomal associations, were first described in microscopy studies in 1991. Their function remains unclear, though they were not thought to be associated with active DNA replication, transcription, or RNA processing. They have been found to often associate with discrete domains defined by dense localization of the transcription factor PTF, which promotes transcription of small nuclear RNA (snRNA).
Promyelocytic leukaemia bodies (PML bodies) are spherical bodies found scattered throughout the nucleoplasm, measuring around 0.1 -- 1.0 μm. They are known by a number of other names, including nuclear domain 10 (ND10), Kremer bodies, and PML oncogenic domains. PML bodies are named after one of their major components, the promyelocytic leukemia protein (PML). They are often seen in the nucleus in association with Cajal bodies and cleavage bodies. PML bodies belong to the nuclear matrix, an ill - defined super-structure of the nucleus proposed to anchor and regulate many nuclear functions, including DNA replication, transcription, or epigenetic silencing. The PML protein is the key organizer of these domains that recruits an ever - growing number of proteins, whose only common known feature to date is their ability to be SUMOylated. Yet, pml - / - mice (which have their PML gene deleted) can not assemble nuclear bodies, develop normally and live well, demonstrating that PML bodies are dispensable for most basic biological functions.
Speckles are subnuclear structures that are enriched in pre-messenger RNA splicing factors and are located in the interchromatin regions of the nucleoplasm of mammalian cells. At the fluorescence - microscope level they appear as irregular, punctate structures, which vary in size and shape, and when examined by electron microscopy they are seen as clusters of interchromatin granules. Speckles are dynamic structures, and both their protein and RNA - protein components can cycle continuously between speckles and other nuclear locations, including active transcription sites. Studies on the composition, structure and behaviour of speckles have provided a model for understanding the functional compartmentalization of the nucleus and the organization of the gene - expression machinery splicing snRNPs and other splicing proteins necessary for pre-mRNA processing. Because of a cell 's changing requirements, the composition and location of these bodies changes according to mRNA transcription and regulation via phosphorylation of specific proteins. The splicing speckles are also known as nuclear speckles (nuclear specks), splicing factor compartments (SF compartments), interchromatin granule clusters (IGCs), B snurposomes. B snurposomes are found in the amphibian oocyte nuclei and in Drosophila melanogaster embryos. B snurposomes appear alone or attached to the Cajal bodies in the electron micrographs of the amphibian nuclei. IGCs function as storage sites for the splicing factors.
Discovered by Fox et al. in 2002, paraspeckles are irregularly shaped compartments in the nucleus ' interchromatin space. First documented in HeLa cells, where there are generally 10 -- 30 per nucleus, paraspeckles are now known to also exist in all human primary cells, transformed cell lines, and tissue sections. Their name is derived from their distribution in the nucleus; the "para '' is short for parallel and the "speckles '' refers to the splicing speckles to which they are always in close proximity.
Paraspeckles are dynamic structures that are altered in response to changes in cellular metabolic activity. They are transcription dependent and in the absence of RNA Pol II transcription, the paraspeckle disappears and all of its associated protein components (PSP1, p54nrb, PSP2, CFI (m) 68, and PSF) form a crescent shaped perinucleolar cap in the nucleolus. This phenomenon is demonstrated during the cell cycle. In the cell cycle, paraspeckles are present during interphase and during all of mitosis except for telophase. During telophase, when the two daughter nuclei are formed, there is no RNA Pol II transcription so the protein components instead form a perinucleolar cap.
Perichromatin fibrils are visible only under electron microscope. They are located next to the transcriptionally active chromatin and are hypothesized to be the sites of active pre-mRNA processing.
Clastosomes are small nuclear bodies (0.2 - 0.5 μm) described as having a thick ring - shape due to the peripheral capsule around these bodies. This name is derived from the Greek klastos, broken and soma, body. Clastosomes are not typically present in normal cells, making them hard to detect. They form under high proteolysis conditions within the nucleus and degrade once there is a decrease in activity or if cells are treated with proteasome inhibitors. The scarcity of clastosomes in cells indicates that they are not required for proteasome function. Osmotic stress has also been shown to cause the formation of clastosomes. These nuclear bodies contain catalytic and regulatory sub-units of the proteasome and its substrates, indicating that clastosomes are sites for degrading proteins.
The nucleus provides a site for genetic transcription that is segregated from the location of translation in the cytoplasm, allowing levels of gene regulation that are not available to prokaryotes. The main function of the cell nucleus is to control gene expression and mediate the replication of DNA during the cell cycle.
The nucleus is an organelle found in eukaryotic cells. Inside its fully enclosed nuclear membrane, it contains the majority of the cell 's genetic material. This material is organized as DNA molecules, along with a variety of proteins, to form chromosomes.
The nuclear envelope allows the nucleus to control its contents, and separate them from the rest of the cytoplasm where necessary. This is important for controlling processes on either side of the nuclear membrane. In most cases where a cytoplasmic process needs to be restricted, a key participant is removed to the nucleus, where it interacts with transcription factors to downregulate the production of certain enzymes in the pathway. This regulatory mechanism occurs in the case of glycolysis, a cellular pathway for breaking down glucose to produce energy. Hexokinase is an enzyme responsible for the first the step of glycolysis, forming glucose - 6 - phosphate from glucose. At high concentrations of fructose - 6 - phosphate, a molecule made later from glucose - 6 - phosphate, a regulator protein removes hexokinase to the nucleus, where it forms a transcriptional repressor complex with nuclear proteins to reduce the expression of genes involved in glycolysis.
In order to control which genes are being transcribed, the cell separates some transcription factor proteins responsible for regulating gene expression from physical access to the DNA until they are activated by other signaling pathways. This prevents even low levels of inappropriate gene expression. For example, in the case of NF - κB - controlled genes, which are involved in most inflammatory responses, transcription is induced in response to a signal pathway such as that initiated by the signaling molecule TNF - α, binds to a cell membrane receptor, resulting in the recruitment of signalling proteins, and eventually activating the transcription factor NF - κB. A nuclear localisation signal on the NF - κB protein allows it to be transported through the nuclear pore and into the nucleus, where it stimulates the transcription of the target genes.
The compartmentalization allows the cell to prevent translation of unspliced mRNA. Eukaryotic mRNA contains introns that must be removed before being translated to produce functional proteins. The splicing is done inside the nucleus before the mRNA can be accessed by ribosomes for translation. Without the nucleus, ribosomes would translate newly transcribed (unprocessed) mRNA, resulting in malformed and nonfunctional proteins.
Gene expression first involves transcription, in which DNA is used as a template to produce RNA. In the case of genes encoding proteins, that RNA produced from this process is messenger RNA (mRNA), which then needs to be translated by ribosomes to form a protein. As ribosomes are located outside the nucleus, mRNA produced needs to be exported.
Since the nucleus is the site of transcription, it also contains a variety of proteins that either directly mediate transcription or are involved in regulating the process. These proteins include helicases, which unwind the double - stranded DNA molecule to facilitate access to it, RNA polymerases, which bind to the DNA promoter to synthesize the growing RNA molecule, topoisomerases, which change the amount of supercoiling in DNA, helping it wind and unwind, as well as a large variety of transcription factors that regulate expression.
Newly synthesized mRNA molecules are known as primary transcripts or pre-mRNA. They must undergo post-transcriptional modification in the nucleus before being exported to the cytoplasm; mRNA that appears in the cytoplasm without these modifications is degraded rather than used for protein translation. The three main modifications are 5 ' capping, 3 ' polyadenylation, and RNA splicing. While in the nucleus, pre-mRNA is associated with a variety of proteins in complexes known as heterogeneous ribonucleoprotein particles (hnRNPs). Addition of the 5 ' cap occurs co-transcriptionally and is the first step in post-transcriptional modification. The 3 ' poly - adenine tail is only added after transcription is complete.
RNA splicing, carried out by a complex called the spliceosome, is the process by which introns, or regions of DNA that do not code for protein, are removed from the pre-mRNA and the remaining exons connected to re-form a single continuous molecule. This process normally occurs after 5 ' capping and 3 ' polyadenylation but can begin before synthesis is complete in transcripts with many exons. Many pre-mRNAs, including those encoding antibodies, can be spliced in multiple ways to produce different mature mRNAs that encode different protein sequences. This process is known as alternative splicing, and allows production of a large variety of proteins from a limited amount of DNA.
The entry and exit of large molecules from the nucleus is tightly controlled by the nuclear pore complexes. Although small molecules can enter the nucleus without regulation, macromolecules such as RNA and proteins require association karyopherins called importins to enter the nucleus and exportins to exit. "Cargo '' proteins that must be translocated from the cytoplasm to the nucleus contain short amino acid sequences known as nuclear localization signals, which are bound by importins, while those transported from the nucleus to the cytoplasm carry nuclear export signals bound by exportins. The ability of importins and exportins to transport their cargo is regulated by GTPases, enzymes that hydrolyze the molecule guanosine triphosphate (GTP) to release energy. The key GTPase in nuclear transport is Ran, which can bind either GTP or GDP (guanosine diphosphate), depending on whether it is located in the nucleus or the cytoplasm. Whereas importins depend on RanGTP to dissociate from their cargo, exportins require RanGTP in order to bind to their cargo.
Nuclear import depends on the importin binding its cargo in the cytoplasm and carrying it through the nuclear pore into the nucleus. Inside the nucleus, RanGTP acts to separate the cargo from the importin, allowing the importin to exit the nucleus and be reused. Nuclear export is similar, as the exportin binds the cargo inside the nucleus in a process facilitated by RanGTP, exits through the nuclear pore, and separates from its cargo in the cytoplasm.
Specialized export proteins exist for translocation of mature mRNA and tRNA to the cytoplasm after post-transcriptional modification is complete. This quality - control mechanism is important due to these molecules ' central role in protein translation. Mis - expression of a protein due to incomplete excision of exons or mis - incorporation of amino acids could have negative consequences for the cell; thus, incompletely modified RNA that reaches the cytoplasm is degraded rather than used in translation.
During its lifetime, a nucleus may be broken down or destroyed, either in the process of cell division or as a consequence of apoptosis (the process of programmed cell death). During these events, the structural components of the nucleus -- the envelope and lamina -- can be systematically degraded. In most cells, the disassembly of the nuclear envelope marks the end of the prophase of mitosis. However, this disassembly of the nucleus is not a universal feature of mitosis and does not occur in all cells. Some unicellular eukaryotes (e.g., yeasts) undergo so - called closed mitosis, in which the nuclear envelope remains intact. In closed mitosis, the daughter chromosomes migrate to opposite poles of the nucleus, which then divides in two. The cells of higher eukaryotes, however, usually undergo open mitosis, which is characterized by breakdown of the nuclear envelope. The daughter chromosomes then migrate to opposite poles of the mitotic spindle, and new nuclei reassemble around them.
At a certain point during the cell cycle in open mitosis, the cell divides to form two cells. In order for this process to be possible, each of the new daughter cells must have a full set of genes, a process requiring replication of the chromosomes as well as segregation of the separate sets. This occurs by the replicated chromosomes, the sister chromatids, attaching to microtubules, which in turn are attached to different centrosomes. The sister chromatids can then be pulled to separate locations in the cell. In many cells, the centrosome is located in the cytoplasm, outside the nucleus; the microtubules would be unable to attach to the chromatids in the presence of the nuclear envelope. Therefore, the early stages in the cell cycle, beginning in prophase and until around prometaphase, the nuclear membrane is dismantled. Likewise, during the same period, the nuclear lamina is also disassembled, a process regulated by phosphorylation of the lamins by protein kinases such as the CDC2 protein kinase. Towards the end of the cell cycle, the nuclear membrane is reformed, and around the same time, the nuclear lamina are reassembled by dephosphorylating the lamins.
However, in dinoflagellates, the nuclear envelope remains intact, the centrosomes are located in the cytoplasm, and the microtubules come in contact with chromosomes, whose centromeric regions are incorporated into the nuclear envelope (the so - called closed mitosis with extranuclear spindle). In many other protists (e.g., ciliates, sporozoans) and fungi, the centrosomes are intranuclear, and their nuclear envelope also does not disassemble during cell division.
Apoptosis is a controlled process in which the cell 's structural components are destroyed, resulting in death of the cell. Changes associated with apoptosis directly affect the nucleus and its contents, for example, in the condensation of chromatin and the disintegration of the nuclear envelope and lamina. The destruction of the lamin networks is controlled by specialized apoptotic proteases called caspases, which cleave the lamin proteins and, thus, degrade the nucleus ' structural integrity. Lamin cleavage is sometimes used as a laboratory indicator of caspase activity in assays for early apoptotic activity. Cells that express mutant caspase - resistant lamins are deficient in nuclear changes related to apoptosis, suggesting that lamins play a role in initiating the events that lead to apoptotic degradation of the nucleus. Inhibition of lamin assembly itself is an inducer of apoptosis.
The nuclear envelope acts as a barrier that prevents both DNA and RNA viruses from entering the nucleus. Some viruses require access to proteins inside the nucleus in order to replicate and / or assemble. DNA viruses, such as herpesvirus replicate and assemble in the cell nucleus, and exit by budding through the inner nuclear membrane. This process is accompanied by disassembly of the lamina on the nuclear face of the inner membrane.
Initially, it has been suspected that immunoglobulins in general and autoantibodies in particular do not enter the nucleus. Now there is a body of evidence that under pathological conditions (e.g. lupus erythematosus) IgG can enter the nucleus.
Most eukaryotic cell types usually have a single nucleus, but some have no nuclei, while others have several. This can result from normal development, as in the maturation of mammalian red blood cells, or from faulty cell division.
An anucleated cell contains no nucleus and is, therefore, incapable of dividing to produce daughter cells. The best - known anucleated cell is the mammalian red blood cell, or erythrocyte, which also lacks other organelles such as mitochondria, and serves primarily as a transport vessel to ferry oxygen from the lungs to the body 's tissues. Erythrocytes mature through erythropoiesis in the bone marrow, where they lose their nuclei, organelles, and ribosomes. The nucleus is expelled during the process of differentiation from an erythroblast to a reticulocyte, which is the immediate precursor of the mature erythrocyte. The presence of mutagens may induce the release of some immature "micronucleated '' erythrocytes into the bloodstream. Anucleated cells can also arise from flawed cell division in which one daughter lacks a nucleus and the other has two nuclei.
In flowering plants, this condition occurs in sieve tube elements.
Multinucleated cells contain multiple nuclei. Most acantharean species of protozoa and some fungi in mycorrhizae have naturally multinucleated cells. Other examples include the intestinal parasites in the genus Giardia, which have two nuclei per cell. In humans, skeletal muscle cells, called myocytes and syncytium, become multinucleated during development; the resulting arrangement of nuclei near the periphery of the cells allows maximal intracellular space for myofibrils. Other multinucleate cells in the human are osteoclasts a type of bone cell. Multinucleated and binucleated cells can also be abnormal in humans; for example, cells arising from the fusion of monocytes and macrophages, known as giant multinucleated cells, sometimes accompany inflammation and are also implicated in tumor formation.
A number of dinoflagellates are known to have two nuclei. Unlike other multinucleated cells these nuclei contain two distinct lineages of DNA: one from the dinoflagellate and the other from a symbiotic diatom. The mitochondria and the plastids of the diatom somehow remain functional.
As the major defining characteristic of the eukaryotic cell, the nucleus ' evolutionary origin has been the subject of much speculation. Four major hypotheses have been proposed to explain the existence of the nucleus, although none have yet earned widespread support.
The first model known as the "syntrophic model '' proposes that a symbiotic relationship between the archaea and bacteria created the nucleus - containing eukaryotic cell. (Organisms of the Archaea and Bacteria domain have no cell nucleus.) It is hypothesized that the symbiosis originated when ancient archaea, similar to modern methanogenic archaea, invaded and lived within bacteria similar to modern myxobacteria, eventually forming the early nucleus. This theory is analogous to the accepted theory for the origin of eukaryotic mitochondria and chloroplasts, which are thought to have developed from a similar endosymbiotic relationship between proto - eukaryotes and aerobic bacteria. The archaeal origin of the nucleus is supported by observations that archaea and eukarya have similar genes for certain proteins, including histones. Observations that myxobacteria are motile, can form multicellular complexes, and possess kinases and G proteins similar to eukarya, support a bacterial origin for the eukaryotic cell.
A second model proposes that proto - eukaryotic cells evolved from bacteria without an endosymbiotic stage. This model is based on the existence of modern planctomycetes bacteria that possess a nuclear structure with primitive pores and other compartmentalized membrane structures. A similar proposal states that a eukaryote - like cell, the chronocyte, evolved first and phagocytosed archaea and bacteria to generate the nucleus and the eukaryotic cell.
The most controversial model, known as viral eukaryogenesis, posits that the membrane - bound nucleus, along with other eukaryotic features, originated from the infection of a prokaryote by a virus. The suggestion is based on similarities between eukaryotes and viruses such as linear DNA strands, mRNA capping, and tight binding to proteins (analogizing histones to viral envelopes). One version of the proposal suggests that the nucleus evolved in concert with phagocytosis to form an early cellular "predator ''. Another variant proposes that eukaryotes originated from early archaea infected by poxviruses, on the basis of observed similarity between the DNA polymerases in modern poxviruses and eukaryotes. It has been suggested that the unresolved question of the evolution of sex could be related to the viral eukaryogenesis hypothesis.
A more recent proposal, the exomembrane hypothesis, suggests that the nucleus instead originated from a single ancestral cell that evolved a second exterior cell membrane; the interior membrane enclosing the original cell then became the nuclear membrane and evolved increasingly elaborate pore structures for passage of internally synthesized cellular components such as ribosomal subunits.
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picture of the church lady from saturday night live | The Church Lady - wikipedia
Enid Strict, better known as The Church Lady, is a recurring character from a series of sketches on the American television show, Saturday Night Live, that appeared from 1986 to 1990, and again in 1996, 2000, 2011, and 2016. She also appeared on The Dana Carvey Show in March 1996, reading a Top Ten List, "New Titles for Princess Diana. ''
Created and played by Dana Carvey, The Church Lady is a mature woman named "Enid Strict, '' who is the uptight, smug and pious host of her own talk show, Church Chat. Enid is a spoof of "holier - than - thou '' Christian churchgoers. On her show (which only lasts the duration of the sketch itself) she has multiple guests, usually celebrities of the time played by other cast members of SNL or by the actual celebrities themselves (usually whoever is guest - hosting that week 's SNL episode, appearing as themselves), who appear to be interviewed by her. However, the interviews are only a guise for her to call the celebrity guests out on their various alleged sins (which are often publicly known news events of the day). They initially receive sarcastic praises from her, until the interview eventually degrades into a tirade against their apparent lack of piety and their secular lifestyles, culminating with her judgmental admonishments and damnation. She often takes others to task for following the desires of their "naughty parts. ''
The Church Lady is known for always wearing a matching blue and purple sweater / dress set, visible knee - high stockings, and a pair of cat 's eye horn - rimmed glasses. She was known for the catchphrases, "Well, is n't that SPE - CIAL?! '', "How con - VEEN - ient! '', and "Could it be... SATAN? '' (in later years, the latter would always end with a haunting echo). When sufficiently satisfied with herself, she would mug for the camera, while twitching the corners of her mouth from one side to the other for an indefinite length of time. She also gave advice in response to letters she ostensibly received. Furthermore, whenever she felt that she had demonstrated her superiority, she would do her "Superior dance '' in which she would rhythmically strut to organ music (played by an organist named Pearl, who was played by musical director Cheryl Hardwick) in front of her alleged inferiors.
Carvey said he based the character on women he knew from his church growing up, who would keep track of his and others ' attendance. The Church Lady became immediately recognizable and played an important role in SNL 's resurgence in the mid-1980s. She made numerous appearances on SNL; Nora Dunn recalled that "everybody loved that character and (Carvey) was pressured to do it so, so often, '' and The Church Lady reappeared even after Carvey 's departure from the show as a regular cast member. She was never incorporated into a feature - length film, however, as many of SNL 's other recurring characters were.
Dana Carvey recalls that he was prompted by executive producer Lorne Michaels to introduce the character (when it was still in SNL rehearsals) at a Neil Young concert at Madison Square Garden, which Church Lady interrupted, fussing and fuming: "What are we doing here? What 's all this noise? ''
During the first season Dana Carvey appeared as a cast regular on Saturday Night Live, Joe Montana and Walter Payton co-hosted the show and both appeared in a Church Lady skit for a game of football with Church Lady. Montana throws a touchdown pass to Church Lady after she distracted Payton (who was playing defense against her) and hid in the audience. At the end of the sketch, all three did the "superior dance. ''
A classic moment was in March 1987 when she interviewed Jim and Tammy Faye Bakker (played by Phil Hartman and Jan Hooks) at the height of the sex scandal involving Jim Bakker and Jessica Hahn. During the show the televangelists begged for donations, and a mascara - dripping Tammy Faye recounted her experience with "demonic raisins. ''
Another notable moment in October 1987 featured actor Sean Penn, playing himself as a guest on the show. During the interview, the Church Lady (who calls him "Sin, '' and then quickly corrects her "mistake '') makes numerous references to his then - wife Madonna, and her overt sexuality, claiming Madonna "does n't quite live up to her namesake. '' The more she goes on about his wife 's "bulbous buttocks gyrating '' and her displaying of her "chestal area, '' the more angered Penn becomes, until he eventually throws a punch, hitting her directly in the nose. Carvey recalls that he was genuinely scared because Penn (who was well known for losing his temper) came dangerously close to actually hitting him.
Jan Hooks would appear again on the sketch in December 1987, this time playing Jessica Hahn, of whom the Church Lady said in a sarcastic tone "Oh, sit right down, Jessie. Here we are not like those other talk shows that fawn all over you. No, siree! '' Jessica Hahn claims that she is tired of degradation, to which the Church Lady produces the Playboy for which she posed (only the cover is shown). Jessica Hahn says that that type of degradation had her authorization and "I am free to degrade myself only how I see fit! For once Jessica Hahn is in control of her life! '' and then goes on to say "Being used and degraded in a hotel room in Florida was not my decision. Being used and degraded in the pages of this magazine, that was my decision. I am in control of being used and degraded! ''
Though the sketch routinely mocked popular celebrity scandals, in 1989, guest host Rob Lowe managed to avoid having his various sex scandals of the day (including the leaking of a sex tape involving the actor) mentioned per a special deal he cut with the Church Lady. In return for her silence on his various sex scandals, Rob Lowe submitted to corporal punishment at the end of the interview. However, Rob Lowe began to enjoy being spanked by the Church Lady, who took this as a sign that Satan had possessed Lowe 's butt and began screaming for Satan to leave the actor 's body.
Another sketch in February 1990 found child actor Fred Savage playing the Church Lady 's niece, Enid. Savage was dressed in a miniature version of Church Lady 's outfit and glasses, and co-spoke all of the familiar admonishing catchphrases, as well as performing the "Superior Dance '' at the beginning of the sketch. In the same sketch was a visit from Donald Trump (as played by Phil Hartman), right after his legendary divorce. The Church Lady scolded him and his "Jezebel, '' to which Trump responded by frankly telling her that he "could buy and sell this freak show, or dog and pony act, or whatever. '' The Church Lady responded that "if you could do that then Enid is just some little boy in a dress. ''
In a teaser trailer for the 1990 film Opportunity Knocks (available on that film 's DVD), Church Lady interrupts, warning viewers not to see the film and is punched in the face and knocked to the floor by Dana Carvey who introduces himself. Church Lady retaliates and the fight continues offscreen as the trailer ends.
Another notable sketch, in October 2000, featured The Church Lady interviewing Anne Heche (played by Chris Kattan), with the Church Lady teasing Anne about her bisexuality by offering her a snack and giving her the choice between a "wiener '' and a "taco '' (implying a choice between two obvious body parts) and referring to a bisexual as someone who "reaches down the front of somebody 's pants and they 're satisfied with whatever they find. ''
Sometimes the Church Lady was accompanied by a character known as "Minister Bob, '' played by Chevy Chase. He seemed to be the only person the Church Lady admired. During a church picnic an inebriated woman interrupted the gathering, shocking all the old ladies present, and saying how the Church Lady acts so high and mighty but is out of touch with the problems of people in everyday life. Minister Bob then acts more down to earth than the Church Lady, saying it is the responsibility of a pastor to deal with people with problems. When he seems to be leading the woman into why problem drinking is a bad idea, he ends with saying "... because of SATAN! '', and joins the Church Lady in her Superior dance.
Toward the end of the character 's run, a parody sketch of the film Misery aired in which Dana Carvey is doing a stand - up tour in Colorado, and announces to the audience this is a special day as it is the last time he will ever do a Church Lady sketch. He is then driving in a snowstorm with Jon Lovitz, where Carvey says it was about time to put the Church Lady to rest and not make it a running gag. Lovitz (who played Satan in a December 1988 Church Lady sketch) pathetically asks if he can now play her (Lovitz ' stalled career was a running joke on SNL the season after his official departure), but is interrupted by heavy snow flurries crushing the car. Carvey is rescued by guest star Roseanne Barr, playing the Church Lady 's disturbingly obsessed Number One Fan, who is so gleeful at rescuing Carvey and buys him things such as "orthopedic shoes, just like the Church Lady wears! '' However, she becomes furious when she reads a comedy review saying Carvey has stopped doing the Church Lady, and intends to hold him until he promises to resume playing her. Reciting the lines was not good enough either, as Roseanne holds Carvey at gunpoint forcing him to wear the Church Lady wig and get her facial expressions and voice just right. Lorne Michaels tries to find the missing Carvey, but becomes increasingly uninterested, deciding instead to promote the "Makin ' Copies '' character, played by Rob Schneider. The skit ends with Carvey and Roseanne in a climactic fight scene, but Roseanne comically keeps getting back up. She and then Carvey are shot by the still - alive Jon Lovitz, who claims the Church Lady character for himself.
The Church Lady appeared on ABC 's The Dana Carvey Show as part of a larger sketch where a viewer letter asked whether Dana Carvey 's SNL characters were to appear on the show. The sketch responded by claiming that ABC used Disney 's high - profile lawyers to engage NBC in a hostile takeover, gaining the rights to Carvey 's SNL characters, as well as some of the IPs of David Letterman 's show on CBS. It then cuts to the Church Lady reading David Letterman 's Top Ten List.
Carvey reprised the character and sketch when he hosted the show in its 36th season, the Church Lady interviewing "the Kardashian sisters '', attempting to exorcise "Snooki '', and notably becoming enraptured and aroused by Justin Bieber before being settled down by God.
In 2016, The Church Lady was the opening skit on May 7 (season 41, episode 19) with Ted Cruz (Taran Killam) and Donald Trump (Darrell Hammond) as her guests. Cruz, who had been recently called "Lucifer in the flesh '' by John Boehner, reappeared mid sketch as the Devil after The Church Lady called Trump "an orange mannequin ''. She also appeared as a guest on the show 's Weekend Update segment a few days before the November 2016 election, describing the election as a choice between "a bitter, female android from the ' 90s... or a riverboat gambler with a big tummy and an orange head ''.
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when does callie come to grey's anatomy | Callie Torres - wikipedia
Calliope Iphegenia "Callie '' Torres, M.D. is a fictional character from the medical drama television series Grey 's Anatomy, which airs on the ABC in the United States. The character was created by series ' producer Shonda Rhimes, and is portrayed by Sara Ramirez. She was introduced in season two, as a senior orthopedic resident, as a love interest for intern George O'Malley (T.R. Knight). Eventually becoming an attending orthopedic surgeon, the character was originally contracted to appear on a recurring basis, but received star billing in the third season.
Torres was initially conceived as a love interest, and eventual wife, for O'Malley, and was created to be disliked by her colleagues. Further storylines include relationships between her and plastic surgeon, Mark Sloan (Eric Dane), cardiothoracic surgeon Erica Hahn (Brooke Smith), as well as a marriage to pediatric surgeon Arizona Robbins (Jessica Capshaw). The character 's bisexual storyline with Hahn and Robbins, and her development later in the series has garnered much acclaim. She is also the longest running LGBT character in television history, appearing in 11 seasons and 239 episodes.
Ramirez 's portrayal of Torres has been widely praised by television critics and the character gained significant popularity as the series progressed. Ramirez was nominated for several awards for her portrayal of Torres, including the Image Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series, and the ALMA Award for Outstanding Actress in a Drama Television Series. The character was ranked at no. 7 by AfterEllen.com in the list of "Top 50 Favorite Female TV Characters. '' At the end of the show 's twelfth season, Ramirez departed the show after ten years, desiring to take a break.
Callie Torres is introduced as an orthopedic surgery resident with a crush on intern George O'Malley (T.R. Knight). The two start a relationship and Torres moves into Meredith 's house (Meredith and Izzie Stevens lived there as well). Uneased at the way their relationship is progressing, O'Malley confronts her, which results in her moving into a hotel. In the aftermath of the breakup, she meets and has a one - night stand with plastic surgeon Mark Sloan (Eric Dane), who becomes her friend. Torres and O'Malley subsequently reconcile, and the two marry in Las Vegas on the spur of the moment. Confused, O'Malley confides to fellow intern Izzie Stevens (Katherine Heigl), about his relationship woes over alcohol, leading to a drunken sexual encounter between the two. Torres remains unaware of his sexual encounter, but becomes increasingly suspicious, and announces her desire to conceive a child. Shortly thereafter, however, she discovers that O'Malley has been unfaithful, ending their marriage. Though her personal life is troubled, Torres thrives professionally when she is appointed as the hospital 's Chief Resident. However, she soon begins struggling to cope in the role, and is demoted soon thereafter.
Torres forms a friendship with Erica Hahn (Brooke Smith), the hospital 's new chief of cardiothoracic surgery. The two embark on a relationship when Hahn jokingly kisses Torres in an elevator to tease Sloan. Neither has been with another woman before, and Torres struggles with her bisexuality, and cheats on her with Sloan. She is initially forgiven, but after an argument about work, Hahn resigns from Seattle Grace, ending their relationship. New pediatric surgeon Arizona Robbins (Jessica Capshaw) kisses her, and they begin dating. Their relationship is tested when Torres comes out to her father, Carlos, who disowns her, cutting her off both financially and emotionally. When she is not granted a position as an attending, she publicly berates the chief, Richard Webber (James Pickens, Jr.), and resigns from her post. She begins working at the neighboring Mercy West hospital, and when the two hospitals merge, she is promoted to an attending surgeon. Torres ' father returns yet again, to condemn her, but ultimately accepts her sexuality. When Torres explains her desire to bear children, Robbins expresses disappointment, and their differing stances on the matter lead them to break up. Soon thereafter, a gunman commits mass murder at the hospital, and, relieved to have survived, Torres and Robbins reconcile, with Robbins agreeing that they should have children together.
When Robbins wins a prestigious grant to help treat children in Malawi, a disgruntled Torres agrees to move there with her, as the position will last for three years; however, her lack of enthusiasm causes Robbins to end their relationship and go without her. A heartbroken Torres moves in with Sloan, and they have a one - night stand. Robbins returns for Torres, apologizing and hoping for forgiveness, but Torres initially rebuffs her, and later reveals that she is pregnant with Sloan 's baby. Robbins agrees to raise the child with her, but dislikes that Sloan will be a permanent part of their lives. En route a weekend getaway, Robbins proposes to Torres, but before Torres can reply, the two are in a head - on collision with a truck, leaving Torres severely injured. In an attempt to save her life, obstetrician - gynecologist Addison Montgomery (Kate Walsh), delivers Torres 's premature baby. Torres survives, and agrees to marry Robbins. After twelve weeks of recovery, both Torres and baby Sofia are discharged and allowed to leave the hospital. Torres recovers from her surgery, but deals with the backlash from her mother (Gina Gallego) 's attitude toward the wedding and her granddaughter. Torres and Robbins marry in a garden after the minister 's wife falls ill, with general surgeon Miranda Bailey (Chandra Wilson), officiating the ceremony.
In the aftermath of a plane accident that killed Sloan and Lexie Grey (Chyler Leigh), Torres is forced to make the decision to have Alex Karev amputate Robbins 's left leg to keep her alive, which puts strains on their relationship. The hospital is sued and eventually found guilty of negligence. Each victim, including Robbins, Derek Shepherd (Patrick Dempsey), Meredith Grey (Ellen Pompeo), and Cristina Yang (Sandra Oh) must receive $15 million of compensation, which leads the hospital to a near bankruptcy as the insurances refuse to pay. These doctors and Torres buy the hospital with the help of the Harper - Avery Foundation to prevent it from closing, and each become members of the new directing board. Everything seems to go well for Arizona and Callie, until a big storm hits the hospital now named after Mark Sloan and Lexie Grey. In the last episode of the ninth season, Arizona cheats on Callie with Dr. Lauren Boswell (Hilarie Burton). Callie soon discovers Arizona 's infidelity by seeing her wedding ring pinned to Dr. Boswell 's scrub top. In the aftermath of discovery, both Callie and Arizona share their feelings and it is revealed that Arizona does not forgive Callie for making the call to amputate her leg. Callie is heartbroken and Arizona states that Callie lost nothing in the crash, to which Callie responds that she, apparently, lost Arizona.
Callie takes Sofia to live with Meredith and Derek, Zola, and Baby Bailey for a while before kicking Arizona out of their apartment and celebrates by dancing in her underwear. Callie also left Arizona at therapy, telling her that she was the only one that needed to go. After being hit by a lawsuit, her father, Carlos, visits and tells Callie that he cheated on her mother but she took him back and Callie would n't be here if her mother did n't give Carlos a second chance. Callie goes to Arizona 's apartment and invites her to come back home. Callie finds out during surgery that Arizona was sleeping with Leah, a second year resident, while separated. Although angry at Arizona, Callie still agrees to work things out.
After April 's failed wedding to Matthew, Callie and Arizona bought a house together, a fresh start, away from the memories of their apartment. They later decided to try again for a second child. However, a trip to the OB / GYN led to the discovery that Callie had developed adhesions in her uterus in the years since Sofia 's birth, meaning she could not carry any more babies. After talking about it, the couple agreed to postpone their dream to have another baby until they 're on more solid footing as a couple.
At the beginning of the eleventh season, Callie and Arizona gave therapy another chance in order to help mend their marriage. They were made to go 30 days living separate lives in the same house with no sexual activity with others or each other. They come close to breaking that rule and had to start over and before the 30 days was up they eventually gave in and connected sexually again. At the end of the 30 days at the final therapy session Arizona realized she could n't live without Callie; however Callie did n't feel the same and stated she felt suffocated and eventually walked out of therapy, ending their marriage.
Callie then goes on to date Penny, who was the resident in charge of Derek Shepard 's case. She comes to a dinner party hosted by Meredith, who recognizes her. It is then discovered that Penny is going to be working at Grey Sloan Memorial. When everyone, including Callie, finds out who Penny actually is, they protest and try to get her off of the Grey Sloan Memorial residency line. She manages to stay on the line despite all the others ' pleads and wishes.
After Callie discloses her desire to move to New York with Penny and take her and Arizona 's daughter, Sofia, with her, Arizona takes Callie to court for sole parental custody. Callie loses custody of her daughter to Arizona and Penny moves to New York. After Arizona decides that both Sofia 's moms deserve to be happy, Arizona presents Callie with plane tickets and offers a custody agreement that keeps Sofia in Seattle for the summer and then sharing her every other school year and Christmas.
Callie is referenced occasionally by Arizona and Sofia after her departure from the show. At the conclusion of season 14, Arizona departs the show to move to New York and it is implied that the two will ultimately reconcile after Callie and Penny are mentioned to have broken up.
Ramirez on Grey 's Anatomy
Ramirez was seen by ABC executives, in her Broadway performance of Spamalot, which garnered their attention. Due to their admiration, the network offered Ramirez a role on any ABC television series, of her choice, and she chose Grey 's Anatomy. Ramirez further explained that at her initial audition, the producers liked her, and had intentions to add her to the show, but did not know who to cast her as. She also said she was in awe of how the executives said, "Pick a show, any show '', explaining that it is rare. Shonda Rhimes said: "I was looking for a girlfriend for George, but it was in the infancy stages, so I had no idea what I was looking for. '' Rhimes built the character around Ramirez after she met her. Ramirez 's character was initially given recurring status in the second season and received star billing in the third season, alongside fellow cast member Dane, who portrayed Mark Sloan. Ramirez discusses maintaining relationships with co-stars:
Gay & Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation on Torres ' bisexual storyline
The American Broadcasting Company (ABC) characterized Torres as "driven '', "determined '', and "outgoing '', while also noting her weaknesses: "defensive '' and "impulsive ''. Ramirez described her character as someone who "appears to be a certain way, but has some very complex issues going on behind the scenes. She seems to be a very strong personality, someone who really believes in herself and has worked very hard to get where she is. She 's very competitive but does have a sense of self, so she does n't need to win all the time. '' At Torres ' initial appearance on the show, she was disliked by fans, due to her getting in the way of O'Malley and Meredith Grey (Ellen Pompeo) 's relationship. When asked of this, Ramirez said: "You do run across a lot of people who are extremely invested in that story line. Obviously, I 've heard some negative stuff. '' The end of the show 's fourth season saw Torres grow closer to cardiothoracic surgeon Erica Hahn, in a relationship referred to by the portmanteau "Eri - Cal '' and later "Callica '' by Michael Ausiello of Entertainment Weekly. Rhimes stated that: "Callie and Erica have an undeniable chemistry, and watching the story unfold is something the writers are looking forward to. I wanted to illuminate their relationship in the same way we do all relationships on the show -- it will be funny, sweet, honest, and a little bit dirty. ''
She explained that in developing the relationship between the two: "we wanted it to be real -- not some stunt to get people talking. We wanted to see what would happen if a woman suddenly had feelings for another woman. '' The two characters shared a kiss at the end of the season four finale, with which D. Williams of After Ellen noted: "Callie and Erica became the only regular lesbian / bisexual female characters currently on network television. This is also the first time that two regular characters on a network show have begun a lesbian romance, as opposed to one becoming involved with a new lesbian character introduced expressly for that relationship. '' Before continuing with the storyline, the show 's producers consulted with the Gay & Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation to ensure they maintained realism throughout. Trish Doolan, star of April 's Shower was invited to consult in the workshop sessions which took place, and surmised that; "They were really wanting to be truthful to the two characters they 're focusing on in the woman - woman relationship '', with Nikki Weiss, who also consulted, adding: "they did n't want to stereotype anything either, and write from a place where they did n't understand it. (...) I do n't think they did it as a stunt to get people back to watching after the strike. I really think that they wanted to develop these two characters, and that you could see a closeness with them way before they ever decided any kind of -- I think they just have a chemistry together, as actresses, too. You could tell that in the room. They definitely have a chemistry. ''
In the show 's fifth season, Torres embarked on a relationship with Arizona Robbins (Capshaw). The relationship between the two is referred to by the portmanteau "Calzona ''. Rhimes praised the chemistry between Arizona and Callie in contrast, comparing it to that between the show 's primary couple Grey and Derek Shepherd (Patrick Dempsey), and stating: "They have that little thing that makes you want to watch them. '' In "An Honest Mistake '', Torres was initially rejected by Robbins, with Robbins citing Torres ' "inexperience '' as a factor. Series writer Peter Nowalk offered the insight:
The couple ultimately decided to begin a relationship, however, the two experience difficulties, but eventually reunite. Rhimes commented on their reconciliation: "I love (Callie) with Arizona. (...) I like that they make me feel hopeful about love. '' Rhimes has mentioned of their relationship in the sixth season: "I would like to see Callie happily in a long - term relationship. We have so much to explore with them, because we barely know anything about (Arizona). ''
Callie and Arizona have a five - year relationship, ultimately marrying in the seventh season and divorcing in the eleventh season. Callie starts a new relationship with Penny Blake and leaves to go to New York with her in the twelfth - season finale. Shonda Rhimes spoke on Ramirez 's abrupt departure, saying, "This one was different because it was n't a big planned thing. I had a different plan going and when Sara came in and said, ' I really need to take this break, ' I was lucky that we 'd shot the end of the season with her going to New York. ''
Maureen Ryan from the Chicago Tribune was critical about the character 's initial development. Reviewing the third season 's premiere, she wrote the writers should give up on Callie explaining they have made her "far too obviously the "weird girl, '' but there 's nothing underneath her brusque persona. '' Her marriage to O'Malley was well received; Staci Krause of IGN wrote: "Their relationship has been a roller coaster and it was nice to see this turn of events, as she really is a perfect contrast to George. '' Discussing the character in terms of her relationship with Hahn, Williams was largely positive, assessing that: "The story line offered both the drama Grey 's is known for and a truthfulness network television has rarely achieved when it comes to lesbian relationships. '' Trish Doolan and Nikki Weiss, invited by GLAAD to consult with Grey 's Anatomy producers on the storyline, praised the effort put into researching the issue by the writers and actors involved, though were more negative on the scene which saw Hahn kiss Callie in an elevator in front of Mark Sloan. Weiss commented: "I just felt like, if they really cared about each other, I do n't think they would do that as a stunt. That seemed a little, I do n't know, forced. (...) (It) was more like a conquest, like he could have (Hahn) too or something. '' LGBT website AfterEllen.com agreed with this view, criticizing the way the scene was edited so as to keep cutting to Sloan 's point of view, as though "privileging the male gaze. '' AfterEllen.com included Torres in their list of the Top 50 Lesbian and Bisexual Characters, ranking her at No. 6 and in their Top 50 Favorite Female TV Characters. The character was also listed in Wetpaint 's "10 Hottest TV Doctors on TV ''.
Commenting on Hahn 's abrupt departure from the show, Dorothy Snarker, writing for AfterEllen.com, observed of Torres and Robbins ' relationship: "I (...) ca n't help but be wary of how the Grey 's writers will handle this relationship. Jessica has proven lovely and likable in her brief screen time so far. But it 's not how the romance starts, but what happens next that really matters. '' Speaking of the musical episode, Nicole Golden of TV Fanatic called Ramirez 's rendition of "Chasing Cars '' "amazing '' and referred to her performance in Kate Havnevik 's "Grace '' as "beautiful ''. Margaret Lyons of New York Magazine was happy with the evolution of Bailey and Torres ' friendship in the first half of the ninth season, calling it "the one bright spot '': "They joke, they tease each other, they offer sage love advice to one another, now that they 're both on their second marriages. '' Ramirez was nominated for Outstanding Actress in a Drama Television Series at the Alma Awards, in 2007 and 2008. Also in 2007, at the 13th Screen Actors Guild Awards, Ramirez and the cast of Grey 's Anatomy, were the recipients of the Award for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series. She and the cast were nominated for the same award, in 2008. In 2011, at the 42nd NAACP Image Awards, Ramirez was nominated for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series. She was ranked at no. 7 in AfterEllen.com 's list of "Top 50 Favorite Female TV Characters ''
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what happened to the coach of ottawa's face | Guy Boucher - wikipedia
Guy Boucher (born August 3, 1971) is a Canadian professional ice hockey coach. Boucher is the current head coach of the Ottawa Senators of the National Hockey League (NHL). He was the head coach of the Tampa Bay Lightning from 2010 -- 2013 and SC Bern from 2014 -- 15. He previously coached in the Quebec Major Junior Hockey League. He has coached various Canadian international teams.
Before his coaching years, Boucher played right wing with the McGill Redmen between 1991 and 1995. He graduated with an arts degree (history and environmental biology) in 1995 and an engineering degree (agricultural engineering) in 1996. He also holds a Masters in sports psychology at the University of Montreal. In 1995 -- 96, Boucher played in France for Viry - Essonne where he scored 16 goals and 38 points in 27 games.
Boucher began his coaching career as assistant coach with the McGill Redmen under head coach Martin Raymond in 1996 -- 97, then moved on to serve as an assistant coach with the Rouyn - Noranda Huskies of the Quebec Major Junior Hockey League (1997 -- 2000) and then with the Rimouski Océanic from 2003 to 2006 with whom he won the Jean - Rougeau trophy (regular season champions) and President 's Cup. He also participated in the Memorial Cup tournament. In between, he coached the Lac - Saint - Louis Lions of the AAA Midget Hockey League. He returned to the Quebec Major Junior Hockey League as the Drummondville Voltigeurs head coach in 2006. In the 2008 -- 09, he guided the team to their best season in history, with a total of 54 wins and 112 points, capturing the President 's Cup on his way to the Memorial Cup tournament once again. He won the Paul - Dumont Trophy, awarded to QMJHL 's personality of the year.
On June 29, 2009, he was named head coach of the Montreal Canadiens 's affiliate Hamilton Bulldogs in the AHL becoming the eighth head coach in Bulldogs franchise history. He led the team to an impressive 52 -- 17 -- 11 record for 115 points despite having many of his best players being called up by the Montreal Canadiens. At the end of the season, he won the Louis A.R. Pieri Memorial Award as coach of the year.
In 2010, Boucher was offered the vacant head coaching position for the Columbus Blue Jackets, but turned it down to accept the head coaching position with the Tampa Bay Lightning, signing a four - year contract. He developed a "1 - 3 - 1 '' defensive system at Tampa that led to a famous incident against the Philadelphia Flyers where the Flyers held back the puck in their defensive zone, refusing to advance, while the Lightning team waited and did not attack the puck carrier, leading to several minutes of no action. In his rookie year as an NHL head coach, Boucher led the Tampa Bay Lightning to game seven of the Eastern Conference Final. On March 24, 2013, the team 's general manager Steve Yzerman fired Boucher following a 5 -- 3 loss against the Ottawa Senators. At the time, Tampa Bay was in 14th place in the Eastern Conference.
On January 27, 2014, the Swiss ice hockey club SC Bern announced the signing of Guy Boucher as their head coach. Boucher guided the team to the title in the 2014 -- 15 Swiss Cup competition. On November 18, 2015, Boucher was fired by SC Bern following a four - game losing streak and a ninth - place finish in the NLA.
On May 8, 2016, Boucher was hired as the head coach of the Ottawa Senators. With his hire, Boucher is the first person to coach both franchises from the 1992 expansion class. In his first season, the club advanced to the Eastern Conference Final, losing in double overtime in game seven.
Boucher worked as an assistant coach for Canada men 's national U-18 ice hockey team in 2006, 2007 and 2008. In 2008, they won the gold medal at the U-18 world championships. In 2009, he served as an assistant coach with Canada men 's national U-20 ice hockey team, which won its fifth consecutive gold medal at the World Junior Ice Hockey Championships. In 2014 and 2015, he coached Team Canada at the Spengler Cup, guiding the team to the title in 2015.
Guy Boucher is married to Marsha and has three children Vincent, Mila and Naomi.
Boucher has a prominent scar on his right cheek. When asked how he received it, Boucher said "it is not hockey - related. I did not tell anybody back home, so it is like this little enigma. My kids do not even know. '' Guy Boucher 's scar is often compared to the "Le Chiffre '' character 's scar in Casino Royale and Boucher is sometimes referred to as a "James Bond villain ''. He was spoofed as such on - air by Jay Onrait of the Canadian TSN sports television channel.
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who played anna dimera on days of our lives | Anna DiMera - wikipedia
Anna DiMera is a fictional character on the NBC daytime drama Days of Our Lives. She is the ex-wife of Roman Brady, and the biological mother of Carrie Brady. Created by head writers Margaret DePriest and Sheri Anderson, Anna is portrayed by Leann Hunley. Anna is known for being a member of the powerful, upper class, DiMera family. She was married to Count Antony DiMera until his death in 2009. Hunley initially portrayed Anna from 1982 -- 86. After a twenty - one year absence, Hunley reprised the role of Anna beginning on June 20, 2007, and remained on contract with the show until April 2, 2009. She most recently reprised the role again in early - December 2009 on a recurring basis, after taking a leave of absence from the show and ultimately leaving once more on June 15, 2010. In July 2016, it was reported that Hunley was to again reprise the role of Anna in the upcoming new year, with her return date set for January 9, 2017. Hunley departed on February 16, 2017. In December 2017, it was announced that Hunley would return to the role, beginning January 5, 2018. For her work as Anna, Hunley received a Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in 1986.
Anna Fredericks first arrives in Salem in 1982, searching for Roman Brady, her husband and the father of her daughter, Carrie. For many years, Roman had been under the impression that Anna had been dead, when in reality she had been sold into white slavery. Anna has several red marks on her back, which she claims were from being whipped but were in fact from Multiple Sclerosis.
Following her divorce from Roman, Anna takes a job as Tony DiMera 's secretary, while working in secret for Stefano DiMera who pays Anna $1,000,000 to have Roman fired from the ISA. To achieve this, Anna has Carrie hypnotized to place fake deposit slips in Roman 's home. Although Roman is fired from the police force, the ISA are convinced that Roman had been framed.
In 1983, Anna drugs Tony and marries him in Las Vegas, which angers him. Shortly after the wedding, Tony discovers that one of the stipulations of Stefano 's will require him to live with Renée DuMonde and David Banning for a year in order to gain his inheritance.
At one point in time, she discovers she is pregnant with Tony DiMera ` s child, but suffers a miscarriage later on.
In 1986, Anna leaves Salem after learning Tony had divorced her. She moves to Europe, where she led a successful career.
In 2007, Anna returns to Salem to deliver to the Bradys old DiMera family letters belonging to Tony. She becomes involved in the Brady / DiMera feud, and her romance with Roman is reignited.
Then, it is revealed that Tony is alive, stranded on an island for over 20 years, and that Andre is impersonating Tony. Anna and Tony are reunited, and they remarry May 21, 2008. Tony is killed after suffering a heart attack, after a struggle with Philip Kiriakis at the pier resulted in a fall.
After the death of Tony, Anna leaves Salem on April 2, 2009. Sydney DiMera is kidnapped in December 2009. On December 18, 2009, Anna is shown on - screen, revealing to the audience as Sydney 's kidnapper. In January 2010, it is revealed that EJ actually hired Anna to kidnap Sydney in order to keep her away from Sami. As 2010 progressed, Stefano managed to neutralize her from revealing EJ 's part in Sydney 's kidnapping, last being seen ambushed in hospital in June 2010. Carrie mentioned Anna in a conversation to Austin during the Christmas season of December 2011. In January 2017, Anna is seen when Marlena bumps into her in Europe, after Anna let loose with a gun at a Prague café, following Marlena 's trail in finding Stefano.
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who was on they think it's all over | They Think it 's All over (TV series) - wikipedia
They Think It 's All Over is a British comedy panel game with a sporting theme produced by Talkback and shown on BBC1. The show 's name is taken from Kenneth Wolstenholme 's famous 1966 World Cup commentary quotation, "they think it 's all over... it is now! '' and the show used the phrase to sign off each episode. In 2006 the show was axed after 11 years on - air.
The show was originally presented by comedian Nick Hancock. Ex-England football team captain Gary Lineker and ex-England cricket team captain David Gower were team captains from 1995 until they announced their retirement from the show in 2003. They were replaced as team captains by ex-England football goalkeeper David Seaman and ex-England cricketer Phil Tufnell. Former footballer Ian Wright took over from David Seaman in autumn 2004. From October 2005, Boris Becker replaced Tufnell and Lee Mack took over from Hancock as host.
Occasionally, a team captain was unable to appear on the show due to other commitments so guest captains were drafted in. Six times World Snooker Champion Steve Davis was a regular choice as guest captain, while Matthew Pinsent, Mark Lawrenson, Mick McCarthy, Sam Torrance, Steve Backley, Sharron Davies, Linford Christie and Michael Johnson also appeared in this role. Additionally, Ian Wright was a guest captain before becoming a permanent team captain.
Each team also had a regular panellist. For the team which was originally captained by Gary Lineker this was Rory McGrath for the show 's entire run. David Gower was originally teamed up with Lee Hurst. Hurst left the show in 1997 (although he made a reappearance in 2004 on David Seaman 's team) and was replaced for the next two series by a rotating line - up of comedians -- Jonathan Ross, Jo Brand, Alan Davies, Julian Clary and Phill Jupitus. Despite regularly admitting to having limited sporting knowledge, Ross became the permanent panellist until leaving the show in 2006, and was replaced by Sean Lock for the World Cup and summer sports special editions. The third member of each team varied from week to week, and would typically be a notable sportsperson, broadcaster or comedian.
The show was originally produced for BBC Radio 5, where it was hosted by Des Lynam. The devisers, Simon Bullivant and Bill Matthews, started work on a TV version in 1993 but it was two years before it made it to air. Des Lynam did record a pilot in early 1994 but decided not to do the already commissioned series, which was then put on hold.
In 1999 and 2001, as part of the BBC 's Comic Relief broadcasts, one - off special programmes were made called Have I Got Buzzcocks All Over. They combined elements of the show with Have I Got News for You and Never Mind the Buzzcocks, with Angus Deayton as host.
Kenneth Wolstenholme was unhappy with the use of the phrase for the title of the show. He wrote in his autobiography that he had contacted the BBC to find out what relevance the title had to his most famous line, uttered 30 years earlier. However, when the show was first commissioned, he did accept a fee to re-record his famous commentary for the opening titles, as the original was unusable.
Throughout the series, the rounds varied each week. Examples include:
All episodes ending with a tie score or series ending with the number of episodes tied finish with a tie - breaker. Sometimes, the tie - breaker refers to incidents from previously in the episode. These have included:
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whats the song sweet child o mine about | Sweet Child O ' Mine - wikipedia
"Sweet Child o ' Mine '' is from American rock band Guns N ' Roses ' debut album, Appetite for Destruction (1987).
Released in August 1988 as the album 's third single, the song topped the Billboard Hot 100 chart, becoming the band 's first and only number - one single in the U.S.. Billboard ranked it as the No. 5 song for 1988. Rereleased in 1989, it reached number six on the UK Singles Chart. "' Sweet Child o ' Mine ' turned into a huge hit and now it makes me sick, '' guitarist Slash grumbled in 1990. "I mean, I like it, but I hate what it represents. ''
Slash has been quoted as having an initial disdain for the song due to its roots as simply a "string skipping '' exercise and a joke at the time. During a jam session at the band 's house in the Sunset Strip, drummer Steven Adler and Slash were warming up and Slash began to play a "circus '' melody while making faces at Adler. Rhythm guitarist Izzy Stradlin asked Slash to play it again. Stradlin came up with some chords, Duff McKagan created a bassline and Adler planned a beat. In his autobiography, Slash said "within an hour my guitar exercise had become something else ''. Meanwhile, lead singer Axl Rose was listening to the musicians upstairs in his room and was inspired to write lyrics, which became complete by the following afternoon. He based it on his girlfriend Erin Everly, and declared that Lynyrd Skynyrd served as an inspiration "to make sure that we 'd got that heartfelt feeling ''. On the next composing session in Burbank, the band added both a bridge and a guitar solo.
When the band recorded demos with producer Spencer Proffer, he suggested adding a breakdown at the song 's end. The musicians agreed, but were not sure what to do. Listening to the demo in a loop, Rose started saying to himself, "Where do we go? Where do we go now? '' and Proffer suggested that he sing that.
The "Sweet Child o ' Mine '' video depicts the band rehearsing in the Huntington Ballroom at Huntington Beach, surrounded by crew members. All of the band members ' girlfriends at the time were shown in the clip: Rose 's girlfriend Erin Everly, whose father is Don Everly of The Everly Brothers; McKagan 's girlfriend Mandy Brix, from the all - female rock band The Lame Flames; Stradlin 's girlfriend Angela Nicoletti; Adler 's girlfriend Cheryl Swiderski; and Slash 's girlfriend Sally McLaughlin. Stradlin 's dog was also featured. The video was extremely successful on MTV, and helped launch the song to success on mainstream radio.
To make "Sweet Child o ' Mine '' more marketable to MTV and radio stations, the song was cut from 5: 56 to 4: 59, for the video / radio edit, with much of Slash 's solo removed. This drew the ire of the band, including Rose, who commented on it in a 1989 interview with Rolling Stone: "I hate the radio edit of ' Sweet Child O ' Mine. ' Radio stations said, "Well, your vocals are n't cut. '' "My favorite part of the song is Slash 's slow solo; it 's the heaviest part for me. There 's no reason for it to be missing except to create more space for commercials, so the radio - station owners can get more advertising dollars. When you get the chopped version of ' Paradise City ' or half of ' Sweet Child ' and ' Patience ' cut, you 're getting screwed. '' The video uses the same edits as the radio version.
A 7 - inch vinyl format and cassette single were released. The album version of the song was included on the US single release, while the UK single was the "edit / remix '' version. The 12 '' vinyl format also contained the longer LP version. The b - side to the single is a non-album, live version of "It 's So Easy ''.
On an interview on Eddie Trunk 's New York radio show in May 2006, Rose stated that his original concept for the video focused on the theme of drug trafficking. According to Rose, the video was to depict an Asian woman carrying a baby into a foreign land, only to discover at the end that the child was dead and filled with heroin. This concept was rejected by Geffen Records.
There is also an alternative video for "Sweet Child o ' Mine '' in the same place, but with different shots and filmed in black & white.
"Sweet Child o ' Mine '' placed No. 37 on Guitar World 's list of the "100 Greatest Guitar Solos. '' It also came in at number three on Blender 's 500 Greatest Songs Since You Were Born, and at No. 198 on Rolling Stone 's The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time. In March 2005, Q magazine placed it at No. 6 in its list of the 100 Greatest Guitar Tracks. On a 2004 Total Guitar magazine poll, the introduction 's famous riff was voted number - one riff of all - time by the readers of the magazine. It was also in Rolling Stone 's 40 Greatest Songs that Changed the World. It places No. 7 in VH1 's "100 Greatest Songs of the ' 80s '', and placed No. 210 on the RIAA Songs of the Century list.
The song is currently ranked as the 104th greatest song of all time, as well as the best song of 1987, by Acclaimed Music. The song has sold 2,609,000 digital copies in the US as of March 2012.
In 2015, the web page of the Australian music TV channel MAX published an article by music writer Nathan Jolly that noted similarities between "Sweet Child o ' Mine '' and the song "Unpublished Critics '' by the Australian band Australian Crawl, from 1981. The article included both songs, inviting readers to compare the two. It also cited a reader 's comment on an earlier article that had originally drawn attention to the similarities between the songs. As of May 2015, this comment no longer appeared on the earlier article. The story went viral quickly, encouraging several comments on both the MAX article and the suggestion that "Unpublished Critics '' had influenced "Sweet Child o ' Mine '', including one from Duff McKagan, bass player with Guns N ' Roses when "Sweet Child o ' Mine '' was written and recorded. McKagan found the similarities between the songs "stunning, '' but admitted that he had not previously heard "Unpublished Critics. ''
All tracks written by Guns N ' Roses except where noted.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
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how do you address the rt hon in a letter | Forms of address in the United Kingdom - wikipedia
Forms of address used in the United Kingdom are given below. For further information on Courtesy Titles see Courtesy titles in the United Kingdom.
Several terms have been abbreviated in the table below. The forms used in the table are given first, followed by alternative acceptable abbreviations in parentheses.
A formal announcement in The London Gazette reads: "The Queen has been pleased by Letters Patent under the Great Seal of the Realm dated 31 December 2012 to declare that all the children of the eldest son of the Prince of Wales should have and enjoy the style, title and attribute of Royal Highness with the titular dignity of Prince or Princess prefixed to their Christian names or with such other titles of honour. '' This refers to any children of the Duke and Duchess of Cambridge.
Similar styles are also applied to clergy of equivalent status in other religious organisations. The words clergy and cleric / clerk are derived from the proper term for bishops, priests and deacons still used in legal documents: Clerk in Holy Orders (e.g. "Vivienne Frances Faull, Clerk in Holy Orders '').
The usage ' Lord ' as applied to a bishop pre-dates the United Kingdom, and is a well - established convention. It is more usual to abbreviate Reverend (if at all) to Rev 'd rather than Rev. Where a personal name is not used for a priest or deacon, the manner of address is Rev Mr etc., i.e. the Rev is used with the usual title. Without this title, the use of Rev with a surname should not be used in the United Kingdom for any ordained person, whether Anglican or not - it is a solecism. Catholic (and Anglo - Catholic) clergy favour Fr (Father) (or Mthr (Mother)). For further details see Crockford 's Guide to addressing the Clergy.
Clergy: ' introduce as Mr Pike or Father Pike according to his preference ' (Debrett 's Etiquette and Modern Manners 1981 pg230)
It should be noted that the Church of Scotland as a Presbyterian Church recognizes state - awarded titles only as courtesy. In court (Assembly, Presbytery and Session) one may only be addressed as Mr, Mrs, Miss, Dr, Prof, etc. depending on academic achievement. Thus ministers are correctly addressed as, for example Mr Smith or Mrs Smith unless they have a higher degree or academic appointment e.g. Dr Smith or Prof. Smith. It is ' infra dig ' to use the title ' Rev ' and even the use of ' the Rev Mr ' requires sensitivity to official style.
A judge 's first name only forms part of their judicial style if, at the time of their appointment, there is a senior judge with the same or a similar surname. Thus, if there is a "Mr Justice Smith '', subsequent judges will be "Mr Justice John Smith '', "Mrs Justice Mary Smith '', etc. a member of the Bar (but not a solicitor) addresses a Circuit Judge or higher, out of court, as "Judge ''.
The forms of address used for academics can, in most cases, be either formal or social.
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who sang there is a house in new orleans | The House of the Rising Sun - wikipedia
"The House of the Rising Sun '' is a traditional folk song, sometimes called "Rising Sun Blues ''. It tells of a life gone wrong in New Orleans; many versions also urge a sibling to avoid the same fate. The most successful commercial version, recorded in 1964 by British rock group the Animals, was a number one hit on the UK Singles Chart and also in the United States and France. As a traditional folk song recorded by an electric rock band, it has been described as the "first folk - rock hit ''.
Like many classic folk ballads, "The House of the Rising Sun '' is of uncertain authorship. Musicologists say that it is based on the tradition of broadside ballads, and thematically it has some resemblance to the 16th - century ballad The Unfortunate Rake. According to Alan Lomax, "Rising Sun '' was used as the name of a bawdy house in two traditional English songs, and it was also a name for English pubs. He further suggested that the melody might be related to a 17th - century folk song, "Lord Barnard and Little Musgrave '', also known as "Matty Groves '', but a survey by Bertrand Bronson showed no clear relationship between the two songs. Lomax proposed that the location of the house was then relocated from England to New Orleans by white southern performers. However, Vance Randolph proposed an alternative French origin, the "rising sun '' referring to the decorative use of the sunburst insignia dating to the time of Louis XIV, which was brought to North America by French immigrants.
"House of Rising Sun '' was said to have been known by miners in 1905. The oldest published version of the lyrics is that printed by Robert Winslow Gordon in 1925, in a column "Old Songs That Men Have Sung '' in Adventure Magazine. The lyrics of that version begin:
There is a house in New Orleans, it 's called the Rising Sun
It 's been the ruin of many a poor girl
The oldest known recording of the song, under the title "Rising Sun Blues '', is by Appalachian artists Clarence "Tom '' Ashley and Gwen Foster, who recorded it for Vocalion Records on 6 September 1933. Ashley said he had learned it from his grandfather, Enoch Ashley. Roy Acuff, an "early - day friend and apprentice '' of Ashley 's, learned it from him and recorded it as "Rising Sun '' on 3 November 1938. Several older blues recordings of songs with similar titles are unrelated, for example, "Rising Sun Blues '' by Ivy Smith (1927) and "The Risin ' Sun '' by Texas Alexander (1928).
The song was among those collected by folklorist Alan Lomax, who, along with his father, was a curator of the Archive of American Folk Song for the Library of Congress. On an expedition with his wife to eastern Kentucky, Lomax set up his recording equipment in Middlesboro, Kentucky, in the house of singer and activist Tilman Cadle. In 1937 he recorded a performance by Georgia Turner, the 16 - year - old daughter of a local miner. He called it The Rising Sun Blues. Lomax later recorded a different version sung by Bert Martin and a third sung by Daw Henson, both eastern Kentucky singers. In his 1941 songbook Our Singing Country, Lomax credits the lyrics to Turner, with reference to Martin 's version.
In 1941, Woody Guthrie recorded a version. A recording made in 1947 by Josh White, who is also credited with having written new words and music that have subsequently been popularized in the versions made by many other later artists, was released by Mercury Records in 1950. White learned the song from a "white hillbilly singer '', who might have been Ashley, in North Carolina in 1923 -- 1924. Lead Belly recorded two versions of the song, in February 1944 and in October 1948, called "In New Orleans '' and "The House of the Rising Sun '', respectively; the latter was recorded in sessions that were later used on the album Lead Belly 's Last Sessions (1994, Smithsonian Folkways).
In 1957 Glenn Yarbrough recorded the song for Elektra Records. The song is also credited to Ronnie Gilbert on an album by The Weavers released in the late 1940s or early 1950s. Pete Seeger released a version on Folkways Records in 1958, which was re-released by Smithsonian Folkways in 2009. Andy Griffith recorded the song on his 1959 album Andy Griffith Shouts the Blues and Old Timey Songs. In 1960 Miriam Makeba recorded the song on her eponymous RCA album.
Joan Baez recorded it in 1960 on her self - titled debut album; she frequently performed the song in concert throughout her career. Nina Simone recorded her first version for the album Nina at the Village Gate in 1962. Tim Hardin sang it on This is Tim Hardin, recorded in 1964 but not released until 1967. The Chambers Brothers recorded a version on Feelin ' the Blues, released on Vault records (1970).
In late 1961, Bob Dylan recorded the song for his debut album, released in March 1962. That release had no songwriting credit, but the liner notes indicate that Dylan learned this version of the song from Dave Van Ronk. In an interview for the documentary No Direction Home, Van Ronk said that he was intending to record the song and that Dylan copied his version. Van Ronk recorded it soon thereafter for the album Just Dave Van Ronk.
I had learned it sometime in the 1950s, from a recording by Hally Wood, the Texas singer and collector, who had got it from an Alan Lomax field recording by a Kentucky woman named Georgia Turner. I put a different spin on it by altering the chords and using a bass line that descended in half steps -- a common enough progression in jazz, but unusual among folksingers. By the early 1960s, the song had become one of my signature pieces, and I could hardly get off the stage without doing it.
19 June 1964 (1964 - 06 - 19) (UK)
An interview with Eric Burdon revealed that he first heard the song in a club in Newcastle, England, where it was sung by the Northumbrian folk singer Johnny Handle. The Animals were on tour with Chuck Berry and chose it because they wanted something distinctive to sing.
The Animals ' version transposes the narrative of the song from the point of view of a woman led into a life of degradation to that of a man whose father was now a gambler and drunkard, rather than the sweetheart in earlier versions.
The Animals had begun featuring their arrangement of "House of the Rising Sun '' during a joint concert tour with Chuck Berry, using it as their closing number to differentiate themselves from acts that always closed with straight rockers. It got a tremendous reaction from the audience, convincing initially reluctant producer Mickie Most that it had hit potential, and between tour stops the group went to a small recording studio on Kingsway in London to capture it.
The song was recorded in just one take on 18 May 1964, and it starts with a now - famous electric guitar A minor chord arpeggio by Hilton Valentine. According to Valentine, he simply took Dylan 's chord sequence and played it as an arpeggio. The performance takes off with Burdon 's lead vocal, which has been variously described as "howling, '' "soulful, '' and as "... deep and gravelly as the north - east English coal town of Newcastle that spawned him. '' Finally, Alan Price 's pulsating organ part (played on a Vox Continental) completes the sound. Burdon later said, "We were looking for a song that would grab people 's attention. ''
As recorded, "House of the Rising Sun '' ran four and a half minutes, regarded as far too long for a pop single at the time. Producer Most, who initially did not really want to record the song at all, said that on this occasion: "Everything was in the right place... It only took 15 minutes to make so I ca n't take much credit for the production ''. He was nonetheless now a believer and declared it a single at its full length, saying "We 're in a microgroove world now, we will release it. ''
In the United States however, the original single (MGM 13264) was a 2: 58 version. The MGM Golden Circle reissue (KGC 179) featured the unedited 4: 29 version, although the record label gives the edited playing time of 2: 58. The edited version was included on the group 's 1964 U.S. debut album The Animals, while the full version was later included on their best - selling 1966 U.S. greatest hits album, The Best of the Animals. However, the very first American release of the full - length version was on a 1965 album of various groups entitled Mickie Most Presents British Go - Go (MGM SE - 4306), the cover of which, under the listing of "House of the Rising Sun '', described it as the "Original uncut version. '' Americans could also hear the complete version in the movie Go Go Mania in the spring of 1965.
"House of the Rising Sun '' was not included on any of the group 's British albums, but it was reissued as a single twice in subsequent decades, charting both times, reaching number 25 in 1972 and number 11 in 1982, using the famous Wittlesbach organ.
The Animals version was played in 6 / 8 meter, unlike the 4 / 4 of most earlier versions. Arranging credit went only to Alan Price. According to Burdon, this was simply because there was insufficient room to name all five band members on the record label, and Alan Price 's first name was first alphabetically. However, this meant that only Price received songwriter 's royalties for the hit, a fact that has caused bitterness ever since, especially with Valentine.
"House of the Rising Sun '' was a trans - Atlantic hit: after reaching the top of the UK pop singles chart in July 1964, it topped the U.S. pop singles chart two months later, on 5 September 1964, where it stayed for three weeks, and became the first British Invasion number one unconnected with the Beatles. It was the group 's breakthrough hit in both countries and became their signature song. The song was also a hit in a number of other countries, including Ireland, where it reached No. 10 and dropped off the charts one week later.
Bob Dylan said he first heard The Animals ' version on his car radio and "jumped out of his car seat '' because he liked it so much; but he stopped playing the song after the Animals ' recording became a hit because fans accused him of plagiarism. Dave Van Ronk said that The Animals ' version -- like Dylan 's version before it -- was based on his arrangement of the song.
Dave Marsh described the Animals ' take on "The House of the Rising Sun '' as "... the first folk - rock hit, '' sounding "... as if they 'd connected the ancient tune to a live wire. '' Writer Ralph McLean of the BBC agreed that "It was arguably the first folk rock tune, '' calling it "a revolutionary single '', after which "the face of modern music was changed forever. ''
The Animals ' rendition of the song is recognized as one of the classics of British pop music. Writer Lester Bangs labeled it "a brilliant rearrangement '' and "a new standard rendition of an old standard composition. '' It ranked number 122 on Rolling Stone magazine 's list of "500 Greatest Songs of All Time ''. It is also one of the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame 's "500 Songs That Shaped Rock and Roll ''. The RIAA ranked it number 240 on their list of "Songs of the Century ''. In 1999 it received a Grammy Hall of Fame Award. It has long since become a staple of oldies and classic rock radio formats. A 2005 Channel Five poll ranked it as Britain 's fourth - favourite number one song.
In 1969, the Detroit band Frijid Pink recorded a psychedelic version of "House of the Rising Sun '', which became an international hit in 1970. Their version is in 4 / 4 time (like Van Ronk 's and most earlier versions, rather than the 6 / 8 used by the Animals) and was driven by Gary Ray Thompson 's distorted guitar with fuzz and wah - wah effects, set against the frenetic drumming of Richard Stevers.
According to Stevers, the Frijid Pink recording of "House of the Rising Sun '' was done impromptu when there was time left over at a recording session booked for the group at the Tera Shirma Recording Studios. Stevers later played snippets from that session 's tracks for Paul Cannon, the music director of Detroit 's premier rock radio station, WKNR; the two knew each other, as Cannon was the father of Stevers 's girlfriend. Stevers recalled, "we went through the whole thing and (and Cannon) did n't say much. Then ' House (of the Rising Sun) ' started up and I immediately turned it off because it was n't anything I really wanted him to hear. '' However, Cannon was intrigued and had Stevers play the complete track for him, then advising Stevers, "Tell Parrot (Frijid Pink 's label) to drop God Gave Me You (the group 's current single) and go with this one. ''
Frijid Pink 's "House of the Rising Sun '' debuted at # 29 on the WKNR hit parade dated 6 January 1970 and broke nationally after some seven weeks -- during which the track was re-serviced to radio three times -- with a number 73 debut on the Hot 100 in Billboard dated 27 February 1970 (number 97 Canada 1970 / 01 / 31) with a subsequent three - week ascent to the Top 30 en route to a Hot 100 peak of number 7 on 4 April 1970. The certification of the Frijid Pink single "House of the Rising Sun '' as a gold record for domestic sales of one million units was reported in the issue of Billboard dated 30 May 1970.
The Frijid Pink single of "House of the Rising Sun '' would give the song its most widespread international success, with Top Ten status reached in Austria (number 3), Belgium (Flemish region, number 6), Canada (number 3), Denmark (number 3), Germany (two weeks at number 1), Greece, Ireland (number 7), Israel (number 4), the Netherlands (number 3), Norway (seven weeks at number 1), Poland (number 2), Sweden (number 6), Switzerland (number 2) and the UK (number 4). The single also charted in Australia (number 14), France (number 36), and Italy (number 54).
The song has twice been a hit record on Billboard 's country chart.
In 1973, Jody Miller 's version reached number 29 on the country charts and number 41 on the adult contemporary chart.
In September 1981, Dolly Parton released a cover of the song as the third single from her album 9 to 5 and Odd Jobs. Like Miller 's earlier country hit, Parton 's remake returns the song to its original lyric of being about a fallen woman. The Parton version makes it quite blunt, with a few new lyric lines that were written by Parton. Parton 's remake reached number 14 on the U.S. country singles chart and crossed over to the pop charts, where it reached number 77 on the Billboard Hot 100; it also reached number 30 on the U.S. adult contemporary chart. Parton has occasionally performed the song live, perhaps most notably on her 1987 -- 88 television show, in an episode taped live in New Orleans.
The American heavy metal band Five Finger Death Punch released a cover of "House of the Rising Sun '' on their fifth studio album, The Wrong Side of Heaven and the Righteous Side of Hell, Volume 2, which was later released as the album 's second single and the band 's third single of the Wrong Side era. The references to New Orleans have been changed to Sin City, a reference to the negative effects of gambling in Las Vegas. The song was a top ten hit on mainstream rock radio in the United States.
The Portuguese band IRIS released a cover of "House of the Rising Sun '' named "Oh Mãe!! '' on their first studio album, Vão Dar Banhó Cão, which was later released as the band 's first single. The lyrics where completely changed with the accent from Algarve (which is on the south of Portugal) and the sound is much heavier. This song became a huge national success.
In French, Johnny Hallyday 's version Le pénitencier, released in October 1964, made it to the French Billboard Top 10, and he performed the song in his 2014 USA tour.
Various places in New Orleans have been proposed as the inspiration for the song, with varying plausibility. The phrase "House of the Rising Sun '' is often understood as a euphemism for a brothel, but it is not known whether or not the house described in the lyrics was an actual or a fictitious place. One theory is that the song is about a woman who killed her father, an alcoholic gambler who had beaten his wife. Therefore, the House of the Rising Sun may be a jailhouse, from which one would be the first person to see the sun rise (an idea supported by the lyric mentioning "a ball and chain, '' though that phrase has been slang for marital relationships for at least as long as the song has been in print). Because women often sang the song, another theory is that the House of the Rising Sun was where prostitutes were detained while treated for syphilis. Since cures with mercury were ineffective, going back was very unlikely.
Only three candidates that use the name Rising Sun have historical evidence -- from old city directories and newspapers. The first was a small, short - lived hotel on Conti Street in the French Quarter in the 1820s. It burned down in 1822. An excavation and document search in early 2005 found evidence that supported this claim, including an advertisement with language that may have euphemistically indicated prostitution. Archaeologists found an unusually large number of pots of rouge and cosmetics at the site.
The second possibility was a "Rising Sun Hall '' listed in late 19th - century city directories on what is now Cherokee Street, at the riverfront in the uptown Carrollton neighborhood, which seems to have been a building owned and used for meetings of a Social Aid and Pleasure Club, commonly rented out for dances and functions. It also is no longer extant. Definite links to gambling or prostitution (if any) are undocumented for either of these buildings.
A third was "The Rising Sun '', which advertised in several local newspapers in the 1860s, located on what is now the lake side of the 100 block of Decatur Street. In various advertisements it is described as a "Restaurant, '' a "Lager Beer Salon, '' and a "Coffee House. '' At the time, New Orleans businesses listed as coffee houses often also sold alcoholic beverages.
Dave Van Ronk claimed in his biography "The Mayor of MacDougal Street '' that at one time when he was in New Orleans someone approached him with a number of old photos of the city from the turn of the century. Among them "was a picture of a forbidding stone doorway with a carving on the lintel of a stylized rising sun... It was the Orleans Parish women 's prison. ''
Bizarre New Orleans, a guidebook on New Orleans, asserts that the real house was at 1614 Esplanade Avenue between 1862 and 1874 and was said to have been named after its madam, Marianne LeSoleil Levant, whose surname means "the rising sun '' in French.
Another guidebook, Offbeat New Orleans, asserts that the real House of the Rising Sun was at 826 -- 830 St. Louis St. between 1862 and 1874, also purportedly named for Marianne LeSoleil Levant. The building still stands, and Eric Burdon, after visiting at the behest of the owner, said, "The house was talking to me. ''
There is a contemporary B&B called the House of the Rising Sun, decorated in brothel style. The owners are fans of the song, but there is no connection with the original place.
Not everyone believes that the house actually existed. Pamela D. Arceneaux, a research librarian at the Williams Research Center in New Orleans, is quoted as saying:
I have made a study of the history of prostitution in New Orleans and have often confronted the perennial question, "Where is the House of the Rising Sun? '' without finding a satisfactory answer. Although it is generally assumed that the singer is referring to a brothel, there is actually nothing in the lyrics that indicate that the "house '' is a brothel. Many knowledgeable persons have conjectured that a better case can be made for either a gambling hall or a prison; however, to paraphrase Freud: sometimes lyrics are just lyrics.
Notes
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i got a pocket got a pocketful of sunshine song | Pocketful of Sunshine - wikipedia
"Pocketful of Sunshine '' is a song recorded by English singer -- songwriter Natasha Bedingfield. It was released on 15 January 2008 as the second single from her second North American studio album of the same title (2008). Bedingfield co-wrote the song together with American songwriter Danielle Brisebois and American musician and songwriter John Shanks; Shanks also produced the track as well as performing on most of the instruments present. Epic Records serviced the song to contemporary hit radios in the United States on 11 February 2008. It was n't released in Europe until April 2011, when it was released as the lead single from her third European studio album Strip Me Away (2011).
Bedingfield noted "Pocketful of Sunshine '' as her favorite, stating that it centers on escaping from one 's troubles. It adapts dance - pop and adult contemporary styles, differing from her previous recordings. Lyrically, the song discusses escapism and finding a peaceful place in difficult situations. The message is amplified by the melancholic tone of the lyrics mixing with the exuberance displayed in Bedingfield 's voice. "Pocketful of Sunshine '' was well received by contemporary music critics; the majority of them named it as one of the album 's highlights. Several critics also praised it as a bright and lively summer tune.
"Pocketful of Sunshine '' experienced commercial success in North America. In the United States, it peaked at number five on the Billboard Hot 100 and was certified double platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), selling three million downloads and becoming her most successful single there. In Canada, it peaked at number three on Canadian Hot 100 and was certified platinum by Music Canada. It, however, did not replicate the success internationally as it charted moderately in several countries.
The music video for "Pocketful of Sunshine '' premiered on April 15, 2008, and features Bedingfield escaping from a stressful situation and dancing on a roof with other background dancers, also portraying scenes of other people escaping their troubles, coming to Bedingfield for comfort. The single has been used widely in the media, being featured in movies and television series such as Easy A, Degrassi: The Next Generation and The Ugly Truth.
"Pocketful of Sunshine '' was written and produced by John Shanks, while additional writing was provided by Bedingfield and Danielle Brisebois. The aforementioned songwriters were also involved in performing the background vocals present on the track. Shanks, a musician as well as a writer and producer, performed several instruments that make up the song, which include the guitar, bass and keyboards. The latter instrument was also played by Charlie Judge while Wendy Melvain performed on guitar. Jeff Rothschild was the engineer behind the recording process of "Pocketful of Sunshine '', which took place at Starstruck Studios in Nashville, Tennessee and Henson Recording Studios in Hollywood, California. He received assistance from engineers Aaron Kasdorf and Jared Robbins in recording the song. Rothschild was involved in programming the song as well as playing the drums. It was then edited through the use of ProTools technology by Lars Fox and mixed by Manny Marroquin at Larrabee Studios in Los Angeles, California. In an interview with OK! Magazine, Bedingfield the song as one of her favorites on the album, stating "Its about going to a familiar place when you 're in that situation that you want to escape from finding a peaceful place within. ''
"Pocketful of Sunshine '' is the second single taken from Pocketful of Sunshine (2008), a repackaged version of N.B. released in North American territories. Epic Records serviced the song to contemporary hit radios on 11 February 2008. On 29 July 2008, an extended play of "Pocketful of Sunshine '' was released via iTunes in North American territories. The EP features remixes by StoneBridge and American disc jockey Johnny Vicious. Following the release of Strip Me in international territories in spring 2011, the song was selected to be released as the international single. "Pocketful of Sunshine '' was released for digital download on 15 April 2011 in Germany and 22 April 2011 in France.
"Pocketful of Sunshine '' is a pop song that incorporates styles of dance - pop and runs for three minutes and twenty three seconds. The song is built on an electro beat. According to the digital music sheet published at Musicnotes.com by EMI Music Publishing, it is written in a key of A minor. The song is set in common time and to a moderate groove with a tempo of 110 beats per minute. Bedingfield 's vocals range from A to D. The song follows a chord progression of Am - Gsus2 - F - Dm in some parts and Am - C-G-F in other parts. Lyrically, "Pocketful of Sunshine '' is written about finding refuge and escape in love and the small triumphs of life. The message is amplified by the contrast between the melancholic tone of the lyrics and the exuberance of Bedingfield 's vocals.
"Pocketful of Sunshine '' received generally positive reviews from music critics. Matthew Chisling of AllMusic named it one of the album 's highlights, commenting that it was "eared perfectly toward the mainstream American market. '' About.com writer Bill Lamb, in his review of the derivative album, also named it one of the album 's top tracks and in his review of the single itself, praised Bedingfield 's style of singing and the contrast between the melancholy tone and the lyrics aimed towards love and escape. Mike Schiller, a writer for PopMatters, praised it as being "so utterly effervescent that it could re-carbonate a seven - days - open can of soda. '' Julie Farmer of Blogcritics praised it as one of the album 's standout tracks. Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine labelled it as one of the strongest tracks on the album, writing that it is evocative of Canadian singer Nelly Furtado 's third studio album Loose (2006). Digital Spy writer Alex Fletcher praised the recording for its sound but criticized its lack of originality, writing that "it sounds as American as ' The Star - Spangled Banner ' being belted out by a redneck Texan. '' Andrew Greenhalgh of Patrol Magazine wrote it as a summertime favorite, commenting "It 's one of those songs that cries out for a convertible with the top down and a long drive to the beach. ''
"Pocketful of Sunshine '' experienced its highest success in North America. In the United States, the song debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 at number sixty - five on the week ending 9 February 2008 as well as debuting on the Digital Songs at number twenty - four. It fell out after its second week and re-entered the chart at number ninety - four on the week ending 15 March 2008. It continued to ascend the chart until the week ending 5 July 2008, when "Pocketful of Sunshine '' reached its peak position at number five. It also peaked at number four on the Hot Digital Songs and Mainstream Top 40, as well as peaking at number ten on the Hot 100 Airplay (Radio Songs). The single also became her second single to top the Dance Club Songs. "Pocketful of Sunshine '' has become Bedingfield 's most successful single in the United States, selling over three million downloads and was certified double platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) almost a year after its release. The song fared similarly in Canada, where it debuted on the Canadian Hot 100 at number forty - three, fell to ninety - three the following week and exited the chart the week after. It reappeared on the Canadian Hot 100 a month later and ultimately peaked at number three on the week ending 17 May 2008. The single spent a total of thirty - eight weeks on the chart, selling over 40,000 downloads, and earning a platinum certification by Music Canada on 19 November 2008.
Following the release of Strip Me Away (2011) in Europe, "Pocketful of Sunshine '', included in the album 's track listing, was selected to be the international single. More than a month after its release, the song began charting in Germany, debuting at number thirty - four. It steadily ascended the chart, reaching its peak position at number twenty - four over a month later. The single also charted in Austria within the same time period, debuting at number sixty - eight and peaking at number twenty - eight, where it remained for two consecutive weeks. The song experienced less commercial success in Switzerland as it charted within the lower positions of the Swiss Singles Chart for most of its run. It eventually peaked at number forty - three and quickly exited the chart weeks later.
The music video for "Pocketful of Sunshine '' was directed by Alan Ferguson, who has directed music videos for Fall Out Boy, Gym Class Heroes and Katy Perry. It was released on 15 April 2008 to MTV. The video opens with Bedingfield at a work building; scenes of a child drawing a picture while his parents are fighting and a teenager drawing graffiti in a parking lot are intercut through the video. After she drops off her work, Bedingfield grabs a parachute and jumps out the window. She lands on a rooftop with a change of attire and more people following suit. While Bedingfield sings, the crowd dances. Meanwhile, a teenager is spray painting on a wall until the police arrive to arrest him. The video also cuts into scenes of Bedingfield in a red dress spinning around against the wind. In an attempt to escape, the teenager punches through the wall, entering the rooftop with Bedingfield and the backup dancers.
Bedingfield is then sitting in a chair and when an eclipse occurs, hence the line "in the darkness there 's light. '' As the eclipse begins to pass, Bedingfield red butterflies are released from her hands while she sings the line "there 's only butterflies. '' Bedingfield performs for the crowd of dancers and is seen dancing with teenager shown earlier in the video. Back at the work building, the employees watch Bedingfield 's performance via the LG Voyager cell phone. The video at this point features the child still drawing his picture and covering his ears, blocking out the sound of his parents arguing. The child walks out of the house he drew, when the camera shows Bedingfield meditating on a large lotus flower, while a group of belly dancers dance around her. As the child walks up to her, Bedingfield opens her eyes. The end of the video shows the lotus flower rising up, while Bedingfield sings the final lines, then looking at the child. Future Dance Central choreographer Nick Demoura appears in the video. Despite the fact Bedingfield herself licenses a lot of her songs to video games this song has yet to appear in a Dance Central.
"Pocketful of Sunshine '' was recorded in Simlish for the video game The Sims 2: FreeTime; a music video was also made using the game and portraying Bedingfield as a sim. It was featured on the mid-season finale of the MTV reality television series The Hills, whose theme song is Bedingfield 's "Unwritten ''. Bedingfield performed the song on the season finale of the Canadian television series Degrassi: The Next Generation. The song is also in the soundtrack of the film The Ugly Truth (2009). In the fall of 2008, "Pocketful of Sunshine '' was used in the promotional campaign for the syndicated launch of the television series Lost. "Pocketful of Sunshine '' was also used in the background of several of ABC 's "Start Fresh '' commercials such as those for Desperate Housewives and Grey 's Anatomy. The song is also featured on Audition Online.
In the United States, the escape - themed song 's chorus portion was used in a 2008 television commercial to promote Pechanga Resort and Casino in California. This makes "Pocketful of Sunshine '' Bedingfield 's second single to be used in a television ad campaign. The chorus was also heard in promotional spots for the television series In Plain Sight, which airs on the USA Network. It was included in the soundtrack album Music from Degrassi: The Next Generation (2008). The song and music video were featured in the video game Dance Dance Revolution Hottest Party 3. It was also featured in the end credits of the film Igor (2008). "Pocketful of Sunshine '' was featured prominently in the film Easy A (2010): after receiving a greeting card from her grandmother that played the song, the main character Olive Penderghast (portrayed by Emma Stone), declares it to be "the worst song ever '' before becoming addicted to it, going so far as to use it as her ringtone. The animated series Planet Warriors has the song as Sun 's transformation song.
US digital single
Promotional CD
Club promo mixes CD
German CD single
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Pocketful of Sunshine.
Recording and mixing
Personnel
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what is the song no promises by cheat codes about | No Promises (Cheat Codes song) - wikipedia
"No Promises '' is a song recorded by American DJ group Cheat Codes. It features vocals by American singer and songwriter Demi Lovato as well as Trevor Dahl, a member of the group. The song was released on March 31, 2017, and debuted in mainstream radio in the United States on April 11, 2017. "No Promises '' was written by the group members, along with Lovato, Ari Leff, and Loote, who co-produced the song with group member Trevor Dahl and Leff, while Mitch Allan produced its vocals. The track has reached the top 10 in Latvia, Malaysia, and Poland, as well as the top 20 in Australia, Ireland, New Zealand, Portugal, Scotland, and the United Kingdom, and the top 30 in Denmark, Hungary, and Serbia. An acoustic version of the song is included on the deluxe version of Lovato 's sixth album Tell Me You Love Me.
The song is written in the key of B ♭ major with a tempo of 113 beats per minute in common time. The song follows a chord progression of E ♭ -- Gm -- B ♭, and the vocals in the song span from C to G.
The music video was released on May 16, 2017 on Cheat Codes ' YouTube channel and was directed by American director Hannah Lux Davis.
Cheat Codes and Lovato performed the song on The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon on May 22, 2017. Later it was performed on Good Morning America summer concert series on August 18, 2017.
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when did we have snow on christmas day | Christmas - wikipedia
Christmas is an annual festival commemorating the birth of Jesus Christ, observed primarily on December 25 as a religious and cultural celebration among billions of people around the world. A feast central to the Christian liturgical year, it is preceded by the season of Advent or the Nativity Fast and initiates the season of Christmastide, which historically in the West lasts twelve days and culminates on Twelfth Night; in some traditions, Christmastide includes an octave. Christmas Day is a public holiday in many of the world 's nations, is celebrated religiously by a majority of Christians, as well as culturally by many non-Christians, and forms an integral part of the holiday season centered around it.
The traditional Christmas narrative, the Nativity of Jesus, delineated in the New Testament says that Jesus was born in Bethlehem, in accordance with messianic prophecies. When Joseph and Mary arrived in the city, the inn had no room and so they were offered a stable where the Christ Child was soon born, with angels proclaiming this news to shepherds who then further disseminated the information.
Although the month and date of Jesus ' birth are unknown, by the early - to - mid fourth century the Western Christian Church had placed Christmas on December 25, a date that was later adopted in the East. Today, most Christians celebrate on December 25 in the Gregorian calendar, which has been adopted almost universally in the civil calendars used in countries throughout the world. However, some Eastern Christian Churches celebrate Christmas on December 25 of the older Julian calendar, which currently corresponds to January 7 in the Gregorian calendar, the day after the Western Christian Church celebrates the Epiphany. This is not a disagreement over the date of Christmas as such, but rather a preference of which calendar should be used to determine the day that is December 25. Moreover, for Christians, the belief that God came into the world in the form of man to atone for the sins of humanity, rather than the exact birth date, is considered to be the primary purpose in celebrating Christmas.
The celebratory customs associated in various countries with Christmas have a mix of pre-Christian, Christian, and secular themes and origins. Popular modern customs of the holiday include gift giving, completing an Advent calendar or Advent wreath, Christmas music and caroling, lighting a Christingle, viewing a Nativity play, an exchange of Christmas cards, church services, a special meal, and the display of various Christmas decorations, including Christmas trees, Christmas lights, nativity scenes, garlands, wreaths, mistletoe, and holly. In addition, several closely related and often interchangeable figures, known as Santa Claus, Father Christmas, Saint Nicholas, and Christkind, are associated with bringing gifts to children during the Christmas season and have their own body of traditions and lore. Because gift - giving and many other aspects of the Christmas festival involve heightened economic activity, the holiday has become a significant event and a key sales period for retailers and businesses. The economic impact of Christmas has grown steadily over the past few centuries in many regions of the world.
"Christmas '' is a shortened form of "Christ 's mass ''. It is derived from the Middle English Cristemasse, which is from Old English Crīstesmæsse, a phrase first recorded in 1038 followed by the word Cristes - messe in 1131. Crīst (genitive Crīstes) is from Greek Khrīstos (Χριστός), a translation of Hebrew Māšîaḥ (מָשִׁיחַ), "Messiah '', meaning "anointed ''; and mæsse is from Latin missa, the celebration of the Eucharist.
The form Christenmas was also historically used, but is now considered archaic and dialectal; it derives from Middle English Cristenmasse, literally "Christian mass ''. Xmas is an abbreviation of Christmas found particularly in print, based on the initial letter chi (Χ) in Greek Khrīstos (Χριστός), "Christ '', though numerous style guides discourage its use; it has precedent in Middle English Χρ̄es masse (where "Χρ̄ '' is an abbreviation for Χριστός).
In addition to "Christmas '', the holiday has been known by various other names throughout its history. The Anglo - Saxons referred to the feast as "midwinter '', or, more rarely, as Nātiuiteð (from Latin nātīvitās below). "Nativity '', meaning "birth '', is from Latin nātīvitās. In Old English, Gēola (Yule) referred to the period corresponding to December and January, which was eventually equated with Christian Christmas. "Noel '' (or "Nowel '') entered English in the late 14th century and is from the Old French noël or naël, itself ultimately from the Latin nātālis (diēs) meaning "birth (day) ''.
The canonical gospels of Luke and Matthew both describe Jesus as being born in Bethlehem in Judea, to a virgin mother. In the Gospel of Luke account, Joseph and Mary travel from Nazareth to Bethlehem for the census, and Jesus is born there and laid in a manger. It says that angels proclaimed him a savior for all people, and shepherds came to adore him.
In the Matthew account, magi follow a star to Bethlehem to bring gifts to Jesus, born the king of the Jews. King Herod orders the massacre of all the boys less than two years old in Bethlehem, but the family flees to Egypt and later settles in Nazareth.
The Nativity stories of Matthew and Luke are prominent in the gospels and early Christian writers suggested various dates for the anniversary. The first recorded Christmas celebration was in Rome in 336. Christmas played a role in the Arian controversy of the fourth century. In the early Middle Ages, it was overshadowed by Epiphany. The feast regained prominence after 800, when Charlemagne was crowned emperor on Christmas Day.
Associating it with drunkenness and other misbehavior, the Puritans banned Christmas in the 17th century. It was restored as a legal holiday in 1660, but remained disreputable. In the early 19th century, Christmas was revived with the start of the Oxford Movement in the Anglican Church.
Charles Dickens and other writers reinvented the holiday by emphasizing Christmas as a time for family, religion, gift - giving, and social reconciliation as opposed to the revelry that had been common historically.
In the 3rd century, the date of birth of Jesus was the subject of both great interest and great uncertainty. Around AD 200, Clement of Alexandria wrote:
In other writing of this time, May 20, April 18 or 19, March 25, January 2, November 17, and November 20 are all suggested. Various factors contributed to the selection of December 25 as a date of celebration: it was the date of the winter solstice on the Roman calendar; it was about nine months after March 25, the date of the vernal equinox and a date linked to the conception of Jesus.
December 25 was the date of the winter solstice on the Roman calendar. Jesus chose to be born on the shortest day of the year for symbolic reasons, according to an early Christmas sermon by Augustine: "Hence it is that He was born on the day which is the shortest in our earthly reckoning and from which subsequent days begin to increase in length. He, therefore, who bent low and lifted us up chose the shortest day, yet the one whence light begins to increase. ''
Linking Jesus to the Sun was supported by various Biblical passages. Jesus was considered to be the "Sun of righteousness '' prophesied by Malachi: "Unto you shall the sun of righteousness arise, and healing is in his wings. '' John describes Jesus as "the light of the world. ''
Such solar symbolism could support more than one date of birth. An anonymous work known as De Pascha Computus (243) linked the idea that creation began at the spring equinox, on March 25, with the conception or birth (the word nascor can mean either) of Jesus on March 28, the day of the creation of the sun in the Genesis account. One translation reads: "O the splendid and divine providence of the Lord, that on that day, the very day, on which the sun was made, March 28, a Wednesday, Christ should be born.
In the 17th century, Isaac Newton argued that the date of Christmas was selected to correspond with the solstice.
According to Steven Hijmans of the University of Alberta, "It is cosmic symbolism... which inspired the Church leadership in Rome to elect the southern solstice, December 25, as the birthday of Christ, and the northern solstice as that of John the Baptist, supplemented by the equinoxes as their respective dates of conception. ''
The Calculation hypothesis suggests that an earlier holiday held on March 25 became associated with the Incarnation. Modern scholars refer to this feast as the Quartodecimal. Christmas was then calculated as nine months later. The Calculation hypothesis was proposed by French writer Louis Duchesne in 1889. In modern times, March 25 is celebrated as Annunciation. This holiday was created in the seventh century and was assigned to a date that is nine months before Christmas, in addition to being the traditional date of the equinox. It is unrelated to the Quartodecimal, which had been forgotten by this time.
Early Christians celebrated the life of Jesus on a date considered equivalent to 14 Nisan (Passover) on the local calendar. Because Passover was held on the 14th of the month, this feast is referred to as the Quartodecimal. All the major events of Christ 's life, especially the passion, were celebrated on this date. In his letter to the Corinthians, Paul mentions Passover, presumably celebrated according to the local calendar in Corinth. Tertullian (d. 220), who lived in Latin - speaking North Africa, gives the date of passion celebration as March 25. The date of the passion was moved to Good Friday in 165 when Pope Soter created Easter by reassigning the Resurrection to a Sunday. According to the Calculation hypothesis, celebration of the quartodecimal continued in some areas and the feast became associated with Incarnation.
The Calculation hypothesis is considered academically to be "a thoroughly viable hypothesis '', though not certain. It was a traditional Jewish belief that great men lived a whole number of years, without fractions, so that Jesus was considered to have been conceived on March 25, as he died on March 25, which was calculated to have coincided with 14 Nisan. A passage in Commentary on the Prophet Daniel (204) by Hippolytus of Rome identifies December 25 as the date of the nativity. This passage is generally considered a late interpellation. But the manuscript includes another passage, one that is more likely to be authentic, that gives the passion as March 25.
In 221, Sextus Julius Africanus (c. 160 -- c. 240) gave March 25 as the day of creation and of the conception of Jesus in his universal history. This conclusion was based on solar symbolism, with March 25 the date of the equinox. As this implies a birth in December, it is sometimes claimed to be the earliest identification of December 25 as the nativity. However, Africanus was not such an influential writer that it is likely he determined the date of Christmas.
The tractate De solstitia et aequinoctia conceptionis et nativitatis Domini nostri Iesu Christi et Iohannis Baptistae, falsely attributed to John Chrysostom, also argued that Jesus was conceived and crucified on the same day of the year and calculated this as March 25. This anonymous tract also states: "But Our Lord, too, is born in the month of December... the eight before the calends of January (25 December)..., But they call it the ' Birthday of the Unconquered '. Who indeed is so unconquered as Our Lord...? Or, if they say that it is the birthday of the Sun, He is the Sun of Justice. ''
The rival "History of Religions '' hypothesis suggests that the Church selected December 25 date to appropriate festivities held by the Romans in honor of the Sun god Sol Invictus. This feast was established by Aurelian in 274. An explicit expression of this theory appears in an annotation of uncertain date added to a manuscript of a work by 12th - century Syrian bishop Jacob Bar - Salibi. The scribe who added it wrote:
"It was a custom of the Pagans to celebrate on the same 25 December the birthday of the Sun, at which they kindled lights in token of festivity. In these solemnities and revelries the Christians also took part. Accordingly when the doctors of the Church perceived that the Christians had a leaning to this festival, they took counsel and resolved that the true Nativity should be solemnised on that day. ''
In 1743, German Protestant Paul Ernst Jablonski argued Christmas was placed on December 25 to correspond with the Roman solar holiday Dies Natalis Solis Invicti and was therefore a "paganization '' that debased the true church. It has been argued that, on the contrary, the Emperor Aurelian, who in 274 instituted the holiday of the Dies Natalis Solis Invicti, did so partly as an attempt to give a pagan significance to a date already important for Christians in Rome.
Hermann Usener and others proposed that the Christians chose this day because it was the Roman feast celebrating the birthday of Sol Invictus. Modern scholar S.E. Hijmans, however, states that "While they were aware that pagans called this day the ' birthday ' of Sol Invictus, this did not concern them and it did not play any role in their choice of date for Christmas. '' Moreover, Thomas J. Talley holds that the Roman Emperor Aurelian placed a festival of Sol Invictus on December 25 in order to compete with the growing rate of the Christian Church, which had already been celebrating Christmas on that date first. In the judgement of the Church of England Liturgical Commission, the History of Religions hypothesis has been challenged by a view based on an old tradition, according to which the date of Christmas was fixed at nine months after March 25, the date of the vernal equinox, on which the Annunciation was celebrated.
With regard to a December religious feast of the deified Sun (Sol), as distinct from a solstice feast of the birth (or rebirth) of the astronomical sun, one scholar has commented that, "while the winter solstice on or around December 25 was well established in the Roman imperial calendar, there is no evidence that a religious celebration of Sol on that day antedated the celebration of Christmas ''. "Thomas Talley has shown that, although the Emperor Aurelian 's dedication of a temple to the sun god in the Campus Martius (C.E. 274) probably took place on the ' Birthday of the Invincible Sun ' on December 25, the cult of the sun in pagan Rome ironically did not celebrate the winter solstice nor any of the other quarter - tense days, as one might expect. '' The Oxford Companion to Christian Thought remarks on the uncertainty about the order of precedence between the religious celebrations of the Birthday of the Unconquered Sun and of the birthday of Jesus, stating that the hypothesis that December 25 was chosen for celebrating the birth of Jesus on the basis of the belief that his conception occurred on March 25 "potentially establishes 25 December as a Christian festival before Aurelian 's decree, which, when promulgated, might have provided for the Christian feast both opportunity and challenge ''.
As Christmas was unknown to the early Christian writers, it must have been introduced sometime after 300. Irenaeus and Tertullian omit it from their lists of feasts. In 245, Origen of Alexandria, writing about Leviticus 12: 1 -- 8, commented that Scripture mentions only sinners as celebrating their birthdays, namely Pharaoh, who then had his chief baker hanged (Genesis 40: 20 -- 22), and Herod, who then had John the Baptist beheaded (Mark 6: 21 -- 27), and mentions saints as cursing the day of their birth, namely Jeremiah (Jeremiah 20: 14 -- 15) and Job (Job 3: 1 -- 16). In 303, Arnobius still ridiculed the idea of celebrating the birthdays of gods, a passage cited as evidence that Arnobius was unaware of any nativity celebration. But since Christmas does not celebrate Christ 's birth "as God '' but "as man '', this does not necessarily show that Christmas was not a feast at this time.
The earliest known Christmas celebration is recorded in a fourth - century manuscript compiled in Rome. This manuscript is thought to record a celebration that occurred in 336. It was prepared privately for Furius Dionysius Filocalus, a Roman aristocrat, in 354. The reference in question states, "VIII kal. ian. natus Christus in Betleem Iudeæ '' translated as "8 Kalends January Birth of Christ in Bethlehem, Judea. '' This reference is in a section of the manuscript that was copied from earlier source material. The document also contains the earliest known reference to the feast of Sol Invictus. The fact the Donatists of North Africa celebrated Christmas suggests that the feast was established by the time that church was created in 311.
In Eastern Christianity the birth of Jesus was celebrated in connection with the Epiphany on January 6, which however emphasized celebration of the baptism of Jesus. Christmas was promoted in the Christian East as part of the revival of Nicene Christianity following the death of the pro-Arian Emperor Valens at the Battle of Adrianople in 378. The feast was introduced at Constantinople in 379, in Antioch by John Chrysostom towards the end of the fourth century, probably in 388, and in Alexandria only in the following century. The feast disappeared after Gregory of Nazianzus resigned as bishop in 381, although it was reintroduced by John Chrysostom in about 400. Even in the West, January 6 celebration of the nativity of Jesus seems to have continued until after 380.
Many popular customs associated with Christmas developed independently of the commemoration of Jesus ' birth, with certain elements having origins in pre-Christian festivals that were celebrated around the winter solstice by pagan populations who were later converted to Christianity. These elements, including the Yule log from Yule and gift giving from Saturnalia, became syncretized into Christmas over the centuries. The prevailing atmosphere of Christmas has also continually evolved since the holiday 's inception, ranging from a sometimes raucous, drunken, carnival - like state in the Middle Ages, to a tamer family - oriented and children - centered theme introduced in a 19th - century transformation. In fact, the celebration of Christmas was banned on more than one occasion within certain Protestant groups, such as the Puritans, due to concerns that it was too pagan or unbiblical. Jehovah 's Witnesses also reject the celebration of Christmas.
Prior to and through the early Christian centuries, winter festivals -- especially those centered on the winter solstice -- were the most popular of the year in many European pagan cultures. Reasons included the fact that less agricultural work needed to be done during the winter, as well as an expectation of better weather as spring approached. Many modern Christmas customs have been directly influenced by such festivals, including:
The Egyptian deity Horus, son to goddess Isis, was celebrated at the winter solstice. Horus was often depicted being fed by his mother, which also influenced the symbolism of the Virgin Mary with baby Christ.
The pre-Christian Germanic peoples -- including the Anglo - Saxons and the Norse -- celebrated a winter festival called Yule, held in the late December to early January period, yielding modern English yule, today used as a synonym for Christmas. In Germanic language - speaking areas, numerous elements of modern Christmas folk custom and iconography stem from Yule, including the Yule log, Yule boar, and the Yule goat. Often leading a ghostly procession through the sky (the Wild Hunt), the long - bearded god Odin is referred to as "the Yule one '' and "Yule father '' in Old Norse texts, while other gods are referred to as "Yule beings ''.
In eastern Europe also, old pagan traditions were incorporated into Christmas celebrations, an example being the Koleda, which was incorporated into the Christmas carol.
In the Early Middle Ages, Christmas Day was overshadowed by Epiphany, which in western Christianity focused on the visit of the magi. But the medieval calendar was dominated by Christmas - related holidays. The forty days before Christmas became the "forty days of St. Martin '' (which began on November 11, the feast of St. Martin of Tours), now known as Advent. In Italy, former Saturnalian traditions were attached to Advent. Around the 12th century, these traditions transferred again to the Twelve Days of Christmas (December 25 -- January 5); a time that appears in the liturgical calendars as Christmastide or Twelve Holy Days.
The prominence of Christmas Day increased gradually after Charlemagne was crowned Emperor on Christmas Day in 800. King Edmund the Martyr was anointed on Christmas in 855 and King William I of England was crowned on Christmas Day 1066.
By the High Middle Ages, the holiday had become so prominent that chroniclers routinely noted where various magnates celebrated Christmas. King Richard II of England hosted a Christmas feast in 1377 at which twenty - eight oxen and three hundred sheep were eaten. The Yule boar was a common feature of medieval Christmas feasts. Caroling also became popular, and was originally a group of dancers who sang. The group was composed of a lead singer and a ring of dancers that provided the chorus. Various writers of the time condemned caroling as lewd, indicating that the unruly traditions of Saturnalia and Yule may have continued in this form. "Misrule '' -- drunkenness, promiscuity, gambling -- was also an important aspect of the festival. In England, gifts were exchanged on New Year 's Day, and there was special Christmas ale.
Christmas during the Middle Ages was a public festival that incorporated ivy, holly, and other evergreens. Christmas gift - giving during the Middle Ages was usually between people with legal relationships, such as tenant and landlord. The annual indulgence in eating, dancing, singing, sporting, and card playing escalated in England, and by the 17th century the Christmas season featured lavish dinners, elaborate masques, and pageants. In 1607, King James I insisted that a play be acted on Christmas night and that the court indulge in games. It was during the Reformation in 16th -- 17th - century Europe that many Protestants changed the gift bringer to the Christ Child or Christkindl, and the date of giving gifts changed from December 6 to Christmas Eve.
Following the Protestant Reformation, many of the new denominations, including the Anglican Church and Lutheran Church, continued to celebrate Christmas. In 1629, the Anglican poet John Milton penned On the Morning of Christ 's Nativity, a poem that has since been read by many during Christmastide. Donald Heinz, a professor at California State University, states that Martin Luther "inaugurated a period in which Germany would produce a unique culture of Christmas, much copied in North America. '' Among the congregations of the Dutch Reformed Church, Christmas was celebrated as one of the principal evangelical feasts.
However, in 17th century England, some groups such as the Puritans, strongly condemned the celebration of Christmas, considering it a Catholic invention and the "trappings of popery '' or the "rags of the Beast ''. In contrast, the established Anglican Church "pressed for a more elaborate observance of feasts, penitential seasons, and saints ' days. The calendar reform became a major point of tension between the Anglican party and the Puritan party. '' The Catholic Church also responded, promoting the festival in a more religiously oriented form. King Charles I of England directed his noblemen and gentry to return to their landed estates in midwinter to keep up their old - style Christmas generosity. Following the Parliamentarian victory over Charles I during the English Civil War, England 's Puritan rulers banned Christmas in 1647.
Protests followed as pro-Christmas rioting broke out in several cities and for weeks Canterbury was controlled by the rioters, who decorated doorways with holly and shouted royalist slogans. The book, The Vindication of Christmas (London, 1652), argued against the Puritans, and makes note of Old English Christmas traditions, dinner, roast apples on the fire, card playing, dances with "plow - boys '' and "maidservants '', old Father Christmas and carol singing.
The Restoration of King Charles II in 1660 ended the ban, but many Calvinist clergymen still disapproved of Christmas celebration. As such, in Scotland, the Presbyterian Church of Scotland discouraged the observance of Christmas, and though James VI commanded its celebration in 1618, attendance at church was scant. The Parliament of Scotland officially abolished the observance of Christmas in 1640, claiming that the church had been "purged of all superstitious observation of days ''. It was not until 1958 that Christmas again became a Scottish public holiday.
Following the Restoration of Charles II, Poor Robin 's Almanack contained the lines: "Now thanks to God for Charles return, / Whose absence made old Christmas mourn. / For then we scarcely did it know, / Whether it Christmas were or no. '' The diary of James Woodforde, from the latter half of the 18th century, details the observance of Christmas and celebrations associated with the season over a number of years.
In Colonial America, the Pilgrims of New England shared radical Protestant disapproval of Christmas. The Plymouth Pilgrims put their loathing for the day into practice in 1620 when they spent their first Christmas Day in the New World working -- thus demonstrating their complete contempt for the day. Non-Puritans in New England deplored the loss of the holidays enjoyed by the laboring classes in England. Christmas observance was outlawed in Boston in 1659. The ban by the Puritans was revoked in 1681 by English governor Edmund Andros, however it was not until the mid-19th century that celebrating Christmas became fashionable in the Boston region.
At the same time, Christian residents of Virginia and New York observed the holiday freely. Pennsylvania German Settlers, pre-eminently the Moravian settlers of Bethlehem, Nazareth and Lititz in Pennsylvania and the Wachovia Settlements in North Carolina, were enthusiastic celebrators of Christmas. The Moravians in Bethlehem had the first Christmas trees in America as well as the first Nativity Scenes. Christmas fell out of favor in the United States after the American Revolution, when it was considered an English custom. George Washington attacked Hessian (German) mercenaries on the day after Christmas during the Battle of Trenton on December 26, 1776, Christmas being much more popular in Germany than in America at this time.
With the atheistic Cult of Reason in power during the era of Revolutionary France, Christian Christmas religious services were banned and the three kings cake was renamed the "equality cake '' under anticlerical government policies.
In the UK, Christmas Day became a bank holiday in 1834, Boxing Day was added in 1871.
In the early - 19th century, writers imagined Tudor Christmas as a time of heartfelt celebration. In 1843, Charles Dickens wrote the novel A Christmas Carol that helped revive the "spirit '' of Christmas and seasonal merriment. Its instant popularity played a major role in portraying Christmas as a holiday emphasizing family, goodwill, and compassion.
Dickens sought to construct Christmas as a family - centered festival of generosity, linking "worship and feasting, within a context of social reconciliation. '' Superimposing his humanitarian vision of the holiday, in what has been termed "Carol Philosophy '', Dickens influenced many aspects of Christmas that are celebrated today in Western culture, such as family gatherings, seasonal food and drink, dancing, games, and a festive generosity of spirit. A prominent phrase from the tale, "Merry Christmas '', was popularized following the appearance of the story. This coincided with the appearance of the Oxford Movement and the growth of Anglo - Catholicism, which led a revival in traditional rituals and religious observances.
The term Scrooge became a synonym for miser, with "Bah! Humbug! '' dismissive of the festive spirit. In 1843, the first commercial Christmas card was produced by Sir Henry Cole. The revival of the Christmas Carol began with William Sandys 's "Christmas Carols Ancient and Modern '' (1833), with the first appearance in print of "The First Noel '', "I Saw Three Ships '', "Hark the Herald Angels Sing '' and "God Rest Ye Merry, Gentlemen '', popularized in Dickens ' A Christmas Carol.
In Britain, the Christmas tree was introduced in the early 19th century following the personal union with the Kingdom of Hanover by Charlotte of Mecklenburg - Strelitz, wife of King George III. In 1832, the future Queen Victoria wrote about her delight at having a Christmas tree, hung with lights, ornaments, and presents placed round it. After her marriage to her German cousin Prince Albert, by 1841 the custom became more widespread throughout Britain.
An image of the British royal family with their Christmas tree at Windsor Castle created a sensation when it was published in the Illustrated London News in 1848. A modified version of this image was published in the United States in 1850. By the 1870s, putting up a Christmas tree had become common in America.
In America, interest in Christmas had been revived in the 1820s by several short stories by Washington Irving which appear in his The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon, Gent. and "Old Christmas ''. Irving 's stories depicted harmonious warm - hearted English Christmas festivities he experienced while staying in Aston Hall, Birmingham, England, that had largely been abandoned, and he used the tract Vindication of Christmas (1652) of Old English Christmas traditions, that he had transcribed into his journal as a format for his stories.
In 1822, Clement Clarke Moore wrote the poem A Visit From St. Nicholas (popularly known by its first line: Twas the Night Before Christmas). The poem helped popularize the tradition of exchanging gifts, and seasonal Christmas shopping began to assume economic importance. This also started the cultural conflict between the holiday 's spiritual significance and its associated commercialism that some see as corrupting the holiday. In her 1850 book The First Christmas in New England, Harriet Beecher Stowe includes a character who complains that the true meaning of Christmas was lost in a shopping spree.
While the celebration of Christmas was not yet customary in some regions in the U.S., Henry Wadsworth Longfellow detected "a transition state about Christmas here in New England '' in 1856. "The old puritan feeling prevents it from being a cheerful, hearty holiday; though every year makes it more so. '' In Reading, Pennsylvania, a newspaper remarked in 1861, "Even our presbyterian friends who have hitherto steadfastly ignored Christmas -- threw open their church doors and assembled in force to celebrate the anniversary of the Savior 's birth. ''
The First Congregational Church of Rockford, Illinois, "although of genuine Puritan stock '', was ' preparing for a grand Christmas jubilee ', a news correspondent reported in 1864. By 1860, fourteen states including several from New England had adopted Christmas as a legal holiday. In 1875, Louis Prang introduced the Christmas card to Americans. He has been called the "father of the American Christmas card ''. On June 28, 1870, Christmas was formally declared a United States federal holiday.
Up to the 1950s, in the UK, many Christmas customs were restricted to the upper classes and better - off families. The mass of the population had not adopted many of the Christmas rituals that later became general. The Christmas tree was rare. Christmas dinner might be beef -- certainly not turkey. In their stockings children might get an apple, orange and sweets. Full celebration of a family Christmas with all the trimmings only became widespread with increased prosperity from the 1950s. National papers were published on Christmas Day until 1912. Post was still delivered on Christmas Day until 1961. League football matches continued in Scotland until the 1970s while in England they ceased at the end of the 1950s.
Under the state atheism of the Soviet Union, after its foundation in 1917, Christmas celebrations -- along with other Christian holidays -- were prohibited in public. During the 1920s, 30s and 40s, the League of Militant Atheists encouraged school pupils to campaign against Christmas traditions, such as the Christmas tree, as well as other Christian holidays, including Easter; the League established an antireligious holiday to be the 31st of each month as a replacement. At the height of this persecution, in 1929, on Christmas Day, children in Moscow were encouraged to spit on crucifixes as a protest against the holiday. It was not until the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 that the persecution ended and Orthodox Christmas became a state holiday again for the first time in Russia after seven decades.
European History Professor Joseph Perry wrote that likewise, in Nazi Germany, "because Nazi ideologues saw organized religion as an enemy of the totalitarian state, propagandists sought to deemphasize -- or eliminate altogether -- the Christian aspects of the holiday '' and that "Propagandists tirelessly promoted numerous Nazified Christmas songs, which replaced Christian themes with the regime 's racial ideologies. ''
As Christmas celebrations began to be held around the world even outside traditional Christian cultures in the 20th century, some Muslim - majority countries have banned the practice of Christmas, claiming it undermines Islam.
Christmas Day is celebrated as a major festival and public holiday in countries around the world, including many whose populations are mostly non-Christian. In some non-Christian areas, periods of former colonial rule introduced the celebration (e.g. Hong Kong); in others, Christian minorities or foreign cultural influences have led populations to observe the holiday. Countries such as Japan, where Christmas is popular despite there being only a small number of Christians, have adopted many of the secular aspects of Christmas, such as gift - giving, decorations, and Christmas trees.
Countries in which Christmas is not a formal public holiday include Afghanistan, Algeria, Azerbaijan, Bahrain, Bhutan, Cambodia, China (excepting Hong Kong and Macau), the Comoros, Iran, Israel, Japan, Kuwait, Laos, Libya, the Maldives, Mauritania, Mongolia, Morocco, North Korea, Oman, Pakistan, Qatar, the Sahrawi Republic, Saudi Arabia, Somalia, Tajikistan, Thailand, Tunisia, Turkey, Turkmenistan, the United Arab Emirates, Uzbekistan, Vietnam, and Yemen. Christmas celebrations around the world can vary markedly in form, reflecting differing cultural and national traditions.
Among countries with a strong Christian tradition, a variety of Christmas celebrations have developed that incorporate regional and local cultures. For Christians, participating in a religious service plays an important part in the recognition of the season. Christmas, along with Easter, is the period of highest annual church attendance. A 2010 survey by LifeWay Christian Resources found that 47 % of American households attend church services during this time. In the United Kingdom, the Church of England reported an estimated attendance of 2.5 million people at Christmas services in 2015.
In Catholic countries, people hold religious processions or parades in the days preceding Christmas. In other countries, secular processions or parades featuring Santa Claus and other seasonal figures are often held. Family reunions and the exchange of gifts are a widespread feature of the season. Gift - giving takes place on Christmas Day in most countries. Others practice gift giving on Saint Nicholas Day, and January 6, Epiphany.
The practice of putting up special decorations at Christmas has a long history. In the 15th century, it was recorded that in London it was the custom at Christmas for every house and all the parish churches to be "decked with holm, ivy, bays, and whatsoever the season of the year afforded to be green ''. The heart - shaped leaves of ivy were said to symbolize the coming to earth of Jesus, while holly was seen as protection against pagans and witches, its thorns and red berries held to represent the Crown of Thorns worn by Jesus at the crucifixion and the blood he shed.
Nativity scenes are known from 10th - century Rome. They were popularised by Saint Francis of Assisi from 1223, quickly spreading across Europe. Different types of decorations developed across the Christian world, dependent on local tradition and available resources, and can vary from simple representations of the crib to far more elaborate sets -- renowned manger scene traditions include the colourful Kraków szopka in Poland, which imitate Kraków 's historical buildings as settings, the elaborate Italian presepi (Neapolitan, Genoese and Bolognese), or the Provençal crèches in southern France, using hand - painted terracotta figurines called santons. In certain parts of the world, notably Sicily, living nativity scenes following the tradition of Saint Francis are a popular alternative to static crèches. The first commercially produced decorations appeared in Germany in the 1860s, inspired by paper chains made by children. In countries where a representation of the Nativity scene is very popular, people are encouraged to compete and create the most original or realistic ones. Within some families, the pieces used to make the representation are considered a valuable family heirloom.
The traditional colors of Christmas decorations are red, green, and gold. Red symbolizes the blood of Jesus, which was shed in his crucifixion, while green symbolizes eternal life, and in particular the evergreen tree, which does not lose its leaves in the winter, and gold is the first color associated with Christmas, as one of the three gifts of the Magi, symbolizing royalty.
The Christmas tree is considered by some as Christianisation of pagan tradition and ritual surrounding the Winter Solstice, which included the use of evergreen boughs, and an adaptation of pagan tree worship; according to eighth - century biographer Æddi Stephanus, Saint Boniface (634 -- 709), who was a missionary in Germany, took an axe to an oak tree dedicated to Thor and pointed out a fir tree, which he stated was a more fitting object of reverence because it pointed to heaven and it had a triangular shape, which he said was symbolic of the Trinity. The English language phrase "Christmas tree '' is first recorded in 1835 and represents an importation from the German language. The modern Christmas tree tradition is believed to have begun in Germany in the 18th century though many argue that Martin Luther began the tradition in the 16th century.
From Germany the custom was introduced to Britain, first via Queen Charlotte, wife of George III, and then more successfully by Prince Albert during the reign of Queen Victoria. By 1841 the Christmas tree had become even more widespread throughout Britain. By the 1870s, people in the United States had adopted the custom of putting up a Christmas tree. Christmas trees may be decorated with lights and ornaments.
Since the 16th century, the poinsettia, a native plant from Mexico, has been associated with Christmas. Other popular holiday plants include holly, mistletoe, red amaryllis, and Christmas cactus. Along with a Christmas tree, the interior of a home may be decorated with these plants, along with garlands and evergreen foliage. The display of Christmas villages has also become a tradition in many homes during this season. The outside of houses may be decorated with lights and sometimes with illuminated sleighs, snowmen, and other Christmas figures. Mistletoe features prominently in European myth and folklore (for example the legend of Baldr), it is an evergreen parasitic plant which grows on trees, especially apple and poplar, and turns golden when it is dried. It is customary to hang a sprig of mistletoe in the house at Christmas, and anyone standing underneath it may be kissed. Mistletoe has sticky white berries, one of which was traditionally removed whenever someone was kissed under it. This is probably a fertility ritual. The mistletoe berry juice resembles semen.
Other traditional decorations include bells, candles, candy canes, stockings, wreaths, and angels. Both the displaying of wreaths and candles in each window are a more traditional Christmas display. The concentric assortment of leaves, usually from an evergreen, make up Christmas wreaths and are designed to prepare Christians for the Advent season. Candles in each window are meant to demonstrate the fact that Christians believe that Jesus Christ is the ultimate light of the world.
Christmas lights and banners may be hung along streets, music played from speakers, and Christmas trees placed in prominent places. It is common in many parts of the world for town squares and consumer shopping areas to sponsor and display decorations. Rolls of brightly colored paper with secular or religious Christmas motifs are manufactured for the purpose of wrapping gifts. In some countries, Christmas decorations are traditionally taken down on Twelfth Night, the evening of January 5.
The earliest extant specifically Christmas hymns appear in fourth - century Rome. Latin hymns such as "Veni redemptor gentium '', written by Ambrose, Archbishop of Milan, were austere statements of the theological doctrine of the Incarnation in opposition to Arianism. "Corde natus ex Parentis '' ("Of the Father 's love begotten '') by the Spanish poet Prudentius (d. 413) is still sung in some churches today. In the 9th and 10th centuries, the Christmas "Sequence '' or "Prose '' was introduced in North European monasteries, developing under Bernard of Clairvaux into a sequence of rhymed stanzas. In the 12th century the Parisian monk Adam of St. Victor began to derive music from popular songs, introducing something closer to the traditional Christmas carol.
By the 13th century, in France, Germany, and particularly, Italy, under the influence of Francis of Assisi, a strong tradition of popular Christmas songs in the native language developed. Christmas carols in English first appear in a 1426 work of John Awdlay, a Shropshire chaplain, who lists twenty - five "caroles of Cristemas '', probably sung by groups of wassailers, who went from house to house.
The songs we know specifically as carols were originally communal folk songs sung during celebrations such as "harvest tide '' as well as Christmas. It was only later that carols began to be sung in church. Traditionally, carols have often been based on medieval chord patterns, and it is this that gives them their uniquely characteristic musical sound. Some carols like "Personent hodie '', "Good King Wenceslas '', and "The Holly and the Ivy '' can be traced directly back to the Middle Ages. They are among the oldest musical compositions still regularly sung. "Adeste Fideles '' (O Come all ye faithful) appears in its current form in the mid-18th century, although the words may have originated in the 13th century.
Singing of carols initially suffered a decline in popularity after the Protestant Reformation in northern Europe, although some Reformers, like Martin Luther, wrote carols and encouraged their use in worship. Carols largely survived in rural communities until the revival of interest in popular songs in the 19th century. The 18th - century English reformer Charles Wesley understood the importance of music to worship. In addition to setting many psalms to melodies, which were influential in the Great Awakening in the United States, he wrote texts for at least three Christmas carols. The best known was originally entitled "Hark! How All the Welkin Rings '', later renamed "Hark! the Herald Angels Sing ''.
Felix Mendelssohn wrote a melody adapted to fit Wesley 's words. In Austria in 1818 Mohr and Gruber made a major addition to the genre when they composed "Silent Night '' for the St. Nicholas Church, Oberndorf. William Sandys ' Christmas Carols Ancient and Modern (1833) contained the first appearance in print of many now - classic English carols, and contributed to the mid-Victorian revival of the festival.
Completely secular Christmas seasonal songs emerged in the late 18th century. "Deck the Halls '' dates from 1784, and the American "Jingle Bells '' was copyrighted in 1857. In the 19th and 20th century, African American spirituals and songs about Christmas, based in their tradition of spirituals, became more widely known. An increasing number of seasonal holidays songs were commercially produced in the 20th century, including jazz and blues variations. In addition, there was a revival of interest in early music, from groups singing folk music, such as The Revels, to performers of early medieval and classical music. John Rutter has composed many carols including "All Bells in Paradise '', "Angels ' Carol '', "Candlelight Carol '', "Donkey Carol '', "Jesus Child '', "Shepherds ' Pipe Carol '' and "Star Carol ''.
A special Christmas family meal is traditionally an important part of the holiday 's celebration, and the food that is served varies greatly from country to country. Some regions, such as Sicily, have special meals for Christmas Eve, when 12 kinds of fish are served. In the United Kingdom and countries influenced by its traditions, a standard Christmas meal includes turkey, goose or other large bird, gravy, potatoes, vegetables, sometimes bread and cider. Special desserts are also prepared, such as Christmas pudding, mince pies, fruit cake and Yule log cake.
In Poland and other parts of eastern Europe and Scandinavia, fish often is used for the traditional main course, but richer meat such as lamb is increasingly served. In Sweden it is common with a special variety of smörgåsbord, where ham, meatballs and herring play a prominent role. In Germany, France, and Austria, goose and pork are favored. Beef, ham, and chicken in various recipes are popular throughout the world. The Maltese traditionally serve Imbuljuta tal - Qastan, a chocolate and chestnuts beverage, after Midnight Mass and throughout the Christmas season. Slovaks prepare the traditional Christmas bread potica, bûche de Noël in France, panettone in Italy, and elaborate tarts and cakes. The eating of sweets and chocolates has become popular worldwide, and sweeter Christmas delicacies include the German stollen, marzipan cake or candy, and Jamaican rum fruit cake. As one of the few fruits traditionally available to northern countries in winter, oranges have been long associated with special Christmas foods. Eggnog is a sweetened dairy - based beverage traditionally made with milk, cream, sugar, and whipped eggs (which gives it a frothy texture). Spirits such as brandy, rum or bourbon are often added. The finished serving is often garnished with a sprinkling of ground cinnamon or nutmeg.
Christmas cards are illustrated messages of greeting exchanged between friends and family members during the weeks preceding Christmas Day. The traditional greeting reads "wishing you a Merry Christmas and a Happy New Year '', much like that of the first commercial Christmas card, produced by Sir Henry Cole in London in 1843. The custom of sending them has become popular among a wide cross-section of people with the emergence of the modern trend towards exchanging E-cards.
Christmas cards are purchased in considerable quantities, and feature artwork, commercially designed and relevant to the season. The content of the design might relate directly to the Christmas narrative, with depictions of the Nativity of Jesus, or Christian symbols such as the Star of Bethlehem, or a white dove, which can represent both the Holy Spirit and Peace on Earth. Other Christmas cards are more secular and can depict Christmas traditions, mythical figures such as Santa Claus, objects directly associated with Christmas such as candles, holly and baubles, or a variety of images associated with the season, such as Christmastide activities, snow scenes and the wildlife of the northern winter. There are even humorous cards and genres depicting nostalgic scenes of the past such as crinolined shoppers in idealized 19th - century streetscapes.
Some prefer cards with a poem, prayer, or Biblical verse; while others distance themselves from religion with an all - inclusive "Season 's greetings ''.
A number of nations have issued commemorative stamps at Christmastide. Postal customers will often use these stamps to mail Christmas cards, and they are popular with philatelists. These stamps are regular postage stamps, unlike Christmas seals, and are valid for postage year - round. They usually go on sale some time between early October and early December, and are printed in considerable quantities.
The exchanging of gifts is one of the core aspects of the modern Christmas celebration, making it the most profitable time of year for retailers and businesses throughout the world. On Christmas, people exchange gifts based on the Christian tradition associated with Saint Nicholas, and the gifts of gold, frankincense, and myrrh which were given to the baby Jesus by the Magi. The practice of gift giving in the Roman celebration of Saturnalia may have influenced Christian Christian customs, but on the other hand the Christian "core dogma of the Incarnation, however, solidly established the giving and receiving of gifts as the structural principle of that recurrent yet unique event '', because it was the Biblical Magi, "together with all their fellow men, who received the gift of God through man 's renewed participation in the divine life. ''
A number of figures are associated with Christmas and the seasonal giving of gifts. Among these are Father Christmas, also known as Santa Claus (derived from the Dutch for Saint Nicholas), Père Noël, and the Weihnachtsmann; Saint Nicholas or Sinterklaas; the Christkind; Kris Kringle; Joulupukki; tomte / nisse; Babbo Natale; Saint Basil; and Ded Moroz. The Scandinavian tomte (also called nisse) is sometimes depicted as a gnome instead of Santa Claus.
The best known of these figures today is red - dressed Santa Claus, of diverse origins. The name Santa Claus can be traced back to the Dutch Sinterklaas, which means simply Saint Nicholas. Nicholas was a 4th - century Greek bishop of Myra, a city in the Roman province of Lycia, whose ruins are 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) from modern Demre in southwest Turkey. Among other saintly attributes, he was noted for the care of children, generosity, and the giving of gifts. His feast day, December 6, came to be celebrated in many countries with the giving of gifts.
Saint Nicholas traditionally appeared in bishop 's attire, accompanied by helpers, inquiring about the behaviour of children during the past year before deciding whether they deserved a gift or not. By the 13th century, Saint Nicholas was well known in the Netherlands, and the practice of gift - giving in his name spread to other parts of central and southern Europe. At the Reformation in 16th -- 17th - century Europe, many Protestants changed the gift bringer to the Christ Child or Christkindl, corrupted in English to Kris Kringle, and the date of giving gifts changed from December 6 to Christmas Eve.
The modern popular image of Santa Claus, however, was created in the United States, and in particular in New York. The transformation was accomplished with the aid of notable contributors including Washington Irving and the German - American cartoonist Thomas Nast (1840 -- 1902). Following the American Revolutionary War, some of the inhabitants of New York City sought out symbols of the city 's non-English past. New York had originally been established as the Dutch colonial town of New Amsterdam and the Dutch Sinterklaas tradition was reinvented as Saint Nicholas.
In 1809, the New - York Historical Society convened and retroactively named Sancte Claus the patron saint of Nieuw Amsterdam, the Dutch name for New York City. At his first American appearance in 1810, Santa Claus was drawn in bishops ' robes. However, as new artists took over, Santa Claus developed more secular attire. Nast drew a new image of "Santa Claus '' annually, beginning in 1863. By the 1880s, Nast 's Santa had evolved into the modern vision of the figure, perhaps based on the English figure of Father Christmas. The image was standardized by advertisers in the 1920s and continues through the present day.
Father Christmas, a jolly, stout, bearded man who typified the spirit of good cheer at Christmas, predates the Santa Claus character. He is first recorded in early 17th century England, but was associated with holiday merrymaking and drunkenness rather than the bringing of gifts. In Victorian Britain, his image was remade to match that of Santa. The French Père Noël evolved along similar lines, eventually adopting the Santa image. In Italy, Babbo Natale acts as Santa Claus, while La Befana is the bringer of gifts and arrives on the eve of the Epiphany. It is said that La Befana set out to bring the baby Jesus gifts, but got lost along the way. Now, she brings gifts to all children. In some cultures Santa Claus is accompanied by Knecht Ruprecht, or Black Peter. In other versions, elves make the toys. His wife is referred to as Mrs. Claus.
There has been some opposition to the narrative of the American evolution of Saint Nicholas into the modern Santa. It has been claimed that the Saint Nicholas Society was not founded until 1835, almost half a century after the end of the American War of Independence. Moreover, a study of the "children 's books, periodicals and journals '' of New Amsterdam by Charles Jones revealed no references to Saint Nicholas or Sinterklaas. However, not all scholars agree with Jones 's findings, which he reiterated in a book - length study in 1978; Howard G. Hageman, of New Brunswick Theological Seminary, maintains that the tradition of celebrating Sinterklaas in New York was alive and well from the early settlement of the Hudson Valley on.
Current tradition in several Latin American countries (such as Venezuela and Colombia) holds that while Santa makes the toys, he then gives them to the Baby Jesus, who is the one who actually delivers them to the children 's homes, a reconciliation between traditional religious beliefs and the iconography of Santa Claus imported from the United States.
In South Tyrol (Italy), Austria, Czech Republic, Southern Germany, Hungary, Liechtenstein, Slovakia, and Switzerland, the Christkind (Ježíšek in Czech, Jézuska in Hungarian and Ježiško in Slovak) brings the presents. Greek children get their presents from Saint Basil on New Year 's Eve, the eve of that saint 's liturgical feast. The German St. Nikolaus is not identical with the Weihnachtsmann (who is the German version of Santa Claus / Father Christmas). St. Nikolaus wears a bishop 's dress and still brings small gifts (usually candies, nuts, and fruits) on December 6 and is accompanied by Knecht Ruprecht. Although many parents around the world routinely teach their children about Santa Claus and other gift bringers, some have come to reject this practice, considering it deceptive.
Multiple gift - giver figures exist in Poland, varying between regions and individual families. St Nicholas (Święty Mikołaj) dominates Central and North - East areas, the Starman (Gwiazdor) is most common in Greater Poland, Baby Jesus (Dzieciątko) is unique to Upper Silesia, with the Little Star (Gwiazdka) and the Little Angel (Aniołek) being common in the South and the South - East. Grandfather Frost (Dziadek Mróz) is less commonly accepted in some areas of Eastern Poland. It is worth noting that across all of Poland, St Nicholas is the gift giver on the Saint Nicholas Day on December 6.
Some jurisdictions of the Eastern Orthodox Church, including those of Russia, Georgia, Ukraine, Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia, and Jerusalem, mark feasts using the older Julian calendar. As of 2018, there is a difference of 13 days between the Julian calendar and the modern Gregorian calendar, which is used internationally for most secular purposes. As a result, December 25 on the Julian calendar currently corresponds to January 7 on the calendar used by most governments and people in everyday life. Therefore, the aforementioned Orthodox Christians mark December 25 (and thus Christmas) on the day that is internationally considered to be January 7.
However, other Orthodox Christians, such as those belonging to the jurisdictions of Bulgaria, Greece, Romania, Constantinople, Antioch, Alexandria, Albania, Cyprus, Finland, and the Orthodox Church in America, among others, began using the Revised Julian calendar in the early 20th century, which at present corresponds exactly to the Gregorian calendar. Therefore, these Orthodox Christians mark December 25 (and thus Christmas) on the same day that is internationally considered to be December 25, and which is also the date of Christmas among Western Christians.
A further complication is added by the fact that the Armenian Apostolic Church continues the original ancient Eastern Christian practice of celebrating the birth of Christ not as a separate holiday, but on the same day as the celebration of his baptism (Theophany), which is on January 6. This is a public holiday in Armenia, and it is held on the same day that is internationally considered to be January 6, because the Armenian Church in Armenia uses the Gregorian calendar.
However, there is also a small Armenian Patriarchate of Jerusalem, which maintains the traditional Armenian custom of celebrating the birth of Christ on the same day as Theophany (January 6), but uses the Julian calendar for the determination of that date. As a result, this church celebrates "Christmas '' (more properly called Theophany) on the day that is considered January 19 on the Gregorian calendar in use by the majority of the world.
In summary, there are four different dates used by different Christian groups to mark the birth of Christ, given in the table below.
Also, some Byzantine Rite Catholics.
Christmas is typically a peak selling season for retailers in many nations around the world. Sales increase dramatically as people purchase gifts, decorations, and supplies to celebrate. In the U.S., the "Christmas shopping season '' starts as early as October. In Canada, merchants begin advertising campaigns just before Halloween (October 31), and step up their marketing following Remembrance Day on November 11. In the UK and Ireland, the Christmas shopping season starts from mid-November, around the time when high street Christmas lights are turned on. In the United States, it has been calculated that a quarter of all personal spending takes place during the Christmas / holiday shopping season. Figures from the U.S. Census Bureau reveal that expenditure in department stores nationwide rose from $20.8 billion in November 2004 to $31.9 billion in December 2004, an increase of 54 percent. In other sectors, the pre-Christmas increase in spending was even greater, there being a November -- December buying surge of 100 percent in bookstores and 170 percent in jewelry stores. In the same year employment in American retail stores rose from 1.6 million to 1.8 million in the two months leading up to Christmas. Industries completely dependent on Christmas include Christmas cards, of which 1.9 billion are sent in the United States each year, and live Christmas Trees, of which 20.8 million were cut in the U.S. in 2002. In the UK in 2010, up to £ 8 billion was expected to be spent online at Christmas, approximately a quarter of total retail festive sales.
In most Western nations, Christmas Day is the least active day of the year for business and commerce; almost all retail, commercial and institutional businesses are closed, and almost all industries cease activity (more than any other day of the year), whether laws require such or not. In England and Wales, the Christmas Day (Trading) Act 2004 prevents all large shops from trading on Christmas Day. Scotland is currently planning similar legislation. Film studios release many high - budget movies during the holiday season, including Christmas films, fantasy movies or high - tone dramas with high production values to hopes of maximizing the chance of nominations for the Academy Awards.
One economist 's analysis calculates that, despite increased overall spending, Christmas is a deadweight loss under orthodox microeconomic theory, because of the effect of gift - giving. This loss is calculated as the difference between what the gift giver spent on the item and what the gift receiver would have paid for the item. It is estimated that in 2001, Christmas resulted in a $4 billion deadweight loss in the U.S. alone. Because of complicating factors, this analysis is sometimes used to discuss possible flaws in current microeconomic theory. Other deadweight losses include the effects of Christmas on the environment and the fact that material gifts are often perceived as white elephants, imposing cost for upkeep and storage and contributing to clutter.
Christmas has at times been the subject of controversy and attacks from various sources. Historically it was prohibited by Puritans when they briefly held power in England during the English Interregnum (1649 -- 1660), and in Colonial America where the Puritans outlawed the celebration of Christmas in 1659. The Parliament of Scotland, which was dominated by Presbyterians, passed a series of acts outlawing the observance of Christmas between 1637 and 1690; Christmas Day did not become a public holiday in Scotland until 1958. Christmas celebrations have also been prohibited by atheist states such as the Soviet Union and more recently majority Muslim states such as Somalia, Tajikistan and Brunei.
Modern scholars such as E.P. Sanders, Geza Vermes and Marcus Borg consider both Gospel narratives of the birth of Jesus to be non-historical, arguing that there are contradictions between them. Many biblical scholars view the discussion of historicity as secondary, given that gospels were primarily written as theological documents rather than historical accounts.
Some Christians and organizations such as Pat Robertson 's American Center for Law and Justice cite alleged attacks on Christmas (dubbing them a "war on Christmas ''). Such groups claim that any specific mention of the term "Christmas '' or its religious aspects is being increasingly censored, avoided, or discouraged by a number of advertisers, retailers, government (prominently schools), and other public and private organizations. One controversy is the occurrence of Christmas trees being renamed Holiday trees. In the U.S. there has been a tendency to replace the greeting Merry Christmas with Happy Holidays, which is considered inclusive at the time of the Jewish celebration of Hanukkah. In the U.S. and Canada, where the use of the term "Holidays '' is most prevalent, opponents have denounced its usage and avoidance of using the term "Christmas '' as being politically correct. Groups such as the American Civil Liberties Union have initiated court cases to bar the display of images and other material referring to Christmas from public property, including schools. Such groups argue that government - funded displays of Christmas imagery and traditions violate the First Amendment to the United States Constitution, which prohibits the establishment by Congress of a national religion. In 1984, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in Lynch v. Donnelly that a Christmas display (which included a Nativity scene) owned and displayed by the city of Pawtucket, Rhode Island, did not violate the First Amendment. In November 2009, the federal appeals court in Philadelphia upheld a school district 's ban on the singing of Christmas carols. The Supreme Court of the United States declined to hear an appeal.
American Muslim scholar Abdul Malik Mujahid has said that Muslims must treat Christmas with respect, even if they disagree with it.
(federal) = federal holidays, (state) = state holidays, (religious) = religious holidays, (week) = weeklong holidays, (month) = monthlong holidays, (36) = Title 36 Observances and Ceremonies Bold indicates major holidays commonly celebrated in the United States, which often represent the major celebrations of the month.
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why do i repeat what i say under my breath | Palilalia - wikipedia
Palilalia (from the Greek πάλιν (pálin) meaning "again '' and λαλιά (laliá) meaning "speech '' or "to talk ''), a complex tic, is a language disorder characterized by the involuntary repetition of syllables, words, or phrases. It has features resembling other complex tics such as echolalia or coprolalia, but, unlike other aphasias, palilalia is based upon contextually correct speech.
It was originally described by Alexandre - Achille Souques in a patient with stroke that resulted in left - side hemiplegia, although a condition described as auto - echolalia in 1899 by Édouard Brissaud may have been the same condition.
Palilalia is considered an aphasia, a disorder of language, and is not to be confused with speech disorders, as there is no difficulty in the formation of internal speech. Palilalia is similar to speech disorders such as stuttering or cluttering, as it tends to only express itself in spontaneous speech, such as answering basic questions, and not in automatic speech such as reading or singing; however, it distinctively affects words and phrases rather than syllables and sounds.
Palilalia may occur in conditions affecting the pre-frontal cortex or basal ganglia regions, either from physical trauma, neurodegenerative disorders, genetic disorders, or a loss of dopamine in these brain regions. Palilalia occurs most commonly in Tourette syndrome and may be present in neurodegenerative disorders like Alzheimer 's disease and progressive supranuclear palsy.
Palilalia is defined as the repetition of the speaker 's words or phrases, often for a varying number of repeats. Repeated units are generally whole sections of words and are larger than a syllable, with words being repeated the most often, followed by phrases, and then syllables or sounds. Palilalic repetitions are often spoken with decreasing volume and speed up over time.
A 2007 case study by Van Borsel et al. examined the acoustic features in palilalia. AB, a 60 - year - old male was diagnosed with idiopathic Parkinson 's disease and had noticed changes in gait, posture, writing, and speech. Observation of his perceptual speech characteristics and Frenchay Dysarthria Assessment results suggested AB suffered from hypokinetic dysarthria with a marked palilalia. It was determined to start speech therapy with passive (metronome) and active (pacing boards) pacing techniques to reduce the number of palilalic repetitions. Unfortunately AB was not able to enunciate despite extensive training.
Analysis of AB 's speech therapy showed that his repetitions lasted from 1 minute 33 seconds to 2 minutes 28 seconds, ranging from 1 to 32 repetitions on some words, and differed from trial to trial. Pauses were present between each repetition, ranging from 0.1 to 0.7 seconds. Van Borsel et al. concluded that AB 's palilalic repetitions followed no pattern: the duration of each repetition train did not decrease over time, the number of repetitions per train did not increase, and the duration of each individual word did not decrease in duration. Such results indicated not all palilalic repetitions show an increasing rate with decreasing volume, and defied the two distinct subtypes of palilalia as suggested by Sterling. Sterling 's Type A, sometimes called palilalie spasmodique, is characterized by fast repetitions and decreasing volume, while Sterling 's Type B, sometimes called palilalie atonique, is characterized by repetitions at a constant rate with interspersed periods of silence. AB showed neither a systematic increase (Sterling 's Type A) or a constant duration (Sterling 's Type B) and instead fell between the two.
Palilalia has been theorized to occur in writing and sign language. A case study by Tyrone and Moll examined a 79 - year - old right - handed deaf man named PSP who showed anomalies in his signing. PSP had learned British sign language (BSL) at the age of seven and had developed left - sided weakness and dysphagia at age 77. PSP showed involuntary movements and repetitions in his signing. Tyrone and Moll reported his movements were palilalic in nature, as entire signs were repeated and the repetitional movements became smaller and smaller in amplitude.
The exact cause of palilalia is unknown.
Palilalia also occurs in a variety of neurodegenerative disorders, occurring most commonly in Tourette syndrome, Alzheimer 's disease, and progressive supranuclear palsy. Such degradation can occur in the substantia nigra where decreased dopamine production results in a loss of function. It can also occur in a variety of genetic disorders including Fragile X syndrome, Prader - Willi syndrome, Asperger 's syndrome, autism, and logoclonia. In contrast to stuttering or logoclonia, palilalic repetitions tend to consist of complete sections of words or phrases, are often repeated many times, and the speaker has no difficulty initiating speech.
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who identified five major dimensions of national culture as they apply to human resource management | Organizational culture - wikipedia
Organizational culture encompasses values and behaviours that "contribute to the unique social and psychological environment of an organization ''. According to Needle (2004), organizational culture represents the collective values, beliefs and principles of organizational members and is a product of such factors as history, product, market, technology, strategy, type of employees, management style, and national culture; culture includes the organization 's vision, values, norms, systems, symbols, language, assumptions, environment, location, beliefs, and habits.
Business executive Bernard L. Rosauer (2013) developed what he refers to as an actionable definition of organizational culture: "Organizational culture is an emergence -- an extremely complex incalculable state that results from the combination of a few simple ingredients. In "Three Bell Curves: Business Culture Decoded '' Rosauer outlines the three manageable ingredients he says guides the culture of any business. Ingredient # 1 -- Employee (focus on engagement) # 2 The Work (focus on eliminating waste increasing value) waste # 3 The Customer (focus on likelihood of referral). The purpose of the Three Bell Curves methodology is to bring leadership, their employees, the work and the customer together for focus without distraction, leading to an improvement in culture and brand. Reliance of the research and findings of Sirota Survey Intelligence, who has been gathering employee data worldwide since 1972, the Lean Enterprise Institute, Cambridge, MA, and Fred Reichheld / Bain / Satmetrix research relating to NetPromoterScore.
Ravasi and Schultz (2006) wrote that organizational culture is a set of shared assumptions that guide what happens in organizations by defining appropriate behavior for various situations. It is also the pattern of such collective behaviors and assumptions that are taught to new organizational members as a way of perceiving and, even, thinking and feeling. Thus, organizational culture affects the way people and groups interact with each other, with clients, and with stakeholders. In addition, organizational culture may affect how much employees identify with an organization.
Schein (1992), Deal and Kennedy (2000), and Kotter (1992) advanced the idea that organizations often have very differing cultures as well as subcultures. Although a company may have its "own unique culture '', in larger organizations there are sometimes co-existing or conflicting subcultures because each subculture is linked to a different management team.
Organizational culture refers to culture in any type of organization including that of schools, universities, not - for - profit groups, government agencies, or business entities. In business, terms such as corporate culture and company culture are often used to refer to a similar concept. The term corporate culture became widely known in the business world in the late 1980s and early 1990s. Corporate culture was already used by managers, sociologists, and organizational theorists by the beginning of the 80s. The related idea of organizational climate emerged in the 1960s and 70s, and the terms are now somewhat overlapping.
If organizational culture is seen as something that characterizes an organization, it can be manipulated and altered depending on leadership and members. Culture as root metaphor sees the organization as its culture, created through communication and symbols, or competing metaphors. Culture is basic, with personal experience producing a variety of perspectives.
The organizational communication perspective on culture views culture in three different ways:
Strong culture is said to exist where staff respond to stimulus because of their alignment to organizational values. In such environments, strong cultures help firms operate like well - oiled machines, engaging in outstanding execution with only minor adjustments to existing procedures as needed.
Conversely, there is weak culture where there is little alignment with organizational values, and control must be exercised through extensive procedures and bureaucracy.
Research shows that organizations that foster strong cultures have clear values that give employees a reason to embrace the culture. A "strong '' culture may be especially beneficial to firms operating in the service sector since members of these organizations are responsible for delivering the service and for evaluations important constituents make about firms. Organizations may derive the following benefits from developing strong and productive cultures:
Where culture is strong, people do things because they believe it is the right thing to do, and there is a risk of another phenomenon, groupthink. "Groupthink '' was described by Irving Janis. He defined it as "a quick and easy way to refer to a mode of thinking that people engage when they are deeply involved in a cohesive in - group, when the members ' strivings for unanimity override their motivation to realistically appraise alternatives of action. '' (Irving Janis, 1972, p. 9) This is a state in which even if they have different ideas, they do not challenge organizational thinking, and therefore there is a reduced capacity for innovative thoughts. This could occur, for example, where there is heavy reliance on a central charismatic figure in the organization, or where there is an evangelical belief in the organization 's values, or also in groups where a friendly climate is at the base of their identity (avoidance of conflict). In fact, groupthink is very common and happens all the time, in almost every group. Members that are defiant are often turned down or seen as a negative influence by the rest of the group because they bring conflict.
Organizations should strive for what is considered a "healthy '' organizational culture in order to increase productivity, growth, efficiency and reduce counterproductive behavior and turnover of employees. A variety of characteristics describe a healthy culture, including:
Additionally, performance oriented cultures have been shown to possess statistically better financial growth. Such cultures possess high employee involvement, strong internal communications and an acceptance and encouragement of a healthy level of risk - taking in order to achieve innovation. Additionally, organizational cultures that explicitly emphasize factors related to the demands placed on them by industry technology and growth will be better performers in their industries.
According to Kotter and Heskett (1992), organizations with adaptive cultures perform much better than organizations with unadaptive cultures. An adaptive culture translates into organizational success; it is characterized by managers paying close attention to all of their constituencies, especially customers, initiating change when needed, and taking risks. An unadaptive culture can significantly reduce a firm 's effectiveness, disabling the firm from pursuing all its competitive / operational options.
Healthy companies are able to deal with employees ' concerns about the well - being of the organization internally, before the employees would even feel they needed to raise the issues externally. It is for this reason that whistleblowing, particularly when it results in serious damage to a company 's reputation, is considered to be often a sign of a chronically dysfunctional corporate culture.
There are many different types of communication that contribute in creating an organizational culture:
Bullying is seen to be prevalent in organizations where employees and managers feel that they have the support, or at least implicitly the blessing, of senior managers to carry on their abusive and bullying behaviour. Furthermore, new managers will quickly come to view this form of behaviour as acceptable and normal if they see others get away with it and are even rewarded for it.
When bullying happens at the highest levels, the effects may be far reaching. That people may be bullied irrespective of their organisational status or rank, including senior managers, indicates the possibility of a negative ripple effect, where bullying may be cascaded downwards as the targeted supervisors might offload their own aggression on their subordinates. In such situations, a bullying scenario in the boardroom may actually threaten the productivity of the entire organisation.
Ashforth discussed potentially destructive sides of leadership and identified what he referred to as petty tyrants, i.e. leaders who exercise a tyrannical style of management, resulting in a climate of fear in the workplace. Partial or intermittent negative reinforcement can create an effective climate of fear and doubt. When employees get the sense that bullies "get away with it '', a climate of fear may be the result. Several studies have confirmed a relationship between bullying, on the one hand, and an autocratic leadership and an authoritarian way of settling conflicts or dealing with disagreements, on the other. An authoritarian style of leadership may create a climate of fear, where there is little or no room for dialogue and where complaining may be considered futile.
In a study of public - sector union members, approximately one in five workers reported having considered leaving the workplace as a result of witnessing bullying taking place. Rayner explained these figures by pointing to the presence of a climate of fear in which employees considered reporting to be unsafe, where bullies had "got away with it '' previously despite management knowing of the presence of bullying.
David Logan and coauthors have proposed in their book Tribal Leadership that organizational cultures change in stages, based on an analysis of human groups and tribal cultures. They identify five basic stages:
This model of organizational culture provides a map and context for leading an organization through the five stages.
Organizational culture is taught to the person as culture is taught by his / her parents thus changing and modeling his / her personal culture. Indeed, employees and people applying for a job are advised to match their "personality to a company 's culture '' and fit to it. Some researchers even suggested and have made case studies research on personality changing.
Corporate culture is used to control, coordinate, and integrate company subsidiaries. However differences in national cultures exist contributing to differences in the views on management. Differences between national cultures are deep rooted values of the respective cultures, and these cultural values can shape how people expect companies to be run, and how relationships between leaders and followers should be, resulting in differences between the employer and the employee regarding expectations. (Geert Hofstede, 1991) Perhaps equally foundational; observing the vast differences in national copyright (and taxation, etc.) laws suggests deep rooted differences in cultural attitudes and assumptions about property rights and sometimes about the desired root function, place, or purpose of corporations relative to the population.
Xibao Zhang (2009) carried out an empirical study of culture emergence in the Sino - Western international cross-cultural management (SW - ICCM) context in China. Field data were collected by interviewing Western expatriates and Chinese professionals working in this context, supplemented by non-participant observation and documentary data. The data were then analyzed objectively to formulate theme - based substantive theories and a formal theory.
The major finding of this study is that the human cognition contains three components, or three broad types of "cultural rules of behavior '', namely, Values, Expectations, and Ad Hoc Rules, each of which has a mutually conditioning relationship with behavior. The three cognitive components are different in terms of the scope and duration of their mutual shaping of behavior. Values are universal and enduring rules of behavior; Expectations, on the other hand, are context - specific behavioral rules; while Ad Hoc Rules are improvised rules of behavior that the human mind devises contingent upon a particular occasion. Furthermore, they need not be consistent, and frequently are not, among themselves. Metaphorically, they can be compared to a multi-carriage train, which allows for the relative lateral movements by individual carriages so as to accommodate bumps and turns in the tracks. In fact, they provide a "shock - absorber mechanism '', so to speak, which enables individuals in SW - ICCM contexts to cope with conflicts in cultural practices and values, and to accommodate and adapt themselves to cultural contexts where people from different national cultural backgrounds work together over extended time. It also provides a powerful framework which explains how interactions by individuals in SW - ICCM contexts give rise to emerging hybrid cultural practices characterized by both stability and change.
One major theoretical contribution of this "multi-carriage train '' perspective is its allowance for the existence of inconsistencies among the three cognitive components in their mutual conditioning of behavior. This internal inconsistency view is in stark contrast to the traditional internal consistency assumption explicitly or tacitly held by many culture scholars. The other major theoretical contribution, which follows logically from the first one, is to view culture as an overarching entity which is made of a multiplicity of Values, Expectations, and Ad Hoc Rules. This notion of one (multiplicity) culture to an organization leads to the classification of culture along its path of emergence into nascent, adolescent, and mature types, each of which is distinct in terms of the pattern of the three cognitive components and behavior.
Research suggests that numerous outcomes have been associated either directly or indirectly with organizational culture. A healthy and robust organizational culture may provide various benefits, including the following:
Although little empirical research exists to support the link between organizational culture and organizational performance, there is little doubt among experts that this relationship exists. Organizational culture can be a factor in the survival or failure of an organization -- although this is difficult to prove given that the necessary longitudinal analyses are hardly feasible. The sustained superior performance of firms like IBM, Hewlett - Packard, Procter & Gamble, and McDonald 's may be, at least partly, a reflection of their organizational cultures.
A 2003 Harvard Business School study reported that culture has a significant effect on an organization 's long - term economic performance. The study examined the management practices at 160 organizations over ten years and found that culture can enhance performance or prove detrimental to performance. Organizations with strong performance - oriented cultures witnessed far better financial growth. Additionally, a 2002 Corporate Leadership Council study found that cultural traits such as risk taking, internal communications, and flexibility are some of the most important drivers of performance, and may affect individual performance. Furthermore, innovativeness, productivity through people, and the other cultural factors cited by Peters and Waterman (1982) also have positive economic consequences.
Denison, Haaland, and Goelzer (2004) found that culture contributes to the success of the organization, but not all dimensions contribute the same. It was found that the effects of these dimensions differ by global regions, which suggests that organizational culture is affected by national culture. Additionally, Clarke (2006) found that a safety climate is related to an organization 's safety record.
Organizational culture is reflected in the way people perform tasks, set objectives, and administer the necessary resources to achieve objectives. Culture affects the way individuals make decisions, feel, and act in response to the opportunities and threats affecting the organization.
Adkins and Caldwell (2004) found that job satisfaction was positively associated with the degree to which employees fit into both the overall culture and subculture in which they worked. A perceived mismatch of the organization 's culture and what employees felt the culture should be is related to a number of negative consequences including lower job satisfaction, higher job strain, general stress, and turnover intent.
It has been proposed that organizational culture may affect the level of employee creativity, the strength of employee motivation, and the reporting of unethical behavior, but more research is needed to support these conclusions.
Organizational culture also affects recruitment and retention. Individuals tend to be attracted to and remain engaged in organizations that they perceive to be compatible. Additionally, high turnover may be a mediating factor in the relationship between culture and organizational performance. Deteriorating company performance and an unhealthy work environment are signs of an overdue cultural assessment.
When an organization does not possess a healthy culture or requires some kind of organizational culture change, the change process can be daunting. Organizational culture can hinder new change efforts, especially where employees know their expectations and the roles that they are supposed to play in the organization. This is corroborated by Mar (2016: 1) who argues that 70 % of all change efforts fail because of the culture of an organization 's employees. One major reason why such change is difficult is that organizational cultures, and the organizational structures in which they are embedded, often reflect the "imprint '' of earlier periods in a persistent way and exhibit remarkable levels of inertia. Culture change may be necessary to reduce employee turnover, influence employee behavior, make improvements to the company, refocus the company objectives and / or rescale the organization, provide better customer service, and / or achieve specific company goals and results. Culture change is affected by a number of elements, including the external environment and industry competitors, change in industry standards, technology changes, the size and nature of the workforce, and the organization 's history and management.
There are a number of methodologies specifically dedicated to organizational culture change such as Peter Senge 's Fifth Discipline. There are also a variety of psychological approaches that have been developed into a system for specific outcomes such as the Fifth Discipline 's "learning organization '' or Directive Communication 's "corporate culture evolution. '' Ideas and strategies, on the other hand, seem to vary according to particular influences that affect culture.
Burman and Evans (2008) argue that it is ' leadership ' that affects culture rather than ' management ', and describe the difference. When one wants to change an aspect of the culture of an organization one has to keep in consideration that this is a long term project. Corporate culture is something that is very hard to change and employees need time to get used to the new way of organizing. For companies with a very strong and specific culture it will be even harder to change.
Prior to a cultural change initiative, a needs assessment is needed to identify and understand the current organizational culture. This can be done through employee surveys, interviews, focus groups, observation, customer surveys where appropriate, and other internal research, to further identify areas that require change. The company must then assess and clearly identify the new, desired culture, and then design a change process.
Cummings & Worley (2004, p. 491 -- 492) give the following six guidelines for cultural change, these changes are in line with the eight distinct stages mentioned by Kotter (1995, p. 2):
One of the biggest obstacles in the way of the merging of two organizations is organizational culture. Each organization has its own unique culture and most often, when brought together, these cultures clash. When mergers fail employees point to issues such as identity, communication problems, human resources problems, ego clashes, and inter-group conflicts, which all fall under the category of "cultural differences ''.
One way to combat such difficulties is through cultural leadership. Organizational leaders must also be cultural leaders and help facilitate the change from the two old cultures into the one new culture. This is done through cultural innovation followed by cultural maintenance.
Corporate culture is the total sum of the values, customs, traditions, and meanings that make a company unique. Corporate culture is often called "the character of an organization '', since it embodies the vision of the company 's founders. The values of a corporate culture influence the ethical standards within a corporation, as well as managerial behavior.
Senior management may try to determine a corporate culture. They may wish to impose corporate values and standards of behavior that specifically reflect the objectives of the organization. In addition, there will also be an extant internal culture within the workforce. Work - groups within the organization have their own behavioral quirks and interactions which, to an extent, affect the whole system. Roger Harrison 's four - culture typology, and adapted by Charles Handy, suggests that unlike organizational culture, corporate culture can be ' imported '. For example, computer technicians will have expertise, language and behaviors gained independently of the organization, but their presence can influence the culture of the organization as a whole.
Corporate culture can legally be found to be a cause of injuries and a reason for fining companies in the US, e.g., when the US Department of Labor Mine Safety and Health Administration levied a fine of more than 10.8 million US dollars on Performance Coal Co. following the Upper Big Branch Mine disaster in April 2010. This was the largest fine in the history of this U.S. government agency.
Criticism of the usage of the term by managers began already in its emergence in the early 80s. Most of the criticism comes from the writers in critical management studies who for example express skepticism about the functionalist and unitarist views about culture that are put forward by mainstream management writers. They stress the ways in which these cultural assumptions can stifle dissent management and reproduce propaganda and ideology. They suggest that organizations do not have a single culture and cultural engineering may not reflect the interests of all stakeholders within an organization.
Parker (2000) has suggested that many of the assumptions of those putting forward theories of organizational culture are not new. They reflect a long - standing tension between cultural and structural (or informal and formal) versions of what organizations are. Further, it is reasonable to suggest that complex organizations might have many cultures, and that such sub-cultures might overlap and contradict each other. The neat typologies of cultural forms found in textbooks rarely acknowledge such complexities, or the various economic contradictions that exist in capitalist organizations.
Among the strongest and most widely recognized writers on corporate culture, with a long list of articles on leadership, culture, gender and their intersection, is Linda Smircich. As a part of the critical management studies, she criticizes theories that attempt to categorize or ' pigeonhole ' organizational culture. She uses the metaphor of a plant root to represent culture, saying that it drives organizations rather than vice versa. Organizations are the product of organizational culture; we are unaware of how it shapes behavior and interaction (also implicit in Schein 's (2002) underlying assumptions), and so how can we categorize it and define what it is?
Several methods have been used to classify organizational culture. While there is no single "type '' of organizational culture and organizational cultures vary widely from one organization to the next, commonalities do exist and some researchers have developed models to describe different indicators of organizational cultures. Some are described below:
Hofstede (1980) looked for differences between over 160 000 IBM employees in 50 different countries and three regions of the world, in an attempt to find aspects of culture that might influence business behavior. He suggested things about cultural differences existing in regions and nations, and the importance of international awareness and multiculturalism for their own cultural introspection. Cultural differences reflect differences in thinking and social action, and even in "mental programs '', a term Hofstede uses for predictable behavior. Hofstede relates culture to ethnic and regional groups, but also organizations, professional, family, social and subcultural groups, national political systems and legislation, etc.
Hofstede suggests the need for changing "mental programs '' with changing behavior first, which will lead to value change. Though certain groups like Jews and Gypsies have maintained their identity through centuries, their values show adaptation to the dominant cultural environment.
Hofstede demonstrated that there are national and regional cultural groupings that affect the behavior of organizations and identified four dimensions of culture (later five) in his study of national cultures:
These dimensions refer to the effect of national cultures on management, and can be used to adapt policies to local needs. In a follow up study, another model is suggested for organizational culture.
Two common models and their associated measurement tools have been developed by O'Reilly et al. and Denison.
O'Reilly, Chatman & Caldwell (1991) developed a model based on the belief that cultures can be distinguished by values that are reinforced within organizations. Their Organizational Cultural Profile (OCP) is a self reporting tool which makes distinctions according eight categories -- Innovation, Supportiveness, Stability, Respect for People, Outcome Orientation, Attention to Detail, Team Orientation, and Aggressiveness. The model is also suited to measure how organizational culture affects organizational performance, as it measures most efficient persons suited to an organization and as such organizations can be termed as having good organizational culture. Employee values are measured against organizational values to predict employee intentions to stay, and turnover. This is done through an instrument like Organizational Culture Profile (OCP) to measure employee commitment.
Daniel Denison 's model (1990) asserts that organizational culture can be described by four general dimensions -- Mission, Adaptability, Involvement and Consistency. Each of these general dimensions is further described by the following three sub-dimensions:
Denison 's model also allows cultures to be described broadly as externally or internally focused as well as flexible versus stable. The model has been typically used to diagnose cultural problems in organizations.
Deal and Kennedy (1982) defined organizational culture as the way things get done around here.
Deal and Kennedy created a model of culture that is based on 4 different types of organizations. They each focus on how quickly the organization receives feedback, the way members are rewarded, and the level of risks taken:
According to Schein (1992), culture is the most difficult organizational attribute to change, outlasting organizational products, services, founders and leadership and all other physical attributes of the organization. His organizational model illuminates culture from the standpoint of the observer, described at three levels: artifacts, espoused values and basic underlying assumptions.
At the first and most cursory level of Schein 's model is organizational attributes that can be seen, felt and heard by the uninitiated observer -- collectively known as artifacts. Included are the facilities, offices, furnishings, visible awards and recognition, the way that its members dress, how each person visibly interacts with each other and with organizational outsiders, and even company slogans, mission statements and other operational creeds.
Artifacts comprise the physical components of the organization that relay cultural meaning. Daniel Denison (1990) describes artifacts as the tangible aspects of culture shared by members of an organization. Verbal, behavioral and physical artifacts are the surface manifestations of organizational culture.
Rituals, the collective interpersonal behavior and values as demonstrated by that behavior, constitute the fabric of an organization 's culture. The contents of myths, stories, and sagas reveal the history of an organization and influence how people understand what their organization values and believes. Language, stories, and myths are examples of verbal artifacts and are represented in rituals and ceremonies. Technology and art exhibited by members of an organization are examples of physical artifacts.
The next level deals with the professed culture of an organization 's members -- the values. Shared values are individuals ' preferences regarding certain aspects of the organization 's culture (e.g. loyalty, customer service). At this level, local and personal values are widely expressed within the organization. Basic beliefs and assumptions include individuals ' impressions about the trustworthiness and supportiveness of an organization, and are often deeply ingrained within the organization 's culture. Organizational behavior at this level usually can be studied by interviewing the organization 's membership and using questionnaires to gather attitudes about organizational membership.
At the third and deepest level, the organization 's tacit assumptions are found. These are the elements of culture that are unseen and not cognitively identified in everyday interactions between organizational members. Additionally, these are the elements of culture which are often taboo to discuss inside the organization. Many of these ' unspoken rules ' exist without the conscious knowledge of the membership. Those with sufficient experience to understand this deepest level of organizational culture usually become acclimatized to its attributes over time, thus reinforcing the invisibility of their existence. Surveys and casual interviews with organizational members can not draw out these attributes -- rather much more in - depth means is required to first identify then understand organizational culture at this level. Notably, culture at this level is the underlying and driving element often missed by organizational behaviorists.
Using Schein 's model, understanding paradoxical organizational behaviors becomes more apparent. For instance, an organization can profess highly aesthetic and moral standards at the second level of Schein 's model while simultaneously displaying curiously opposing behavior at the third and deepest level of culture. Superficially, organizational rewards can imply one organizational norm but at the deepest level imply something completely different. This insight offers an understanding of the difficulty that organizational newcomers have in assimilating organizational culture and why it takes time to become acclimatized. It also explains why organizational change agents usually fail to achieve their goals: underlying tacit cultural norms are generally not understood before would - be change agents begin their actions. Merely understanding culture at the deepest level may be insufficient to institute cultural change because the dynamics of interpersonal relationships (often under threatening conditions) are added to the dynamics of organizational culture while attempts are made to institute desired change.
Business executive and long time observer of thousands of companies succeed and fail defined organizational culture as "An Emergence, an extremely complex and often incalculable outcome resulting from the mixture of three simple ingredients 1. The worker 2. The Work 3. The Customer. He furthermore outlines in his paper "Three Bell Curves: Business Culture Decoded '' a methodology for improvement. The methodology, he says ' must remain simple if corporations are going to be able to work on it day in and day out, from project to project, problem to problem, success to success '.
Gerry Johnson (1988) described a cultural web, identifying a number of elements that can be used to describe or influence organizational culture:
These elements may overlap. Power structures may depend on control systems, which may exploit the very rituals that generate stories which may not be true.
According to Schein (1992), the two main reasons why cultures develop in organizations is due to external adaptation and internal integration. External adaptation reflects an evolutionary approach to organizational culture and suggests that cultures develop and persist because they help an organization to survive and flourish. If the culture is valuable, then it holds the potential for generating sustained competitive advantages. Additionally, internal integration is an important function since social structures are required for organizations to exist. Organizational practices are learned through socialization at the workplace. Work environments reinforce culture on a daily basis by encouraging employees to exercise cultural values. Organizational culture is shaped by multiple factors, including the following:
Schemata (plural of schema) are knowledge structures a person forms from past experiences, allowing the person to respond to similar events more efficiently in the future by guiding the processing of information. A person 's schemata are created through interaction with others, and thus inherently involve communication.
Stanley G. Harris (1994) argues that five categories of in - organization schemata are necessary for organizational culture:
All of these categories together represent a person 's knowledge of an organization. Organizational culture is created when the schematas (schematic structures) of differing individuals across and within an organization come to resemble each other (when any one person 's schemata come to resemble another person 's schemata because of mutual organizational involvement), primarily done through organizational communication, as individuals directly or indirectly share knowledge and meanings.
Charles Handy (1976), popularized Roger Harrison (1972) with linking organizational structure to organizational culture. The described four types of culture are:
Kim Cameron and Robert Quinn (1999) conducted research on organizational effectiveness and success. Based on the Competing Values Framework, they developed the Organizational Culture Assessment Instrument that distinguishes four culture types.
Competing values produce polarities like flexibility vs. stability and internal vs. external focus -- these two polarities were found to be most important in defining organizational success. The polarities construct a quadrant with four types of culture:
Cameron and Quinn designated six characteristics of organizational culture that can be assessed with the Organizational Culture Assessment Instrument (OCAI).
Clan cultures are most strongly associated with positive employee attitudes and product and service quality. Market cultures are most strongly related with innovation and financial effectiveness criteria. The primary belief in market cultures that clear goals and contingent rewards motivate employees to aggressively perform and meet stakeholders ' expectations; a core belief in clan cultures is that the organization 's trust in and commitment to employees facilitates open communication and employee involvement. These differing results suggest that it is important for executive leaders to consider the match between strategic initiatives and organizational culture when determining how to embed a culture that produces competitive advantage. By assessing the current organizational culture as well as the preferred situation, the gap and direction to change can be made visible as a first step to changing organizational culture.
Robert A. Cooke defines culture as the behaviors that members believe are required to fit in and meet expectations within their organization. The Organizational Culture Inventory measures twelve behavioral norms that are grouped into three general types of cultures:
In constructive cultures, people are encouraged to be in communication with their co-workers, and work as teams, rather than only as individuals. In positions where people do a complex job, rather than something simple like a mechanical task, this culture is efficient.
Organizations with constructive cultures encourage members to work to their full potential, resulting in high levels of motivation, satisfaction, teamwork, service quality, and sales growth. Constructive norms are evident in environments where quality is valued over quantity, creativity is valued over conformity, cooperation is believed to lead to better results than competition, and effectiveness is judged at the system level rather than the component level. These types of cultural norms are consistent with (and supportive of) the objectives behind empowerment, total quality management, transformational leadership, continuous improvement, re-engineering, and learning organizations.
Norms that reflect expectations for members to interact with people in ways that will not threaten their own security are in the Passive / Defensive Cluster.
The four Passive / Defensive cultural norms are:
In organizations with Passive / Defensive cultures, members feel pressured to think and behave in ways that are inconsistent with the way they believe they should in order to be effective. People are expected to please others (particularly superiors) and avoid interpersonal conflict. Rules, procedures, and orders are more important than personal beliefs, ideas, and judgment. Passive / Defensive cultures experience a lot of unresolved conflict and turnover, and organizational members report lower levels of motivation and satisfaction.
This style is characterized with more emphasis on task than people. Because of the very nature of this style, people tend to focus on their own individual needs at the expense of the success of the group. The aggressive / defensive style is very stressful, and people using this style tend to make decisions based on status as opposed to expertise.
Organizations with aggressive / defensive cultures encourage or require members to appear competent, controlled, and superior. Members who seek assistance, admit shortcomings, or concede their position are viewed as incompetent or weak. These organizations emphasize finding errors, weeding out "mistakes '' and encouraging members to compete against each other rather than competitors. The short - term gains associated with these strategies are often at the expense of long - term growth.
Adam Grant, author of the book Give and Take, distinguishes organizational cultures into giver, taker and matcher cultures according to their norms of reciprocity. In a giver culture, employees operate by "helping others, sharing knowledge, offering mentoring, and making connections without expecting anything in return '', whereas in a taker culture "the norm is to get as much as possible from others while contributing less in return '' and winners are those who take the most and are able to build their power at the expense of others. The majority of organizations are mid-way, with a matcher culture, in which the norm is to match giving with taking, and favours are mostly traded in closed loops.
In a study by Harvard researchers on units of the US intelligence system, a giver culture turned out to be the strongest predictor of group effectiveness.
As Grant points out, Robert H. Frank argues that "many organizations are essentially winner - take - all markets, dominated by zero - sum competitions for rewards and promotions ''. In particular, when leaders implement forced ranking systems to reward individual performance, the organisational culture tends to change, with a giver culture giving way to a taker or matcher culture. Also awarding the highest - performing individual within each team encourages a taker culture.
Stephen McGuire (2003) defined and validated a model of organizational culture that predicts revenue from new sources. An Entrepreneurial Organizational Culture (EOC) is a system of shared values, beliefs and norms of members of an organization, including valuing creativity and tolerance of creative people, believing that innovating and seizing market opportunities are appropriate behaviors to deal with problems of survival and prosperity, environmental uncertainty, and competitors ' threats, and expecting organizational members to behave accordingly.
Four organizational cultures can be classified as apathetic, caring, exacting, and integrative.
A cultural audit is an assessment of an organization 's values.
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what are all the paw patrol characters names | PAW Patrol - Wikipedia
PAW Patrol is a Canadian CGI -- animated television series created by Keith Chapman. It is produced by Spin Master Entertainment in association with TVOKids and Nickelodeon, with animation provided by Guru Studio. In Canada, the series is primarily broadcast on TVOKids, which first ran previews of the show in August 2013. The series first aired on Nickelodeon in the United States on August 12, 2013.
The series focuses on a boy named Ryder who leads a pack of search and rescue dogs known as the PAW Patrol. They work together on missions to protect the shoreside community of Adventure Bay. Each dog has a specific set of skills based on a real - life profession, such as a firefighter and a police officer. They all reside in doghouses that can transform into customized vehicles when necessary. They are also equipped with backpacks called "pup packs '' that contain tools that relate to the pups ' jobs.
Spin Master has developed the show into a media franchise and released an ongoing line of toys based on it. PAW Patrol toy sales have generated millions of dollars in revenue for the corporation and increased Spin Master 's presence in the preschool toy market. The show, and its associated products, have received a variety of awards and nominations from associations such as the Academy of Canadian Cinema & Television and the Academy of Television Arts & Sciences.
Each episode of PAW Patrol follows a similar pattern and features recurring themes. Episodes normally open with a scene depicting the dogs going about their everyday lives, often playing with dog toys or engaging in activities at the local playground. Ryder, a ten - year - old boy, is advised of a problem by receiving a call for help or by witnessing a situation himself. His most frequent caller is an accident - prone marine biologist named Cap'n Turbot, who knows much about Adventure Bay 's wildlife. Ryder always alerts the dogs via their blinking pet tags. The team members report to their base, the Lookout, and enter its elevator. Marshall typically arrives last causing a humorous mishap that makes the other dogs laugh as the elevator rises. When they reach the top floor, they arrange themselves in a line. Chase announces that the team is ready for action as Ryder tells the pups what has happened. He chooses several members of the team, normally two first responders, to help solve whatever problem has emerged. They ride a slide down to their vehicles and complete their mission. When they have finished, Ryder says his catchphrase: "Whenever you 're in trouble, just yelp for help! '', and congratulates the pups.
According to Spin Master, the concept for PAW Patrol stemmed from a prototype for a transforming truck toy that Spin Master co-founder Ronnen Harary designed in 2010. Later the same year, the company requested proposals for a television show based on the transforming toy, and accepted one from Bob the Builder creator Keith Chapman. Chapman sketched early designs of the PAW Patrol team under the working title Raffi & the Rescue Dogs. Spin Master hired toy designers to develop the format further; after the concept was in place, they began designing merchandise.
Chapman 's original pitch focused on the idea that the six PAW Patrol dogs were rescued by Ryder before joining the team. Scott Kraft, the show 's first writer, and Jamie Whitney, the show 's first director, decided to abandon the rescued dog theme in 2012. The name of the series ' protagonist, Ryder, was changed multiple times during production; he was originally called Raffi, Roddy, and Robbie before Spin Master settled on Ryder.
According to a 2017 Spin Master interview, "everything pup - related was debated endlessly: names, sizes, ages, breeds. '' The pups ' designs underwent major changes after Chapman 's pitch; they were originally very realistic, with unique fur and textures based on their breeds, but they were later simplified and made more cartoonish. The visual appearance of Cap'n Turbot, mainly his distinctive bead eyes and large nose, was based on the design of Chapman 's Bob the Builder character. Ryder 's hairstyle was based on that of Ronnen Harary.
In January 2012, Spin Master began approaching television broadcasters. The company negotiated a broadcast partnership with Nickelodeon, and the network first announced that it had picked up PAW Patrol at the 2013 Licensing Expo in Las Vegas, Nevada. The series became Spin Master 's first solely - owned intellectual property (IP) once it was released in August 2013.
Since it began production, the show 's animation has been provided by Guru Studio. In a 2016 interview with Maclean 's Magazine, Guru president Frank Falcone stated that his studio 's animators were originally suspicious of the show 's "toyetic '' concept. The series ' rock - inspired original score was composed by the Ontario - based group Voodoo Highway Music & Post. The opening theme song, and the ending song used in each episode include vocals performed by Scott Simons.
With each season of the show, new supporting characters and themes are introduced in its episodes. In a May 2016 interview for the Toronto Star, Spin Master president Ben Gadbois stated that his company would continue to introduce additional characters and concepts to increase the franchise 's longevity and to expand upon the success of tie - in merchandise. In August of the same year, Ronnen Harary explained that these changes were intended to keep the show 's content "fresh '' and "relevant ''.
The first season aired from August 2013 to August 2014. The second season premiered in August 2014; in Canada, it concluded in September 2015 and in the United States, it concluded in December 2015. A third season premiered in November 2015. A fourth season premiered February 6, 2017. Spin Master has confirmed that fifth and sixth seasons are in development. The fifth season premiered on February 6, 2018.
The series has been sold to TV networks in over 160 countries.
In Canada, the series is shown on TVOKids, Knowledge Kids, Télé - Québec and City Kids. In the United States, the series is aired on Nickelodeon with reruns on Nick Jr.
As required for Canadian programs aired on federally - funded networks, PAW Patrol has been dubbed in French for Quebec broadcasts and for its broadcast in France on TF1. Canal Panda airs a European Portuguese dub. A British English dub, which uses the same scripts as the Canadian version with minor changes, is shown on Channel 5 and Nick Jr. UK. Anione, JEI TV, and KBS have all broadcast the Korean - dubbed version. The show has been aired in the Icelandic language on Iceland 's public broadcaster RÚV since 2015. The first two seasons were shown in Finnish on Yle TV2. The video on demand platform Le.com obtained broadcast rights for a Mandarin Chinese - dubbed version of PAW Patrol in April 2016.
In July 2016, film distribution company Notorious Pictures acquired the rights to an Italian theatrical release of the series. Six episodes of PAW Patrol were screened as a package film in select Italian cinemas from December 22, 2016 until January 8 of the following year. Sabahat Khan, of Spin Master partner RBC Capital Markets, has stated that he "would n't be surprised by a (North American) feature film down the line. '' In November 2017, Ronnen Harary confirmed that Spin Master is "currently considering whether to extend the PAW Patrol franchise into feature films at some point in the next 12 to 24 months. ''
PAW Patrol has received consistently high ratings on Nickelodeon. Viacom CEO Philippe Dauman cited the series as a source of Nickelodeon 's 2014 ratings growth. It ranked as the highest - rated, preschool TV program in the United States in November 2013 and held that position throughout the spring 2014 season. The spot was briefly overtaken by Team Umizoomi reruns in July 2016, but PAW Patrol reclaimed the title later the same month. Bloomberg L.P. described PAW Patrol as part of a "creative resurgence '' that increased the Nick Jr. channel 's viewership in 2016. At Nickelodeon 's 2016 upfront presentation for future advertisers, Cyma Zarghami named PAW Patrol one of two preschool shows to have significantly helped boost ratings for the network (the other being Blaze and the Monster Machines).
In March 2015, two back - to - back premieres of the show ranked among the top twenty weekday showings (among total viewers) in Australia. In May 2015, it was reported that PAW Patrol broadcasts on TF1 had been viewed by 45 per cent of households in France with preschool - aged children.
Common Sense Media reviewer Emily Ashby gave the show a four - star rating, stating that "perhaps the show 's best attribute is how it demonstrates the value of thoughtful problem - solving ''. Randy Miller of DVD Talk recommended the show, calling it "packed with all the harmless action and cornball jokes that kids... ca n't help but snicker at ''. Stuff.co.nz reviewer Pattie Pegler also wrote favourably of the series, but felt that some of the characters "seem rather arbitrary, like Rocky the Recycling Pup ''. The About Group 's Carey Bryson gave the series a mixed review, criticizing its "formulaic '' nature but affirming that the "show is not without funny moments ''.
A research study, commissioned by Sky in March 2016, reported that 16 per cent of surveyed British and Irish children named PAW Patrol as their favourite program.
Criticism has been directed toward the show 's unequal gender representation because the team of dogs is primarily male and includes only one main female. Cat Conway of Dan Abrams ' The Mary Sue rhetorically asked, "the police pup, firefighting pup, builder pup, sea - rescue pup, and whatever the hell Rocky does are all coded male, because of course you could n't have a female police dog, could you? '' Brandy King of the Center on Media and Child Health "found the gender imbalance immediately noticeable '' while watching the program. Today 's Parent noted in April 2015 that PAW Patrol images appeared frequently on Twitter with the hashtag "# IncludeTheGirls ''.
In 2014, the series ' theme song was nominated for Outstanding Original Song -- Main Title and Promo in the 41st Daytime Creative Arts Emmy Awards. In 2016, the season two episode "Pups Save a Mer - Pup '' was nominated for Best Animated Television / Broadcast Production for Preschool Children in the 43rd Annie Awards. As of 2017, PAW Patrol has received four Canadian Screen Award nominations, winning one of them in 2016 and two in 2017.
On May 18, 2014, Spin Master introduced a toy line based on the television series at Toys "R '' Us locations across Canada. The line was not distributed to international markets until June 22 of the same year. Dion Vlachos, a representative from Nickelodeon, was in charge of the U.S. product launch.
PAW Patrol has since become one of Spin Master 's most profitable brands. Analysts for the National Bank of Canada reported that toys and games based on the show accounted for approximately $245 million U.S. (or 25 per cent) of Spin Master 's gross product sales for 2015. Spin Master chairman Anton Rabie noted in August 2016 that the "continuing strength '' of PAW Patrol toys, in addition to new acquisitions and movie licenses, made up 40.5 per cent of the firm 's second quarter revenue. Marketing manager Emma Eden said that the toys were responsible for increasing the company 's presence in the preschool market. Throughout 2016, Spin Master 's revenue grew more in this market than in any other toy category. PAW Patrol has been cited as the sole reason for this.
The NPD Group named PAW Patrol the top new toy brand of 2015 in the United Kingdom. The group also reported that it was the best - selling preschool license in France in the first quarter of 2015. Dave Brandon, the chief executive officer of Toys "R '' Us, listed the PAW Patroller vehicle toy as one of the 2015 holiday season 's "hottest '' items. Argos the U.K. catalogue retailer included the PAW Patrol Air Patroller vehicle on its list of the toys it predicts will be bestsellers during the Christmas 2016 season.
In April 2016, a stage show titled PAW Patrol Live: Race to the Rescue was announced. The show features the PAW Patrol characters competing in a race. It toured Canada, the United States, Mexico, Australia and the Philippines. A sequel show, titled PAW Patrol Live: The Great Pirate Adventure, was announced in June 2017. It follows the PAW Patrol as they rescue Cap'n Turbot from a cavern, and it will tour the same countries as its predecessor. The shows are produced by VStar Entertainment Group, which is best known for producing the popular Sesame Street Live touring shows for 37 years.
Mascots based on the PAW Patrol characters have appeared at events across Canada, the United States, and the United Kingdom. They joined an "Etch A Sketch Day '' celebration at Spin Master 's office in Toronto on July 26, 2016. The characters, along with replicas of the Lookout tower from the program, were included as part of the Nick Jr. Play Date Tour in autumn 2015. Marshall and Chase made appearances at shopping malls throughout Nottingham, Suffolk, and Somerset in the U.K. in the summer of 2016. Multiple meet - and - greet events attracted far more attendees than expected, with some reaching over 5,000 visitors. They appeared for the first time in Northern Ireland at Glenarm Castle on July 13, 2016. They are scheduled to appear regularly in a Nickelodeon - themed area of the Thurrock 's Lakeside Shopping Centre located on the outskirts of London, England.
Unauthorized productions and events featuring the show 's characters have attracted the attention of the show 's distributor. In February 2016, several Greene King pubs in the U.K. scheduled breakfast events with costumed characters modelled after the pups. Nickelodeon forced the chain to stop every event by threatening a lawsuit if they went ahead. There was some consumer backlash as a result, but the events were not held.
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she is not a force to be reckoned with | Wikipedia: reference desk / archives / language / 2010 January 22 - wikipedia
My experience with the phrase is different than that shown below. I reckon that a force not to be reckoned with is a force you want to avoid. So it is not inconsequential, but instead considered (i.e. reckoned) to result in a bad consequence. My understanding of "reckoning '' is that it mean 's thinking, deciding, considering, or estimating and the phrase "reckoned with '' means dealing with or addressing or thinking about or experiencing the consequences of a problem, issue, or event. It is not that you must deal with it, but that your are dealing with it.
I understand the phrase "to be reckoned with '' means something that must be considered or dealt with, but does "not to be reckoned with '' suggest something which is too significant / big to deal with (a force one can not hope to influence), or something which is too insignificant to deal with (a force of no consequence).
The phrase mostly seems to be used to suggest the former, but the natural interpretation seems to me to be the latter one. I 've been staring at this for too long though. It is ambiguous right?
89.100. 64.193 (talk) 16: 29, 22 January 2010 (UTC)
Definitely a phrase that can mean two quite opposite things. Makes me want to channel Edward Gibbon. "The question of the nature of the Trinity is a matter not to be reckoned with, the question being so entirely out of proportion to the mind of man. '' - Jmabel Talk 02: 04, 23 January 2010 (UTC)
There is one oddity about "not to be reckoned with ''. "To be reckoned with '' means you have to take something into consideration. "Not to be reckoned with '' sounds like you have to NOT take something into consideration, i.e. you HAVE TO ignore it. That does n't seem right. A better way to say it would be, "Need not be reckoned with. '' ← Baseball Bugs carrots → 18: 12, 25 January 2010 (UTC)
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who convinced thousands of japanese troops to surrender to american forces | Surrender of Japan - wikipedia
The surrender of Imperial Japan was announced on August 15 and formally signed on September 2, 1945, bringing the hostilities of World War II to a close. By the end of July 1945, the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) was incapable of conducting major operations and an Allied invasion of Japan was imminent. Together with the British Empire and China, the United States called for the unconditional surrender of the Japanese armed forces in the Potsdam Declaration on July 26, 1945 -- the alternative being "prompt and utter destruction ''. While publicly stating their intent to fight on to the bitter end, Japan 's leaders (the Supreme Council for the Direction of the War, also known as the "Big Six '') were privately making entreaties to the still - neutral Soviet Union to mediate peace on terms more favorable to the Japanese. Meanwhile, the Soviets were preparing to attack Japanese forces in Manchuria and Korea (in addition to South Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands) in fulfillment of promises they had secretly made to the United States and the United Kingdom at the Tehran and Yalta Conferences.
On August 6, 1945, at 8: 15 AM local time, the United States detonated an atomic bomb over the Japanese city of Hiroshima. Sixteen hours later, American President Harry S. Truman called again for Japan 's surrender, warning them to "expect a rain of ruin from the air, the like of which has never been seen on this earth. '' Late in the evening of August 8, 1945, in accordance with the Yalta agreements, but in violation of the Soviet -- Japanese Neutrality Pact, the Soviet Union declared war on Japan, and soon after midnight on August 9, 1945, the Soviet Union invaded the Imperial Japanese puppet state of Manchukuo. Later in the day, the United States dropped a second atomic bomb, this time on the Japanese city of Nagasaki. Following these events, Emperor Hirohito intervened and ordered the Supreme Council for the Direction of the War to accept the terms the Allies had set down in the Potsdam Declaration for ending the war. After several more days of behind - the - scenes negotiations and a failed coup d'état, Emperor Hirohito gave a recorded radio address across the Empire on August 15. In the radio address, called the Jewel Voice Broadcast (玉音 放送, Gyokuon - hōsō), he announced the surrender of Japan to the Allies.
On August 28, the occupation of Japan led by the Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers began. The surrender ceremony was held on September 2, aboard the United States Navy battleship USS Missouri, at which officials from the Japanese government signed the Japanese Instrument of Surrender, thereby ending the hostilities. Allied civilians and military personnel alike celebrated V-J Day, the end of the war; however, isolated soldiers and personnel from Japan 's far - flung forces throughout Asia and the Pacific refused to surrender for months and years afterwards, some even refusing into the 1970s. The role of the atomic bombings in Japan 's unconditional surrender, and the ethics of the two attacks, is still debated. The state of war formally ended when the Treaty of San Francisco came into force on April 28, 1952. Four more years passed before Japan and the Soviet Union signed the Soviet -- Japanese Joint Declaration of 1956, which formally brought an end to their state of war.
By 1945, the Japanese had suffered a string of defeats for nearly two years in the South West Pacific, the Marianas campaign, and the Philippines campaign. In July 1944, following the loss of Saipan, General Hideki Tōjō was replaced as prime minister by General Kuniaki Koiso, who declared that the Philippines would be the site of the decisive battle. After the Japanese loss of the Philippines, Koiso in turn was replaced by Admiral Kantarō Suzuki. The Allies captured the nearby islands of Iwo Jima and Okinawa in the first half of 1945. Okinawa was to be a staging area for Operation Downfall, the Allied invasion of the Japanese Home Islands. Following Germany 's defeat, the Soviet Union began quietly redeploying its battle - hardened European forces to the Far East, in addition to about forty divisions that had been stationed there since 1941, as a counterbalance to the million - strong Kwantung Army.
The Allied submarine campaign and the mining of Japanese coastal waters had largely destroyed the Japanese merchant fleet. With few natural resources, Japan was dependent on raw materials, particularly oil, imported from Manchuria and other parts of the East Asian mainland, and from the conquered territory in the Dutch East Indies. The destruction of the Japanese merchant fleet, combined with the strategic bombing of Japanese industry, had wrecked Japan 's war economy. Production of coal, iron, steel, rubber, and other vital supplies was only a fraction of that before the war.
As a result of the losses it had suffered, the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) had ceased to be an effective fighting force. Following a series of raids on the Japanese shipyard at Kure, the only major warships in fighting order were six aircraft carriers, four cruisers, and one battleship, none of which could be fueled adequately. Although 19 destroyers and 38 submarines were still operational, their use was limited by the lack of fuel.
Faced with the prospect of an invasion of the Home Islands, starting with Kyūshū, and the prospect of a Soviet invasion of Manchuria -- Japan 's last source of natural resources -- the War Journal of the Imperial Headquarters concluded:
We can no longer direct the war with any hope of success. The only course left is for Japan 's one hundred million people to sacrifice their lives by charging the enemy to make them lose the will to fight.
As a final attempt to stop the Allied advances, the Japanese Imperial High Command planned an all - out defense of Kyūshū codenamed Operation Ketsugō. This was to be a radical departure from the defense in depth plans used in the invasions of Peleliu, Iwo Jima, and Okinawa. Instead, everything was staked on the beachhead; more than 3,000 kamikazes would be sent to attack the amphibious transports before troops and cargo were disembarked on the beach.
If this did not drive the Allies away, they planned to send another 3,500 kamikazes along with 5,000 Shin'yō suicide motorboats and the remaining destroyers and submarines -- "the last of the Navy 's operating fleet '' -- to the beach. If the Allies had fought through this and successfully landed on Kyūshū, 3,000 planes would have been left to defend the remaining islands, although Kyūshū would be "defended to the last '' regardless. The strategy of making a last stand at Kyūshū was based on the assumption of continued Soviet neutrality.
A set of caves were excavated near Nagano on Honshu, the largest of the Japanese islands. In the event of invasion, these caves, the Matsushiro Underground Imperial Headquarters, were to be used by the Army to direct the war and to house the Emperor and his family.
Japanese policy - making centered on the Supreme Council for the Direction of the War (created in 1944 by earlier Prime Minister Kuniaki Koiso), the so - called "Big Six '' -- the Prime Minister, Minister of Foreign Affairs, Minister of the Army, Minister of the Navy, Chief of the Army General Staff, and Chief of the Navy General Staff. At the formation of the Suzuki government in April 1945, the council 's membership consisted of:
All of these positions were nominally appointed by the Emperor and their holders were answerable directly to him. Nevertheless, from 1936 the Japanese Army and Navy held, effectively, a legal right to nominate (or refuse to nominate) their respective ministers, in addition to the effective right to order their respective ministers to resign their posts. Thus, the Army and Navy could prevent the formation of undesirable governments, or by resignation bring about the collapse of an existing government.
Emperor Hirohito and Lord Keeper of the Privy Seal Kōichi Kido also were present at some meetings, following the Emperor 's wishes. As Iris Chang reports, "the Japanese deliberately destroyed, hid or falsified most of their secret wartime documents. ''
For the most part, Suzuki 's military - dominated cabinet favored continuing the war. For the Japanese, surrender was unthinkable -- Japan had never been successfully invaded or lost a war in its history. Only Mitsumasa Yonai, the Navy minister, was known to desire an early end to the war. According to historian Richard B. Frank:
After the war, Suzuki and others from his government and their apologists claimed they were secretly working towards peace, and could not publicly advocate it. They cite the Japanese concept of haragei -- "the art of hidden and invisible technique '' -- to justify the dissonance between their public actions and alleged behind - the - scenes work. However, many historians reject this. Robert J.C. Butow wrote:
Because of its very ambiguity, the plea of haragei invites the suspicion that in questions of politics and diplomacy a conscious reliance upon this ' art of bluff ' may have constituted a purposeful deception predicated upon a desire to play both ends against the middle. While this judgment does not accord with the much - lauded character of Admiral Suzuki, the fact remains that from the moment he became Premier until the day he resigned no one could ever be quite sure of what Suzuki would do or say next.
Japanese leaders had always envisioned a negotiated settlement to the war. Their prewar planning expected a rapid expansion and consolidation, an eventual conflict with the United States, and finally a settlement in which they would be able to retain at least some new territory they had conquered. By 1945, Japan 's leaders were in agreement that the war was going badly, but they disagreed over the best means to negotiate its end. There were two camps: the so - called "peace '' camp favored a diplomatic initiative to persuade Joseph Stalin, the leader of the Soviet Union, to mediate a settlement between the Allies and Japan; and the hardliners who favored fighting one last "decisive '' battle that would inflict so many casualties on the Allies that they would be willing to offer more lenient terms. Both approaches were based on Japan 's experience in the Russo -- Japanese War, forty years earlier, which consisted of a series of costly but largely indecisive battles, followed by the decisive naval Battle of Tsushima.
In February 1945, Prince Fumimaro Konoe gave Emperor Hirohito a memorandum analyzing the situation, and told him that if the war continued, the imperial family might be in greater danger from an internal revolution than from defeat. According to the diary of Grand Chamberlain Hisanori Fujita, the Emperor, looking for a decisive battle (tennōzan), replied that it was premature to seek peace "unless we make one more military gain ''. Also in February, Japan 's treaty division wrote about Allied policies towards Japan regarding "unconditional surrender, occupation, disarmament, elimination of militarism, democratic reforms, punishment of war criminals, and the status of the emperor. '' Allied - imposed disarmament, Allied punishment of Japanese war criminals, and especially occupation and removal of the Emperor, were not acceptable to the Japanese leadership.
On April 5, the Soviet Union gave the required 12 months ' notice that it would not renew the five - year Soviet -- Japanese Neutrality Pact (which had been signed in 1941 following the Nomonhan Incident). Unknown to the Japanese, at the Tehran Conference in November -- December 1943, it had been agreed that the Soviet Union would enter the war against Japan once Germany was defeated. At the Yalta Conference in February 1945, the United States had made substantial concessions to the Soviets to secure a promise that they would declare war on Japan within three months of the surrender of Germany. Although the five - year Neutrality Pact did not expire until April 5, 1946, the announcement caused the Japanese great concern, because Japan had amassed its forces in the South to repel the inevitable US attack, thus leaving its Northern islands vulnerable to Soviet invasion. Soviet Foreign Minister Vyacheslav Molotov, in Moscow, and Yakov Malik, Soviet ambassador in Tokyo, went to great lengths to assure the Japanese that "the period of the Pact 's validity has not ended ''.
At a series of high - level meetings in May, the Big Six first seriously discussed ending the war -- but none of them on terms that would have been acceptable to the Allies. Because anyone openly supporting Japanese surrender risked assassination by zealous army officers, the meetings were closed to anyone except the Big Six, the Emperor, and the Privy Seal -- no second - or third - echelon officers could attend. At these meetings, despite the dispatches from Japanese ambassador Satō in Moscow, only Foreign Minister Tōgō realized that Roosevelt and Churchill might have already made concessions to Stalin to bring the Soviets into the war against Japan. As a result of these meetings, Tōgō was authorized to approach the Soviet Union, seeking to maintain its neutrality, or (despite the very remote probability) to form an alliance.
In keeping with the custom of a new government declaring its purposes, following the May meetings the Army staff produced a document, "The Fundamental Policy to Be Followed Henceforth in the Conduct of the War, '' which stated that the Japanese people would fight to extinction rather than surrender. This policy was adopted by the Big Six on June 6. (Tōgō opposed it, while the other five supported it.) Documents submitted by Suzuki at the same meeting suggested that, in the diplomatic overtures to the USSR, Japan adopt the following approach:
It should be clearly made known to Russia that she owes her victory over Germany to Japan, since we remained neutral, and that it would be to the advantage of the Soviets to help Japan maintain her international position, since they have the United States as an enemy in the future.
On June 9, the Emperor 's confidant Marquis Kōichi Kido wrote a "Draft Plan for Controlling the Crisis Situation, '' warning that by the end of the year Japan 's ability to wage modern war would be extinguished and the government would be unable to contain civil unrest. "... We can not be sure we will not share the fate of Germany and be reduced to adverse circumstances under which we will not attain even our supreme object of safeguarding the Imperial Household and preserving the national polity. '' Kido proposed that the Emperor take action, by offering to end the war on "very generous terms. '' Kido proposed that Japan withdraw from the formerly European colonies it had occupied provided they were granted independence and also proposed that Japan recognize the independence of the Philippines, which Japan had already mostly lost control of and to which it was well - known that the U.S. had long been planning to grant independence. Finally, Kido proposed that Japan disarm provided this not occur under Allied supervision and that Japan for a time be "content with minimum defense. '' Kido 's proposal did not contemplate Allied occupation of Japan, prosecution of war criminals or substantial change in Japan 's system of government, nor did Kido suggest that Japan might be willing to consider relinquishing territories acquired prior to 1937 including Formosa, Karafuto, Korea, the formerly German islands in the Pacific and even Manchukuo. With the Emperor 's authorization, Kido approached several members of the Supreme Council, the "Big Six. '' Tōgō was very supportive. Suzuki and Admiral Mitsumasa Yonai, the Navy minister, were both cautiously supportive; each wondered what the other thought. General Korechika Anami, the Army minister, was ambivalent, insisting that diplomacy must wait until "after the United States has sustained heavy losses '' in Operation Ketsugō.
In June, the Emperor lost confidence in the chances of achieving a military victory. The Battle of Okinawa was lost, and he learned of the weakness of the Japanese army in China, of the Kwantung Army in Manchuria, of the navy, and of the army defending the Home Islands. The Emperor received a report by Prince Higashikuni from which he concluded that "it was not just the coast defense; the divisions reserved to engage in the decisive battle also did not have sufficient numbers of weapons. '' According to the Emperor:
I was told that the iron from bomb fragments dropped by the enemy was being used to make shovels. This confirmed my opinion that we were no longer in a position to continue the war.
On June 22, the Emperor summoned the Big Six to a meeting. Unusually, he spoke first: "I desire that concrete plans to end the war, unhampered by existing policy, be speedily studied and that efforts made to implement them. '' It was agreed to solicit Soviet aid in ending the war. Other neutral nations, such as Switzerland, Sweden, and the Vatican City, were known to be willing to play a role in making peace, but they were so small they were believed unable to do more than deliver the Allies ' terms of surrender and Japan 's acceptance or rejection. The Japanese hoped that the Soviet Union could be persuaded to act as an agent for Japan in negotiations with the United States and Britain.
On June 30, Tōgō told Naotake Satō, Japan 's ambassador in Moscow, to try to establish "firm and lasting relations of friendship. '' Satō was to discuss the status of Manchuria and "any matter the Russians would like to bring up. '' Well aware of the overall situation and cognizant of their promises to the Allies, the Soviets responded with delaying tactics to encourage the Japanese without promising anything. Satō finally met with Soviet Foreign Minister Vyacheslav Molotov on July 11, but without result. On July 12, Tōgō directed Satō to tell the Soviets that:
His Majesty the Emperor, mindful of the fact that the present war daily brings greater evil and sacrifice upon the peoples of all the belligerent powers, desires from his heart that it may be quickly terminated. But so long as England and the United States insist upon unconditional surrender, the Japanese Empire has no alternative but to fight on with all its strength for the honor and existence of the Motherland.
The Emperor proposed sending Prince Konoe as a special envoy, although he would be unable to reach Moscow before the Potsdam Conference.
Satō advised Tōgō that in reality, "unconditional surrender or terms closely equivalent thereto '' was all that Japan could expect. Moreover, in response to Molotov 's requests for specific proposals, Satō suggested that Tōgō 's messages were not "clear about the views of the Government and the Military with regard to the termination of the war, '' thus questioning whether Tōgō 's initiative was supported by the key elements of Japan 's power structure.
On July 17, Tōgō responded:
Although the directing powers, and the government as well, are convinced that our war strength still can deliver considerable blows to the enemy, we are unable to feel absolutely secure peace of mind... Please bear particularly in mind, however, that we are not seeking the Russians ' mediation for anything like an unconditional surrender.
In reply, Satō clarified:
It goes without saying that in my earlier message calling for unconditional surrender or closely equivalent terms, I made an exception of the question of preserving (the imperial family).
On July 21, speaking in the name of the cabinet, Tōgō repeated:
With regard to unconditional surrender we are unable to consent to it under any circumstances whatever... It is in order to avoid such a state of affairs that we are seeking a peace,... through the good offices of Russia... it would also be disadvantageous and impossible, from the standpoint of foreign and domestic considerations, to make an immediate declaration of specific terms.
American cryptographers had broken most of Japan 's codes, including the Purple code used by the Japanese Foreign Office to encode high - level diplomatic correspondence. As a result, messages between Tokyo and Japan 's embassies were provided to Allied policy - makers nearly as quickly as to the intended recipients.
Security concerns dominated Soviet decisions concerning the Far East. Chief among these was gaining unrestricted access to the Pacific Ocean. The year - round ice - free areas of the Soviet Pacific coastline -- Vladivostok in particular -- could be blockaded by air and sea from Sakhalin island and the Kurile Islands. Acquiring these territories, thus guaranteeing free access to the Soya Strait, was their primary objective. Secondary objectives were leases for the Chinese Eastern Railway, Southern Manchuria Railway, Dairen, and Port Arthur.
To this end, Stalin and Molotov strung out the negotiations with the Japanese, giving them false hope of a Soviet - mediated peace. At the same time, in their dealings with the United States and Britain, the Soviets insisted on strict adherence to the Cairo Declaration, re-affirmed at the Yalta Conference, that the Allies would not accept separate or conditional peace with Japan. The Japanese would have to surrender unconditionally to all the Allies. To prolong the war, the Soviets opposed any attempt to weaken this requirement. This would give the Soviets time to complete the transfer of their troops from the Western Front to the Far East, and conquer Manchuria (Manchukuo), Inner Mongolia (Mengjiang), Korea, South Sakhalin, the Kuriles, and possibly, Hokkaidō (starting with a landing at Rumoi).
In 1939, Albert Einstein and Leó Szilárd wrote a letter to President Franklin D. Roosevelt warning him that the Germans might be researching the development of atomic weaponry and that it was necessary that the United States fund research and development of its own such project. Roosevelt agreed, and the result was the Manhattan Project -- a top - secret research program administered by Major General Leslie R. Groves, Jr. The first bomb was tested successfully in the Trinity nuclear test on July 16, 1945.
As the project neared its conclusion, American planners began to consider the use of the bomb. In keeping with the Allies ' overall strategy of securing final victory in Europe first, it had initially been assumed that the first atomic weapons would be allocated for use against Germany. However, by this time it was increasingly obvious that Germany would be defeated before any bombs would be ready for use. Groves formed a committee that met in April and May 1945 to draw up a list of targets. One of the primary criteria was that the target cities must not have been damaged by conventional bombing. This would allow for an accurate assessment of the damage done by the atomic bomb. The targeting committee 's list included 18 Japanese cities. At the top of the list were Kyoto, Hiroshima, Yokohama, Kokura, and Niigata. Ultimately, Kyoto was removed from the list at the insistence of Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson, who had visited the city on his honeymoon and knew of its cultural and historical significance.
Although the Vice President Henry A. Wallace had been involved in the Manhattan Project since the beginning, his successor, Harry S. Truman, was not briefed on the project by Stimson until April 23, 1945, eleven days after he became president on Roosevelt 's death on April 12, 1945. On May 2, 1945, Truman approved the formation of the Interim Committee, an advisory group that would report on the atomic bomb. It consisted of Stimson, James F. Byrnes, George L. Harrison, Vannevar Bush, James Bryant Conant, Karl Taylor Compton, William L. Clayton, and Ralph Austin Bard, advised by scientists Robert Oppenheimer, Enrico Fermi, Ernest Lawrence, and Arthur Compton. In a June 1 report, the Committee concluded that the bomb should be used as soon as possible against a war plant surrounded by workers ' homes and that no warning or demonstration should be given.
The Committee 's mandate did not include the use of the bomb -- its use upon completion was presumed. Following a protest by scientists involved in the project, in the form of the Franck Report, the Committee re-examined the use of the bomb. In a June 21 meeting, it reaffirmed that there was no alternative.
The leaders of the major Allied powers met at the Potsdam Conference from July 16 to August 2, 1945. The participants were the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and the United States, represented by Stalin, Winston Churchill (later Clement Attlee), and Truman respectively.
Although the Potsdam Conference was mainly concerned with European affairs, the war against Japan was also discussed in detail. Truman learned of the successful Trinity test early in the conference and shared this information with the British delegation. In discussing the Manhattan project among themselves, the American and British delegations were keenly aware that they were in Soviet - controlled territory and took precautions to avoid revealing information to the Soviets via listening devices they had presumed to be planted throughout the conference buildings.
The successful test caused the American delegation to reconsider the necessity and wisdom of Soviet participation, for which the U.S. had lobbied hard at the Tehran and Yalta Conferences. High on the United States ' list of priorities was shortening the war and reducing American casualties -- Soviet intervention seemed likely to do both, but at the cost of possibly allowing the Soviets to capture territory beyond that which had been promised to them at Tehran and Yalta, and causing a postwar division of Japan similar to that which had occurred in Germany.
In dealing with Stalin, Truman decided to give the Soviet leader vague hints about the existence of a powerful new weapon without going into details. However, the other Allies were unaware that Soviet intelligence had penetrated the Manhattan Project in its early stages, so Stalin already knew of the existence of the atomic bomb but did not appear impressed by its potential.
It was decided to issue a statement, the Potsdam Declaration, defining "Unconditional Surrender '' and clarifying what it meant for the position of the emperor and for Hirohito personally. The American and British governments strongly disagreed on this point -- the United States wanted to abolish the position and possibly try him as a war criminal, while the British wanted to retain the position, perhaps with Hirohito still reigning. Furthermore, although it would not initially be a party to the declaration the Soviet government also had to be consulted since it would be expected to endorse it upon entering the war. The Potsdam Declaration went through many drafts until a version acceptable to all was found.
On July 26, the United States, Britain and China released the Potsdam Declaration announcing the terms for Japan 's surrender, with the warning, "We will not deviate from them. There are no alternatives. We shall brook no delay. '' For Japan, the terms of the declaration specified:
On the other hand, the declaration stated that:
The only use of the term "unconditional surrender '' came at the end of the declaration:
Contrary to what had been intended at its conception, the Declaration made no mention of the Emperor at all. Allied intentions on issues of utmost importance to the Japanese, including whether Hirohito was to be regarded as one of those who had "misled the people of Japan '' or even a war criminal, or alternatively, whether the Emperor might become part of a "peacefully inclined and responsible government '' were thus left unstated.
The "prompt and utter destruction '' clause has been interpreted as a veiled warning about American possession of the atomic bomb (which had been tested successfully on the first day of the conference). On the other hand, the declaration also made specific references to the devastation that had been wrought upon Germany in the closing stages of the European war. To contemporary readers on both sides who were not yet aware of the atomic bomb 's existence, it was easy to interpret the conclusion of the declaration simply as a threat to bring similar destruction upon Japan using conventional weapons.
On July 27, the Japanese government considered how to respond to the Declaration. The four military members of the Big Six wanted to reject it, but Tōgō, acting under the mistaken impression that the Soviet government had no prior knowledge of its contents, persuaded the cabinet not to do so until he could get a reaction from Moscow. In a telegram, Shun'ichi Kase, Japan 's ambassador to Switzerland, observed that "unconditional surrender '' applied only to the military and not to the government or the people, and he pleaded that it should be understood that the careful language of Potsdam appeared "to have occasioned a great deal of thought '' on the part of the signatory governments -- "they seem to have taken pains to save face for us on various points. '' The next day, Japanese newspapers reported that the Declaration, the text of which had been broadcast and dropped by leaflet into Japan, had been rejected. In an attempt to manage public perception, Prime Minister Suzuki met with the press, and stated:
I consider the Joint Proclamation a rehash of the Declaration at the Cairo Conference. As for the Government, it does not attach any important value to it at all. The only thing to do is just kill it with silence (mokusatsu). We will do nothing but press on to the bitter end to bring about a successful completion of the war.
The meaning of mokusatsu, literally "kill with silence, '' can range from "ignore '' to "treat with contempt '' -- which rather accurately described the range of reactions within the government. On July 30, Ambassador Satō wrote that Stalin was probably talking to Roosevelt and Churchill about his dealings with Japan, and he wrote: "There is no alternative but immediate unconditional surrender if we are to prevent Russia 's participation in the war. '' On August 2, Tōgō wrote to Satō: "it should not be difficult for you to realize that... our time to proceed with arrangements of ending the war before the enemy lands on the Japanese mainland is limited, on the other hand it is difficult to decide on concrete peace conditions here at home all at once. ''
On August 6 at 8: 15 AM local time, the Enola Gay, a Boeing B - 29 Superfortress piloted by Colonel Paul Tibbets, dropped an atomic bomb (code - named Little Boy by the U.S.) on the city of Hiroshima in southwest Honshū. Throughout the day, confused reports reached Tokyo that Hiroshima had been the target of an air raid, which had leveled the city with a "blinding flash and violent blast ''. Later that day, they received U.S. President Truman 's broadcast announcing the first use of an atomic bomb, and promising:
We are now prepared to obliterate more rapidly and completely every productive enterprise the Japanese have above ground in any city. We shall destroy their docks, their factories, and their communications. Let there be no mistake; we shall completely destroy Japan 's power to make war. It was to spare the Japanese people from utter destruction that the ultimatum of July 26 was issued at Potsdam. Their leaders promptly rejected that ultimatum. If they do not now accept our terms they may expect a rain of ruin from the air, the like of which has never been seen on this earth...
The Japanese Army and Navy had their own independent atomic - bomb programs and therefore the Japanese understood enough to know how very difficult building it would be. Therefore, many Japanese and in particular the military members of the government refused to believe the United States had built an atomic bomb, and the Japanese military ordered their own independent tests to determine the cause of Hiroshima 's destruction. Admiral Soemu Toyoda, the Chief of the Naval General Staff, argued that even if the United States had made one, they could not have many more. American strategists, having anticipated a reaction like Toyoda 's, planned to drop a second bomb shortly after the first, to convince the Japanese that the U.S. had a large supply.
At 04: 00 on August 9 word reached Tokyo that the Soviet Union had broken the Neutrality Pact, declared war on Japan, subscribed to the Potsdam Declaration and launched an invasion of Manchuria.
When the Russians invaded Manchuria, they sliced through what had once been an elite army and many Russian units only stopped when they ran out of gas. The Soviet 16th Army -- 100,000 strong -- launched an invasion of the southern half of Sakhalin Island. Their orders were to mop up Japanese resistance there, and then -- within 10 to 14 days -- be prepared to invade Hokkaido, the northernmost of Japan 's home islands. The Japanese force tasked with defending Hokkaido, the 5th Area Army, was under strength at two divisions and two brigades, and was in fortified positions on the east side of the island. The Soviet plan of attack called for an invasion of Hokkaido from the west. The Soviet declaration of war also changed the calculation of how much time was left for maneuver. Japanese intelligence was predicting that U.S. forces might not invade for months. Soviet forces, on the other hand, could be in Japan proper in as little as 10 days. The Soviet invasion made a decision on ending the war extremely time sensitive.
These "twin shocks '' -- the atomic bombing of Hiroshima and the Soviet entry -- had immediate profound effects on Prime Minister Kantarō Suzuki and Foreign Minister Tōgō Shigenori, who concurred that the government must end the war at once. However, the senior leadership of the Japanese Army took the news in stride, grossly underestimating the scale of the attack. With the support of Minister of War Anami, they started preparing to impose martial law on the nation, to stop anyone attempting to make peace. Hirohito told Kido to "quickly control the situation '' because "the Soviet Union has declared war and today began hostilities against us. ''
The Supreme Council met at 10: 30. Suzuki, who had just come from a meeting with the Emperor, said it was impossible to continue the war. Tōgō Shigenori said that they could accept the terms of the Potsdam Declaration, but they needed a guarantee of the Emperor 's position. Navy Minister Yonai said that they had to make some diplomatic proposal -- they could no longer afford to wait for better circumstances.
In the middle of the meeting, shortly after 11: 00, news arrived that Nagasaki, on the west coast of Kyūshū, had been hit by a second atomic bomb (called "Fat Man '' by the United States). By the time the meeting ended, the Big Six had split 3 -- 3. Suzuki, Tōgō, and Admiral Yonai favored Tōgō 's one additional condition to Potsdam, while General Anami, General Umezu, and Admiral Toyoda insisted on three further terms that modified Potsdam: that Japan handle their own disarmament, that Japan deal with any Japanese war criminals, and that there be no occupation of Japan.
Following the atomic bombing of Nagasaki, Truman issued another statement:
The British, Chinese, and United States Governments have given the Japanese people adequate warning of what is in store for them. We have laid down the general terms on which they can surrender. Our warning went unheeded; our terms were rejected. Since then the Japanese have seen what our atomic bomb can do. They can foresee what it will do in the future.
The world will note that the first atomic bomb was dropped on Hiroshima, a military base. That was because we wished in this first attack to avoid, insofar as possible, the killing of civilians. But that attack is only a warning of things to come. If Japan does not surrender, bombs will have to be dropped on her war industries and, unfortunately, thousands of civilian lives will be lost. I urge Japanese civilians to leave industrial cities immediately, and save themselves from destruction.
I realize the tragic significance of the atomic bomb.
Its production and its use were not lightly undertaken by this Government. But we knew that our enemies were on the search for it. We know now how close they were to finding it. And we knew the disaster which would come to this Nation, and to all peace - loving nations, to all civilization, if they had found it first.
That is why we felt compelled to undertake the long and uncertain and costly labor of discovery and production.
We won the race of discovery against the Germans.
Having found the bomb we have used it. We have used it against those who attacked us without warning at Pearl Harbor, against those who have starved and beaten and executed American prisoners of war, against those who have abandoned all pretense of obeying international laws of warfare. We have used it in order to shorten the agony of war, in order to save the lives of thousands and thousands of young Americans.
We shall continue to use it until we completely destroy Japan 's power to make war. Only a Japanese surrender will stop us.
The full cabinet met on 14: 30 on August 9, and spent most of the day debating surrender. As the Big Six had done, the cabinet split, with neither Tōgō 's position nor Anami 's attracting a majority. Anami told the other cabinet ministers that, under torture, a captured American P - 51 Mustang fighter pilot had told his interrogators that the United States possessed 100 atom bombs and that Tokyo and Kyoto would be bombed "in the next few days ''. The pilot, Marcus McDilda, was lying. McDilda, who had been shot down off the coast of Japan two days after the Hiroshima bombing, knew nothing of the Manhattan Project and simply told his interrogators what he thought they wanted to hear to end the torture. The lie, which caused him to be classified as a high - priority prisoner, probably saved him from beheading. In reality, the United States would not have had the third bomb ready for use until around August 19, with a fourth in September 1945 and then approximately three a month thereafter. The third bomb would have probably been used against Sapporo, primarily to demonstrate America 's ability to deliver the weapon to even the most far flung regions of the home islands.
The cabinet meeting adjourned at 17: 30 with no consensus. A second meeting lasting from 18: 00 to 22: 00 also ended with no consensus. Following this second meeting, Suzuki and Tōgō met the Emperor, and Suzuki proposed an impromptu Imperial conference, which started just before midnight on the night of August 9 -- 10. Suzuki presented Anami 's four - condition proposal as the consensus position of the Supreme Council. The other members of the Supreme Council spoke, as did Kiichirō Hiranuma, the President of the Privy Council, who outlined Japan 's inability to defend itself and also described the country 's domestic problems, such as the shortage of food. The cabinet debated, but again no consensus emerged. At around 02: 00 (August 10), Suzuki finally addressed Emperor Hirohito, asking him to decide between the two positions. The participants later recollected that the Emperor stated:
I have given serious thought to the situation prevailing at home and abroad and have concluded that continuing the war can only mean destruction for the nation and prolongation of bloodshed and cruelty in the world. I can not bear to see my innocent people suffer any longer...
I was told by those advocating a continuation of hostilities that by June new divisions would be in place in fortified positions (at Kujūkuri Beach, east of Tokyo) ready for the invader when he sought to land. It is now August and the fortifications still have not been completed...
There are those who say the key to national survival lies in a decisive battle in the homeland. The experiences of the past, however, show that there has always been a discrepancy between plans and performance. I do not believe that the discrepancy in the case of Kujūkuri can be rectified. Since this is also the shape of things, how can we repel the invaders? (He then made some specific reference to the increased destructiveness of the atomic bomb.)
It goes without saying that it is unbearable for me to see the brave and loyal fighting men of Japan disarmed. It is equally unbearable that others who have rendered me devoted service should now be punished as instigators of the war. Nevertheless, the time has come to bear the unbearable...
I swallow my tears and give my sanction to the proposal to accept the Allied proclamation on the basis outlined by the Foreign Minister.
According to General Sumihisa Ikeda and Admiral Zenshirō Hoshina, Privy Council President Hiranuma then turned to the Emperor and asked him: "Your majesty, you also bear responsibility (sekinin) for this defeat. What apology are you going to make to the heroic spirits of the imperial founder of your house and your other imperial ancestors? ''
Once the Emperor had left, Suzuki pushed the cabinet to accept the Emperor 's will, which it did. Early that morning (August 10), the Foreign Ministry sent telegrams to the Allies (by way of the Swiss "Federal Political Department '' (Department of Foreign Affairs) and Max Grässli in particular) announcing that Japan would accept the Potsdam Declaration, but would not accept any peace conditions that would "prejudice the prerogatives '' of the Emperor. That effectively meant no change in Japan 's form of government -- that the Emperor of Japan would remain a position of real power.
The Allied response to Japan 's qualified acceptance of the Potsdam Declaration was written by James F. Byrnes and approved by the British, Chinese, and Soviet governments, although the Soviets agreed only reluctantly. The Allies sent their response (via the Swiss Foreign Affairs Department) on August 12. On the status of the Emperor it said:
From the moment of surrender the authority of the Emperor and the Japanese government to rule the state shall be subject to the Supreme Commander of the Allied powers who will take such steps as he deems proper to effectuate the surrender terms... The ultimate form of government of Japan shall, in accordance with the Potsdam Declaration, be established by the freely expressed will of the Japanese people.
In response to the Japanese message President Truman issued instructions that no further atomic weapons were to dropped on Japan without presidential orders, but allowed military operations (including the B - 29 firebombings) to continue until official word of Japanese surrender was received. However, news correspondents incorrectly interpreted a comment by USAF commander Spaatz that the B - 29s were not flying on August 11 (because of bad weather) as a statement that a ceasefire was in effect. To avoid giving the Japanese the impression that the Allies had abandoned peace efforts and resumed bombing, Truman then ordered a halt to all further bombings.
The Japanese cabinet considered the Allied response, and Suzuki argued that they must reject it and insist on an explicit guarantee for the imperial system. Anami returned to his position that there be no occupation of Japan. Afterward, Tōgō told Suzuki that there was no hope of getting better terms, and Kido conveyed the Emperor 's will that Japan surrender. In a meeting with the Emperor, Yonai spoke of his concerns about growing civil unrest:
I think the term is inappropriate, but the atomic bombs and the Soviet entry into the war are, in a sense, divine gifts. This way we do n't have to say that we have quit the war because of domestic circumstances.
That day, Hirohito informed the imperial family of his decision to surrender. One of his uncles, Prince Asaka, then asked whether the war would be continued if the kokutai (imperial sovereignty) could not be preserved. The Emperor simply replied "of course. ''
The Big Six and the cabinet spent August 13 debating their reply to the Allied response, but remained deadlocked. Meanwhile, the Allies grew doubtful, waiting for the Japanese to respond. The Japanese had been instructed that they could transmit an unqualified acceptance in the clear, but in fact they sent out coded messages on matters unrelated to the surrender parlay. The Allies took this coded response as non-acceptance of the terms.
Via Ultra intercepts, the Allies also detected increased diplomatic and military traffic, which was taken as evidence that the Japanese were preparing an "all - out banzai attack. '' President Truman ordered a resumption of attacks against Japan at maximum intensity "so as to impress Japanese officials that we mean business and are serious in getting them to accept our peace proposals without delay. '' The United States Third Fleet began shelling the Japanese coast. In the largest bombing raid of the Pacific War, more than 400 B - 29s attacked Japan during daylight on August 14, and more than 300 that night. A total of 1,014 aircraft were used with no losses.
In the longest bombing mission of the war, B - 29s from the 315 Bombardment Wing flew 6,100 km (3,800 mi) to destroy the Nippon Oil Company refinery at Tsuchizaki on the northern tip of Honshū. This was the last operational refinery in the Japan Home Islands, and it produced 67 % of their oil. After the war, the bombing raids were justified as already in progress when word of the Japanese surrender was received, but this is only partially true.
At the suggestion of American psychological operations experts, B - 29s spent August 13 dropping leaflets over Japan, describing the Japanese offer of surrender and the Allied response. The leaflets had a profound effect on the Japanese decision - making process. As August 14 dawned, Suzuki, Kido, and the Emperor realized the day would end with either an acceptance of the American terms or a military coup.
The Emperor met with the most senior Army and Navy officers. While several spoke in favor of fighting on, Field Marshal Shunroku Hata did not. As commander of the Second General Army, the headquarters of which had been in Hiroshima, Hata commanded all the troops defending southern Japan -- the troops preparing to fight the "decisive battle ''. Hata said he had no confidence in defeating the invasion and did not dispute the Emperor 's decision. The Emperor asked his military leaders to cooperate with him in ending the war.
At a conference with the cabinet and other councilors, Anami, Toyoda, and Umezu again made their case for continuing to fight, after which the Emperor said:
I have listened carefully to each of the arguments presented in opposition to the view that Japan should accept the Allied reply as it stands and without further clarification or modification, but my own thoughts have not undergone any change... In order that the people may know my decision, I request you to prepare at once an imperial rescript so that I may broadcast to the nation. Finally, I call upon each and every one of you to exert himself to the utmost so that we may meet the trying days which lie ahead.
The cabinet immediately convened and unanimously ratified the Emperor 's wishes. They also decided to destroy vast amounts of material pertaining to war crimes and the war responsibility of the nation 's highest leaders. Immediately after the conference, the Foreign Ministry transmitted orders to its embassies in Switzerland and Sweden to accept the Allied terms of surrender. These orders were picked up and received in Washington at 02: 49, August 14.
Difficulty with senior commanders on the distant war fronts was anticipated. Three princes of the Imperial Family who held military commissions were dispatched on August 14 to deliver the news personally. Prince Tsuneyoshi Takeda went to Korea and Manchuria, Prince Yasuhiko Asaka to the China Expeditionary Army and China Fleet, and Prince Kan'in Haruhito to Shanghai, South China, Indochina and Singapore.
The text of the Imperial Rescript on surrender was finalized by 19: 00 August 14, transcribed by the official court calligrapher, and brought to the cabinet for their signatures. Around 23: 00, the Emperor, with help from an NHK recording crew, made a gramophone record of himself reading it. The record was given to court chamberlain Yoshihiro Tokugawa, who hid it in a locker in the office of Empress Kōjun 's secretary.
Late on the night of August 12, 1945, Major Kenji Hatanaka, along with Lieutenant Colonels Masataka Ida, Masahiko Takeshita (Anami 's brother - in - law), and Inaba Masao, and Colonel Okitsugu Arao, the Chief of the Military Affairs Section, spoke to War Minister Korechika Anami (the army minister and "most powerful figure in Japan besides the Emperor himself ''), and asked him to do whatever he could to prevent acceptance of the Potsdam Declaration. General Anami refused to say whether he would help the young officers in treason. As much as they needed his support, Hatanaka and the other rebels decided they had no choice but to continue planning and to attempt a coup d'état on their own. Hatanaka spent much of August 13 and the morning of August 14 gathering allies, seeking support from the higher - ups in the Ministry, and perfecting his plot.
Shortly after the conference on the night of August 13 -- 14 at which the surrender finally was decided, a group of senior army officers including Anami gathered in a nearby room. All those present were concerned about the possibility of a coup d'état to prevent the surrender -- some of those present may have even been considering launching one. After a silence, General Torashirō Kawabe proposed that all senior officers present sign an agreement to carry out the Emperor 's order of surrender -- "The Army will act in accordance with the Imperial Decision to the last. '' It was signed by all the high - ranking officers present, including Anami, Hajime Sugiyama, Yoshijirō Umezu, Kenji Doihara, Torashirō Kawabe, Masakazu Kawabe, and Tadaichi Wakamatsu. "This written accord by the most senior officers in the Army... acted as a formidable firebreak against any attempt to incite a coup d'état in Tokyo. ''
Around 21: 30 on August 14, Hatanaka 's rebels set their plan into motion. The Second Regiment of the First Imperial Guards had entered the palace grounds, doubling the strength of the battalion already stationed there, presumably to provide extra protection against Hatanaka 's rebellion. But Hatanaka, along with Lt. Col. Jirō Shiizaki, convinced the commander of the 2nd Regiment of the First Imperial Guards, Colonel Toyojirō Haga, of their cause, by telling him (falsely) that Generals Anami and Umezu, and the commanders of the Eastern District Army and Imperial Guards Divisions were all in on the plan. Hatanaka also went to the office of Shizuichi Tanaka, commander of the Eastern region of the army, to try to persuade him to join the coup. Tanaka refused, and ordered Hatanaka to go home. Hatanaka ignored the order.
Originally, Hatanaka hoped that simply occupying the palace and showing the beginnings of a rebellion would inspire the rest of the Army to rise up against the move to surrender. This notion guided him through much of the last days and hours and gave him the blind optimism to move ahead with the plan, despite having little support from his superiors. Having set all the pieces into position, Hatanaka and his co-conspirators decided that the Guard would take over the palace at 02: 00. The hours until then were spent in continued attempts to convince their superiors in the Army to join the coup. At about the same time, General Anami committed seppuku, leaving a message that, "I -- with my death -- humbly apologize to the Emperor for the great crime. '' Whether the crime involved losing the war, or the coup, remains unclear.
At some time after 01: 00, Hatanaka and his men surrounded the palace. Hatanaka, Shiizaki and Captain Shigetarō Uehara (of the Air Force Academy) went to the office of Lt. General Takeshi Mori to ask him to join the coup. Mori was in a meeting with his brother - in - law, Michinori Shiraishi. The cooperation of Mori, as commander of the 1st Imperial Guards Division, was crucial. When Mori refused to side with Hatanaka, Hatanaka killed him, fearing Mori would order the Guards to stop the rebellion. Uehara killed Shiraishi. These were the only two murders of the night. Hatanaka then used General Mori 's official stamp to authorize Imperial Guards Division Strategic Order No. 584, a false set of orders created by his co-conspirators, which would greatly increase the strength of the forces occupying the Imperial Palace and Imperial Household Ministry, and "protecting '' the Emperor.
The palace police were disarmed and all the entrances blocked. Over the course of the night, Hatanaka 's rebels captured and detained eighteen people, including Ministry staff and NHK workers sent to record the surrender speech.
The rebels, led by Hatanaka, spent the next several hours fruitlessly searching for Imperial House Minister Sōtarō Ishiwatari, Lord of the Privy Seal Kōichi Kido, and the recordings of the surrender speech. The two men were hiding in the "bank vault '', a large chamber underneath the Imperial Palace. The search was made more difficult by a blackout in response to Allied bombings, and by the archaic organization and layout of the Imperial House Ministry. Many of the names of the rooms were unrecognizable to the rebels. The rebels did find the chamberlain Tokugawa. Although Hatanaka threatened to disembowel him with a samurai sword, Tokugawa lied and told them he did not know where the recordings or men were. During their search, the rebels cut nearly all of the telephone wires, severing communications between the palace grounds and the outside world.
At about the same time, another group of Hatanaka 's rebels led by Captain Takeo Sasaki went to Prime Minister Suzuki 's office, intent on killing him. When they found it empty, they machine - gunned the office and set the building on fire, then left for his home. Hisatsune Sakomizu had warned Suzuki, and he escaped minutes before the would - be assassins arrived. After setting fire to Suzuki 's home, they went to the estate of Kiichirō Hiranuma to assassinate him. Hiranuma escaped through a side gate and the rebels burned his house as well. Suzuki spent the rest of August under police protection, spending each night in a different bed.
Around 03: 00, Hatanaka was informed by Lieutenant Colonel Masataka Ida that the Eastern District Army was on its way to the palace to stop him, and that he should give up. Finally, seeing his plan collapsing around him, Hatanaka pleaded with Tatsuhiko Takashima, Chief of Staff of the Eastern District Army, to be given at least ten minutes on the air on NHK radio, to explain to the people of Japan what he was trying to accomplish and why. He was refused. Colonel Haga, commander of the 2nd Regiment of the First Imperial Guards, discovered that the Army did not support this rebellion, and he ordered Hatanaka to leave the palace grounds.
Just before 05: 00, as his rebels continued their search, Major Hatanaka went to the NHK studios, and, brandishing a pistol, tried desperately to get some airtime to explain his actions. A little over an hour later, after receiving a telephone call from the Eastern District Army, Hatanaka finally gave up. He gathered his officers and walked out of the NHK studio.
At dawn, Tanaka learned that the palace had been invaded. He went there and confronted the rebellious officers, berating them for acting contrary to the spirit of the Japanese army. He convinced them to return to their barracks. By 08: 00, the rebellion was entirely dismantled, having succeeded in holding the palace grounds for much of the night but failing to find the recordings.
Hatanaka, on a motorcycle, and Shiizaki, on horseback, rode through the streets, tossing leaflets that explained their motives and their actions. Within an hour before the Emperor 's broadcast, sometime around 11: 00, August 15, Hatanaka placed his pistol to his forehead, and shot himself. Shiizaki stabbed himself with a dagger, and then shot himself. In Hatanaka 's pocket was found his death poem: "I have nothing to regret now that the dark clouds have disappeared from the reign of the Emperor. ''
At 12: 00 noon Japan standard time on August 15, the Emperor 's recorded speech to the nation, reading the Imperial Rescript on the Termination of the War, was broadcast:
After pondering deeply the general trends of the world and the actual conditions obtaining in Our Empire today, We have decided to effect a settlement of the present situation by resorting to an extraordinary measure.
We have ordered Our Government to communicate to the Governments of the United States, Great Britain, China and the Soviet Union that Our Empire accepts the provisions of their Joint Declaration.
To strive for the common prosperity and happiness of all nations as well as the security and well - being of Our subjects is the solemn obligation which has been handed down by Our Imperial Ancestors and which lies close to Our heart.
Indeed, We declared war on America and Britain out of Our sincere desire to ensure Japan 's self - preservation and the stabilization of East Asia, it being far from Our thought either to infringe upon the sovereignty of other nations or to embark upon territorial aggrandizement.
But now the war has lasted for nearly four years. Despite the best that has been done by everyone -- the gallant fighting of the military and naval forces, the diligence and assiduity of Our servants of the State, and the devoted service of Our one hundred million people -- the war situation has developed not necessarily to Japan 's advantage, while the general trends of the world have all turned against her interest.
Moreover, the enemy has begun to employ a new and most cruel bomb, the power of which to do damage is, indeed, incalculable, taking the toll of many innocent lives. Should we continue to fight, not only would it result in an ultimate collapse and obliteration of the Japanese nation, but also it would lead to the total extinction of human civilization.
Such being the case, how are We to save the millions of Our subjects, or to atone Ourselves before the hallowed spirits of Our Imperial Ancestors? This is the reason why We have ordered the acceptance of the provisions of the Joint Declaration of the Powers...
The hardships and sufferings to which Our nation is to be subjected hereafter will be certainly great. We are keenly aware of the inmost feelings of all of you, Our subjects. However, it is according to the dictates of time and fate that We have resolved to pave the way for a grand peace for all the generations to come by enduring the unendurable and suffering what is unsufferable.
The low quality of the recording, combined with the Classical Japanese language used by the Emperor in the Rescript, made the recording very difficult to understand for most listeners.
Public reaction to the Emperor 's speech varied -- many Japanese simply listened to it, then went on with their lives as best they could, while some Army and Navy officers chose suicide over surrender. A small crowd gathered in front of the Imperial Palace in Tokyo and cried, but as author John Dower notes, the tears they shed "reflected a multitude of sentiments... anguish, regret, bereavement and anger at having been deceived, sudden emptiness and loss of purpose ''.
On August 17, Suzuki was replaced as prime minister by the Emperor 's uncle, Prince Higashikuni, perhaps to forestall any further coup or assassination attempts; Mamoru Shigemitsu replaced Tōgō as foreign minister.
Japan 's forces were still fighting against the Soviets as well as the Chinese, and managing their cease - fire and surrender was difficult. The last air combat by Japanese fighters against American reconnaissance bombers took place on August 18. The Soviet Union continued to fight until early September, taking the Kuril Islands.
Allied civilians and servicemen alike rejoiced at the news of the end of the war. A photograph, V-J Day in Times Square, of an American sailor kissing a woman in New York, and a news film of the Dancing Man in Sydney have come to epitomize the immediate celebrations. August 14 and 15 are celebrated as Victory over Japan Day in many Allied countries.
Japan 's sudden surrender after the unexpected use of atomic weapons surprised most governments outside the US and UK. The Soviet Union had some intentions of occupying Hokkaidō. Unlike the Soviet occupations of eastern Germany and northern Korea, however, these plans were frustrated by the opposition of President Truman.
Japanese officials left for Manila on August 19 to meet Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers Douglas MacArthur, and to be briefed on his plans for the occupation. On August 28, 150 US personnel flew to Atsugi, Kanagawa Prefecture, and the occupation of Japan began. They were followed by USS Missouri, whose accompanying vessels landed the 4th Marines on the southern coast of Kanagawa. Other Allied personnel followed.
MacArthur arrived in Tokyo on August 30, and immediately decreed several laws: No Allied personnel were to assault Japanese people. No Allied personnel were to eat the scarce Japanese food. Flying the Hinomaru or "Rising Sun '' flag was severely restricted.
The formal surrender occurred on September 2, 1945, around 9 a.m., Tokyo time, when representatives from the Empire of Japan signed the Japanese Instrument of Surrender in Tokyo Bay aboard USS Missouri. The dignitaries or representatives from around the world were carefully scheduled to board the USS Missouri. Japanese Foreign Minister Shigemitsu signed for the Japanese government, while Gen. Umezu signed for the Japanese armed forces.
The Surrender Ceremony was carefully planned on board the USS Missouri detailing the seating positions of all Army, Navy, and Allied Representatives.
On Missouri that day was the American flag flown in 1853 on USS Powhatan by Commodore Matthew C. Perry on the first of his two expeditions to Japan. Perry 's expeditions had resulted in the Convention of Kanagawa, which forced the Japanese to open the country to American trade.
After the formal surrender on September 2 aboard Missouri, investigations into Japanese war crimes began quickly. At a meeting with General MacArthur later in September, Emperor Hirohito offered to take blame for the war crimes, but his offer was rejected, and he was never tried. Legal procedures for the International Military Tribunal for the Far East were issued on January 19, 1946.
In addition to August 14 and 15, September 2, 1945, is also known as V-J Day. President Truman declared September 2 to be V-J Day, but noted that "It is not yet the day for the formal proclamation of the end of the war nor of the cessation of hostilities. '' In Japan, August 15 is often called Shūsen - kinenbi (終戦 記念 日), which literally means the "memorial day for the end of the war, '' but the government 's name for the day (which is not a national holiday) is Senbotsusha o tsuitō shi heiwa o kinen suru hi (戦没 者 を 追悼 し 平和 を 祈念 する 日, "day for mourning of war dead and praying for peace '').
Following the signing of the instrument of surrender, many further surrender ceremonies took place across Japan 's remaining holdings in the Pacific. Japanese forces in Southeast Asia surrendered on September 2, 1945, in Penang, September 10 in Labuan, September 11 in Kingdom of Sarawak and September 12 in Singapore. The handover of administration of Taiwan on October 25 marked the end of Japanese rule of Taiwan and the subsequent rule by the Republic Of China government. It was not until 1947 that all prisoners held by America and Britain were repatriated. As late as April 1949, China still held more than 60,000 Japanese prisoners. Some, such as Shozo Tominaga, were not repatriated until the late 1950s.
The logistical demands of the surrender were formidable. After Japan 's capitulation, more than 5,400,000 Japanese soldiers and 1,800,000 Japanese sailors were taken prisoner by the Allies. The damage done to Japan 's infrastructure, combined with a severe famine in 1946, further complicated the Allied efforts to feed the Japanese POWs and civilians.
The state of war between most of the Allies and Japan officially ended when the Treaty of San Francisco took effect on April 28, 1952. Japan and the Soviet Union formally made peace four years later, when they signed the Soviet -- Japanese Joint Declaration of 1956.
Japanese holdouts, especially on small Pacific Islands, refused to surrender at all (believing the declaration to be propaganda or considering surrender against their code). Some may never have heard of it. Teruo Nakamura, the last known holdout, emerged from his hidden retreat in Indonesia in December 1974, while two other Japanese soldiers, who had joined Communist guerrillas at the end of the war, fought in southern Thailand until 1991.
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what movie has the song welcome to my life by simple plan | Welcome to My Life - Wikipedia
"Welcome to My Life '' is a song by Canadian rock band Simple Plan. "Welcome to My Life '' was released to radio on September 14, 2004 as the lead single from their second studio album, Still Not Getting Any... (2004). It peaked at # 40 on the Billboard Hot 100, # 10 on Mainstream Top 40, and was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America for 500,000 shipments.
The song 's intention is to express teenage angst about life becoming so frustrating that no one can understand how awful it is for them. In the music video, a traffic jam is seen and scenes are shown in which passengers deal with dysfunctional families and how the families ' dysfunction affects their lives. At the end of the video, a few of the people in the traffic jam get out of their cars and begin to walk down the road. The video received some criticism for being similar to R.E.M. 's "Everybody Hurts ''. It was shot at the Henry Ford Bridge and the Commodore Schuyler F. Heim Bridge in San Pedro, Los Angeles.
"Welcome to My Life '' became another top 100 hit on Billboard Hot 100 peaking at the # 40 position. It peaked in the top 10 in Australia and New Zealand.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
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the blacklist season 5 episode 11 release date | The Blacklist (season 5) - wikipedia
The fifth season of the American crime thriller television series The Blacklist premiered on NBC on September 27, 2017, with a timeslot change from Thursday at 10: 00 PM to Wednesday at 8: 00 PM. The season was produced by Davis Entertainment, Universal Television and Sony Pictures Television, and the executive producers are Jon Bokenkamp, John Davis, John Eisendrath, John Fox, and Joe Carnahan. The season is scheduled to consist of 22 episodes. The season aired the series 100th episode.
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where do sloths spend most of their time | Sloth - wikipedia
Bradypodidae Megalonychidae † Megatheriidae † Mylodontidae † Nothrotheriidae
Sloths are arboreal mammals noted for slowness of movement and for spending most of their lives hanging upside down in the trees of the tropical rainforests of South America and Central America. The six species are in two families: two - toed sloths and three - toed sloths. In spite of this traditional naming, all sloths actually have three toes. The two - toed sloths have two digits, or fingers, on each forelimb.
The sloth is so named because of its very low metabolism and deliberate movements, sloth being related to the word slow. This is an evolutionary adaptation to their low - energy diet of leaves, and to avoid detection by predatory hawks and cats who hunt by sight. Sloths are almost helpless on the ground, but are able to swim. The grooved hairs of the sloth 's shaggy coat is a host to symbiotic green algae which helps the sloth camouflage itself in the trees, and provides nutrients to the sloth. The algae is in turn nourished by sloth moths, some species of which exist solely on sloths.
They are classified in the order Pilosa along with the anteaters. Extinct sloth species include many megafaunal ground sloths, some of which attained the size of elephants, as well as marine sloths.
Sloths belong to the superorder Xenarthra, a group of placental mammals believed to have evolved in the continent of South America around 60 million years ago. One study found that xenarthrans broke off from other placental mammals around 100 million years ago.
Anteaters and armadillos are also included among Xenarthra. The earliest xenarthrans were arboreal herbivores with sturdy vertebral columns, fused pelvises, stubby teeth, and small brains. Sloths are in the taxonomic suborder Folivora of the order Pilosa. These names are from the Latin "leaf eater '' and "hairy '', respectively. Pilosa is one of the smallest of the orders of the mammal class; its only other suborder contains the anteaters.
The Folivora is divided into five families, three of which are entirely extinct, while living species are spread across two families as follows:
The common ancestor of the two existing sloth genera dates to about 40 million years ago, with similarities between the two - and three - toed sloths an example of convergent evolution.
The ancient Xenarthra included a much greater variety of species than today. Ancient sloths were not arboreal but dwelled on land, and were the size of bears. The Megatherium, a widespread species was larger than an elephant.
It is thought that swimming led to oceanic dispersal of Pilosans of the Caribbean to the Antilles by the Oligocene, and that the megalonychid Pliometanastes and the mylodontid Thinobadistes were able to colonise North America about 9 million years ago, well before the existence of the Isthmus of Panama. Additionally, the nothrotheriid Thalassocnus of the west coast of South America became adapted to a semiaquatic marine lifestyle.
In Peru and Chile, sloths of the genus Thalassocnus adapted to a coastal marine lifestyle beginning in the late Miocene. Initially they just stood in the water, but over a span of four million years they eventually evolved into swimming creatures.
The three extinct families are:
Ground sloths lived in South America and, after the Great American Interchange, North America. They disappeared shortly after the appearance of humans about 10,000 years ago. Evidence suggests human hunting contributed to the extinction of the American megafauna. Ground sloth emains found in both North and South America indicate that they were killed, cooked, and eaten by humans. Climate change that came with the end of the last ice age may have also played a role. Megalocnus survived on the Antilles until about 5000 years ago, long after other ground sloths died out on the mainland, but then went extinct when human finally arrived there too.
Sloths can be 60 -- 80 centimeters long and, depending on species, weigh from 3.6 to 7.7 kilograms. Two - toed sloths are slightly larger. Sloths have long limbs and rounded heads with tiny ears. Three - toed sloths also have stubby tails about 5 -- 6 cm long. While almost all mammals have seven cervical vertebrae, two - toed sloths have only six, while three - toed sloths have nine, allowing them to rotate their heads through 270 degrees.
Sloths have colour vision, but have poor visual acuity. They also have poor hearing. Thus, they rely on their sense of smell and touch to find food.
Sloths have very low metabolic rates (less than half of that expected for a mammal of their size), and low body temperatures when active (30 -- 34 ° C or 86 -- 93 ° F), and still lower when resting. Sloths are heterothermic, meaning their body temperature may vary according to the environment, normally ranging from 25 to 35 C, but able to drop to as low as 20 C, inducing torpor.
The outer hairs of sloth fur grow in a direction opposite from that of other mammals. In most mammals, hairs grow toward the extremities, but because sloths spend so much time with their limbs above their bodies, their hairs grow away from the extremities to provide protection from the elements while they hang upside down. In most conditions, the fur hosts symbiotic algae, which provide camouflage from predatory jaguars, ocelots, and harpy eagles. Because of the algae, sloth fur is a small ecosystem of its own, hosting many species of commensal and parasitic arthropods. There is a large number of arthropods associated with sloths. These include biting and blood - sucking flies such as mosquitoes and sandflies, triatomine bugs, lice, ticks and mites. Sloths have a highly specific community of commensal beetles, mites and moths. Species of sloths recorded to host arthropods include: the pale - throated sloth, the brown - throated sloth, and Linnaeus 's two - toed sloth. Incidentally, it appears that sloths benefit from their relationship with moths because the moths are responsible for fertilizing algae on the sloth, which provides them with nutrients.
Their limbs are adapted for hanging and grasping, not for supporting their weight. Muscles make up only 25 to 30 percent of their total body weight. Most other mammals have a muscle mass that makes up 40 to 45 percent of the total body weight. Their specialised hands and feet have long, curved claws to allow them to hang upside down from branches without effort, and are used to drag themselves along the ground, since they can not walk. On three - toed sloths, the arms are 50 percent longer than the legs.
Sloths move only when necessary and even then very slowly. They usually move at an average speed of 4 m per minute, but can move at a marginally higher speed of 4.5 m (15 ft), if they are in immediate danger from a predator. While they sometimes sit on top of branches, they usually eat, sleep, and even give birth hanging from branches. They sometimes remain hanging from branches even after death. On the ground, the maximum speed of sloths is 3 m per minute. Sloths are surprisingly strong swimmers and can reach speeds of 13.5 m (45 ft) per minute. They use their long arms to paddle through the water and can cross rivers and swim between islands. Sloths can reduce their already slow metabolism even further and slow their heart rate to less than a third of normal, allowing them to hold their breath underwater for up to 40 minutes.
Wild brown - throated three - toed sloths sleep on average 9.6 hours a day. Two - toed sloths are nocturnal. Three - toed sloths are mostly nocturnal, but can be active in the day. They spend 90 per cent of their time not motionless.
Baby sloths learn what to eat by licking the lips of their mother. All sloths eat the leaves of the cecropia.
Two - toed sloths have a diverse diet of insects, leaves, carrion, fruits, leaves and small lizards, ranging over up to 140 hectares. Three - toed sloths, on the other hand, have a limited diet of leaves from only a few trees, and no mammal digests as slowly.
They have made adaptations to arboreal browsing. Leaves, their main food source, provide very little energy or nutrients, and do not digest easily, so sloths have large, slow - acting stomachs with multiple compartments in which symbiotic bacteria break down the tough leaves. As much as two - thirds of a well - fed sloth 's body weight consists of the contents of its stomach, and the digestive process can take a month or more to complete.
Three - toed sloths go to the ground to urinate and defecate about once a week, digging a hole and covering it afterwards. They go to the same spot each time and are vulnerable to predation while doing so. This may be relevant for maintaining the ecosystem in the sloths ' fur. Individual sloths tend to spend the bulk of their time feeding on a single "modal '' tree; by burying their excreta near the trunk of that tree, they may help nourish it. Recent research shows that moths, which live in the sloth 's fur, lay eggs in the sloth 's feces. When they hatch, the larvae feed on the feces, and when mature fly up onto the sloth above.
Pale - and brown - throated species mate seasonally, while the maned sloth breeds at any time of year. The reproduction of pygmy three - toed sloths is unknown. Litters are of one newborn only, after six months ' gestation for three - toed, and 12 months ' for two - toed. Newborns stay with their mother for about five months. In some cases, young sloths die from a fall indirectly because the mothers prove unwilling to leave the safety of the trees to retrieve the young. Females normally bear one baby every year, but sometimes sloths ' low level of movement actually keeps females from finding males for longer than one year. Sloths are not particularly sexually dimorphic and several zoos have received sloths of the wrong sex.
The average lifespace of two - toed slothsin the wild is 20 years, and up to 30 in captivity.
Although habitat is limited to the tropical rainforests of South and Central America, in that environment sloths are successful. On Barro Colorado Island in Panama, sloths have been estimated to comprise 70 % of the biomass of arboreal mammals. Four of the six living species are presently rated "least concern ''; the maned three - toed sloth (Bradypus torquatus), which inhabits Brazil 's dwindling Atlantic Forest, is classified as "vulnerable '', while the island - dwelling pygmy three - toed sloth (B. pygmaeus) is critically endangered.
The majority of recorded sloth deaths in Costa Rica are due to contact with electrical lines and poachers. Their claws also provide another, unexpected deterrent to human hunters; when hanging upside - down in a tree, they are held in place by the claws themselves and often do not fall down even if shot from below.
Sloths are victims of animal trafficking where they are sold as pets. However they make very poor pets as they have such a specialized ecology.
The founder and director of the Green Heritage Fund Suriname, Monique Pool, has helped rescue and release more than 600 sloths, anteaters, armadillos, and porcupines.
The Sloth Institute Costa Rica is known for caring, rehabilitating and releasing sloths back into the wild. Also in Costa Rica, the Aviarios Sloth Sanctuary cares for sloths. It rehabilitated and released about 130 individuals back into the wild. However, a report in May 2016 featured two former veterinarians from the facility who were intensely critical of the sanctuary 's efforts, accusing it of mistreating the animals.
The first of the Ice Age movies in 2002 features Sid, a prehistoric ground sloth, as a central character.
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who played the moon in the mighty boosh | List of recurring the Mighty Boosh characters - wikipedia
The following is a list of recurring characters from The Mighty Boosh, including characters from the television series, the radio series, and the various stage shows. Most of the recurring characters are played by Julian Barratt, Noel Fielding, Michael Fielding, Rich Fulcher or Dave Brown. For minor and non-recurring characters see List of minor characters from The Mighty Boosh.
The Mighty Boosh centres on the adventures of Howard Moon (Barratt) and Vince Noir (Fielding), aided by the other two members of the central cast, Naboo the Enigma (Michael Fielding) and Bollo (Peter Elliott / Dave Brown), who by series 3 they share a flat with. Bob Fossil (Rich Fulcher) is part of the central cast in series 1, becoming a recurring character thereafter.
In the course of the series a variety of bizarre and surreal recurring characters cross their paths, mostly also played by the same cast doubling up.
Howard Tommy Jerry Moon is portrayed by Julian Barratt. Howard is an aspiring musician, actor, poet, novelist and photographer. In the first series he works at the Zooniverse as a zookeeper, alongside Vince. In the second series, Howard and Vince have left the zoo and formed a band together. He is vain, despite being described as "generic - looking '' and often makes outrageous claims which often turn out to be true (he claims, for instance, to have turned down a lucrative offer extended by Walt Disney himself to sort all of Disney 's felt - tip pens). He is unlucky in love, and in series one is in love with reptile keeper, Mrs Gideon. In the series three episode Party, it is revealed that he is a virgin. Later in the episode Vince and Howard share a kiss in order to save Vince 's life, leading Howard to announce that he has now discovered his own homosexuality and is in love with Vince. Vince is horrified, but he becomes jealous moments later when Howard begins flirting with a girl.
Whenever Howard is near to death, he pleads not to die, saying, "Do n't kill me. I 've got so much to give. '' While Vince is always dressed very flashily and into the current fashion, Howard tends to look unkempt and shabby. In the episode "Killeroo '', Howard possesses an unseen disfigurement on his torso.
Howard and Vince tease each other constantly, but there is a deep bond between them and both have demonstrated repeatedly that they will risk death to rescue each other from various dangerous situations. When facing death, the two will often reminisce about very mundane things - "like that one time they ate soup ''. This usually leads into a ' crimp ': a short, completely random song that quickly strays off - topic and often involves harmony.
Howard 's exact age is uncertain. In the episode "Party '' when Vince tells him that fifty is n't that old, he corrects Vince by telling him that he is only thirty - two and goes on to state that that is ten years older than Vince is. Yet in "Fountain of Youth '', during a flashback to the pair 's school days, he exclaims that he is the same age as Vince, despite looking much older, and it 's mentioned several times throughout the series that they went to both primary school and college together.
Vince Noir was originally created by Noel Fielding for the 1998 stage show The Mighty Boosh. Vince Noir went on to appear in three more stage shows, a radio series and a TV series on BBC Three.
During the course of the stage shows, the radio series and the TV series, it is implied that he was born in the mid-1980s, and spent much of his early life as an orphan, being raised in a forest by Bryan Ferry, and then proceeded to spend the latter part of his childhood in civilisation in England, where he befriended Howard Moon at primary school. He left secondary school in his mid-teens, after being convinced by Howard to work at a local zoo called the Zooniverse, despite mentioning at various points that he took a gap year, achieved at least two BTEC National Diplomas, and went to college. At the Zooniverse, he befriended Naboo the Enigma, Bollo the Ape, and Bob Fossil. He and Howard also went on several adventures whilst working at the Zooniverse, including visiting the Arctic tundra, Limbo, and going on a road trip. In the second series, he was living in a flat in Dalston with Howard, Naboo and Bollo, and playing in a band with Howard. In the third series, Vince and Howard were working in the Nabootique, a small second - hand shop owned by Naboo. Vince is often quite sarcastic to Howard.
Vince 's main personality trait is his relaxed outlook on life, living with perpetually laid back ease, socialising easily with those around him. Vince is often the voice of reason when Howard is being pretentious, although Vince has also been known to have a particularly naïve and somewhat childlike outlook on life. It is often implied that Vince is narcissistic, putting great pride in his appearance, especially his hair. Vince usually conforms to specific subcultures which he considers vogue, such as mod, goth, punk, and New Rave,
Though he seems much more confident and secure than Howard, Vince is desperate to be admired as an individual and a trendsetter. In one episode he invites party guests to "bask in the glory of (his) outfit ''. When a doppelgänger calling himself Lance Dior arises, Vince 's optimism crumbles and he becomes insecure.
It was implied in the third series that Vince had bisexual tendencies. Such tendencies are first noted in the episode "Journey to the Centre of the Punk '' when his singular brain cell remarks to Howard that he "does swing both ways '' but did n't really feel "it '' with him. Several such references are made in the episode "Party '', especially when he kisses Howard passionately to avoid being beheaded by Dennis the head shaman.
Vince is a fan of electro music (including Gary Numan and The Human League), The Rolling Stones, punk rock, and glam rock (including Kiss). Mick Jagger is Vince 's hero. He is highly disdainful of jazz, going as far as to claim to be allergic to it. Vince has sung for various bands, including a glam - folk band, an electro band, his and Howard 's own band, and a punk band. Vince is also a keen artist having gained a BTEC National Diploma in Art, as well as hair design; he also claims to be a novelist, writing novellas and publishing them independently.
Vince 's uncle is a French Duke.
Vince also claims he is the "King of the Mods ''. In the season two episode entitled "Fountain of Youth '', Howard Moon claimed to be the same age as Vince but in a later episode in season three, Vince is ten years younger.
Naboo Randolph Ropitibopiti the Enigma is portrayed by Michael Fielding. He was created for the 2000 stage show, Autoboosh, and later went on to appear in the pilot and all three series of the TV series, as well as both stage shows.
Naboo is a freelance shaman from the alien planet Xooberon, and has the ability and knowledge of many spells; and is also a recreational drug user and a drug dealer. He is a member of the Board of Shaman, and like many members he is a heavy drinker and rides of the magic carpet.
In 1978, Naboo was mistakenly sent to Earth by the King of Xooberon to protect the amulet of the planet 's Fountain of Youth. He became a drug dealer for Rudi and Spider at one point in the 1970s, and eventually went on to work as a kiosk vendor at the Zooniverse. While at the Zooniverse, he would often help Howard and Vince out of situations they often found themselves in, typically their explanations being followed by his catchphrase, "I do n't believe this! '' Naboo left the Zooniverse to become a freelance shaman, moving into a flat in Dalston with Howard, Vince, and Bollo, the latter now being his familiar spirit. In the episode "Party '' of series 3, it is revealed that Naboo has no genitals. By the 2006 stage show, he had opened a second hand shop called the Nabootique (sometimes known as Naboo 's Nik - Naks). In the episode "Fountain of Youth '' Bollo reveals that Naboo is 406 years old.
Bollo was originally portrayed by Dave Brown, and also portrayed in the first TV series by Peter Elliot. He first appeared in "Jazz '', an episode of the 2001 radio series. He went on to appear in all three series of the TV show and the 2006 stage show.
Bollo is an anthropomorphic gorilla who has been portrayed as inept yet immensely strong. He and Vince are very close, a stark contrast to his relationship with Howard. His catchphrase is "I 've got a bad feeling about this... '', a reference to Star Wars and said in every show since "The Call of the Yeti ''. He also DJs at the London nightclub Fabric on Tuesdays.
He first appeared in "Jazz '', an episode of a radio series, portrayed by Dave Brown. He next appeared in "Mutants '', where he is stolen by Bainbridge to mutate. He then appeared in "Bollo '', where he is gravely ill, escaping death when the Grim Reaper takes Howard instead of him. He briefly appears in "Electro '', smashing up a guitar in the style of Jimi Hendrix. By the second series he has become Naboo 's familiar spirit, and has appeared in every episode since.
Bob Fossil is portrayed by Rich Fulcher. In the radio series Fossil is the ill - tempered owner of Bob Fossil 's Funworld, an inept zoo. In the TV series, he is the manager of the Zooniverse and zoo owner Dixon Bainbridge 's right - hand man. He is loud and brash and is normally portrayed as Howard and Vince 's enemy, often trying to set them up for disaster, although on occasion he has expressed attraction to both of them. On radio, Fossil liked Vince and hated Howard, while on television he generally dislikes both of them (although he is sometimes friendly to Vince), and his radio persona is somewhat replaced by employer Bainbridge. Fossil has a desperate crush on Bainbridge.
In the TV series Fossil is portrayed as incompetent; for example he does not know how to dial with a phone and calls a portable tape recorder his "talk box ''. He is often very childlike and emotional. Though Fossil is chief zoo keeper, he knows nothing about animals, describing the elephant as "the grey leg - face man '' and a bear as "the hairy Russian carpet guy ''. According to the radio series, Fossil also had a traumatic childhood. In the series, Fossil has his own theme song for the zoo: "Nicey nicey zoo zoo, for him and her and me and you! '' In the radio series, Bob has a brother called Wilbur who reunites him and his mother, who had believed that Bob died in Vietnam.
Though Fossil and the zoo were absent from the second television series, he makes a brief reappearance at the end of The Nightmare of Milky Joe as the presenter of "The Pie Face Showcase '' TV music programme. In this appearance he makes a joke about his wife; she is also mentioned in the radio series (' I got a tiny wife to support '). He returns in the third episode of series 3, "The Power of the Crimp '', as the owner of the Velvet Onion club, where Vince and Howard regularly gig. It is revealed that his mother thinks he is in a Vietnamese prisoner of war camp and that he has sent a bundle of sticks to his brother, Donny. Fossil was last seen on the TV show, in the episodes "Party '' and "The Chokes ''.
Dennis is portrayed by Julian Barratt. He was originally created for the 2005 TV episode "Nanageddon '', and later appeared in three episodes of the third TV series in 2007.
Dennis is the head of the Board of Shaman. He is married to an extreme sports calendar model who tried to seduce Vince in the episode ' Party '. He originally trained Naboo in the ways of the Shaman. He beheaded Lester Corncrake at Howard Moon 's birthday party. He is skilled with a sword, and defeats three attackers in the party episode.
Saboo is portrayed by Richard Ayoade. He was originally created for "Nanageddon '', an episode of the second series of The Mighty Boosh and later appeared in three episodes of the third series, "Eels '', "The Strange Tale of the Crack Fox '' and "Party ''.
Saboo is a shaman, and a member of the Board of Shaman. He is also a DJ. He is close to Kirk but dislikes Tony Harrison, whom he has attempted to kill, and Naboo, whose propensity for getting in trouble with the Board of Shaman often results in Saboo attempting to make an example of him. During his first appearance, he frequently referred to ' the crunch, ' criticising other characters for their lack of familiarity with it. "The crunch '', in this sense, is a high pressure moment, which is a common usage of the term in UK English.
Tony Harrison is portrayed by Noel Fielding. He was originally created for a 2005 episode of the second series of The Mighty Boosh, "Nanageddon '', and later returned for three episodes of the third series.
Tony Harrison is a disembodied pink head, with eight or so tentacle - like appendages sprouting from his neck, and a coarse, nasal East London brogue. He is a shaman, and member of the Board of Shamen. Tony is barely mobile within the show, but is frequently outraged at suggestions that this is the case. Tony is married, and makes frequent reference to Mrs Harrison who, as yet, has not been seen on the show. Tony 's catchphrase, "This is an outrage! '' has been spoken by him during every appearance in the show. He is an ardent fan of Fleetwood Mac, to the extent of suggesting playing the album Tusk in its entirety while DJ - ing Howard 's birthday party with Saboo.
Tony first appeared, alongside the rest of the Board of Shaman, in the 2005 TV episode "Nanageddon '', where he and fellow Shaman Saboo are given the task of finding and exorcising the powerful demon Nanatoo, which ends in Saboo ejecting him from his magic carpet out of annoyance. He next appears in the 2007 TV episode, "Eels '', accompanying the other Shaman on Dennis 's stag weekend. He then appears briefly in the 2007 TV episode, "The Strange Tale of The Crack Fox '' being Naboo 's executioner for the crime of giving a malevolent fox access to shaman juice. His latest appearance was in the 2007 episode "Party '' where he and Saboo DJ 'd at Howard 's birthday party.
Kirk is portrayed by Kirk Gaitskell - Kendrick. Kirk is a nephew of Noel Fielding 's former girlfriend Dee Plume, although Noel referred to Kirk as his own nephew. He first appeared in the 2005 episode, "Nanageddon '', and later appeared in three 2007 episodes.
Kirk is a child Shaman, and a member of the Board of Shaman. Kirk is renowned by the other members of the Board of Shaman for having the greatest capacity for taking drugs. A deleted scene from "Nanageddon '' reveals that Saboo trained Kirk in the ways of the Shaman.
Dixon Bainbridge was portrayed by Richard Ayoade in the pilot episode, and by Matt Berry throughout the first series. He originally appeared in the pilot and several episodes of the first series of the TV show, and in the 2006 stage show, The Mighty Boosh.
Bainbridge is the owner of the Zooniverse, as well as being an admired adventurer. Bob Fossil is deeply in love with Bainbridge, which often results in Bainbridge beating him up.
His first appearance is in the pilot episode of the TV series, portrayed by Richard Ayoade. He then appears in "Mutants '', where he steals and mutilates the various animals and keepers of the Zooniverse. He next appears in "Tundra '', a remake of the original pilot episode. He inspires Howard and Vince to travel to the Arctic Tundra and find the Egg of Mantumbi, which Bainbridge later finds himself, escaping the Black Frost by using the heat stored in his own moustache. Bainbridge later tries to sell the Zooniverse to build a road over it in "Jungle ''; a plan which is later averted by Howard and Vince. Bainbridge finally appears in "Charlie '', where he steals credit for Vince 's work as a novelist, causing Charlie, the subject of Vince 's novels, to appear and attack Bainbridge and his publisher. He was last seen delivering a box to the Nabootique.
It was revealed in The Mighty Book of Boosh that Bainbridge had been knighted in a story that involved Bainbridge rescuing his kidnapped wife in Brazil.
Lester Corncrake is portrayed by Rich Fulcher. He appeared in several episodes of the third series of the TV show.
Lester Corncrake is a blind vinyl doctor who is close friends with Howard Moon, and also an avid jazz fan. He mistakenly believes he is black.
Lester first appeared in the 2007 episode, "Journey to the Centre of the Punk '' in which he accompanies Howard on his microscopic journey inside Vince to eliminate the jazz virus he has ingested. He next appears briefly in the 2007 episode "The Power of the Crimp '', disowning Howard after his and Vince 's poor performance at a gig at the Velvet Onion where they were sabotaged by their new rivals, the Flighty Zeus. His last appearance to date was in the 2007 episode, "Party '', where he is a guest at Howard 's birthday, where he is mistakenly beheaded by Dennis, then raped by Tony Harrison. He is briefly mentioned in the third series finale.
Rudi van DiSarzio is portrayed by Rich Fulcher and Julian Barratt. He was originally created for the 1998 stage show, The Mighty Boosh, and also appeared in an out - take for the "Jazz '' episode of the 2001 radio series The Boosh, both portrayed by Rich Fulcher. He was then portrayed by Julian Barratt in the 2004 episode "Jungle '', and the 2005 episode "The Priest and the Beast '' of the TV series. He last appeared in the 2006 stage show, Boosh Live.
Rudi is a High Priest of the Order of the Psychedelic Monks. He and Spider Dijon quarrel often, but are very close despite having starkly different personalities. Rudi 's behaviour and attitude is extremely puritanical; he thinks of alcohol and women as "distractions '' in stark contrast to the animalistic nature of Spider Dijon, and even went so far as to say that he considered all women "strange and evil ''. Whenever he is asked for his name, Rudi 's initial response will often be "I go by many names... '' followed by a list of odd names. Some of his many names include "Shatoon, Bringer of Corn '', "Mickey Nine, The Dreamweaver '', "Photoshop '', "Trenu, The Boiler '', "Marjorie Keek '', "Mystery Man '', "The Shadow Dweller '', "Diviner of Mysteries '', "Rudi the Prudey '', "Miraculous Mark '', "Domino, the Bounty Hunter '', "Clive '' and "Cillit Bang '', He is often called "Peppercorn '' by the Dutch. A similar character, Howard 's uncle Pedro, appears in the radio episode "Tundra '', also claiming to go by many names.
In Jungle and some other appearances he has a tiny (puppet) body and he appears attached to a mobile backdrop; in most appearances he is of normal size and wears a long purple robe. In all of his appearances on stage or TV, Rudy has large buck teeth, browned skin and a large afro haircut with a door in it, called the door of Kukundu, that can open to take people on bizarre psychedelic trips. He claims to have earned his door by becoming spiritually enlightened as a monk.
Mrs Gideon is portrayed by Victoria Wicks. She was mentioned briefly in The Boosh as Howard 's band partner and lover, until the smooth talking Rudy Mancheigo (a precursor to the character of Rudi van DiSarzio) wooed her with empty wisdoms.
Mrs Gideon was the Head of Reptiles at the Zooniverse in the first series of the TV show. She was the chief love interest of Howard in Series 1 but as she could not remember his face, his love went unrequited. She was, however, interested in Vince, admiring his paintings, remarking that Vince 's portrait of Howard (a featureless face atop a Zooniverse uniform) looked just like him, and going to Vince when her snake was stolen by Bainbridge, much to Howard 's disgust and envy.
Old Gregg is portrayed by Noel Fielding. He was created for "The Legend of Old Gregg '', a 2005 episode of the TV series. He later went on to appear in the 2006 stage show, The Mighty Boosh.
Old Gregg is a hermaphroditic merman who occasionally refers to his vagina, which emits a blinding light that "makes you feel tingly '', as his "mangina ''. He inhabits a cave below the lake in a village called Black Lake. Old Gregg is in love with Howard Moon; singing a song with him entitled "Love Games '', chronicling his obsession and Howard 's reluctance, and later proposing to Howard. A deleted scene from "The Legend of Old Gregg '' documents many rumours about Old Gregg, including his cannibalistic nature, and his age at over 1,200 years old. Before meeting Howard, Old Gregg was obsessed with Slash, the former Guns N ' Roses guitarist, to the point of kidnapping him. It was mentioned that it ended badly, involving Gregg being very upset and Slash plummeting from a helicopter down 1000 feet onto some sharp rocks. He also claims that he said, "You should build a Velvet Revolver and go and live in it. '' -- Velvet Revolver being Slash 's new band.
Old Gregg is first seen in the 2005 episode, "The Legend of Old Gregg '' in which he meets and falls in love with Howard, who is then rescued by Vince. Old Gregg then joins Howard in the 2006 stage show, after tracking him down and having himself delivered in a box, where they sing a rendition of "Love Games '' and are later seen kissing. Old Gregg last appeared in deleted scene from the 2007 episode, "Party '', disguised as a woman who has taken a liking to Howard.
The Hitcher is portrayed by Noel Fielding. He was created for the 1999 stage show Autoboosh, and later appeared in the 2001 radio series, four episodes of the television series, and the 2006 stage show, The Mighty Boosh, in which he is the main antagonist, killing all the main characters at one point.
The Hitcher is an old cockney man with long grey hair, green skin, a large Polo mint over his left eye, a top hat and black and red clothing. He is evil, threatening to kill Howard and Vince whenever he meets them, and killing the whole cast in the stage show. His real name is Baboo Yagu, but he is almost always referred to as The Hitcher. He is also a proponent of jazz fusion, especially proficient on the bass guitar.
The Hitcher has a confused history; he states in "The Hitcher '' that as a child his parents were ashamed of his small thumb (prompting him to seek out the Hornet Shaman). However, in "Eels '' he reveals that Elsie, proprietor of the Pie and Mash Shop, gave him free eels "on account of (him) being an orphan n ' that '' (Eels). In The Mighty Book of Boosh, it is stated The Hitcher trained a man called Ian in the ways of a Cockney. Ian later goes on to become Jack the Ripper, and the Hitcher murders him as punishment for ' slashing Women '.
The Hitcher is sometimes accompanied by two short, rotund henchmen called the Piper Twins. The Piper Twins are dressed similarly to the Hitcher, with similar Polo mint eyes, but wear bowler hats and have long red moustaches, made from strawberry bootlaces. They are portrayed by Rich Fulcher and Dave Brown
The Hitcher 's first appearance was in Autoboosh, where he encounters Howard and Vince, trapping them in a box and then rapping about doing so. This plot was the template for a 2001 radio episode and a 2004 television episode, both titled "Hitcher ''.
In the television episode, he is proprietor of the "Zoo for Animal Offenders ''. He later appears in the 2005 television episode, "Fountain of Youth '', where he plans to use the fountain of youth 's magical qualities for himself with the motive to rule the universe. Next he appeared in the episode "The Nightmare of Milky Joe '' as one of the coconut people. He then appeared in the 2006 stage show, The Mighty Boosh, which contained elements of both Autoboosh and the 1999 stage show, Arctic Boosh. His latest appearance was in the 2007 television episode, "Eels '', in which he attempts to run a protection racket on The Nabootique.
In the first series episode "The Hitcher '' he has an abnormally large thumb, as well as nose and chin. He explains this as a result of visiting a Hornet Shaman in the bin of a primary school and asking him to enlarge his thumb. In the second series his thumbs are both normally sized. In the third series he has a normal chin and nose. In the episode of "the Hitcher '' of series one, Fielding said that the Hitcher is based on his grandfather crossed with the character Fagin from the play Oliver.
The Spirit of Jazz / Howlin ' Jimmy Jefferson is portrayed by Noel Fielding. He appears in three separate forms over the course of the series. In the series 3 episode, Journey to the Centre of Punk, he is described as having been a famous jazz musician that lived by the swamps of Mississippi. When he was alive he had black and white skin, red eyes and wore a white suit and top hat. When he discovered he was dying of a "strange swamp fever '' he decided to make one final record called Voodoo Scat and mixed it with a drop of his own blood.
The series 1 episode "Electro '' is the first appearance of Howlin ' Jimmy Jefferson. His ghost is featured in this episode and referred to as the Spirit of Jazz. In this form he looks the same as he did when he was alive but now has a number of supernatural powers and uses them to possess people such as Howard. Howard ignorantly made a deal with him years ago, which the spirit claimed would make Howard one of the greatest jazz musicians of all time (in Yorkshire).
Howard later obtains the voodoo scat record that Howlin ' Jimmy made and Vince eats a piece of it which causes one of Howlin ' Jimmy 's blood cells (referred to as the jazz cell) to try and take over Vince 's body. Howard along with Lester Corncrake shrink down and enters Vince 's body in an attempt to defeat the jazz cell but end up bringing it out of Vince 's body with them and making it much larger. It is eventually defeated by an infected safety pin (previously used by Sid Vicious) and walks away complaining, falling over just outside the door of the Nabootique.
The Moon is portrayed by Noel Fielding with his face covered in shaving foam. He was originally created for Fielding 's 2002 stand - up show Voodoo Hedgehog at the Edinburgh Festival. He later appeared in all episodes of series two and three of The Mighty Boosh, and in the 2006 and 2008 live shows. The Moon always appears to be simple - mindedly cheerful and tells anecdotes which act as bookends between sketches.
The Moon made a cameo appearance in the first episode of Noel Fielding 's Luxury Comedy, and in June 2013 he made an appearance in a video message at Channel 4 's Comedy Gala.
Tommy Nookah was originally portrayed by Richard Ayoade. He appeared in the radio episode "Jungle '' and later in revised form during the first series of the TV show, where he was played by Rich Fulcher rather than Ayoade. In both versions he is the previous owner of the zoo where Howard and Vince work; he is assumed by many to be dead. Howard sees him as an idol and mentor. Howard later enters the jungle room of the zoo to find Tommy. In the TV version Tommy has subsisted for years on nothing but cheese, and as a result his head has turned into cheese. Tommy considers himself King of the Rockers, and flies into a rage when confronted by mods.
The Parka People are a diminutive race of people who wear parkas that completely obscure their features. They appear in the "Tundra '' storyline and the third series episode "Party ''. By looking deep into the parka, one can see one 's deepest desire. The Parka People guard the Egg of Mantumbi. One of the Parka people appears in the stage show, played by Noel Fielding.
Leroy is a recurring character who only appears on screen once in the television series when Vince creates a band which was a glam rock / folk fusion in episode 7 of series 1, "Electro ''. He is said to have helped Howard edit the show 's script in the series 1 episode "Tundra '', cutting out the scene where Vince has the legs of a ram. Leroy also goes on secret spy skiing missions in the Alps as is mentioned in the series 3 episode "Eels ''. He is mentioned in the episode "Electro '' as having tried to form a glam - folk - rock band with Vince. He is played by Olly Ralfe in this short scene. He is also referred to briefly in episode 1 of season 1 Killeroo when Vince states that Leroy had told him earlier he saw Howard dancing for Fossil in the moonlight in "little blue pants '' and is later referenced in "The Ape of Death '' talking to Vince on a cellphone when Howard is "haunting '' him.
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who played the thin man in the movies | The Thin Man (film) - wikipedia
The Thin Man is a 1934 American pre-Code comedy - mystery film directed by W.S. Van Dyke and based on the novel of the same name by Dashiell Hammett. The film stars William Powell and Myrna Loy as Nick and Nora Charles; Nick is a hard - drinking, retired private detective, and Nora is a wealthy heiress. Their wire - haired fox terrier Asta is played by canine actor Skippy.
The film 's screenplay was written by Albert Hackett and Frances Goodrich, a married couple. In 1934, the film was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Picture. The titular "Thin Man '' is not Nick Charles, but the man Charles is initially hired to find -- Clyde Wynant (part way through the film, Charles describes Wynant as a "thin man with white hair ''). The "Thin Man '' moniker was thought by many viewers to refer to Nick Charles and, after a time, it was used in the titles of sequels as if referring to Charles.
Nick Charles (William Powell), a retired detective, and his wife Nora (Myrna Loy) are attempting to settle down. They are based in San Francisco but decide to spend the Christmas holidays in New York. There Nick is pressed back into service by Dorothy Wynant (Maureen O'Sullivan), a young woman whose father was an old client of Nick. The man, Clyde Wynant (the title 's "thin man ''), was supposed to be on a secret business trip and promised to be home before his daughter 's wedding, but has mysteriously vanished. She convinces Nick to take the case, much to the amusement of his socialite wife. It starts out as a missing person case, but when Julia Wolf, Wynant 's former secretary and love interest, is found dead, evidence points to Wynant as the prime suspect. Dorothy refuses to believe that her father is guilty. The detective uncovers clues and eventually solves the mystery of the disappearance.
The murderer is revealed in a classic dinner party scene that features all of the suspects. A skeletonized body, found during the investigation, had been assumed to be that of a "fat man '' because it was wearing oversized clothing. The clothes are revealed to be planted, and the identity of the body is determined by an old war wound in one leg. It turns out that the body belongs to a "thin man '': the missing Wynant. The real killer is uncovered at the dinner party before he almost takes the life of someone who knows too much.
Cast notes:
The film was based on the novel of the same name by Dashiell Hammett, released in January 1934. Hammett 's novel drew on his experiences as a union - busting Pinkerton detective in Butte, Montana. Hammett based Nick and Nora 's banter upon his rocky on - again, off - again relationship with playwright Lillian Hellman.
MGM paid Hammett $21,000 for the screen rights to the novel. The screenplay was written by Albert Hackett and Frances Goodrich, who had been married for three years. Director W.S. Van Dyke encouraged them to use Hammett 's writing as a basis only, and to concentrate on providing witty exchanges for Nick and Nora.
Van Dyke convinced MGM executives to let Powell and Loy portray the lead characters despite concerns that Powell was too old and strait - laced to play Nick Charles and that Loy had become typecast in exotic femme fatale roles.
Skippy played Asta, the dog of Nick and Nora. Skippy was subsequently cast in two screwball comedy classics, The Awful Truth (1937) and Bringing Up Baby (1938).
-- Film historian Andrew Sarris (1998)
The film was shot with a budget of $226,408. For Powell 's first scene in the film, Van Dyke told him to take the cocktail shaker, go to the bar and just walk through the scene while the crew checked lights and sound. Powell did it, throwing in some lines and business of his own. Suddenly he heard Van Dyke say, "That 's it! Print it! '' The director had decided to shoot the scene without Powell knowing it so that he 'd be as relaxed and natural as possible.
Van Dyke often did not bother with cover shots if he felt the scene was right on the first take, reasoning that actors "lose their fire '' if they have to do something over and over. It was a lot of pressure on the actors, who often had to learn new lines and business immediately before shooting, without the luxury of retakes, but Loy credited much of the appeal of the film to Van Dyke 's pacing and spontaneity. He paid the most attention to Powell and Loy 's easy banter between takes and their obvious enjoyment of each other 's company and worked it into the movie. The director often encouraged and incorporated improvisation and off - the - cuff details into the picture. In order to keep her entrance fresh and spontaneous, W.S. Van Dyke did not tell Loy about it until right before they shot it.
Powell loved working so much with Loy because of her naturalness, her professionalism, and her lack of any kind of "diva '' temperament. On her, Powell said: "When we did a scene together, we forgot about technique, camera angles, and microphones. We were n't acting. We were just two people in perfect harmony. Myrna, unlike some actresses who think only of themselves, has the happy faculty of being able to listen while the other fellow says his lines. She has the give and take of acting that brings out the best. ''
According to Loy, the actors were not allowed to interact between takes with the dog, Skippy; trainers felt it would break his concentration. Skippy once bit Loy during filming.
Although she had great compliments for Powell 's charm and wit, Maureen O'Sullivan (who played the daughter of Wynant) later said she did not enjoy making the picture because her part was so small and the production was so rushed.
The scene of Nick shooting the ornaments off the tree was added after Powell playfully picked up an air gun and started shooting ornaments the art department was putting up.
Loy wrote that the biggest problem during shooting was the climactic dinner party scene in which Nick reveals the killer. Powell complained that he had too many lines to learn and could barely decipher the complicated plot he was unraveling. It was the one scene when several retakes were necessary, which brought up an entirely new problem. The script called for oysters to be served to the dinner guests and, in take after take, the same plate of oysters was brought out under the hot lights. "They began to putrefy, '' Loy recalled. "By the time we finished that scene, nobody ever wanted to see another oyster. ''
The film was released in May 25, 1934 to extremely positive reviews and was a box office hit, with special praise for the chemistry between Loy and Powell. Mordaunt Hall of The New York Times called it "an excellent combination of comedy and excitement '', and the film appeared on the Times year - end list of the ten best of the year. "The Thin Man was an entertaining novel, and now it 's an entertaining picture '', reported Variety. "For its leads the studio could n't have done better than to pick Powell and Miss Loy, both of whom shade their semi-comic roles beautifully. '' "The screen seldom presents a more thoroughly interesting piece of entertainment than this adaptation of Dashiell Hammett 's popular novel '', raved Film Daily. "The rapid fire dialogue is about the best heard since talkies, and it is delivered by Powell and Miss Loy to perfection. '' John Mosher of The New Yorker wrote that Loy and Powell played their parts "beautifully '', adding, "All the people of the book are there, and I think the final scenes of the solution of the mystery are handled on a higher note than they were in print. '' Louella Parsons called it "the greatest entertainment, the most fun and the best mystery - drama of the year. '' The Chicago Tribune said it was "exciting '', "amusing '' and "fat with ultra, ultra sophisticated situations and dialog. '' It also called Powell and Loy "delightful ''. Harrison Carroll of The Los Angeles Herald - Express wrote that it was "one of the cleverest adaptations of a popular novel that Hollywood has ever turned out. ''
The film was such a success that it spawned five sequels:
In 2002, critic Roger Ebert added the film to his list of Great Movies. Ebert praised William Powell 's performance in particular, stating that Powell "is to dialogue as Fred Astaire is to dance. His delivery is so droll and insinuating, so knowing and innocent at the same time, that it hardly matters what he 's saying. ''
In 1997, the film was added to the United States National Film Registry having been deemed "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant. '' In 2000 American Film Institute designated the film as one of the great comedies in the previous hundred years of cinema.
The film is 32nd on the American Film Institute 's 2000 list AFI 's 100 Years... 100 Laughs and was nominated for the following lists:
The film grossed a total (domestic and foreign) of $1,423,000: $818,000 from the US and Canada and $605,000 elsewhere. It made a profit of $729,000.
The trailer contained specially filmed footage in which Nick Charles (William Powell) is seen on the cover of the Dashiell Hammett novel The Thin Man. Nick Charles then steps out of the cover to talk to fellow detective Philo Vance (also played by Powell) about his latest case.
Charles mentions he has n't seen Vance since The Kennel Murder Case, a film in which Powell played Vance. The Kennel Murder Case was released in October 1933, just seven months prior to the release of The Thin Man.
Charles goes on to explain to Vance that his latest case revolves around a "tall, thin man '' (referring to Clyde Wynant), just before clips of the film are shown.
The Thin Man was dramatized as a radio play on an hour - long broadcast of Lux Radio Theater on June 8, 1936. William Powell, Myrna Loy, Minna Gombell, Porter Hall, William Henry, and Thomas Jackson reprised their film roles, and W.S. Van Dyke was host.
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where are the cast today of you rang m'lord | You Rang, M'Lord? - Wikipedia
You Rang M'Lord? is a BBC television sitcom written by Jimmy Perry and David Croft, the creators of Dad 's Army, It Ai n't Half Hot Mum and Hi - de-Hi! It was broadcast between 1990 and 1993 on the BBC (although there had earlier been a pilot episode in 1988). The show was a comedy set in the house of an aristocratic family in the 1920s, contrasting the upper - class family and their servants in a house in London, along the same lines as the popular drama Upstairs, Downstairs.
The series featured many actors who had also appeared in their earlier series, notably Paul Shane, Jeffrey Holland and Su Pollard, all of whom had previously been in Perry and Croft 's holiday camp sitcom, Hi - de-Hi!. Also featured were Donald Hewlett and Michael Knowles from Perry and Croft 's It Ai n't Half Hot Mum, and Bill Pertwee and occasionally Frank Williams from Dad 's Army. Numerous small parts were played by other alumni of David Croft and / or Jimmy Perry shows. The memorable 1920s - style theme tune was sung by Bob Monkhouse.
Episodes of You Rang M'Lord? were fifty minutes long, rather than the usual thirty (for BBC sitcoms), and attempted to introduce a more reflective approach and more complex plotting than other Croft and Perry series. There was also less reliance on filmed location sequences.
The series, in common with all situation comedies of its time, was filmed in front of a live studio audience. Mark Lewisohn notes that the writers were careful to ensure that the sets, lighting and camerawork were of a quality more normally associated with drama productions such as Upstairs, Downstairs. For a situation comedy, the episodes are an unconventional length (50 minutes). The 50 minute duration was Croft 's idea, as he felt this would give them the opportunity to develop characters and situations more thoroughly. This was supported by Gareth Gwenlan, head of BBC comedy. Also unconventional for a Perry / Croft series was the fact that plots directly continued from episode to episode like a soap opera as opposed to being largely standalone episodes such as in Dad 's Army, It Ai n't Half Hot Mum, etc.
This coupled with high production values and attention to period detail gives the series the feel of a comedy drama. In writing the series, the two writers drew on research and personal accounts from the period; Jimmy Perry 's grandfather had been in service as a butler and David Croft 's mother, Anne Croft, had been a musical comedy star in the 1920s, giving them some ideas of life both above and below stairs.
The pilot episode was due to be recorded at the BBC Television Centre in London, but due to a strike the original sets were very sparsely dressed and production was moved to the BBC Elstree Studios instead. The sets were subsequently improved for the first series. After the pilot was aired and the BBC agreed to a full series, the production team decided to remain at BBC Elstree Studios, and all four series of the show were recorded there. Exterior shots were mostly filmed in and around Diss, Norfolk, for example a disused brush factory which was used as the Union Jack Rubber Company. Other locations include the seafront at Cromer, Lynford Hall and Oxburgh Hall as the bishop 's palace. The 1st World War battle scene at the beginning of the pilot episode was built in Long Valley, the British Army 's tank training ground in Aldershot. The exterior of the Meldrum house is rarely seen, although the pilot featured exterior shots of an actual building, most probably No. 15, Holland Villas Road, London W14, but later shootings took place at a mockup built on the car park at BBC Elstree Studios or location in Norfolk.
The first two series were directed by David Croft who then handed over directing duties to Roy Gould, his Production Manager for many years, for series three and four.
The series ' opening and closing music was written by Jimmy Perry and Roy Moore and performed by an authentic 1920s - style orchestra. The vocals were performed by Bob Monkhouse and Paul Shane.
In the pilot episode, two World War I soldiers stumble across the body of an officer while crossing no - man 's land under heavy gunfire during the Battle of Amiens in 1918. Assuming the officer is dead, one soldier, Alf Stokes, attempts to rob the officer, much to the disgust of his comrade, James Twelvetrees. After it becomes apparent that the unconscious officer is not dead, the two men see their chance to escape the battle by carrying the officer to a field hospital. The two soldiers are later called to see the officer, The Honourable Teddy Meldrum, who says he is eternally grateful for their services, and tells them he will always be in their debt.
The action then cuts to London in 1927, where James Twelvetrees has become the footman in the house of Lord Meldrum (brother of Teddy), at 12 Park Lane, Mayfair, and wants to further his position following the death of the butler.
Meanwhile, Alf Stokes and Ivy, his daughter, have just been sacked from their jobs in a music hall (Alf took the music hall job after being dismissed for dishonesty as a butler). Alf sees his chance to apply for a job at the Meldrum 's house, and after blackmailing his previous employer for references, becomes the new butler, much to the annoyance of James. Following the dismissal of a maid, after a backstairs relationship with the Honourable Teddy, Ivy is brought in by her father as the new maid (to hide the fact that she is Alf 's daughter, the two decide that Ivy should use her mother 's maiden name, Teasdale).
The programme follows the various relationships between the upper - class and their servants, as well as Alf 's scheming and James 's attempts to stop him. The events depicted in the 26 episodes are time - lined though not directly following each other and are based mainly around the following threads:
As with the main cast, a number of other characters were played by actors who have appeared in Perry / Croft series, including Felix Bowness, Kenneth Connor, Stuart McGugan, John D. Collins and Ivor Roberts.
The series was not initially well received by the critics, and is less well - known than other Croft sitcoms, such as Dad 's Army, It Ai n't Half Hot Mum, Hi - de-Hi!, ' Allo ' Allo! and Are You Being Served? (some of these co-written by Croft with Jeremy Lloyd).
Reviewing the series ten years later, Mark Lewisohn notes that unlike previous Croft / Perry series, the lead characters were not "loveable '', stating:
... in fact, Alf was quite menacing and James was just too snobbish and unbending a character to generate a response from the audience. This combination of production values and darker characterisation seemed to work against the series, and the normally loud and broad humour of such ensemble romps was uncomfortable in the surroundings. While far from a ratings disaster, it nonetheless failed to attract the level of audiences normally reached by Perry and Croft.
Simon Morgan - Russell, Professor of English at Bowling Green State University is more complimentary, noting that "Unlike other Perry and Croft sitcoms, You Rang, M'Lord? has a distinct serial structure, though it is also the most stable example of their work in terms of maintaining the original situational concept and the cast ''. He goes on to compliment the series ' examination of class, sexuality and gender issues, as well as the heritage cinema - inspired period detail of the piece, particularly in its location filming.
The series was the first British sitcom to feature a recurring lesbian character, in Cissy Meldrum. The character has generated mixed reactions. Anthony Joseph Paul Cortese 's Opposing Hate Speech suggests that Cissy is "the archetypal stereotype for a lesbian... (using)... non-flattering stereotypes ''. Alison Darren 's Lesbian Film Guide is much more positive, stating "You Rang, M'Lord? gave us the wonderful Cissy (... replete with monacle and a series of beautifully tailored suits). '' She goes on to note the character 's "championing of the workers '' suggesting that throughout her character "behaved with integrity and style. '' The BBC Comedy Guide criticises the show: "for most of their career Perry and Croft had turned clichés on their heads and created characters that went beyond normal. The research and interest they showed in the 20s setting and ' getting it right ' in You Rang... seems to have made them forget to put many laughs in. '' You Rang, M'Lord? has rarely been repeated on television, which Croft believed was probably due to its unusual length, which does not suit current broadcasting slots (his other series such as Dad 's Army and ' Allo, ' Allo are 30 minutes in duration). However, all four series have been released on DVD, both individually and as a box set.
The show started a complete re-run on 3rd April 2018 on UKTV 's Drama channel in the afternoon Comedy Slot, and also shortly thereafter on GOLD.
In addition, all four series are available individually along with a box set of the complete collection as digital downloads from the iTunes Store.
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who said consistency is the hobgoblin of little minds | Self - reliance - wikipedia
"Self - Reliance '' is an 1841 essay written by American transcendentalist philosopher and essayist Ralph Waldo Emerson. It contains the most thorough statement of one of Emerson 's recurrent themes, the need for each individual to avoid conformity and false consistency, and follow their own instincts and ideas. It is the source of one of Emerson 's most famous quotations: "A foolish consistency is the hobgoblin of little minds, adored by little statesmen and philosophers and divines. '' This essay is an analysis into the nature of the "aboriginal self on which a universal reliance may be grounded. ''
The first hint of the philosophy that would become "Self - Reliance '' was presented by Ralph Waldo Emerson as part of a sermon in September 1830 a month after his first marriage. His wife Ellen was sick with tuberculosis and, as Emerson 's biographer Robert D. Richardson wrote, "Immortality had never been stronger or more desperately needed! ''
From 1836 into 1837, Emerson presented a series of lectures on the philosophy of history at Boston 's Masonic Temple. These lectures were never published separately, but many of his thoughts in these were later used in "Self - Reliance '' and several other essays. Later lectures by Emerson led to public censure of his radical views, the staunch defense of individualism in "Self - Reliance '' being a possible reaction to that censure.
"Self - Reliance '' was first published in his 1841 collection, Essays: First Series. Emerson helped start the beginning of the Transcendentalist movement in America. "Self - Reliance '' is one of Emerson 's most famous essays. Emerson wrote on "individualism, personal responsibility, and nonconformity. ''
The Transcendentalist movement flourished in New England, and proposed a revolutionarily new philosophy of life. This new philosophy drew upon old ideas of Romanticism, Unitarianism, and German Idealism. Some of these ideas pertained closely to the values of America at the time. These values included nature, individualism, and reform, and can be noted in Emerson 's essay.
Herman Melville 's Moby - Dick has been read as a critique of Emerson 's philosophy of self - reliance, embodied particularly in the life and death of Ahab. Melville 's critique of self - reliance as a way of life is seen to lie in its destructive potential, especially when taken to extremes. Richard Chase writes that for Melville, ' Death -- spiritual, emotional, physical -- is the price of self - reliance when it is pushed to the point of solipsism, where the world has no existence apart from the all - sufficient self. ' In that regard, Chase sees Melville 's art as antithetical to that of Emerson 's thought, in that Melville ' (points) up the dangers of an exaggerated self - regard, rather than, as (...) Emerson loved to do, (suggested) the vital possibilities of the self. ' Newton Arvin further suggests that self - reliance was, for Melville, really the ' (masquerade in kingly weeds of) a wild egoism, anarchic, irresponsible, and destructive. '
Emerson 's quote, "A foolish consistency is the hobgoblin of little minds, '' is a running joke in the 1998 film Next Stop Wonderland. A single woman (portrayed by Hope Davis), who is familiar with the Emerson quote, goes on dates with several men, each of whom tries to impress her by referencing the line, but misquotes it and misattributes it to W.C. Fields, Karl Marx, or Cicero. The woman finally meets a man (portrayed by Alan Gelfant) who correctly attributes the quote to Emerson.
Early in his career the writer Isaac Asimov co-authored the textbook Biochemistry and Human Metabolism. While reviewing the galley proofs of each author 's contribution, he and his two colleagues would frequently encounter differences in matters such as the spelling, capitalization and hyphenation of technical words and terms. Rather than undergo the laborious task of harmonizing all these trivial variations, hearkening to the "foolish consistency '' statement they would all call out "Emerson '' when one of these was encountered and pass directly on to the next item.
It is also quoted in the Python Style guide for the Python programming language.
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girl with the dragon tattoo led zeppelin cover | The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo (soundtrack) - wikipedia
The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo is an ambient soundtrack by Trent Reznor (of Nine Inch Nails) and Atticus Ross, for David Fincher 's film of the same name. It was released on December 9, 2011. This is the second soundtrack that Reznor and Ross have worked on together, the previous being the Oscar - winning The Social Network, also for Fincher. The album was released on Mute Records outside North America.
The soundtrack is nearly three hours long, and includes covers of the Led Zeppelin track, "Immigrant Song '', featuring Karen O of Yeah Yeah Yeahs, and the Bryan Ferry song, "Is Your Love Strong Enough? '', by Reznor and Ross 's own band, How to Destroy Angels. The former premiered on KROQ radio on December 2, 2011, and was made available as a download to anyone who purchased the iTunes pre-order of the album. In addition, the file was accompanied with an extended, 8 minute trailer for the film, scored specifically by Reznor and Ross. On December 2, a six - song sampler of the album was made available for free online along with the pre-release of various different formats of the soundtrack.
The score was nominated for the 2011 Golden Globe award for Best Original Score -- Motion Picture, and won the 2012 Grammy award for Best Score Soundtrack For Visual Media. The album debuted on the UK Albums Chart on 7 January 2012 at position 199.
A teaser trailer for the film was released online on June 2, 2011, (previously being attached to certain domestic and international films), featuring a cover of Led Zeppelin 's "Immigrant Song '', by Reznor, Ross and Karen O (from the Yeah Yeah Yeahs).
On August 10, the film 's official website was updated to feature background music "She Reminds Me of You '', under the filename "Dotcom. mp3 ''. As was the case with "Hand Covers Bruise '' from The Social Network 's official site, this backing music was the first piece from the score to be available for listening.
A full - length trailer for the film was released on September 22, featuring music from the score again, the first time the score had been specifically set to footage. Specifically the track "An Itch. ''
One track from the score ("What If We Could? '') has been performed live by Reznor 's band Nine Inch Nails on their Twenty Thirteen Tour in summer 2013.
A Tumblr blog entitled Mouth Taped Shut was launched on August 20, 2011, releasing behind - the - scenes photographs of the shooting and production of the film. On October 3, the blog posted a YouTube video of custom posters for the film being printed, with backing music by Reznor and Ross. The blog was also used extensively to promote a public preview of the film, and had hosted snapshots of the score in progress.
An image posted on Mouth Taped Shut showed Reznor in the studio, working on the score. On close inspection, however, the monitor of his computer displayed the url, http://www.comesforthinthethaw.com, which when typed in linked to a site featuring an ever - evolving array of further background music accompanied to various film stills.
Following a hidden clue on... Comes Forth in theThaw, the website http://www.whatishiddeninsnow.com was found, which led to a series of treasure trails around the world, finding pieces from the film as part of an Alternate Reality Game promotion.
The album 's art was created by Nine Inch Nails and How to Destroy Angels ' creative director Rob Sheridan and Neil Kellerhouse.
The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo was opened for pre-orders online on December 2, 2011, on Reznor 's independent label website Null Corporation in a number of different formats at various price points. The digital copy was released on December 9, whilst retail copies of the album were distributed by Mute Records on December 27 in CD format followed by the "Deluxe '' edition on February 6. The smallest Dragon Tattoo package contains the entire album in 320 kbit / s MP3 format made available for download directly from the website for US $12. A lossless digital version includes a choice of Apple Lossless or FLAC for US $14. A standard physical version is available for US $14 and includes three audio CDs stored in an eight panel digipak with custom "ice '' slipcase and a six panel insert, alongside a digital version delivered in 320 kbit / s MP3. A $300 "Deluxe Edition '' includes a 6 - LP 180 gram vinyl set in a deluxe book package with metal cover in a hard plastic "ice '' slip cover, an exclusive custom 8GB metal razor blade USB pendant (inspired by Lisbeth Salander 's razor blade necklace) containing the full album in high - fidelity 96k audio, a fold - out poster designed by Neil Kellerhouse, and a HD digital copy in either Apple Lossless, FLAC, or 320 kbit / s MP3 formats.
On the day of the six - track sampler 's launch, Reznor posted about the release on the Nine Inch Nails website:
For the last fourteen months Atticus and I have been hard at work on David Fincher 's The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo. We laughed, we cried, we lost our minds and in the process made some of the most beautiful and disturbing music of our careers. The result is a sprawling three - hour opus that I am happy to announce is available for pre-order right now for as low as $11.99. The full release will be available in one week - December 9th. (...) Atticus and I are very proud of the film and our work, we hope you enjoy.
Critical response to the score was generally favorable, with an average rating of 76 % based on 11 professional reviews on Metacritic. Christian Cottingham of Drowned in Sound noticed that, "like the film the soundtrack favours atmosphere over cheap thrill, taking its time to mount a sense of rising dread, layers of drone building overtop machinery echo and worn piano faded between scattered melodies and sparse percussion. In isolation it 's an accompaniment to 3am melancholy or the onset of madness: in context it 's Fincher 's bleached out whites and blacks and murky greens turned to sound, bleaker than their previous work and more ambitious even than NIN 's Ghosts. '' Cottingham asserted that Dragon Tattoo, "most (ly) recalls Reznor 's soundtrack for Quake in the late 90 's, where space and silence played a role as great as any multitrack in conveying tension and unsettling the mood. At times tender but mostly pretty terrifying, this needs to be heard somewhere loud, and preferably with an exit in easy reach. ''
Conversely professional film music critics like Christian Clemmensen, of Filmtracks, and Jonathan Broxton, of Movie Music UK, dismissed it entirely, the latter considering the score as: "little more than a series of ambient drones, overlaid with various industrial sound effects and staccato rhythms -- de-tuned piano chords, plucked bass notes, and the like. '' He also stated: "When the score is n't jarringly distracting, it 's virtually inaudible or indistinguishable from the film 's sound effects, begging the question of why the music is there in the first place. ''
All tracks written by Trent Reznor and Atticus Ross, except where noted.
All tracks written by Trent Reznor and Atticus Ross.
An alternate album For Your Consideration (FYC) was sent by Sony Pictures to awarding bodies. It features the actual film cues, which have alternate titles, edits and mixes from the versions on the commercially available soundtrack, along with one composition not on the soundtrack release at all.
All tracks written by Trent Reznor and Atticus Ross.
The same album was made available on the Sony Pictures FYC site as of February 6, 2012. Here, it was presented in chronological order from the film, and did not feature the Led Zeppelin cover performed by Trent Reznor and Karen O:
All tracks written by Trent Reznor and Atticus Ross.
Credits for The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo adapted from liner notes:
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who did lady gaga write you and i about | You and I (Lady Gaga song) - wikipedia
"You and I '' (stylized as "Yoü and I '') is a song written and recorded by American singer Lady Gaga, taken from her second studio album, Born This Way (2011). She also co-produced it with Robert John "Mutt '' Lange. The track samples Queen 's "We Will Rock You '' (1977) and features electric guitar by Queen 's Brian May. Gaga debuted "You and I '' in June 2010 during her performance at Elton John 's White Tie and Tiara Ball. Footage of the performance appeared on the Internet, and positive response encouraged her to include the song on her setlist for The Monster Ball Tour. She later performed the song on Today to a record crowd in July 2010, and on The Oprah Winfrey Show in May 2011. On August 23, 2011, Interscope released the song as the fourth single from the album.
"You and I '' is a slow tempo song featuring instrumentation from electric guitars and piano, with Gaga and Lange providing background vocals. The song received critical acclaim, with reviewers listing it as one of the highlights from Born This Way. After the release of the parent album, "You and I '' charted in Canada, United Kingdom and the United States, due to digital downloads from the parent album. Season ten American Idol contestant Haley Reinhart performed "You and I '' in May 2011 before its release, earning positive reviews. Her studio recording was released to the iTunes Store as a single, and appeared on the compilation album, American Idol Top 5 Season 10. "You and I '' was nominated for the Grammy Award for Best Pop Solo Performance at the 54th Grammy Awards, which was held on February 12, 2012.
The accompanying music video for "You and I '', shot by Gaga 's long - time collaborator Laurieann Gibson in Springfield, Nebraska, was released on August 16, 2011. It features Jo Calderone, Gaga 's male alter ego, who also appears on the single 's cover, and Yüyi, her mermaid alter ego. Gaga 's journey to be with her beloved one was the main concept behind the video. She is displayed in an assortment of scenes as different avatars, including Calderone and Yuyi. The video met with a positive reception after its release.
"You and I '', written by Lady Gaga and produced by Gaga and Robert John "Mutt '' Lange, was one of the first songs previewed from the album. Gaga said she wrote the song in New York, while she was busy playing her old piano. The singer first played "You and I '' at Elton John 's White Tie and Tiara Ball in June 2010. She said that the song was a bit of a "rock - and - roll tune '' and, as such, was unlikely to be released as a single from Born This Way. She said that it "is very dear '' to her heart. Footage of the performance appeared on the Internet soon after, and positive response encouraged Lady Gaga to perform the song during the first concert of the North American leg of The Monster Ball Tour in Montreal. Gaga told MSNBC 's Meredith Vieira and Ann Curry that "' You and I ' was written about the most important person that I ever met '', allegedly Lüc Carl, her ex-boyfriend.
Gaga announced "You and I '' as the fourth single from Born This Way on July 22, 2011. Its cover, released on August 5, 2011, via TwitPic, was accompanied by the line: "You will never find what you are looking for in love, if you do n't love yourself. '' It features two black - and - white images of Gaga 's male alter ego Jo Calderone smoking a cigarette and sporting sideburns. The Calderone character made a previous appearance in June 2011, when Gaga posed as him in London for a series of photos by photographer Nick Knight, arranged by stylist Nicola Formichetti. One shot features him wearing a blazer and white T - shirt with his head down smoking a cigarette. The other image is of Jo Calderone in silhouette exhaling a cloud of smoke.
A writer for Australia 's The Daily Telegraph described the images as having a moody and scruffy look, and felt that Gaga had become "bored with being an outrageous woman and has decided to switch gender instead. '' Rap - Up 's David Jones commented that Gaga 's Calderone character appearing on the cover looked similar to musician Bob Dylan. Although Steve Pond of Reuters did not like the song, he stated about the artwork: "Lady Gaga loves herself even when she 's dressed as a guy. ''
"You and I '' has rock and country music influences, and features British rock band Queen 's guitarist Brian May. It was recorded by Tom Ware and Horace Ward at the Warehouse Productions Studio in Omaha, Nebraska, and Allertown Hill in the United Kingdom, respectively. Along with May, Justin Shirley Smith also played guitars; Gene Grimaldi mastered the track. Olle Romo did additional recording and programming. Gaga teased that "someone legendary '' would be producing the track before production credits were announced in April 2011. Gaga, a Queen fan (even taking her stage name from the Queen song "Radio Ga Ga ''), admitted to "(falling) to the floor crying and laughing '' when she found out that May agreed to the collaboration. Lange asked Gaga to record a "rough lead vocal '' for the track while she was touring. Gaga later recalled: "I had about 30 cigarettes and a couple of glasses of Jameson and just put on a click track and sang my face off, thinking we 'd redo the vocals. '' However, Lange was satisfied with her recording and used it on the track. Ware recalled that the song was recorded the night after Gaga 's March 17, 2011, concert for The Monster Ball Tour. She welcomed his opinions and encouraged his input which he said helped make the four - hour session the best working experience he has had with a celebrity. "She was flattering toward the studio -- and Omaha, too, for that matter. She is a bright young lady with remarkable music instincts who charts her own path, '' he added.
According to the sheet music published by Sony / ATV Music Publishing, "You and I '' is set in common time with a slow tempo of 60 beats per minute. It is written in the key of A major. During the song Gaga 's voice spans from the notes of E to C ♯. The song begins with an A -- G -- A chord progression, which changes to A -- Bm / A -- D / A -- B ♯ m during the chorus, and back to the former chords afterwards. The opening lyrics -- "It 's been a long time since I came around / It 's been a long time, but I 'm back in town / And this time, I 'm not leaving without you '' -- describe a whiskey - breathed lover for whom she is pining. Gil Kaufman of MTV News described it as the "tune eschewed most of her dance flavor, right down to a rollicking barrel - house piano solo. '' Her voice sounded like growling during the main verses, where she sings the lines: "He said, ' Sit back down where you belong, in the corner of my bar with your high heels on, Sit back down on the couch where we made love the first time... '' Noting the differences between live performances of the song and the studio version, Neil McCormick of The Daily Telegraph observed that the piano parts were replaced mostly by "fizzing synths, a stomping beat sampled from "We Will Rock You '', thundering electric guitars and backing vocals stacked into shimmering choral walls. '' Kitty Empire of The Guardian described the song as an "umlaut - toting digital country power ballad '' with two Bruce Springsteen references: "born to run '' and Nebraska.
"You and I '' received acclaim from music critics. After hearing the White Tie and Tiara Ball performance, Entertainment Weekly 's Leah Greenblatt complimented the song for its "torchy, slow - burn cabaret quality '' and for lacking "Auto - Tune, fancy production, or performance gimmicks. '' McCormick, noting the differences between Gaga 's live and studio versions of the song, described the studio version as "bigger, bolder and less quirkily emotive, a custom - built radio rock ballad to induce hand claps in packed stadiums. This is not music for the underground: it is cheesy, high - gloss, pop rock for the mainstream middle, a kind of instant Eighties retro classic to seduce middle - aged rockers -- possibly the last demographic to remain sceptical about her appeal. '' Jody Rosen of Rolling Stone called the song a confessional power ballad "with a torrid, Sturm und Drang vocal turn ''. In his review for The Guardian, Tim Jonze said the song "aims for a ' Hey Jude ' style singalong but -- owing to its determination to have someone playing kitchen sink in the background -- ends up as bloated as Oasis ' ' All Around the World '. '' Dan Aquilante of The New York Post wrote a less - than - favorable review of Born This Way but complimented "You and I '' and the "uniquely earthy quality '' that Lange brought to the album. Kitty Empire said the song is Gaga 's "unlikely heartland moment -- a bid, perhaps, to locate herself as an all - American balladeer as well as an art - disco avatar with tent pegs under her skin '', referring to the implants featured in the music video for the song "Born This Way. ''
The Dartmouth 's Kate Sullivan wrote that "You and I '' may be Gaga 's most honest song to date. Shirley Halperin of The Hollywood Reporter wondered whether pop radio would play the song, considering Gaga 's popularity. Halperin felt that the track emoted "a sense of grandness that listeners do n't always get with Gaga 's RedOne - produced heavily - synthetic sounds. '' Conversely, she felt that the live piano and background vocals by Gaga and Lange added "an undeniably lush quality, while the lyrics drives the song home and potentially into hit territory. '' Kerri Mason of Billboard felt that the "country ballad '' made no contextual sense. Nekesa Mumbi Moody, while reviewing Born This Way for Florida Today, compared the song to "Speechless '', a similar tempo song included on The Fame Monster (2009). Robert Copsey, a writer for the website Digital Spy gave the song four out of five stars calling it a "torchy, retro - classic, all - American power ballad custom - built for the masses -- and one we suspect Stefani would be proud to call her own. '' Amy Sciarretto of Artistdirect concluded that the song was "a bit bluesier than anything you 'd expect from the dance floor icon. '' AllMusic 's Stephen Thomas Erlewine chose the song as a highlight on Born This Way saying that Gaga shows her vulnerability in it.
"You and I '' was nominated for Best Pop Solo Performance at the 54th Grammy Awards, which was held on February 12, 2012.
In the United States, "You and I '' debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 at number 36 on the June 11, 2011, chart having sold 83,000 downloads. The song re-entered the August 27, 2011, Billboard Hot 100 at number 96, while debuting on the Pop Songs chart at number 35. The following week, the song was the greatest gainer on the digital chart, entering at number 24 having sold 56,000 copies, while moving to number 35 on the Hot 100. It also gained airplay and became the highest debuting song on the Radio Songs chart, entering at number 58 with 22 million audience impressions. Following her performance on the MTV Video Music Awards, "You and I '' moved up to number 16 on the Hot 100, with a 92 % increase in digital sales to 109,000 and a 50 % increase in airplay to 32 million, according to Nielsen Broadcast Data Systems. The following week, it moved to number six on the Hot 100 with a 61 % increase in digital sales to 175,000 and a 32 % increase in radio play to 41 million audience impressions, reaching number four and number 23 on the Digital Songs and Radio Songs charts, respectively. "You and I '' became Gaga 's eleventh consecutive top ten single on the Hot 100. In October 2011 it became Gaga 's tenth song to sell 1 million in the U.S. As of February 2018, "You and I '' has sold 2.4 million digital downloads in the US becoming Gaga 's tenth two - million seller. In June 2012, "You and I '' received a double platinum certification from the Recording Industry Association of America.
In Canada, the song entered the Hot Digital Songs chart at number 14, subsequently debuting on the Canadian Hot 100 at number 27. It entered the charts again at number 45, and has reached a peak of number 10. Before the single was officially released in Australia, digital downloads were sold, consequently it entered the ARIA Singles Chart at number 56 on August 15, 2011. The following week, the song moved up to number 34, and has reached a peak of number 14. Following the album 's release on May 23, 2011, "You and I '' entered the UK Singles Chart at number 89, thanks to digital downloads from Born This Way. The song jumped up to number 70 from its previous week 's position of number 187, in the issue dated September 3, 2011, and has reached a peak of number 23. In Japan, the song had initially entered the digital chart at number 98, but after the MTV Video Music Awards performance, it entered the Japan Hot 100 at number eight.
-- Gaga talking about her love for Nebraska, and the shooting of the video.
"You and I '' 's music video was filmed in Springfield, Nebraska in July 2011, and was directed by Lady Gaga 's choreographer Laurieann Gibson. In the video, Gaga walks from New York City to Nebraska to get her boyfriend back. According to Gaga: "I 'm walking with no luggage and no nothing and it 's just me and my ankles are bleeding a little bit and there 's grass stuck in my shoes and I 've got this outfit on and it 's real sort of New York clothing and I 'm sprinting... And the (video is about the) idea that when you 're away from someone you love, it 's torture, '' she continued. "I knew I wanted the video to be about me sprinting back and walking hundreds of thousands of miles to get him back. ''
She announced that the video would be the 1,000 th tweet on her Twitter account. Gaga confirmed to MTV News that the video would premiere on August 18, 2011 on MTV. However, two days before it was to air, parts of the clip leaked on the Internet, prompting Gaga to post three tweets which, together, read "FUCK THURS DAY ''. The messages were followed immediately by her 1,000 th Twitter message: "You must love all + every part of me, as must I, for this complex + incomprehensible force to be true, '' including a link to the full music video, uploaded to Gaga 's YouTube channel two days earlier than its scheduled première. The video features Gaga 's two alter egos: Jo Calderone, Gaga 's male ego, and Yüyi, a mermaid she had hinted would appear in the video in July 2011.
Following the video 's premiere on MTV, Gaga explained some of the its scenes and her inspiration: "The video is quite complex in the way that the story is told, and it 's meant to be slightly linear and slightly twisted and confusing, which is the way that love is. '' Regarding the sexual intercourse scenes between actor Taylor Kinney and the singer as a mermaid, Gaga explained that it emphasized metaphorically that sometimes relationships did not work. "No matter what you do, there 's this giant boundary between you and someone else. So that 's what it 's about, perceiving in your imagination that there 's something magical inside of you that you can make it work, '' she said. After revealing that the wedding dress shown in the video belonged to her mother, Gaga explained the scenes involving the ice cream truck. According to her, they represented the destruction of her youth, experiences she had shared in earlier interviews. Explaining her decision to include them, Gaga said:
That 's how I wanted to open the video, because I think it really sets up the rest of the story. It allows you to imagine you yourself are not just one person; you 're so many. That person has so many stories and memories to draw from, and they all affect your journey profusely. I 'm battered quite brutally at the beginning of the video, but at the end, I 'm not battered; I 'm a bit strange. It 's not meant to be an answer video; it 's meant to be a profuse number of the question.
The music video begins with Gaga, dressed in black clothing, sunglasses, bloody feet, and seemingly bionic features, walking through a field in Nebraska; having returned on foot after years of absence. Gaga goes to buy ice cream from an ice cream truck, but she suddenly drops it as a toothless man with a doll in his hand grins at her. She begins to have flashbacks to an earlier time spent in Nebraska as scenes of Gaga having a wedding, being tortured by a man inside a barn, and being inside a water tank appear in quick succession. The song starts playing as the camera zooms slowly towards Gaga, who is standing bent forward as she begins singing. The video continually switches to scenes where Gaga, with little make up, a simple gray - colored hair style, and a white dress, plays a piano in the middle of a cornfield, while her male alter ego, Jo Calderone, sits on top of the piano, smoking and drinking a beer. As Calderone pulls up his sleeves, present day Gaga is still walking through the desert.
During the second verse, a mad scientist, portrayed by Kinney, seemingly tortures Gaga, who is wearing a yellow dress with glasses made of barbwire, as another version of the singer, with teal - colored hair, performs a dance routine with her backup dancers in a barn. As the chorus begins for the second time, Gaga appears as Yüyi the Mermaid, with gills on her face and neck, as she lies in a tub filled with dirty water. At the end of the chorus, the camera zooms to a brunette Gaga inside a water tank while she sings "You and I '' in the desert scene, and in the cornfield with Calderone. Interspersing scenes again show Gaga having her wedding, Yüyi in her tub, and Gaga seated on a chair with a conveyor belt. During May 's guitar solo, Gaga dances in the cornfield with other dancers dressed in the same white dress, as Yüyi and the scientist kiss. While singing the chorus for the final time, Gaga kisses Calderone in one sequence and runs across the field in another. As the video reaches its conclusion, the tortured Gaga is being slid down as the conveyor belt turns on. The video ends with Yüyi and the scientist together in the bath tub, as a depiction of their dream wedding flashes across, before a last shot of the barn as the screen turns black.
Following its premature release on the Web, the music video for "You and I '' met with positive reviews. Matthew Perpetua of Rolling Stone felt the video was an improvement over her earlier videos, Judas and The Edge of Glory, saying, "the best moments of the video put a distinctly Gaga - ish spin on the iconography of Americana and traditional love stories. '' Jillian Mapes of Billboard wrote the video has: "torture contraptions, mermaid sex, a wedding, bondage in a barn, an ice cream truck, and to top it all off, ' Children of the Corn ' and religious overtones thrown in for good measure, '' and thought the video setting was the strangest representation of Nebraska. Leah Collins of Dose felt the video was a "great opportunity for the singer to finally find out what it 's like to make out with herself. '' Kyle Anderson of Entertainment Weekly noted of the scene in which Gaga plays a piano in a cornfield beside her male alter ego: "She 's just Stefani Joanne Angelina Germanotta, playing a piano in the middle of a corn field -- with a little making out on the side, of course. '' Gil Kaufman of MTV News believed that Gaga was not joking when she talked about the video being about the "torture '' of being away from the one you love. "And, man, based on the bruising final product, she was n't kidding, '' Kaufman concluded.
Jocelyn Vena of MTV found influences of Gaga 's past videos in the various avatars she plays You and I. She explained that:
when (Gaga) stands at a crossroads in a big hat, the image is reminiscent of ' Telephone ' Gaga. When she sits nearly makeup - free at her piano in the cornfields, there are touches of the teary - eyed makeup-less Gaga from the ' Bad Romance ' video. Flashes of her wedding may remind fans of the wedding dress she wore in the ' Judas ' clip. Robot Gaga 's facial structures recall some of the steampunk looks of her ' Alejandro ' video. Those are only a few of the nods to past personae from her own videography.
Devin Brown of CBS News felt that Gaga had finally returned to form with the video. "After some visually pleasing but generally lackluster videos, she has finally come out with something to write home about. ' You and I ' is arguably the best song on her sophomore release, Born This Way, and now has a video to match. '' A Slant Magazine writer commented that the publication had a mixed reaction to the video, saying that it "is essentially a collection of disconnected images we could n't make heads or tails of. ''
On September 1, 2011, Gaga announced on her Twitter account that she had shot five "fashion films '' related to the song 's music video with Dutch photographers Inez van Lamsweerde and Vinoodh Matadin. The characters are: Jo Calderone (Gaga 's alter ego), Yuyi (a mermaid), Nymph, Bride, and finally Barn Hooker and Mother. After the tweet, Gaga released the first video, titled Haus of Ü Featuring Nymph. The two - minute black - and - white video featured Gaga with minimal make - up, wearing a short dress, performing ballet choreography. As wind blows around her, the singer looks intently toward the camera, with the parting shot in color. The second video featured her as the bride from the opening sequence of the music video. The fashion film portrayed her in the same costume, gradually removing it and her wig. At the end, she is topless with her hand covering her breasts. Interspersed between are scenes portraying people dressed like Gaga, and appearances by Taylor Kinney, who was in the music video, and the singer 's stylist Nicola Formichetti. The third fashion film portrayed the singer as the mermaid Yüyi. She sits in a director 's chair, flopping her tail. It also shows two crew members carrying Yuyi toward the barn, where the music video was filmed. Formichetti also makes a cameo in this video.
After the first performance of "You and I '' at Elton John 's White Tie and Tiara Ball, Gaga performed the song live on the television program Today on July 9, 2010, before an estimated crowd of 18,000 -- 20,000 people, the largest ever to pack Rockefeller Plaza. It was next performed on the July 31, 2010, Phoenix stop of the Monster Ball Tour, where Gaga protested Arizona 's immigration law SB 1070 -- which mandates that state police officers "question any person they suspect to be an illegal immigrant and imprison any aliens not carrying one of four allowed forms of proper identification '' -- and dedicated her performance of "You and I '' to a boy whose family had been affected by the law. Gaga performed the album version of the track on The Oprah Winfrey Show on May 5, 2011, using a piano constructed from a wire high - heel structure while sitting on a high stool. The "less organic '' version for the final "Harpo Hookups '' episode featured an electric guitar and modified lyrics to include Oprah 's name.
The song was on the set list of the HBO television special, Lady Gaga Presents the Monster Ball Tour: At Madison Square Garden, which aired originally on May 7, 2011, in the United States. Gaga 's performance of "You and I '' from the HBO special aired on American Idol, the night after she mentored the four remaining contestants, and the week following Haley Reinhart 's performance of the song. She performed a jazz version of "You and I '' at Radio 1 's Big Weekend in Carlisle, Cumbria on May 18, 2011. The third performance of the album version of the song was on the Paul O'Grady Live show in London, on June 17, 2011. Wearing a dress by the late Gianni Versace, Gaga perched atop a New York City - inspired fire escape, where she sang the song. Ryan Love of Digital Spy had a preview of the show 's recording, and said that it was a "real treat '' to hear Gaga sing the song. In August 2011, Gaga performed "You and I '' on the American TV talk show program The View. On August 28, 2011, Gaga attended the 2011 MTV Video Music Awards dressed as Jo Calderone. As Calderone, she opened the show with a four - minute monologue, explaining his broken relationship with Gaga. Following the monologue, joined on stage by Brian May, she performed "You and I ''. On October 6, 2011, she filmed a pre-recorded interview and performance for the single on The Jonathan Ross Show. Later, on October 16, 2011, she performed the song during a concert at the Hollywood Bowl in Los Angeles for the Clinton Foundation.
On the ABC special, A Very Gaga Thanksgiving, the singer performed the song backed by a "piano - and - trumpet arrangement ''. On November 30, during the CBS special titled The Grammy Nominations Concert Live! -- Countdown to Music 's Biggest Night -- where the nominations for the 54th Grammy Awards were revealed -- Gaga performed "You and I '' along with Jennifer Nettles of the country band Sugarland while Kristian Bush played the guitar. During the performance, she changed the lyrics to fit the occasion: "With your high cowboy boots on. Oh Sugarland, it 's been six whole years. '' According to James Montgomery of MTV News, she performed a "husky, musky version '' of "You and I ''. She performed the song on her 2012 Born This Way Ball tour by playing it on the piano before running around the stage. Like previous concert tours, the piano, fused to a motorcycle, was an elaborate prop that tied into the theme of her show, in keeping with the hair metal theme of Born This Way.
In July 2016, Gaga performed "You and I '' at the "Camden Rising '' concert at the BB&T Pavilion in Camden, New Jersey, which was part of the 2016 Democratic National Convention. The performance of the song was later included in her documentary film, Gaga: Five Foot Two (2017). In 2017, Gaga performed the song during both of her shows at the Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival, and included it in her set at the Deep From the Heart: The One America Appeal benefit concert in Texas, where she joined former US presidents and other performers in raising money to hurricane victims. During the latter, she changed up the lyrics to address each president with the song.
Prior to the release of Born This Way, season ten American Idol contestant Haley Reinhart sang "You and I '' as one of two performances for the "Songs from Now and Then '' episode. Jimmy Iovine, head of Gaga 's record label, asked for the song and Reinhart received her permission before the performance. Reviews of Reinhart 's performance were mostly positive. Len Melisurgo of The Star - Ledger considered it a risky choice, since the song had not been released, but accepted that Reinhart "sounded amazing '' by hitting "some really high notes ''. Brian Mansfield of USA Today described Reinhart 's performance as an "old - fashioned dance - hall groove, kind of like a mid - ' 70s Elton John number. It 's perfectly suited to that slippery growl that such a distinctive part of Haley 's style. By the end of the song, she turns it into a gospel - style rocker, and she takes it to the house. '' Mansfield also noted that the American Idol judges -- Randy Jackson, Jennifer Lopez and Steven Tyler -- reacted positively to it. On the contrary, Jim Farber of the New York Daily News considered the choice risky and was thankful when Reinhart performed a more familiar song for her second round. On May 5, 2011, Reinhart 's studio recording of "You and I '' was released as a digital single to the iTunes Store, and appeared on the compilation album American Idol Top 5 Season 10. Mansfield, who initially had misgivings about Reinhart as a singer, complimented her studio recording of the track, feeling that if she could "get another 10 songs this good when it comes time to cut the record, then all my initial misgivings about this girl will vanish into thin air. ''
British singer Amelia Lily covered the song in November 2011 during her time on UK talent show The X Factor. On November 15, 2011, comedy - drama, musical TV series Glee featured a mash - up of Gaga 's "You and I '' and Eddie Rabbitt and Crystal Gayle 's "You and I '', performed by Matthew Morrison and Idina Menzel (as their respective characters Will Schuester and Shelby Corcoran) in the episode "Mash Off ''. The mash - up sold 23,000 digital downloads, and debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 chart at number 69, in the issue dated December 3, 2011.
Credits adapted from Born This Way album liner notes.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
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what counts as a shot attempt in basketball | Block (basketball) - wikipedia
In basketball, a block or blocked shot occurs when a defensive player legally deflects a field goal attempt from an offensive player to prevent a score. The defender is not allowed to make contact with the offensive player 's hand (unless the defender is also in contact with the ball) or a foul is called. In order to be legal, the block must occur while the shot is traveling upward or at its apex. A deflected field goal that is made does not count as a blocked shot and simply counts as a successful field goal attempt for shooter plus the points awarded to the shooting team. For the shooter, a blocked shot is counted as a missed field goal attempt. Also, on a shooting foul, a blocked shot can not be awarded or counted, even if the player who deflected the field goal attempt is different from the player who committed the foul. If the ball is heading downward when the defender hits it, it is ruled as goaltending and counts as a made basket. Goaltending is also called if the block is made after the ball bounces on the backboard (NFHS excepted; the NCAA also used this rule until the 2009 -- 10 season).
Nicknames for blocked shots include "rejections, '' "stuffs, '' "bushed '', "fudged '', or notably "double - fudged '' (two - handed blocks), "facials, '' "swats, '' "denials, '' and "packs. '' Blocked shots were first officially recorded in the NBA during the 1973 -- 74 season.
Largely due to their height and position near the basket, centers and power forwards tend to record the most blocks, but shorter players with good jumping ability can also be blockers, an example being Dwyane Wade, the shortest player, at 6'4 ", to record 100 blocked shots in a single season. A player with the ability to block shots can be a positive asset to a team 's defense, as they can make it difficult for opposing players to shoot near the basket and by keeping the basketball in play, as opposed to swatting it out of bounds, a blocked shot can lead to a fast break, a skill Bill Russell was notable for. To be a good shot - blocker, a player needs great court sense and timing, and good height or jumping ability. One tactic is that a shot - blocker can intimidate opponents to alter their shots, resulting in a miss.
A chase - down block occurs when a player pursues an opposing player who had run ahead of the defense (as in a fast break), and then blocks their shot attempt. Often, the block involves hitting the ball into the backboard as the opponent tries to complete a lay - up. One of the most recognized chase - down blocks was then - Detroit Pistons ' Tayshaun Prince 's game - saving block on Reggie Miller in Game 2 of the 2004 NBA Eastern Conference Finals against the Indiana Pacers. Pistons announcer Fred McLeod, who first witnessed this style of blocks from Prince, created the chase - down term later with the Cleveland Cavaliers. During the 2008 -- 09 NBA season, the Cavaliers began tracking chase - down blocks, crediting LeBron James with 23 that season and 20 the following season. Another landmark chase - down block occurred in the 2016 NBA Finals when Lebron James, in the closing minutes of the 4th quarter delivered what became known as "The Block '' on a lay - up attempt by Andre Iguodala with the score tied at 89 and 01: 50 remaining in the game.
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who is the congresswoman that wears a cowboy hat | Frederica Wilson - wikipedia
Frederica Smith Wilson (born Frederica Patricia Smith; November 5, 1942) is a politician who has been a member of the United States House of Representatives since 2011. Located in South Florida, Wilson 's congressional district -- numbered the 17th during her first two years in Congress, and the 24th since 2013 -- is a majority African - American district that includes the southern parts of Broward County and the eastern parts of Miami - Dade County. Included within the district are Opa - locka, Hollywood, Miramar, and North Miami. She gained national attention in early 2012 as a result of her high - profile comments on the death of Trayvon Martin.
Wilson is a member of the Democratic Party. The seat she was elected to became available when the incumbent Kendrick Meek ran for a seat in the Senate in 2010.
Wilson is known for her large and colorful hats, of which she owns several hundred. She has gone through efforts to get Congress to lift its ban on head coverings during House sessions, which dates back to 1837.
Wilson was born Frederica Smith on November 5, 1942, in Miami, Florida, the daughter of Beulah (née Finley) and Thirlee Smith. Her maternal grandparents were Bahamian. Wilson earned her bachelor of arts degree from Fisk University in 1963, and her master of arts degree from the University of Miami in 1972. She served as the principal of Skyway Elementary School in Miami. In 1992 she left her position as principal to serve on the Miami - Dade County School Board. While a member of the school board, Wilson started 5000 Role Models of Excellence, an in - school mentoring program.
Wilson represented District 104 in the Florida House of Representatives from 1998 to 2002. She then represented the 33rd District in the Florida Senate from 2002 until her election to Congress in 2010 when term limits prevented her from running again. She served as Minority Leader Pro Tempore in 2006, then Minority Whip.
An early supporter of Barack Obama 's 2008 presidential campaign, she voted for Obama and Joe Biden in 2008 as one of Florida 's presidential electors.
When Kendrick Meek retired from Florida 's 17th congressional district to run for the United States Senate in 2010, Wilson ran for the open seat and won the Democratic nomination to take it. She won the general election on November 2, 2010, without electoral opposition in a district where the Democratic nomination is tantamount to election.
She is a member of the Congressional Progressive Caucus.
During her career as an educator, she founded the 5000 Role Models program, which seeks to bring down dropout rates. Since her time in the Florida legislature, she has strongly opposed standardized testing. She has expressed concern with the Florida Comprehensive Assessment Test (FCAT), suggesting that the funds spent administering the standardized test would be better spent on improving education by hiring more teachers, and proposing in 2012 that tutoring companies be banned from exploiting vulnerable children, "even if it means banning companies like Ignite! Learning, founded by ex-Governor Jeb Bush 's brother, Neil ''.
Frederica Wilson has taken a vocal opposition to the Tea Party. At a Miami town hall meeting in 2011, she told citizens to remember that the Tea Party is the real enemy and that they hold Congress hostage. She expressed her belief that they had one goal in mind: "to make President Obama a one - term president. ''
Wilson took a vocal stance in the death of Trayvon Martin, who was a constituent of hers and whose family she says she has known all her life. She has been both praised and criticized for stating shortly after the killing the motive of the accused, George Zimmerman, was racism. She suggested in March 2012 that Zimmerman had "hunted '' Martin, based simply on his race. She said, "Mr. Zimmerman should be arrested immediately for his own safety. ''
In March 2012, in a statement on the floor of the House of Representatives, Wilson said, "Justice must be served. No more racial profiling! '' Describing the incident as a "classic example of racial profiling quickly followed by murder '', she called for Zimmerman to be arrested. Wilson organized a rally in Miami on April 1, 2012, calling for Zimmerman 's imprisonment. She criticized Florida 's self - defense gun law, the so - called "Stand Your Ground '' law, in the wake of Martin 's killing, even though she voted for it as a legislator. She expressed her feeling that when new laws go on the books that work against the people, the laws "should be looked at and repealed. '' In April 2012, Wilson said that the death of Martin was "definitely '' murder. However, on July 13, 2013, a jury acquitted Zimmerman of the charges of second degree murder and manslaughter.
Concern was raised about Wilson 's outspoken comments, with some asking if her rhetoric was "making it more difficult for the prosecutor to do her job. '' Wilson has been calling for tougher laws to prevent racial profiling.
Wilson led efforts to combat bullying and hazing both as the South Atlantic Regional Director for Alpha Kappa Alpha Sorority and as a member of Congress. A Miami Herald reporter nicknamed her "The Haze Buster '' for her public stance against hazing. She was part of a coalition of African - American fraternity and sorority leaders who launched an anti-hazing campaign after the 2011 death of Florida A&M drum major Robert Champion Jr.
MSNBC 's "The Grio '', an African - American news and opinion platform, named Wilson to "The Grio 100 '' for 2012.
After the release of the video showing police shooting mental health therapist Charles Kinsey in her district, Wilson tweeted in July 2016 that she was shocked and angered by Kinsey 's shooting. She added that "Like everyone else I have one question: Why? ''
Following the death of Sgt. La David Johnson on October 4, 2017, in an attack in Niger, Wilson told the press that on October 16, 2017, President Trump had called Johnson 's widow while she was on the way to Miami International Airport for the arrival of Johnson 's remains. In the car with her were Johnson 's mother and other family members, as well as Wilson, a long - time friend of the family. The widow put the call on speakerphone so that Wilson and others in the car heard it. Wilson stated Trump "was almost like joking '' and that he said "he (La David) knew what he signed up for, but I guess it still hurt ''. Trump later called Wilson 's characterization of the conversation a "fabrication. '' Johnson 's mother confirmed Wilson 's account on October 18, at which point the White House ceased disputing Wilson 's account of the phone call and instead claimed that she was "mischaracterizing the spirit '' of the conversation. On October 23, Johnson 's widow also confirmed Wilson 's account.
On October 19, 2017, White House Chief of Staff John F. Kelly gave a press briefing at the White House. Kelly, who is a gold star parent and was present at Trump 's end during the phone conversation, did not deny that Trump said the words reported. But he defended Trump 's comments "forcefully and emotionally '', saying that Trump "in his way tried to express that opinion that he 's a brave man, a fallen hero. '' He also attacked Wilson for having listened to the phone call and falsely claimed she had a "history of politicizing what should be sacred moments '', citing the 2015 dedication of an FBI field office in Miami as an example. He claimed that her speech at that ceremony was "about how she was instrumental in getting the funding for that building '' from then - President Barack Obama.
Kelly 's statement was disproven by the video recording of the event. During her nine - minute speech, Wilson spoke for less than three minutes about leading an effort to expedite a bill through congress. The bill 's purpose was naming the FBI building after two FBI agents slain in the line of duty; the bill would normally not have become law in time for the building 's dedication ceremony. Wilson dedicated the remainder of her speech to acknowledging other politicians involved in the effort, thanking FBI personnel, and talking about the slain agents. The FBI secured the building 's funding in 2009, before Wilson became a congresswoman in 2011. The Miami Herald reported that Kelly had misquoted the cost of the building as $20 million versus the actual $194 million. As a result, several newspapers have called for Kelly to apologize to Wilson. The White House said the video did not capture all of Wilson 's comments.
Wilson is widowed. She has three children. Wilson is an avid wearer of hats. She has a large collection that includes hundreds of hats of all different varieties. She wears one every day. During the tenure of former House Speaker John Boehner, she unsuccessfully asked him to waive the rule which prohibits the wearing of hats on the floor of the House of Representatives, a rule in place since 1837.
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now i am become death the destroyer of worlds bhagavad gita meaning | J. Robert Oppenheimer - wikipedia
Julius Robert Oppenheimer (April 22, 1904 -- February 18, 1967) was an American theoretical physicist and professor of physics at the University of California, Berkeley. Oppenheimer was the wartime head of the Los Alamos Laboratory and is among those who are credited with being the "father of the atomic bomb '' for their role in the Manhattan Project, the World War II undertaking that developed the first nuclear weapons used in the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The first atomic bomb was detonated on July 16, 1945, in the Trinity test in New Mexico; Oppenheimer later remarked that it brought to mind words from the Bhagavad Gita: "Now I am become Death, the destroyer of worlds. ''
After the war ended, Oppenheimer became chairman of the influential General Advisory Committee of the newly created United States Atomic Energy Commission. He used that position to lobby for international control of nuclear power to avert nuclear proliferation and a nuclear arms race with the Soviet Union. After provoking the ire of many politicians with his outspoken opinions during the Second Red Scare, he suffered the revocation of his security clearance in a much - publicized hearing in 1954, and was effectively stripped of his direct political influence; he continued to lecture, write and work in physics. Nine years later, President John F. Kennedy awarded (and Lyndon B. Johnson presented) him with the Enrico Fermi Award as a gesture of political rehabilitation.
Oppenheimer 's achievements in physics included the Born -- Oppenheimer approximation for molecular wave functions, work on the theory of electrons and positrons, the Oppenheimer -- Phillips process in nuclear fusion, and the first prediction of quantum tunneling. With his students he also made important contributions to the modern theory of neutron stars and black holes, as well as to quantum mechanics, quantum field theory, and the interactions of cosmic rays. As a teacher and promoter of science, he is remembered as a founding father of the American school of theoretical physics that gained world prominence in the 1930s. After World War II, he became director of the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey.
Oppenheimer was born in New York City on April 22, 1904, to Julius Oppenheimer, a wealthy Jewish textile importer who had immigrated to the United States from Germany in 1888, and Ella Friedman, a painter. Julius came to America with no money, no baccalaureate studies, and no knowledge of the English language. He got a job in a textile company and within a decade was an executive with the company. Ella was from Baltimore. The Oppenheimers were non-observant Ashkenazi Jews. In 1912 the family moved to an apartment on the 11th floor of 155 Riverside Drive, near West 88th Street, Manhattan, an area known for luxurious mansions and townhouses. Their art collection included works by Pablo Picasso and Édouard Vuillard, and at least three original paintings by Vincent van Gogh. Robert had a younger brother, Frank, who also became a physicist.
Oppenheimer was initially educated at Alcuin Preparatory School, and in 1911 he entered the Ethical Culture Society School. This had been founded by Felix Adler to promote a form of ethical training based on the Ethical Culture movement, whose motto was "Deed before Creed ''. His father had been a member of the Society for many years, serving on its board of trustees from 1907 to 1915. Oppenheimer was a versatile scholar, interested in English and French literature, and particularly in mineralogy. He completed the third and fourth grades in one year, and skipped half the eighth grade. During his final year, he became interested in chemistry. He entered Harvard College one year after graduation, at age 18, because he suffered an attack of colitis while prospecting in Joachimstal during a family summer vacation in Europe. To help him recover from the illness, his father enlisted the help of his English teacher Herbert Smith who took him to New Mexico, where Oppenheimer fell in love with horseback riding and the southwestern United States.
Oppenheimer majored in chemistry, but Harvard required science students to also study history, literature, and philosophy or mathematics. He compensated for his late start by taking six courses each term and was admitted to the undergraduate honor society Phi Beta Kappa. In his first year, he was admitted to graduate standing in physics on the basis of independent study, which meant he was not required to take the basic classes and could enroll instead in advanced ones. He was attracted to experimental physics by a course on thermodynamics that was taught by Percy Bridgman. He graduated summa cum laude in three years.
In 1924 Oppenheimer was informed that he had been accepted into Christ 's College, Cambridge. He wrote to Ernest Rutherford requesting permission to work at the Cavendish Laboratory. Bridgman provided Oppenheimer with a recommendation, which conceded that Oppenheimer 's clumsiness in the laboratory made it apparent his forte was not experimental but rather theoretical physics. Rutherford was unimpressed, but Oppenheimer went to Cambridge in the hope of landing another offer. He was ultimately accepted by J.J. Thomson on condition that he complete a basic laboratory course. He developed an antagonistic relationship with his tutor, Patrick Blackett, who was only a few years his senior. While on vacation, as recalled by his friend Francis Fergusson, Oppenheimer once confessed that he had left an apple doused with noxious chemicals on Blackett 's desk. While Ferguson 's account is the only detailed version of this event, Oppenheimer 's parents were alerted by the university authorities who considered placing him on probation, a fate prevented by his parents successfully lobbying the authorities.
Oppenheimer was a tall, thin chain smoker, who often neglected to eat during periods of intense thought and concentration. Many of his friends described him as having self - destructive tendencies. A disturbing event occurred when he took a vacation from his studies in Cambridge to meet up with his friend Francis Fergusson in Paris. Fergusson noticed that Oppenheimer was not well. To help distract him from his depression, Fergusson told Oppenheimer that he (Fergusson) was to marry his girlfriend Frances Keeley. Oppenheimer did not take the news well. He jumped on Fergusson and tried to strangle him. Although Fergusson easily fended off the attack, the episode convinced him of Oppenheimer 's deep psychological troubles. Throughout his life, Oppenheimer was plagued by periods of depression, and he once told his brother, "I need physics more than friends ''.
In 1926, Oppenheimer left Cambridge for the University of Göttingen to study under Max Born. Göttingen was one of the world 's leading centers for theoretical physics. Oppenheimer made friends who went on to great success, including Werner Heisenberg, Pascual Jordan, Wolfgang Pauli, Paul Dirac, Enrico Fermi and Edward Teller. He was known for being too enthusiastic in discussion, sometimes to the point of taking over seminar sessions. This irritated some of Born 's other students so much that Maria Goeppert presented Born with a petition signed by herself and others threatening a boycott of the class unless he made Oppenheimer quiet down. Born left it out on his desk where Oppenheimer could read it, and it was effective without a word being said.
He obtained his Doctor of Philosophy degree in March 1927 at age 23, supervised by Born. After the oral exam, James Franck, the professor administering, reportedly said, "I 'm glad that 's over. He was on the point of questioning me. '' Oppenheimer published more than a dozen papers at Göttingen, including many important contributions to the new field of quantum mechanics. He and Born published a famous paper on the Born -- Oppenheimer approximation, which separates nuclear motion from electronic motion in the mathematical treatment of molecules, allowing nuclear motion to be neglected to simplify calculations. It remains his most cited work.
Oppenheimer was awarded a United States National Research Council fellowship to the California Institute of Technology (Caltech) in September 1927. Bridgman also wanted him at Harvard, so a compromise was reached whereby he split his fellowship for the 1927 -- 28 academic year between Harvard in 1927 and Caltech in 1928. At Caltech he struck up a close friendship with Linus Pauling, and they planned to mount a joint attack on the nature of the chemical bond, a field in which Pauling was a pioneer, with Oppenheimer supplying the mathematics and Pauling interpreting the results. Both the collaboration and their friendship were nipped in the bud when Pauling began to suspect Oppenheimer of becoming too close to his wife, Ava Helen Pauling. Once, when Pauling was at work, Oppenheimer had arrived at their home and invited Ava Helen to join him on a tryst in Mexico. Though she refused and reported the incident to her husband, the invitation, and her apparent nonchalance about it, disquieted Pauling and he ended his relationship with Oppenheimer. Oppenheimer later invited him to become head of the Chemistry Division of the Manhattan Project, but Pauling refused, saying he was a pacifist.
In the autumn of 1928, Oppenheimer visited Paul Ehrenfest 's institute at the University of Leiden, the Netherlands, where he impressed by giving lectures in Dutch, despite having little experience with the language. There he was given the nickname of Opje, later anglicized by his students as "Oppie ''. From Leiden he continued on to the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH) in Zurich to work with Wolfgang Pauli on quantum mechanics and the continuous spectrum. Oppenheimer respected and liked Pauli and may have emulated his personal style as well as his critical approach to problems.
On returning to the United States, Oppenheimer accepted an associate professorship from the University of California, Berkeley, where Raymond T. Birge wanted him so badly that he expressed a willingness to share him with Caltech.
Before his Berkeley professorship began, Oppenheimer was diagnosed with a mild case of tuberculosis and spent some weeks with his brother Frank at a ranch in New Mexico, which he leased and eventually purchased. When he heard the ranch was available for lease, he exclaimed, "Hot dog! '', and later called it Perro Caliente, literally "hot dog '' in Spanish. Later he used to say that "physics and desert country '' were his "two great loves ''. He recovered from the tuberculosis and returned to Berkeley, where he prospered as an advisor and collaborator to a generation of physicists who admired him for his intellectual virtuosity and broad interests. His students and colleagues saw him as mesmerizing: hypnotic in private interaction, but often frigid in more public settings. His associates fell into two camps: one that saw him as an aloof and impressive genius and aesthete, the other that saw him as a pretentious and insecure poseur. His students almost always fell into the former category, adopting his walk, speech, and other mannerisms, and even his inclination for reading entire texts in their original languages. Hans Bethe said of him:
Probably the most important ingredient he brought to his teaching was his exquisite taste. He always knew what were the important problems, as shown by his choice of subjects. He truly lived with those problems, struggling for a solution, and he communicated his concern to the group. In its heyday, there were about eight or ten graduate students in his group and about six Post-doctoral Fellows. He met this group once a day in his office, and discussed with one after another the status of the student 's research problem. He was interested in everything, and in one afternoon they might discuss quantum electrodynamics, cosmic rays, electron pair production and nuclear physics.
He worked closely with Nobel Prize - winning experimental physicist Ernest O. Lawrence and his cyclotron pioneers, helping them understand the data their machines were producing at the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. In 1936 Berkeley promoted him to full professor at a salary of $3300 per annum. In return he was asked to curtail his teaching at Caltech, so a compromise was reached whereby Berkeley released him for six weeks each year, enough to teach one term at Caltech.
Oppenheimer did important research in theoretical astronomy (especially as related to general relativity and nuclear theory), nuclear physics, spectroscopy, and quantum field theory, including its extension into quantum electrodynamics. The formal mathematics of relativistic quantum mechanics also attracted his attention, although he doubted its validity. His work predicted many later finds, which include the neutron, meson and neutron star.
Initially, his major interest was the theory of the continuous spectrum and his first published paper, in 1926, concerned the quantum theory of molecular band spectra. He developed a method to carry out calculations of its transition probabilities. He calculated the photoelectric effect for hydrogen and X-rays, obtaining the absorption coefficient at the K - edge. His calculations accorded with observations of the X-ray absorption of the sun, but not helium. Years later it was realized that the sun was largely composed of hydrogen and that his calculations were indeed correct.
Oppenheimer also made important contributions to the theory of cosmic ray showers and started work that eventually led to descriptions of quantum tunneling. In 1931 he co-wrote a paper on the "Relativistic Theory of the Photoelectric Effect '' with his student Harvey Hall, in which, based on empirical evidence, he correctly disputed Dirac 's assertion that two of the energy levels of the hydrogen atom have the same energy. Subsequently, one of his doctoral students, Willis Lamb, determined that this was a consequence of what became known as the Lamb shift, for which Lamb was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1955.
Oppenheimer worked with his first doctoral student, Melba Phillips, on calculations of artificial radioactivity under bombardment by deuterons. When Ernest Lawrence and Edwin McMillan bombarded nuclei with deuterons they found the results agreed closely with the predictions of George Gamow, but when higher energies and heavier nuclei were involved, the results did not conform to the theory. In 1935, Oppenheimer and Phillips worked out a theory now known as the Oppenheimer -- Phillips process to explain the results, a theory still in use today.
As early as 1930, Oppenheimer wrote a paper essentially predicting the existence of the positron, after a paper by Paul Dirac proposed that electrons could have both a positive charge and negative energy. Dirac 's paper introduced an equation, known as the Dirac equation, which unified quantum mechanics, special relativity and the then - new concept of electron spin, to explain the Zeeman effect. Oppenheimer, drawing on the body of experimental evidence, rejected the idea that the predicted positively charged electrons were protons. He argued that they would have to have the same mass as an electron, whereas experiments showed that protons were much heavier than electrons. Two years later, Carl David Anderson discovered the positron, for which he received the 1936 Nobel Prize in Physics.
In the late 1930s Oppenheimer became interested in astrophysics, probably through his friendship with Richard Tolman, resulting in a series of papers. In the first of these, a 1938 paper co-written with Robert Serber entitled "On the Stability of Stellar Neutron Cores '', Oppenheimer explored the properties of white dwarfs. This was followed by a paper co-written with one of his students, George Volkoff, "On Massive Neutron Cores '', in which they demonstrated that there was a limit, the so - called Tolman -- Oppenheimer -- Volkoff limit, to the mass of stars beyond which they would not remain stable as neutron stars and would undergo gravitational collapse. Finally, in 1939, Oppenheimer and another of his students, Hartland Snyder, produced a paper "On Continued Gravitational Attraction '', which predicted the existence of what are today known as black holes. After the Born -- Oppenheimer approximation paper, these papers remain his most cited, and were key factors in the rejuvenation of astrophysical research in the United States in the 1950s, mainly by John A. Wheeler.
Oppenheimer 's papers were considered difficult to understand even by the standards of the abstract topics he was expert in. He was fond of using elegant, if extremely complex, mathematical techniques to demonstrate physical principles, though he was sometimes criticized for making mathematical mistakes, presumably out of haste. "His physics was good '', said his student Snyder, "but his arithmetic awful ''.
Oppenheimer published only five scientific papers, one of which was in biophysics, after World War II, and none after 1950. Murray Gell - Mann, a later Nobelist who, as a visiting scientist, worked with him at the Institute for Advanced Study in 1951, offered this opinion:
He did n't have Sitzfleisch, ' sitting flesh, ' when you sit on a chair. As far as I know, he never wrote a long paper or did a long calculation, anything of that kind. He did n't have patience for that; his own work consisted of little aperçus, but quite brilliant ones. But he inspired other people to do things, and his influence was fantastic.
Oppenheimer 's diverse interests sometimes interrupted his focus on science. In 1933 he learned Sanskrit and met the Indologist Arthur W. Ryder at Berkeley. He read the Bhagavad Gita in the original Sanskrit, and later he cited it as one of the books that most shaped his philosophy of life. His close confidant and colleague, Nobel Prize winner Isidor Rabi, later gave his own interpretation:
Oppenheimer was overeducated in those fields, which lie outside the scientific tradition, such as his interest in religion, in the Hindu religion in particular, which resulted in a feeling of mystery of the universe that surrounded him like a fog. He saw physics clearly, looking toward what had already been done, but at the border he tended to feel there was much more of the mysterious and novel than there actually was... (he turned) away from the hard, crude methods of theoretical physics into a mystical realm of broad intuition.
In spite of this, observers such as Nobel Prize - winning physicist Luis Alvarez have suggested that if he had lived long enough to see his predictions substantiated by experiment, Oppenheimer might have won a Nobel Prize for his work on gravitational collapse, concerning neutron stars and black holes. In retrospect, some physicists and historians consider this to be his most important contribution, though it was not taken up by other scientists in his own lifetime. The physicist and historian Abraham Pais once asked Oppenheimer what he considered to be his most important scientific contributions; Oppenheimer cited his work on electrons and positrons, not his work on gravitational contraction. Oppenheimer was nominated for the Nobel Prize for physics three times, in 1945, 1951 and 1967, but never won.
During the 1920s, Oppenheimer remained uninformed on worldly matters. He claimed that he did not read newspapers or listen to the radio, and had only learned of the Wall Street crash of 1929 some six months after it occurred while on a walk with Ernest Lawrence. He once remarked that he never cast a vote until the 1936 election. However, from 1934 on, he became increasingly concerned about politics and international affairs. In 1934, he earmarked three percent of his salary -- about $100 a year -- for two years to support German physicists fleeing from Nazi Germany. During the 1934 West Coast Waterfront Strike, he and some of his students, including Melba Phillips and Bob Serber, attended a longshoremen 's rally. Oppenheimer repeatedly attempted to get Serber a position at Berkeley but was blocked by Birge, who felt that "one Jew in the department was enough ''.
Oppenheimer 's mother died in 1931, and he became closer to his father who, although still living in New York, became a frequent visitor in California. When his father died in 1937 leaving $392,602 to be divided between Oppenheimer and his brother Frank, Oppenheimer immediately wrote out a will leaving his estate to the University of California for graduate scholarships. Like many young intellectuals in the 1930s, he supported social reforms that were later alleged to be communist ideas. He donated to many progressive efforts which were later branded as "left - wing '' during the McCarthy era. The majority of his allegedly radical work consisted of hosting fundraisers for the Republican cause in the Spanish Civil War and other anti-fascist activity. He never openly joined the Communist Party, though he did pass money to liberal causes by way of acquaintances who were alleged to be Party members. In 1936, Oppenheimer became involved with Jean Tatlock, the daughter of a Berkeley literature professor and a student at Stanford University School of Medicine. The two had similar political views; she wrote for the Western Worker, a Communist Party newspaper.
Tatlock broke up with Oppenheimer in 1939, after a tempestuous relationship. In August of that year, he met Katherine ("Kitty '') Puening Harrison, a radical Berkeley student and former Communist Party member. Harrison had been married three times previously. Her first marriage lasted only a few months. Her second husband was Joe Dallet, an active member of the Communist party, who was killed in the Spanish Civil War. Kitty returned to the United States where she obtained a Bachelor of Arts degree in botany from the University of Pennsylvania. There she married Richard Harrison, a physician and medical researcher, in 1938. In June 1939 Kitty and Harrison moved to Pasadena, California, where he became chief of radiology at a local hospital and she enrolled as a graduate student at the University of California, Los Angeles. Oppenheimer and Kitty created a minor scandal by sleeping together after one of Tolman 's parties. In the summer of 1940 she stayed with Oppenheimer at his ranch in New Mexico. She finally asked Harrison for a divorce when she found out she was pregnant. When he refused, she obtained an instant divorce in Reno, Nevada, and took Oppenheimer as her fourth husband on November 1, 1940.
Their first child Peter was born in May 1941, and their second child, Katherine ("Toni ''), was born in Los Alamos, New Mexico, on December 7, 1944. During his marriage, Oppenheimer continued his affair with Jean Tatlock. Later their continued contact became an issue in his security clearance hearings because of Tatlock 's Communist associations. Many of Oppenheimer 's closest associates were active in the Communist Party in the 1930s or 1940s. They included his brother Frank, Frank 's wife Jackie, Kitty, Jean Tatlock, his landlady Mary Ellen Washburn, and several of his graduate students at Berkeley.
When he joined the Manhattan Project in 1942, Oppenheimer wrote on his personal security questionnaire that he (Oppenheimer) had been "a member of just about every Communist Front organization on the West Coast ''. Years later he claimed that he did not remember saying this, that it was not true, and that if he had said anything along those lines, it was "a half - jocular overstatement ''. He was a subscriber to the People 's World, a Communist Party organ, and he testified in 1954, "I was associated with the Communist movement. '' From 1937 to 1942, Oppenheimer was a member at Berkeley of what he called a "discussion group '', which was later identified by fellow members, Haakon Chevalier and Gordon Griffiths, as a "closed '' (secret) unit of the Communist Party for Berkeley faculty.
The FBI opened a file on Oppenheimer in March 1941. It recorded that he attended a meeting in December 1940 at Chevalier 's home that was also attended by the Communist Party 's California state secretary William Schneiderman, and its treasurer Isaac Folkoff. The FBI noted that Oppenheimer was on the Executive Committee of the American Civil Liberties Union, which it considered a Communist front organization. Shortly thereafter, the FBI added Oppenheimer to its Custodial Detention Index, for arrest in case of national emergency. Debates over Oppenheimer 's Party membership or lack thereof have turned on very fine points; almost all historians agree he had strong left - wing sympathies during this time and interacted with Party members, though there is considerable dispute over whether he was officially a member of the Party. At his 1954 security clearance hearings, he denied being a member of the Communist Party, but identified himself as a fellow traveler, which he defined as someone who agrees with many of the goals of Communism, but without being willing to blindly follow orders from any Communist party apparatus.
Throughout the development of the atomic bomb, Oppenheimer was under investigation by both the FBI and the Manhattan Project 's internal security arm for his past left - wing associations. He was followed by Army security agents during a trip to California in June 1943 to visit his former girlfriend, Jean Tatlock, who was suffering from depression. Oppenheimer spent the night in her apartment. Tatlock committed suicide on January 4, 1944, which left Oppenheimer deeply grieved. In August 1943, he volunteered to Manhattan Project security agents that George Eltenton, whom he did not know, had solicited three men at Los Alamos for nuclear secrets on behalf of the Soviet Union. When pressed on the issue in later interviews, Oppenheimer admitted that the only person who had approached him was his friend Haakon Chevalier, a Berkeley professor of French literature, who had mentioned the matter privately at a dinner at Oppenheimer 's house. Brigadier General Leslie R. Groves, Jr., the director of the Manhattan Project, thought Oppenheimer was too important to the project to be ousted over this suspicious behavior. On July 20, 1943, he wrote to the Manhattan Engineer District:
In accordance with my verbal directions of July 15, it is desired that clearance be issued to Julius Robert Oppenheimer without delay irrespective of the information which you have concerning Mr Oppenheimer. He is absolutely essential to the project.
On October 9, 1941, shortly before the United States entered World War II, President Franklin D. Roosevelt approved a crash program to develop an atomic bomb. In May 1942, National Defense Research Committee Chairman James B. Conant, who had been one of Oppenheimer 's lecturers at Harvard, invited Oppenheimer to take over work on fast neutron calculations, a task that Oppenheimer threw himself into with full vigor. He was given the title "Coordinator of Rapid Rupture '', specifically referring to the propagation of a fast neutron chain reaction in an atomic bomb. One of his first acts was to host a summer school for bomb theory at his building in Berkeley. The mix of European physicists and his own students -- a group including Robert Serber, Emil Konopinski, Felix Bloch, Hans Bethe and Edward Teller -- busied themselves calculating what needed to be done, and in what order, to make the bomb.
In June 1942, the US Army established the Manhattan Engineer District to handle its part in the atom bomb project, beginning the process of transferring responsibility from the Office of Scientific Research and Development to the military. In September, Groves was appointed director of what became known as the Manhattan Project. Groves selected Oppenheimer to head the project 's secret weapons laboratory, a choice which surprised many, as Oppenheimer had left - wing political views, and no record as a leader of large projects. The fact that he did not have a Nobel Prize, and might not have the prestige to direct fellow scientists, did concern Groves. However, he was impressed by Oppenheimer 's singular grasp of the practical aspects of designing and constructing an atomic bomb, and by the breadth of his knowledge. As a military engineer, Groves knew that this would be vital in an interdisciplinary project that would involve not just physics, but chemistry, metallurgy, ordnance and engineering. Groves also detected in Oppenheimer something that many others did not, an "overweening ambition '' that Groves reckoned would supply the drive necessary to push the project to a successful conclusion. Isidor Rabi considered the appointment "a real stroke of genius on the part of General Groves, who was not generally considered to be a genius ''.
Oppenheimer and Groves decided that for security and cohesion they needed a centralized, secret research laboratory in a remote location. Scouting for a site in late 1942, Oppenheimer was drawn to New Mexico, not far from his ranch. On November 16, 1942, Oppenheimer, Groves and others toured a prospective site. Oppenheimer feared that the high cliffs surrounding the site would make his people feel claustrophobic, while the engineers were concerned with the possibility of flooding. He then suggested and championed a site that he knew well: a flat mesa near Santa Fe, New Mexico, which was the site of a private boys ' school called the Los Alamos Ranch School. The engineers were concerned about the poor access road and the water supply, but otherwise felt that it was ideal. The Los Alamos Laboratory was built on the site of the school, taking over some of its buildings, while many others were erected in great haste. There Oppenheimer assembled a group of the top physicists of the time, which he referred to as the "luminaries ''.
Initially Los Alamos was supposed to be a military laboratory, and Oppenheimer and other researchers were to be commissioned into the Army. He went so far as to order himself a lieutenant colonel 's uniform and take the Army physical test, which he failed. Army doctors considered him underweight at 128 pounds (58 kg), diagnosed his chronic cough as tuberculosis and were concerned about his chronic lumbosacral joint pain. The plan to commission scientists fell through when Robert Bacher and Isidor Rabi balked at the idea. Conant, Groves, and Oppenheimer devised a compromise whereby the laboratory was operated by the University of California under contract to the War Department. It soon turned out that Oppenheimer had hugely underestimated the magnitude of the project; Los Alamos grew from a few hundred people in 1943 to over 6,000 in 1945.
Oppenheimer at first had difficulty with the organizational division of large groups, but rapidly learned the art of large - scale administration after he took up permanent residence on the mesa. He was noted for his mastery of all scientific aspects of the project and for his efforts to control the inevitable cultural conflicts between scientists and the military. He was an iconic figure to his fellow scientists, as much a symbol of what they were working toward as a scientific director. Victor Weisskopf put it thus:
Oppenheimer directed these studies, theoretical and experimental, in the real sense of the words. Here his uncanny speed in grasping the main points of any subject was a decisive factor; he could acquaint himself with the essential details of every part of the work.
He did not direct from the head office. He was intellectually and physically present at each decisive step. He was present in the laboratory or in the seminar rooms, when a new effect was measured, when a new idea was conceived. It was not that he contributed so many ideas or suggestions; he did so sometimes, but his main influence came from something else. It was his continuous and intense presence, which produced a sense of direct participation in all of us; it created that unique atmosphere of enthusiasm and challenge that pervaded the place throughout its time.
In 1943 development efforts were directed to a plutonium gun - type fission weapon called "Thin Man ''. Initial research on the properties of plutonium was done using cyclotron - generated plutonium - 239, which was extremely pure but could only be created in tiny amounts. When Los Alamos received the first sample of plutonium from the X-10 Graphite Reactor in April 1944 a problem was discovered: reactor - bred plutonium had a higher concentration of plutonium - 240, making it unsuitable for use in a gun - type weapon. In July 1944, Oppenheimer abandoned the gun design in favor of an implosion - type weapon. Using chemical explosive lenses, a sub-critical sphere of fissile material could be squeezed into a smaller and denser form. The metal needed to travel only very short distances, so the critical mass would be assembled in much less time. In August 1944 Oppenheimer implemented a sweeping reorganization of the Los Alamos laboratory to focus on implosion. He concentrated the development efforts on the gun - type device, a simpler design that only had to work with uranium - 235, in a single group, and this device became Little Boy in February 1945. After a mammoth research effort, the more complex design of the implosion device, known as the "Christy gadget '' after Robert Christy, another student of Oppenheimer 's, was finalized in a meeting in Oppenheimer 's office on February 28, 1945.
In May 1945 an Interim Committee was created to advise and report on wartime and postwar policies regarding the use of nuclear energy. The Interim Committee in turn established a scientific panel consisting of Arthur Compton, Fermi, Lawrence and Oppenheimer to advise it on scientific issues. In its presentation to the Interim Committee the scientific panel offered its opinion not just on the likely physical effects of an atomic bomb, but on its likely military and political impact. This included opinions on such sensitive issues as whether or not the Soviet Union should be advised of the weapon in advance of its use against Japan.
The joint work of the scientists at Los Alamos resulted in the first artificial nuclear explosion near Alamogordo on July 16, 1945, on a site that Oppenheimer codenamed "Trinity '' in mid-1944. He later said this name was from one of John Donne 's Holy Sonnets. According to the historian Gregg Herken, this naming could have been an allusion to Jean Tatlock, who had committed suicide a few months previously and had in the 1930s introduced Oppenheimer to Donne 's work. Oppenheimer later recalled that, while witnessing the explosion, he thought of a verse from the Bhagavad Gita (XI, 12):
If the radiance of a thousand suns were to burst at once into the sky, that would be like the splendor of the mighty one...
Years later he would explain that another verse had also entered his head at that time: namely, the famous verse: "kālo'smi lokakṣayakṛtpravṛddho lokānsamāhartumiha pravṛttaḥ '' (XI, 32), which he translated as "I am become Death, the destroyer of worlds. ''
In 1965, he was persuaded to quote again for a television broadcast:
We knew the world would not be the same. A few people laughed, a few people cried. Most people were silent. I remembered the line from the Hindu scripture, the Bhagavad Gita; Vishnu is trying to persuade the Prince that he should do his duty and, to impress him, takes on his multi-armed form and says, ' Now I am become Death, the destroyer of worlds. ' I suppose we all thought that, one way or another.
According to his brother, at the time Oppenheimer simply exclaimed, "It worked. '' A contemporary account by Brigadier General Thomas Farrell, who was present in the control bunker at the site with Oppenheimer, summarized his reaction as follows:
Dr. Oppenheimer, on whom had rested a very heavy burden, grew tenser as the last seconds ticked off. He scarcely breathed. He held on to a post to steady himself. For the last few seconds, he stared directly ahead and then when the announcer shouted "Now! '' and there came this tremendous burst of light followed shortly thereafter by the deep growling roar of the explosion, his face relaxed into an expression of tremendous relief.
Physicist Isidor Rabi noticed Oppenheimer 's disconcerting triumphalism: "I 'll never forget his walk; I 'll never forget the way he stepped out of the car... his walk was like High Noon... this kind of strut. He had done it. '' At an assembly at Los Alamos on August 6 (the evening of the atomic bombing of Hiroshima), Oppenheimer took to the stage and clasped his hands together "like a prize - winning boxer '' while the crowd cheered. He noted his regret the weapon had not been available in time to use against Nazi Germany. However, he and many of the project staff were very upset about the bombing of Nagasaki, as they did not feel the second bomb was necessary from a military point of view. He traveled to Washington on August 17 to hand - deliver a letter to Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson expressing his revulsion and his wish to see nuclear weapons banned. In October 1945 Oppenheimer was granted an interview with President Harry S Truman. The meeting, however, went badly, after Oppenheimer remarked he felt he had "blood on my hands ''. The remark infuriated Truman and put an end to the meeting. Truman later told his Undersecretary of State Dean Acheson "I do n't want to see that son - of - a-bitch in this office ever again. ''
For his services as director of Los Alamos, Oppenheimer was awarded the Medal for Merit from President Harry S Truman in 1946.
The Manhattan Project became public knowledge after the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, and Oppenheimer became a national spokesman for science who was emblematic of a new type of technocratic power. He became a household name and his face appeared on the covers of Life and Time. Nuclear physics became a powerful force as all governments of the world began to realize the strategic and political power that came with nuclear weapons. Like many scientists of his generation, he felt that security from atomic bombs would come only from a transnational organization such as the newly formed United Nations, which could institute a program to stifle a nuclear arms race.
In November 1945, Oppenheimer left Los Alamos to return to Caltech, but he soon found that his heart was no longer in teaching. In 1947, he accepted an offer from Lewis Strauss to take up the directorship of the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey. This meant moving back east and leaving Ruth Tolman, the wife of his friend Richard Tolman, with whom he had begun an affair after leaving Los Alamos. The job came with a salary of $20,000 per annum, plus rent - free accommodation in the director 's house, a 17th - century manor with a cook and groundskeeper, surrounded by 265 acres (107 ha) of woodlands.
Oppenheimer brought together intellectuals at the height of their powers and from a variety of disciplines to answer the most pertinent questions of the age. He directed and encouraged the research of many well - known scientists, including Freeman Dyson, and the duo of Chen Ning Yang and Tsung - Dao Lee, who won a Nobel Prize for their discovery of parity non-conservation. He also instituted temporary memberships for scholars from the humanities, such as T.S. Eliot and George F. Kennan. Some of these activities were resented by a few members of the mathematics faculty, who wanted the institute to stay a bastion of pure scientific research. Abraham Pais said that Oppenheimer himself thought that one of his failures at the institute was being unable to bring together scholars from the natural sciences and the humanities.
During a series of conferences in New York from 1947 through 1949, physicists switched back from war work to theoretical issues. Under Oppenheimer 's direction, physicists tackled the greatest outstanding problem of the pre-war years: infinite, divergent, and non-sensical expressions in the quantum electrodynamics of elementary particles. Julian Schwinger, Richard Feynman and Shin'ichiro Tomonaga tackled the problem of regularization, and developed techniques which became known as renormalization. Freeman Dyson was able to prove that their procedures gave similar results. The problem of meson absorption and Hideki Yukawa 's theory of mesons as the carrier particles of the strong nuclear force were also tackled. Probing questions from Oppenheimer prompted Robert Marshak 's innovative two - meson hypothesis: that there were actually two types of mesons, pions and muons. This led to Cecil Frank Powell 's breakthrough and subsequent Nobel Prize for the discovery of the pion.
As a member of the Board of Consultants to a committee appointed by Truman, Oppenheimer strongly influenced the Acheson -- Lilienthal Report. In this report, the committee advocated creation of an international Atomic Development Authority, which would own all fissionable material and the means of its production, such as mines and laboratories, and atomic power plants where it could be used for peaceful energy production. Bernard Baruch was appointed to translate this report into a proposal to the United Nations, resulting in the Baruch Plan of 1946. The Baruch Plan introduced many additional provisions regarding enforcement, in particular requiring inspection of the Soviet Union 's uranium resources. The Baruch Plan was seen as an attempt to maintain the United States ' nuclear monopoly and was rejected by the Soviets. With this, it became clear to Oppenheimer that an arms race was unavoidable, due to the mutual suspicion of the United States and the Soviet Union, which even Oppenheimer was starting to distrust.
After the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) came into being in 1947 as a civilian agency in control of nuclear research and weapons issues, Oppenheimer was appointed as the Chairman of its General Advisory Committee (GAC). From this position he advised on a number of nuclear - related issues, including project funding, laboratory construction and even international policy -- though the GAC 's advice was not always heeded. As Chairman of the GAC, Oppenheimer lobbied vigorously for international arms control and funding for basic science, and attempted to influence policy away from a heated arms race. When the government questioned whether to pursue a crash program to develop an atomic weapon based on nuclear fusion -- the hydrogen bomb -- Oppenheimer initially recommended against it, though he had been in favor of developing such a weapon during the Manhattan Project. He was motivated partly by ethical concerns, feeling that such a weapon could only be used strategically against civilian targets, resulting in millions of deaths. He was also motivated by practical concerns, however, as at the time there was no workable design for a hydrogen bomb. Oppenheimer felt that resources would be better spent creating a large force of fission weapons. He and others were especially concerned about nuclear reactors being diverted from plutonium to tritium production. They were overridden by Truman, who announced a crash program after the Soviet Union tested their first atomic bomb in 1949. Oppenheimer and other GAC opponents of the project, especially James Conant, felt personally shunned and considered retiring from the committee. They stayed on, though their views on the hydrogen bomb were well known.
In 1951, however, Edward Teller and mathematician Stanislaw Ulam developed what became known as the Teller - Ulam design for a hydrogen bomb. This new design seemed technically feasible and Oppenheimer changed his opinion about developing the weapon. As he later recalled:
The program we had in 1949 was a tortured thing that you could well argue did not make a great deal of technical sense. It was therefore possible to argue that you did not want it even if you could have it. The program in 1951 was technically so sweet that you could not argue about that. The issues became purely the military, the political and the humane problems of what you were going to do about it once you had it.
The FBI under J. Edgar Hoover had been following Oppenheimer since before the war, when he showed Communist sympathies as a professor at Berkeley and had been close to members of the Communist Party, including his wife and brother. He had been under close surveillance since the early 1940s, his home and office bugged, his phone tapped and his mail opened. The FBI furnished Oppenheimer 's political enemies with incriminating evidence about his Communist ties. These enemies included Strauss, an AEC commissioner who had long harbored resentment against Oppenheimer both for his activity in opposing the hydrogen bomb and for his humiliation of Strauss before Congress some years earlier; regarding Strauss 's opposition to the export of radioactive isotopes to other nations, Oppenheimer had memorably categorized these as "less important than electronic devices but more important than, let us say, vitamins ''.
On June 7, 1949, Oppenheimer testified before the House Un-American Activities Committee, where he admitted that he had associations with the Communist Party in the 1930s. He testified that some of his students, including David Bohm, Giovanni Rossi Lomanitz, Philip Morrison, Bernard Peters and Joseph Weinberg, had been Communists at the time they had worked with him at Berkeley. Frank Oppenheimer and his wife Jackie testified before the HUAC and admitted that they had been members of the Communist Party. Frank was subsequently fired from his University of Minnesota position. Unable to find work in physics for many years, he became instead a cattle rancher in Colorado. He later taught high school physics and was the founder of the San Francisco Exploratorium.
Oppenheimer had found himself in the middle of more than one controversy and power struggle in the years from 1949 to 1953. Edward Teller, who had been so uninterested in work on the atomic bomb at Los Alamos during the war that Oppenheimer had given him time instead to work on his own project of the hydrogen bomb, had eventually left Los Alamos in 1951 to help found, in 1952, a second laboratory at what would become the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. There, he could be free of Los Alamos control to develop the hydrogen bomb. Long - range thermonuclear "strategic '' weapons delivered by jet bombers would necessarily be under control of the new United States Air Force (USAF). Oppenheimer had for some years pushed for smaller "tactical '' nuclear weapons which would be more useful in a limited theater against enemy troops and which would be under control of the Army. The two services fought for control of nuclear weapons, often allied with different political parties. The USAF, with Teller pushing its program, gained ascendance in the Republican - controlled administration following the election of Dwight D. Eisenhower as president in 1952.
Strauss and Senator Brien McMahon, author of the 1946 McMahon Act, pushed Eisenhower to revoke Oppenheimer 's security clearance. On December 21, 1953, Strauss told Oppenheimer that his security clearance had been suspended, pending resolution of a series of charges outlined in a letter, and discussed his resigning. Oppenheimer chose not to resign and requested a hearing instead. The charges were outlined in a letter from Kenneth D. Nichols, General Manager of the AEC. The hearing that followed in April -- May 1954, which was initially confidential and not made public, focused on Oppenheimer 's past Communist ties and his association during the Manhattan Project with suspected disloyal or Communist scientists. The US Department of Energy made public the full text of the transcript in October 2014.
One of the key elements in this hearing was Oppenheimer 's earliest testimony about George Eltenton 's approach to various Los Alamos scientists, a story that Oppenheimer confessed he had fabricated to protect his friend Haakon Chevalier. Unknown to Oppenheimer, both versions were recorded during his interrogations of a decade before. He was surprised on the witness stand with transcripts of these, which he had not been given a chance to review. In fact, Oppenheimer had never told Chevalier that he had finally named him, and the testimony had cost Chevalier his job. Both Chevalier and Eltenton confirmed mentioning that they had a way to get information to the Soviets, Eltenton admitting he said this to Chevalier and Chevalier admitting he mentioned it to Oppenheimer, but both put the matter in terms of gossip and denied any thought or suggestion of treason or thoughts of espionage, either in planning or in deed. Neither was ever convicted of any crime.
Teller testified that he considered Oppenheimer loyal, but that:
In a great number of cases, I have seen Dr. Oppenheimer act -- I understand that Dr. Oppenheimer acted -- in a way which was for me was exceedingly hard to understand. I thoroughly disagreed with him in numerous issues and his actions frankly appeared to me confused and complicated. To this extent I feel that I would like to see the vital interests of this country in hands which I understand better, and therefore trust more. In this very limited sense I would like to express a feeling that I would feel personally more secure if public matters would rest in other hands.
This led to outrage by the scientific community and Teller 's virtual expulsion from academic science. Ernest Lawrence refused to testify on the grounds that he was suffering from an attack of ulcerative colitis, but an interview transcript in which he condemned Oppenheimer was presented as evidence in his absence. Groves, threatened by the FBI as having been potentially part of a coverup about the Chevalier contact in 1943, likewise testified against Oppenheimer. Many top scientists, as well as government and military figures, testified on Oppenheimer 's behalf. Inconsistencies in his testimony and his erratic behavior on the stand, at one point saying he had given a "cock and bull story '' and that this was because he "was an idiot '', convinced some that he was unstable, unreliable and a possible security risk. Oppenheimer 's clearance was revoked one day before it was due to lapse anyway. Isidor Rabi 's comment was that Oppenheimer was merely a government consultant at the time anyway and that if the government "did n't want to consult the guy, then do n't consult him ''.
During his hearing, Oppenheimer testified willingly on the left - wing behavior of many of his scientific colleagues. Had Oppenheimer 's clearance not been stripped then he might have been remembered as someone who had "named names '' to save his own reputation. As it happened, Oppenheimer was seen by most of the scientific community as a martyr to McCarthyism, an eclectic liberal who was unjustly attacked by warmongering enemies, symbolic of the shift of scientific creativity from academia into the military. Wernher von Braun summed up his opinion about the matter with a quip to a Congressional committee: "In England, Oppenheimer would have been knighted. ''
In a seminar at the Woodrow Wilson Institute on May 20, 2009, based on an extensive analysis of the Vassiliev notebooks taken from the KGB archives, John Earl Haynes, Harvey Klehr and Alexander Vassiliev confirmed that Oppenheimer never was involved in espionage for the Soviet Union. The KGB tried repeatedly to recruit him, but was never successful; Oppenheimer did not betray the United States. In addition, he had several persons removed from the Manhattan Project who had sympathies to the Soviet Union. Haynes, Klehr and Vassiliev also state Oppenheimer "was, in fact, a concealed member of the CPUSA in the late 1930s ''. According to biographer Ray Monk: "He was, in a very practical and real sense, a supporter of the Communist Party. Moreover, in terms of the time, effort and money spent on Party activities, he was a very committed supporter ''.
Starting in 1954, Oppenheimer lived for several months of the year on the island of Saint John in the U.S. Virgin Islands. In 1957, he purchased a 2 - acre (0.81 ha) tract of land on Gibney Beach, where he built a spartan home on the beach. He spent a considerable amount of time sailing with his daughter Toni and wife Kitty.
Oppenheimer was increasingly concerned about the potential danger that scientific inventions could pose to humanity. He joined with Albert Einstein, Bertrand Russell, Joseph Rotblat and other eminent scientists and academics to establish what would eventually, in 1960, become the World Academy of Art and Science. Significantly, after his public humiliation, he did not sign the major open protests against nuclear weapons of the 1950s, including the Russell -- Einstein Manifesto of 1955, nor, though invited, did he attend the first Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs in 1957.
In his speeches and public writings, Oppenheimer continually stressed the difficulty of managing the power of knowledge in a world in which the freedom of science to exchange ideas was more and more hobbled by political concerns. Oppenheimer delivered the Reith Lectures on the BBC in 1953, which were subsequently published as Science and the Common Understanding. In 1955 Oppenheimer published The Open Mind, a collection of eight lectures that he had given since 1946 on the subject of nuclear weapons and popular culture. Oppenheimer rejected the idea of nuclear gunboat diplomacy. "The purposes of this country in the field of foreign policy '', he wrote, "can not in any real or enduring way be achieved by coercion ''. In 1957 the philosophy and psychology departments at Harvard invited Oppenheimer to deliver the William James Lectures. An influential group of Harvard alumni led by Edwin Ginn that included Archibald Roosevelt protested against the decision. Some 1,200 people packed into Sanders Theatre to hear Oppenheimer 's six lectures, entitled "The Hope of Order ''. Oppenheimer delivered the Whidden Lectures at McMaster University in 1962, and these were published in 1964 as The Flying Trapeze: Three Crises for Physicists.
Deprived of political power, Oppenheimer continued to lecture, write and work on physics. He toured Europe and Japan, giving talks about the history of science, the role of science in society, and the nature of the universe. In September 1957, France made him an Officer of the Legion of Honor, and on May 3, 1962, he was elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Society in Britain. At the urging of many of Oppenheimer 's political friends who had ascended to power, President John F. Kennedy awarded Oppenheimer the Enrico Fermi Award in 1963 as a gesture of political rehabilitation. Edward Teller, the winner of the previous year 's award, had also recommended Oppenheimer receive it, in the hope that it would heal the rift between them. A little over a week after Kennedy 's assassination, his successor, President Lyndon Johnson, presented Oppenheimer with the award, "for contributions to theoretical physics as a teacher and originator of ideas, and for leadership of the Los Alamos Laboratory and the atomic energy program during critical years ''. Oppenheimer told Johnson: "I think it is just possible, Mr. President, that it has taken some charity and some courage for you to make this award today. ''
The rehabilitation implied by the award was partly symbolic, as Oppenheimer still lacked a security clearance and could have no effect on official policy, but the award came with a $50,000 tax - free stipend, and its award outraged many prominent Republicans in Congress. The late President Kennedy 's widow Jacqueline, still living in the White House, made it a point to meet with Oppenheimer to tell him how much her husband had wanted him to have the medal. While still a senator in 1959, Kennedy had been instrumental in voting to narrowly deny Oppenheimer 's enemy Lewis Strauss a coveted government position as Secretary of Commerce, effectively ending Strauss 's political career. This was partly due to lobbying by the scientific community on behalf of Oppenheimer.
Oppenheimer was a chain smoker who was diagnosed with throat cancer in late 1965. After inconclusive surgery, he underwent unsuccessful radiation treatment and chemotherapy late in 1966. He fell into a coma on February 15, 1967, and died at his home in Princeton, New Jersey, on February 18, aged 62. A memorial service was held a week later at Alexander Hall on the campus of Princeton University. The service was attended by 600 of his scientific, political and military associates that included Bethe, Groves, Kennan, Lilienthal, Rabi, Smyth and Wigner. His brother Frank and the rest of his family were also there, as was the historian Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., the novelist John O'Hara, and George Balanchine, the director of the New York City Ballet. Bethe, Kennan and Smyth gave brief eulogies. Oppenheimer was cremated and his ashes were placed into an urn. His wife Kitty took his ashes to St. John and dropped the urn into the sea off the coast, within sight of the beach house.
In October 1972, Kitty died at age 62 from an intestinal infection that was complicated by a pulmonary embolism. Oppenheimer 's ranch in New Mexico was then inherited by their son Peter, and the beach property was inherited by their daughter Katherine "Toni '' Oppenheimer Silber. Toni was refused security clearance for her chosen vocation as a United Nations translator after the FBI brought up the old charges against her father. In January 1977 (three months after the end of her second marriage), she committed suicide at age 32; her ex-husband found her hanging from a beam in her family beach house. She left the property to "the people of St. John for a public park and recreation area ''. The original house was built too close to the coast and succumbed to a hurricane. Today the Virgin Islands Government maintains a Community Center in the area.
When Oppenheimer was ejected from his position of political influence in 1954, he symbolized for many the folly of scientists thinking they could control how others would use their research. He has also been seen as symbolizing the dilemmas involving the moral responsibility of the scientist in the nuclear world. The hearings were motivated both by politics, as Oppenheimer was seen as a representative of the previous administration, and by personal considerations stemming from his enmity with Lewis Strauss. The ostensible reason for the hearing and the issue that aligned Oppenheimer with the liberal intellectuals, Oppenheimer 's opposition to hydrogen bomb development, was based as much on technical grounds as on moral ones. Once the technical considerations were resolved, he supported Teller 's hydrogen bomb because he believed that the Soviet Union would inevitably construct one too. Rather than consistently oppose the "Red - baiting '' of the late 1940s and early 1950s, Oppenheimer testified against some of his former colleagues and students, both before and during his hearing. In one incident, his damning testimony against former student Bernard Peters was selectively leaked to the press. Historians have interpreted this as an attempt by Oppenheimer to please his colleagues in the government and perhaps to divert attention from his own previous left - wing ties and those of his brother. In the end it became a liability when it became clear that if Oppenheimer had really doubted Peters ' loyalty, his recommending him for the Manhattan Project was reckless, or at least contradictory.
Popular depictions of Oppenheimer view his security struggles as a confrontation between right - wing militarists (symbolized by Teller) and left - wing intellectuals (symbolized by Oppenheimer) over the moral question of weapons of mass destruction. The question of the scientists ' responsibility toward humanity inspired Bertolt Brecht 's drama Galileo (1955), left its imprint on Friedrich Dürrenmatt 's Die Physiker, and is the basis of the opera Doctor Atomic by John Adams (2005), which was commissioned to portray Oppenheimer as a modern - day Faust. Heinar Kipphardt 's play In the Matter of J. Robert Oppenheimer, after appearing on West German television, had its theatrical release in Berlin and Munich in October 1964. Oppenheimer 's objections resulted in an exchange of correspondence with Kipphardt, in which the playwright offered to make corrections but defended the play. It premiered in New York in June 1968, with Joseph Wiseman in the Oppenheimer role. New York Times theater critic Clive Barnes called it an "angry play and a partisan play '' that sided with Oppenheimer but portrayed the scientist as a "tragic fool and genius ''. Oppenheimer had difficulty with this portrayal. After reading a transcript of Kipphardt 's play soon after it began to be performed, Oppenheimer threatened to sue the playwright, decrying "improvisations which were contrary to history and to the nature of the people involved ''. Later Oppenheimer told an interviewer:
The whole damn thing (his security hearing) was a farce, and these people are trying to make a tragedy out of it... I had never said that I had regretted participating in a responsible way in the making of the bomb. I said that perhaps he (Kipphardt) had forgotten Guernica, Coventry, Hamburg, Dresden, Dachau, Warsaw, and Tokyo; but I had not, and that if he found it so difficult to understand, he should write a play about something else.
The 1980 BBC TV serial Oppenheimer, starring Sam Waterston, won three BAFTA Television Awards. The Day After Trinity, a 1980 documentary about J. Robert Oppenheimer and the building of the atomic bomb, was nominated for an Academy Award and received a Peabody Award. Oppenheimer 's life has been explored in the play Oppenheimer by Tom Morton - Smith. In addition to his use by authors of fiction, there are numerous biographies, including American Prometheus: The Triumph and Tragedy of J. Robert Oppenheimer (2005) by Kai Bird and Martin J. Sherwin which won the Pulitzer Prize for Biography or Autobiography for 2006. A centennial conference and exhibit were held in 2004 at Berkeley, with the proceedings of the conference published in 2005 as Reappraising Oppenheimer: Centennial Studies and Reflections. His papers are in the Library of Congress.
As a scientist, Oppenheimer is remembered by his students and colleagues as being a brilliant researcher and engaging teacher who was the founder of modern theoretical physics in the United States. Because his scientific attentions often changed rapidly, he never worked long enough on any one topic and carried it to fruition to merit the Nobel Prize, although his investigations contributing to the theory of black holes may have warranted the prize had he lived long enough to see them brought into fruition by later astrophysicists. An asteroid, 67085 Oppenheimer, was named in his honor, as was the lunar crater Oppenheimer.
As a military and public policy advisor, Oppenheimer was a technocratic leader in a shift in the interactions between science and the military and the emergence of "Big Science ''. During World War II, scientists became involved in military research to an unprecedented degree. Because of the threat fascism posed to Western civilization, they volunteered in great numbers both for technological and organizational assistance to the Allied effort, resulting in such powerful tools as radar, the proximity fuse and operations research. As a cultured, intellectual, theoretical physicist who became a disciplined military organizer, Oppenheimer represented the shift away from the idea that scientists had their "head in the clouds '' and that knowledge on such previously esoteric subjects as the composition of the atomic nucleus had no "real - world '' applications.
Two days before the Trinity test, Oppenheimer expressed his hopes and fears in a quotation from the Bhagavad Gita:
In battle, in the forest, at the precipice in the mountains, On the dark great sea, in the midst of javelins and arrows, In sleep, in confusion, in the depths of shame, The good deeds a man has done before defend him.
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what is the difference between a v8 and a v12 engine | V engine - wikipedia
A V engine, or Vee engine is a common configuration for an internal combustion engine. The cylinders and pistons are aligned, in two separate planes or ' banks ', so that they appear to be in a "V '' when viewed along the axis of the crankshaft. The Vee configuration generally reduces the overall engine length, height and weight compared with an equivalent inline configuration.
The first V - type engine, a 2 - cylinder vee twin, was built in 1889 by Daimler, to a design by Wilhelm Maybach. By 1903 V8 engines were being produced for motor boat racing by the Société Antoinette to designs by Léon Levavasseur, building on experience gained with in - line four - cylinder engines. In 1904, the Putney Motor Works completed a new V12, 150bhp 18.4 litre engine -- the first V12 engine produced for any purpose. This one was manufactured for two Russian brothers making a dirigible. They ran out of money and Commander May bought it on a sale or return basis for Motor boat racing, having some moderate success in 1908. The engine was exposed and the hot coil ignition created misfiring on becoming wet with the spray. Robert Bosch supplied the very first magnetos and the problem was solved.
Usually, each pair of corresponding pistons from each bank of cylinders share one crankpin on the crankshaft, either by master / slave rods or by two ordinary connecting rods side by side. However, some V - twin engine designs have two - pin cranks, while other V configurations include split crank - pins for more even firing.
V - engines are generally more compact than straight engines with cylinders of the same dimensions and number. This effect increases with the number of cylinders in the engine; there might be no noticeable difference in overall size between V - twin and straight - twin engines while V8 engines are much more compact than straight - eight engines.
Various cylinder bank angles of Vee are used in different engines; depending on the number of cylinders, there may be angles that work better than others for stability. Very narrow angles of Vee combine some of the advantages of the Vee engine and the straight engine (primarily in the form of compactness) as well as disadvantages; the concept is an old one pioneered by Lancia 's V4 engine in the 1920s, but recently reworked by Volkswagen Group with their VR engines, which is actually a combination of V and straight configuration.
Some Vee configurations are well - balanced and smooth, while others are less smoothly running than their equivalent straight counterparts. V8s with crossplane crankshaft can be easily balanced with the use of counterweights only. V12s, being in effect two straight - 6 engines married together, are fully balanced; if the V - angle is 60 ° for 4 - stroke or 30 ° for 2 - stroke, they also have even firing. Others, such as the V2, V4, V6, flatplane V8, V10, V14 and V18 engine show increased vibration and generally require balance shafts or split crankshafts.
Certain types of Vee engine have been built as inverted engines, most commonly for aircraft. Advantages include better visibility in a single - engined airplane, and lower centre of gravity. Examples include World War II German Daimler - Benz DB 601, Junkers Jumo, and Argus Motoren piston engines.
It is common practice for Vee engines to be described with "V # '' notation, where # is how many cylinders it has:
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what country has the highest percentage of internet users | List of countries by number of Internet users - Wikipedia
Below is a sortable list of countries by number of Internet users as of 2016. Internet users are defined as persons who accessed the Internet in the last 12 months from any device, including mobile phones. The percentages on the list are the percentages of each country 's population that are Internet users. Estimates are derived from either household surveys or from Internet subscription data.
All United Nations member states are listed. A disputed territory, Taiwan, is listed as a sovereign country.
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how old was charlotte bronte when she wrote jane eyre | Charlotte Brontë - wikipedia
Charlotte Brontë (/ ˈbrɒnti /, commonly / ˈbrɒnteɪ /; 21 April 1816 -- 31 March 1855) was an English novelist and poet, the eldest of the three Brontë sisters who survived into adulthood and whose novels have become classics of English literature. She first published her works (including her best known novel, Jane Eyre) under the pen name Currer Bell.
Charlotte Brontë was born on 21 April 1816 in Thornton, west of Bradford in the West Riding of Yorkshire, the third of the six children of Maria (née Branwell) and Patrick Brontë (formerly surnamed Brunty), an Irish Anglican clergyman. In 1820 her family moved a few miles to the village of Haworth, where her father had been appointed perpetual curate of St Michael and All Angels Church. Maria died of cancer on 15 September 1821, leaving five daughters, Maria, Elizabeth, Charlotte, Emily and Anne, and a son, Branwell, to be taken care of by her sister, Elizabeth Branwell.
In August 1824 Patrick sent Charlotte, Emily, Maria and Elizabeth to the Clergy Daughters ' School at Cowan Bridge in Lancashire. Charlotte maintained that the school 's poor conditions permanently affected her health and physical development, and hastened the deaths of Maria (born 1814) and Elizabeth (born 1815), who both died of tuberculosis in June 1825. After the deaths of his older daughters, Patrick removed Charlotte and Emily from the school. Charlotte used the school as the basis for Lowood School in Jane Eyre.
At home in Haworth Parsonage, Brontë acted as "the motherly friend and guardian of her younger sisters ''. Brontë wrote her first known poem at the age of 13 in 1829, and was to go on to write more than 200 poems in the course of her life. Many of her poems were "published '' in their homemade magazine Branwell 's Blackwood 's Magazine, and concerned the fictional Glass Town Confederacy. She and her surviving siblings -- Branwell, Emily and Anne -- created their own fictional worlds, and began chronicling the lives and struggles of the inhabitants of their imaginary kingdoms. Charlotte and Branwell wrote Byronic stories about their jointly imagined country, Angria, and Emily and Anne wrote articles and poems about Gondal. The sagas they created were episodic and elaborate, and they exist in incomplete manuscripts, some of which have been published as juvenilia. They provided them with an obsessive interest during childhood and early adolescence, which prepared them for literary vocations in adulthood.
Between 1831 and 1832, Brontë continued her education at Roe Head in Mirfield, where she met her lifelong friends and correspondents Ellen Nussey and Mary Taylor. In 1833 she wrote a novella, The Green Dwarf, using the name Wellesley. Around about 1833, her stories shifted from tales of the supernatural to more realistic stories. She returned to Roe Head as a teacher from 1835 to 1838. Unhappy and lonely as a teacher at Roe Head, Brontë took out her sorrows in poetry, writing a series of melancholic poems. In "We wove a Web in Childhood '' written in December 1835, Brontë drew a sharp contrast between her miserable life as a teacher and the vivid imaginary worlds she and her siblings had created. In another poem "Morning was its freshness still '' written at the same time, Brontë wrote "Tis bitter sometimes to recall / Illusions once deemed fair ''. Many of her poems concerned the imaginary world of Angria, often concerning Byronic heroes, and in December 1836 she wrote to the Poet Laureate Robert Southey asking him for encouragement of her career as a poet. Sothey wrote back to say she was a bad poet and to consider another career, a letter that greatly hurt her. One scholar Dawn Potter wrote that Brontë had a streak of sadism in her novels with her characters always suffering in some way, which she suggested was due to her own unhappy life.
In 1839 she took up the first of many positions as governess to families in Yorkshire, a career she pursued until 1841. In particular, from May to July 1839 she was employed by the Sidgwick family at their summer residence, Stone Gappe, in Lothersdale, where one of her charges was John Benson Sidgwick (1835 -- 1927), an unruly child who on one occasion threw a Bible at Charlotte, an incident that may have been the inspiration for a part of the opening chapter of Jane Eyre in which John Reed throws a book at the young Jane. Brontë did not enjoy her work as a governess, noting her employers treated her almost as a slave, constantly humiliating her.
Brontë was of slight build and was less than five feet tall.
In 1842 Charlotte and Emily travelled to Brussels to enrol at the boarding school run by Constantin Héger (1809 -- 96) and his wife Claire Zoé Parent Héger (1804 -- 87). During her time in Brussels, Brontë who favoured the Protestant ideal of an individual in direct contact with God, objected to the stern Catholicism of Madame Héger, which she considered to be a tyrannical religion that enforced conformity and submission to the Pope. In return for board and tuition Charlotte taught English and Emily taught music. Their time at the school was cut short when their aunt Elizabeth Branwell, who had joined the family in Haworth to look after the children after their mother 's death, died of internal obstruction in October 1842. Charlotte returned alone to Brussels in January 1843 to take up a teaching post at the school. Her second stay was not happy: she was homesick and deeply attached to Constantin Héger. She returned to Haworth in January 1844 and used the time spent in Brussels as the inspiration for some of the events in The Professor and Villette.
In May 1846 Charlotte, Emily and Anne self - financed the publication of a joint collection of poems under their assumed names Currer, Ellis and Acton Bell. The pseudonyms veiled the sisters ' gender while preserving their initials; thus Charlotte was Currer Bell. "Bell '' was the middle name of Haworth 's curate, Arthur Bell Nicholls whom Charlotte later married, and "Currer '' was the surname of Frances Mary Richardson Currer who had funded their school (and maybe their father). Of the decision to use noms de plume, Charlotte wrote:
Averse to personal publicity, we veiled our own names under those of Currer, Ellis and Acton Bell; the ambiguous choice being dictated by a sort of conscientious scruple at assuming Christian names positively masculine, while we did not like to declare ourselves women, because -- without at that time suspecting that our mode of writing and thinking was not what is called "feminine '' -- we had a vague impression that authoresses are liable to be looked on with prejudice; we had noticed how critics sometimes use for their chastisement the weapon of personality, and for their reward, a flattery, which is not true praise.
Although only two copies of the collection of poems were sold, the sisters continued writing for publication and began their first novels, continuing to use their noms de plume when sending manuscripts to potential publishers.
Brontë 's first manuscript, The Professor, did not secure a publisher, although she was heartened by an encouraging response from Smith, Elder & Co. of Cornhill, who expressed an interest in any longer works Currer Bell might wish to send. Brontë responded by finishing and sending a second manuscript in August 1847. Six weeks later Jane Eyre: An Autobiography was published. It tells the story of a plain governess, Jane, who, after difficulties in her early life, falls in love with her employer, Mr Rochester. They marry, but only after Rochester 's insane first wife, of whom Jane initially has no knowledge, dies in a dramatic house fire. The book 's style was innovative, combining naturalism with gothic melodrama, and broke new ground in being written from an intensely evoked first - person female perspective. Brontë believed art was most convincing when based on personal experience; in Jane Eyre she transformed the experience into a novel with universal appeal.
Jane Eyre had immediate commercial success and initially received favourable reviews. G.H. Lewes wrote that it was "an utterance from the depths of a struggling, suffering, much - enduring spirit '', and declared that it consisted of "suspiria de profundis! '' (sighs from the depths). Speculation about the identity and gender of the mysterious Currer Bell heightened with the publication of Wuthering Heights by Ellis Bell (Emily) and Agnes Grey by Acton Bell (Anne). Accompanying the speculation was a change in the critical reaction to Brontë 's work, as accusations were made that the writing was "coarse '', a judgement more readily made once it was suspected that Currer Bell was a woman. However, sales of Jane Eyre continued to be strong and may even have increased as a result of the novel developing a reputation as an "improper '' book. A talented amateur artist, Brontë personally did the drawings for the second edition of Jane Eyre and in the summer of 1834 two of her paintings were shown at an exhibition by the Royal Northern Society for the Encouragement of the Fine Arts in Leeds.
In 1848 Brontë began work on the manuscript of her second novel, Shirley. It was only partially completed when the Brontë family suffered the deaths of three of its members within eight months. In September 1848 Branwell died of chronic bronchitis and marasmus, exacerbated by heavy drinking, although Brontë believed that his death was due to tuberculosis. Branwell was also a suspected "opium eater ''; a laudanum addict. Emily became seriously ill shortly after Branwell 's funeral and died of pulmonary tuberculosis in December 1848. Anne died of the same disease in May 1849. Brontë was unable to write at this time.
After Anne 's death Brontë resumed writing as a way of dealing with her grief, and Shirley, which deals with themes of industrial unrest and the role of women in society, was published in October 1849. Unlike Jane Eyre, which is written in the first person, Shirley is written in the third person and lacks the emotional immediacy of her first novel, and reviewers found it less shocking. Brontë, as her late sister 's heir, suppressed the republication of Anne 's second novel, The Tenant of Wildfell Hall, an action which had a deleterious effect on Anne 's popularity as a novelist and has remained controversial among the sisters ' biographers ever since.
In view of the success of her novels, particularly Jane Eyre, Brontë was persuaded by her publisher to make occasional visits to London, where she revealed her true identity and began to move in more exalted social circles, becoming friends with Harriet Martineau and Elizabeth Gaskell, and acquainted with William Makepeace Thackeray and G.H. Lewes. She never left Haworth for more than a few weeks at a time, as she did not want to leave her ageing father. Thackeray 's daughter, writer Anne Isabella Thackeray Ritchie, recalled a visit to her father by Brontë:
... two gentlemen come in, leading a tiny, delicate, serious, little lady, with fair straight hair and steady eyes. She may be a little over thirty; she is dressed in a little barège dress with a pattern of faint green moss. She enters in mittens, in silence, in seriousness; our hearts are beating with wild excitement. This then is the authoress, the unknown power whose books have set all London talking, reading, speculating; some people even say our father wrote the books -- the wonderful books... The moment is so breathless that dinner comes as a relief to the solemnity of the occasion, and we all smile as my father stoops to offer his arm; for, genius though she may be, Miss Brontë can barely reach his elbow. My own personal impressions are that she is somewhat grave and stern, specially to forward little girls who wish to chatter... Everyone waited for the brilliant conversation which never began at all. Miss Brontë retired to the sofa in the study, and murmured a low word now and then to our kind governess... the conversation grew dimmer and more dim, the ladies sat round still expectant, my father was too much perturbed by the gloom and the silence to be able to cope with it at all... after Miss Brontë had left, I was surprised to see my father opening the front door with his hat on. He put his fingers to his lips, walked out into the darkness, and shut the door quietly behind him... long afterwards... Mrs Procter asked me if I knew what had happened... It was one of the dullest evenings (Mrs Procter) had ever spent in her life... the ladies who had all come expecting so much delightful conversation, and the gloom and the constraint, and how finally, overwhelmed by the situation, my father had quietly left the room, left the house, and gone off to his club.
Brontë 's friendship with Elizabeth Gaskell, while not particularly close, was significant in that Gaskell wrote the first biography of Brontë after her death in 1855.
Brontë 's third novel, the last published in her lifetime, was Villette, which appeared in 1853. Its main themes include isolation, how such a condition can be borne, and the internal conflict brought about by social repression of individual desire. Its main character, Lucy Snowe, travels abroad to teach in a boarding school in the fictional town of Villette, where she encounters a culture and religion different from her own, and falls in love with a man (Paul Emanuel) whom she can not marry. Her experiences result in a breakdown but eventually she achieves independence and fulfilment through running her own school. A substantial amount of the novel 's dialogue is in the French language. Villette marked Brontë 's return to writing from a first - person perspective (that of Lucy Snowe); the technique she had used in Jane Eyre. Another similarity to Jane Eyre lies in the use of aspects of her own life as inspiration for fictional events; in particular her reworking of the time she spent at the pensionnat in Brussels. Villette was acknowledged by critics of the day as a potent and sophisticated piece of writing although it was criticised for "coarseness '' and for not being suitably "feminine '' in its portrayal of Lucy 's desires.
Before the publication of Villette Brontë received a proposal of marriage from Arthur Bell Nicholls, her father 's curate, who had long been in love with her. She initially turned down his proposal and her father objected to the union at least partly because of Nicholls 's poor financial status. Elizabeth Gaskell, who believed that marriage provided "clear and defined duties '' that were beneficial for a woman, encouraged Brontë to consider the positive aspects of such a union and tried to use her contacts to engineer an improvement in Nicholls 's finances. Brontë meanwhile was increasingly attracted to Nicholls and by January 1854 she had accepted his proposal. They gained the approval of her father by April and married in June. Her father Patrick had intended to give Charlotte away, but at the last minute decided he could not, and Charlotte had to make her way to the church without him. The married couple took their honeymoon in Banagher, County Offaly, Ireland. By all accounts, her marriage was a success and Brontë found herself very happy in a way that was new to her.
Brontë became pregnant soon after her wedding, but her health declined rapidly and, according to Gaskell, she was attacked by "sensations of perpetual nausea and ever - recurring faintness ''. She died, with her unborn child, on 31 March 1855, three weeks before her 39th birthday. Her death certificate gives the cause of death as tuberculosis, but biographers including Claire Harman suggest that she died from dehydration and malnourishment due to vomiting caused by severe morning sickness or hyperemesis gravidarum. There is also evidence that she died from typhus, which she may have caught from Tabitha Ackroyd, the Brontë household 's oldest servant, who died shortly before her. Brontë was interred in the family vault in the Church of St Michael and All Angels at Haworth.
The Professor, the first novel Brontë had written, was published posthumously in 1857. The fragment of a new novel she had been writing in her last years has been twice completed by recent authors, the more famous version being Emma Brown: A Novel from the Unfinished Manuscript by Charlotte Brontë by Clare Boylan in 2003. Most of her writings about the imaginary country Angria have also been published since her death.
Elizabeth Gaskell 's biography The Life of Charlotte Brontë was published in 1857. It was an important step for a leading female novelist to write a biography of another, and Gaskell 's approach was unusual in that, rather than analysing her subject 's achievements, she concentrated on private details of Brontë 's life, emphasising those aspects that countered the accusations of "coarseness '' that had been levelled at her writing. The biography is frank in places, but omits details of Brontë 's love for Héger, a married man, as being too much of an affront to contemporary morals and a likely source of distress to Brontë 's father, widower, and friends. Mrs Gaskell also provided doubtful and inaccurate information about Patrick Brontë, claiming that he did not allow his children to eat meat. This is refuted by one of Emily Brontë 's diary papers, in which she describes preparing meat and potatoes for dinner at the parsonage. It has been argued that Gaskell 's approach transferred the focus of attention away from the ' difficult ' novels, not just Brontë 's, but all the sisters ', and began a process of sanctification of their private lives.
On 29 July 1913 The Times of London printed four letters Brontë had written to Constantin Héger after leaving Brussels in 1844. Written in French except for one postscript in English, the letters broke the prevailing image of Brontë as an angelic martyr to Christian and female duties that had been constructed by many biographers, beginning with Gaskell. The letters, which formed part of a larger and somewhat one - sided correspondence in which Héger frequently appears not to have replied, reveal that she had been in love with a married man, although they are complex and have been interpreted in numerous ways, including as an example of literary self - dramatisation and an expression of gratitude from a former pupil.
The Green Dwarf, A Tale of the Perfect Tense was written in 1833 under the pseudonym Lord Charles Albert Florian Wellesley. It shows the influence of Walter Scott, and Brontë 's modifications to her earlier gothic style have led Christine Alexander to comment that, in the work, "it is clear that Brontë was becoming tired of the gothic mode per se ''.
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who plays the voice of wheatley in portal 2 | Wheatley (Portal) - wikipedia
Wheatley is a fictional artificial intelligence from the Portal franchise first introduced in the 2011 video game Portal 2. He is voiced by British comedian Stephen Merchant, and created in part by Portal 2 's designer Erik Wolpaw.
In the Portal narrative, Wheatley is one of several spherical "personality cores '' developed to restrain GLaDOS, the main artificial intelligence that operates the Aperture Science facility, from becoming rampant, though Wheatley is later revealed to have been built to act as an intelligence dampener towards GLaDOS. Initially serving as a comedic foil to the player - character Chell during the first half of Portal 2, Wheatley becomes the main antagonist of the second half as he takes GLaDOS ' place and wreaks havoc on the facility before Chell and GLaDOS stop him. In addition to Portal 2, Wheatley has appeared in Team Fortress 2 and Lego Dimensions.
Since his appearance in Portal 2, Wheatley has received overwhelmingly positive reception from critics. Merchant has been praised for his portrayal by critics who cited his fast - talking dialogue. Wheatley has also been described as a contrast to GLaDOS ' "slower - speaking and more deliberate '' personality.
Wheatley was first revealed in an ARG released by Valve Corporation, the developer of the Portal series, in a screenshot of Portal 2 before its release, showing the player - character Chell holding him. Wheatley came from combining several ideas from multiple "personality cores '' that the player would meet throughout the game. The idea was removed as it supposedly made the game feel too cluttered and the player never got to really learn about the multiple robots, so several were combined into the character of Wheatley. Wheatley was designed with the purpose of making a character who "you 'd be seeing a lot ''. He added that Wheatley served as an "offset '' of GLaDOS; while her voice is "slower - speaking and more deliberate '', Wheatley is a "frantic person '', which he says is performed well by Merchant due to being able to relay information quickly in his speech.
Merchant was chosen for the role both because the designers were fans of British comedy and because of Merchant 's role in the television series Extras and his podcasts. Merchant was sent a package of Portal 2 material along with a request that he provide the voice of Wheatley. Merchant agreed to the role. Wheatley 's characterisation was always designed with a British voice in mind. While they were writing Wheatley 's dialogue, they had Merchant "in their heads '' as a result of watching Extras, though at the time they did not consider pursuing him for the role because they did not think that they would be able to cast him. They were instead considering Richard Ayoade, up until they went to Merchant 's agents.
Wheatley was also designed with the intention of writing a video game character who spoke informally which Wolpaw stated gave the sensation that the events were really happening and that this was something players do not often see in video games. He also stated that sidekicks in video games have never "sounded as if they were just making things up as you go along ''. While they later discovered that Merchant was famous in the United Kingdom, they noted that he was not chosen for his fame. Wolpaw noted that Merchant was the most famous actor that they had featured in one of their games. While they wrote a script for Wheatley, Merchant had an "improvisational style '' that they let him employ in the dialogue. Merchant also spoke some of the written dialogue in a way that seemed improvisational, such as in the "reading and repetition of words ''. This was one of the qualities that made them want to cast Merchant.
Merchant himself has compared Wheatley 's personality to characters typically played by Woody Allen, and noted that while initially he did n't know the gravitas of the role, reaction by others made him take the role a lot more seriously. He described the recording sessions as "exhausting '', so much so that by the end he was "not looking forward to it '', but once the project wrapped, he was overwhelmed with the fan response and would return for a sequel.
Original plans had Wheatley remain dead after being crushed by GLaDOS, with her remaining as the main antagonist. The player would then meet six other spheres -- including a paranoid sphere and a "Morgan Freeman sphere ''. This was changed, however, as the other spheres did not have enough time for the players to grow attached to them, and because playtesters missed Wheatley.
To date, Wheatley 's only appearance in the series is in Portal 2. He is one of several personality cores created for GLaDOS; specifically, he was designed by the Aperture scientists as an "Intelligence Dampening Sphere '' (or, as GLaDOS puts it, "the dumbest moron who ever lived '') as a means to hamper GLaDOS ' decision - making processes by injecting poor judgment into her routines.
The player - character Chell is introduced to Wheatley when he revives her from her cryonic hibernation, with the intent on helping her escape the deteriorating Aperture Science facility. Wheatley then helps Chell get the blue portal gun. Wheatley leads Chell to the chamber containing the remains of GLaDOS, and accidentally reactivates GLaDOS while trying to engineer their escape. Chell is separated from Wheatley by GLaDOS and forced to perform more tests. Wheatley manages to rediscover Chell and helps her escape to maintenance areas behind the testing chambers out of GLaDOS ' reach. He guides her to destroy GLaDOS ' neurotoxin supply and sabotage the turret manufacturing line before returning to GLaDOS. Without these hazards to stop her, Chell follows his instructions to transfer his core into that of GLaDOS. With the threat of GLaDOS quenched, Wheatley prepares to send Chell to the surface, but he becomes power - hungry due to GLaDOS ' core programming; he places GLaDOS ' personality into a module powered by a potato battery and sends her and Chell into the depths of Aperture Science. As Chell and GLaDOS fall, GLaDOS reveals that Wheatley was actually meant to be a "tumor '', with the purpose of generating an endless stream of bad ideas in order to control her.
While Chell and GLaDOS work their way up from deep underground, Wheatley begins fumblingly experimenting with his control of the facility, causing several key systems to fail. By the time Chell and GLaDOS arrive, the core reactor in the facility is set to overload, and the only way to stop it is for GLaDOS to retake her main unit back from Wheatley. Wheatley, coerced by the core programming in GLaDOS, puts them through a series of deranged test chambers in his newly renamed "Wheatley Science '' facility, leading them to a series of death traps. Chell and GLaDOS are able to escape, due to Wheatley 's lack of foresight, and make their way to his chamber to try to attempt a reversal of the core transfer, but first must subdue his programming by three other faulty personality cores to distract him.
Wheatley, recalling the earlier battle with GLaDOS, takes steps to prevent Chell from activating the core transfer mechanism and assaults her with bombs. However, he did not account for tubes carrying the various gels through the room, which Chell destroys with the bombs and uses the resulting spillage to complete the attachment of the corrupted cores. With Wheatley distracted, Chell tries to initiate the core transfer, however bombs rigged in the stalemate resolution annex explode before this can take place. As the failsafes on the reactor core fail, the roof collapses. Chell creates a portal between the room and the moon 's surface, dragging her and Wheatley 's module through it; GLaDOS, now having regained her body, knocks Wheatley away, and then restores the facility to normal working order. Wheatley is shown in the game 's epilogue to be floating adrift in space, apologetic for the trouble he has caused, and forced to listen to the deranged ramblings of the space personality cores.
Wheatley appears in an official plug - in created by Valve for The Elder Scrolls V: Skyrim; Fall of the Space Core, Vol 1. Wheatley appears floating around the Skills Menu, the backdrop of which is a series of constellations in space.
Wheatley appears in Valve 's multiplayer shooter Team Fortress 2 as an item for the Spy class called "The Ap - Sap ''. Stephen Merchant reprised his role as Wheatley for the game.
He appears as a non-playable character in Lego Dimensions, now able to move and levitate under his own power, with Merchant reprising his role. In the main story campaign, he appears in Aperture Science and occasionally aids Batman, Gandalf and Wyldstyle in escaping and surviving GLaDOS 's traps. In the bonus Portal - themed stage, he is reunited with Chell and accompanies her through GLaDOS 's new test chambers, expressing remorse for his previous actions and trying to ingratiate himself with Chell. He also appears in the Portal 2 adventure world, caring for a group of Frankenturrets and offering the player various sidequests.
Stephen Merchant won two awards for his performance as Wheatley: ' Outstanding Character Performance ' at the Interactive Achievement Awards and Best Performance by a Human Male at the 2011 Spike Video Game Awards. Wheatley earned a Spike TV nomination for ' Character of the Year '.
Edge staff wrote that Merchant 's portrayal of Wheatley was "neurotically stuttering and blubbering '' and that his "idiosyncratic staccato Bristolian burr '' was a "fascinating choice ''. Edge staff also wrote that he served as the game 's "comic relief '' and called him "alternately hapless and sinister, the mesmerizing animations of his ' eye light ' and a changing role throughout make him an unforgettable presence ''. GameSpy 's Will Tuttle wrote that Merchant 's portrayal of Wheatley was "pitch perfect '' and is "sure to be a fan favorite ''. The Telegraph 's Tom Hoggins wrote that the "delightfully skittish '' Wheatley 's "casual, nervous patter reacting naturally to the events unfolding around you '' was performed well by Merchant. He later wrote that the dialogue of Portal 2 was funny due in part to "the way that the frantic, nervous babble of Wheatley contrasts so effectively with the cynical, sinister goading from GLaDOS '' and that neither are overbearing. The Guardian 's Nick Cowen wrote that Wheatley was a "stammering, motor - mouthed droid '' and at times "funny and monstrous and spine chilling ''. The Guardian 's Will Freeman wrote that the "apparently sentient computers '' in Portal 2 are "outstanding '' though players may have a "divided opinion '' on Wheatley.
An editor for The Province wrote that Merchant 's portrayal of Wheatley "really adds to the personality and character of the game ''. Official Xbox Magazine 's Jon Hicks praised the narrative of Portal 2 and cited Wheatley 's "chirpy idiocy '' as a contributing factor to its quality. OXM 's Ryan McCaffrey wrote that Wheatley was "played to perfection '' by Merchant. Computer and Video Games ' Andy Robinson wrote that Wheatley 's personality was "equally loud '' to GLaDOS and "brilliant ''. GameZone 's Ben PerLee wrote that Wheatley was "cute but stupid '' and called him "adorable and bumbling, a lovable little guy who is much more involved than you might expect ''. The Escapist 's Russ Pitts wrote that Wheatley was "a helpful - if dumb - robot companion with a chipper English accent ''. The Globe and Mail 's Chad Sapieha wrote that Merchant was "enormously entertaining as a slow - witted sphere ''. Ars Technica 's Ben Kuchera wrote that "the casting (of Merchant) was a brilliant choice ''. He also wrote that "there is something about his delivery that works wonderfully, and it seems like he was having a good time recording his lines ''.
PC Gamer 's Dan Stapleton praised Wheatley as "fantastically voiced '' by Merchant and wrote that he was "basically playing the same mind - bogglingly stupid character from the Ricky Gervais comedy Extras ''. PC Gamer 's Craig Pearson wrote that "his nervous English voice... is another indicator that while Valve might not have known what they had with the original Portal, this time around they 're a lot more confident ''. Giant Bomb 's Ryan Davis wrote that Merchant voiced Wheatley with "terrific nervous energy ''. Wired 's Chris Kohler wrote that "you 'll fall in love with Wheatley, a friendly robot with a heart of gold and the charming voice of actor Stephen Merchant ''. IGN 's Charles Onyett wrote that it 's "difficult to overstate how Merchant 's obvious enthusiasm for the role benefits the game '' and that "no word Wheatley speaks is without witty inflection, and the consistently clever writing perfectly complements the onscreen action ''. He also wrote that Merchant 's Wheatley "steals the show '' while GLaDOS and Cave Johnson 's voice actors Ellen McLain and J.K. Simmons turn in solid performances. PALGN 's Adam Ghiggino wrote that Merchant 's performance was "brilliant '' and that he has "a lot of emotion to (his) movement ''. Video Gamer 's Jamin Smith wrote that Merchant 's voice was familiar and wrote that Wheatley "possesses more personality than the cast of most other games put together '' despite "a lack of any distinguishing features at all '' in its appearance.
GamesRadar 's Tyler Wilde wrote that Wheatley was "surprisingly expressive '' and called it "bumbling ''. CNN 's Larry Frum called Wheatley "silly, frantic and almost childlike ''. ABC News ' Lou Kesten called it "equally memorable '' to GLaDOS and a "chatty, nervous A.I. '' Entertainment Weekly 's John Young described its eyeball 's appearance as a "giant blue eyeball resembles a HAL 9000 computer with an Apple makeover ''. He also wrote that he was the "most delightful artificial - intelligence program one could hope to meet, and his witty quips and general clumsiness are a frequent source of amusement '' and that he is "splendidly voiced '' by Merchant. Editors for CNET wrote that "if Stephen Merchant does n't win every video game voice actor award for his portrayal of the protagonist 's wacky robot sidekick, there is no justice in either this world or any virtual one ''. An editor for CBS News wrote that Wheatley was "a chirpy and well - intentioned '' but also "dim - witted ''. The editor added that the "interactions between the player, GLaDOS and Wheatley are what give "Portal 2 '' its charm and provide much of the humor that keeps the game captivating puzzle after puzzle ". The Daily Mail 's James O'Brien called Wheatley a "loquacious metal ball whose distinctly limited intelligence is rendered even more amusing by Merchant 's distinctive West Country burr ''.
However, not all of Wheatley 's reception has been positive; in an Ars Technica article arguing that Portal 2 was n't as great as its predecessor, Peter Bright said that the character 's role in the game 's plot was predictable and that "his tireless, relentlessly stupid schtick '' quickly got old, with the character 's jokes being recycled and reused throughout the whole game. Bright also said that Wheatley 's "inane babble served only to disrupt the mood. ''
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where are mast cells located in the body | Mast cell - wikipedia
A mast cell (also known as a mastocyte or a labrocyte) is a type of white blood cell. Specifically, it is a type of granulocyte derived from the myeloid stem cell that is a part of the immune and neuroimmune systems and contains many granules rich in histamine and heparin. Although best known for their role in allergy and anaphylaxis, mast cells play an important protective role as well, being intimately involved in wound healing, angiogenesis, immune tolerance, defense against pathogens, and blood -- brain barrier function.
The mast cell is very similar in both appearance and function to the basophil, another type of white blood cell. Although mast cells were once thought to be tissue resident basophils, it has been shown that the two cells develop from different hematopoietic lineages and thus can not be the same cells.
Mast cells were first described by Paul Ehrlich in his 1878 doctoral thesis on the basis of their unique staining characteristics and large granules. These granules also led him to the incorrect belief that they existed to nourish the surrounding tissue, so he named them Mastzellen (from German Mast, meaning ' fattening ', as of animals). They are now considered to be part of the immune system.
Mast cells are very similar to basophil granulocytes (a class of white blood cells) in blood. Both are granulated cells that contain histamine and heparin, an anticoagulant. The Fc region of immunoglobulin E (IgE) becomes bound to mast cells and basophils and when IgE 's paratopes bind to an antigen, it causes the cells to release histamine and other inflammatory mediators. These similarities have led many to speculate that mast cells are basophils that have "homed in '' on tissues. Furthermore, they share a common precursor in bone marrow expressing the CD34 molecule. Basophils leave the bone marrow already mature, whereas the mast cell circulates in an immature form, only maturing once in a tissue site. The site an immature mast cell settles in probably determines its precise characteristics. The first in vitro differentiation and growth of a pure population of mouse mast cells has been carried out using conditioned medium derived from concanavalin A-stimulated splenocytes. Later, it was discovered that T cell - derived interleukin 3 was the component present in the conditioned media that was required for mast cell differentiation and growth.
Mast cells in rodents are classically divided into two subtypes: connective tissue - type mast cells and mucosal mast cells. The activities of the latter are dependent on T - cells.
Mast cells are present in most tissues characteristically surrounding blood vessels and nerves, and are especially prominent near the boundaries between the outside world and the internal milieu, such as the skin, mucosa of the lungs, and digestive tract, as well as the mouth, conjunctiva, and nose.
Mast cells play a key role in the inflammatory process. When activated, a mast cell can either selectively release (piecemeal degranulation) or rapidly release (anaphylactic degranulation) "mediators '', or compounds that induce inflammation, from storage granules into the local microenvironment. Mast cells can be stimulated to degranulate by allergens through cross-linking with immunoglobulin E (IgE) receptors (e.g., FcεRI), physical injury through pattern recognition receptors for damage - associated molecular patterns (DAMPs), microbial pathogens through pattern recognition receptors for pathogen - associated molecular patterns (PAMPs), and various compounds through their associated G - protein coupled receptors (e.g., morphine through opioid receptors) or ligand - gated ion channels. Complement proteins can activate membrane receptors on mast cells to exert various functions as well.
Mast cells express a high - affinity receptor (FcεRI) for the Fc region of IgE, the least - abundant member of the antibodies. This receptor is of such high affinity that binding of IgE molecules is in essence irreversible. As a result, mast cells are coated with IgE, which is produced by plasma cells (the antibody - producing cells of the immune system). IgE molecules, like all antibodies, are specific to one particular antigen.
In allergic reactions, mast cells remain inactive until an allergen binds to IgE already coated upon the cell. Other membrane activation events can either prime mast cells for subsequent degranulation or act in synergy with FcεRI signal transduction. In general, allergens are proteins or polysaccharides. The allergen binds to the antigen - binding sites, which are situated on the variable regions of the IgE molecules bound to the mast cell surface. It appears that binding of two or more IgE molecules (cross-linking) is required to activate the mast cell. The clustering of the intracellular domains of the cell - bound Fc receptors, which are associated with the cross-linked IgE molecules, causes a complex sequence of reactions inside the mast cell that lead to its activation. Although this reaction is most well understood in terms of allergy, it appears to have evolved as a defense system against parasites and bacteria.
A unique, stimulus - specific set of mast cell mediators is released through degranulation following the activation of cell surface receptors on mast cells. Examples of mediators that are released into the extracellular environment during mast cell degranulation include:
Histamine dilates post-capillary venules, activates the endothelium, and increases blood vessel permeability. This leads to local edema (swelling), warmth, redness, and the attraction of other inflammatory cells to the site of release. It also depolarizes nerve endings (leading to itching or pain). Cutaneous signs of histamine release are the "flare and wheal '' - reaction. The bump and redness immediately following a mosquito bite are a good example of this reaction, which occurs seconds after challenge of the mast cell by an allergen.
The other physiologic activities of mast cells are much less - understood. Several lines of evidence suggest that mast cells may have a fairly fundamental role in innate immunity: They are capable of elaborating a vast array of important cytokines and other inflammatory mediators such as TNFa; they express multiple "pattern recognition receptors '' thought to be involved in recognizing broad classes of pathogens; and mice without mast cells seem to be much more susceptible to a variety of infections.
Mast cell granules carry a variety of bioactive chemicals. These granules have been found to be transferred to adjacent cells of the immune system and neurons in a process of transgranulation via mast cell pseudopodia.
FcεR1 is a high affinity IgE - receptor that is expressed on the surface of the mast cell. FcεR1 is a tetramer made of one alpha (α) chain, one beta (β) chain, and two identical, disulfide - linked gamma (γ) chains. The binding site for the IgE is formed by the extracellular portion of the α chain that contains two domains that are similar to Ig. One transmembrane domain contains an aspartic acid residue, and one contains a short cytoplasmic tail. The β chain contains, a single immunoreceptor tyrosine - based activation motif ITAM, in the cytoplasmic region. Each γ chain has one ITAM on the cytoplasmic region. The signaling cascade from the receptor is initiated when the ITAMs of the β and γ chains are phosphorylated by tyrosine. This signal is required for the activation of mast cells. Type 2 helper T cells, (Th2) and many other cell types lack the β chain, so signaling is mediated only by the γ chain. This is due to the α chain containing endoplasmic reticulum retention signals that causes the α - chains to remain degraded in the ER. The assembly of the α chain with the co-transfected β and γ chains mask the ER retention and allows the α β γ complex to be exported to the golgi apparatus to the plasma membrane in rats. In humans, only the γ complex is needed to counterbalance the α chain ER retention.
Allergen - mediated FcεR1 cross-linking signals are very similar to the signaling event resulting in antigen binding to lymphocytes. The Lyn tyrosine kinase is associated with the cytoplasmic end of the FcεR1 β chain. The antigen cross-links the FcεR1 molecules, and Lyn tyrosine kinase phosphorylates the ITAMs in the FcεR1 β and γ chain in the cytoplasm. Upon phosphorylation, the Syk tyrosine kinase gets recruited to the ITAMs located on the γ chains. This causes activation of the Syk tyrosine kinase, causing it to phosphorylate. Syk functions as a signal amplifying kinase activity due to the fact that it targets multiple proteins and causes their activation. This antigen stimulated phosphorylation causes the activation of other proteins in the FcεR1 - mediated signaling cascade.
An important adaptor protein activated by the Syk phosphorylation step is the linker for activation of T cells (LAT). LAT is important because it can be modified by phosphorylation to create novel binding sites. Phospholipase C (PLCγ), becomes phosphorylated once bound to LAT, and is then used to catalyze Phosphatidylinositol bisphosphate breakdown to yield inositol trisphosphate (IP3) and diacyglycerol (DAG). IP3 elevates calcium levels, and DAG activates protein kinase C (PKC). This is not the only way that PKC is made. The tyrosine kinase, FYN, phosphorylates a Grb - 2 - associated binder - like protein 2 (Gab2) which binds to phosphoinositide 3 - kinase which activates PKC. PKC leads to the activation of myosin light - chain phosphorylation granule movements which disassembles the actin - myosin complexes to allow granules to come into contact with the plasma membrane. The mast cell granule can now fuse with the plasma membrane. Soluble N - ethylmaleimide sensitive fusion Attachment Protein Receptor SNARE complex mediates this process. Different SNARE proteins interact to form different complexes that catalyze fusion. Rab3 guanosine triphosphatases and Rab - associated kinases and phosphatases regulate the cell granule membrane fusion in resting mast cells.
Mast cells are activated in response to infection by pathogenic parasites, such as certain helminths and protozoa, through IgE signaling.
Mast cell activation disorders are a spectrum of immune disorders that are unrelated to pathogenic infection and involve similar symptoms that arise from secreted mast cell intermediates, but differ slightly in their pathophysiology, treatment approach, and distinguishing symptoms. The classification of mast cell activation disorders was laid out in 2010.
Allergies are mediated through IgE signaling which triggers mast cell degranulation.
Many forms of cutaneous and mucosal allergy are mediated in large part by mast cells; they play a central role in asthma, eczema, itch (from various causes), and allergic rhinitis and allergic conjunctivitis. Antihistamine drugs act by blocking histamine action on nerve endings. Cromoglicate - based drugs (sodium cromoglicate, nedocromil) block a calcium channel essential for mast cell degranulation, stabilizing the cell and preventing release of histamine and related mediators. Leukotriene antagonists (such as montelukast and zafirlukast) block the action of leukotriene mediators and are being used increasingly in allergic diseases.
Calcium triggers the secretion of histamine from mast cells after previous exposure to sodium fluoride. The secretory process can be divided into a fluoride - activation step and a calcium - induced secretory step. It was observed that the fluoride - activation step is accompanied by an elevation of cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) levels within the cells. The attained high levels of cAMP persist during histamine release. It was further found that catecholamines do not markedly alter the fluoride - induced histamine release. It was also confirmed that the second, but not the first, step in sodium fluoride - induced histamine secretion is inhibited by theophylline. Vasodilation and increased permeability of capillaries are a result of both H1 and H2 receptor types.
Stimulation of histamine activates a histamine (H2) - sensitive adenylate cyclase of oxyntic cells, and there is a rapid increase in cellular (cAMP) that is involved in activation of H+ transport and other associated changes of oxyntic cells.
In anaphylaxis (a severe systemic reaction to allergens, such as nuts, bee stings, or drugs), the body - wide degranulation of mast cells leads to vasodilation and, if severe, symptoms of life - threatening shock.
Histamine is a vasodilatory substance released during anaphylaxis.
Mast cells may be implicated in the pathology associated with autoimmune, inflammatory disorders of the joints. They have been shown to be involved in the recruitment of inflammatory cells to the joints (e.g., rheumatoid arthritis) and skin (e.g., bullous pemphigoid), and this activity is dependent on antibodies and complement components.
Mastocytosis is a rare clonal mast cell disorder involving the presence of too many mast cells (mastocytes) and CD34 + mast cell precursors. Mutations in c - Kit are associated with mastocytosis.
Mastocytomas, or mast cell tumors, can secrete excessive quantities of degranulation products. They are often seen in dogs and cats. Other neoplastic disorders associated with mast cells include mast cell sarcoma and mast cell leukemia.
Mast cell activation syndrome (MCAS) is an idiopathic immune disorder that involves recurrent and excessive mast cell degranulation and which produces symptoms that are similar to other mast cell activation disorders. The syndrome is diagnosed based upon four sets of criteria involving treatment response, symptoms, a differential diagnosis, and biomarkers of mast cell degranulation.
Unlike other hematopoietic cells of the immune system, mast cells naturally occur in the human brain where they interact with the neuroimmune system. In the brain, mast cells are located in a number of structures that mediate visceral sensory (e.g., pain) or neuroendocrine functions or that are located along the blood -- cerebrospinal fluid barrier, including the pituitary stalk, pineal gland, thalamus, and hypothalamus, area postrema, choroid plexus, and in the dural layer of the meninges near meningeal nociceptors. Mast cells serve the same general functions in the body and central nervous system, such as effecting or regulating allergic responses, innate and adaptive immunity, autoimmunity, and inflammation. Across systems, mast cells serve as the main effector cell through which pathogens can affect the gut -- brain axis.
In the gastrointestinal tract, mucosal mast cells are located in close proximity to sensory nerve fibres, which communicate bidirectionally. When these mast cells initially degranulate, they release mediators (e.g., histamine, tryptase, and serotonin) which activate, sensitize, and upregulate membrane expression of nociceptors (i.e., TRPV1) on visceral afferent neurons via their receptors (respectively, HRH1, HRH2, HRH3, PAR2, 5 - HT3); in turn, neurogenic inflammation, visceral hypersensitivity, and intestinal dysmotility (i.e., impaired peristalsis) result. Neuronal activation induces neuropeptide (substance P and calcitonin gene - related peptide) signaling to mast cells where they bind to their associated receptors and trigger degranulation of a distinct set of mediators (β - Hexosaminidase, cytokines, chemokines, PGD2, leukotrienes, and eoxins).
Research into an immunological contribution to autism suggests that autism spectrum disorder (ASD) children may present with "allergic - like '' problems in the absence of elevated serum IgE and chronic urticaria, suggesting non-allergic mast cell activation in response to environmental and stress triggers. This mast cell activation could contribute to brain inflammation and neurodevelopmental problems.
Toluidine blue: one of the most common stains for acid mucopolysaccharides and glycoaminoglycans, components of mast cells granules.
Surface markers: cell surface markers of mast cells were discussed in detail by Heneberg, claiming that mast cells may be inadvertently included in the stem or progenitor cell isolates, since part of them is positive for the CD34 antigen. The classical mast cell markers include the high - affinity IgE receptor, CD117 (c - Kit), and CD203c (for most of the mast cell populations). Expression of some molecules may change in course of the mast cell activation.
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when did delhi became an important commercial centre | History of Delhi - Wikipedia
Chauhans of Shakambhari (1160 - 1206) Mamluk (1206 -- 1289) Khalji (1290 -- 1320) Tughlaqs (1320 -- 1413) Sayyids (1414 -- 51) Lodis (1451 -- 1526) Mughals (1526 -- 1540) Suris (1540 - 1553) Hindu - Hemu (1553 -- 56) Mughals (1556 - 1757) Marathas (1757 - 1803) Company Rule (1803 - 1857) British (1857 -- 1947) Government of India (1947 -- Present)
The Indian capital city of Delhi has a long history, and has been an important political centre of India as the capital of several empires. Much of Delhi 's ancient history finds no record and this may be regarded as a lost period of its history. Extensive coverage of Delhi 's history begins with the onset of the Delhi Sultanate in the 12th century. Since then, Delhi has been the centre of a succession of mighty empires and powerful kingdoms, making Delhi one of the longest serving Capitals and one of the oldest inhabited cities in the world. It is considered to be a city built, destroyed and rebuilt several times, as outsiders who successfully invaded the Indian Subcontinent would ransack the existing capital city in Delhi, and those who came to conquer and stay would be so impressed by the city 's strategic location as to make it their capital and rebuild it in their own way. The core of Delhi 's tangible heritage is Hindu, Islamic (spanning over seven centuries of Islamic rule over the city) with expansive British - era architecture in Lutyens ' Delhi dating to the British rule in India.
Significant prehistoric sites in Delhi include Anangpur (in the Badarpur region), as well as Harappan excavations near Narela and Nand Nagari. References to Delhi 's history in ancient literature are based on myths and legends. According to the Hindu epic Mahabharata, a city called Indraprastha, "City of the God Indra '', was the capital of the Pandavas. There is a strong belief that Purana Qila was built over the site of ancient Indraprastha. Northern Black Polished Ware (c. 700 - 200 BCE) have been excavated at the site, and pieces of Painted Grey Ware were found on the surface, suggesting an even older settlement, possibly going back to ca. 1000 BCE.
In 1966, an inscription of the Mauryan Emperor Ashoka (273 - 236 BCE) was discovered near Sriniwaspuri. Two sandstone pillars inscribed with the edicts of Ashoka were brought to by Firuz Shah Tughluq in the 14th century. The famous Iron pillar near the Qutub Minar was commissioned by the emperor Kumara Gupta I of the Gupta dynasty (320 - 540 CE) and transplanted to Delhi during the 10th century.
It is popularly said that Delhi was the site for a total of seven different cities between 3000 BCE and the 17th century BCE, although taking smaller towns and strongholds into account, as many as 15 settlements can be identified. All the earlier locations of Delhi fall within an area commonly called the ' Delhi Triangle, ' bounded on the south and the west by the Aravalli Range, known as the Delhi Ridge, and to the east by the Yamuna River.
Notable settlements to have been established in the region include:
Modern Delhi, referred to as ' Dilli ' locally, derived from its historical name Dhili, is an amalgam all of the above. Officially, however, only seven of the above - mentioned settlements are recognised as historical cities with distinct identities and indigenous heritage: Qila Rai Pithora, Mehrauli, Siri, Tughlaqabad, Ferozabad, Dinpanah and Shahjahanabad.
The rest are not officially identified as Cities of Delhi because of some specific reasons.
According to Indian folklore, Delhi was the site of the magnificent and opulent Indraprastha, capital of the Pandavas in the Indian epic Mahabharata, founded around 3500 BC. It was, one of the five prasthas or ` plains ', which included Sonepat, Panipat, Tilpat (near Faridabad), and Baghpat. 16th - century, Persian historian, Firishta, recorded a tradition that Delhi or Dilli was founded by a Raja Dhilu before the Yavana (Greek) invasions. However, it should be noted that the kings then referred to the initial Muslim invaders as Yavanas.
Hindu texts state that the city of Delhi used to be referred to in Sanskrit as Hasthinapur, which means "elephant - city ''. The name Delhi may be derived from the word ' Dhillika ', though there are other theories. According to Satyarth Prakash (1874) of Swami Dayanand, Raja Dhilu (King Dihlu) founded ancient Delhi in 800 BCE. It was the name of the first medieval township of Delhi, located on the southwestern border of the present Delhi, in Mehrauli. This was the first in the series of seven medieval cities. It is also known as Yoginipura, that is, the fortress of the Yoginis (female divinities). It gained importance during the time of Anangpal Tomar. In the 12th century, the city was included in the dominions of Prithviraj Chauhan.
Pasanaha Chariu of Vibudh Shridhar (VS 1189 - 1230) an Apabhramsha writer, provides the first reference to the legend of the origin of the name Dhilli for Delhi.
हरियाणए देसे असंखगाम, गामियण जणि अणवरथ काम परचक्क विहट्टणु सिरिसंघट्टणु, जो सुरव इणा परिगणियं रिउ रुहिरावट्टणु बिउलु पवट्टणु, ढिल्ली नामेण जि भणियं
Translation: There are countless villages in Haryana country. The villagers there work hard. They do n't accept domination of others, and are experts in making the blood of their enemies flow. Indra himself praises this country. The capital of this country is Dhilli.
जहिं असिवर तोडिय रिउ कवालु, णरणाहु पसिद्धउ अणंगवालु वलभर कम्पाविउ णायरायु, माणिणियण मणसंजनीय
Translation: The ruler Anangapal is famous, he can slay his enemies with his sword. The weight (of the Iron pillar) caused the Nagaraj to shake.
A VS 1383 inscription in Delhi Museum confirms the founding of Delhi by the Tomars:
देशोऽस्ति हरियानाख्यो पॄथिव्यां स्वर्गसन्निभः ढिल्लिकाख्या पुरी तत्र तोमरैरस्ति निर्मिता
Prithviraj Raso also confirms the founding by the Tomars and the legend of the loose nail:
हुं गड्डि गयौ किल्ली सज्जीव हल्लाय करी ढिल्ली सईव फिरि व्यास कहै सुनि अनंगराइ भवितव्य बात मेटी न जाइ
According to legends, the Tomar dynasty founded Lal Kot in 736. The Prithviraj Raso names the Tomar king Anangpal as the founder of Lal Kot, whose name is inscribed on Iron Pillar of Delhi at Qutb complex, ascribed to Chandra or Chandragupta II. Anangpal Tomar is often described as the founder of Delhi, built the citadel some 10 kilometres from Suraj Kund.
The Chahamana (Chauhan) kings of Ajmer conquered Lal Kot in 1180 and renamed it Qila Rai Pithora.
The Chauhan king Prithviraj III was defeated in 1192 by Muhammad Ghori.
From 1206, Delhi became the capital of the Delhi Sultanate under the Slave Dynasty. The first Sultan of Delhi, Qutb - ud - din Aybak, was a former slave who rose through the ranks to become a general, a governor and then Sultan of Delhi. Qutb - ud - din started the construction of the Qutub Minar, a recognisable symbol of Delhi, to commemorate his victory but died before its completion. In the Qutb complex he also constructed the Quwwat - al - Islam (might of Islam), which is the earliest extant mosque in India. He was said to have destroyed twenty - seven Jain temples initially housed in the Qutb complex and pillaged exquisitely carved pillars and building material from their debris for this mosque, many of which can still be seen. After the end of the Slave dynasty, a succession of Turkic Central Asian and Afghan dynasties, the Khalji dynasty, the Tughluq dynasty, the Sayyid dynasty and the Lodi dynasty held power in the late medieval period and built a sequence of forts and townships in Delhi.
In 1398, Timur Lang invaded India on the pretext that the Muslim sultans of Delhi were too tolerant of their Hindu subjects. After defeating the armies of Nasiruddin Mahmud of Tughlaq dynasty, on 15 December 1398, Timur entered Delhi on 18 December 1398, and the city was sacked, destroyed, and left in ruins, and over 100,000 war prisoners were killed as well. In 1526, following the First Battle of Panipat, Zahiruddin Babur, the former ruler of Fergana, defeated the last Afghan Lodi sultan and founded the Mughal dynasty which ruled from Delhi, Agra and Lahore.
In the mid-16th century there was an interruption in the Mughal rule of India as Sher Shah Suri defeated Babur 's son Humayun and forced him to flee to Persia. Sher Shah Suri built the sixth city of Delhi, as well as the old fort known as Purana Qila, even though this city was settled since the ancient era. After Sher Shah Suri 's death in 1545, his son Islam Shah took the reins of north India from Delhi. Islam Shah ruled from Delhi till 1553 when Hindu king Hem Chandra Vikramaditya, also called Hemu, became the Prime Minister and Chief of Army of Adil Shah. Hem Chandra fought and won 22 battles in all against rebels and twice against Akbar 's army in Agra and Delhi, without losing any. After defeating Akbar 's army on 7 October 1556 at Tughlakabad fort area in Battle of Delhi (1556), Hemu acceded to Delhi throne and established Hindu Raj in North India for a brief period, and was bestowed with the title ' Vikramaditya ', at his coronation in Purana Quila, Delhi.
The third and greatest Mughal emperor, Akbar, moved the capital to Agra, resulting in a decline in the fortunes of Delhi. In the mid-17th century, the Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan (1628 -- 1658) built the city that sometimes bears his name Shahjahanabad, the seventh city of Delhi that is more commonly known as the old city or old Delhi. This city contains a number of significant architectural features, including the Red Fort (Lal Qila) and the Jama Masjid. The old city served as the capital of the later Mughal Empire from 1638 onwards, when Shah Jahan transferred the capital back from Agra. Aurangzeb (1658 -- 1707) crowned himself as emperor in Delhi in 1658 at the Shalimar garden (' Aizzabad - Bagh) with a second coronation in 1659. After 1680, the Mughal Empire 's influence declined rapidly as the Hindu Maratha Empire rose to prominence.
In 1737, Bajirao I marched towards Delhi with a huge army. The Marathas defeated the Mughals in the First Battle of Delhi. The Maratha forces sacked Delhi following their victory against the Mughals. In 1739, the Mughal Empire lost the huge Battle of Karnal in less than three hours against the numerically outnumbered but military superior Persian army led by Nader Shah during his invasion after which he completely sacked and looted Delhi, the Mughal capital, followed by massacre for 2 days, killing over 30,000 civilians and carrying away immense wealth including the Peacock Throne, the Daria - i - Noor, and Koh - i - Noor. Nader eventually agreed to leave the city and India after forcing the Mughal emperor Muhammad Shah I to beg him for mercy and granting him the keys of the city and the royal treasury. A treaty signed in 1752 made Marathas the protector of the Mughal throne at Delhi.
Ahmad Shah Durrani invaded North India for the fourth time in early 1757. He entered Delhi in January 1757 and kept the Mughal emperor under arrest. In August 1757, the Marathas once again attacked Delhi, decisively defeating Najib - ud - Daula and his Rohilla Afghan army in the Second Battle of Delhi. Thus, the Marathas established full control over the city.
In 1803, during the Second Anglo - Maratha War, the forces of British East India Company defeated the Maratha forces in the Third Battle of Delhi, ending the Maratha rule over the city. As a result, Delhi came under the control of British East India Company. Between 1836 and 1858, Delhi was a part of what then known as the North - Western Provinces.
Delhi passed into the direct control of British Government in 1857 after the Indian Rebellion of 1857. The city received significant damage during the 1857 siege. Afterwards, the last titular Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar II was exiled to Rangoon and the remaining Mughal territories were annexed as a part of British India.
Calcutta was declared the capital of British India but in 1911 at the Delhi Durbar of 1911, held at the Coronation Park, King George V announced the shifting of the capital back to Delhi. Parts of the old city were New Delhi, a monumental new quarter of the city designed by the British architect Edwin Lutyens to house the government buildings was inaugurated in 1931 after its construction was delayed due to World War I. New Delhi was officially declared as the seat of the Government of India after independence in 1947. During the Partition of India thousands of Hindu and Sikh refugees from West Punjab migrated to Delhi, and subsequently settled in North and West Delhi areas, while Hindus from East Pakistan, settled in the late 1960s at EPDP Colony (EPDP: East Pakistan Displaced Persons) in South Delhi, later named Chittaranjan Park in the 1980s.
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kuch kuch hota hai all star cast name | Kuch Kuch Hota Hai - wikipedia
Kuch Kuch Hota Hai (English: Something... Something Happens) also known as KKHH, is a 1998 Indian Hindi coming - of - age romantic comedy drama film, released in India and the United Kingdom on 16 October 1998. It was written and directed by Karan Johar, and starred the popular on - screen pair of Shah Rukh Khan and Kajol in their fourth film together. Rani Mukerji featured in a supporting role, while Salman Khan also had an extended - cameo appearance. Sana Saeed, who was featured in a supporting role, made her film debut in this movie.
Filmed in India, Mauritius, and Scotland, this was Karan Johar 's directorial debut. One of his goals for the film was to set a new level for style in Hindi cinema. The plot combines two love triangles set years apart. The first half covers friends on a college campus, while the second tells the story of a widower 's young daughter who tries to reunite her dad with his old friend.
The film was successful in India and abroad, becoming the highest - grossing Indian film of the year and the third highest - grossing Indian film ever behind Hum Aapke Hain Koun...! and Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge. Outside India, the film was the highest grossing Hindi film ever until its record was broken by Karan 's next directorial, Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham... (2001).
Kuch Kuch Hota Hai received a positive reception from critics, with special praise directed to Kajol 's performance. The soundtrack also became the biggest seller of the year. The film won many major awards including the National Film Award for Best Popular Film Providing Wholesome Entertainment and the "Best Film '' honor at the Filmfare Awards, Zee Cine Awards, Screen Awards, and Bollywood Movie Awards. The film won 8 Filmfare Awards and is the only film in history to win all the four acting category awards at the ceremony (Best Actor, Best Actress, Best Supporting Actor and Best Supporting Actress).
The film begins with Rahul Khanna (Shah Rukh Khan) standing in front of the funeral pyre of his wife Tina (Rani Mukerji). Through a series of flashbacks we are shown Rahul and Tina 's marriage, their honeymoon, Tina 's pregnancy with their daughter and the child 's eventual birth. It is revealed that Tina was aware of complications in her pregnancy, during which only mother or child could be saved, but decided not to tell Rahul as she knew how much he wanted a child. During her pregnancy, Tina, who also loved the baby more than her own life, writes eight letters to her daughter (one for each of her first eight birthdays) and gives them to Rahul 's mother (Farida Jalal). Before dying, Tina asks Rahul to promise her to name their daughter Anjali.
Eight years go by and Rahul is a single parent living with his daughter Anjali Khanna (Sana Saeed) and his mother. His mother worries that Rahul is lonely and that Anjali is missing out on a motherly figure in her life, but Rahul brushes it off saying that having him and his mother is enough. On her eighth birthday, Anjali reads the last and most important letter that her mother left her; it tells the story of Rahul, Tina and Anjali.
A flashback begins from St. Xavier 's College, where Rahul Khanna and his best friend, tomboy Anjali Sharma (Kajol) are popular students. The two are close friends but deny any romantic feelings for each other. The college principal Mr. Malhotra (Anupam Kher) states that his daughter Tina is coming to St. Xavier 's from London to finish her degree, and asks Anjali to be her guide and friend. Tina quickly becomes friends with Anjali and Rahul, and Rahul constantly flirts with Tina, trying to win her over. As time goes by, Anjali realises that she is in love with Rahul, and is encouraged by her motherly guardian Rifat Bi (Himani Shivpuri) to tell him. Before she is able to declare her feelings for him, Rahul instead tells Anjali that he is in love with Tina. Devastated, Anjali decides to leave college and shares a tearful goodbye with Rahul. Although she is in love with Rahul, Tina realises that she came between him and Anjali.
Back in the present, Tina explains in her letter to her daughter Anjali Khanna that Rahul always said that love is friendship, and without friendship there can be no love. Rahul is a single parent and lacks a friend in his life, so Tina gives her daughter the mission of reuniting Rahul with Anjali and bringing back Rahul 's lost love and friend. The next day, Rahul, Anjali Khanna and his mom head to Faridabad where they meet Mr. Malhotra for Tina 's death anniversary, where Anjali shows them, except for Rahul, her mother 's letters...
Anjali Sharma is no longer the tomboy she was in college, she has become a beautiful woman and is now engaged to Aman Mehra (Salman Khan), an NRI living in London. However, she explains to her mother (Reema Lagoo) that she does not really love him and is marrying him as a compromise as she feels she can never love again after losing Rahul. Aman also suspects that she does not really love him. Determined to reunite her father and his best friend, Anjali Khanna and her grandmother search for Anjali Sharma and soon learn that she is going to be working at a summer camp in Shimla. Rahul tells his daughter that she is not allowed to attend the summer camp and heads to a conference, only to find out that his mom and daughter went without telling him, having left a letter for him. They travel to the camp, with a plan to later lure Rahul to come as well, and the two Anjalis meet each other. One night while watching television, Anjali Sharma realizes she has met Rahul 's daughter, and that Tina is dead. Rahul soon arrives at Camp Sunshine, after his daughter fakes a fever, where he and Anjali Sharma are surprised and delighted to see each other again, sharing a sweet reunion. Throughout the days spent at the camp, Rahul and Anjali feel themselves falling in love. Just as they are about to share a heated moment, Anjali thinks about her upcoming engagement and feels guilty. She runs away in tears, after which Aman arrives and tells Rahul that he is Anjali 's fiancé. Rahul is heartbroken but congratulates Anjali. She takes this as him rejecting her again, so she leaves the summer camp and decides to get married to Aman as soon as possible.
After seeing Tina in a dream, Rahul and his family go to Anjali 's wedding, where Rahul silently confesses to Anjali that he loves her, and watches in tears as she is brought forth for the wedding. Realising this, Anjali is hesitant to go on with the marriage, and stands weeping. Aman notices the tears in her eyes and realises that she has always been in love with Rahul. He releases Anjali from the engagement and tells her to marry Rahul. Rahul and Anjali have an emotional hug and as the two marry, little Anjali Khanna sees a vision of Tina, who is smiling and giving her the thumbs up. Rahul and Anjali Sharma get married.
After the experience of assisting and acting in his cousin Aditya Chopra 's directorial debut, the romance film Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge, Karan Johar was encouraged to try his own hand at directing. With Kuch Kuch Hota Hai, he chose to pair up the same lead actors, Shah Rukh Khan and Kajol, for his own romance film. During the filming of Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge, Khan had also encouraged Johar to make his own film, and said that he would be willing to star in it.
Johar first wrote a story, which was a love triangle between a tomboy, a very pretty girl and a slightly insensitive boy, but he shelved the idea because he was not very satisfied with it. Then he wrote another plot about a widower and his child, which he shelved as well. Eventually he decided to merge the two stories into one. He explained in an interview with Rediff.com: "It was about the trauma of a widower and his little child. How the child really wants a mother and how she brings her mother into her father 's life. Then I thought: Why not bring a youth aspect to the story? Why not a flashback? That 's how the story got made. '' The story also includes a "personal desires vs. parental loyalties '' theme, and has some "East meets West '' themes, but instead of the characters going abroad, it creates a virtual West inside India.
Karan Johar was certain from the beginning that he wanted to cast Shah Rukh Khan in the lead role, having observed him during the making of Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge. It took longer to fill the role of Tina. The role was written with Twinkle Khanna in mind, but she turned it down. Other actresses such as Tabu, Shilpa Shetty, Urmila Matondkar, Aishwarya Rai, Raveena Tandon and Karisma Kapoor were offered the role but also turned it down. Aditya Chopra and Shah Rukh Khan noticed Rani Mukerji 's beauty and acting talent in Raja Ki Aayegi Baraat, and suggested her to Karan Johar. He thus signed her, giving a boost to her career. Saif Ali Khan, Ajay Devgan and Chandrachur Singh were initially offered the role of Aman, but they all turned it down, thus prompting Johar to rope in Salman Khan.
Johar, who is also a costume designer, wanted to set a new level for style in Hindi cinema with this film. He and his friend Manish Malhotra, the film 's costume designer, made trips to London for costumes, much to the chagrin of his father and producer Yash Johar, who was concerned about the budget. Many of the costumes in the film prominently displayed logos from designers such as DKNY and Polo. In addition to the designer fashions, Johar also created a somewhat fantastical world where the students speak Hinglish and enjoy a pristine college campus, where there is no crime or hate, and traditional Hindu values are pervasive. Johar admitted that the look and feel of the college scenes in the film were patterned after Beverly Hills 90210, saying, "The art, the costumes, tilt toward the West, but the soul of the film is Indian. '' He hired Sharmishta Roy as art director, and told her to produce something similar to Riverdale High School of the Archie Comics, with some 90210 influence as well. Johar said of the outcome, "If you see KKHH, Shahrukh plays Archie, Rani Mukherji plays Veronica, and Kajol played Betty. It was exactly that. And the principal looked like Weatherbee, and Ms. Grundy was Archana Puran Singh. '' Johar also hired Farah Khan to do the choreography, Jatin - Lalit to provide the music, Santosh Thundiyil as cinematographer, and Nikhil Advani as his associate director. Shabina Khan assisted Manish Malhotra with costume design.
Filming began on 21 October 1997. The crew was young and inexperienced to the point where Shah Rukh Khan had to explain basic technicalities of filming. Khan later said, "Karan makes no bones of the fact that his technical knowledge of filmmaking was not at its peak when he made the biggest hit of the decade. '' The entire film was shot in nine and half months with a substantial part of it shot in Mauritius. The title song was filmed over a ten - day period. in several picturesque locations in Scotland, including Eilean Donan, Glen Coe, Loch Lomond and Tantallon Castle with the nearby Bass Rock as a backdrop in one scene.
During the bicycle sequence in the "Yeh Ladka Hai Deewana '' song, Kajol lost control of her bike, fell flat on her face and was knocked unconscious while also injuring her knee. During the promotional Making of Kuch Kuch Hota Hai TV special, Kajol stated that the accident was her most memorable part of shooting the film because she does n't remember it. During preparation for the reunion scene where the two leads met after more than 8 years apart, the director told them to improvise and rehearse the reactions that they might use, but he secretly taped them, and was so pleased with the result that it was put into the film.
The Kuch Kuch Hota Hai soundtrack was composed by Jatin - Lalit and the lyrics were penned by Sameer. It was released by the Sony Music label on 13 August 1998. Mukul Deshpande of Planet Bollywood rated the soundtrack 8.5 out of 10 stars although he did not like all of the songs. The album became the best selling Bollywood soundtrack of the year. The title song remained on the Indian music charts for over a year, and the album peaked at number 2 on the Malaysian albums chart (RIM) in 1999. In 2012 it was voted as the most popular film song of the previous decade by NDTV. The full soundtrack came in second place in a similar poll conducted by the BBC, the first place being taken by Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge, an album which was also composed by Jatin - Lalit.
While the film was still untitled, Javed Akhtar was signed to write the lyrics, and even wrote and recorded one song. However, when the movie was titled Kuch Kuch Hota Hai, he found the title mediocre, obscene, and vulgar and decided to quit the project. Akhtar later regretted leaving the film, as he found it decent and could see that the title has become quite a buzz - word, realizing that he was the only one who disliked the title.
While comparing the film to Dil To Pagal Hai of 1997, Nikhat Kazmi of The Times of India gave Kuch Kuch Hota Hai 3.5 out of 5 stars. She especially liked the performance of Kajol, and thought that the film would appeal to young and romantic viewers primarily for its "MTV ambiance '' and "Valentine Day flavours ''. On the negative side, she said "The second half however gets drowned in a sea of emotions. Too many people begin to cry a bit too much. '' Anish Khanna of Planet Bollywood rated the film 9.5 out of 10 stars, calling it "pure escapist cinema at its best. '' He praised the cinematography, choreography, set decoration, and also raved over Kajol 's performance, along with her onscreen chemistry with Shah Rukh Khan. Overall, he said "Karan Johar makes an impressive directorial debut, has a good script sense, and knows how to make a film with S-T-Y-L-E. '' In contrast to these views, the reaction of Sujata CJ, writing for Rediff.com, was that the film was very disappointing, with many cliches and a bad story line, though Santosh Thundiyil and Sharmishta Roy were praised for their camerawork and art direction, respectively. Nandita Chowdhury in a review for India Today, said that Karan Johar was almost able to rekindle the Khan - Kajol magic of Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge, and that overall the film was "a good distraction ''.
There were great expectations for Kuch Kuch Hota Hai leading up to its premiere, because it re-united the Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge team of Shah Rukh Khan and Kajol, and specifically concerning the debut of Karan Johar, whether he would be in the same league as Aditya Chopra as a first - time writer / director.
The film grossed ₹ 80.12 crore (US $12 million) in India and $6.3 million (₹ 26.61 crore) in other countries, for a worldwide total of ₹ 1.06 billion (US $16 million), against its ₹ 10 crore (US $1.5 million) budget, and became the third film to gross over ₹ 1 billion (US $15 million) worldwide after Hum Aapke Hain Koun...! and Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge. It had a worldwide opening weekend of ₹ 8.06 crore (US $1.2 million), and grossed ₹ 15.13 crore (US $2.3 million) in its first week. It is the highest - grossing Bollywood film of 1998 worldwide.
It opened on Friday, 16 October 1998, across 240 screens, along with Bade Miyan Chote Miyan and earned ₹ 87 lakh (US $130,000) nett on its opening day. It grossed ₹ 2.74 crore (US $420,000) nett in its opening weekend, and went on to record the second highest first week of the year with collections around ₹ 5.64 crore (US $860,000) nett after Bade Miyan Chote Miyan which grossed ₹ 6.33 crore (US $970,000) nett. The film earned a total of ₹ 46.86 crore (US $7.2 million) nett, plus a distributor share of ₹ 29.88 crore (US $4.6 million), and was declared an "All Time Blockbuster '' by Box Office India. It is the highest - grossing film of 1998 in India.
It had an opening weekend of $800,000 (₹ 3.38 crore) and went on to gross $1.3 million (₹ 5.49 crore) in its first week. It became the first film to cross $5 million mark outside India, and became the highest grosser ever that time. The film earned a total of $6.3 million (₹ 26.61 crore) at the end of its theatrical run. It became the second Bollywood film to break into the UK cinema top 10 after Dil Se... which released the same year. It was a bigger box office success than Titanic when it was screened in Indonesia. Overseas, It is the highest - grossing film of 1998.
Kuch Kuch Hota Hai won many awards, including sweeping all the major categories at the year 's Filmfare Awards, held on 21 February 1999. It was the third film to win the four major awards (Best Film, Best Director, Best Actor and Best Actress) at Filmfare. Others include Guide (1966), Dilwale Dulhaniya Le Jayenge (1995) (also starring Shahrukh Khan and Kajol), Devdas (2002) and Black (2005).
Kuch Kuch Hota Hai was the subject of reviews and critical analysis following its initial release. Fuad Omar called it a phenomenal debut for director Karan Johar; he said that the film has a memorable "feelgood factor ''. Subhash K Jha called the film "a simple stylish, sensuous and ambrosial love story, '' further adding that the chemistry between the lead pair was unbeatable. A reviewer for Timeout Film Guide, while commenting that the second love triangle went on too long, liked most of the film, saying that "its performances, camerawork, storytelling and extensive musical numbers (are) all energetically colourful. '' In 2004, Meor Shariman of The Malay Mail called the film a "must watch '' for Bollywood fans, and also for those seeking an introduction to Bollywood. The film has also been criticized for creating unreal worlds and characters, to which Johar has said that this was part of his vision of escapism.
A few years after its release, Sony purchased satellite rights for the film for ₹ 4 crore. The film was also released on VHS, DVD, and eventually Blu - ray. Now Kuch Kuch Hota Hai, along with Johar 's second film Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham..., often play on television to consistently high ratings. Johar said, "It 's gratifying to know that they 've aged well and passed the test of time. '' One of the best examples of the iconic status of Kuch Kuch Hota Hai was the 2012 film Shirin Farhad Ki Toh Nikal Padi. Farah Khan and Boman Irani re-created scenes and characters from KKHH for posters to promote their film, and also paid homage in one of the songs, "Ramba Mein Samba ''. In 2010, Kuch Kuch Hota Hai was selected by Time as one of their "Five Essential Bollywood movies to Netflix ''.
Koochie Koochie Hota Hai is an animated remake of the original, directed by Tarun Mansukhani. Shahrukh Khan, Kajol, Rani Mukherjee, Anupam Kher are reprising their roles as Rahul aka Rocky, Anjali aka Angie, Tina, and the Principal. New cast members include Uday Chopra, Ritesh Deshmukh, Sanjay Dutt and Simi Garewal. The story will have an anthropomorphic animal cast. As of October 2012, Karan Johar has placed the project on permanent hold. He said, "Animation films are not working nowadays, so as of now I have kept it on stand - by. ''
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who makes the flags for the white house | Flag of the President of the United States - wikipedia
The flag of the President of the United States consists of the presidential coat of arms on a dark blue background. While having the same design as the presidential seal since 1945, the flag has a separate history, and the designs on the flag and seal have at different times influenced each other. The flag is often displayed by the President in official photos, flown next to the coffin of the President in official funeral processions, and flown on the President 's motorcade. The flag is never flown at half - staff. The current flag is defined in Executive Order 10860:
The Color and Flag of the President of the United States shall consist of a dark blue rectangular background of sizes and proportions to conform to military and naval custom, on which shall appear the Coat of Arms of the President in proper colors. The proportions of the elements of the Coat of Arms shall be in direct relation to the hoist, and the fly shall vary according to the customs of the military and naval services.
Attached to the order were illustrations of the seal and flag, and also a set of "specifications '' for the flag, which defines more precise colors for the elements than does the blazon of the coat of arms:
Flag base -- blue.
Stars, large and small -- white. Shield:
Eagle:
Arrows -- white, shaded gray. Olive branch:
Rays -- yellow. Clouds -- white, shaded gray. Scroll -- white with gray shadows. Letters -- black.
All dimensions are exclusive of heading and hems. Device to appear on both sides of flag but will appear reversed on reverse side of flag, except that the motto shall read from left to right on both sides.
During the committee discussions which eventually led to the Flag Act of 1818, an additional flag was proposed which was to indicate the President 's presence at places he visited. The design divided the flag into four quarters (like the British royal standard): the upper left was the white stars on a blue background (same as the national flag); the lower left had a Goddess of Liberty on a white background; the upper right had an eagle emblem on a white background, and the lower right had the thirteen red and white stripes. This flag was not seriously considered and was not adopted. Samuel Chester Reid, who proposed this design, made a drawing of it years later which showed the eagle and Liberty in switched positions, and had the stars arranged in a larger star.
It is possible that distinctive flags were occasionally used to represent the President on individual occasions; there are claims that a special flag was used during a trip by President Jackson to New York City in 1832, and a description of a "square, plain blue flag '' used on a boat in the Brooklyn naval yard while transporting President Martin Van Buren on July 15, 1839.
An 1848 British flag book by John William Norie, and also the 1853 The Illustrated London Geography by Joseph Guy, have similar illustrations of a flag labeled as being the U.S. president 's flag. Neither book reveals any further information about this flag, and such a flag is not mentioned in the Army Institute of Heraldry 's detailed page on presidential flags nor other books on the flag 's history. The design is simply a version of the national coat of arms (i.e. the obverse of the Great Seal), which was a common motif for flags representing heads of state and also the same basic concept used in the later presidential flag of the Navy. Both depictions also use an arc of clouds for the crest, a style which was later (and still is) used on the presidential seal. The 1848 book shows a 26 - star U.S. flag, which was in use from 1837 to 1845 (the depicted presidential flag also has 26 stars).
As the President is Commander - in - Chief of the Army and Navy, each service developed its own tradition of honoring the President, which eventually led each to design their own presidential flag. This did not happen until the late 19th century however, and the Navy at first used existing flags for their ceremonies.
The first record in regulations to prescribe a flag for the President was the 1858 Signals for the Use of the United States Navy, which specified that the union jack (the canton of the national flag by itself, i.e. blue with white stars for all the states) should be flown at the mainmast to signify the presence of the commander - in - chief. In 1863, this was changed to use the national flag instead, but in 1864 was reverted so that once again the jack was used. The Naval Regulations of April 18, 1865, switched back to use the national flag, specifying it should be flown both from the mainmast while the President is aboard a ship, and also on the bow of boats on which he embarks. The 1866 Naval Signal Code (possibly not in effect until 1867) changed back to use the union flag, and on December 31, 1869, the change was reverted yet again, with the national ensign being flown on a ship while the President was aboard. This practice continued until 1882.
In the spring of 1882, Chester Arthur noted that the heads of state of many other countries had their own flag, but the President of the United States did not. His cabinet agreed, and Arthur himself apparently decided on the final design. On August 9, 1882, the Navy issued the order: "The flag of the President of the United States shall consist of a blue ground with arms of the United States in the center, and shall be of the dimensions prescribed for the admiral 's flag (10.2 by 14.4 feet (3.1 m × 4.4 m)). The flag shall be hoisted at the main of vessels of war while the President is on board, and shall be carried in the bow of his boat. ''
An illustration of the flag was published in the 1882 Flags of Maritime Nations, a Navy publication. As this was before the 1885 redesign of the Great Seal, this flag showed an eagle with bent legs, somewhat like the Great Seal design at the time. The crest of the coat of arms was omitted however, and instead an arc of thirteen stars was used, above the eagle and on either side of the wings. The eagle, arrows, and olive branch were all in white.
The flag was first used by Arthur on a trip to Florida in 1883. It was used primarily aboard boats, such as on the presidential yacht USS Dolphin in 1893 for a naval fleet review during celebrations related to the 400th anniversary of Columbus. There were some exceptions though, such as during the centennial of Washington 's inauguration in 1889, and by a hotel proprietor during a presidential trip to New York City in 1897.
At some point before the turn of the century (possibly in 1897; the 1899 Flags of Maritime Nations showed the new version), the design on the flag was changed to match the Tiffany design of the Great Seal and be in full color. The text of the naval orders did not change, as this was a change in the coat of arms itself. This design was used by the Navy until 1916.
In early 1898, during the lead - up to the Spanish -- American War and following its first flag for an individual (the Secretary of War) in 1897, it was noted that the Army did not have its own flag for the president, the commander - in - chief. The Navy flag was too similar to the Army infantry flag (which was also primarily the Great Seal on a blue background), so a different design was needed.
Frederick D. Owen, a civilian engineer working in the War Department, came up with a flag which met the approval of Secretary of War Alger and President McKinley, and was officially announced by General Orders No. 13 on March 28, 1898. The order specified both a presidential flag, and a presidential color of the same design. The color was more meant for ceremonial purposes, was smaller than the flag, made of silk, and had a gold and silver fringed border. The dimensions of the flag were 8 by 13 feet (2.4 m × 4.0 m), and the dimensions of the color were 4 by 6.5 feet (1.2 m × 2.0 m).
The flag was scarlet, with a large blue star in the middle outlined in white which contained the Great Seal. There were four white stars in each corner, and scattered between the angles of the large central star were 45 small white stars, representing the 45 states. This flag was placed in the cabinet room in the White House during the war, and was first shown in public during peace jubilee celebrations in Chicago and Philadelphia in October, 1898.
In 1908, following the admission of Oklahoma as a state, a 46th star was added at the bottom. One of these flags was given to Theodore Roosevelt as a gift, and one hangs today in Roosevelt 's home at Sagamore Hill.
In March 1901, the German naval attaché in Washington inquired as to the proper use of the flags when rendering honors abroad, as having two flags to represent a head of state was a unique situation. After discussions, and perhaps influenced by Secretary of State John Hay who noted that the Navy flag had come first and claimed that McKinley had never approved the Army version, President Roosevelt decided that there should only be one official flag for the president and chose the Navy 's version. On November 12, 1901, Roosevelt 's secretary sent out a letter with the decision, saying it was primarily because the Navy flag was older. While the Army later updated its regulations to use the Navy design for its flag, they retained their own definition of the presidential color, so its design lived on and was still used in many situations.
Subsequently, a third flag was designed and introduced in May 1902. This flag also showed the Great Seal on a blue background, like the Navy flag, but the eagle, scroll, and arrows were depicted in pure white outlined in black. The crest above the eagle 's head was also different; instead of a ring of clouds the constellation of stars was only surrounded by a circular set of rays. This flag was supposedly to be used in times of peace only, with the original two flags still being used by their respective services in times of war. Several photos show this design was in fact used, such as at a Columbus Day celebration in 1912, on the presidential yacht Mayflower during a naval review in New York Harbor on October 14, 1912, and in a 1914 magazine article about the flag - making operation at the New York Navy Yard, where the flag is described as taking a full month to make (the longest of any of their flags). However, the Navy flag with the full - color eagle was also used during this period, as seen in photographs during the July 1911 groundbreaking for the Panama - California Exposition.
The full - color Navy version as used in 1911
The third, 1902 flag flying on the USS Mayflower in 1912
A 1902 type flag being made in 1914
In 1912, President Taft appointed a Flag Board to discuss aspects of the upcoming 48 - star flag. As part of their recommendations, they noted that there were two official flags used for the president, though incorrectly stating the designs were identical except for the background color (red for the Army flag and blue for the Navy), and recommended that a single presidential flag be adopted. Taft subsequently issued Executive Order 1556 on June 24, 1912, and an updated Executive Order 1637 on October 29, which defined the precise dimensions of the 48 - star flag. Both orders additionally state that "the color of the field of the President 's Flag shall be blue ''. This left the Navy flag unchanged, but did force a change in the Army version, and so on February 20, 1913 an order was duly issued which switched the background of the Army presidential color to blue and the color of the star in the middle to scarlet. A 46th star had previously been added to the Army color in 1908, and the blue version was also updated to have 48 stars.
On September 29, 1915, President Wilson watched a march by the Grand Army of the Republic where the reviewing stand displayed both the presidential flag and the Army 's presidential color. Afterwards, this led to discussions on the situation which (among others) included Assistant Secretary of the Navy Franklin D. Roosevelt and the Aide to the Secretary of the Navy Byron McCandless. According to McCandless, when asked for suggestions on a design for a single presidential flag, he suggested adding four white stars in the corners of the Navy flag, which would differentiate the flag enough from the infantry colors to make it acceptable for use by the Army. Wilson liked the idea, but wanted the president 's eagle (from the presidential seal, which faced to its left) on the flag instead of the Great Seal. To demonstrate this, Wilson showed McCandless the Martiny plaque of the presidential seal then in the floor of the Entrance Hall of the White House, and also a full - color print of the seal he had likely obtained from the Philadelphia firm of Bailey Banks & Biddle. This print was used as the basis for the official drawings of the new flag.
On May 29, 1916, President Wilson issued Executive Order 2390, which officially changed to the new design. The eagle was almost entirely white with black stitching, except for the beak, legs and feet which were in yellow. The arrows were also white, though the olive branch was in color (green leaves and light green olives). There were thirteen clearly defined white cloud puffs in an arc, with the rays of the glory in gold. There were four large stars, one in each corner. The dimensions were 10.2 by 16 feet (3.1 m × 4.9 m).
The next revisions of the Navy and Army regulations changed their definitions of the flag (and in the Army 's case, the color as well) to conform to the new design, meaning there finally was just one presidential flag, and it was used until 1945.
The flag was changed by President Truman in 1945, a process which began with inquiries by President Roosevelt (who had been involved with the creation of the 1916 flag) shortly before his death. The new flag used the same basic design for the eagle, except (in response to some heraldic criticisms) changed the eagle to face towards its right (dexter, the direction of honor) and thus towards the olive branch, and the eagle was changed to be in full color. Instead of the four stars, a circular ring of 48 stars was added around the eagle.
Truman issued Executive Order 9646 on October 25, 1945, which unified the coat of arms, flag, and seal to use the new design. The flag was first flown at the commissioning of the USS Franklin D. Roosevelt (CV - 42) two days later. The only changes have been to add more stars for new states; President Eisenhower issued Executive Order 10823 on May 26, 1959 (effective July 4) to add a star for Alaska, and later issued Executive Order 10860 on February 5, 1960 (again effective the following July 4) to add a 50th star for Hawaii. The design has not changed since.
It is illegal to reproduce or sell the flag of the President pursuant to Title 18 of the United States Code § 713 (b), because it substantially reproduces the Seal of the President.
Edward C. Kuhn, a designer of many early U.S. Army insignia and coats of arms, made a series of watercolors of older presidential flags.
1882 Flag (Navy)
1898 Color (Army)
1902 Flag (Navy)
1902 Flag
1912 Color (Army)
1916 Flag
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is mercury (i) bromide soluble in water | Solubility chart - wikipedia
A solubility chart is a chart with a list of ions and how, when mixed with other ions, they can become precipitates or remain aqueous. The following chart shows the solubilities of various compounds, in water, at a pressure of 1 atm and at room temperature (approx. 293.15 K). Any box that reads "soluble '' results in an aqueous product in which no precipitate has formed, while "slightly soluble '' and "insoluble '' markings mean that there is a precipitate that will form (usually, this is a solid), however, "slightly soluble '' compounds such as calcium sulfate may require heat to form its precipitate. Boxes marked "other '' can mean that many different states of products can result. For more detailed information of the exact solubility of the compounds, see the solubility table.
The chemicals have to be exposed to their boiling point to fully dissolve.
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who plays gillian in the spy next door | The Spy Next Door - wikipedia
The Spy Next Door is a 2010 American comedy film directed by Brian Levant, written by Jonathan Bernstein, James Greer and Gregory Poirier, produced by Robert Simonds with music by David Newman and starring Jackie Chan, Amber Valletta, Magnús Scheving, Madeline Carroll, Will Shadley, Alina Foley, Billy Ray Cyrus and George Lopez. Filming started in late October 2008 in Rio Rancho, New Mexico and was finished in late December 2008. The film was released on January 15, 2010 in the United States by Lionsgate. The film was released on DVD, and Blu - ray on May 18, 2010. The film tributes Chan 's films by showing clips, references and even referencing Chan 's real life childhood. The film received negative reviews from critics and it earned $145.2 million on a $28 million budget.
Bob Ho is a CIA undercover agent who decides to retire after putting Russian terrorist Anton Poldark behind bars, and marry his longtime girlfriend Gillian, who lives next door and has three children from previous relationships, Farren (a step - daughter), Ian and Nora. None of them know about his job. One day, Gillian leaves to visit her father in a hospital in Denver, Colorado and leaves Bob to take care of her children, who all despise him and plot to get rid of him. Using some technology from the CIA, Bob is able to get control of them. His partner, Colton James, informs him that Poldark has escaped prison and they suspect there is a mole in the CIA. James sends a file to Bob 's computer for a top secret formula for an oil - eating bacteria Poldark is working on. While snooping around Bob 's house, Ian downloads the file, which he mistakes for music, onto his iPod. Poldark discovers the download and sends some of his people to Bob 's house, but Bob overpowers them.
After the attack, Bob and his children hide at a Chinese restaurant, where Poldark 's teenage henchman, Larry, tries to kill Bob. Bob defeats him and is forced to tell the children about his job. His boss Glaze then arrives, points a gun at him and demands the downloaded file, revealing himself as the mole working for Poldark. Bob knocks out Glaze with Nora 's turtle, then hides in a hotel with the children. He tells Gillian over the phone about his job. Fearing for her children 's safety, she flies home to take them and break up with him.
Bob heads to an abandoned factory to confront the Russian terrorists, but finds that Ian, wanting to become a spy, and Farren have run away from home. The trio are captured by the Russians, who force Ian to reveal that the file is on his iPod. As Poldark, his partner Tatiana, and Glaze go to Gillian 's house. Bob and the children escape and defeat the remaining terrorists. They then go to Gillian 's house and Poldack and his crew arrive soon after. Bob and the terrorists fight, with the children using Bob 's secret weapons to defeat some of them. Soon after, Colton and his crew arrive to arrest the Russians and Glaze. Gillian initially rejects Bob, but soon realizes he is a good man after Nora says she wants him to be her father and Farren and Ian confess that Bob lied to protect them. Bob and Gillian then get married.
In its first weekend, in the US, The Spy Next Door made $9.7 million in 2,924 theaters, opening at # 6. It grossed $12.9 million over the four - day period, ranking # 5 on that term. The film grossed $45.1 million on a $28 million budget.
On Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 12 % based on 89 reviews, with an average rating of 3.5 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Lacking a script funny enough to cover up for Jackie Chan 's fading physical gifts, The Spy Next Door fails on every conceivable level. '' On Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating to reviews, it holds an average score of 27 out of 100 based on 21 critics, indicating "generals unfavorable reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A -- '' on an A+ to F scale.
Most film critics targeted the film for "lacking a script, '' such as Michael Phillips of The Chicago Tribune for being "True Lies without the striptease or the Arab - maiming '' and Kyle Smith of The New York Post who also claimed the film is "ripping off True Lies. '' Lael Loewenstein of Variety gave the film a negative review saying the film 's "cartoonish jokes and misfired gags are likely to elicit more eye rolls than laughs. '' Daniel Eagan of The Hollywood Reporter also disliked the film saying most of the film is "pretty tired stuff from Pacifier - style slapstick to comic relief delivered by, of all people, erstwhile country star Billy Ray Cyrus '' and that Chan "seems stiff '' and "clad in unattractive clothes and forced into dumbed - down situations. '' David Stratton of At the Movies dismissed the film calling it "a sad viewing experience ''. He added "The woeful screenplay, the mundane direction, by Brian Levant, and the indifferent acting all combine to sink a stupid plot which should never have got off the ground. '' Carrie Rickey of The Philadelphia Inquirer gave the film 21⁄2 stars. Rickey, giving the film the benefit of the doubt, wrote "The plot may be forgettable, but the execution is frantic and funny. The Spy Next Door is a movie that will bring smiles to kids -- and their grandparents. ''
The Spy Next Door was released on DVD and Blu - ray on May 18, 2010.
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what is the worth of hard rock's memorabilia | Hard Rock Cafe - Wikipedia
Hard Rock Cafe Inc. is a chain of theme restaurants founded in 1971 by Isaac Tigrett and Peter Morton in London. In 1979, the cafe began covering its walls with rock and roll memorabilia, a tradition which expanded to others in the chain. In 2007, Hard Rock was sold to the Seminole Tribe of Florida and has been headquartered in Orlando, Florida since then. As of December 2015, there were 191 Hard Rock locations in 75 countries, including 181 cafes, 25 hotels, and 11 casinos.
The first Hard Rock Cafe (HRC) opened on June 14, 1971 at Old Park Lane, Mayfair, London, under the ownership of young Americans Isaac Tigrett and Peter Morton. Hard Rock initially had an eclectic decor, but it later started to display memorabilia.
The chain began to expand worldwide in 1982 with locations in (among others) Toronto, Los Angeles, San Francisco, Chicago, Paris, and Berlin. Hard Rock Cafe locations in the United States vary from smaller, more tourist driven markets (Biloxi, Pigeon Forge, Key West, etc.) to large metropolises (Houston, Philadelphia, New York City, Chicago, Boston, Washington DC, etc.). Hard Rock Cafe typically does not franchise cafe locations in the United States. All US cafes are corporate owned and operated, except for cafes in Tampa and Four Winds New Buffalo casino. However, in the transition of the Las Vegas Hard Rock Hotel property originally owned and then later sold to Rank by founder Peter Morton. Morton retained hotel naming rights west of the Mississippi. When Morton sold his Las Vegas Hard Rock Hotel to the Morgans Hotel Group, he also sold those naming rights, which then gave rise to two US franchised hotels (without cafes) in Albuquerque and Tulsa. The Albuquerque hotel no longer pays for the Hard Rock rights and reverted to its former name in June 2013. More hotels franchised from Morgan 's are planned for Sioux City and Vancouver.
In 1990, The Rank Group, a London - based leisure company, acquired Mecca Leisure Group and continued expansion of the concept in its geographic territory. Rank went on to purchase Hard Rock America from Peter Morton as well as Hard Rock Canada from Nick Bitove. After the completion of these acquisitions, Rank gained worldwide control of the brand. In March 2007, the Seminole Tribe of Florida acquired Hard Rock Cafe International, Inc. and other related entities from Rank for US $ 965 million. In 2008, anonymous members of the wait staff criticized the business because of its practice of paying them less than half the official minimum wage in the UK, with the business allocating tips to staff to bring their salaries within the law. Most customers, it was argued, do not realize that they are subsidizing a low wage when they give the tip.
HRC is known for its collection of rock - and - roll memorabilia. The cafes solicit donations of music memorabilia but also purchase a number of items at auctions around the world, including autographed guitars, costumes from world tours and rare photographs; these are often to be found mounted on cafe walls. The collection began in 1979 with an un-signed Red Fender Lead II guitar from Eric Clapton, who was a regular at the first restaurant in London. Clapton wanted management to hang the guitar over his regular seat in order to lay claim to that spot, and they obliged. This prompted Pete Townshend of The Who to give one of his guitars, also un-signed with the note "Mine 's as good as his! Love, Pete. '' Hard Rock 's archive includes over 80,000 items, and is the largest private collection of Rock and Roll memorabilia in the world. Marquee pieces from the collection were briefly displayed in a Hard Rock museum named "The Vault '' in Orlando, Florida from January 2003 until September 2004. After the closure, items were disbursed to various restaurant locations. The London Vault remains open and free to visitors, located in the retail Rock Shop of the original cafe.
The Hard Rock Café is also in possession of a Bedford VAL 6 axle coach used in the 1967 film The Beatles Magical Mystery Tour. The vehicle was completely refurbished after filming. It is currently displayed in the US, but makes regular appearances in events in the UK, especially at the original Hard Rock Cafe in London. In 2001, a competition was run to win the actual bus, but it was never given away and remained with the cafe.
In 1995, Peter Morton spent $80 million to open the Hard Rock Hotel near the Las Vegas Strip in Las Vegas, Nevada. A subsequent $100 million expansion in 1999 nearly doubled the hotel 's capacity.
In May 2006, Morton sold the Hard Rock Hotel & Casino, Las Vegas to Morgans Hotel Group for $770 million, including the rights to the Hard Rock Hotel brand west of the Mississippi, including Texas, California, Australia, and Vancouver, British Columbia. The hotel began another expansion in 2007 at a cost of $750 million. The project added 875 rooms in two towers and expanded meeting space. In March 2011, Morgans surrendered control of the property to partner Brookfield Asset Management, citing the high debt on the property in the face of the economic downturn. In April 2018, the Hard Rock Hotel in Las Vegas was sold to Richard Branson with plans to renovate the property under the Virgin Hotels brand.
Today, the Seminole Tribe of Florida owns and operates all units except the Las Vegas, Tulsa, Sioux City, and Vancouver properties. In 2004, Hard Rock International and Sol Melia Hotels and Resorts launched Lifestar Hoteles España SL, a joint venture that intended to manage Europe 's first Hard Rock Hotel in Madrid, but it was never opened as a Hard Rock property upon the dissolution of the joint venture in 2007. The other joint venture hotels are in Chicago, New York and San Diego (the San Diego property includes Hard Rock condominiums). Hard Rock also operates hotels and resorts in Orlando, Florida (a joint venture with Loews Hotels); Bali, Indonesia; and Pattaya, Thailand, (a joint venture with Ong Beng Seng / Hotel Properties Limited). Hard Rock International continues to expand internationally (including hotels, casinos, resorts, and condominiums) through several joint ventures (Becker Ventures, Ong Beng Seng / Hotel Properties Limited and Loews Hotels), including hotels in Chicago, Bali, Orlando, Penang, San Diego, Singapore, and planned openings in Abu Dhabi, Cancun, Dubai, Hungary, Panama, Punta Cana and Puerto Vallarta, as well as hotel - casinos in Hollywood, Florida; Tampa, Florida; Las Vegas, Nevada; and Catoosa, Oklahoma, just northeast of Tulsa. (The Hard Rock Casino in Biloxi, MS is owned by Twin River Management Group, Inc.)
The Hotel Zoso in Palm Springs, California was converted into a 160 - room Hard Rock Hotel and opened in 2014. A location in Atlantic City, New Jersey was planned, but canceled. All - inclusive resorts operate under the Hard Rock brand in Mexico and the Dominican Republic. In 2013, the Hard Rock Rocksino Northfield Park, opened as a joint slot machine and track venture. The Rocksino is located near Cleveland.
In 2015, Hard Rock announced a new hotel in Bogotá, Colombia, which will open in 2019. The company had plans to open in the biggest financial district in Colombia, the Centro Internacional, but it revised those plans. The hotel will be located in the exclusive Zona Rosa de Bogotá, home of luxury boutiques.
Other international locations include:
In March 2006, Hard Rock Cafe International announced that it had licensed the "Hard Rock '' name to HRP Myrtle Beach Operations, LLC, to design, build, and operate a $400 million 150 - acre (0.61 km) theme park called Hard Rock Park. Hard Rock Park opened on April 15, 2008 in Myrtle Beach, South Carolina. The park was expected to draw an estimated 30,000 visitors per day, promised to create more than 3,000 jobs, and was billed as the largest single investment in South Carolina 's history. It planned to feature a large concert arena and six zones with more than 40 attractions. HRP Myrtle Beach Operations, LLC, filed for Chapter 11 on September 25, 2008. The company hoped to re-open in 2009 after restructuring. On January 2, 2009 after failing to attract a buyer with a minimum $35 million bid for over two months, Hard Rock Park asked a Delaware Bankruptcy Court to convert the filing to Chapter 7, triggering immediate liquidation of assets to pay off creditors, and closing the park.
New owners renamed the venue Freestyle Music Park and planned to reopen retaining a music - theme but, without the Hard Rock name by Memorial Day, 2009. The park only operated one additional year and never reopened due to poor attendance.
In August 2016, it was reported that the Miami Dolphins ' stadium in Miami Gardens, Florida would be renamed Hard Rock Stadium Where Super Bowl 54 Will be held..
On December 7, 2006, Rank sold its Hard Rock business to the Seminole Tribe of Florida for $965 million. Included in the deal were 124 Hard Rock Cafes, four Hard Rock Hotels, two Hard Rock Hotel and Casino Hotels, two Hard Rock Live! concert venues, and stakes in three unbranded hotels. Rank retained the Hard Rock Casino in London, and rebranded it the G Casino Piccadilly. The Hard Rock Hotel and Casino in Las Vegas was also not part of the deal, as it was sold by Peter Morton to Morgans Hotel Group in May 2006. The final takeover was mired in controversy, due to a payment clause in a contract with one casino developer, Power Plant Entertainment. Power Plant and the Seminoles announced a settlement in April 2007 which both sides called equitable. On January 8, 2007, Rank shareholders approved the Seminoles ' $965 million offer. The Tribe announced it had finalized the deal on March 11, 2007.
On June 22, 2008, the Seminole Hard Rock Hotel & Casino Hollywood began "Vegas - style '' table gambling in addition to the Class II slots already in operation. To win approval for the table games, which were barred under Florida law, the Seminole Tribe paid the State of Florida $100 million as part of a 25 - year pact signed by Governor Charlie Crist. On July 3, 2008, the Florida Supreme Court ruled that the governor 's agreement was unconstitutional, but table games continue to operate because the Federal Department of the Interior approved the now - invalid pact with the state.
Media related to Hard Rock Cafe at Wikimedia Commons
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where is the constitution and declaration of independence kept | United States Declaration of Independence - Wikipedia
The United States Declaration of Independence is the statement adopted by the Second Continental Congress meeting at the Pennsylvania State House (now known as Independence Hall) in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania on July 4, 1776. The Declaration announced that the Thirteen Colonies then at war with the Kingdom of Great Britain would regard themselves as thirteen independent sovereign states no longer under British rule. With the Declaration, these new states took a collective first step toward forming the United States of America. The declaration was signed by representatives from New Hampshire, Massachusetts Bay, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Delaware, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia.
The Lee Resolution for independence was passed on July 2 with no opposing votes. The Committee of Five had drafted the Declaration to be ready when Congress voted on independence. John Adams, a leader in pushing for independence, had persuaded the committee to select Thomas Jefferson to compose the original draft of the document, which Congress edited to produce the final version. The Declaration was a formal explanation of why Congress had voted to declare independence from Great Britain, more than a year after the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War. Adams wrote to his wife Abigail, "The Second Day of July 1776, will be the most memorable Epocha, in the History of America '' -- although Independence Day is actually celebrated on July 4, the date that the wording of the Declaration of Independence was approved.
After ratifying the text on July 4, Congress issued the Declaration of Independence in several forms. It was initially published as the printed Dunlap broadside that was widely distributed and read to the public. The source copy used for this printing has been lost and may have been a copy in Thomas Jefferson 's hand. Jefferson 's original draft is preserved at the Library of Congress, complete with changes made by John Adams and Benjamin Franklin, as well as Jefferson 's notes of changes made by Congress. The best - known version of the Declaration is a signed copy that is displayed at the National Archives in Washington, D.C., and which is popularly regarded as the official document. This engrossed copy was ordered by Congress on July 19 and signed primarily on August 2.
The sources and interpretation of the Declaration have been the subject of much scholarly inquiry. The Declaration justified the independence of the United States by listing colonial grievances against King George III and by asserting certain natural and legal rights, including a right of revolution. Its original purpose was to announce independence, and references to the text of the Declaration were few in the following years. Abraham Lincoln made it the centerpiece of his policies and his rhetoric, as in the Gettysburg Address of 1863. Since then, it has become a well - known statement on human rights, particularly its second sentence:
We hold these truths to be self - evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.
This has been called "one of the best - known sentences in the English language '', containing "the most potent and consequential words in American history ''. The passage came to represent a moral standard to which the United States should strive. This view was notably promoted by Lincoln, who considered the Declaration to be the foundation of his political philosophy and argued that it is a statement of principles through which the United States Constitution should be interpreted.
The Declaration of Independence inspired many similar documents in other countries, the first being the 1789 Declaration of Flanders issued during the Brabant Revolution in the Austrian Netherlands. It also served as the primary model for numerous declarations of independence in Europe and Latin America, as well as Africa (Liberia) and Oceania (New Zealand) during the first half of the 19th century.
Believe me, dear Sir: there is not in the British empire a man who more cordially loves a union with Great Britain than I do. But, by the God that made me, I will cease to exist before I yield to a connection on such terms as the British Parliament propose; and in this, I think I speak the sentiments of America.
By the time that the Declaration of Independence was adopted in July 1776, the Thirteen Colonies and Great Britain had been at war for more than a year. Relations had been deteriorating between the colonies and the mother country since 1763. Parliament enacted a series of measures to increase revenue from the colonies, such as the Stamp Act of 1765 and the Townshend Acts of 1767. Parliament believed that these acts were a legitimate means of having the colonies pay their fair share of the costs to keep them in the British Empire.
Many colonists, however, had developed a different conception of the empire. The colonies were not directly represented in Parliament, and colonists argued that Parliament had no right to levy taxes upon them. This tax dispute was part of a larger divergence between British and American interpretations of the British Constitution and the extent of Parliament 's authority in the colonies. The orthodox British view, dating from the Glorious Revolution of 1688, was that Parliament was the supreme authority throughout the empire, and so, by definition, anything that Parliament did was constitutional. In the colonies, however, the idea had developed that the British Constitution recognized certain fundamental rights that no government could violate, not even Parliament. After the Townshend Acts, some essayists even began to question whether Parliament had any legitimate jurisdiction in the colonies at all. Anticipating the arrangement of the British Commonwealth, by 1774 American writers such as Samuel Adams, James Wilson, and Thomas Jefferson were arguing that Parliament was the legislature of Great Britain only, and that the colonies, which had their own legislatures, were connected to the rest of the empire only through their allegiance to the Crown.
The issue of Parliament 's authority in the colonies became a crisis after Parliament passed the Coercive Acts (known as the Intolerable Acts in the colonies) in 1774 to punish the Province of Massachusetts for the Boston Tea Party of 1773. Many colonists saw the Coercive Acts as a violation of the British Constitution and thus a threat to the liberties of all of British America. In September 1774, the First Continental Congress convened in Philadelphia to coordinate a response. Congress organized a boycott of British goods and petitioned the king for repeal of the acts. These measures were unsuccessful because King George and the ministry of Prime Minister Lord North were determined not to retreat on the question of parliamentary supremacy. As the king wrote to North in November 1774, "blows must decide whether they are to be subject to this country or independent ''.
Most colonists still hoped for reconciliation with Great Britain, even after fighting began in the American Revolutionary War at Lexington and Concord in April 1775. The Second Continental Congress convened at the Pennsylvania State House in Philadelphia in May 1775, and some delegates hoped for eventual independence, but no one yet advocated declaring it. Many colonists no longer believed that Parliament had any sovereignty over them, yet they still professed loyalty to King George, who they hoped would intercede on their behalf. They were disappointed in late 1775, when the king rejected Congress 's second petition, issued a Proclamation of Rebellion, and announced before Parliament on October 26 that he was considering "friendly offers of foreign assistance '' to suppress the rebellion. A pro-American minority in Parliament warned that the government was driving the colonists toward independence.
Thomas Paine 's pamphlet Common Sense was published in January 1776, just as it became clear in the colonies that the king was not inclined to act as a conciliator. Paine had only recently arrived in the colonies from England, and he argued in favor of colonial independence, advocating republicanism as an alternative to monarchy and hereditary rule. Common Sense made a persuasive and impassioned case for independence, which had not yet been given serious intellectual consideration in the American colonies. Paine connected independence with Protestant beliefs as a means to present a distinctly American political identity, thereby stimulating public debate on a topic that few had previously dared to openly discuss, and public support for separation from Great Britain steadily increased after its publication.
Some colonists still held out hope for reconciliation, but developments in early 1776 further strengthened public support for independence. In February 1776, colonists learned of Parliament 's passage of the Prohibitory Act, which established a blockade of American ports and declared American ships to be enemy vessels. John Adams, a strong supporter of independence, believed that Parliament had effectively declared American independence before Congress had been able to. Adams labeled the Prohibitory Act the "Act of Independency '', calling it "a compleat Dismemberment of the British Empire ''. Support for declaring independence grew even more when it was confirmed that King George had hired German mercenaries to use against his American subjects.
Despite this growing popular support for independence, Congress lacked the clear authority to declare it. Delegates had been elected to Congress by 13 different governments, which included extralegal conventions, ad hoc committees, and elected assemblies, and they were bound by the instructions given to them. Regardless of their personal opinions, delegates could not vote to declare independence unless their instructions permitted such an action. Several colonies, in fact, expressly prohibited their delegates from taking any steps towards separation from Great Britain, while other delegations had instructions that were ambiguous on the issue; consequently, advocates of independence sought to have the Congressional instructions revised. For Congress to declare independence, a majority of delegations would need authorization to vote for it, and at least one colonial government would need to specifically instruct its delegation to propose a declaration of independence in Congress. Between April and July 1776, a "complex political war '' was waged to bring this about.
In the campaign to revise Congressional instructions, many Americans formally expressed their support for separation from Great Britain in what were effectively state and local declarations of independence. Historian Pauline Maier identifies more than ninety such declarations that were issued throughout the Thirteen Colonies from April to July 1776. These "declarations '' took a variety of forms. Some were formal written instructions for Congressional delegations, such as the Halifax Resolves of April 12, with which North Carolina became the first colony to explicitly authorize its delegates to vote for independence. Others were legislative acts that officially ended British rule in individual colonies, such as the Rhode Island legislature declaring its independence from Great Britain on May 4, the first colony to do so. Many "declarations '' were resolutions adopted at town or county meetings that offered support for independence. A few came in the form of jury instructions, such as the statement issued on April 23, 1776, by Chief Justice William Henry Drayton of South Carolina: "the law of the land authorizes me to declare... that George the Third, King of Great Britain... has no authority over us, and we owe no obedience to him. '' Most of these declarations are now obscure, having been overshadowed by the declaration approved by Congress on July 2, and signed July 4.
Some colonies held back from endorsing independence. Resistance was centered in the middle colonies of New York, New Jersey, Maryland, Pennsylvania, and Delaware. Advocates of independence saw Pennsylvania as the key; if that colony could be converted to the pro-independence cause, it was believed that the others would follow. On May 1, however, opponents of independence retained control of the Pennsylvania Assembly in a special election that had focused on the question of independence. In response, Congress passed a resolution on May 10 which had been promoted by John Adams and Richard Henry Lee, calling on colonies without a "government sufficient to the exigencies of their affairs '' to adopt new governments. The resolution passed unanimously, and was even supported by Pennsylvania 's John Dickinson, the leader of the anti-independence faction in Congress, who believed that it did not apply to his colony.
-- John Adams, May 15, 1776
As was the custom, Congress appointed a committee to draft a preamble to explain the purpose of the resolution. John Adams wrote the preamble, which stated that because King George had rejected reconciliation and was hiring foreign mercenaries to use against the colonies, "it is necessary that the exercise of every kind of authority under the said crown should be totally suppressed ''. Adams 's preamble was meant to encourage the overthrow of the governments of Pennsylvania and Maryland, which were still under proprietary governance. Congress passed the preamble on May 15 after several days of debate, but four of the middle colonies voted against it, and the Maryland delegation walked out in protest. Adams regarded his May 15 preamble effectively as an American declaration of independence, although a formal declaration would still have to be made.
On the same day that Congress passed Adams 's radical preamble, the Virginia Convention set the stage for a formal Congressional declaration of independence. On May 15, the Convention instructed Virginia 's congressional delegation "to propose to that respectable body to declare the United Colonies free and independent States, absolved from all allegiance to, or dependence upon, the Crown or Parliament of Great Britain ''. In accordance with those instructions, Richard Henry Lee of Virginia presented a three - part resolution to Congress on June 7. The motion was seconded by John Adams, calling on Congress to declare independence, form foreign alliances, and prepare a plan of colonial confederation. The part of the resolution relating to declaring independence read:
Resolved, that these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent States, that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved.
Lee 's resolution met with resistance in the ensuing debate. Opponents of the resolution conceded that reconciliation was unlikely with Great Britain, while arguing that declaring independence was premature, and that securing foreign aid should take priority. Advocates of the resolution countered that foreign governments would not intervene in an internal British struggle, and so a formal declaration of independence was needed before foreign aid was possible. All Congress needed to do, they insisted, was to "declare a fact which already exists ''. Delegates from Pennsylvania, Delaware, New Jersey, Maryland, and New York were still not yet authorized to vote for independence, however, and some of them threatened to leave Congress if the resolution were adopted. Congress, therefore, voted on June 10 to postpone further discussion of Lee 's resolution for three weeks. Until then, Congress decided that a committee should prepare a document announcing and explaining independence in the event that Lee 's resolution was approved when it was brought up again in July.
Support for a Congressional declaration of independence was consolidated in the final weeks of June 1776. On June 14, the Connecticut Assembly instructed its delegates to propose independence and, the following day, the legislatures of New Hampshire and Delaware authorized their delegates to declare independence. In Pennsylvania, political struggles ended with the dissolution of the colonial assembly, and a new Conference of Committees under Thomas McKean authorized Pennsylvania 's delegates to declare independence on June 18. The Provincial Congress of New Jersey had been governing the province since January 1776; they resolved on June 15 that Royal Governor William Franklin was "an enemy to the liberties of this country '' and had him arrested. On June 21, they chose new delegates to Congress and empowered them to join in a declaration of independence.
Only Maryland and New York had yet to authorize independence towards the end of June. Previously, Maryland 's delegates had walked out when the Continental Congress adopted Adams 's radical May 15 preamble, and had sent to the Annapolis Convention for instructions. On May 20, the Annapolis Convention rejected Adams 's preamble, instructing its delegates to remain against independence. But Samuel Chase went to Maryland and, thanks to local resolutions in favor of independence, was able to get the Annapolis Convention to change its mind on June 28. Only the New York delegates were unable to get revised instructions. When Congress had been considering the resolution of independence on June 8, the New York Provincial Congress told the delegates to wait. But on June 30, the Provincial Congress evacuated New York as British forces approached, and would not convene again until July 10. This meant that New York 's delegates would not be authorized to declare independence until after Congress had made its decision.
Political maneuvering was setting the stage for an official declaration of independence even while a document was being written to explain the decision. On June 11, 1776, Congress appointed a "Committee of Five '' to draft a declaration, consisting of John Adams of Massachusetts, Benjamin Franklin of Pennsylvania, Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, Robert R. Livingston of New York, and Roger Sherman of Connecticut. The committee left no minutes, so there is some uncertainty about how the drafting process proceeded; contradictory accounts were written many years later by Jefferson and Adams, too many years to be regarded as entirely reliable -- although their accounts are frequently cited. What is certain is that the committee discussed the general outline which the document should follow and decided that Jefferson would write the first draft. The committee in general, and Jefferson in particular, thought that Adams should write the document, but Adams persuaded the committee to choose Jefferson and promised to consult with him personally. Considering Congress 's busy schedule, Jefferson probably had limited time for writing over the next seventeen days, and likely wrote the draft quickly. He then consulted the others and made some changes, and then produced another copy incorporating these alterations. The committee presented this copy to the Congress on June 28, 1776. The title of the document was "A Declaration by the Representatives of the United States of America, in General Congress assembled. ''
Congress ordered that the draft "lie on the table ''. For two days, Congress methodically edited Jefferson 's primary document, shortening it by a fourth, removing unnecessary wording, and improving sentence structure. They removed Jefferson 's assertion that Britain had forced slavery on the colonies in order to moderate the document and appease persons in Britain who supported the Revolution. Jefferson wrote that Congress had "mangled '' his draft version, but the Declaration that was finally produced was "the majestic document that inspired both contemporaries and posterity, '' in the words of his biographer John Ferling.
Congress tabled the draft of the declaration on Monday, July 1, and resolved itself into a committee of the whole, with Benjamin Harrison of Virginia presiding, and they resumed debate on Lee 's resolution of independence. John Dickinson made one last effort to delay the decision, arguing that Congress should not declare independence without first securing a foreign alliance and finalizing the Articles of Confederation. John Adams gave a speech in reply to Dickinson, restating the case for an immediate declaration.
A vote was taken after a long day of speeches, each colony casting a single vote, as always. The delegation for each colony numbered from two to seven members, and each delegation voted amongst themselves to determine the colony 's vote. Pennsylvania and South Carolina voted against declaring independence. The New York delegation abstained, lacking permission to vote for independence. Delaware cast no vote because the delegation was split between Thomas McKean (who voted yes) and George Read (who voted no). The remaining nine delegations voted in favor of independence, which meant that the resolution had been approved by the committee of the whole. The next step was for the resolution to be voted upon by Congress itself. Edward Rutledge of South Carolina was opposed to Lee 's resolution but desirous of unanimity, and he moved that the vote be postponed until the following day.
On July 2, South Carolina reversed its position and voted for independence. In the Pennsylvania delegation, Dickinson and Robert Morris abstained, allowing the delegation to vote three - to - two in favor of independence. The tie in the Delaware delegation was broken by the timely arrival of Caesar Rodney, who voted for independence. The New York delegation abstained once again since they were still not authorized to vote for independence, although they were allowed to do so a week later by the New York Provincial Congress. The resolution of independence had been adopted with twelve affirmative votes and one abstention. With this, the colonies had officially severed political ties with Great Britain.
John Adams predicted in a famous letter, written to his wife on the following day, that July 2 would become a great American holiday. He thought that the vote for independence would be commemorated; he did not foresee that Americans -- including himself -- would instead celebrate Independence Day on the date when the announcement of that act was finalized.
"I am apt to believe that (Independence Day) will be celebrated, by succeeding Generations, as the great anniversary Festival. It ought to be commemorated, as the Day of Deliverance by solemn Acts of Devotion to God Almighty. It ought to be solemnized with Pomp and Parade, with shews, Games, Sports, Guns, Bells, Bonfires and Illuminations from one End of this Continent to the other from this Time forward forever more. ''
After voting in favor of the resolution of independence, Congress turned its attention to the committee 's draft of the declaration. Over several days of debate, they made a few changes in wording and deleted nearly a fourth of the text and, on July 4, 1776, the wording of the Declaration of Independence was approved and sent to the printer for publication.
There is a distinct change in wording from this original broadside printing of the Declaration and the final official engrossed copy. The word "unanimous '' was inserted as a result of a Congressional resolution passed on July 19, 1776:
Resolved, That the Declaration passed on the 4th, be fairly engrossed on parchment, with the title and stile of "The unanimous declaration of the thirteen United States of America, '' and that the same, when engrossed, be signed by every member of Congress.
Historian George Billias says:
The declaration is not divided into formal sections; but it is often discussed as consisting of five parts: introduction, preamble, indictment of King George III, denunciation of the British people, and conclusion.
Asserts as a matter of Natural Law the ability of a people to assume political independence; acknowledges that the grounds for such independence must be reasonable, and therefore explicable, and ought to be explained.
"When in the Course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, and to assume among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature 's God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation. ''
Outlines a general philosophy of government that justifies revolution when government harms natural rights.
"We hold these truths to be self - evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.
"That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed, That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new Government, laying its foundation on such principles and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their Safety and Happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that Governments long established should not be changed for light and transient causes; and accordingly all experience hath shewn, that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same Object evinces a design to reduce them under absolute Despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such Government, and to provide new Guards for their future security. ''
A bill of particulars documenting the king 's "repeated injuries and usurpations '' of the Americans ' rights and liberties.
"Such has been the patient sufferance of these Colonies; and such is now the necessity which constrains them to alter their former Systems of Government. The history of the present King of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in direct object the establishment of an absolute Tyranny over these States. To prove this, let Facts be submitted to a candid world.
"He has refused his Assent to Laws, the most wholesome and necessary for the public good.
"He has forbidden his Governors to pass Laws of immediate and pressing importance, unless suspended in their operation till his Assent should be obtained; and when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend to them.
"He has refused to pass other Laws for the accommodation of large districts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of Representation in the Legislature, a right inestimable to them and formidable to tyrants only.
"He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncomfortable, and distant from the depository of their Public Records, for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his measures.
"He has dissolved Representative Houses repeatedly, for opposing with manly firmness of his invasions on the rights of the people.
"He has refused for a long time, after such dissolutions, to cause others to be elected, whereby the Legislative Powers, incapable of Annihilation, have returned to the People at large for their exercise; the State remaining in the mean time exposed to all the dangers of invasion from without, and convulsions within.
"He has endeavoured to prevent the population of these States; for that purpose obstructing the Laws for Naturalization of Foreigners; refusing to pass others to encourage their migrations hither, and raising the conditions of new Appropriations of Lands.
"He has obstructed the Administration of Justice by refusing his Assent to Laws for establishing Judiciary Powers.
"He has made Judges dependent on his Will alone for the tenure of their offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries.
"He has erected a multitude of New Offices, and sent hither swarms of Officers to harass our people and eat out their substance.
"He has kept among us, in times of peace, Standing Armies without the Consent of our legislatures.
"He has affected to render the Military independent of and superior to the Civil Power.
"He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to our constitution, and unacknowledged by our laws; giving his Assent to their Acts of pretended Legislation:
"For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us:
"For protecting them, by a mock Trial from punishment for any Murders which they should commit on the Inhabitants of these States:
"For cutting off our Trade with all parts of the world:
"For imposing Taxes on us without our Consent:
"For depriving us in many cases, of the benefit of Trial by Jury:
"For transporting us beyond Seas to be tried for pretended offences:
"For abolishing the free System of English Laws in a neighbouring Province, establishing therein an Arbitrary government, and enlarging its Boundaries so as to render it at once an example and fit instrument for introducing the same absolute rule into these Colonies:
"For taking away our Charters, abolishing our most valuable Laws and altering fundamentally the Forms of our Governments:
"For suspending our own Legislatures, and declaring themselves invested with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever.
"He has abdicated Government here, by declaring us out of his Protection and waging War against us.
"He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burnt our towns, and destroyed the lives of our people.
"He is at this time transporting large Armies of foreign Mercenaries to compleat the works of death, desolation, and tyranny, already begun with circumstances of Cruelty & Perfidy scarcely paralleled in the most barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the Head of a civilized nation.
"He has constrained our fellow Citizens taken Captive on the high Seas to bear Arms against their Country, to become the executioners of their friends and Brethren, or to fall themselves by their Hands.
"He has excited domestic insurrections amongst us, and has endeavoured to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers, the merciless Indian Savages whose known rule of warfare, is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes and conditions.
"In every stage of these Oppressions We have Petitioned for Redress in the most humble terms: Our repeated Petitions have been answered only by repeated injury. A Prince, whose character is thus marked by every act which may define a Tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a free people. ''
This section essentially finishes the case for independence. The conditions that justified revolution have been shown.
"Nor have We been wanting in attentions to our British brethren. We have warned them from time to time of attempts by their legislature to extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them of the circumstances of our emigration and settlement here. We have appealed to their native justice and magnanimity, and we have conjured them by the ties of our common kindred to disavow these usurpations, which, would inevitably interrupt our connections and correspondence. They too have been deaf to the voice of justice and of consanguinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity, which denounces our Separation, and hold them, as we hold the rest of mankind, Enemies in War, in Peace Friends. ''
The signers assert that there exist conditions under which people must change their government, that the British have produced such conditions and, by necessity, the colonies must throw off political ties with the British Crown and become independent states. The conclusion contains, at its core, the Lee Resolution that had been passed on July 2.
"We, therefore, the Representatives of the united States of America, in General Congress, Assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the Name, and by Authority of the good People of these Colonies, solemnly publish and declare, That these united Colonies are, and of Right ought to be Free and Independent States; that they are Absolved from all Allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain, is and ought to be totally dissolved; and that as Free and Independent States, they have full Power to levy War, conclude Peace, contract Alliances, establish Commerce, and to do all other Acts and Things which Independent States may of right do. And for the support of this Declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection of divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our Lives, our Fortunes and our sacred Honor. ''
The first and most famous signature on the engrossed copy was that of John Hancock, President of the Continental Congress. Two future presidents (Thomas Jefferson and John Adams) and a father and great - grandfather of two other presidents (Benjamin Harrison) were among the signatories. Edward Rutledge (age 26) was the youngest signer, and Benjamin Franklin (age 70) was the oldest signer. The fifty - six signers of the Declaration represented the new states as follows (from north to south):
Historians have often sought to identify the sources that most influenced the words and political philosophy of the Declaration of Independence. By Jefferson 's own admission, the Declaration contained no original ideas, but was instead a statement of sentiments widely shared by supporters of the American Revolution. As he explained in 1825:
Neither aiming at originality of principle or sentiment, nor yet copied from any particular and previous writing, it was intended to be an expression of the American mind, and to give to that expression the proper tone and spirit called for by the occasion.
Jefferson 's most immediate sources were two documents written in June 1776: his own draft of the preamble of the Constitution of Virginia, and George Mason 's draft of the Virginia Declaration of Rights. Ideas and phrases from both of these documents appear in the Declaration of Independence. They were, in turn, directly influenced by the 1689 English Declaration of Rights, which formally ended the reign of King James II. During the American Revolution, Jefferson and other Americans looked to the English Declaration of Rights as a model of how to end the reign of an unjust king. The Scottish Declaration of Arbroath (1320) and the Dutch Act of Abjuration (1581) have also been offered as models for Jefferson 's Declaration, but these models are now accepted by few scholars.
Jefferson wrote that a number of authors exerted a general influence on the words of the Declaration. English political theorist John Locke is usually cited as one of the primary influences, a man whom Jefferson called one of "the three greatest men that have ever lived ''. In 1922, historian Carl L. Becker wrote, "Most Americans had absorbed Locke 's works as a kind of political gospel; and the Declaration, in its form, in its phraseology, follows closely certain sentences in Locke 's second treatise on government. '' The extent of Locke 's influence on the American Revolution has been questioned by some subsequent scholars, however. Historian Ray Forrest Harvey argued in 1937 for the dominant influence of Swiss jurist Jean Jacques Burlamaqui, declaring that Jefferson and Locke were at "two opposite poles '' in their political philosophy, as evidenced by Jefferson 's use in the Declaration of Independence of the phrase "pursuit of happiness '' instead of "property ''. Other scholars emphasized the influence of republicanism rather than Locke 's classical liberalism. Historian Garry Wills argued that Jefferson was influenced by the Scottish Enlightenment, particularly Francis Hutcheson, rather than Locke, an interpretation that has been strongly criticized.
Legal historian John Phillip Reid has written that the emphasis on the political philosophy of the Declaration has been misplaced. The Declaration is not a philosophical tract about natural rights, argues Reid, but is instead a legal document -- an indictment against King George for violating the constitutional rights of the colonists. Historian David Armitage has argued that the Declaration was strongly influenced by de Vattel 's The Law of Nations, the dominant international law treatise of the period, and a book that Benjamin Franklin said was "continually in the hands of the members of our Congress ''. Armitage writes, "Vattel made independence fundamental to his definition of statehood ''; therefore, the primary purpose of the Declaration was "to express the international legal sovereignty of the United States ''. If the United States were to have any hope of being recognized by the European powers, the American revolutionaries first had to make it clear that they were no longer dependent on Great Britain. The Declaration of Independence does not have the force of law domestically, but nevertheless it may help to provide historical and legal clarity about the Constitution and other laws.
The Declaration became official when Congress voted for it on July 4; signatures of the delegates were not needed to make it official. The handwritten copy of the Declaration of Independence that was signed by Congress is dated July 4, 1776. The signatures of fifty - six delegates are affixed; however, the exact date when each person signed it has long been the subject of debate. Jefferson, Franklin, and Adams all wrote that the Declaration had been signed by Congress on July 4. But in 1796, signer Thomas McKean disputed that the Declaration had been signed on July 4, pointing out that some signers were not then present, including several who were not even elected to Congress until after that date.
The Declaration was transposed on paper, adopted by the Continental Congress, and signed by John Hancock, President of the Congress, on July 4, 1776, according to the 1911 record of events by the U.S. State Department under Secretary Philander C. Knox. On August 2, 1776, a parchment paper copy of the Declaration was signed by 56 persons. Many of these signers were not present when the original Declaration was adopted on July 4. Signer Matthew Thornton from New Hampshire was seated in the Continental Congress in November; he asked for and received the privilege of adding his signature at that time, and signed on November 4, 1776.
Historians have generally accepted McKean 's version of events, arguing that the famous signed version of the Declaration was created after July 19, and was not signed by Congress until August 2, 1776. In 1986, legal historian Wilfred Ritz argued that historians had misunderstood the primary documents and given too much credence to McKean, who had not been present in Congress on July 4. According to Ritz, about thirty - four delegates signed the Declaration on July 4, and the others signed on or after August 2. Historians who reject a July 4 signing maintain that most delegates signed on August 2, and that those eventual signers who were not present added their names later.
Two future U.S. presidents were among the signatories: Thomas Jefferson and John Adams. The most famous signature on the engrossed copy is that of John Hancock, who presumably signed first as President of Congress. Hancock 's large, flamboyant signature became iconic, and the term John Hancock emerged in the United States as an informal synonym for "signature ''. A commonly circulated but apocryphal account claims that, after Hancock signed, the delegate from Massachusetts commented, "The British ministry can read that name without spectacles. '' Another apocryphal report indicates that Hancock proudly declared, "There! I guess King George will be able to read that! ''
Various legends emerged years later about the signing of the Declaration, when the document had become an important national symbol. In one famous story, John Hancock supposedly said that Congress, having signed the Declaration, must now "all hang together '', and Benjamin Franklin replied: "Yes, we must indeed all hang together, or most assuredly we shall all hang separately. '' The quotation did not appear in print until more than fifty years after Franklin 's death.
The Syng inkstand used at the signing was also used at the signing of the United States Constitution in 1787.
After Congress approved the final wording of the Declaration on July 4, a handwritten copy was sent a few blocks away to the printing shop of John Dunlap. Through the night, Dunlap printed about 200 broadsides for distribution. Before long, it was being read to audiences and reprinted in newspapers throughout the 13 states. The first formal public readings of the document took place on July 8, in Philadelphia (by John Nixon in the yard of Independence Hall), Trenton, New Jersey, and Easton, Pennsylvania; the first newspaper to publish it was the Pennsylvania Evening Post on July 6. A German translation of the Declaration was published in Philadelphia by July 9.
President of Congress John Hancock sent a broadside to General George Washington, instructing him to have it proclaimed "at the Head of the Army in the way you shall think it most proper ''. Washington had the Declaration read to his troops in New York City on July 9, with thousands of British troops on ships in the harbor. Washington and Congress hoped that the Declaration would inspire the soldiers, and encourage others to join the army. After hearing the Declaration, crowds in many cities tore down and destroyed signs or statues representing royal authority. An equestrian statue of King George in New York City was pulled down and the lead used to make musket balls.
British officials in North America sent copies of the Declaration to Great Britain. It was published in British newspapers beginning in mid-August, it had reached Florence and Warsaw by mid-September, and a German translation appeared in Switzerland by October. The first copy of the Declaration sent to France got lost, and the second copy arrived only in November 1776. It reached Portuguese America by Brazilian medical student "Vendek '' José Joaquim Maia e Barbalho, who had met with Thomas Jefferson in Nîmes.
The Spanish - American authorities banned the circulation of the Declaration, but it was widely transmitted and translated: by Venezuelan Manuel García de Sena, by Colombian Miguel de Pombo, by Ecuadorian Vicente Rocafuerte, and by New Englanders Richard Cleveland and William Shaler, who distributed the Declaration and the United States Constitution among Creoles in Chile and Indians in Mexico in 1821. The North Ministry did not give an official answer to the Declaration, but instead secretly commissioned pamphleteer John Lind to publish a response entitled Answer to the Declaration of the American Congress. British Tories denounced the signers of the Declaration for not applying the same principles of "life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness '' to African Americans. Thomas Hutchinson, the former royal governor of Massachusetts, also published a rebuttal. These pamphlets challenged various aspects of the Declaration. Hutchinson argued that the American Revolution was the work of a few conspirators who wanted independence from the outset, and who had finally achieved it by inducing otherwise loyal colonists to rebel. Lind 's pamphlet had an anonymous attack on the concept of natural rights written by Jeremy Bentham, an argument that he repeated during the French Revolution. Both pamphlets asked how the American slaveholders in Congress could proclaim that "all men are created equal '' without freeing their own slaves.
William Whipple, a signer of the Declaration of Independence who had fought in the war, freed his slave Prince Whipple because of revolutionary ideals. In the postwar decades, other slaveholders also freed their slaves; from 1790 to 1810, the percentage of free blacks in the Upper South increased to 8.3 percent from less than one percent of the black population. All Northern states abolished slavery by 1804.
The official copy of the Declaration of Independence was the one printed on July 4, 1776, under Jefferson 's supervision. It was sent to the states and to the Army and was widely reprinted in newspapers. The slightly different "engrossed copy '' (shown at the top of this article) was made later for members to sign. The engrossed version is the one widely distributed in the 21st century. Note that the opening lines differ between the two versions.
The copy of the Declaration that was signed by Congress is known as the engrossed or parchment copy. It was probably engrossed (that is, carefully handwritten) by clerk Timothy Matlack. A facsimile made in 1823 has become the basis of most modern reproductions rather than the original because of poor conservation of the engrossed copy through the 19th century. In 1921, custody of the engrossed copy of the Declaration was transferred from the State Department to the Library of Congress, along with the United States Constitution. After the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941, the documents were moved for safekeeping to the United States Bullion Depository at Fort Knox in Kentucky, where they were kept until 1944. In 1952, the engrossed Declaration was transferred to the National Archives and is now on permanent display at the National Archives in the "Rotunda for the Charters of Freedom ''.
The document signed by Congress and enshrined in the National Archives is usually regarded as the Declaration of Independence, but historian Julian P. Boyd argued that the Declaration, like Magna Carta, is not a single document. Boyd considered the printed broadsides ordered by Congress to be official texts, as well. The Declaration was first published as a broadside that was printed the night of July 4 by John Dunlap of Philadelphia. Dunlap printed about 200 broadsides, of which 26 are known to survive. The 26th copy was discovered in The National Archives in England in 2009.
In 1777, Congress commissioned Mary Katherine Goddard to print a new broadside that listed the signers of the Declaration, unlike the Dunlap broadside. Nine copies of the Goddard broadside are known to still exist. A variety of broadsides printed by the states are also extant.
Several early handwritten copies and drafts of the Declaration have also been preserved. Jefferson kept a four - page draft that late in life he called the "original Rough draught ''. It is not known how many drafts Jefferson wrote prior to this one, and how much of the text was contributed by other committee members. In 1947, Boyd discovered a fragment of an earlier draft in Jefferson 's handwriting. Jefferson and Adams sent copies of the rough draft to friends, with slight variations.
During the writing process, Jefferson showed the rough draft to Adams and Franklin, and perhaps to other members of the drafting committee, who made a few more changes. Franklin, for example, may have been responsible for changing Jefferson 's original phrase "We hold these truths to be sacred and undeniable '' to "We hold these truths to be self - evident ''. Jefferson incorporated these changes into a copy that was submitted to Congress in the name of the committee. The copy that was submitted to Congress on June 28 has been lost and was perhaps destroyed in the printing process, or destroyed during the debates in accordance with Congress 's secrecy rule.
On April 21, 2017, it was announced that a second engrossed copy had been discovered in the archives at West Sussex County Council in Chichester, England. Named by its finders the "Sussex Declaration '', it differs from the National Archives copy (which the finders refer to as the "Matlack Declaration '') in that the signatures on it are not grouped by States. How it came to be in England is not yet known, but the finders believe that the randomness of the signatures points to an origin with signatory James Wilson, who had argued strongly that the Declaration was made not by the States but by the whole people.
The Declaration was given little attention in the years immediately following the American Revolution, having served its original purpose in announcing the independence of the United States. Early celebrations of Independence Day largely ignored the Declaration, as did early histories of the Revolution. The act of declaring independence was considered important, whereas the text announcing that act attracted little attention. The Declaration was rarely mentioned during the debates about the United States Constitution, and its language was not incorporated into that document. George Mason 's draft of the Virginia Declaration of Rights was more influential, and its language was echoed in state constitutions and state bills of rights more often than Jefferson 's words. "In none of these documents '', wrote Pauline Maier, "is there any evidence whatsoever that the Declaration of Independence lived in men 's minds as a classic statement of American political principles. ''
Many leaders of the French Revolution admired the Declaration of Independence but were also interested in the new American state constitutions. The inspiration and content of the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen (1789) emerged largely from the ideals of the American Revolution. Its key drafts were prepared by Lafayette, working closely in Paris with his friend Thomas Jefferson. It also borrowed language from George Mason 's Virginia Declaration of Rights. The declaration also influenced the Russian Empire. The document had a particular impact on the Decembrist revolt and other Russian thinkers.
According to historian David Armitage, the Declaration of Independence did prove to be internationally influential, but not as a statement of human rights. Armitage argued that the Declaration was the first in a new genre of declarations of independence that announced the creation of new states.
Other French leaders were directly influenced by the text of the Declaration of Independence itself. The Manifesto of the Province of Flanders (1790) was the first foreign derivation of the Declaration; others include the Venezuelan Declaration of Independence (1811), the Liberian Declaration of Independence (1847), the declarations of secession by the Confederate States of America (1860 -- 61), and the Vietnamese Proclamation of Independence (1945). These declarations echoed the United States Declaration of Independence in announcing the independence of a new state, without necessarily endorsing the political philosophy of the original.
Other countries have used the Declaration as inspiration or have directly copied sections from it. These include the Haitian declaration of January 1, 1804, during the Haitian Revolution, the United Provinces of New Granada in 1811, the Argentine Declaration of Independence in 1816, the Chilean Declaration of Independence in 1818, Costa Rica in 1821, El Salvador in 1821, Guatemala in 1821, Honduras in (1821), Mexico in 1821, Nicaragua in 1821, Peru in 1821, Bolivian War of Independence in 1825, Uruguay in 1825, Ecuador in 1830, Colombia in 1831, Paraguay in 1842, Dominican Republic in 1844, Texas Declaration of Independence in March 1836, California Republic in November 1836, Hungarian Declaration of Independence in 1849, Declaration of the Independence of New Zealand in 1835, and the Czechoslovak declaration of independence from 1918 drafted in Washington D.C. with Gutzon Borglum among the drafters. The Rhodesian declaration of independence, ratified in November 1965, is based on the American one as well; however, it omits the phrases "all men are created equal '' and "the consent of the governed ''. The South Carolina declaration of secession from December 1860 also mentions the U.S. Declaration of Independence, though it, like the Rhodesian one, omits references to "all men are created equal '' and "consent of the governed ''.
Interest in the Declaration was revived in the 1790s with the emergence of the United States 's first political parties. Throughout the 1780s, few Americans knew or cared who wrote the Declaration. But in the next decade, Jeffersonian Republicans sought political advantage over their rival Federalists by promoting both the importance of the Declaration and Jefferson as its author. Federalists responded by casting doubt on Jefferson 's authorship or originality, and by emphasizing that independence was declared by the whole Congress, with Jefferson as just one member of the drafting committee. Federalists insisted that Congress 's act of declaring independence, in which Federalist John Adams had played a major role, was more important than the document announcing it. But this view faded away, like the Federalist Party itself, and, before long, the act of declaring independence became synonymous with the document.
A less partisan appreciation for the Declaration emerged in the years following the War of 1812, thanks to a growing American nationalism and a renewed interest in the history of the Revolution. In 1817, Congress commissioned John Trumbull 's famous painting of the signers, which was exhibited to large crowds before being installed in the Capitol. The earliest commemorative printings of the Declaration also appeared at this time, offering many Americans their first view of the signed document. Collective biographies of the signers were first published in the 1820s, giving birth to what Garry Wills called the "cult of the signers ''. In the years that followed, many stories about the writing and signing of the document were published for the first time.
When interest in the Declaration was revived, the sections that were most important in 1776 were no longer relevant: the announcement of the independence of the United States and the grievances against King George. But the second paragraph was applicable long after the war had ended, with its talk of self - evident truths and unalienable rights. The Constitution and the Bill of Rights lacked sweeping statements about rights and equality, and advocates of groups with grievances turned to the Declaration for support. Starting in the 1820s, variations of the Declaration were issued to proclaim the rights of workers, farmers, women, and others. In 1848, for example, the Seneca Falls Convention of women 's rights advocates declared that "all men and women are created equal ''.
John Trumbull 's painting Declaration of Independence has played a significant role in popular conceptions of the Declaration of Independence. The painting is 12 - by - 18 - foot (3.7 by 5.5 m) in size and was commissioned by the United States Congress in 1817; it has hung in the United States Capitol Rotunda since 1826. It is sometimes described as the signing of the Declaration of Independence, but it actually shows the Committee of Five presenting their draft of the Declaration to the Second Continental Congress on June 28, 1776, and not the signing of the document, which took place later.
Trumbull painted the figures from life whenever possible, but some had died and images could not be located; hence, the painting does not include all the signers of the Declaration. One figure had participated in the drafting but did not sign the final document; another refused to sign. In fact, the membership of the Second Continental Congress changed as time passed, and the figures in the painting were never in the same room at the same time. It is, however, an accurate depiction of the room in Independence Hall, the centerpiece of the Independence National Historical Park in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
Trumbull 's painting has been depicted multiple times on U.S. currency and postage stamps. Its first use was on the reverse side of the $100 National Bank Note issued in 1863. A few years later, the steel engraving used in printing the bank notes was used to produce a 24 - cent stamp, issued as part of the 1869 Pictorial Issue. An engraving of the signing scene has been featured on the reverse side of the United States two - dollar bill since 1976.
The apparent contradiction between the claim that "all men are created equal '' and the existence of American slavery attracted comment when the Declaration was first published. As mentioned above, Jefferson had included a paragraph in his initial draft that strongly indicted Great Britain 's role in the slave trade, but this was deleted from the final version. Jefferson himself was a prominent Virginia slave holder, having owned hundreds of slaves. Referring to this seeming contradiction, English abolitionist Thomas Day wrote in a 1776 letter, "If there be an object truly ridiculous in nature, it is an American patriot, signing resolutions of independency with the one hand, and with the other brandishing a whip over his affrighted slaves. ''
In the 19th century, the Declaration took on a special significance for the abolitionist movement. Historian Bertram Wyatt - Brown wrote that "abolitionists tended to interpret the Declaration of Independence as a theological as well as a political document ''. Abolitionist leaders Benjamin Lundy and William Lloyd Garrison adopted the "twin rocks '' of "the Bible and the Declaration of Independence '' as the basis for their philosophies. "As long as there remains a single copy of the Declaration of Independence, or of the Bible, in our land, '' wrote Garrison, "we will not despair. '' For radical abolitionists such as Garrison, the most important part of the Declaration was its assertion of the right of revolution. Garrison called for the destruction of the government under the Constitution, and the creation of a new state dedicated to the principles of the Declaration.
The controversial question of whether to add additional slave states to the United States coincided with the growing stature of the Declaration. The first major public debate about slavery and the Declaration took place during the Missouri controversy of 1819 to 1821. Antislavery Congressmen argued that the language of the Declaration indicated that the Founding Fathers of the United States had been opposed to slavery in principle, and so new slave states should not be added to the country. Proslavery Congressmen led by Senator Nathaniel Macon of North Carolina argued that the Declaration was not a part of the Constitution and therefore had no relevance to the question.
With the antislavery movement gaining momentum, defenders of slavery such as John Randolph and John C. Calhoun found it necessary to argue that the Declaration 's assertion that "all men are created equal '' was false, or at least that it did not apply to black people. During the debate over the Kansas -- Nebraska Act in 1853, for example, Senator John Pettit of Indiana argued that the statement "all men are created equal '' was not a "self - evident truth '' but a "self - evident lie ''. Opponents of the Kansas -- Nebraska Act, including Salmon P. Chase and Benjamin Wade, defended the Declaration and what they saw as its antislavery principles.
The Declaration 's relationship to slavery was taken up in 1854 by Abraham Lincoln, a little - known former Congressman who idolized the Founding Fathers. Lincoln thought that the Declaration of Independence expressed the highest principles of the American Revolution, and that the Founding Fathers had tolerated slavery with the expectation that it would ultimately wither away. For the United States to legitimize the expansion of slavery in the Kansas - Nebraska Act, thought Lincoln, was to repudiate the principles of the Revolution. In his October 1854 Peoria speech, Lincoln said:
Nearly eighty years ago we began by declaring that all men are created equal; but now from that beginning we have run down to the other declaration, that for some men to enslave others is a "sacred right of self - government ''.... Our republican robe is soiled and trailed in the dust.... Let us repurify it. Let us re-adopt the Declaration of Independence, and with it, the practices, and policy, which harmonize with it.... If we do this, we shall not only have saved the Union: but we shall have saved it, as to make, and keep it, forever worthy of the saving.
The meaning of the Declaration was a recurring topic in the famed debates between Lincoln and Stephen Douglas in 1858. Douglas argued that the phrase "all men are created equal '' in the Declaration referred to white men only. The purpose of the Declaration, he said, had simply been to justify the independence of the United States, and not to proclaim the equality of any "inferior or degraded race ''. Lincoln, however, thought that the language of the Declaration was deliberately universal, setting a high moral standard to which the American republic should aspire. "I had thought the Declaration contemplated the progressive improvement in the condition of all men everywhere, '' he said. During the seventh and last joint debate with Steven Douglas at Alton, Illinois on October 15, 1858, Lincoln said about the declaration:
I think the authors of that notable instrument intended to include all men, but they did not mean to declare all men equal in all respects. They did not mean to say all men were equal in color, size, intellect, moral development, or social capacity. They defined with tolerable distinctness in what they did consider all men created equal -- equal in "certain inalienable rights, among which are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. '' This they said, and this they meant. They did not mean to assert the obvious untruth that all were then actually enjoying that equality, or yet that they were about to confer it immediately upon them. In fact, they had no power to confer such a boon. They meant simply to declare the right, so that the enforcement of it might follow as fast as circumstances should permit. They meant to set up a standard maxim for free society which should be familiar to all, constantly looked to, constantly labored for, and even, though never perfectly attained, constantly approximated, and thereby constantly spreading and deepening its influence, and augmenting the happiness and value of life to all people, of all colors, everywhere.
According to Pauline Maier, Douglas 's interpretation was more historically accurate, but Lincoln 's view ultimately prevailed. "In Lincoln 's hands, '' wrote Maier, "the Declaration of Independence became first and foremost a living document '' with "a set of goals to be realized over time ''.
Abraham Lincoln, 1858
Like Daniel Webster, James Wilson, and Joseph Story before him, Lincoln argued that the Declaration of Independence was a founding document of the United States, and that this had important implications for interpreting the Constitution, which had been ratified more than a decade after the Declaration. The Constitution did not use the word "equality '', yet Lincoln believed that the concept that "all men are created equal '' remained a part of the nation 's founding principles. He famously expressed this belief in the opening sentence of his 1863 Gettysburg Address: "Four score and seven years ago (i.e. in 1776) our fathers brought forth on this continent, a new nation, conceived in Liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal. ''
Lincoln 's view of the Declaration became influential, seeing it as a moral guide to interpreting the Constitution. "For most people now, '' wrote Garry Wills in 1992, "the Declaration means what Lincoln told us it means, as a way of correcting the Constitution itself without overthrowing it. '' Admirers of Lincoln such as Harry V. Jaffa praised this development. Critics of Lincoln, notably Willmoore Kendall and Mel Bradford, argued that Lincoln dangerously expanded the scope of the national government and violated states ' rights by reading the Declaration into the Constitution.
In July 1848, the first woman 's rights convention, the Seneca Falls Convention, was held in Seneca Falls, New York. The convention was organized by Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Lucretia Mott, Mary Ann McClintock, and Jane Hunt. In their "Declaration of Sentiments '', patterned on the Declaration of Independence, the convention members demanded social and political equality for women. Their motto was that "All men and women are created equal '' and the convention demanded suffrage for women. The suffrage movement was supported by William Lloyd Garrison and Frederick Douglass.
The Declaration was chosen to be the first digitized text (1971).
The Memorial to the 56 Signers of the Declaration of Independence was dedicated in 1984 in Constitution Gardens on the National Mall in Washington, D.C., where the signatures of all the original signers are carved in stone with their names, places of residence, and occupations.
The new One World Trade Center building in New York City (2014) is 1776 feet high to symbolize the year that the Declaration of Independence was signed.
The adoption of the Declaration of Independence was dramatized in the 1969 Tony Award -- winning musical 1776 and the 1972 film version, as well as in the 2008 television miniseries John Adams. In 1970, The 5th Dimension recorded the opening of the Declaration on their album Portrait in the song "Declaration ''. It was first performed on the Ed Sullivan Show on December 7, 1969, and it was taken as a song of protest against the Vietnam War. The Declaration of Independence is also a plot device in the 2004 American film National Treasure.
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who played frank munson on kevin can wait | Kevin Can Wait - wikipedia
Kevin Can Wait is an American sitcom television series starring Kevin James. The series premiered on September 19, 2016. The series marked James ' second starring role in a CBS sitcom, after The King of Queens, which ran from 1998 until 2007. On March 23, 2017, CBS renewed the series for a second season, which premiered on September 25, 2017 and concluded on May 7, 2018.
The series began with James starring as a recently retired Nassau County, New York police officer and father of three, married to Donna (Erinn Hayes). Beginning with season two, the character of Donna has died, and the series ' new female lead is Vanessa Cellucci (Leah Remini), Kevin 's former rival on the force and now his partner at their new security company, Monkey Fist Security. While the first season focused on Kevin 's personal and family life, the second concerns his new profession, his relationship with Vanessa, and his adjustment to life as a single parent.
Kevin Can Wait was cancelled by CBS on May 12, 2018, after two seasons and 48 episodes.
Kevin Gable is a newly retired Nassau County police officer living in Massapequa, New York, on Long Island, with wife Donna, daughters Kendra and Sara, and son Jack. He looks forward to a carefree early retirement hanging out with his friends, who are also retired officers: Goody, Duffy, and Mott. However, Kevin soon realizes his smaller pension paycheck and family challenges will put those plans on hold. His elder daughter Kendra, who was away at college, moves back into town with her unemployed fiancé, Chale, and they begin living in the home 's garage; Sara is becoming increasingly difficult, with anger - management issues; and youngest son Jack is a hypochondriac who sees the school therapist for anxiety - related issues.
During the first season, Kevin holds various odd jobs to supplement his retirement income while the family deals with several issues, including Kendra 's and Chale 's wedding. First season episodes revolve around Kevin and Donna, although Kevin is frequently seen with his group of friends. Most scenes during the first season take place either at the Gable household or the bar Enzo 's (where Kendra is employed and where Kevin hangs out with his friends).
Season two picks up over a year after the events of the first - season finale. Donna has been deceased for about a year, leaving the widowed Kevin with the three kids, and now working full - time with his old work rival, Vanessa Cellucci, in their new security company, Monkey Fist Security. With the death of Donna, Kevin 's reentry into the work force, and the regular inclusion of Vanessa, season two expands its focus to also feature more of the supporting characters not seen much in the first season. The Monkey Fist Security office also becomes a frequently used location.
In addition, James ' family has appeared in the series (in addition to regular cast member Gary Valentine). James ' real - life wife, Steffiana De La Cruz, and two of James ' daughters, Shea James and Sienna James, have appeared in the series; De La Cruz was in "The Back Out '' as a half of a couple Kevin and Donna try to befriend, while Shea and Sienna appeared in various roles throughout both seasons. Remini 's husband, Angelo Pagán, also appeared in "Business Unusual ''. Also, both theme song performer Michael Delguidice, and writer Mike Soccio, have appeared in the series in minor roles.
In October 2015, it was announced Kevin James would star in a new family - comedy television series for CBS, while Rock Reuben will executive produce the series, and Bruce Helford would serve as the show runner.
On October 17, 2016, CBS ordered a full season of 22 episodes. In November 2016, Bruce Helford exited the series as showrunner after the first thirteen episodes, due to creative differences. Cheers alum Rob Long replaced Helford as showrunner. On January 6, 2017, two additional episodes were added, bringing the season to a total of 24 episodes.
The series is filmed entirely on Long Island at Gold Coast Studios in Bethpage, New York. The pilot episode was filmed on April 1, 2016. Production on subsequent episodes began taping on August 5, 2016.
Season two was originally supposed to contain 22 episodes. However, like the previous season, it was eventually bumped up to 24 episodes.
In January 2016, Taylor Spreitler had been cast in the series as Kendra, Kevin 's daughter. In February 2016, Ryan Cartwright, Mary - Charles Jones, and James DiGiacomo had been cast in the series, as Kendra 's boyfriend, and James ' characters other children, respectively. That same month, Leonard Earl Howze and Erinn Hayes joined the cast portraying James ' character 's friend and former police partner and James ' wife, respectively. In March 2016, Lenny Venito and Gary Valentine joined the cast.
In September 2016, it was announced Ray Romano and Gina Brillon would guest star. In November 2016, it was announced Adam Sandler would also guest star. In March 2017, it was announced James ' former King of Queens co-star Leah Remini would guest star in the first season 's final two episodes.
In June 2017, Remini was upped to a series regular starting with Season 2; shortly after, it was announced that Erinn Hayes would not be returning for the show 's second season. Sources cited in a Variety article confirmed that Remini would be returning as Detective Vanessa Cellucci, the character she portrayed in the first - season finale, and that Hayes ' dismissal was for creative reasons and "not a reflection '' of the actress ' performance. In August 2017, it was reported Hayes ' character would be killed off before season two began and the season will take place 7 -- 10 months after season one ended, in order to make room for Remini.
During the first season, Kevin Can Wait received generally negative reviews from critics. On the review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the series has an approval rating of 30 %, based on 23 reviews, with an average rating of 3.9 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Kevin James proves a likable, funny lead, but Kevin Can Wait relies too heavily on predictable, unfunny jokes and a series of lackluster subplots to stand out from the crowd. '' On Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating, the series has a score 39 out of 100, based on 17 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews ''.
With the firing of Hayes and addition of Remini in season two, the series ' retooling also received negative reviews, this time heavily comparing the series as inferior to James and Remini 's former show The King of Queens.
The replacement of Erinn Hayes with Leah Remini, and how the show handled Donna Gable 's death, has been a source of controversy for the series. Criticism has been levied especially on the episodes "Civil Ceremony '' and "Grief Thief ''. In the former, which served as the season premiere, criticism was placed on the brief mention of Donna 's death, via a piece of mail, and a subsequent joke many found distasteful. The later episode, the season 's fifth episode, was panned for its plot that the characters use a single parents support group for getting out of work and their romantic life. The series ' reduced mention of Donna following her death, as well as no specific cause to her death, has also been target of criticism.
Viewers and critics of the show remain divided over the retool. Some stated the decision was a well - made one, and that the chemistry James has with Remini has made the quality of the series better. Others say that Hayes ' firing, and the addition of Remini with how the show handled her character 's death, with poor script quality, has made the show worse. Despite the division, both Hayes and Remini spoke highly of each other. Remini stated that, before Hayes ' firing, she was looking forward to working with her again; Hayes (who has mostly remained silent over the firing so far) asked fans to not place blame on Remini.
It has been rumored and hinted at that the addition of co-star Leah Remini was an attempt to save the show from cancellation. Many suggested this theory is due not only to their chemistry and ability to play off one another well, but also to capitalize on their successful run on The King of Queens a decade earlier. However, James insisted the choice was purely creative, as the writers felt they were running out of ideas, and he was unsure if it would continue beyond a second season. James also stated that the original plot line of the series was to have him as a single father, but the original producers gave him a wife instead.
Despite the controversy surrounding the revamp, the series ' ratings have remained steady. As of December 1, 2017, the series was averaging 8.2 million viewers (with delayed viewing) in the season, competing against more established Top 20 series Dancing with the Stars and The Voice. The series also performs well in the much - coveted 18 - 49 demographic, ranking as the fifth - highest rated program on CBS in that category.
The Complete First Season was released on DVD on September 5, 2017, by Sony Pictures Television.
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star wars episode i the phantom menace pc | Star Wars: Episode I -- the Phantom Menace (video game) - wikipedia
Star Wars: Episode I -- The Phantom Menace is a 1999 action - adventure video game released by LucasArts. It is based on the film of the same title.
The plot closely follows that of the film, although it expands on some minor events that could have been silenced or cut from the film, or shows them from a different character 's point of view. For example, it follows Queen Amidala and Captain Panaka 's adventure on Coruscant during Anakin Skywalker 's interview in the Jedi Temple - something that is never shown or mentioned in the film since the film follows Anakin 's point of view.
The Trade Federation, led by Viceroy Nute Gunray, has a formed a blockade of the planet Naboo. Hoping to resolve the conflict, the Chancellor of the Galactic Republic, Finis Valorum, sends two Jedi Knights, Qui - Gon Jinn and his padawan, Obi - Wan Kenobi, to negotiate with the Viceroy.
However, after they arrive on the ship, the room they are being held in begins to fill with poisonous gas. Realizing it is an assassination attempt, the two Jedi escape the room and fight their way through the ship, battling the Trade Federation Battle droids. They reach the hangar bay and escape in a ship to the swamps of Naboo.
There, they meet with Jar - Jar Binks, an exile of the underwater Gungan city. He brings them there, where they fight off hostile Gungan guards before confronting Boss Nass. Qui - Gon manages to convince him to spare Jar - Jar 's life and they depart for Theed, where they rescue Queen Amidala. Along with Captain Panaka they flee the besieged capital and make an emergency landing on the desert planet of Tatooine.
Qui - Gon scours Mos Espa for the vital ship parts needed to escape the planet and encounters slave child Anakin Skywalker. Qui - Gon makes a bet with Anakin 's master Watto and wins Anakin 's freedom.
As Qui - Gon escorts Anakin back to the ship, he is attacked by a mysterious Sith warrior. Qui - Gon fights him off and escapes with Anakin. The group returns to Coruscant so that the Queen can speak with the Chancellor. After Panaka escorts her through the dangerous streets of Coruscant, she decides to return to Naboo and retake Theed.
During the attack, the Sith warrior reappears, revealing himself as Darth Maul. Qui - Gon and Obi - Wan duel Darth Maul, pursuing him into the generator complex, while the Queen and Panaka invade the throne room and defeat Gunray.
Obi - Wan becomes separated from Qui - Gon and Darth Maul, allowing the villain to stab Qui - Gon. Obi - Wan then attacks him and finally defeats him atop a scaffold (not seen in the film). Qui - Gon makes Obi - Wan promise to train Anakin as a Jedi before he dies of his wounds. The game ends with a celebration on Naboo.
The player gets to play as either Obi - Wan Kenobi, Qui - Gon Jinn, Queen Amidala or Captain Panaka, depending on the level. If the player is playing as either of the two Jedi, they can use a lightsaber or execute a Force push in addition to using blasters, proton missile launchers and explosives (which are available for Amidala and Panaka). The player may also encounter and interact with other non-player characters. Throughout the game, the player will be fighting against Darth Maul, Trade Federation battle droids, AATs, Tusken Raiders, etc.
Star Wars Episode I: The Phantom Menace received generally mixed reception, with GameRankings giving it a score of 62.28 % for the PC version, and a 54.39 % for the PlayStation version.
In the United States, the computer version of The Phantom Menace sold 337,866 copies by November 2000, according to PC Data. The game was a bestseller in the UK. Its PlayStation version received a "Gold '' sales award from the Entertainment and Leisure Software Publishers Association (ELSPA), indicating sales of at least 200,000 copies in the United Kingdom.
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who put the bomp in the bop shoo bop shoo bop | Who Put the Bomp (in the Bomp, Bomp, Bomp) - wikipedia
"Who Put the Bomp (in the Bomp, Bomp, Bomp) '' is a doo - wop style hit song from 1961 co-written (with Gerry Goffin) and recorded by Barry Mann. He was backed up by the Halos, who had previously backed Curtis Lee on "Pretty Little Angel Eyes ''. The song was originally released as a single on the ABC - Paramount label (10237).
In this song, Mann sings about the frequent use of nonsense lyrics in doo - wop music, and how his girl fell in love with him after listening to several such songs.
Examples of the type of song referred to include the Marcels ' version of "Blue Moon '' (in which they sing "Bomp bomp ba bomp, ba bomp ba bomp bomp '' and "dip - de-dip - de-dip '') and the Edsels ' "Rama - Lama - Ding - Dong '', both of which charted earlier the same year. The spoken part is a reference to the song "Little Darlin ' '' by the Diamonds. "Boogidy shoo '' can be found in the lyrics to "Pony Time '' by Chubby Checker, released earlier that year.
The song inspired the title of an eponymous music magazine.
The song fits into the category of "self - referential '' songs. Rock songs are often about rock, reggae songs about reggae, rap songs about rap, etc. In this particular song that aspect is accentuated by the fact that Mann is a songwriter singing about songwriters.
The single debuted on Billboard 's Hot 100 on August 7, 1961, and remained for twelve weeks, peaking at # 7. Mann 's version did not chart in the UK, though a cover version by the Viscounts reached # 21 there in September, 1961, and another version by Showaddywaddy charted at # 37 in August 1982.
The song has been covered or referenced by:
A parody, "Who 'll Put a Bomb on Saddam Saddam Saddam '' was introduced in the political satirists Capitol Steps ' 1990 album, Sheik, Rattle and Roll. A later parody titled "Who put the Bomb in Tehran, Tehran, Tehran '' was produced by Capitol Steps and included in their book Sixteen Scandals and the accompanying CD.
The song "We Go Together '' in the Broadway musical and subsequent film Grease includes a similar mix of nonsensical lyrics. The versions of "We Go Together '' on the 1993 London cast recording and movie soundtrack include a bit of "Who Put the Bomp '' sung in counterpoint at the end.
A parody titled "Who Put the Mush '' was written and performed by The McCalmans. In an inversion of the original song, the singer 's girlfriend leaves him due to the nonsense lyrics in his folk music. It was released in 1994 on the album Songs From Scotland.
Bentley Rhythm Ace had a track called "Who Put the Bom in the Bom Bom Diddleye Bom '' on their debut album.
The Mugar Omni Theater at the Boston Museum of Science introduction / audio check is Leonard Nimoy reciting "Who Put the Bomp ''
The song was parodied by Bob Rivers as "Who Put the Stump? '', involving, from the perspective of an angel on top of a Christmas tree, the tree being inserted up the angel 's rectum. The lyrics include "Who put the stump in my rump ba - bump ba - bump ''.
Sugaryline covered the song as the ending credits from the anime TV series Milk Premium. It was also featured in the album The Hit Days Over Him! and the soundtrack Milk! Milk! Milk Premium! Spits Of The TV Volume 1.
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magnakart of the western education system in india | Magna Carta - Wikipedia
Magna Carta Libertatum (Medieval Latin for "the Great Charter of the Liberties ''), commonly called Magna Carta (also Magna Charta; "Great Charter ''), is a charter agreed to by King John of England at Runnymede, near Windsor, on 15 June 1215. First drafted by the Archbishop of Canterbury to make peace between the unpopular King and a group of rebel barons, it promised the protection of church rights, protection for the barons from illegal imprisonment, access to swift justice, and limitations on feudal payments to the Crown, to be implemented through a council of 25 barons. Neither side stood behind their commitments, and the charter was annulled by Pope Innocent III, leading to the First Barons ' War. After John 's death, the regency government of his young son, Henry III, reissued the document in 1216, stripped of some of its more radical content, in an unsuccessful bid to build political support for their cause. At the end of the war in 1217, it formed part of the peace treaty agreed at Lambeth, where the document acquired the name Magna Carta, to distinguish it from the smaller Charter of the Forest which was issued at the same time. Short of funds, Henry reissued the charter again in 1225 in exchange for a grant of new taxes. His son, Edward I, repeated the exercise in 1297, this time confirming it as part of England 's statute law.
The charter became part of English political life and was typically renewed by each monarch in turn, although as time went by and the fledgling English Parliament passed new laws, it lost some of its practical significance. At the end of the 16th century there was an upsurge in interest in Magna Carta. Lawyers and historians at the time believed that there was an ancient English constitution, going back to the days of the Anglo - Saxons, that protected individual English freedoms. They argued that the Norman invasion of 1066 had overthrown these rights, and that Magna Carta had been a popular attempt to restore them, making the charter an essential foundation for the contemporary powers of Parliament and legal principles such as habeas corpus. Although this historical account was badly flawed, jurists such as Sir Edward Coke used Magna Carta extensively in the early 17th century, arguing against the divine right of kings propounded by the Stuart monarchs. Both James I and his son Charles I attempted to suppress the discussion of Magna Carta, until the issue was curtailed by the English Civil War of the 1640s and the execution of Charles.
The political myth of Magna Carta and its protection of ancient personal liberties persisted after the Glorious Revolution of 1688 until well into the 19th century. It influenced the early American colonists in the Thirteen Colonies and the formation of the American Constitution in 1787, which became the supreme law of the land in the new republic of the United States. Research by Victorian historians showed that the original 1215 charter had concerned the medieval relationship between the monarch and the barons, rather than the rights of ordinary people, but the charter remained a powerful, iconic document, even after almost all of its content was repealed from the statute books in the 19th and 20th centuries. Magna Carta still forms an important symbol of liberty today, often cited by politicians and campaigners, and is held in great respect by the British and American legal communities, Lord Denning describing it as "the greatest constitutional document of all times -- the foundation of the freedom of the individual against the arbitrary authority of the despot ''.
In the 21st century, four exemplifications of the original 1215 charter remain in existence, two at the British Library, one at Lincoln Cathedral and one at Salisbury Cathedral. There are also a handful of the subsequent charters in public and private ownership, including copies of the 1297 charter in both the United States and Australia. The original charters were written on parchment sheets using quill pens, in heavily abbreviated medieval Latin, which was the convention for legal documents at that time. Each was sealed with the royal great seal (made of beeswax and resin sealing wax): very few of the seals have survived. Although scholars refer to the 63 numbered "clauses '' of Magna Carta, this is a modern system of numbering, introduced by Sir William Blackstone in 1759; the original charter formed a single, long unbroken text. The four original 1215 charters were displayed together at the British Library for one day, 3 February 2015, to mark the 800th anniversary of Magna Carta.
Magna Carta originated as an unsuccessful attempt to achieve peace between royalist and rebel factions in 1215, as part of the events leading to the outbreak of the First Barons ' War. England was ruled by King John, the third of the Angevin kings. Although the kingdom had a robust administrative system, the nature of government under the Angevin monarchs was ill - defined and uncertain. John and his predecessors had ruled using the principle of vis et voluntas, or "force and will '', taking executive and sometimes arbitrary decisions, often justified on the basis that a king was above the law. Many contemporary writers believed that monarchs should rule in accordance with the custom and the law, with the counsel of the leading members of the realm, but there was no model for what should happen if a king refused to do so.
John had lost most of his ancestral lands in France to King Philip II in 1204 and had struggled to regain them for many years, raising extensive taxes on the barons to accumulate money to fight a war which ended in expensive failure in 1214. Following the defeat of his allies at the Battle of Bouvines, John had to sue for peace and pay compensation. John was already personally unpopular with many of the barons, many of whom owed money to the Crown, and little trust existed between the two sides. A triumph would have strengthened his position, but in the face of his defeat, within a few months after his return from France John found that rebel barons in the north and east of England were organising resistance to his rule.
The rebels took an oath that they would "stand fast for the liberty of the church and the realm '', and demanded that the King confirm the Charter of Liberties that had been declared by King Henry I in the previous century, and which was perceived by the barons to protect their rights. The rebel leadership was unimpressive by the standards of the time, even disreputable, but were united by their hatred of John; Robert FitzWalter, later elected leader of the rebel barons, claimed publicly that John had attempted to rape his daughter, and was implicated in a plot to assassinate John in 1212.
John held a council in London in January 1215 to discuss potential reforms, and sponsored discussions in Oxford between his agents and the rebels during the spring. Both sides appealed to Pope Innocent III for assistance in the dispute. During the negotiations, the rebellious barons produced an initial document, which historians have termed "the Unknown Charter of Liberties '', which drew on Henry I 's Charter of Liberties for much of its language; seven articles from that document later appeared in the "Articles of the Barons '' and the subsequent charter.
It was John 's hope that the Pope would give him valuable legal and moral support, and accordingly John played for time; the King had declared himself to be a papal vassal in 1213 and correctly believed he could count on the Pope for help. John also began recruiting mercenary forces from France, although some were later sent back to avoid giving the impression that the King was escalating the conflict. In a further move to shore up his support, John took an oath to become a crusader, a move which gave him additional political protection under church law, even though many felt the promise was insincere.
Letters backing John arrived from the Pope in April, but by then the rebel barons had organised into a military faction. They congregated at Northampton in May and renounced their feudal ties to John, marching on London, Lincoln, and Exeter. John 's efforts to appear moderate and conciliatory had been largely successful, but once the rebels held London, they attracted a fresh wave of defectors from the royalists. The King offered to submit the problem to a committee of arbitration with the Pope as the supreme arbiter, but this was not attractive to the rebels. Stephen Langton, the Archbishop of Canterbury, had been working with the rebel barons on their demands, and after the suggestion of papal arbitration failed, John instructed Langton to organise peace talks.
John met the rebel leaders at Runnymede, a water - meadow on the south bank of the River Thames, on 10 June 1215. Runnymede was a traditional place for assemblies, but it was also located on neutral ground between the royal fortress of Windsor Castle and the rebel base at Staines, and offered both sides the security of a rendezvous where they were unlikely to find themselves at a military disadvantage. Here the rebels presented John with their draft demands for reform, the ' Articles of the Barons '. Stephen Langton 's pragmatic efforts at mediation over the next ten days turned these incomplete demands into a charter capturing the proposed peace agreement; a few years later, this agreement was renamed Magna Carta, meaning "Great Charter ''. By 15 June, general agreement had been made on a text, and on 19 June, the rebels renewed their oaths of loyalty to John and copies of the charter were formally issued.
Although, as the historian David Carpenter has noted, the charter "wasted no time on political theory '', it went beyond simply addressing individual baronial complaints, and formed a wider proposal for political reform. It promised the protection of church rights, protection from illegal imprisonment, access to swift justice, and, most importantly, limitations on taxation and other feudal payments to the Crown, with certain forms of feudal taxation requiring baronial consent. It focused on the rights of free men -- in particular the barons. However, the rights of serfs were included in articles 16, 20, and 28. Its style and content reflected Henry I 's Charter of Liberties, as well as a wider body of legal traditions, including the royal charters issued to towns, the operations of the Church and baronial courts and European charters such as the Statute of Pamiers.
Under what historians later labelled "clause 61 '', or the "security clause '', a council of 25 barons would be created to monitor and ensure John 's future adherence to the charter. If John did not conform to the charter within 40 days of being notified of a transgression by the council, the 25 barons were empowered by clause 61 to seize John 's castles and lands until, in their judgement, amends had been made. Men were to be compelled to swear an oath to assist the council in controlling the King, but once redress had been made for any breaches, the King would continue to rule as before. In one sense this was not unprecedented; other kings had previously conceded the right of individual resistance to their subjects if the King did not uphold his obligations. Magna Carta was however novel in that it set up a formally recognised means of collectively coercing the King. The historian Wilfred Warren argues that it was almost inevitable that the clause would result in civil war, as it "was crude in its methods and disturbing in its implications ''. The barons were trying to force John to keep to the charter, but clause 61 was so heavily weighted against the King that this version of the charter could not survive.
John and the rebel barons did not trust each other, and neither side seriously attempted to implement the peace accord. The 25 barons selected for the new council were all rebels, chosen by the more extremist barons, and many among the rebels found excuses to keep their forces mobilised. Disputes began to emerge between those rebels who had expected the charter to return lands that had been confiscated and the royalist faction.
Clause 61 of Magna Carta contained a commitment from John that he would "seek to obtain nothing from anyone, in our own person or through someone else, whereby any of these grants or liberties may be revoked or diminished ''. Despite this, the King appealed to Pope Innocent for help in July, arguing that the charter compromised the Pope 's rights as John 's feudal lord. As part of the June peace deal, the barons were supposed to surrender London by 15 August, but this they refused to do. Meanwhile, instructions from the Pope arrived in August, written before the peace accord, with the result that papal commissioners excommunicated the rebel barons and suspended Langton from office in early September. Once aware of the charter, the Pope responded in detail: in a letter dated 24 August and arriving in late September, he declared the charter to be "not only shameful and demeaning but also illegal and unjust '' since John had been "forced to accept '' it, and accordingly the charter was "null, and void of all validity for ever ''; under threat of excommunication, the King was not to observe the charter, nor the barons try to enforce it.
By then, violence had broken out between the two sides; less than three months after it had been agreed, John and the loyalist barons firmly repudiated the failed charter: the First Barons ' War erupted. The rebel barons concluded that peace with John was impossible, and turned to Philip II 's son, the future Louis VIII, for help, offering him the English throne. The war soon settled into a stalemate. The King became ill and died on the night of 18 October 1216, leaving the nine - year - old Henry III as his heir.
The preamble to Magna Carta includes the names of the following 27 ecclesiastical and secular magnates who had counselled John to accept its terms. The names include some of the moderate reformers, notably Archbishop Stephen Langton, and some of John 's loyal supporters, such as William Marshal, Earl of Pembroke. They are listed here in the order in which they appear in the charter itself:
The names of the Twenty - Five Barons appointed under clause 61 to monitor John 's future conduct are not given in the charter itself, but do appear in four early sources, all seemingly based on a contemporary listing: a late 13th - century collection of law tracts and statutes, a Reading Abbey manuscript now in Lambeth Palace Library, and the Chronica Majora and Liber Additamentorum of Matthew Paris. The process of appointment is not known, but the names were drawn almost exclusively from among John 's more active opponents. They are listed here in the order in which they appear in the original sources:
In September 1215, the papal commissioners in England -- Subdeacon Pandulf, Peter des Roches, Bishop of Winchester, and Simon, Abbot of Reading -- excommunicated the rebels, acting on instructions earlier received from Rome. A letter sent by the commissioners from Dover on 5 September to Archbishop Langton explicitly names nine senior rebel barons (all members of the Council of Twenty - Five), and six clerics numbered among the rebel ranks:
Although the Charter of 1215 was a failure as a peace treaty, it was resurrected under the new government of the young Henry III as a way of drawing support away from the rebel faction. On his deathbed, King John appointed a council of thirteen executors to help Henry reclaim the kingdom, and requested that his son be placed into the guardianship of William Marshal, one of the most famous knights in England. William knighted the boy, and Cardinal Guala Bicchieri, the papal legate to England, then oversaw his coronation at Gloucester Cathedral on 28 October.
The young King inherited a difficult situation, with over half of England occupied by the rebels. He had substantial support though from Guala, who intended to win the civil war for Henry and punish the rebels. Guala set about strengthening the ties between England and the Papacy, starting with the coronation itself, during which Henry gave homage to the Papacy, recognising the Pope as his feudal lord. Pope Honorius III declared that Henry was the Pope 's vassal and ward, and that the legate had complete authority to protect Henry and his kingdom. As an additional measure, Henry took the cross, declaring himself a crusader and thereby entitled to special protection from Rome.
The war was not going well for the loyalists, but Prince Louis and the rebel barons were also finding it difficult to make further progress. John 's death had defused some of the rebel concerns, and the royal castles were still holding out in the occupied parts of the country. Henry 's government encouraged the rebel barons to come back to his cause in exchange for the return of their lands, and reissued a version of the 1215 Charter, albeit having first removed some of the clauses, including those unfavourable to the Papacy and clause 61, which had set up the council of barons. The move was not successful, and opposition to Henry 's new government hardened.
In February 1217, Louis set sail for France to gather reinforcements. In his absence, arguments broke out between Louis ' French and English followers, and Cardinal Guala declared that Henry 's war against the rebels was the equivalent of a religious crusade. This declaration resulted in a series of defections from the rebel movement, and the tide of the conflict swung in Henry 's favour. Louis returned at the end of April, but his northern forces were defeated by William Marshal at the Battle of Lincoln in May.
Meanwhile, support for Louis ' campaign was diminishing in France, and he concluded that the war in England was lost. He negotiated terms with Cardinal Guala, under which Louis would renounce his claim to the English throne; in return, his followers would be given back their lands, any sentences of excommunication would be lifted, and Henry 's government would promise to enforce the charter of the previous year. The proposed agreement soon began to unravel amid claims from some loyalists that it was too generous towards the rebels, particularly the clergy who had joined the rebellion.
In the absence of a settlement, Louis remained in London with his remaining forces, hoping for the arrival of reinforcements from France. When the expected fleet did arrive in August, it was intercepted and defeated by loyalists at the Battle of Sandwich. Louis entered into fresh peace negotiations, and the factions came to agreement on the final Treaty of Lambeth, also known as the Treaty of Kingston, on 12 and 13 September 1217. The treaty was similar to the first peace offer, but excluded the rebel clergy, whose lands and appointments remained forfeit; it included a promise, however, that Louis ' followers would be allowed to enjoy their traditional liberties and customs, referring back to the Charter of 1216. Louis left England as agreed and joined the Albigensian Crusade in the south of France, bringing the war to an end.
A great council was called in October and November to take stock of the post-war situation; this council is thought to have formulated and issued the Charter of 1217. The charter resembled that of 1216, although some additional clauses were added to protect the rights of the barons over their feudal subjects, and the restrictions on the Crown 's ability to levy taxation were watered down. There remained a range of disagreements about the management of the royal forests, which involved a special legal system that had resulted in a source of considerable royal revenue; complaints existed over both the implementation of these courts, and the geographic boundaries of the royal forests. A complementary charter, the Charter of the Forest, was created, pardoning existing forest offences, imposing new controls over the forest courts, and establishing a review of the forest boundaries. To distinguish the two charters, the term magna carta libertatum, "the great charter of liberties '', was used by the scribes to refer to the larger document, which in time became known simply as Magna Carta.
Magna Carta became increasingly embedded into English political life during Henry III 's minority. As the King grew older, his government slowly began to recover from the civil war, regaining control of the counties and beginning to raise revenue once again, taking care not to overstep the terms of the charters. Henry remained a minor and his government 's legal ability to make permanently binding decisions on his behalf was limited. In 1223, the tensions over the status of the charters became clear in the royal court, when Henry 's government attempted to reassert its rights over its properties and revenues in the counties, facing resistance from many communities that argued -- if sometimes incorrectly -- that the charters protected the new arrangements. This resistance resulted in an argument between Archbishop Langton and William Brewer over whether the King had any duty to fulfil the terms of the charters, given that he had been forced to agree to them. On this occasion, Henry gave oral assurances that he considered himself bound by the charters, enabling a royal inquiry into the situation in the counties to progress.
Two years later, the question of Henry 's commitment to the charters re-emerged, when Louis VIII of France invaded Henry 's remaining provinces in France, Poitou and Gascony. Henry 's army in Poitou was under - resourced, and the province quickly fell. It became clear that Gascony would also fall unless reinforcements were sent from England. In early 1225, a great council approved a tax of £ 40,000 to dispatch an army, which quickly retook Gascony. In exchange for agreeing to support Henry, the barons demanded that the King reissue Magna Carta and the Charter of the Forest. The content was almost identical to the 1217 versions, but in the new versions, the King declared that the charters were issued of his own "spontaneous and free will '' and confirmed them with the royal seal, giving the new Great Charter and the Charter of the Forest of 1225 much more authority than the previous versions.
The barons anticipated that the King would act in accordance with these charters, subject to the law and moderated by the advice of the nobility. Uncertainty continued, and in 1227, when he was declared of age and able to rule independently, Henry announced that future charters had to be issued under his own seal. This brought into question the validity of the previous charters issued during his minority, and Henry actively threatened to overturn the Charter of the Forest unless the taxes promised in return for it were actually paid. In 1253, Henry confirmed the charters once again in exchange for taxation.
Henry placed a symbolic emphasis on rebuilding royal authority, but his rule was relatively circumscribed by Magna Carta. He generally acted within the terms of the charters, which prevented the Crown from taking extrajudicial action against the barons, including the fines and expropriations that had been common under his father, John. The charters did not address the sensitive issues of the appointment of royal advisers and the distribution of patronage, and they lacked any means of enforcement if the King chose to ignore them. The inconsistency with which he applied the charters over the course of his rule alienated many barons, even those within his own faction.
Despite the various charters, the provision of royal justice was inconsistent and driven by the needs of immediate politics: sometimes action would be taken to address a legitimate baronial complaint, while on other occasions the problem would simply be ignored. The royal courts, which toured the country to provide justice at the local level, typically for lesser barons and the gentry claiming grievances against major lords, had little power, allowing the major barons to dominate the local justice system. Henry 's rule became lax and careless, resulting in a reduction in royal authority in the provinces and, ultimately, the collapse of his authority at court.
In 1258, a group of barons seized power from Henry in a coup d'état, citing the need to strictly enforce Magna Carta and the Charter of the Forest, creating a new baronial - led government to advance reform through the Provisions of Oxford. The barons were not militarily powerful enough to win a decisive victory, and instead appealed to Louis IX of France in 1263 -- 1264 to arbitrate on their proposed reforms. The reformist barons argued their case based on Magna Carta, suggesting that it was inviolable under English law and that the King had broken its terms.
Louis came down firmly in favour of Henry, but the French arbitration failed to achieve peace as the rebellious barons refused to accept the verdict. England slipped back into the Second Barons ' War, which was won by Henry 's son, Prince Edward. Edward also invoked Magna Carta in advancing his cause, arguing that the reformers had taken matters too far and were themselves acting against Magna Carta. In a conciliatory gesture after the barons had been defeated, in 1267 Henry issued the Statute of Marlborough, which included a fresh commitment to observe the terms of Magna Carta.
The following 65 individuals were witnesses to the 1225 issue of Magna Carta, named in the order in which they appear in the charter itself:
King Edward I reissued the Charters of 1225 in 1297 in return for a new tax. It is this version which remains in statute today, although with most articles now repealed.
The Confirmatio Cartarum (Confirmation of Charters) was issued in Norman French by Edward I in 1297. Edward, needing money, had taxed the nobility, and they had armed themselves against him, forcing Edward to issue his confirmation of Magna Carta and the Forest Charter to avoid civil war. The nobles had sought to add another document, the De Tallagio, to Magna Carta. Edward I 's government was not prepared to concede this, they agreed to the issuing of the Confirmatio, confirming the previous charters and confirming the principle that taxation should be by consent, although the precise manner of that consent was not laid down.
A passage mandates that copies shall be distributed in "cathedral churches throughout our realm, there to remain, and shall be read before the people two times by the year '', hence the permanent installation of a copy in Salisbury Cathedral. In the Confirmation 's second article, it is confirmed that
if any judgement be given from henceforth contrary to the points of the charters aforesaid by the justices, or by any other our ministers that hold plea before them against the points of the charters, it shall be undone, and holden for nought.
With the reconfirmation of the Charters in 1300, an additional document was granted, the Articuli super Cartas (The Articles upon the Charters). It was composed of 17 articles and sought in part to deal with the problem of enforcing the Charters. Magna Carta and the Forest Charter were to be issued to the sheriff of each county, and should be read four times a year at the meetings of the county courts. Each county should have a committee of three men who could hear complaints about violations of the Charters.
Pope Clement V continued the papal policy of supporting monarchs (who ruled by divine grace) against any claims in Magna Carta which challenged the King 's rights, and annulled the Confirmatio Cartarum in 1305. Edward I interpreted Clement V 's papal bull annulling the Confirmatio Cartarum as effectively applying to the Articuli super Cartas, although the latter was not specifically mentioned. In 1306 Edward I took the opportunity given by the Pope 's backing to reassert forest law over large areas which had been "disafforested ''. Both Edward and the Pope were accused by some contemporary chroniclers of "perjury '', and it was suggested by Robert McNair Scott that Robert the Bruce refused to make peace with Edward I 's son, Edward II, in 1312 with the justification: "How shall the king of England keep faith with me, since he does not observe the sworn promises made to his liege men... ''
The Great Charter was referred to in legal cases throughout the medieval period. For example, in 1226, the knights of Lincolnshire argued that their local sheriff was changing customary practice regarding the local courts, "contrary to their liberty which they ought to have by the charter of the lord king ''. In practice, cases were not brought against the King for breach of Magna Carta and the Forest Charter, but it was possible to bring a case against the King 's officers, such as his sheriffs, using the argument that the King 's officers were acting contrary to liberties granted by the King in the charters.
In addition, medieval cases referred to the clauses in Magna Carta which dealt with specific issues such as wardship and dower, debt collection, and keeping rivers free for navigation. Even in the 13th century, some clauses of Magna Carta rarely appeared in legal cases, either because the issues concerned were no longer relevant, or because Magna Carta had been superseded by more relevant legislation. By 1350 half the clauses of Magna Carta were no longer actively used.
During the reign of King Edward III six measures, later known as the Six Statutes, were passed between 1331 and 1369. They sought to clarify certain parts of the Charters. In particular the third statute, in 1354, redefined clause 29, with "free man '' becoming "no man, of whatever estate or condition he may be '', and introduced the phrase "due process of law '' for "lawful judgement of his peers or the law of the land ''.
Between the 13th and 15th centuries Magna Carta was reconfirmed 32 times according to Sir Edward Coke, and possibly as many as 45 times. Often the first item of parliamentary business was a public reading and reaffirmation of the Charter, and, as in the previous century, parliaments often exacted confirmation of it from the monarch. The Charter was confirmed in 1423 by King Henry VI.
By the mid-15th century, Magna Carta ceased to occupy a central role in English political life, as monarchs reasserted authority and powers which had been challenged in the 100 years after Edward I 's reign. The Great Charter remained a text for lawyers, particularly as a protector of property rights, and became more widely read than ever as printed versions circulated and levels of literacy increased.
During the 16th century, the interpretation of Magna Carta and the First Barons ' War shifted. Henry VII took power at the end of the turbulent Wars of the Roses, followed by Henry VIII, and extensive propaganda under both rulers promoted the legitimacy of the regime, the illegitimacy of any sort of rebellion against royal power, and the priority of supporting the Crown in its arguments with the Papacy.
Tudor historians rediscovered the Barnwell chronicler, who was more favourable to King John than other 13th - century texts, and, as historian Ralph Turner describes, they "viewed King John in a positive light as a hero struggling against the papacy '', showing "little sympathy for the Great Charter or the rebel barons ''. Pro-Catholic demonstrations during the 1536 uprising cited Magna Carta, accusing the King of not giving it sufficient respect.
The first mechanically printed edition of Magna Carta was probably the Magna Carta cum aliis Antiquis Statutis of 1508 by Richard Pynson, although the early printed versions of the 16th century incorrectly attributed the origins of Magna Carta to Henry III and 1225, rather than to John and 1215, and accordingly worked from the later text. An abridged English - language edition was published by John Rastell in 1527. Thomas Berthelet, Pynson 's successor as the royal printer during 1530 -- 1547, printed an edition of the text along with other "ancient statutes '' in 1531 and 1540. In 1534, George Ferrers published the first unabridged English - language edition of Magna Carta, dividing the Charter into 37 numbered clauses.
At the end of the 16th century, there was an upsurge in antiquarian interest in England. This work concluded that there was a set of ancient English customs and laws, temporarily overthrown by the Norman invasion of 1066, which had then been recovered in 1215 and recorded in Magna Carta, which in turn gave authority to important 16th century legal principles. Modern historians note that although this narrative was fundamentally incorrect -- many refer to it as a "myth '' -- it took on great importance among the legal historians of the time.
The antiquarian William Lambarde, for example, published what he believed were the Anglo - Saxon and Norman law codes, tracing the origins of the 16th - century English Parliament back to this period, albeit misinterpreting the dates of many documents concerned. Francis Bacon argued that clause 39 of Magna Carta was the basis of the 16th - century jury system and judicial processes. Antiquarians Robert Beale, James Morice, and Richard Cosin argued that Magna Carta was a statement of liberty and a fundamental, supreme law empowering English government. Those who questioned these conclusions, including the Member of Parliament Arthur Hall, faced sanctions.
In the early 17th century, Magna Carta became increasingly important as a political document in arguments over the authority of the English monarchy. James I and Charles I both propounded greater authority for the Crown, justified by the doctrine of the divine right of kings, and Magna Carta was cited extensively by their opponents to challenge the monarchy.
Magna Carta, it was argued, recognised and protected the liberty of individual Englishmen, made the King subject to the common law of the land, formed the origin of the trial by jury system, and acknowledged the ancient origins of Parliament: because of Magna Carta and this ancient constitution, an English monarch was unable to alter these long - standing English customs. Although the arguments based on Magna Carta were historically inaccurate, they nonetheless carried symbolic power, as the charter had immense significance during this period; antiquarians such as Sir Henry Spelman described it as "the most majestic and a sacrosanct anchor to English Liberties ''.
Sir Edward Coke was a leader in using Magna Carta as a political tool during this period. Still working from the 1225 version of the text -- the first printed copy of the 1215 charter only emerged in 1610 -- Coke spoke and wrote about Magna Carta repeatedly. His work was challenged at the time by Lord Ellesmere, and modern historians such as Ralph Turner and Claire Breay have critiqued Coke as "misconstruing '' the original charter "anachronistically and uncritically '', and taking a "very selective '' approach to his analysis. More sympathetically, J.C. Holt noted that the history of the charters had already become "distorted '' by the time Coke was carrying out his work.
In 1621, a bill was presented to Parliament to renew Magna Carta; although this bill failed, lawyer John Selden argued during Darnell 's Case in 1627 that the right of habeas corpus was backed by Magna Carta. Coke supported the Petition of Right in 1628, which cited Magna Carta in its preamble, attempting to extend the provisions, and to make them binding on the judiciary. The monarchy responded by arguing that the historical legal situation was much less clear - cut than was being claimed, restricted the activities of antiquarians, arrested Coke for treason, and suppressed his proposed book on Magna Carta. Charles initially did not agree to the Petition of Right, and refused to confirm Magna Carta in any way that would reduce his independence as King.
England descended into civil war in the 1640s, resulting in Charles I 's execution in 1649. Under the republic that followed, some questioned whether Magna Carta, an agreement with a monarch, was still relevant. An anti-Cromwellian pamphlet published in 1660, The English devil, said that the nation had been "compelled to submit to this Tyrant Nol or be cut off by him; nothing but a word and a blow, his Will was his Law; tell him of Magna Carta, he would lay his hand on his sword and cry Magna Farta ''. In a 2005 speech the Lord Chief Justice of England and Wales, Lord Woolf, repeated the claim that Cromwell had referred to Magna Carta as "Magna Farta ''.
The radical groups that flourished during this period held differing opinions of Magna Carta. The Levellers rejected history and law as presented by their contemporaries, holding instead to an "anti-Normanism '' viewpoint. John Lilburne, for example, argued that Magna Carta contained only some of the freedoms that had supposedly existed under the Anglo - Saxons before being crushed by the Norman yoke. The Leveller Richard Overton described the charter as "a beggarly thing containing many marks of intolerable bondage ''. Both saw Magna Carta as a useful declaration of liberties that could be used against governments they disagreed with. Gerrard Winstanley, the leader of the more extreme Diggers, stated "the best lawes that England hath, (viz., the Magna Carta) were got by our Forefathers importunate petitioning unto the kings that still were their Task - masters; and yet these best laws are yoaks and manicles, tying one sort of people to be slaves to another; Clergy and Gentry have got their freedom, but the common people still are, and have been left servants to work for them. ''
The first attempt at a proper historiography was undertaken by Robert Brady, who refuted the supposed antiquity of Parliament and belief in the immutable continuity of the law. Brady realised that the liberties of the Charter were limited and argued that the liberties were the grant of the King. By putting Magna Carta in historical context, he cast doubt on its contemporary political relevance; his historical understanding did not survive the Glorious Revolution, which, according to the historian J.G.A. Pocock, "marked a setback for the course of English historiography. ''
According to the Whig interpretation of history, the Glorious Revolution was an example of the reclaiming of ancient liberties. Reinforced with Lockean concepts, the Whigs believed England 's constitution to be a social contract, based on documents such as Magna Carta, the Petition of Right, and the Bill of Rights. The English Liberties (1680, in later versions often British Liberties) by the Whig propagandist Henry Care (d. 1688) was a cheap polemical book that was influential and much - reprinted, in the American colonies as well as Britain, and made Magna Carta central to the history and the contemporary legitimacy of its subject.
Ideas about the nature of law in general were beginning to change. In 1716, the Septennial Act was passed, which had a number of consequences. First, it showed that Parliament no longer considered its previous statutes unassailable, as it provided for a maximum parliamentary term of seven years, whereas the Triennial Act (1694) (enacted less than a quarter of a century previously) had provided for a maximum term of three years.
It also greatly extended the powers of Parliament. Under this new constitution, monarchical absolutism was replaced by parliamentary supremacy. It was quickly realised that Magna Carta stood in the same relation to the King - in - Parliament as it had to the King without Parliament. This supremacy would be challenged by the likes of Granville Sharp. Sharp regarded Magna Carta as a fundamental part of the constitution, and maintained that it would be treason to repeal any part of it. He also held that the Charter prohibited slavery.
Sir William Blackstone published a critical edition of the 1215 Charter in 1759, and gave it the numbering system still used today. In 1763, Member of Parliament John Wilkes was arrested for writing an inflammatory pamphlet, No. 45, 23 April 1763; he cited Magna Carta continually. Lord Camden denounced the treatment of Wilkes as a contravention of Magna Carta. Thomas Paine, in his Rights of Man, would disregard Magna Carta and the Bill of Rights on the grounds that they were not a written constitution devised by elected representatives.
When English colonists left for the New World, they brought royal charters that established the colonies. The Massachusetts Bay Company charter, for example, stated that the colonists would "have and enjoy all liberties and immunities of free and natural subjects. '' The Virginia Charter of 1606, which was largely drafted by Sir Edward Coke, stated that the colonists would have the same "liberties, franchises and immunities '' as people born in England. The Massachusetts Body of Liberties contained similarities to clause 29 of Magna Carta; when drafting it, the Massachusetts General Court viewed Magna Carta as the chief embodiment of English common law. The other colonies would follow their example. In 1638, Maryland sought to recognise Magna Carta as part of the law of the province, but the request was denied by Charles I.
In 1687, William Penn published The Excellent Privilege of Liberty and Property: being the birth - right of the Free - Born Subjects of England, which contained the first copy of Magna Carta printed on American soil. Penn 's comments reflected Coke 's, indicating a belief that Magna Carta was a fundamental law. The colonists drew on English law books, leading them to an anachronistic interpretation of Magna Carta, believing that it guaranteed trial by jury and habeas corpus.
The development of parliamentary supremacy in the British Isles did not constitutionally affect the Thirteen Colonies, which retained an adherence to English common law, but it directly affected the relationship between Britain and the colonies. When American colonists fought against Britain, they were fighting not so much for new freedom, but to preserve liberties and rights that they believed to be enshrined in Magna Carta.
In the late 18th century, the United States Constitution became the supreme law of the land, recalling the manner in which Magna Carta had come to be regarded as fundamental law. The Constitution 's Fifth Amendment guarantees that "no person shall be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law '', a phrase that was derived from Magna Carta. In addition, the Constitution included a similar writ in the Suspension Clause, Article 1, Section 9: "The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended, unless when in cases of rebellion or invasion, the public safety may require it. ''
Each of these proclaim that no person may be imprisoned or detained without evidence that he or she committed a crime. The Ninth Amendment states that "The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people. '' The writers of the U.S. Constitution wished to ensure that the rights they already held, such as those that they believed were provided by Magna Carta, would be preserved unless explicitly curtailed.
The Supreme Court of the United States has explicitly referenced Lord Coke 's analysis of Magna Carta as an antecedent of the Sixth Amendment 's right to a speedy trial.
Initially, the Whig interpretation of Magna Carta and its role in constitutional history remained dominant during the 19th century. The historian William Stubbs 's Constitutional History of England, published in the 1870s, formed the high - water mark of this view. Stubbs argued that Magna Carta had been a major step in the shaping of the English nation, and he believed that the barons at Runnymede in 1215 were not just representing the nobility, but the people of England as a whole, standing up to a tyrannical ruler in the form of King John.
This view of Magna Carta began to recede. The late - Victorian jurist and historian Frederic William Maitland provided an alternative academic history in 1899, which began to return Magna Carta to its historical roots. In 1904, Edward Jenks published an article entitled "The Myth of Magna Carta '', which undermined the previously accepted view of Magna Carta. Historians such as Albert Pollard agreed with Jenks in concluding that Edward Coke had largely "invented '' the myth of Magna Carta in the 17th century; these historians argued that the 1215 charter had not referred to liberty for the people at large, but rather to the protection of baronial rights.
This view also became popular in wider circles, and in 1930 Sellar and Yeatman published their parody on English history, 1066 and All That, in which they mocked the supposed importance of Magna Carta and its promises of universal liberty: "Magna Charter was therefore the chief cause of Democracy in England, and thus a Good Thing for everyone (except the Common People) ''.
In many literary representations of the medieval past, however, Magna Carta remained a foundation of English national identity. Some authors used the medieval roots of the document as an argument to preserve the social status quo, while others pointed to Magna Carta to challenge perceived economic injustices. The Baronial Order of Magna Charta was formed in 1898 to promote the ancient principles and values felt to be displayed in Magna Carta. The legal profession in England and the United States continued to hold Magna Carta in high esteem; they were instrumental in forming the Magna Carta Society in 1922 to protect the meadows at Runnymede from development in the 1920s, and in 1957, the American Bar Association erected the Magna Carta Memorial at Runnymede. The prominent lawyer Lord Denning described Magna Carta in 1956 as "the greatest constitutional document of all times -- the foundation of the freedom of the individual against the arbitrary authority of the despot ''.
Radicals such as Sir Francis Burdett believed that Magna Carta could not be repealed, but in the 19th century clauses which were obsolete or had been superseded began to be repealed. The repeal of clause 36 in 1829, by the Offences against the Person Act 1828 (9 Geo. 4 c. 31 s. 1), was the first time a clause of Magna Carta was repealed. Over the next 140 years, nearly the whole of Magna Carta (1297) as statute was repealed, leaving just clauses 1, 9, and 29 still in force (in England and Wales) after 1969. Most of the clauses were repealed in England and Wales by the Statute Law Revision Act 1863, and in modern Northern Ireland and also in the modern Republic of Ireland by the Statute Law (Ireland) Revision Act 1872.
Many later attempts to draft constitutional forms of government trace their lineage back to Magna Carta. The British dominions, Australia and New Zealand, Canada (except Quebec), and formerly the Union of South Africa and Southern Rhodesia, reflected the influence of Magna Carta in their laws, and the Charter 's effects can be seen in the laws of other states that evolved from the British Empire.
Magna Carta continues to have a powerful iconic status in British society, being cited by politicians and lawyers in support of constitutional positions. Its perceived guarantee of trial by jury and other civil liberties, for example, led to Tony Benn 's reference to the debate in 2008 over whether to increase the maximum time terrorism suspects could be held without charge from 28 to 42 days as "the day Magna Carta was repealed ''. Although rarely invoked in court in the modern era, in 2012 the Occupy London protestors attempted to use Magna Carta in resisting their eviction from St. Paul 's Churchyard by the City of London. In his judgment the Master of the Rolls gave this short shrift, noting somewhat drily that although clause 29 was considered by many the foundation of the rule of law in England, he did not consider it directly relevant to the case, and the two other surviving clauses actually concerned the rights of the Church and the City of London.
Magna Carta carries little legal weight in modern Britain, as most of its clauses have been repealed and relevant rights ensured by other statutes, but the historian James Holt remarks that the survival of the 1215 charter in national life is a "reflexion of the continuous development of English law and administration '' and symbolic of the many struggles between authority and the law over the centuries. The historian W.L. Warren has observed that "many who knew little and cared less about the content of the Charter have, in nearly all ages, invoked its name, and with good cause, for it meant more than it said ''.
It also remains a topic of great interest to historians; Natalie Fryde characterised the charter as "one of the holiest of cows in English medieval history '', with the debates over its interpretation and meaning unlikely to end. In many ways still a "sacred text '', Magna Carta is generally considered part of the uncodified constitution of the United Kingdom; in a 2005 speech, the Lord Chief Justice of England and Wales, Lord Woolf, described it as the "first of a series of instruments that now are recognised as having a special constitutional status ''.
Magna Carta was reprinted in New Zealand in 1881 as one of the Imperial Acts in force there.
The document also continues to be honoured in the United States as an antecedent of the United States Constitution and Bill of Rights. In 1976, the UK lent one of four surviving originals of the 1215 Magna Carta to the United States for their bicentennial celebrations and also donated an ornate display case for it. The original was returned after one year, but a replica and the case are still on display in the United States Capitol Crypt in Washington, D.C.
The 800th anniversary of the original charter occurred on 15 June 2015, and organisations and institutions planned celebratory events. The British Library brought together the four existing copies of the 1215 manuscript in February 2015 for a special exhibition. British artist Cornelia Parker was commissioned to create a new artwork, Magna Carta (An Embroidery), which was shown at the British Library between May and July 2015. The artwork is a copy of an earlier version of this Wikipedia page (as it appeared on the document 's 799th anniversary, 15 June 2014), hand - embroidered by over 200 people.
On 15 June 2015, a commemoration ceremony was conducted in Runnymede at the National Trust park, attended by British and American dignitaries.
The copy held by Lincoln Cathedral was exhibited in the Library of Congress in Washington, D.C., from November 2014 until January 2015. A new visitor centre at Lincoln Castle was opened for the anniversary. The Royal Mint released two commemorative two - pound coins.
In 2014, Bury St Edmunds in Suffolk celebrated the 800th anniversary of the barons ' Charter of Liberties, said to have been secretly agreed there in November 1214.
Numerous copies, known as exemplifications, were made of the various charters, and many of them still survive. The documents were written in heavily abbreviated medieval Latin in clear handwriting, using quill pens on sheets of parchment made from sheep skin, approximately 15 by 20 inches (380 by 510 mm) across. They were sealed with the royal great seal by an official called the spigurnel, equipped with a special seal press, using beeswax and resin. There were no signatures on the charter of 1215, and the barons present did not attach their own seals to it. The charters were not numbered or divided into paragraphs or separate clauses at the time; the numbering system used today was introduced by the jurist Sir William Blackstone in 1759.
At least 13 original copies of the 1215 charter were issued by the royal chancery at the time, seven in the first tranche distributed on 24 June and another six later; they were sent to county sheriffs and bishops, who would probably have been charged for the privilege. Variations would have existed between each of these copies and there was probably no single "master copy ''. Of these documents, only four survive, all held in the UK: two by the British Library, one by Lincoln Cathedral, and one by Salisbury Cathedral. Each of these versions is slightly different in size and text, and each is considered by historians to be equally authoritative.
The two 1215 charters held by the British Library, known as Cotton MS. Augustus II. 106 and Cotton Charter XIII. 31a, were acquired by the antiquarian Sir Robert Cotton in the 17th century. One of these was originally found by Humphrey Wyems, a London lawyer, who may have discovered it in a tailor 's shop. The other was found in Dover Castle in 1630 by Sir Edward Dering. The Dering charter is usually identified as the copy originally sent to the Cinque Ports in 1215. (In 2015 it was announced that David Carpenter had found Dering 's copy to be identical to a 1290s transcription made from Canterbury Cathedral 's 1215 copy and so he suggests that the Dering copy 's destination was the Cathedral rather than the Cinque Ports.) This copy was damaged in the Cotton library fire of 1731, when its seal was badly melted. The parchment was somewhat shrivelled but otherwise relatively unscathed, and an engraved facsimile of the charter was made by John Pine in 1733. In the 1830s, however, an ill - judged and bungled attempt at cleaning and conservation rendered the manuscript largely illegible to the naked eye. This is, nonetheless, the only surviving 1215 copy still to have its great seal attached.
Lincoln Cathedral 's original copy of the 1215 charter has been held by the county since 1215; it was displayed in the Common Chamber in the cathedral before being moved to another building in 1846. Between 1939 and 1940 the copy was displayed in the British Pavilion at the 1939 World Fair in New York City, and at the Library of Congress. When the Second World War broke out, Winston Churchill wanted to gift the charter to the American people, hoping that this would encourage the United States, then neutral, to enter the war against the Axis powers, but the cathedral was unwilling and the plans were dropped. After December 1941, the copy was stored in Fort Knox, Kentucky for safety, before being put on display again in 1944 and returned to Lincoln Cathedral in early 1946.
The copy was put on display in 1976 in the cathedral 's medieval library. It was subsequently displayed in San Francisco, and was taken out of display for a time to undergo conservation in preparation for another visit to the United States, where it was exhibited in 2007 at the Contemporary Art Center of Virginia and the National Constitution Center in Philadelphia. The document returned to New York to be displayed at the Fraunces Tavern Museum during 2009. The document is currently on permanent loan to the David PJ Ross Vault at Lincoln Castle, along with an original copy of the 1217 Charter of the Forest.
The fourth copy, owned by Salisbury Cathedral, was first given in 1215 to its predecessor, Old Sarum Cathedral. Rediscovered by the cathedral in 1812, it has remained in Salisbury throughout its history, except when being taken off - site for restoration work. It is possibly the best preserved of the four, although small pin holes can be seen in the parchment from where it was once pinned up. The handwriting on this version is different from that of the other three, suggesting that it was not written by a royal scribe but rather by a member of the cathedral staff, who then had it exemplified by the royal court.
Other early versions of the charters survive today. Only one exemplification of the 1216 charter survives, held in Durham Cathedral. Four copies of the 1217 charter exist; three of these are held by the Bodleian Library in Oxford and one by Hereford Cathedral. Hereford 's copy is occasionally displayed alongside the Mappa Mundi in the cathedral 's chained library and has survived along with a small document called the Articuli super Cartas that was sent along with the charter, telling the sheriff of the county how to observe the conditions outlined in the document. One of the Bodleian 's copies was displayed at San Francisco 's California Palace of the Legion of Honor in 2011.
Four exemplifications of the 1225 charter survive: the British Library holds one, which was preserved at Lacock Abbey until 1945; Durham Cathedral also holds a copy, with the Bodleian Library holding a third. The fourth copy of the 1225 exemplification was held by the museum of the Public Record Office and is now held by The National Archives. The Society of Antiquaries also holds a draft of the 1215 charter (discovered in 2013 in a late 13th - century register from Peterborough Abbey), a copy of the 1225 third re-issue (within an early 14th - century collection of statutes) and a roll copy of the 1225 reissue.
Only two exemplifications of Magna Carta are held outside England, both from 1297. One of these was purchased in 1952 by the Australian Government for £ 12,500 from King 's School, Bruton, England. This copy is now on display in the Members ' Hall of Parliament House, Canberra. The second was originally held by the Brudenell family, earls of Cardigan, before they sold it in 1984 to the Perot Foundation in the United States, which in 2007 sold it to U.S. businessman David Rubenstein for US $21.3 million. Rubenstein commented "I have always believed that this was an important document to our country, even though it was n't drafted in our country. I think it was the basis for the Declaration of Independence and the basis for the Constitution ''. This exemplification is now on permanent loan to the National Archives in Washington, D.C. Only two other 1297 exemplifications survive, one of which is held in the UK 's National Archives.
Seven copies of the 1300 exemplification by Edward I survive, in Faversham, Oriel College, Oxford, the Bodleian Library, Durham Cathedral, Westminster Abbey, the City of London (held in the archives at the London Guildhall) and Sandwich (held in the Kent County Council archives). The Sandwich copy was rediscovered in early 2015 in a Victorian scrapbook in the town archives of Sandwich, Kent, one of the Cinque Ports. In the case of the Sandwich and Oriel College exemplifications, the copies of the Charter of the Forest originally issued with them also survive.
Most of the 1215 charter and later versions sought to govern the feudal rights of the Crown over the barons. Under the Angevin kings, and in particular during John 's reign, the rights of the King had frequently been used inconsistently, often in an attempt to maximise the royal income from the barons. Feudal relief was one way that a king could demand money, and clauses 2 and 3 fixed the fees payable when an heir inherited an estate or when a minor came of age and took possession of his lands. Scutage was a form of medieval taxation; all knights and nobles owed military service to the Crown in return for their lands, which theoretically belonged to the King, but many preferred to avoid this service and offer money instead; the Crown often used the cash to pay for mercenaries. The rate of scutage that should be payable, and the circumstances under which it was appropriate for the King to demand it, was uncertain and controversial; clauses 12 and 14 addressed the management of the process.
The English judicial system had altered considerably over the previous century, with the royal judges playing a larger role in delivering justice across the country. John had used his royal discretion to extort large sums of money from the barons, effectively taking payment to offer justice in particular cases, and the role of the Crown in delivering justice had become politically sensitive among the barons. Clauses 39 and 40 demanded due process be applied in the royal justice system, while clause 45 required that the King appoint knowledgeable royal officials to the relevant roles. Although these clauses did not have any special significance in the original charter, this part of Magna Carta became singled out as particularly important in later centuries. In the United States, for example, the Supreme Court of California interpreted clause 45 in 1974 as establishing a requirement in common law that a defendant faced with the potential of incarceration be entitled to a trial overseen by a legally trained judge.
Royal forests were economically important in medieval England and were both protected and exploited by the Crown, supplying the King with hunting grounds, raw materials, and money. They were subject to special royal jurisdiction and the resulting forest law was, according to the historian Richard Huscroft, "harsh and arbitrary, a matter purely for the King 's will ''. The size of the forests had expanded under the Angevin kings, an unpopular development.
The 1215 charter had several clauses relating to the royal forests; clauses 47 and 48 promised to deforest the lands added to the forests under John and investigate the use of royal rights in this area, but notably did not address the forestation of the previous kings, while clause 53 promised some form of redress for those affected by the recent changes, and clause 44 promised some relief from the operation of the forest courts. Neither Magna Carta nor the subsequent Charter of the Forest proved entirely satisfactory as a way of managing the political tensions arising in the operation of the royal forests.
Some of the clauses addressed wider economic issues. The concerns of the barons over the treatment of their debts to Jewish moneylenders, who occupied a special position in medieval England and were by tradition under the King 's protection, were addressed by clauses 10 and 11. The charter concluded this section with the phrase "debts owing to other than Jews shall be dealt with likewise '', so it is debatable to what extent the Jews were being singled out by these clauses. Some issues were relatively specific, such as clause 33 which ordered the removal of all fishing weirs -- an important and growing source of revenue at the time -- from England 's rivers.
The role of the English Church had been a matter for great debate in the years prior to the 1215 charter. The Norman and Angevin kings had traditionally exercised a great deal of power over the church within their territories. From the 1040s onwards successive popes had emphasised the importance of the church being governed more effectively from Rome, and had established an independent judicial system and hierarchical chain of authority. After the 1140s, these principles had been largely accepted within the English church, even if accompanied by an element of concern about centralising authority in Rome.
These changes brought the customary rights of lay rulers such as John over ecclesiastical appointments into question. As described above, John had come to a compromise with Pope Innocent III in exchange for his political support for the King, and clause 1 of Magna Carta prominently displayed this arrangement, promising the freedoms and liberties of the church. The importance of this clause may also reflect the role of Archbishop Langton in the negotiations: Langton had taken a strong line on this issue during his career.
Only three clauses of Magna Carta still remain on statute in England and Wales. These clauses concern 1) the freedom of the English Church, 2) the "ancient liberties '' of the City of London (clause 13 in the 1215 charter, clause 9 in the 1297 statute), and 3) a right to due legal process (clauses 39 and 40 in the 1215 charter, clause 29 in the 1297 statute). In detail, these clauses (using the numbering system from the 1297 statute) state that:
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when did the term director come into use | Theatre director - wikipedia
A theatre director or stage director is an instructor in the theatre field who oversees and orchestrates the mounting of a theatre production (a play, an opera, a musical, or a devised piece of work) by unifying various endeavours and aspects of production. The director 's function is to ensure the quality and completeness of theatre production and to lead the members of the creative team into realizing their artistic vision for it. The director therefore collaborates with a team of creative individuals and other staff, coordinating research, stagecraft, costume design, props, lighting design, acting, set design, stage combat, and sound design for the production. If the production he or she is mounting is a new piece of writing or a (new) translation of a play, the director may also work with the playwright or translator. In contemporary theatre, after the playwright, the director is generally the primary visionary, making decisions on the artistic concept and interpretation of the play and its staging. Different directors occupy different places of authority and responsibility, depending on the structure and philosophy of individual theatre companies. Directors use a wide variety of techniques, philosophies, and levels of collaboration.
In ancient Greece, the birthplace of European drama, the writer bore principal responsibility for the staging of his plays. Actors were generally semi-professionals, and the director oversaw the mounting of plays from the writing process all the way through to their performance, often acting in them too, as Aeschylus for example did. The author - director would also train the chorus, sometimes compose the music, and supervise every aspect of production. The fact that the director was called didaskalos, the Greek word for "teacher, '' indicates that the work of these early directors combined instructing their performers with staging their work.
In medieval times, the complexity of vernacular religious drama, with its large scale mystery plays that often included crowd scenes, processions and elaborate effects, gave the role of director (or stage manager or pageant master) considerable importance. A miniature by Jean Fouquet from 1460 (pictured) bears one of the earliest depictions of a director at work. Holding a prompt book, the central figure directs, with the aid of a long stick, the proceedings of the staging of a dramatization of the Martyrdom of Saint Apollonia. According to Fouquet, the director 's tasks included overseeing the erecting of a stage and scenery (there were no permanent, purpose - built theatre structures at this time, and performances of vernacular drama mostly took place in the open air), casting and directing the actors (which included fining them for those that infringed rules), and addressing the audience at the beginning of each performance and after each intermission.
From Renaissance times up until the 19th century, the role of director was often carried by the actor - manager. This would usually be a senior actor in a troupe who took the responsibility for choosing the repertoire of work, staging it and managing the company. This was the case for instance with Commedia dell'Arte companies and English actor - managers like Colley Cibber and David Garrick.
The modern theatre director can be said to have originated in the staging of elaborate spectacles of the Meininger Company under George II, Duke of Saxe - Meiningen. The management of large numbers of extras and complex stagecraft matters necessitated an individual to take on the role of overall coordinator. This gave rise to the role of the director in modern theatre, and Germany would provide a platform for a generation of emerging visionary theatre directors, such as Erwin Piscator and Max Reinhardt. Simultaneously, Constantin Stanislavski, principally an actor - manager, would set up the Moscow Art Theatre in Russia and similarly emancipate the role of the director as artistic visionary.
The French regisseur is also sometimes used to mean a stage director, most commonly in ballet. A more common term for theatre director in French is metteur en scène.
Post World War II, the actor - manager slowly started to disappear, and directing become a fully fledged artistic activity within the theatre profession. The director originating artistic vision and concept, and realizing the staging of a production, became the norm rather than the exception. Great forces in the emancipation of theatre directing as a profession were notable 20th - century theatre directors like Vladimir Nemirovich - Danchenko, Vsevolod Meyerhold, Yevgeny Vakhtangov, Michael Chekhov, Yuri Lyubimov (Russia), Orson Welles, Peter Brook, Peter Hall (Britain), Bertolt Brecht (Germany), Giorgio Strehler and Franco Zeffirelli (Italy).
A cautionary note was introduced by the famed director Sir Tyrone Guthrie who said "the only way to learn how to direct a play, is... to get a group of actors simple enough to allow you to let you direct them, and direct ''.
A number of seminal works on directing and directors include Toby Cole and Helen Krich 's 1972 Directors on Directing: A Sourcebook of the Modern Theatre, Edward Braun 's 1982 book The Director and the Stage: From Naturalism to Growtowski and Will 's The Director in a Changing Theatre (1976).
Because of the relatively late emergence of theatre directing as a performing arts profession when compared with for instance acting or musicianship, a rise of professional vocational training programmes in directing can be seen mostly in the second half of the 20th century. Most European countries nowadays know some form of professional directing training, usually at drama schools or conservatoires, or at universities. In Britain, the tradition that theatre directors emerge from degree courses (usually in English literature) at the Oxbridge universities has meant that for a long time, professional vocational training did not take place at drama schools or performing arts colleges, although an increase in training programmes for theatre directors can be witnessed since the 1970s and 1980s. In American universities, the seminal directing program at the Yale School of Drama produced a number of pioneering directors with D.F.A. (Doctor of Fine Arts) and M.F.A. degrees in Drama (rather than English) who contributed to the expansion of professional resident theaters in the 1960s and 1970s. In the early days such programmes typically led to the staging of one major thesis production in the third (final) year. At the University of California, Irvine, Keith Fowler (a Yale D.F.A. and ex-producer of two LORT companies) led for many years a graduate programme based on the premise that directors are autodidacts who need as many opportunities to direct as possible. Under Fowler, graduate student directors would stage between five and ten productions during their three - year residencies, with each production receiving detailed critiques.
As with many other professions in the performing arts, theatre directors would often learn their skills "on the job ''; to this purpose, theatres often employ trainee assistant directors or have in - house education schemes to train young theatre directors. Examples are the Royal National Theatre in London, which frequently organizes short directing courses, or the Orange Tree Theatre and the Donmar Warehouse on London 's West End, which both employ resident assistant directors on a one - year basis for training purposes.
Directing is an artform that has grown with the development of theatre theory and theatre practice. With the emergence of new trends in theatre, so too have directors adopted new methodologies and engaged in new practices.
Once a show has opened (premiered before a regular audience), theatre directors are generally considered to have fulfilled their function. From that point forward the stage manager is left in charge of all essential concerns.
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how many subs are in the us navy | Submarines in the United States Navy - wikipedia
There are three major types of submarines in the United States Navy: ballistic missile submarines, attack submarines, and cruise missile submarines. All submarines in the U.S. Navy are nuclear - powered. Ballistic subs have a single strategic mission of carrying nuclear submarine - launched ballistic missiles. Attack submarines have several tactical missions, including sinking ships and subs, launching cruise missiles, and gathering intelligence.
The submarine has a long history in the United States, beginning with the Turtle, the world 's first submersible with a documented record of use in combat.
Submersible projects date to the 1800s. Alligator was a US Navy submarine that was never commissioned. She was being towed to South Carolina to be used in taking Charleston, but was lost due to bad weather on 2 April 1863 off Cape Hatteras, North Carolina. The H.L. Hunley was a submarine of the Confederate States of America shipped by rail to South Carolina on 12 August 1863 to defend Charleston.
The Hunley played a small part in the American Civil War, but a large role in naval warfare worldwide by demonstrating both the advantages and the dangers of undersea warfare. On 17 February 1864, she attacked and sank the USS Housatonic in Charleston harbor, becoming the first submarine to sink an enemy ship. Soon after, however, Hunley also sank, drowning all eight crewmen.
Real progress began in the late 19th century with the building of the USS Holland (SS - 1), named after John Philip Holland. The boat was developed at Lewis Nixon 's Crescent Shipyard located in Elizabeth, New Jersey. This pioneering craft was in service for 10 years and was a developmental and trials vessel for many systems on other early submarines.
The submarine truly came of age in World War I. The US Navy did not have a large part in this war, with action mainly being confined to escorting convoys later in the war and sending a division of battleships to reinforce the British Grand Fleet. However, there were those in the submarine service who saw what the Germans had done with their U-boats and took careful note.
Doctrine in the inter-war years emphasized the submarine as a scout for the battle fleet, and also extreme caution in command. Both these axioms were proven wrong after the attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941. The submarine skippers of the fleet boats of World War II waged a very effective campaign against Japanese merchant vessels, eventually repeating and surpassing Germany 's initial success during the Battle of the Atlantic against the United Kingdom. They were aggressive and effective, and operated far from the fleet.
During the war, submarines of the United States Navy were responsible for 55 % of Japan 's merchant marine losses; other Allied navies added to the toll. The war against shipping was the single most decisive factor in the collapse of the Japanese economy.
The Navy adopted an official policy of unrestricted submarine warfare, and it appears the policy was executed without the knowledge or prior consent of the government. The London Naval Treaty, to which the U.S. was signatory, required submarines to abide by prize rules (commonly known as "cruiser rules ''). It did not prohibit arming merchantmen, but arming them, or having them report contact with submarines (or raiders), made them de facto naval auxiliaries and removed the protection of the cruiser rules. This made restrictions on submarines effectively moot. U.S. Navy submarines also conducted reconnaissance patrols, landed special forces and guerrilla troops and performed search and rescue tasks.
In addition to sinking Japanese merchant ships, postwar records compiled by the Joint Army - Navy Assessment Committee indicate Japan lost 686 warships of 500 gross tons (GRT) or larger to submarines during 1,600 war patrols. Only 1.6 percent of the total U.S. naval manpower was responsible for America 's success on its Pacific high seas; more than half of the total tonnage sunk was credited to U.S. submarines. The tremendous accomplishments of American submarines were achieved at the expense of 52 subs with 374 officers and 3,131 enlisted volunteers lost during combat against Japan; Japan lost 128 submarines during the Second World War in Pacific waters. American casualty counts represent 16 percent of the U.S. operational submarine officer corps and 13 percent of its enlisted force.
In addition to their commerce raiding role, submarines also proved valuable in air - sea rescue. While in command of United States Navy aircraft carrier task force 50.1 Rear Admiral Charles Alan Pownall, proposed to Admiral Charles A. Lockwood (commander of Pacific Fleet Submarine Force) that submarines be stationed near targeted islands during aerial attacks. In what became known as the "Lifeboat League '', pilots were informed that they could ditch their damaged planes near these submarines (or bail out nearby) and be rescued by them. Eventually the rescue of downed American pilots became the second most important submarine mission after the destruction of Japanese shipping. Initially, the operation of the rescue submarines met several obstacles, most important of which was the lack of communication between the submarines and aircraft in the area; this led to several Lifeguard League submarines being bombed or strafed, possibly including the sinking of USS Seawolf (SS - 197) and USS Dorado (SS - 248) by American planes.
As fighting in the Pacific theater intensified and broadened in geographic scope, the eventual creation of Standing Operating Procedure (SOP TWO) led to several improvements such as the assignment of nearby submarines before air attacks, and the institution of reference points to allow pilots to report their location in the clear. After the capture of the Marianas, targets such as Tokyo, about 1,500 mi (2,400 km) north of the Marianas, was brought within range of B - 29 attacks and Lifeguard League submarines began rescue operations along their flight paths. Submarine lifeguards spent a combined 3,272 days on rescue duty and rescued 502 men. Famous examples include the rescue of 22 airmen by the USS Tang, and the rescue of former U.S. President George H.W. Bush by the USS Finback (SS - 230).
After WWII, things continued along much the same path until the early 1950s. Then, a revolution that was to forever change the nature of the submarine arm occurred. That revolution was USS Nautilus (SSN - 571).
The Nautilus was the first nuclear - powered submarine. Nautilus put to sea for the first time on 17 January 1955, transmitting the historic message, "Under way on nuclear power. '' Up until that point, submarines had been torpedo boats tied to the surface by the need to charge their batteries using diesel engines relatively often. The nuclear power plant of the Nautilus meant that the boat could stay underwater for literally months at a time, the only operational limit being the amount of food that the boat could carry. With resupply by mini-subs, even this could be overcome. The final limits would be for replacing equipment that wears out, the fatigue limit of the hull, and crew morale.
Another revolution in submarine warfare came with USS George Washington (SSBN - 598). Nuclear - powered, like Nautilus, George Washington added strategic ballistic missiles reaching the nuclear triad. Earlier submarines had carried strategic missiles, but the boats had been diesel powered, and the missiles required the boat to surface in order to fire. The missiles were also cruise missiles, which were vulnerable to the defenses of the day in a way that ballistic missiles were not.
George Washington 's missiles could be fired while the boat was submerged, meaning that it was far less likely to be detected before firing. The nuclear power of the boat also meant that, like Nautilus, George Washington 's patrol length was limited only by the amount of food the boat could carry. Ballistic missile submarines, carrying Polaris missiles, eventually superseded all other strategic nuclear systems in the Navy. Deterrent patrols continue to this day, although now with Ohio - class submarines and Trident II missiles.
Given the lack of large scale conventional naval warfare since 1945, with the USN 's role being primarily that of power projection, the submarine service did not fire weapons in anger for very many years. The BGM - 109 Tomahawk Land Attack Missile (TLAM) was developed to give naval vessels a long range land attack capability other than direct shore bombardment and strikes by aircraft flying off carriers. Submarines fitted with the Tomahawk could hit targets up to 1,000 miles inland. The mainstay of the Tomahawk equipped vessels in the early days of the missile 's deployment were the Iowa - class battleships, and the submarine fleet. The Tomahawk was first used in combat on 17 January 1991, on the opening night of Operation Desert Storm. On that day, for the first time since the surrender of Japan in 1945, an American submarine fired in combat, when 12 Tomahawks were launched by U.S. boats in the eastern Mediterranean. Since then, the Tomahawk has become a staple of American campaigns, seeing use in three wars. It has also been exported to the United Kingdom, which has also fitted it to submarines. The use of the Tomahawk has seen a change in the design of attack submarines. The Tomahawk can be fired through 21 - inch torpedo tubes, but the Virginia - class and Los Angeles - class submarines since USS Providence (SSN - 719) have been fitted with vertical launch systems to enable them to carry more of the weapons.
In the early 21st century, the USN submarine fleet is made up entirely of nuclear - powered vessels.
The U.S. has 36 Los Angeles - class submarines on active duty and 26 retired, making it the most numerous nuclear - powered submarine class in the world. The class was preceded by the Sturgeon class and followed by the Seawolf and Virginia classes. Except for USS Hyman G. Rickover (SSN - 709), submarines of this class are named after U.S. cities, breaking a Navy tradition of naming attack submarines after sea creatures. Ships from the USS Virginia afterwards are named after US States, a convention traditionally reserved for battleships and nuclear missile submarines.
The final 23 boats in the series, referred to as "688i '' boats, are quieter than their predecessors and incorporate a more advanced combat system. These 688i boats are also designed for under - ice operations: their diving planes are on the bow rather than on the sail, and they have reinforced sails.
The U.S. has 18 Ohio - class submarines, of which 14 are Trident II SSBNs (Ship, Submersible, Ballistic, Nuclear), each capable of carrying 24 SLBMs. The first four which were all equipped with the older Trident I missiles have been converted to SSGN 's each capable of carrying 154 Tomahawk guided missiles and have been further equipped to support Special Operations (SEALS). If the maximum of 154 Tomahawk missiles were loaded, one Ohio - class SSGN would carry an entire Battle Group 's equivalent of cruise missiles. Ballistic missile submarines (SSBNs or boomers in American slang) carry submarine - launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs) with nuclear warheads for attacking strategic targets such as cities or missile silos anywhere in the world. They are currently universally nuclear - powered to provide the greatest stealth and endurance. They played an important part in Cold War mutual deterrence, as both the United States and the Soviet Union had the credible ability to conduct a retaliatory strike against the other nation in the event of a first strike. This comprised an important part of the strategy of Mutual Assured Destruction.
In order to comply with arms reduction against the START II treaty, the U.S. Navy modified the four oldest Ohio - class Trident submarines (Ohio (SSGN - 726), Michigan (SSGN - 727), Florida (SSGN - 728), and Georgia (SSGN - 729)) to SSGN (Ship, Submersible, Guided, Nuclear) configuration. The conversion was achieved by installing vertical launching systems (VLS) in a configuration dubbed "multiple all - up - round canister (MAC). '' This system was installed in 22 of the 24 missile tubes, replacing one large nuclear strategic ballistic missile with 7 smaller Tomahawk cruise missiles. The 2 remaining tubes were converted to lockout chambers (LOC) to be used by special forces personnel who can be carried on board. This gives each converted sub the capability to carry up to 154 Tomahawk missiles. The MAC tubes can also be used to carry and launch UAVs or UUVs which give the ship remote controlled "eyes & ears '' allowing the ship to act as a forward - deployed command & control center.
The American George Washington - class "boomers '' were named for patriots, and together with the Ethan Allen, Lafayette, James Madison, and Benjamin Franklin classes, these SSBNs comprised the Cold War - era "41 for Freedom. '' Later Ohio - class submarines were named for states (recognizing the increase in striking power and importance once bestowed upon battleships), with the exception of Henry M. Jackson (SSBN - 730), which was named for United States Senator Henry M. "Scoop '' Jackson (1912 -- 1983) of Washington upon his death while in office (1983). This honor was in recognition of his advocacy on behalf of the nuclear submarine program. He strongly supported the rapid development of nuclear submarines and especially the development of an SSBN program. Senator Jackson also called for the establishment of a Deputy Chief of Naval Operations for Undersea Warfare because he believed submarines were "lost in a welter of naval bureaucracy. ''
U.S. Navy submarines are manned solely by volunteers from within the Navy. Because of the stressful environment aboard submarines, personnel are accepted only after rigorous testing and observation, as a consequence submariners have significantly lower mental hospitalization rates than surface ship personnel. Furthermore, submariners receive submarine duty incentive pay (SUBPAY) in addition to sea pay.
Some 5,000 officers and 55,000 enlisted sailors make up the submarine force. In addition to submarines, they are assigned to submarine tenders, submarine rescue ships, deep - diving submersibles, floating dry docks, shore support facilities, submarine staffs, and senior command staffs.
Until 2014, submariners worked an 18 - hour day, as opposed to a standard 24 - hour schedule. Sailors spent 6 hours on watch, 6 hours maintenance and training and 6 hours off (3 watches of 6 hours.) In 2014, the Navy began transitioning the fleet to a 24 - hour schedule.
The submarine force has always been a small fraction of the active Navy. During World War II all submariners (including the rear echelon) accounted for less than two percent of Navy personnel, but accounted for 55 percent of Japan 's merchant marine losses. In 1998 only about seven percent of the Navy 's people were submariners, though they operated one - third of the Navy 's warships.
After acceptance into the submarine program, candidates undergo a demanding training schedule, which includes attendance by all Officers and non-nuclear trained enlisted personnel at the U.S. Naval Submarine School New London, located within the Naval Submarine Base New London, in Groton, Connecticut, (NAVSUBSCOL at SUBASENLON) as well as rigorous technical training in different specialty areas.
Besides their academic and technical training, much of which is Classified Secret or Top Secret, all prospective US Naval Submariners, both officers and enlisted personnel, undergo 3 phases of physical training and testing related to the intense pressure differential between the surface and submarine operating depth.
Pressure training is conducted in a 2 - day course including classroom and lab training:
The first test is for the ability to perform the Valsalva maneuver, named for Antonio Maria Valsalva. If a submarine training candidate can not perform the Valsalva maneuver under doctor 's supervision at normal atmospheric pressure, that candidate is not rejected as unfit for submarine service but may not continue the high risk pressure training as follows.
In the second phase of testing, called Pressure Testing, candidates who have successfully performed the Valsalva maneuver will be subjected to increased ambient pressure. This test is performed under the supervision of a diving - certified medical doctor. All testees enter a pressure chamber, accompanied by the doctor, and the ' tank ' is sealed. Typically, there is in the chamber a somewhat surprising object: an inflated volleyball, water polo ball or similar inflated ball. Upon sealing the tank, pressure is increased, while the testees equalise their eardrum pressure. (if any testee is unable to ' Valsalva ', the test stops, and pressure is slowly released.) Pressure builds within the chamber until the chamber is equal to water pressure at "escape depth ''. At this point, the chamber feels very warm and dry, and the volleyball has become compressed enough that it has become the shape of a bowl, and appears to have been emptied of air, due to the greatly increased air pressure inside of the tank. Sounds inside the tank at pressure sound as if they are "far away ''.
During the controlled release of pressure from the tank, the air in the chamber becomes quite chilled and a fog forms in the chamber, often precipitating as a sort of dew. (See adiabatic expansion) Once pressure is fully released, the candidates are examined with an otoscope to check for ruptured eardrums. Candidates with ruptured eardrums are removed from the testing cycle until healed, depending on the severity of the injury.
The third phase of testing for submarine fitness is escape training, utilizing the Steinke hood submarine escape appliance, or colloquially known as the Steinke hood or, more familiarly, as "Stinky hood ''. This is a very complex device, but essentially it covers the head and shoulders during ascent from a stranded submarine, allowing air to escape during ascent, which is necessary as the expanding air in the lungs would otherwise cause disastrous injury. Actual training with the Steinke Hood is done in a Submarine Escape Training Tower to simulate a submarine stranded on the floor of the sea bed.
The escape testing proceeds as in the pressure test, except that this time, a hatch in the floor of the pressure chamber is opened. The chamber immediately adjoins a cylindrical tower full of water, tall enough to simulate the depth of a stranded submarine. Because the air pressure inside the chamber is equal to the pressure of the water in the tower, the water does not enter the chamber.
Donning the Steinke hood, the testee enters the water and immediately commences a rapid ascent, due to the buoyancy of the escape device. As they ascend, each testee must allow the air in his lungs to escape, this is facilitated by yelling as loudly as possible. Typically they are told to yell "HO HO HO '' repeatedly. If one does not forcefully and continuously expel air from the lungs in this manner, they may be gravely injured or killed. The air exiting the lungs is allowed to exit the hood through a set of two one - way valves, keeping the device inflated but not over-inflated. Upon reaching the top, the testee swims to the side, climbs up, removes his Steinke Hood, deflates it, stands at parade rest, and yells "I FEEL FINE '', while a corpsman examines the testee.
Successfully completing the escape training requires two trials, one of them at double the depth of the first. On completion of escape training, testees are now considered bubbleheads.
As of 2008, the Steinke Hood has been replaced with the Mark 10 Submarine Escape Immersion Equipment (SEIE) suit. The Mark 10 allows submariners to escape from much deeper depths than currently possible with the Steinke Hood.
The Mark 8, its predecessor, was a double layer suit which gave the wearer the appearance of a Michelin Man. One layer was eliminated, and the fabric was used to build a life raft that would fit in the same package that the original suit came in.
Because it is a full body suit, the Mark 10 provides thermal protection once the wearer reaches the surface, and the British Royal Navy has successfully tested it at six hundred foot depths.
The navies of twenty - two nations currently use SEIE units of some type.
Further training and qualification at sea are required before submariners are awarded the coveted Submarines insignia ("dolphins '') -- the submarine insignia worn by officers (gold) and enlisted personnel (silver) to demonstrate their achievement.
The insignia of the U.S. Navy 's Submarine Service is a Submarine flanked by two dolphins (the fish, not the mammal).
The origin of this insignia dates back to June 1923, when Captain Ernest King, USN, Commander, Submarine Division Three (later Fleet Admiral and Chief of Naval Operations), suggested to the Secretary of the Navy that a device for qualified submariners be adopted. He submitted a pen - and - ink sketch as an example. A Philadelphia firm, Bailey, Banks and Biddle, was requested to design a suitable badge. In 1928, a member of that firm told Ensign William C. Eddy that they were looking for a design. Eddy, using sketches of the 1926 Naval Academy class crest that he had designed, came up with the present submarine insignia.
In 1941 the Uniform Regulations were modified to permit officers and enlisted men to wear the submarine insignia after they had been assigned to other duties in the naval service, unless such right had been revoked. The officer insignia was a bronze gold - plated metal pin, worn centered above the left breast pocket and above the ribbons or medals. Enlisted men wore an embroidered silk insignia on the outside of the right sleeve, midway between the wrist and elbow until 1947 when it was shifted to above the left breast pocket. In 1943 the Uniform Regulations were modified to allow enlisted men, who were qualified for submarine duty then subsequently promoted to commissioned or warrant ranks, to continue wearing the enlisted submarine insignia until they qualified as submarine officers when they were entitled to wear the officers submarine pin. A 1950 change to Uniform Regulations authorized the embroidered insignia for officers (in addition to pin - on insignia) and a bronze, silver - plated, pin - on insignia for enlisted men (in addition to the embroidered device).
In addition to the Submarine Warfare insignia there are several special insignia. Since 1943 the Submarine Medical insignia has been awarded to medical officers of the Navy Medical Corps qualified in submarine warfare and medical expertise. The Submarine Engineering Duty insignia is issued to Engineering Duty Officers who have been designated as qualified in submarines through a program administered by the Naval Sea Systems Command and was first awarded in 1950. The Submarine Supply Corps insignia has been awarded to members of the Navy Supply Corps who have qualified as Supply Officers on board U.S. submarines since 1963.
Following the tradition of the World War II patrol pin, the silver SSBN Deterrent Patrol insignia is worn by both officer and enlisted members of SSBN crews in recognition of their sacrifice and hard work in completing strategic patrols. The badge depicts a Lafayette - class submarine with superimposed Polaris missiles, below which is a scroll with slots for up to six stars. One gold star marks each patrol completed. A silver star marks five patrols. Upon completion of 20 patrols, a gold patrol pin is authorized.
The person on active duty, officer or enlisted, with the most deterrent patrols is presented with the Neptune Award. That person retains the award until someone else attains more patrols than the current holder or until he retires and it goes to the member with the next highest number of patrols.
Two sets of lyrics for the Submarine verse of the Navy Hymn have been written. The Reverend Gale Williamson wrote the following verse, which is generally associated with ballistic missile patrols:
In 1965, David Miller composed the following lyrics, which are used for submariners and divers:
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when was dog fighting banned in the uk | Dog fighting - wikipedia
Dog fighting is a type of blood sport generally defined as two or more game dogs against one another in a ring or a pit for the entertainment of the spectators or the gratification of the dogfighters, who are sometimes referred to as dogmen.
In rural areas, fights are often staged in barns or outdoor pits; in urban areas, fights may occur in garages, basements, warehouses, abandoned buildings, back alleys, neighborhood playgrounds, or in the streets. Dog fights usually last until one dog is declared a winner, which occurs when one dog fails to scratch, one dog dies, or one dog jumps out of the pit. Sometimes dog fights end without declaring a winner; for instance, the dog 's owner may call the fight.
Dog fighting generates revenue from stud fees, admission fees and gambling. Worldwide, several countries have banned dog fighting, but it is still legal in some countries like Japan, Honduras, and parts of Russia.
Blood sports in general can be traced back to the Roman Empire. In 13 BC, for instance, the ancient Roman circus slew 600 African beasts. Likewise, under Emperor Claudius 's reign, as spectators cheered, 300 bears and 300 Libyan beasts were slain in the Colosseum. Dog fighting, more specifically, can also be traced to ancient Roman times. In 43 AD, for example, dogs fought alongside the Romans and the British in the Roman Conquest of Britain. In this war, the Romans used a breed that originated from Greece called Molossus; the Britons used broad - mouth Mastiffs, which were thought to descend from the Molossus bloodline and which also originated from Greece. Though the British were outnumbered and ultimately lost this war, the Romans were so impressed with the English Mastiffs that they began to import these dogs for use in the Colosseum, as well as for use in times of war. While spectators watched, the imported English Mastiffs were pitted against animals such as wild elephants, lions, bears, bulls, and gladiators.
Later, the Romans bred and exported fighting dogs to Spain, France and other parts of Europe until eventually these dogs made their way back to England. Though bull baiting and bear baiting were popular throughout the Middle Ages up to the 19th century in Germany, France, Spain, Portugal, and the Netherlands, the British pitted dogs against bulls and bears on a scale like no other. In 12th century England during the feudal era, the landed aristocracy, who held direct military control in decentralized feudal systems and thus owned the animals necessary for waging war, introduced bull baiting and bear baiting to the rest of the British population. In later years, bull baiting and bear baiting became a popular source of entertainment for the British royalty. For instance, Queen Elizabeth I, who reigned from 1558 -- 1603, was an avid follower of bull and bear baiting; she bred Mastiffs for baiting and would entertain foreign guests with a fight whenever they visited England. In addition to breeding Mastiffs and entertaining foreign guests with a fight, Queen Elizabeth, and later her successor, King James I, built a number of bear gardens in London. The garden buildings were round and roofless, and housed not only bears, but also bulls and other wild animals that could be used in a fight. Today, a person can visit the Bear Garden museum near the Shakespeare Global Complex in Bankside, Southwark.
With the popularity of bull and bear baiting, bears needed for such fights soon became scarce. With the scarcity of bear population, the price of bears rose and, because of this, bull baiting became more common in England over time. Bulls who survived the fights were slaughtered afterwards for their meat, as it was believed that the fight caused bull meat to become more tender. In fact, if a bull was offered for sale in the market without having been baited the previous day, butchers were liable to face substantial fines. Animal fights were temporarily suspended in England when Oliver Cromwell seized power, but were reinstated again after the Restoration. Dog fighting, bear baiting, and bull baiting were officially outlawed in England by the Humane Act of 1835. The official ban on all fights, however, actually served to promote dog fighting in England. Since a small amount of space was required for the pit where a dog fight took place, as compared to the ring needed for bull or bear baiting, authorities had a difficult time enforcing the ban on dog fighting.
In 1817, the Staffordshire Bull Terrier was brought to America and dog fighting became part of American culture. Yet, though historical accounts of dog fighting in America can be dated back to the 1750s, it was not until the end of the Civil War (1861 -- 1865) that widespread interest and participation in the blood sport began in the United States. For instance, in 1881, the Mississippi and Ohio railroads advertised special fares to a dog fight in Louisville; public forums such as Kit Burns ' Tavern, "The Sportman 's Hall, '' in Manhattan regularly hosted matches. Many of these dogs thrown into the "professional pits '' that flourished during the 1860s came from England and Ireland -- where citizens had turned to dogs when bear - baiting and bull - baiting became illegal in their countries.
In twentieth century America, despite the expansion of laws to outlaw dog fighting, dog fighting continued to flourish underground. Aiding in the expansion of dog fighting were the police and firemen, who saw dog fighting as a form of entertainment amongst their ranks. In fact, the Police Gazette served as a "go to '' source for information about where one could attend a fight. When Henry Bergh, who started the American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (ASPCA), witnessed police involvement in these fights, he was motivated to seek and receive authority for the ASPCA Humane Law Enforcement Agents to have arresting power in New York. Additionally, Bergh 's 1867 revision to New York 's animal cruelty law made all forms of animal fighting illegal. However, According to the ASPCA website, the Humane Law Enforcement department of ASPCA has been disbanded and NYPD has taken over its duty. As laws were passed to outlaw the activity, high - profile organizations, such as the United Kennel Club, who once endorsed the sport by formulating rules and sanctioning referees, withdrew their endorsement.
On July 8, 2009, the ASPCA also participated in one of the largest federal dog fighting raids in U.S. history. Most of the dogs rescued were pit bulls (over 400 of them). This raid took place in eight states and had 26 arrests, of which two defendants are required to spend at least 10 years in prison.
According to one scholar, Richard Strebel, the foundation for modern fighting dogs came from: 1. The Tibetan Mastiff; 2. The English Mastiff, out of which came the French Mastiff, the English Bulldog, and the Pug; 3. The Great Dane, out of which came the Danish Mastiff and the Boxer; 4. The Newfoundland; and 5. The Saint Bernard, out of which came the Leonberger. However, Dieter Fleig disagreed with Strebel and offered the following list as composing of the foundation for modern fighting dogs: 1. The Tibetan Mastiff; 2. The Molossus; 3. The Bull Biter; 4. The Great Dane; 5. The English Mastiff; 6. The Bulldog; 5. The Bull and Terrier; and 6. The Chincha Bulldog.
The foundation breed of the fighting dog was, in its outward appearance, a large, low, heavy breed with a powerful build and strongly developed head, and tremendously threatening voice. Additionally, these foundation breeds were also bred for a powerful jaw that would enable them to defend and protect humans, to overpower and pull down large animals on a hunt, and to control large, unmanageable domestic animals. These dogs were also sometimes equipped with metal plates, chains, and collars with sharp spikes or hooked knives in order to be used in wars throughout history.
When bullbaiting became popular in England due to the shortage of bears, bull baiters soon realized that large fighting dogs were built too heavy and too slow for this type of combat. When fighting a bull, dogs were trained to grab onto the bull 's nose and pin the bull 's head to the ground. If the dog failed to do this, the bull would fling the dog out of the ring with its horns. The British therefore decided to selectively breed fighting dogs for shorter legs and a more powerful jaw. These efforts resulted in the Old English Bulldog.
However, when countries started outlawing bull and bear baiting, dog fighters started pitting dogs against other dogs. With the prevalence of such combat, dogfighters soon realized bulldogs were inadequate and began to breed bulldogs with terriers for more desired characteristics. Terriers were most likely crossbred with bulldogs due to their "generally rugged body structure, '' speed, aggression, and "highly developed gameness. '' Yet, there is a debate over which type of terrier was bred with bulldogs in order to create the Bull and Terrier. For instance, Joseph L. Colby claimed that it was the old English White Terrier that the Bull and Terrier is descended from, while Rhonda D. Evans and Craig J. Forsyth contend that its ancestor is the Rat Terrier. Carl Semencic, on the other hand, held that a variety of terriers produced the Bull and Terrier.
Eventually, out of cross breeding bulldogs and terriers, the English created the Staffordshire Bull Terrier. When the Staffordshire Bull Terrier came to America in 1817, Americans began to selectively breed for gameness and created the American Pit Bull Terrier (originally known as the Pit Bull Terrier), which is a unique breed due to its absence of threat displays when fighting and its docility towards humans. Staffordshire Bull Terriers, American Pit Bull Terriers, American Staffordshire Terriers, and Bull Terriers are all breeds that are commonly labeled as pit bulls. The fact that "pit bulls '' were historically bred to fight bulls and bears has been used as justifications in some U.S. cities to implement Breed Specific Legislation.
After interviewing 31 dogmen and attending 14 dog fights in the Southern United States, Evans, Gauthier, and Forsyth theorized on what attracts men to dog fights. In their study, Evans, et al., discussed dog fighting 's attractiveness in terms of masculinity and class immobility. In the United States, masculinity embodies the qualities of strength, aggression, competition, and striving for success. By embodying these characteristics, a man can gain honor and status in his society. Yet, working class occupations, unlike middle or upper class occupations, provide limited opportunities to validate this culturally accepted definition of masculinity. So, working class men look for alternative ways to validate their masculinity and obtain honor and status. One way to do this is through dogfighting. This is supported by the Evans, et al. findings: the majority of committed dogmen were mostly drawn from the working class, while the middle and upper classes were barely represented. Men from middle and upper classes have opportunities to express their masculinity through their occupations; dog fighting, therefore, is just a hobby for them while it plays a central role in the lives of working class men. Those from the higher classes are drawn in by the thrill and excitement of the fight.
Aside from enjoyment of the sport and status, people are also drawn to dog fighting for money. In fact, the average dog fight could easily net more money than an armed robbery, or a series of isolated drug transactions.
"Bait '' animals are animals used to test a dog 's fighting instinct; they are often mauled or killed in the process. Many of the training methods involve torturing and killing of other animals. Often "bait '' animals are stolen pets, puppies, kittens, rabbits, small dogs and even stock (pit bulls acquired by the dogfighting ring which appear to be passive or less dominant). Other sources for bait animals include wild or feral animals, animals obtained from a shelter, or animals obtained from "free to good home '' ads. The snouts of bait animals are often wrapped with duct tape to prevent them from fighting back and they are used in training sessions to improve a dog 's endurance, strength or fighting ability. A bait animal 's teeth may also be broken to prevent them from fighting back. If the bait animals are still alive after the training sessions, they are usually given to the dogs as a reward, and the dogs finish killing them.
Often associated with gang activity, street fighters fight dogs over insults, turf invasions, or simple taunts like "my dog can kill your dog. '' These type of fights are often spontaneous; unorganized; conducted for money, drugs, or bragging rights; and occur on street corners, back alleys, and neighborhood playgrounds. Urban street fighters generally have several dogs chained in backyards, often behind privacy fences, or in basements or garages. After a street fight, the dogs are often discovered by police and animal control officers either dead or dying. Due to the spontaneity of a street fight, they are very difficult to respond to unless reported immediately.
Hobbyists and professionals often decry the techniques street fighters use to train their dogs. Such techniques include starving, drugging, and physically abusing the dog.
Hobbyists fight dogs for supplemental income and entertainment purposes. They typically have one or more dogs participating in several organized fights and operate primarily within a specific geographic network. Hobbyists are also acquainted with one another and tend to return to predetermined fight venues repeatedly.
Professional fighters breed generations of skilled "game dogs '' and take a great pride in their dogs ' lineage. These fighters make a tremendous amount of money charging stud fees to breed their champions, in addition to the fees and winnings they collect for fighting them. They also tend to own a large number of dogs -- sometimes 50 or more. Professionals also use trade journals, such as Your Friend and Mine, Game Dog Times, The American Warrior, and The Pit Bull Chronicle, to discuss recent fights and to advertise the sale of training equipment and puppies. Some fighters operate on a national or even international level within highly secret networks. When a dog is not successful in a fight, a professional may dispose of it using a variety of techniques such as drowning, strangulation, hanging, gunshot, electrocution or some other method. Sometimes professionals and hobbyists dispose of dogs deemed aggressive to humans to street fighters.
Dog fighting is a felony in all 50 states, the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands. While dog fighting statutes exist independently of general anti-cruelty statutes and carry stiffer penalties than general state anti-cruelty statutes, a person can be charged under both or can be charged under one, but not the other -- depending on the evidence. In addition to felony charges for dog fighting, forty - eight states and the District of Columbia, have provisions within their dogfighting statutes that explicitly prohibit attendance as a spectator at a dogfighting exhibition. Since Montana and Hawaii do not have such provisions, a person can pay an entrance fee to watch a dog - fight in either state and not be convicted under these statutes. Additionally, forty - six states, and the District of Columbia, make possessing, owning or keeping a fighting dog a felony.
While dog fighting was previously seen as isolated animal welfare issues -- and therefore rarely enforced, the last decade has produced a growing body of legal and empirical evidence that has revealed a connection between dog - fighting and other crimes within a community, such as organized crime, racketeering, drug distribution, and / or gangs. Within the gang community, fighting dogs compete with firearms as the weapon of choice; indeed, their versatile utility arguably surpasses that of a loaded firearm in the criminal underground. Drug dealers distribute their illicit merchandise, wagers are made, weapons are concealed, and the dogs mutilate each other in a bloody frenzy as crowds cheer on. Violence often erupts among the usually armed gamblers when debts are to be collected and paid. There is also a concern for children who are routinely exposed to dogfighting and are forced to accept the inherent violence as normal. The routine exposure of the children to unfettered animal abuse and neglect is a major contributing factor in their later manifestation of social deviance.
Animal advocates consider dog fighting to be one of the most serious forms of animal abuse, not only for the violence that the dogs endure during and after the fights, but because of the suffering they often endure in training.
According to a filing in U.S. District Court in Richmond by federal investigators in Virginia, which was obtained under the Freedom of Information Act and published by the Baltimore Sun on July 6, 2007, a losing dog or one whose potential is considered unacceptable faces "being put to death by drowning, strangulation, hanging, gun shot, electrocution or some other method ''. Some of the training of fighting dogs may entail the use of small animals (including kittens) as prey for the dogs.
Dog fighting has been popular in many countries throughout history and continues to be practiced both legally and illegally around the world.
In the 20th and 21st centuries, dog fighting has increasingly become an unlawful activity in most of the world.
Dog fighting has been declared illegal in the Republic of South Africa. However, it is still very popular in the underground world, with dog fighting being a highly syndicated and organized crime. The NSPCA (National Council of SPCAs) is the largest animal welfare organization in Africa, and has been the organization that has conducted the most raids and busts, of which the most recent was in 2013, where 18 people were arrested, and 14 dogs were involved. Dog fighting is mostly practiced in the Western Cape, in the townships area where gangs and drugs are mostly associated with dog fighting.
Dog fighting has been documented in South Africa, particularly in the Western Cape region of Stellenbosch. The Stellenbosch Animal Welfare Society (AWS) frequently responds to complaints of night - time dog fighting in the town of Cloetesville in which hundreds of dogs fight. Young children may be used to transport fighting dogs to avoid arrest of the owners.
Previously banned by the Taliban, dog fighting has made a resurgence throughout Afghanistan as a winter weekend pastime.
In Kabul, the fights are public and policed for safety to the spectators. Dogs are not fought to the death, but to submission. Top dogs are worth as much as a new car.
Dog fighting is not common, but can be found in some Indian states such as Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh and in some parts of Delhi. The practice is illegal as defined by Indian law.
According to historical documents, Hōjō Takatoki, the 14th shikken (shōgun 's regent) of the Kamakura shogunate was known to be obsessed with dog fighting, to the point where he allowed his samurai to pay taxes with dogs. During this period dog fighting was known as inuawase (犬 合わせ).
Dog fighting was considered a way for the Samurai to retain their aggressive edge during peaceful times. Several daimyōs (feudal lords), such as Chōsokabe Motochika and Yamauchi Yōdō, both from Tosa Province (present - day Kōchi Prefecture), were known to encourage dog fighting. Dog fighting was also popular in Akita Prefecture, which is the origin of the Akita breed.
Dog fighting evolved in Kōchi to a form that is called tōken (闘犬). Under modern rules, dogs fight in a fenced ring until one of the dogs barks, yelps, or loses the will to fight. Owners are allowed to throw in the towel, and matches are stopped if a doctor judges if is too dangerous. Draws usually occur when both dogs will not fight or both dogs fight until the time limit. There are various other rules, including one that specifies that a dog will lose if it attempts to copulate. Champion dogs are called yokozuna, as in sumo. Dog fighting is not banned at a nationwide level, but the prefectures of Tokyo, Kanagawa, Fukui, Ishikawa, Toyama and Hokkaidō all ban the practice. Currently, most fighting dogs in Japan are of the Tosa breed which is native to Kōchi.
Dog fighting and other forms of animal fighting are extremely popular in all parts of rural Pakistan, and is deeply rooted in the rural culture, where some 70 percent of the population resides. It has been a way for tribes, clans and the rural people to socialize while being entertained. Even though it has recently been banned by law, it is still being practiced in rural Pakistan, especially in provinces such as Punjab, Azad Kashmir, Sindh and Khyber Pakhtoonkhwa. Now Karachi. Sindhi is the most popular city about Pitbull fighting with the proper rules There can apparently be as much as millions of rupees at stake for the owners of winning dogs, so different breeds have carefully been bred and selected specifically for the purpose, such as the Bully Kutta.
Dog fighting and the possession of any fighting equipment designed for dog fighting is illegal in all Australian states and territories. The illegal nature of dogfighting in Australia means that injured dogs rarely get veterinary treatment placing the dog 's health and welfare at even greater risk. "Restricted Breed Dogs '' can not be imported into Australia. These include the Dogo Argentino, the Japanese Tosa, the Fila Brasileiro, the Perro de Presa Canario and the American Pit Bull Terrier. Of these, the Pit Bull Terrier and the Perro de Presa Canario are the only breeds currently known to exist in Australia and there are strict regulations on keeping these breeds, including a prohibition on transferring ownership.
Although animal cruelty laws exist in Russia, dog fighting is widely practiced. Laws prohibiting dogfights have been passed in certain places like Moscow by order of that city 's mayor. In much of Russia dogfights are legally held generally using Caucasian Shepherd Dog, Georgian shepherd, Central Asian Shepherd Dog. Temperament tests, which are a common and relatively mild form of dog fighting used for breeding purposes, are fairly commonplace. Most dog fights are traditional contests used to test the stamina and ability of working dogs used to protect livestock. Unlike fights with pit bulls and other fighting breeds, a veterinarian is always on hand and the contests are never to the death, and serious injuries are very rare. Most fights are over in minutes when its clear which dog is superior. At the end of three rounds the contest is declared a draw.
Despite periodic dog - fight prosecutions, illegal canine pit battles continued after the Cruelty to Animals Act 1835 of England and Wales. Sporting journals of the 18th and 19th centuries depict the Black Country and London as the primary English dog fight centers of the period.
Dog fighting has been illegal in Canada since 1892; however, the current law requires police to catch individuals during the unlawful act, which is often difficult.
Dog fighting is a felony in all 50 U.S. states as well as the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands. In most of the United States a spectator at a dog fight can be charged with a felony while some areas only consider it a misdemeanor offense.
In addition, the federal U.S. Animal Welfare Act makes it unlawful for any person to knowingly sell, buy, possess, train, transport, deliver, or receive any dog for purposes of having the dog participate in an animal fighting venture. The act also makes it unlawful for any person to knowingly use the mail service of the United States Postal Service or any instrumentality of interstate commerce for commercial speech for purposes of advertising a dog for use in an animal fighting venture, promoting or in any other manner furthering an animal fighting venture except as performed outside the limits of the States of the United States.
In the second largest dog fighting raid in U.S. history in August 2013, the United States District Court for the Middle District of Alabama handed down the longest prison term ever handed down in a federal dog fighting case: eight years.
According to a study by the College of Law of Michigan State University published in 2005, in the United States, dog fighting was once completely legal and was sanctioned and promoted during the colonial period through the Victorian and well into the 20th century. In the second half 19th century dog fighting started to be criminalized in the United States.
There is a US $5,000 reward for reporting dog fighting to The Humane Society of the United States From the HSUS: How to spot signs of dogfighting in your community: An inordinate number of pit bull - type dogs being kept in one location, especially multiple dogs who are chained and seem unsocialized; Dogs with scars on their faces, front legs, and stifle area (hind end and thighs); Dogfighting training equipment such as "breaking sticks '' or "break sticks '' used to pry apart the jaws of dogs locked in battle which are foot long, flat on one side, appearing to be sharpened; tires or "spring poles '' (usually a large spring with rope attached to either end) hanging from tree limbs; or unusual foot traffic coming and going from a location at odd hours.
CNN estimated that in the United States more than 100,000 people are engaged in dog fighting on a non-professional basis and roughly 40,000 individuals are involved as professionals in the sport of dog fighting as a commercial activity. Top fights are said to have purses of $100,000 or more.
In Costa Rica, dogfights were illegal for decades as a misdemeanor, since 2014 and after a legal reform became a felony and is punished with up to three years of imprisonment.
Dog fighting is illegal in much of South America. The American Pit Bull Terrier is by far the most common breed involved in the bloodsport. The Dogo Argentino was also used as fighting dog. The Dogo Cubano and Cordoba Fighting Dog were used for fighting a century ago, but have become extinct.
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top 25 most visited countries in the world | World Tourism rankings - wikipedia
The World Tourism rankings are compiled by the United Nations World Tourism Organization as part of their World Tourism Barometer publication, which is released three times throughout the year. In the publication, UN regions and subregions are ranked by the number of international visitor arrivals, by the revenue generated by inbound tourism, and by the expenditures of outbound travelers.
In 2016, there were 1.235 billion international tourist arrivals worldwide, with a growth of 4 % as compared to 1.186 billion in 2015. The top 10 international tourism destinations in 2016 were:
In 2015, there were over 53 million international tourist arrivals to Africa, a decrease of 3 % from 2014. In 2015, the top ten African destinations were:
In 2016, there were over 199 million international tourist arrivals to the Americas. In 2016, the top ten destinations were:
In 2016, there were over 308 million international tourist arrivals to Asia - Pacific, an increase of 9.0 % over 2015. In 2016, the top ten destinations were:
In 2016, there were over 616 million international tourist arrivals to Europe, an increase of 1.0 % over 2015. In 2016, the top ten destinations were:
In 2015, there were over 53 million international tourist arrivals to the Middle East, an increase of 2.0 % over 2014. In 2015, the top ten destinations were:
Turkey and Israel are classified as part of "Southern / Medit. Europe '' in the UNWTO.
International tourism receipts grew to US $1,260 billion in 2015, corresponding to an increase in real terms of 4.4 % from 2014. The World Tourism Organization reports the following destinations as the top twelve tourism earners for the year 2015, with the United States by far the top earner.
(US $ billion)
(2016)
(US $ billion) (2015)
The World Tourism Organization reports the following source countries as the top ten spenders on international tourism for the year 2017. With China by far being the top spender.
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who was general secretary of the united nations when the declaration was developed | Secretary - General of the United Nations - wikipedia
The Secretary - General of the United Nations (UNSG or just SG) is the head of the United Nations Secretariat, one of the six principal organs of the United Nations. The Secretary - General serves as the chief administrative officer of the United Nations. The role of the United Nations Secretariat, and of the Secretary - General in particular, is laid out by Chapter XV (Articles 97 to 101) of the United Nations Charter.
As of 2017, the Secretary - General is António Guterres, appointed by the General Assembly on 13 October 2016.
The Secretary - General was envisioned by U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt as a "world moderator '', but the vague definition provided by the UN Charter left much room for interpretation by those who would later occupy the position. According to the UN website, their roles are further defined as "diplomat and advocate, civil servant, and CEO ''. Nevertheless, this more abstract description has not prevented the office holders from speaking out and playing important roles on global issues to various degrees. Article 97 under Chapter XV of the United Nations Charter states that the Secretary - General shall be the "chief administrative officer '' of the Organization, but does not dictate their specific obligations.
Responsibilities of the Secretary - General are further outlined in Articles 98 through 100. Article 98 states that they shall act as the chief administrative officer "in all meetings of the General Assembly, of the Security Council, of the Economic and Social Council and the Trusteeship Council, and shall perform other functions as are entrusted to him by these organs ''. They are also responsible for making an annual report to the General Assembly. According to Article 99, they may notify the Security Council on matters which "in their opinion may threaten the maintenance of international peace and security ''. Other than these few guidelines, little else is dictated by the Charter. Interpretation of the Charter has varied between Secretaries - General, with some being much more active than others.
The Secretary - General, along with the Secretariat, is given the prerogative to exhibit no allegiance to any state but to only the United Nations organization: decisions must be made without regard to the state of origin.
The Secretary - General is highly dependent upon the support of the member states of the UN. "The Secretary - General would fail if they did not take careful account of the concerns of Member States, but they must also uphold the values and moral authority of the United Nations, and speak and act for peace, even at the risk, from time to time, of challenging or disagreeing with those same Member States. ''
"The personal skills of the Secretary - General and their staff are crucial to their function. The central position of the UN headquarters in the international diplomatic network is also an important asset. The Secretary - General has the right to place any dispute on the provisional agenda of the Security Council. However, they work mostly behind the scenes if the members of the council are unwilling to discuss a dispute. Most of their time is spent on good offices missions and mediation, sometimes at the request of deliberative organs of the UN, but also frequently on their own initiative. Their function may be replaced or supplemented by mediation efforts by the major powers. UN peacekeeping missions are often closely linked to mediation (peacemaking). The recent improvement in relations between the permanent members of the Security Council (P5) has strengthened the role of the Secretary - General as the world 's most reputable intermediary. ''
In the early 1960s, Soviet First Secretary Nikita Khrushchev led an effort to abolish the Secretary - General position. The numerical superiority of the Western powers combined with the one state, one vote system meant that the Secretary - General would come from one of them, and would potentially be sympathetic towards the West. Khrushchev proposed to replace the Secretary - General with a three - person leading council (a "troika ''): one member from the West, one from the Eastern Bloc, and one from the Non-Aligned powers. This idea failed because the neutral powers failed to back the Soviet proposal.
Article 97 of the United Nations Charter determines that the Secretary - General is "appointed by the General Assembly upon the recommendation of the Security Council. '' As the recommendation must come from the Security Council, any of the five permanent members of the Council can veto a nomination. Most Secretaries - General are compromise candidates from middle powers and have little prior fame. Unofficial qualifications for the job have been set by precedent in previous selections. The appointee may not be a citizen of any of the Security Council 's five permanent members. The General Assembly resolution 51 / 241 in 1997 stated that in the appointment of "the best candidate '', due regard should be given to regional (continental) rotation of the appointee 's national origin and to gender equality.
The Secretary - General is customarily appointed for a five - year term, although the length of the term is discretionary. Trygve Lie 's second appointment was for three years, and U Thant 's first two terms were short terms that added up to five years. The Secretary - General customarily runs unopposed for a second term if he wishes to continue serving, and he is reappointed unless vetoed by a permanent member. Although there is no formal limit to the number of terms, none so far has held office for more than two full terms. Kurt Waldheim ran for a third full term in 1981, but one candidate ran to oppose him with China casting a record 16 vetoes against Waldheim, forcing him to suspend his candidacy, which allowed for the nomination of a further 13 candidates, one of whom was elected at the first subsequent ballot. No Secretary - General since 1981 has attempted to secure a third term.
Since 1981, Secretaries - General have been chosen behind closed doors by the Security Council and then had their names submitted to General Assembly for ratification. No candidate has ever been rejected by the General Assembly. The Security Council and General Assembly took steps in 2016 to make the selection process more transparent and open, sending a letter to UN member states asking them to nominate candidates for the position. However, the Security Council voted in private and followed the same process as previous selections, leading the President of the General Assembly to complain that it "does not live up to the expectations of the membership and the new standard of openness and transparency ''.
The official residence of the Secretary - General is a townhouse at 3 Sutton Place, Manhattan, in New York City, United States. The townhouse was built for Anne Morgan in 1921, and donated to the United Nations in 1972.
This is a graphical lifespan timeline of the Secretaries - General of the United Nations. They are listed in order of office.
As of September 2017, the only former Secretaries - General that are alive are Javier Pérez de Cuéllar, Kofi Annan, and Ban Ki - moon. The most recent death of a former Secretary - General was that of Boutros Boutros - Ghali (1992 -- 96) on 16 February 2016.
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when did mt st helen's last erupt | 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens - wikipedia
On May 18, 1980, a major volcanic eruption occurred at Mount St. Helens, a volcano located in Skamania County, in the state of Washington, United States. The eruption (a VEI 5 event) was the only significant volcanic eruption to occur in the contiguous 48 U.S. states since the 1915 eruption of Lassen Peak in California. However, it has often been declared as the most disastrous volcanic eruption in United States history. The eruption was preceded by a two - month series of earthquakes and steam - venting episodes, caused by an injection of magma at shallow depth below the volcano that created a large bulge and a fracture system on the mountain 's north slope.
An earthquake at 8: 32: 17 a.m. PDT (UTC − 7) on Sunday, May 18, 1980, caused the entire weakened north face to slide away, creating the largest landslide ever recorded. This allowed the partly molten, high - pressure gas - and steam - rich rock in the volcano to suddenly explode northwards toward Spirit Lake in a hot mix of lava and pulverized older rock, overtaking the avalanching face.
An eruption column rose 80,000 feet (24 km; 15 mi) into the atmosphere and deposited ash in 11 U.S. states. At the same time, snow, ice and several entire glaciers on the volcano melted, forming a series of large lahars (volcanic mudslides) that reached as far as the Columbia River, nearly 50 miles (80 km) to the southwest. Less severe outbursts continued into the next day, only to be followed by other large, but not as destructive, eruptions later that year.
Approximately 57 people were killed directly, including innkeeper Harry R. Truman, photographers Reid Blackburn and Robert Landsburg, and geologist David A. Johnston. Hundreds of square miles were reduced to wasteland, causing over a billion U.S. dollars in damage ($3.03 billion in 2017 dollars), thousands of animals were killed, and Mount St. Helens was left with a crater on its north side. At the time of the eruption, the summit of the volcano was owned by the Burlington Northern Railroad, but afterward the land passed to the United States Forest Service. The area was later preserved, as it was, in the Mount St. Helens National Volcanic Monument.
Mount St. Helens remained dormant from its last period of activity in the 1840s and 1850s until March 1980. Several small earthquakes, apparently beginning on March 15, indicated that magma may have begun moving below the volcano. On March 20, at 3: 45 p.m. Pacific Standard Time (all times will be in PST or PDT), a shallow magnitude 4.2 earthquake (the initial reading was 4.1), centered below the volcano 's north flank, signaled the volcano 's violent return from 123 years of hibernation. A gradually building earthquake swarm saturated area seismographs and started to climax at about noon on March 25, reaching peak levels in the next two days, including an earthquake registering 5.1 on the Richter scale. A total of 174 shocks of magnitude 2.6 or greater were recorded during those two days.
Shocks of magnitude 3.2 or greater occurred at a slightly increasing rate during April and May with five earthquakes of magnitude 4 or above per day in early April, and eight per day the week before May 18. Initially there was no direct sign of eruption, but small earthquake - induced avalanches of snow and ice were reported from aerial observations.
At 12: 36 p.m. on March 27, phreatic eruptions (explosions of steam caused by magma suddenly heating groundwater) ejected and smashed rock from within the old summit crater, excavating a new crater 250 feet (75 m) wide and sending an ash column about 7,000 feet (2,100 m) into the air. By this date a 16,000 - foot - long (4,900 m) eastward - trending fracture system had also developed across the summit area. This was followed by more earthquake swarms and a series of steam explosions that sent ash 10,000 to 11,000 feet (3,000 to 3,400 m) above their vent. Most of this ash fell between 3 and 12 miles (5 and 19 km) from its vent, but some was carried 150 miles (240 km) south to Bend, Oregon, or 285 miles (459 km) east to Spokane, Washington.
A second, new crater and a blue flame were observed on March 29. The flame was visibly emitted from both craters and was probably created by burning gases. Static electricity generated from ash clouds rolling down the volcano sent out lightning bolts that were up to 2 miles (3 km) long. Ninety - three separate outbursts were reported on March 30, and increasingly strong harmonic tremors were first detected on April 1, alarming geologists and prompting Governor Dixy Lee Ray to declare a state of emergency on April 3. Governor Ray issued an executive order on April 30 creating a "red zone '' around the volcano; anyone caught in this zone without a pass faced a $500 fine or six months in jail. This precluded many cabin owners from visiting their property.
By April 7 the combined crater was 1,700 feet long by 1,200 ft wide and 500 ft deep (520 × 370 × 150 m). A USGS team determined in the last week of April that a 1.5 - mile - diameter (2.4 km) section of St. Helens ' north face was displaced outward by at least 270 feet (82 m). For the rest of April and early May this bulge grew by 5 to 6 feet (1.5 to 1.8 m) per day, and by mid-May it extended more than 400 feet (120 m) north. As the bulge moved northward, the summit area behind it progressively sank, forming a complex, down - dropped block called a graben. Geologists announced on April 30 that sliding of the bulge area was the greatest immediate danger and that such a landslide might spark an eruption. These changes in the volcano 's shape were related to the overall deformation that increased the volume of the volcano by 0.03 cubic miles (0.13 km) by mid-May. This volume increase presumably corresponded to the volume of magma that pushed into the volcano and deformed its surface. Because the intruded magma remained below ground and was not directly visible, it was called a cryptodome, in contrast to a true lava dome exposed at the surface.
On May 7, eruptions similar to those in March and April resumed, and over the next days the bulge approached its maximum size. All activity had been confined to the 350 - year - old summit dome and did not involve any new magma. A total of about 10,000 earthquakes were recorded prior to the May 18 event, with most concentrated in a small zone less than 1.6 miles (2.6 km) directly below the bulge. Visible eruptions ceased on May 16, reducing public interest and consequently the number of spectators in the area. Mounting public pressure then forced officials to allow 50 carloads of property owners to enter the danger zone on May 17 to gather whatever property they could carry. Another trip was scheduled for 10 a.m. the next day. Because that next day was Sunday, more than 300 loggers would not be working in the area. By the time of the climactic eruption, dacite magma intruding into the volcano had forced the north flank outward nearly 500 feet (150 m) and heated the volcano 's groundwater system, causing many steam - driven explosions (phreatic eruptions).
As May 18 dawned, Mount St. Helens ' activity did not show any change from the pattern of the preceding month. The rate of bulge movement, sulfur dioxide emission, and ground temperature readings did not reveal any changes indicating a catastrophic eruption. USGS volcanologist David A. Johnston was on duty at an observation post approximately 6 miles (9.7 km) north of the volcano: as of 6 a.m., Johnston 's measurements did not indicate any unusual activity.
Suddenly, at 8: 32 a.m., a magnitude 5.1 earthquake centered directly below the north slope triggered that part of the volcano to slide, approximately 7 -- 20 seconds (about 10 seconds seems most reasonable) after the shock. The landslide, the largest in recorded history, travelled at 110 to 155 miles per hour (177 to 249 km / h) and moved across Spirit Lake 's west arm. Part of it hit a 1,150 - foot - high (350 m) ridge about 6 miles (10 km) north. Some of the slide spilled over the ridge, but most of it moved 13 miles (21 km) down the North Fork Toutle River, filling its valley up to 600 feet (180 m) deep with avalanche debris. An area of about 24 square miles (62 km) was covered, and the total volume of the deposit was about 0.7 cubic miles (2.9 km).
Scientists were able to reconstruct the motion of the landslide from a series of rapid photographs by Gary Rosenquist, who was camping 11 miles (18 km) away from the blast. Rosenquist, his party and his photographs survived because the blast was deflected by local topography 1 mile (1.6 km) short of his location.
Most of St. Helens ' former north side became a rubble deposit 17 miles (27 km) long, averaging 150 feet (46 m) thick; the slide was thickest at 1 mile (1.6 km) below Spirit Lake and thinnest at its western margin. Thousands of trees were torn from the surrounding hillside after the lake was sloshed 800 feet (240 m) up the hillside. All the water in Spirit Lake was temporarily displaced by the landslide, sending 600 - foot - high (180 m) waves crashing into a ridge north of the lake, adding 295 feet (90 m) of new avalanche debris above the old lakebed, and raising its surface level by about 200 feet. As the water moved back into its basin, it pulled with it thousands of trees felled by a super-heated wall of volcanic gas and searing ash and rock that had overtaken the landslide seconds before. Three decades after the eruption, mats of floating or stranded trees on the nearby Spirit Lake, St. Helens Lake, and Coldwater Lake remained.
The landslide exposed the dacite magma in St. Helens ' neck to much lower pressure, causing the gas - charged, partially molten rock and high - pressure steam above it to explode a few seconds after the landslide started. Explosions burst through the trailing part of the landslide, blasting rock debris northward. The resulting blast laterally directed the pyroclastic flow of very hot volcanic gases, ash and pumice formed from new lava, while the pulverized old rock hugged the ground, initially moving at 220 miles per hour (350 km / h) but quickly accelerating to 670 mph (1,080 km / h), and it might have briefly passed the speed of sound.
Pyroclastic flow material passed over the moving avalanche and spread outward, devastating a fan - shaped area 23 miles across by 19 miles long (37 km × 31 km). In total about 230 square miles (600 km) of forest was knocked down, and extreme heat killed trees miles beyond the blow - down zone. At its vent the lateral blast probably did not last longer than about 30 seconds, but the northward - radiating and expanding blast cloud have continued for about another minute.
Superheated flow material flashed water in Spirit Lake and North Fork Toutle River to steam, creating a larger, secondary explosion that was heard as far away as British Columbia, Montana, Idaho, and Northern California. Yet many areas closer to the eruption (Portland, Oregon, for example) did not hear the blast. This so - called "quiet zone '' extended radially a few tens of miles from the volcano and was created by the complex response of the eruption 's sound waves to differences in temperature and air motion of the atmospheric layers and, to a lesser extent, local topography.
Later studies indicated that one - third of the 0.045 cubic miles (0.19 km) of material in the flow was new lava, and the rest was fragmented, older rock.
Everyone in the quiet zone could see the huge ash cloud that was sent skyward from St. Helens ' northern foot. The near - supersonic lateral blast, loaded with volcanic debris, caused devastation as far as 19 miles (31 km) from the volcano. The area affected by the blast can be subdivided into three roughly concentric zones:
By the time this pyroclastic flow hit its first human victims, it was still as hot as 360 ° C (680 ° F) and filled with suffocating gas and flying angular material. Most of the 57 people known to have died in that day 's eruption succumbed to asphyxiation while several died from burns. Lodge owner Harry R. Truman was buried under hundreds of feet of avalanche material. Volcanologist David A. Johnston was one of those killed, as was Reid Blackburn, a National Geographic photographer. Robert Landsburg, another photographer, was killed by the ash cloud. He was able to protect his film with his body, and the surviving photos provided geologists with valuable documentation of the historic eruption.
Subsequent outpourings of pyroclastic material from the breach left by the landslide consisted mainly of new magmatic debris rather than fragments of preexisting volcanic rocks. The resulting deposits formed a fan - like pattern of overlapping sheets, tongues and lobes. At least 17 separate pyroclastic flows occurred during the May 18 eruption, and their aggregate volume was about 0.05 cubic miles (210,000,000 m).
The flow deposits were still at about 300 to 420 ° C (572 to 788 ° F) two weeks after they erupted. Secondary steam - blast eruptions fed by this heat created pits on the northern margin of the pyroclastic - flow deposits, at the south shore of Spirit Lake, and along the upper part of the North Fork Toutle River. These steam - blast explosions continued sporadically for weeks or months after the emplacement of pyroclastic flows, and at least one occurred a year later, on May 16, 1981.
As the avalanche and initial pyroclastic flow were still advancing, a huge ash column grew to a height of 12 miles (19 km) above the expanding crater in less than 10 minutes and spread tephra into the stratosphere for 10 straight hours. Near the volcano, the swirling ash particles in the atmosphere generated lightning, which in turn started many forest fires. During this time, parts of the mushroom - shaped ash - cloud column collapsed, and fell back upon the earth. This fallout, mixed with magma, mud and steam, sent additional pyroclastic flows speeding down St. Helens ' flanks. Later, slower flows came directly from the new north - facing crater and consisted of glowing pumice bombs and very hot pumiceous ash. Some of these hot flows covered ice or water which flashed to steam, creating craters up to 65 feet (20 m) in diameter and sending ash as much as 6,500 feet (2,000 m) into the air.
Strong high - altitude wind carried much of this material east - northeasterly from the volcano at an average speed of about 60 miles per hour (97 km / h). By 9: 45 a.m. it had reached Yakima, Washington, 90 miles (140 km) away, and by 11: 45 a.m. it was over Spokane, Washington. A total of 4 to 5 inches (100 to 130 mm) of ash fell on Yakima, and areas as far east as Spokane were plunged into darkness by noon where visibility was reduced to 10 feet (3.0 m) and 0.5 inches (13 mm) of ash fell. Continuing eastward, St. Helens ' ash fell in the western part of Yellowstone National Park by 10: 15 p.m. and was seen on the ground in Denver, Colorado, the next day. In time, ash fall from this eruption was reported as far away as Minnesota and Oklahoma, and some of the ash drifted around the globe within about 2 weeks.
During the nine hours of vigorous eruptive activity, about 540,000,000 tons of ash fell over an area of more than 22,000 square miles (57,000 km). The total volume of the ash before its compaction by rainfall was about 0.3 cubic miles (1.3 km). The volume of the uncompacted ash is equivalent to about 0.05 cubic miles (210,000,000 m) of solid rock, or about 7 % of the amount of material that slid off in the debris avalanche. By around 5: 30 p.m. on May 18, the vertical ash column declined in stature, but less severe outbursts continued through the next several days.
Generally, given that the way airborne ash is deposited after an eruption is strongly influenced by the meteorological conditions, a certain variation of the ash type will occur, as a function of distance to the volcano or time elapsed from eruption. The ash from Mount St. Helens is no exception, and hence the ash properties have large variations.
The bulk chemical composition of the ash has been found to be approximately 65 % silicon dioxide, 18 % aluminium oxide, 5 % ferric oxide, 4 % each calcium oxide and sodium oxide and 2 % magnesium oxide. Trace chemicals were also detected, their concentrations varying as shown: 0.05 -- 0.09 % chlorine, 0.02 -- 0.03 % fluorine, and 0.09 -- 0.3 % sulphur.
The index of refraction, a number used in physics to describe how light propagates through a particular substance, is an important property of volcanic ash. This number is complex having both real and imaginary parts, the real part indicating how light disperses and the imaginary part indicating how light is absorbed by the substance.
It is known that the silicate particles have a real index of refraction ranging between 1.5 and 1.6 for visible light. However, there is a spectrum of colors associated with samples of volcanic ash, from very light to dark gray. This makes for variations in the measured imaginary refractive index under visible light.
In the case of Mount St. Helens, the ash settled in three main layers on the ground:
For example, when comparing the imaginary part of the refractive index k of stratospheric ash from 15 km and 18 km from the volcano it has been discovered that they have similar values around 700 nm (around 0.009), while they differ significantly around 300 nm. Here, the 18 km (k was found to be around 0.009) sample was much more absorbent than the 15 km sample (k was found to be around 0.002).
The hot, exploding material also broke apart and melted nearly all of the mountain 's glaciers along with most of the overlying snow. As in many previous St. Helens ' eruptions, this created huge lahars (volcanic mudflows) and muddy floods that affected three of the four stream drainage systems on the mountain, and which started to move as early as 8: 50 a.m. Lahars travelled as fast as 90 miles per hour (140 km / h) while still high on the volcano but progressively slowed to about 3 miles per hour (4.8 km / h) on the flatter and wider parts of rivers. Mudflows from the southern and eastern flanks had the consistency of wet concrete as they raced down Muddy River, Pine Creek and Smith Creek to their confluence at the Lewis River. Bridges were taken out at the mouth of Pine Creek and the head of Swift Reservoir, which rose 2.6 feet (0.79 m) by noon to accommodate the nearly 18,000,000 cubic yards (14,000,000 m) of additional water, mud and debris.
Glacier and snow melt mixed with tephra on the volcano 's northeast slope to create much larger lahars. These mudflows traveled down the north and south forks of the Toutle River and joined at the confluence of the Toutle forks and the Cowlitz River near Castle Rock, Washington, at 1: 00 p.m. Ninety minutes after the eruption, the first mudflow had moved 27 miles (43 km) upstream where observers at Weyerhaeuser 's Camp Baker saw a 12 - foot - high (4 m) wall of muddy water and debris pass. Near the confluence of the Toutle 's north and south forks at Silver Lake, a record flood stage of 23.5 feet (7.2 m) was recorded.
A large but slower - moving mudflow with a mortar - like consistency was mobilized in early afternoon at the head of the Toutle River north fork. By 2: 30 p.m. the massive mudflow had destroyed Camp Baker, and in the following hours seven bridges were carried away. Part of the flow backed up for 2.5 miles (4.0 km) soon after entering the Cowlitz River, but most continued downstream. After traveling 17 miles (27 km) further, an estimated 3,900,000 cubic yards (3,000,000 m) of material were injected into the Columbia River, reducing the river 's depth by 25 feet (8 m) for a 4 - mile (6 km) stretch. The resulting 13 - foot (4.0 m) river depth temporarily closed the busy channel to ocean - going freighters, costing Portland, Oregon, an estimated five million US dollars. Ultimately more than 65 million cubic yards (50 million cubic metres) of sediment were dumped along the lower Cowlitz and Columbia Rivers.
The May 18, 1980, event was the most deadly and economically destructive volcanic eruption in the history of the United States. Approximately fifty - seven people were killed directly from the blast and 200 houses, 47 bridges, 15 miles (24 km) of railways and 185 miles (298 km) of highway were destroyed; two people were killed indirectly in accidents that resulted from poor visibility, and two more suffered fatal heart attacks from shoveling ash. U.S. President Jimmy Carter surveyed the damage and said it looked more desolate than a moonscape. A film crew was dropped by helicopter on Mount St. Helens on May 23 to document the destruction. However, their compasses spun in circles and they quickly became lost. A second eruption occurred the next day (see below), but the crew survived and were rescued two days after that. The eruption ejected more than 1 cubic mile (4.2 km) of material. A quarter of that volume was fresh lava in the form of ash, pumice and volcanic bombs while the rest was fragmented, older rock. The removal of the north side of the mountain (13 % of the cone 's volume) reduced Mount St. Helens ' height by about 1,280 feet (390 m) and left a crater 1 to 2 miles (2 to 3 km) wide and 2,100 feet (640 m) deep with its north end open in a huge breach.
More than 4,000,000,000 board feet (9,400,000 m) of timber was damaged or destroyed, mainly by the lateral blast. At least 25 % of the destroyed timber was salvaged after September 1980. Downwind of the volcano, in areas of thick ash accumulation, many agricultural crops, such as wheat, apples, potatoes and alfalfa, were destroyed. As many as 1,500 elk and 5,000 deer were killed, and an estimated 12 million Chinook and Coho salmon fingerlings died when their hatcheries were destroyed. Another estimated 40,000 young salmon were lost when they swam through turbine blades of hydroelectric generators after reservoir levels were lowered along the Lewis River to accommodate possible mudflows and flood waters.
In total Mount St. Helens released 24 megatons of thermal energy, 7 of which were a direct result of the blast. This is equivalent to 1,600 times the size of the atomic bomb dropped on Hiroshima.
There is a minor controversy in regards to the exact death toll. The figure most commonly cited is fifty - seven. However, there are two points of dispute.
The first point regards two officially listed victims, Paul Hiatt and Dale Thayer. They were reported missing after the explosion. In the aftermath, investigators were able to locate individuals named Paul Hiatt and Dale Thayer who were alive and well. However, they were unable to determine who reported Hiatt missing, and the person who was listed as reporting Thayer missing claimed she was n't the one who had done so. Since the investigators could not thus verify that they were the same Hiatt and Thayer who were reported missing, the names remain listed among the presumed dead.
The second point regards three missing people who are not officially listed as victims: Robert Ruffle, Steven Whitsett and Mark Melanson. Cowlitz County Emergency Services Management lists them as "Possibly Missing -- Not on (the official) List ''. According to Melanson 's brother, in October 1983, Cowlitz County officials told his family that Melanson "is believed (...) a victim of the May 18, 1980, eruption '' and that after years of searching, the family eventually decided "he 's buried in the ash ''.
Taking these two points of dispute into consideration, the direct death toll could be as low as fifty - five or as high as sixty. When combined with the four indirect victims mentioned earlier, those numbers range from fifty - nine to sixty - four.
The ash fall created some temporary major problems with transportation, sewage disposal, and water treatment systems. Visibility was greatly decreased during the ash fall, closing many highways and roads. Interstate 90 from Seattle to Spokane was closed for a week and a half. Air travel was disrupted for between a few days and two weeks, as several airports in eastern Washington shut down because of ash accumulation and poor visibility. Over a thousand commercial flights were cancelled following airport closures. Fine - grained, gritty ash caused substantial problems for internal - combustion engines and other mechanical and electrical equipment. The ash contaminated oil systems and clogged air filters, and scratched moving surfaces. Fine ash caused short circuits in electrical transformers, which in turn caused power blackouts.
Removing and disposing of the ash was a monumental task for some Eastern Washington communities. State and federal agencies estimated that over 2,400,000 cubic yards (1,800,000 m) of ash, equivalent to about 900,000 tons in weight, were removed from highways and airports in Washington. The ash removal cost $2.2 million and took 10 weeks in Yakima. The need to remove ash quickly from transport routes and civil works dictated the selection of some disposal sites. Some cities used old quarries and existing sanitary landfills; others created dump sites wherever expedient. To minimize wind reworking of ash dumps, the surfaces of some disposal sites were covered with topsoil and seeded with grass. In Portland, the mayor eventually threatened businesses with fines if they failed to remove the ash from their parking lots.
A refined estimate of $1.1 billion ($2.74 billion in 2007 dollars) was determined in a study by the International Trade Commission at the request of the United States Congress. A supplemental appropriation of $951 million for disaster relief was voted by Congress, of which the largest share went to the Small Business Administration, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and the Federal Emergency Management Agency.
There were also indirect and intangible costs of the eruption. Unemployment in the immediate region of Mount St. Helens rose tenfold in the weeks immediately following the eruption, and then returned to near - normal levels once timber - salvaging and ash - cleanup operations were underway. Only a small percentage of residents left the region because of lost jobs owing to the eruption. Several months after May 18, a few residents reported suffering stress and emotional problems, even though they had coped successfully during the crisis. Counties in the region requested funding for mental health programs to assist such people.
Initial public reaction to the May 18 eruption dealt a nearly crippling blow to tourism, an important industry in Washington. Not only was tourism down in the Mount St. Helens -- Gifford Pinchot National Forest area, but conventions, meetings and social gatherings also were cancelled or postponed at cities and resorts elsewhere in Washington and neighboring Oregon not affected by the eruption. The adverse effect on tourism and conventioneering, however, proved only temporary. Mount St. Helens, perhaps because of its reawakening, has regained its appeal for tourists. The United States Forest Service and the State of Washington opened visitor centers and provided access for people to view the volcano 's devastation.
St. Helens produced an additional five explosive eruptions between May and October 1980. Through early 1990 at least 21 periods of eruptive activity had occurred. The volcano remains active, with smaller, dome - building eruptions continuing into 2008.
An eruption occurred on May 25, 1980, at 2: 30 a.m. that sent an ash column 9 miles (14 km) into the atmosphere. The eruption was preceded by a sudden increase in earthquake activity and occurred during a rainstorm. Erratic wind from the storm carried ash from the eruption to the south and west, lightly dusting large parts of western Washington and Oregon. Pyroclastic flows exited the northern breach and covered avalanche debris, lahars and other pyroclastic flows deposited by the May 18 eruption.
At 7: 05 p.m. on June 12, a plume of ash billowed 2.5 miles (4.0 km) above the volcano. At 9: 09 p.m. a much stronger explosion sent an ash column about 10 miles (16 km) skyward. This event caused the Portland area, previously spared by wind direction, to be thinly coated with ash in the middle of the annual Rose Festival. A dacite dome then oozed into existence on the crater floor, growing to a height of 200 feet (61 m) and a width of 1,200 feet (370 m) within a week.
A series of large explosions on July 22 broke more than a month of relative quiet. The July eruptive episode was preceded by several days of measurable expansion of the summit area, heightened earthquake activity, and changed emission rates of sulfur dioxide and carbon dioxide. The first hit at 5: 14 p.m. as an ash column shot 10 miles (16 km) and was followed by a faster blast at 6: 25 p.m. that pushed the ash column above its previous maximum height in just 7.5 minutes. The final explosion started at 7: 01 p.m. and continued for over two hours. When the relatively small amount of ash settled over eastern Washington, the dome built in June was gone.
Seismic activity and gas emission steadily increased in early August, and on August 7 at 4: 26 p.m., an ash cloud slowly expanded 8 miles (13 km) into the sky. Small pyroclastic flows came through the northern breach and a weaker outpouring of ash rose from the crater. This continued until 10: 32 p.m. when a second large blast sent ash high into the air, proceeding due north. A second dacite dome filled this vent a few days later.
Two months of repose were ended by an eruption lasting from October 16 to 18. This event obliterated the second dome, sent ash 10 miles (16 km) in the air and created small, red - hot pyroclastic flows. A third dome began to form within 30 minutes after the final explosion on October 18, and within a few days, it was about 900 feet (270 m) wide and 130 feet (40 m) high. In spite of the dome growth next to it, a new glacier formed rapidly inside the crater.
All of the post-1980 eruptions were quiet dome - building events, beginning with the December 27, 1980, to January 3, 1981, episode. By 1987 the third dome had grown to be more than 3,000 feet (910 m) wide and 800 feet (240 m) high.
Further eruptions occurred over a few months between 1989 and 1991.
The 2004 -- 08 volcanic activity of Mount St. Helens has been documented as a continuous eruption with a gradual extrusion of magma at the Mount St. Helens volcano. Starting in October 2004 there was a gradual building of a new lava dome. The new dome did not rise above the caldera created by the 1980 eruption. This activity lasted until January 2008.
May 18, 1980, eruption of Mount St. Helens
This article incorporates public domain material from the United States Geological Survey document: "Eruptions of Mount St. Helens: Past, Present, and Future ''. Retrieved December 5, 2010.
Coordinates: 46 ° 12 ′ 01 '' N 122 ° 11 ′ 12 '' W / 46.20028 ° N 122.18667 ° W / 46.20028; - 122.18667
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eastern most point in the continental united states | List of extreme points of the United States - wikipedia
This is a list of the extreme points of the United States, the points that are farther north, south, east, or west than any other location in the country. Also included are extreme points in elevation, extreme distances, and other points of peculiar geographic interest.
There are three methods for reckoning the eastern and western extremes of the United States.
One method is to use the Prime Meridian as the dividing line between east and west. This meridian running through Greenwich, London, is defined as zero degrees longitude and could be called the least eastern and least western place in the world. The 180th meridian, on the opposite side of the globe, is therefore the easternmost and westernmost place in the world.
Another method is to use the International Date Line as the easternmost -- westernmost extreme. On the equinox, the easternmost place would be where the day first begins, and the westernmost is where the day last ends.
Still another method is to first determine the geographic center of the country and from there measure the shortest distance to every other point. All U.S. territory is spread across less than 180 ° of longitude, so from any spot in the U.S. it is more direct to reach Point Udall, U.S. Virgin Islands, by traveling east than by traveling west. Likewise, there is not a single point in U.S. territory from which heading east is a shorter route to Point Udall, Guam, than heading west would be, even accounting for circumpolar routes. The two Udalls for whom the two Points are named were brothers, Mo Udall in Guam and Stewart Udall in the Virgin Islands.
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when was the last year england won the world cup | 1966 FIFA World Cup - wikipedia
The 1966 FIFA World Cup was the eighth FIFA World Cup and was held in England from 11 to 30 July 1966. England beat West Germany 4 -- 2 in the final, winning the Jules Rimet Trophy. It is England 's only FIFA World Cup title. They were the fifth nation to win and the third host nation to win after Uruguay in 1930 and Italy in 1934.
Notable performances were made by the two debutants Portugal, ending third, and North Korea, getting to the quarter finals after a 1 -- 0 win against Italy. Also notable was the elimination of world champions Brazil after the preliminary round. Notably, all four semi-finalists were European, a situation occurring in only four other world cups (1934, 1982, 2006 and 2018). Portugal 's Eusébio was top scorer with nine goals. The final is remembered for being the only one with a hat - trick and for its controversial third goal awarded to England.
An incident before the tournament was the theft and refinding of the trophy. The final, held at Wembley Stadium, was the last to be broadcast in black and white. The tournament held a FIFA record for the largest average attendance until it was surpassed by Mexico in 1970. It was boycotted by most independent countries from Africa who objected to the qualification requirements. Despite this, the number of entries for the qualifying tournament was a new record, with 70 nations.
England was chosen as host of the 1966 World Cup in Rome, Italy on 22 August 1960, over rival bids from West Germany and Spain. This is first tournament to be held in a country that was affected directly by World War II, as the four previous tournaments were either held in countries out of war theatres or in neutral countries.
Despite the Africans ' absence, there was another new record number of entries for the qualifying tournament, with 70 nations taking part. After all the arguments, FIFA finally ruled that ten teams from Europe would qualify, along with four from South America, one from Asia and one from North and Central America.
Portugal and North Korea qualified for the first time. Portugal would not qualify again until 1986, while North Korea 's next appearance was at the 2010 tournament. This was also Switzerland 's last World Cup finals until 1994. Notable absentees from this tournament included 1962 semi-finalists Yugoslavia and 1962 runners up Czechoslovakia.
Thirty - one African nations boycotted the tournament to protest a 1964 FIFA ruling that required the three second - round winners from the African zone to enter a play - off round against the winners of the Asian zone in order to qualify for the World Cup, as they felt winning their zone was enough in itself to merit qualification. They also protested against the readmission of South Africa to FIFA in 1963, despite its expulsion from CAF due to the apartheid regime in 1958.
South Africa was subsequently assigned to the Asia and Oceania qualifying group before being disqualified after being suspended again due to pressure from other African nations in October 1964. Despite this, after FIFA refused to change the qualifying format, the African teams decided anyway to pull out of the World Cup until at least one African team had a place assured in the World Cup, something which was put in place for the 1970 FIFA World Cup and all subsequent World Cup finals.
The Portuguese colonies of Angola and Mozambique participated for Portugal. These colonies only got their independence in the 1970s, while most other African colonies became independent in the 1960s.
The following 16 teams qualified for the final tournament.
The format of the 1966 competition remained the same as 1962: 16 qualified teams were divided into four groups of four. Each group played a round - robin format. Two points were awarded for a win and one point for a draw, with goal average used to separate teams equal on points. The top two teams in each group advanced to the knockout stage.
In the knockout games, if the teams were tied after 90 minutes, 30 minutes of extra time were played. For any match other than the final, if the teams were still tied after extra time, lots would be drawn to determine the winner. The final would have been replayed if tied after extra time. In the event, no replays or drawing of lots was necessary.
The draw for the final tournament, taking place on 6 January 1966 at the Royal Garden Hotel in London was the first ever to be televised, with England, West Germany, Brazil and Italy as seeds.
The opening match took place on Monday 11 July. With the exception of the first tournament, which commenced on 13 July 1930, every other tournament (up to and including 2018) has commenced in May or June. The final took place on 30 July 1966, the 36th anniversary of the first final. This remains the latest date that any tournament has concluded. The reason for the unusually late scheduling of the tournament appears to lie with the outside broadcast commitments of the BBC, which also had commitments to cover Wimbledon (which ran between 20 June and 2 July) and the Open Golf Championship (6 to 9 July).
1966 was a World Cup with few goals as the teams began to play much more tactically and defensively. This was exemplified by Alf Ramsey 's England as they finished top of Group 1 with only four goals, but having none scored against them. They also became the first World Cup winning team not to win its first game in the tournament. Uruguay were the other team to qualify from that group at the expense of both Mexico and France. All the group 's matches were played at Wembley Stadium apart from the match between Uruguay and France which took place at White City Stadium.
In Group 2, West Germany and Argentina qualified with ease as they both finished the group with 5 points, Spain managed 2, while Switzerland left the competition after losing all three group matches. FIFA cautioned Argentina for its violent style in the group games, particularly in the scoreless draw with West Germany, which saw Argentinean Rafael Albrecht get sent off and suspended for the next match.
In the northwest of England, Old Trafford and Goodison Park played host to Group 3 which saw the two - time defending champions Brazil finish in third place behind Portugal and Hungary, and be eliminated along with Bulgaria. Brazil were defeated 3 -- 1 by Hungary in a classic encounter before falling by the same scoreline to Portugal in a controversial game. Portugal appeared in the finals for the first time, and made quite an impact. They won all three of their games in the group stage, with a lot of help from their outstanding striker Eusébio, whose nine goals made him the tournament 's top scorer.
Group 4, however, provided the biggest upset when North Korea beat Italy 1 -- 0 at Ayresome Park, Middlesbrough and finished above them, thus earning qualification to the next round along with the Soviet Union. This was the first time that a nation from outside Europe or the Americas had progressed from the first stage of a World Cup: the next would be Morocco in 1986.
The quarter - finals provided a controversial victory for West Germany as they cruised past Uruguay 4 -- 0; the South Americans claimed that this occurred only after the referee (who was Jim Finney, from England) had not recognised a handball by Schnellinger on the goal line and then had sent off two players from Uruguay: Horacio Troche and Héctor Silva. It appeared as though the surprise package North Korea would claim another major upset in their match against Portugal at Goodison Park, when after 22 minutes they led 3 -- 0. It fell to one of the greatest stars of the tournament, Eusébio, to change that. He scored four goals in the game and José Augusto added a fifth in the 78th minute to earn Portugal a 5 -- 3 win.
Meanwhile, in the other two games, Ferenc Bene 's late goal for Hungary against the Soviet Union, who were led by Lev Yashin 's stellar goalkeeping, proved little more than a consolation as they crashed out 2 -- 1, and the only goal between Argentina and England came courtesy of England 's Geoff Hurst. During that controversial game (for more details see Argentina and England football rivalry), Argentina 's Antonio Rattín became the first player to be sent off in a senior international football match at Wembley. Rattín at first refused to leave the field and eventually had to be escorted by several policemen. After 30 minutes England scored the only goal of the match. This game is called el robo del siglo (the robbery of the century) in Argentina.
All semi-finalists were from Europe. The venue of the first semi-final between England and Portugal was changed from Goodison Park in Liverpool to Wembley, due to Wembley 's larger capacity. This larger capacity was particularly significant during a time when ticket revenue was of crucial importance. Bobby Charlton scored both goals in England 's win, with Portugal 's goal coming from a penalty in the 82nd minute after a handball by Jack Charlton on the goal line. The other semi-final also finished 2 -- 1: Franz Beckenbauer scoring the winning goal with a left foot shot from the edge of the area for West Germany as they beat the Soviet Union.
Portugal went on to beat the Soviet Union 2 -- 1 to take third place. Portugal 's third place remains the best finish by a team making its World Cup debut since 1934. It was subsequently equalled by Croatia in the 1998 tournament.
London 's Wembley Stadium was the venue for the final, and 98,000 people attended. After 12 minutes 32 seconds Helmut Haller put West Germany ahead, but the score was levelled by Geoff Hurst four minutes later. Martin Peters put England in the lead in the 78th minute; England looked set to claim the title when the referee awarded a free kick to West Germany with one minute left. The ball was launched goalward and Wolfgang Weber scored, with England appealing in vain for handball as the ball came through the crowded penalty area.
With the score level at 2 -- 2 at the end of 90 minutes, the game went to extra time. In the 98th minute, Hurst found himself on the scoresheet again; his shot hit the crossbar, bounced down onto the goal line, and was awarded as a goal. Debate has long raged over whether the ball crossed the line, with the goal becoming part of World Cup history. England 's final goal was scored by Hurst again, as a celebratory pitch invasion began. This made Geoff Hurst the only player ever to have scored three times in a single World Cup final. BBC commentator Kenneth Wolstenholme 's description of the match 's closing moments has gone down in history: "Some people are on the pitch. They think it 's all over... (Hurst scores) It is now! ''.
England 's total of eleven goals scored in six games set a new record low for average goals per game scored by a World Cup winning team. The record stood until 1982, when it was surpassed by Italy 's twelve goals in seven games; in 2010 this record was lowered again by Spain, winning the Cup with eight goals in seven games. England 's total of three goals conceded also constituted a record low for average goals per game conceded by a World Cup winning team. That record stood until 1994, when it was surpassed by Brazil 's three goals in seven games. France again lowered the record to two goals in seven during the 1998 tournament, a record that has since been equalled by Italy at the 2006 tournament and by Spain 's two goals in the group stage conceded during the 2010 tournament.
England received the recovered Jules Rimet trophy from Elizabeth II and were crowned World Cup winners for the first time.
In this World Cup, the national anthems were played only in the final. They were not played in the earlier matches because the organisers (FIFA and the FA) feared that North Korea 's presence -- a socialist country that was not recognised by the United Kingdom -- in the World Cup would cause problems with South Korea. A memo from the Foreign Office months before the finals began stated that the solution would be "denying the visas to North Korean players ''.
The 1966 World Cup had a rather unusual hero off the field, a dog called Pickles. In the build - up to the tournament, the Jules Rimet trophy was stolen from an exhibition display. A nationwide hunt for the icon ensued. It was later discovered wrapped in newspaper as the dog sniffed under some bushes in London. The FA commissioned a replica cup in case the original cup was not found in time. This replica is held at the English National Football Museum in Manchester, where it is on display.
World Cup Willie, the mascot for the 1966 competition, was the first World Cup mascot, and one of the first mascots to be associated with a major sporting competition. World Cup Willie is a lion, a typical symbol of the United Kingdom, wearing a Union Flag jersey emblazoned with the words "WORLD CUP ''.
Eight venues were used for this World Cup. The newest and biggest venue used was Wembley Stadium in west London, which was 43 years old in 1966. As was often the case in the World Cup, group matches were played in two venues in close proximity to each other. Group 1 matches (which included the hosts) were all played in London: five at Wembley, which was England 's national stadium and was considered to be the most important football venue in the world; and one at White City Stadium in west London, which was used as a temporary replacement for nearby Wembley. The group stage match between Uruguay and France played at White City Stadium (originally built for the 1908 Summer Olympics) was scheduled for a Friday, the same day as regularly scheduled greyhound racing at Wembley. Because Wembley 's owner refused to cancel this, the game had to be moved to the alternative venue in London. Group 2 's matches were played at Hillsborough Stadium in Sheffield and Villa Park in Birmingham; Group 3 's matches were played at Old Trafford in Manchester and Goodison Park in Liverpool; and Group 4 's matches were played at Ayresome Park in Middlesbrough and Roker Park in Sunderland.
The most used venue was Wembley, which was used for nine matches, including all six featuring England, the final and the third - place match. Goodison Park was used for five matches, Roker Park and Hillsborough both hosted four, while Old Trafford, Villa Park and Ayresome Park each hosted three matches and did not host any knockout round matches.
For a list of all squads that appeared in the final tournament, see 1966 FIFA World Cup squads.
With nine goals, Eusébio was the top scorer in the tournament. In total, 89 goals were scored by 47 players, with two of them credited as own goals.
Gordon Banks
George Cohen Bobby Moore Vicente Silvio Marzolini
Franz Beckenbauer Mário Coluna Bobby Charlton
Flórián Albert Uwe Seeler Eusébio
In 1986, FIFA published a report that ranked all teams in each World Cup up to and including 1986, based on progress in the competition, overall results and quality of the opposition. The rankings for the 1966 tournament were as follows:
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who wrote the lyrics to it was a very good year | It was a Very Good Year - wikipedia
"It Was a Very Good Year '' is a song Ervin Drake composed in 1961 for and originally recorded by Bob Shane with the Kingston Trio. It was subsequently made famous by Frank Sinatra 's version in D minor, which won the Grammy Award for Best Vocal Performance, Male in 1966. Gordon Jenkins was awarded Grammy Award for Best Instrumental Arrangement Accompanying Vocalist (s) for the Sinatra version. This single peaked at # 28 on the U.S. pop chart and became Sinatra 's first # 1 single on the Easy Listening charts. That version can be found on Sinatra 's 1965 album September of My Years, and was featured in The Sopranos season two opener, "Guy Walks into a Psychiatrist 's Office... ''. A live, stripped - down performance is included on his Sinatra at the Sands album.
The song recounts the type of girls with whom the singer had relationships at various years in his life: when he was 17, "small - town girls on the village green ''; at 21, "city girls who lived up the stair ''; at 35, "blue - blooded girls of independent means ''. Each of these years he calls "very good ''. In the song 's final verse, the singer reflects that he is older, and in the autumn of his years, and he thinks back on his entire life "as vintage wine ''. All of these romances were sweet to him, like a wine from a very good (i.e., vintage) year.
Ervin Drake 's inspiration to write the song was his then wife - to - be, Edith Vincent Bermaine. She was a showgirl, whom he had dated, and eventually married twenty years after the song was written.
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who sings the theme song from saving grace | Saving Grace (song) - wikipedia
"Saving Grace '' is a song by American musician Tom Petty and is the lead track on his 2006 album, Highway Companion. In July 2006, "Saving Grace '' was released as the first radio single from the album. The song, as well as its B - side "Big Weekend, '' was released on July 4, 2006 by the iTunes Store. The song featured a physical release in the United Kingdom in early August 2006.
"Saving Grace '' debuted the week ending July 22, 2006 on Billboard 's Hot 100 chart at # 100, the Mainstream Rock Tracks chart at # 34, and the Pop 100 chart at # 85. The song improved in the Mainstream Rock Tracks chart to # 26 over the course of four weeks.
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what power does the constitution gave the president in the area of war | Powers of the president of the United States - wikipedia
The President of the United States has numerous powers, including those explicitly granted by Article II of the United States Constitution.
The Constitution explicitly assigned the president the power to sign or veto legislation, command the armed forces, ask for the written opinion of their Cabinet, convene or adjourn Congress, grant reprieves and pardons, and receive ambassadors. The president may make treaties which need to be ratified by two - thirds of the Senate. The president may also appoint Article III judges and some officers with the advice and consent of the U.S. Senate. In the condition of a Senate recess, the president may make a temporary appointment.
Within the executive branch itself, the president has broad powers to manage national affairs and the priorities of the government. The president can issue rules, regulations, and instructions called executive orders, which have the binding force of law upon federal agencies but do not require approval of the United States Congress. Executive orders are subject to judicial review and interpretation.
The Budget and Accounting Act of 1921 put additional responsibilities on the presidency for the preparation of the United States federal budget, although Congress was required to approve it. The act required the Office of Management and Budget to assist the president with the preparation of the budget. Previous presidents had the privilege of impounding funds as they saw fit, however the United States Supreme Court revoked the privilege in 1998 as a violation of the Presentment Clause. The power was available to all presidents and was regarded as a power inherent to the office. The Congressional Budget and Impoundment Control Act of 1974 was passed in response to large - scale power exercises by President Nixon. The act also created the Congressional Budget Office as a legislative counterpoint to the Office of Management and Budget. The president, as the Commander in Chief of the United States Armed Forces may also call into federal service individual state units of the National Guard. In times of war or national emergency, the Congress may grant the president broader powers to manage the national economy and protect the security of the United States, but these powers were not expressly granted by the United States Constitution. During the Vietnam War, in 1973, Congress expeditiously passed the War Powers Act and severely limited the ability of the President to conduct warfare without Congressional approval. Congress was constitutionally provided the power to declare the war, but if the president needed to send the troops to other countries for emergency reasons, approved statutes required the notification of Congress within forty - eight hours. For any time beyond sixty days, further congressional approval was required.
The president has several options when presented with a bill from Congress. If the president agrees with the bill, he can sign it into law within ten days of receipt. If the president opposes the bill, he can veto it and return the bill to Congress with a veto message suggesting changes unless the Congress is out of session then the president may rely on a pocket veto.
Presidents are required to approve all of a bill or none of it; selective vetoes have been prohibited. In 1996, Congress gave President Bill Clinton a line - item veto over parts of a bill that required spending federal funds. The Supreme Court, in Clinton v. New York City, found Clinton 's veto of pork - barrel appropriations for New York City to be unconstitutional because only a constitutional amendment could give the president line - item veto power.
When a bill is presented for signature, the president may also issue a signing statement with expressions of their opinion on the constitutionality of a bill 's provisions. The president may even declare them unenforceable but the Supreme Court has yet to address this issue.
Congress may override vetoes with a two - thirds vote in both the House and the Senate. The process has traditionally been difficult and relatively rare. The threat of a presidential veto has usually provided sufficient pressure for Congress to modify a bill so the President would be willing to sign it.
Much of the legislation dealt with by Congress is drafted at the initiative of the executive branch. The president may personally propose legislation in annual and special messages to Congress including the annual State of the Union address and joint sessions of Congress. If Congress has adjourned without acting on proposals, the president may call a special session of the Congress.
Beyond these official powers, the U.S. president, as a leader of his political party and the United States government, holds great sway over public opinion whereby they may influence legislation.
To improve the working relationship with Congress, presidents in recent years have set up an Office of Legislative Affairs. Presidential aides have kept abreast of all important legislative activities.
The President of the United States has several different appointment powers.
Before taking office, the president - elect must appoint more than 6,000 new federal positions. The appointments range from top officials at U.S. government agencies, to the White House Staff, and members of the United States diplomatic corps. Many, but not all, of these positions at the highest levels are appointed by the president with the advice and consent of the United States Senate.
The president also nominates persons to fill federal judicial vacancies, including federal judges, such as members of the United States Courts of Appeals and the U.S. Supreme Court. These nominations require Senate confirmation, and this can provide a major stumbling block for presidents who wish to shape the federal judiciary in a particular ideological stance.
As head of the executive branch, the president appoints the top officials for all federal agencies. These positions are listed in the Plum Book which outlines more than seven thousand appointive positions in the government. Many of these appointments are made by the president. In the case of ten agencies, the president is free to appoint a new agency head. For example, it is not unusual for the CIA 's Director or NASA 's Administrator to be changed by the president. Other agencies that deal with federal regulation such as the Federal Reserve Board or the Securities and Exchange Commission have set terms that will often outlast presidential terms. For example, governors of the Federal Reserve serve for fourteen years to ensure agency independence. The president also appoints members to the boards of directors for government - owned corporations such as Amtrak. The president can also make a recess appointment if a position needs to be filled while Congress is not in session.
In the past, presidents could appoint members of the United States civil service. This use of the spoils system allowed presidents to reward political supporters with jobs. Following the assassination of President James Garfield by Charles J. Guiteau, a disgruntled office seeker, Congress instituted a merit - based civil service in which positions are filled on a nonpartisan basis. The Office of Personnel Management now oversees the staffing of 2.8 million federal jobs in the federal bureaucracy.
The president must also appoint his staff of aides, advisers, and assistants. These individuals are political appointments and are not subject to review by the Senate. All members of the staff serve "at the pleasure of the President ''. Since 1995, the president has been required to submit an annual report to Congress listing the name and salary of every employee of the White House Office. The 2011 report listed 454 employees.
Article II of the United States Constitution gives the president the power of clemency. The two most commonly used clemency powers are those of pardon and commutation. A pardon is an official forgiveness for an acknowledged crime. Once a pardon is issued, all punishment for the crime is waived. The person accepting the pardon must, however, acknowledge that the crime did take place. The president can only grant pardons for federal offences. The president maintains the Office of the Pardon Attorney in the U.S. Department of Justice to review all requests for pardons. The president can also commute a sentence which, in effect, changes the punishment to time served. While the guilty party may be released from custody or not have to serve out a prison term, all other punishments still apply.
Most pardons are issued as oversight of the judicial branch, especially in cases where the Federal Sentencing Guidelines are considered too severe. This power can check the legislative and judicial branches by altering punishment for crimes. Presidents can issue blanket amnesty to forgive entire groups of people. For example, President Jimmy Carter granted amnesty to Vietnam draft dodgers who had fled to Canada. Presidents can also issue temporary suspensions of prosecution or punishment in the form of respites. This power is most commonly used to delay federal sentences of execution.
Pardons can be controversial when they appear to be politically motivated. President George W. Bush commuted the sentence of White House staffer Lewis "Scooter '' Libby.
Under the Constitution, the president is the federal official that is primarily responsible for the relations of the United States with foreign nations. The president appoints ambassadors, ministers, and consuls (subject to confirmation by the Senate) and receives foreign ambassadors and other public officials. With the Secretary of State, the president manages all official contacts with foreign governments.
On occasion, the president may personally participate in summit conferences where heads of state meet for direct consultation. For example, President Wilson led the American delegation to the Paris Peace Conference in 1919 after World War I; President Franklin D. Roosevelt met with Allied leaders during World War II; and every president sits down with world leaders to discuss economic and political issues and to reach agreements.
Through the Department of State and the Department of Defense, the president is responsible for the protection of Americans abroad and of foreign nationals in the United States. The president decides whether to recognize new nations and new governments, and negotiate treaties with other nations, which become binding on the United States when approved by two - thirds of the Senate. The president may also negotiate executive agreements with foreign powers that are not subject to Senate confirmation.
The Constitution does not expressly grant the president additional powers in times of national emergency. However, many scholars think that the Framers implied these powers because the structural design of the Executive Branch enables it to act faster than the Legislative Branch. Because the Constitution remains silent on the issue, the courts can not grant the Executive Branch these powers when it tries to wield them. The courts will only recognize a right of the Executive Branch to use emergency powers if Congress has granted such powers to the president.
A claim of emergency powers was at the center of President Abraham Lincoln 's suspension of habeas corpus without Congressional approval in 1861. Lincoln claimed that the rebellion created an emergency that permitted him the extraordinary power of unilaterally suspending the writ. With Chief Justice Roger Taney sitting as judge, the Federal District Court of Maryland struck down the suspension in Ex Parte Merryman, although Lincoln ignored the order.
President Franklin Delano Roosevelt similarly invoked emergency powers when he issued an order directing that all Japanese Americans residing on the West Coast be placed into internment camps during World War II. The U.S. Supreme Court upheld this order in Korematsu v. United States.
Harry Truman declared the use of emergency powers when he nationalized private steel mills that failed to produce steel because of a labor strike in 1952. With the Korean War ongoing, Truman asserted that he could not wage war successfully if the economy failed to provide him with the material resources necessary to keep the troops well - equipped. The U.S. Supreme Court, however, refused to accept that argument in Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. Sawyer, voting 6 - 3 that neither Commander in Chief powers nor any claimed emergency powers gave the president the authority to unilaterally seize private property without Congressional legislation.
Executive privilege gives the president the ability to withhold information from the public, Congress, and the courts in national security and diplomatic affairs. George Washington first claimed privilege when Congress requested to see Chief Justice John Jay 's notes from an unpopular treaty negotiation with Great Britain. While not enshrined in the Constitution, Washington 's action created the precedent for privilege. When Richard Nixon tried to use executive privilege as a reason for not turning over subpoenaed audio tapes to a special prosecutor in the Watergate scandal, the Supreme Court ruled in United States v. Nixon that privilege was not absolute. The Court reasoned that the judiciary 's interest in the "fair administration of criminal justice '' outweighed President Nixon 's interest in keeping the evidence secret. Later President Bill Clinton lost in federal court when he tried to assert privilege in the Lewinsky affair. The Supreme Court affirmed this in Clinton v. Jones, which denied the use of privilege in cases of civil suits.
Because of the vast array of presidential roles and responsibilities, coupled with a conspicuous presence on the national and international scene, political analysts have tended to place great emphasis on the president 's powers. Some have even spoken of "the imperial presidency '', referring to the expanded role of the office that Franklin D. Roosevelt maintained during his term.
President Theodore Roosevelt famously called the presidency a "bully pulpit '' from which to raise issues nationally, for when a president raises an issue, it inevitably becomes subject to public debate. A president 's power and influence may be limited, but politically the president is certainly the most important power in Washington and, furthermore, is one of the most famous and influential of all Americans.
Though constrained by various other laws passed by Congress, the president 's executive branch conducts most foreign policy, and their power to order and direct troops as commander - in - chief is quite significant (the exact limits of what a president 's military powers without Congressional authorization are open to debate).
The Separation of Powers devised by the founding fathers was designed to do one primary thing: to prevent the majority from ruling with an iron fist. Based on their experience, the framers shied away from giving any branch of the new government too much power. The separation of powers provides a system of shared power known as "checks and balances ''. For example, the President appoints judges and departmental secretaries, but these appointments must be approved by the Senate. The president can veto bills, or deny them. If he does that, the bill is sent back to Congress.
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shrine of the grotto of the redemption west bend ia | Grotto of the Redemption - wikipedia
The Shrine of the Grotto of the Redemption is a religious shrine located in West Bend, Iowa, in the Roman Catholic Diocese of Sioux City. A conglomeration of nine grottos depicting scenes in the life of Jesus, the Grotto contains a large collection of minerals and petrifications and is believed to be the largest grotto in the world.
It is also "considered to be the world 's most complete man - made collection of minerals, fossils, shells, and petrifications in one place. '' The total value of all the rocks and minerals which make up the Grotto is over $4,308,000. Over 100,000 people visit the Grotto each year.
The shrine includes a museum with precious and semiprecious stones from throughout the world, and photos and artifacts about the construction of the shrine.
Father Paul Dobberstein was a German immigrant ordained in 1897. He became critically ill with pneumonia and promised to build a shrine to the Virgin Mary if she interceded for him. After his recovery, he began stockpiling rocks and precious stones. Construction of the grotto began in 1912 and continued year round for 42 years.
Father Dobberstein used the knowledge and skills gained during construction of his first grotto honoring Our Lady of Lourdes, while training at St. Francis Seminary in St. Francis, Wisconsin. His method was to set fancy rocks and gems into concrete. In 1946, Father Louis Greving began helping Dobberstein with the construction. The grotto covered an area the size of a city block when Dobberstein died in 1954. Matt Szerensce helped work on the grotto until his retirement in 1959. Construction still continues and has been maintained by Deacon Gerald Streit since 1994.
Father Dobberstein 's works inspired Mathias Wernerus (who also attended St. Francis Seminary) to build the Dickeyville Grotto in Dickeyville, Wisconsin, in 1930, thus starting the grotto building movement in America.
As of August 1, 2015, the grotto has been raised to the status of diocesan shrine by R. Walker Nickless, Bishop of Sioux City. This is the first Catholic religious shrine designated in the diocese.
The Grotto of the Redemption is featured in the David Lynch film The Straight Story.
Entrance sign
View of Lower Arcade: Small Stations of the Cross
Station 13
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which bird can bark like a dog and mew like a cat | List of animal sounds - wikipedia
This is a list of words used in the English language to represent the noises of particular animals, especially noises used by animals for communication. Words on the list are in the form of verbs, though many can also be used as nouns or interjections, including many onomatopoeias (additional ones here abbreviated "OP '').
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who appointed india's ambassador to other countries | Indian Foreign Service - wikipedia
The Indian Foreign Service is the administrative diplomatic civil service under Group A of the Central Civil Services of the executive branch of the Government of India. It is considered to be one of the two premier Civil Services (the other being the IAS), as appointment to IFS renders a person ineligible to reappear in Civil Services Examination. It is a Central Civil service as Foreign policy is the subject matter and prerogative of Union Government. The Ambassador, High Commissioner, Consul General, Permanent Representative of India to the United Nations and Foreign Secretary are some of the offices held by the members of this service.
The service is entrusted to conduct diplomacy and manage foreign relations of India. It is the body of career diplomats serving in more than 180 Indian Diplomatic Missions and International Organisations around the world. In addition, they serve at the headquarters of the Ministry of External affairs in Delhi and the Prime Minister 's Office. They also head the Regional Passport Offices throughout the country and hold positions in the President 's Secretariat and several ministries on deputation. Foreign Secretary of India is the administrative head of the Indian Foreign Service.
IFS was created by the Government of India in October 1946 through a Cabinet note but its roots can be traced back to the British Raj when the Foreign Department was created to conduct business with the "Foreign European Powers ''. IFS Day is celebrated on October 9 every year since 2011 to commemorate the day the Indian Cabinet created the IFS.
Officers of the IFS are recruited by the Government of India on the recommendation of the Union Public Service Commission. Fresh recruits to the IFS are trained at the Foreign Service Institute (FSI) after a brief foundation course at the Lal Bahadur Shastri National Academy of Administration, Mussoorie.
On 13 September 1783, the board of directors of the East India Company passed a resolution at Fort William, Calcutta (now Kolkata), to create a department, which could help "relieve the pressure '' on the Warren Hastings administration in conducting its "secret and political business. '' Although established by the Company, the Indian Foreign Department conducted business with foreign European powers. From the very beginning, a distinction was maintained between the foreign and political functions of the Foreign Department; relations with all "Asiatic powers '' (including native princely states) were treated as political, while relations with European powers were treated as foreign.
In 1843, the Governor - General of India, Edward Law, 1st Earl of Ellenborough carried out administrative reforms, organizing the Secretariat of the Government into four departments: Foreign, Home, Finance, and Military. Each was headed by a secretary - level officer. The Foreign Department Secretary was entrusted with the "conduct of all correspondence belonging to the external and internal diplomatic relations of the government. ''
The Government of India Act 1935 attempted to delineate more clearly functions of the foreign and political wings of the Foreign Department, it was soon realized that it was administratively imperative to completely bifurcate the department. Consequently, the External Affairs Department was set up separately under the direct charge of the Governor - General.
The idea of establishing a separate diplomatic service to handle the external activities of the Government of India originated from a note dated 30 September 1944, recorded by Lieutenant - General T.J. Hutton, the Secretary of the Planning and Development Department. When this note was referred to the Department of External Affairs for comments, Olaf Caroe, the Foreign Secretary, recorded his comments in an exhaustive note detailing the scope, composition and functions of the proposed service. Caroe pointed out that as India emerged as autonomous, it was imperative to build up a system of representation abroad that would be in complete harmony with the objectives of the future government.
On 9 October 1946, on the eve of Indian independence, the Indian government established the Indian Foreign Service for India 's diplomatic, consular and commercial representation overseas. With independence, there was a near - complete transition of the Foreign and Political Department into what then became the new Ministry of External Affairs and Commonwealth Relations.
In 1948, the first group of Indian Foreign Service officers recruited under the combined Civil Services Examination administered by the Union Public Service Commission joined the service. This exam is still used to select new foreign service officers.
The Civil Services Examination is used for recruitment for the Indian Foreign Service. The entire selection process lasts for about 12 months. Only a rank among toppers guarantees an IFS selection -- an acceptance rate of 0.02 percent and is known to be the ' heaven borne service '.
In recent years, the intake into the Indian Foreign Service has averaged between 25 - 30 persons annually. The present cadre strength of the service stands at approximately 600 officers manning around 162 Indian missions and posts abroad and the various posts in the Ministry at home (Defence, Finance, Home, etc.)
On acceptance to the Foreign Service, new entrants undergo significant training, which is considered to be one of the most challenging and longest service trainings in the govt. of India and nearly takes more than 3 years to graduate from. The entrants undergo a probationary period (and are referred to as Officer Trainees) Training begins at the Lal Bahadur Shastri National Academy of Administration in Mussoorie, where members of many elite Indian civil services are trained.
After completing a 15 - week training at the Lal Bahadur Shastri National Academy of Administration, the probationers join the Foreign Service Institute in New Delhi for a more intensive training in a host of subjects important to diplomacy, including international relations theory, military diplomacy, trade, India 's Foreign Policy, History, International Law, diplomatic practice, hospitality, protocol and administration. They also go on attachments with different government bodies and defence (Army, Navy, Air Force, CAPF) establishments and undertake tours both in India and abroad. The entire training programme lasts for a period of 36 months.
Upon the completion of the training programme at the Institute, the officer is assigned a compulsory foreign language (CFL). After a brief period of desk attachment in the Ministry of External Affairs, at the rank of Assistant Secretary, the officer is posted to an Indian diplomatic mission abroad where her / his CFL is the native language. There the officer undergoes language training and is expected to develop proficiency in the CFL and pass an examination before being allowed to continue in the service.
As a career diplomat, the Foreign Service Officer is required to project India 's interests, both at home and abroad on a wide variety of issues. These include bilateral political and economic cooperation, trade and investment promotion, cultural interaction, press and media liaison as well as a whole host of multilateral issues.
The functions of an Indian diplomat may be summarized as:
Representing India in his / her Embassies, High Commissions, Consulates, and Permanent Missions to multilateral organizations like UN;
Protecting India 's national interests in the country of his / her posting;
Promoting friendly relations with the receiving state as also its people, including NRI / PIOs;
Reporting accurately on developments in the country of posting which are likely to influence the formulation of India 's policies;
Negotiating agreements on various issues with the authorities of the receiving state; and
Extending consular facilities to foreigners and Indian nationals abroad.
At home
Ministry of External Affairs is responsible for all aspects of external relations. Territorial divisions deal with bilateral political and economic work while functional divisions look after policy planning, multilateral organizations, regional groupings, legal matters, disarmament, protocol, consular, Indian Diaspora, press and publicity, administration and other aspects.
In 2012, media reports showed that a foreign service officer was fined US $1.5 million for engaging in slavery by United States District Court for the Southern District of New York and was also found denying visa on the basis of homosexuality.
Shashi Tharoor, currently the Chairman of the Parliamentary Standing Committee on External Affairs, has presented 12th report for expanding and building the numbers, quality and capacity of India 's diplomats.
There is in total a pool of 2,700 personnel holding diplomatic rank that serve in overseas missions and at headquarters. Of these only a minority of about 770 are IFS officers, the senior cadre of Indian diplomacy, which is primarily drawn from recruitment through the Civil Services Examination. The breakdown of other cadres and personnel include 252 Grade - I officers of the IFS (B), 33 of the Interpreters Cadre, 24 of the Legal and Treaties Cadre, 635 Attaches, 540 diplomatic officers from the secretarial staff and 310 diplomatic officers from other Ministries. (2)
IFS (B) is the feeder cadre which ranks below the IFS (A) and recruits members through a separate entrance exam and after a period of 8 years are appointed and absorbed into the service. Below the IFS (B) are the stenographers who provide secretarial support to both the IFS (A) and IFS (B) but especially the senior cadre.
The relations between the cadres and secretarial personnel have been marked by territorial grievance and rivalry, becoming at times heated enough to spill into the public sphere. A common grievance among IFS (A) officers is the practice of antedating the appointment of IFS (B) officers 8 years before the date of their actual promotion. This puts the IFS (B) officers, who are seen as less prestigious, ahead for promotions of IFS (A) officers who directly entered the service before them. In 2013, 6 IFS (A) officers went as far as to lodge a complaint, against their foreign secretary as well as eight IFS (B) officers named as respondents, with the Central Administrative Tribunal (CAT) for clogging the promotion pipeline and leading to "demotivation and demoralisation among direct recruit officers ''.
IFS (B) officers have also complained of discrimination against them by IFS (A) officers. A Facebook group purportedly voicing the objections of IFS (B) officers sprung up in 2016 when IFS (B) officer Tajinder Singh, Second Secretary in the Indian embassy in Lisbon died of an apparent suicide. The Facebook group alleged that Singh was treated unfairly because he was forced to yield his choice assignment in Washington DC after serving in a hardship posting in Damascus. He was forced to give up his choice assignment for Lisbon because of alleged "discrimination and professional challenges from IFS (A) officers in the ministry ''.
IFS (B) officers themselves have an acrimonious rivalry with the secretarial personnel or stenographers who are perceived to be lower in prestige than the IFS (B) officers but have a closer working relationship with IFS (A) officers, giving the stenographers at times promotion opportunities ahead of IFS (B) officers. This rivalry was brought to the fore when a stenographer was appointed as Indian ambassador to North Korea in 2012. Within a week of the appointment IFS (B) officers vociferously protested. Three different associations representing IFS (B) officers came together to write a single complaint to the Prime Minister 's Office and the external affairs minister expressing their "utter disappointment '' and requesting a review of the appointment.
25. http://www.indianembassy.ru/index.php/home/departments-officers
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australia is a federal political unit consisting of six states and two federal territories | Government of Australia - wikipedia
The Government of the Commonwealth of Australia (also referred to as the Australian Government, the Commonwealth Government, or the Federal Government) is the government of the Commonwealth of Australia, a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy.
The Commonwealth of Australia was formed in 1901 as a result of an agreement among six self - governing British colonies, which became the six states. The terms of this contract are embodied in the Australian Constitution, which was drawn up at a Constitutional Convention and ratified by the people of the colonies at referendums. The Australian head of state is the Queen of Australia who is represented by the Governor - General of Australia, with executive powers delegated by constitutional convention to the Australian head of government, the Prime Minister of Australia.
The Government of the Commonwealth of Australia is divided into the executive branch, composed of the Federal Executive Council presided by the Governor - General, which delegates powers to the Cabinet of Australia led by the Prime Minister, the legislative branch composed of the Parliament of Australia 's House of Representatives and Senate, and the judicial branch composed of the High Court of Australia and federal courts. Separation of powers is implied by the structure of the Constitution, the three branches of government being set out in separate chapters (chapters I to III). The Australian system of government combines elements of the Westminster and Washington systems with unique Australian characteristics, and has been characterised as a "Washminster mutation ''.
Section 1 of the Australian Constitution creates a democratic legislature, the bicameral Parliament of Australia which consists of the Queen of Australia, and two houses of parliament, the Senate and the House of Representatives. Section 51 of the Constitution provides for the Commonwealth Government 's legislative powers and allocates certain powers and responsibilities (known as "heads of power '') to the Commonwealth government. All remaining responsibilities are retained by the six States (previously separate colonies). Further, each State has its own constitution, so that Australia has seven sovereign Parliaments, none of which can encroach on the functions of any other. The High Court of Australia arbitrates on any disputes which arise between the Commonwealth and the States, or among the States, concerning their respective functions.
The Commonwealth Parliament can propose changes to the Constitution. To become effective, the proposals must be put to a referendum of all Australians of voting age, and must receive a "double majority '': a majority of all votes, and a majority of votes in a majority of States.
The Commonwealth Constitution also provides that the States can agree to refer any of their powers to the Commonwealth. This may be achieved by way of an amendment to the Constitution via referendum (a vote on whether the proposed transfer of power from the States to the Commonwealth, or vice versa, should be implemented). More commonly powers may be transferred by passing other acts of legislation which authorise the transfer and such acts require the legislative agreement of all the state governments involved. This "transfer '' legislation may have a "sunset clause '', a legislative provision that nullifies the transfer of power after a specified period, at which point the original division of power is restored.
In addition, Australia has several "territories '', two of which are self - governing: the Australian Capital Territory (ACT) and the Northern Territory (NT). These territories ' legislatures, their Assemblies, exercise powers devolved to them by the Commonwealth; the Commonwealth Parliament remains able to override their legislation and to alter their powers. Australian citizens in these territories are represented by members of both houses of the Commonwealth Parliament. The territory of Norfolk Island was self - governing from 1979 until 2016, although it was never represented as such in the Commonwealth Parliament. The other territories that are regularly inhabited -- Jervis Bay, Christmas Island and the Cocos (Keeling) Islands -- have never been self - governing.
The federal nature of the Commonwealth and the structure of the Parliament of Australia were the subject of protracted negotiations among the colonies during the drafting of the Constitution. The House of Representatives is elected on a basis that reflects the differing populations of the States. Thus New South Wales has 48 members while Tasmania has only five. But the Senate is elected on a basis of equality among the States: all States elect 12 Senators, regardless of population. This was intended to allow the Senators of the smaller States to form a majority and thus be able to amend or reject bills originating in the House of Representatives. The ACT and the NT each elect two Senators.
The third level of government after Commonwealth and State / Territory is Local government, in the form of shires, towns and cities. The Councils of these areas are composed of elected representatives (known as either councillor or alderman, depending on the State), usually serving part - time. Their powers are devolved to them by the State or Territory in which they are located.
Government at the Commonwealth level and the State / Territory level is undertaken by three inter-connected arms of government:
The Separation of powers is the principle whereby the three arms of government undertake their activities largely separately from each other:
Until the passage of the Australia Act 1986, and associated legislation in the Parliament of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, some Australian cases could be referred to the British Judicial Committee of the Privy Council for final appeal. With this act, Australian law was made unequivocally sovereign, and the High Court of Australia was confirmed as the highest court of appeal. The theoretical possibility of the British Parliament enacting laws to override the Australian Constitution was also removed.
The Legislature makes the laws, and supervises the activities of the other two arms with a view to changing the laws when appropriate. The Australian Parliament is bicameral, consisting of the Queen of Australia, a 76 - member Senate and a 150 - member House of Representatives.
Twelve Senators from each state are elected for six - year terms, using proportional representation and the single transferable vote (known in Australia as "quota - preferential voting '': see Australian electoral system), with half elected every three years. In addition to the state Senators, two senators are elected by voters from the Northern Territory (which for this purpose includes the Indian Ocean Territories, Christmas Island and the Cocos (Keeling) Islands), while another two senators are elected by the voters of the Australian Capital Territory (which for this purpose includes the Jervis Bay Territory). Senators from the territories are also elected using preferential voting, but their term of office is not fixed; it starts on the day of a general election for the House of Representatives and ends on the day before the next such election.
The members of the House of Representatives are elected by majority - preferential voting using the non-proportional Instant - runoff voting system from single - member constituencies allocated among the states and territories. In ordinary legislation, the two chambers have co-ordinate powers, but all proposals for appropriating revenue or imposing taxes must be introduced in the House of Representatives. Under the prevailing Westminster system, the leader of the political party or coalition of parties that holds the support of a majority of the members in the House of Representatives is invited to form a government and is named Prime Minister.
The Prime Minister and the Cabinet are responsible to the Parliament, of which they must, in most circumstances, be members. General elections are held at least once every three years. The Prime Minister has a discretion to advise the Governor - General to call an election for the House of Representatives at any time, but Senate elections can only be held within certain periods prescribed in the Constitution. The most recent general election was on 2 July 2016.
The Commonwealth Parliament and all the state and territory legislatures operate within the conventions of the Westminster system, with a recognised Leader of the Opposition, usually the leader of the largest party outside the government, and a Shadow Cabinet of Opposition members who "shadow '' each member of the Ministry, asking questions on matters within the Minister 's portfolio. Although the Government, by virtue of commanding a majority of members in the lower house of the legislature, can usually pass its legislation and control the workings of the house, the Opposition can considerably delay the passage of legislation and obstruct government business if it chooses.
The day - to - day business of the House of Representatives is usually negotiated between the Leader of the House, appointed by the Prime Minister, and the Manager of Opposition Business in the House, appointed by the Leader of the Opposition in the Commonwealth parliament, currently Bill Shorten.
The Australian Constitution dates from 1901, when the Dominions of the British Empire were not sovereign states, and does not use the term "head of state ''. As Australia is a constitutional monarchy, government and academic sources describe the Queen as head of state. In practice, the role of head of state of Australia is divided between two people, the Queen of Australia and the Governor - General of Australia, who is appointed by the Queen on the advice of the Prime Minister of Australia. Though in many respects the Governor - General is the Queen 's representative, and exercises various constitutional powers in her name, they independently exercise many important powers in their own right. The governor - general represents Australia internationally, making and receiving state visits.
The Sovereign of Australia, currently Queen Elizabeth II, is also the Sovereign of fifteen other Commonwealth realms including the United Kingdom. Like the other Dominions, Australia gained legislative independence from the Parliament of the United Kingdom by virtue of the Statute of Westminster 1931, which was adopted in Australia in 1942 with retrospective effect from 3 September 1939. By the Royal Style and Titles Act 1953, the Australian Parliament gave the Queen the title Queen of Australia, and in 1973 titles with any reference to her status as Queen of the United Kingdom and Defender of the Faith as well were removed, making her Queen of Australia.
Section 61 of the Constitution provides that ' The executive power of the Commonwealth is vested in the Queen and is exercisable by the Governor ‐ General as the Queen 's representative, and extends to the execution and maintenance of this Constitution, and of the laws of the Commonwealth '. Section 2 of the Australian Constitution provides that a Governor - General shall represent the Queen in Australia. In practice, the Governor - General carries out all the functions usually performed by a head of state, without reference to the Queen.
Under the conventions of the Westminster system the Governor - General 's powers are almost always exercised on the advice of the Prime Minister or other ministers. The Governor - General retains reserve powers similar to those possessed by the Queen in the United Kingdom. These are rarely exercised, but during the Australian constitutional crisis of 1975 Governor - General Sir John Kerr used them independently of the Queen and the Prime Minister.
Australia has periodically experienced movements seeking to end the monarchy. In a 1999 referendum, the Australian people voted on a proposal to change the Constitution. The proposal would have removed references to the Queen from the Constitution and replaced the Governor - General with a President nominated by the Prime Minister, but subject to the approval of a two - thirds majority of both Houses of the Parliament. The proposal was defeated. The Australian Republican Movement continues to campaign for an end to the monarchy in Australia, opposed by Australians for Constitutional Monarchy and Australian Monarchist League.
The Federal Executive Council is a formal body which exists and meets to give legal effect to decisions made by the Cabinet, and to carry out various other functions. All Ministers are members of the Executive Council and are entitled to be styled "The Honourable '', a title which they retain for life. The Governor - General usually presides at Council meetings, but in his or her absence another Minister nominated as the Vice-President of the Executive Council presides at the meeting of the Council. Since 20 December 2017, the Vice-President of the Federal Executive Council has been Senator Mathias Cormann.
There are times when the government acts in a "caretaker '' capacity, principally in the period prior to and immediately following a general election.
The Cabinet of Australia is the council of senior Ministers of the Crown, responsible to the Federal Parliament. The ministers are appointed by the Governor - General, on the advice of the Prime Minister, who serve at the former 's pleasure. Cabinet meetings are strictly private and occur once a week where vital issues are discussed and policy formulated. Outside the cabinet there is an outer ministry and also a number of junior ministers, called Parliamentary secretaries, responsible for a specific policy area and reporting directly to a senior Cabinet minister.
The Constitution of Australia does not recognise the Cabinet as a legal entity; it exists solely by convention. Its decisions do not in and of themselves have legal force. However, it serves as the practical expression of the Federal Executive Council, which is Australia 's highest formal governmental body. In practice, the Federal Executive Council meets solely to endorse and give legal force to decisions already made by the Cabinet. All members of the Cabinet are members of the Executive Council. While the Governor - General is nominal presiding officer, he almost never attends Executive Council meetings. A senior member of the Cabinet holds the office of Vice-President of the Executive Council and acts as presiding officer of the Executive Council in the absence of the Governor - General.
Until 1956 all members of the ministry were members of the Cabinet. The growth of the ministry in the 1940s and 1950s made this increasingly impractical, and in 1956 Robert Menzies created a two - tier ministry, with only senior ministers holding Cabinet rank, also known within parliament as the front bench. This practice has been continued by all governments except the Whitlam Government.
When the non-Labor parties are in power, the Prime Minister makes all Cabinet and ministerial appointments at their own discretion, although in practice they consult with senior colleagues in making appointments. When the Liberal Party and its predecessors (the Nationalist Party and the United Australia Party) have been in coalition with the National Party or its predecessor the Country Party, the leader of the junior Coalition party has had the right to nominate their party 's members of the Coalition ministry, and to be consulted by the Prime Minister on the allocation of their portfolios.
When the Labor first held office under Chris Watson, Watson assumed the right to choose members of his Cabinet. In 1907, however, the party decided that future Labor Cabinets would be elected by the members of the Parliamentary Labor Party, the Caucus, and the Prime Minister would retain the right to allocate portfolios. This practice was followed until 2007. Between 1907 and 2007, Labor Prime Ministers exercised a predominant influence over who was elected to Labor ministries, although the leaders of the party factions also exercised considerable influence. Prior to the 2007 general election, the then Leader of the Opposition, Kevin Rudd, said that he and he alone would choose the ministry should he become Prime Minister. His party won the election and he chose the ministry, as he said he would.
The cabinet meets not only in Canberra but also in state capitals, most frequently Sydney and Melbourne. Kevin Rudd was in favour of the Cabinet meeting in other places, such as major regional cities. There are Commonwealth Parliament Offices in each State Capital, with those in Sydney located in Phillip Street.
There are 18 departments of the Australian Government.
As a federation, in Australia judicial power is exercised by both federal and state courts.
Federal judicial power is vested in the High Court of Australia and such other federal courts created by the Federal Parliament, including the Federal Court of Australia, the Family Court of Australia, and the Federal Circuit Court of Australia. Additionally, unlike in the United States, the federal legislature has the power to enact laws which vest federal jurisdiction in State courts. Since the Australian Constitution requires a separation of powers at the federal level, only courts may exercise federal judicial power; and conversely, non-judicial functions can not be vested in courts.
State judicial power is exercised by each State 's Supreme Court, and such other courts and tribunals created by the State Parliaments.
The High Court is the final court of appeal in Australia and has the jurisdiction to hear appeals on matters of both federal and state law. It has both original and appellate jurisdiction, the power of judicial review over laws passed by federal and State parliaments, and has jurisdiction to interpret the Constitution of Australia. Unlike in the United States, there is only one common law of Australia, rather than separate common laws for each State.
The following corporations are prescribed by Acts of Parliament:
The following corporate Commonwealth entities are prescribed as Government Business Enterprises (GBEs) by section 5 (1) of the Public Governance, Performance and Accountability (PGPA) Rule:
The following Commonwealth companies are prescribed as GBEs by section 5 (2) of the PGPA Rule:
^ Prior to 1931, the junior status of dominions was shown in the fact that it was British ministers who advised the King, with dominion ministers, if they met the King at all, escorted by the constitutionally superior British minister. After 1931 all dominion ministers met the King as His ministers as of right, equal in Commonwealth status to Britain 's ministers, meaning that there was no longer either a requirement for, or an acceptance of, the presence of British ministers. The first state to exercise this both symbolic and real independence was the Irish Free State. Australia and other dominions soon followed.
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when does love it or list it return | Love It or List It - wikipedia
Love It or List It is a Canadian home design TV show currently airing on HGTV, W Network, and on OWN Canada, and is the original show in the Love it or List It franchise. The show is produced by Big Coat Productions and was based in Toronto and other surrounding areas in Ontario, Canada. The show premiered as a primetime program on W Network on September 8, 2008, and has since aired on OWN Canada as well as HGTV in the United States. In September 2014, the show began filming in the United States in North Carolina.
Every episode of Love It or List It follows the same formula. A couple (usually, but not in all cases) presents their living situation in the current house that they own. In most episodes, the couple is split on whether or not they want to stay in the house.
Interior designer Hilary Farr and real estate agent David Visentin tour the couple 's home before meeting with them. The tour usually consists of David finding mostly negative things to say about the residence while Hilary is convinced that she can work magic with whatever plans she is given.
At the meetup between the couple and the hosts of the show, both Hilary and David are briefed as to what the couple 's desires are. Hilary is given a list of renovations the couple wants for the current house and her budget for the entire project. David, meanwhile, is tasked with searching for a new home for the couple that both meets their needs and stays within their desired budget.
Common challenges faced by Hilary are an inadequate budget to complete the entire request list from the homeowners, often due to discovery of unforeseen issues with the house that are uncovered during the renovation such as lack of compliance with modern building codes. Common issues for David, meanwhile, depend on the homeowners ' desires; for instance, the couple has children enrolled in the neighborhood school and they do not desire to change, or the potential house is too distant from family members or a workplace.
After Hilary 's renovation is complete, the homeowners are given a tour of their current home to see what she was able to accomplish. After the tour, David meets with them and hands them an evaluation of the home 's current market value following the renovations. He will then remind the couple what they could have in one of the new homes they looked at and that they would not get that in their current home.
After a moment to deliberate, Hilary and David pose a question to the homeowners. They must choose to either Love It, meaning that they will continue to live in their current home with the renovations, or to List It, meaning that they will buy one of the homes David showed them and sell their current home. After they reveal their decision, the homeowners explain their reasoning to Hilary and David (who, if they decided to Love It, reacts with incredulity) before bidding them farewell.
Hosts
Assistant Designer
Contractors
Behind the Scenes
Victories for Hilary are families or clients who decided to love their home and stay. Victories for David are families and clients who decided to list and move into a new or better home.
Love It or List It has spawned four spinoffs. The first, known as Love It or List It Vancouver (or Love it or List it Too in the US), was launched in winter 2012 and is hosted by Jillian Harris and Todd Talbot. The second spin - off, a British version known as Love It or List It UK, debuted in 2015, is hosted by Kirstie Allsopp and Phil Spencer. The third spin off, Love It or List It Vacation Homes debuted in spring 2016 and is hosted by Dan Vickery and Elisa Goldhawke. A fourth spin off, Vendre ou renover au Quebec debuted in January 2017 and is hosted by Maika Desnoyers and Daniel Corbin. The fifth spin off, Love It Or List It Australia debuted in September 2017 and is hosted by Andrew Winter and Neale Whittaker.
On August 31, 2010, Love It or List It was nominated for two Gemini Awards: Best Reality Program or Series and Best Direction in a Reality Program or Series. When HGTV premiered the show on the network, the company stated that Love It or List It has been the highest rating reality series since Candice Olson 's Candice Tells All.
In 2012, New York Times ' columnist Gail Collins noted that it was US Secretary of State Hillary Clinton 's favorite TV show. According to Collins, Clinton finds the show "very calming '' after being interviewed about her departure from politics.
In a 2013 interview with Las Vegas Magazine, Vanna White from Wheel of Fortune said it was one of her favourite HGTV programs. Actress Julianne Moore also gave similar praise for the show in an interview with Katie Couric and the Daily Mail.
According to the Wall Street Journal, the show and its Vancouver spinoff is one of Canada 's beloved reality series.
In April 2016, the homeowners who participated in a 2015 Love It or List It episode filed suit against production company Big Coat TV, as well as the North Carolina contractor who the show hired to do the renovations on their home. The couple alleges that the renovation funds that they provided were not properly disbursed, and that the work on their home was done to a substandard quality. Moreover, the lawsuit states that the television personalities on the show do not play an active role in the renovation process, and that they were not shown homes on the market by any licensed North Carolina real estate agent. Big Coat TV has commented that they "do intend to vigorously defend what (they) consider to be false allegations. ''
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the neolithic revolution began around 10000 bce with the | Neolithic Revolution - wikipedia
The Neolithic Revolution, Neolithic Demographic Transition, or Agricultural Revolution, was the wide - scale transition of many human cultures from a lifestyle of hunting and gathering to one of agriculture and settlement, making possible an increasingly larger population. These settled communities permitted humans to observe and experiment with plants to learn how they grew and developed. This new knowledge led to the domestication of plants.
Archaeological data indicates that the domestication of various types of plants and animals happened in separate locations worldwide, starting in the geological epoch of the Holocene around 12,500 years ago. It was the world 's first historically verifiable revolution in agriculture. The Neolithic Revolution greatly narrowed the diversity of foods available, with a switch to agriculture which led to a downturn in human nutrition.
The Neolithic Revolution involved far more than the adoption of a limited set of food - producing techniques. During the next millennia it would transform the small and mobile groups of hunter - gatherers that had hitherto dominated human pre-history into sedentary (non-nomadic) societies based in built - up villages and towns. These societies radically modified their natural environment by means of specialized food - crop cultivation, with activities such as irrigation and deforestation which allowed the production of surplus food.
These developments provided the basis for densely populated settlements, specialization and division of labour, more trade, the development of non-portable art and architecture, centralized administrations and political structures, hierarchical ideologies, depersonalized systems of knowledge (e.g. writing), and property ownership. The earliest known civilization developed in Sumer in southern Mesopotamia (c. 5,500 BP); its emergence also heralded the beginning of the Bronze Age.
The relationship of the above - mentioned Neolithic characteristics to the onset of agriculture, their sequence of emergence, and empirical relation to each other at various Neolithic sites remains the subject of academic debate, and varies from place to place, rather than being the outcome of universal laws of social evolution. The Levant saw the earliest developments of the Neolithic Revolution from around 10,000 BC, followed by sites in the wider Fertile Crescent. The Neolithic Revolution "inspired some of the most important developments in human history including the invention of the wheel, the planting of the first cereal crops and the development of cursive script, mathematics, astronomy and agriculture. ''
The term Neolithic Revolution was coined in 1923 by V. Gordon Childe to describe the first in a series of agricultural revolutions in Middle Eastern history. The period is described as a "revolution '' to denote its importance, and the great significance and degree of change affecting the communities in which new agricultural practices were gradually adopted and refined.
The beginning of this process in different regions has been dated from 10,000 to 8,000 BC in the Fertile Crescent and perhaps 8000 BC in the Kuk Early Agricultural Site of Melanesia. This transition everywhere seems associated with a change from a largely nomadic hunter - gatherer way of life to a more settled, agrarian - based one, with the inception of the domestication of various plant and animal species -- depending on the species locally available, and probably also influenced by local culture. Recent archaeological research suggests that in some regions such as the Southeast Asian peninsula, the transition from hunter - gatherer to agriculturalist was not linear, but region - specific.
There are several competing (but not mutually exclusive) theories as to the factors that drove populations to take up agriculture. The most prominent of these are:
Once agriculture started gaining momentum, around 9000 BC, human activity resulted in the selective breeding of cereal grasses (beginning with emmer, einkorn and barley), and not simply of those that would favour greater caloric returns through larger seeds. Plants with traits such as small seeds or bitter taste would have been seen as undesirable. Plants that rapidly shed their seeds on maturity tended not to be gathered at harvest, therefore not stored and not seeded the following season; years of harvesting selected for strains that retained their edible seeds longer.
Several plant species, the "pioneer crops '' or Neolithic founder crops, were identified by Daniel Zohary, who highlighted the importance of the three cereals, and suggested that domestication of flax, peas, chickpeas, bitter vetch and lentils came a little later. Based on analysis of the genes of domesticated plants, he preferred theories of a single, or at most a very small number of domestication events for each taxon that spread in an arc from the Levantine corridor around the Fertile Crescent and later into Europe. Gordon Hillman and Stuart Davies carried out experiments with wild wheat varieties to show that the process of domestication would have occurred over a relatively short period of between 20 and 200 years. Some of these pioneering attempts failed at first and crops were abandoned, sometimes to be taken up again and successfully domesticated thousands of years later: rye, tried and abandoned in Neolithic Anatolia, made its way to Europe as weed seeds and was successfully domesticated in Europe, thousands of years after the earliest agriculture. Wild lentils presented a different problem: most of the wild seeds do not germinate in the first year; the first evidence of lentil domestication, breaking dormancy in their first year, was found in the early Neolithic at Jerf el Ahmar (in modern Syria), and quickly spread south to the Netiv HaGdud site in the Jordan Valley. This process of domestication allowed the founder crops to adapt and eventually become larger, more easily harvested, more dependable in storage and more useful to the human population.
Selectively propagated figs, wild barley and wild oats were cultivated at the early Neolithic site of Gilgal I, where in 2006 archaeologists found caches of seeds of each in quantities too large to be accounted for even by intensive gathering, at strata datable to c. 11,000 years ago. Some of the plants tried and then abandoned during the Neolithic period in the Ancient Near East, at sites like Gilgal, were later successfully domesticated in other parts of the world.
Once early farmers perfected their agricultural techniques like irrigation, their crops would yield surpluses that needed storage. Most hunter gatherers could not easily store food for long due to their migratory lifestyle, whereas those with a sedentary dwelling could store their surplus grain. Eventually granaries were developed that allowed villages to store their seeds longer. So with more food, the population expanded and communities developed specialized workers and more advanced tools.
The process was not as linear as was once thought, but a more complicated effort, which was undertaken by different human populations in different regions in many different ways.
Early agriculture is believed to have originated and become widespread in Southwest Asia around 10,000 -- 9,000 BP, though earlier individual sites have been identified. The Fertile Crescent region of Southwest Asia is the centre of domestication for three cereals (einkorn wheat, emmer wheat and barley), four legumes (lentil, pea, bitter vetch and chickpea) and flax. The Mediterranean climate consists of a long dry season with a short period of rain, which may have favored small plants with large seeds, like wheat and barley. The Fertile Crescent also had a large area of varied geographical settings and altitudes and this variety may have made agriculture more profitable for former hunter - gatherers in this region in comparison with other areas with a similar climate.
Finds of large quantities of seeds and a grinding stone at the paleolithic site of Ohalo II in the vicinity of the Sea of Galilee, dated to around 19,400 BP has shown some of the earliest evidence for advanced planning of plant food consumption and suggests that humans at Ohalo II processed the grain before consumption. Tell Aswad is oldest site of agriculture with domesticated emmer wheat dated to 8800 BC. Soon after came hulled, two - row barley found domesticated earliest at Jericho in the Jordan valley and Iraq ed - Dubb in Jordan. Other sites in the Levantine corridor that show the first evidence of agriculture include Wadi Faynan 16 and Netiv Hagdud. Jacques Cauvin noted that the settlers of Aswad did not domesticate on site, but "arrived, perhaps from the neighbouring Anti-Lebanon, already equipped with the seed for planting ''. The Heavy Neolithic Qaraoun culture has been identified at around fifty sites in Lebanon around the source springs of the River Jordan, however the dating of the culture has never been reliably determined.
Northern China appears to have been the domestication center for foxtail millet (Setaria italica) and broomcorn millet (Panicum miliaceum) with evidence of domestication of these species approximately 8,000 years ago. These species were subsequently widely cultivated in the Yellow River basin (7,500 years ago). Rice was domesticated in southern China later on. Soybean was domesticated in northern China 4,500 years ago. Orange and peach also originated in China. They were cultivated around 2500 BC.
The fertile Carpathian Basin was the place where Europeans survived the Ice Age. The territory between the Danube and the Tisza rivers was a powerhouse of agricultural knowledge.
On the African continent, three areas have been identified as independently developing agriculture: the Ethiopian highlands, the Sahel and West Africa. By contrast, Agriculture in the Nile River Valley is thought to have developed from the original Neolithic Revolution in the Fertile Crescent. Many grinding stones are found with the early Egyptian Sebilian and Mechian cultures and evidence has been found of a neolithic domesticated crop - based economy dating around 7,000 BP. Unlike the Middle East, this evidence appears as a "false dawn '' to agriculture, as the sites were later abandoned, and permanent farming then was delayed until 6,500 BP with the Tasian and Badarian cultures and the arrival of crops and animals from the Near East.
Bananas and plantains, which were first domesticated in Southeast Asia, most likely Papua New Guinea, were re-domesticated in Africa possibly as early as 5,000 years ago. Asian yams and taro were also cultivated in Africa.
The most famous crop domesticated in the Ethiopian highlands is coffee. In addition, khat, ensete, noog, teff and finger millet were also domesticated in the Ethiopian highlands. Crops domesticated in the Sahel region include sorghum and pearl millet. The kola nut was first domesticated in West Africa. Other crops domesticated in West Africa include African rice, yams and the oil palm.
Agriculture spread to Central and Southern Africa in the Bantu expansion during the 1st millennium BC to 1st millennium AD.
Maize (corn), beans and squash were among the earliest crops domesticated in Mesoamerica, with maize beginning about 7500 BC, squash, as early as 8000 to 6000 BC and beans by no later than 4000 BC. Potatoes and manioc were domesticated in South America. In what is now the eastern United States, Native Americans domesticated sunflower, sumpweed and goosefoot around 2500 BC. At Guilá Naquitz cave in the Mexican highlands, fragments of maize pollen, bottle gourd and pepo squash were recovered and variously dated between 8000 and 7000 BC. In this area of the world people relied on hunting and gathering for several millennia to come. Sedentary village life based on farming did not develop until the second millennium BC, referred to as the formative period.
Evidence of drainage ditches at Kuk Swamp on the borders of the Western and Southern Highlands of Papua New Guinea shows evidence of the cultivation of taro and a variety of other crops, dating back to 11,000 BP. Two potentially significant economic species, taro (Colocasia esculenta) and yam (Dioscorea sp.), have been identified dating at least to 10,200 calibrated years before present (cal BP). Further evidence of bananas and sugarcane dates to 6,950 to 6,440 BP. This was at the altitudinal limits of these crops, and it has been suggested that cultivation in more favourable ranges in the lowlands may have been even earlier. CSIRO has found evidence that taro was introduced into the Solomon Islands for human use, from 28,000 years ago, making taro cultivation the earliest crop in the world. It seems to have resulted in the spread of the Trans -- New Guinea languages from New Guinea east into the Solomon Islands and west into Timor and adjacent areas of Indonesia. This seems to confirm the theories of Carl Sauer who, in "Agricultural Origins and Dispersals '', suggested as early as 1952 that this region was a centre of early agriculture.
When hunter - gathering began to be replaced by sedentary food production it became more profitable to keep animals close at hand. Therefore, it became necessary to bring animals permanently to their settlements, although in many cases there was a distinction between relatively sedentary farmers and nomadic herders. The animals ' size, temperament, diet, mating patterns, and life span were factors in the desire and success in domesticating animals. Animals that provided milk, such as cows and goats, offered a source of protein that was renewable and therefore quite valuable. The animal 's ability as a worker (for example ploughing or towing), as well as a food source, also had to be taken into account. Besides being a direct source of food, certain animals could provide leather, wool, hides, and fertilizer. Some of the earliest domesticated animals included dogs (East Asia, about 15,000 years ago), sheep, goats, cows, and pigs.
The Middle East served as the source for many animals that could be domesticated, such as sheep, goats and pigs. This area was also the first region to domesticate the dromedary. Henri Fleisch discovered and termed the Shepherd Neolithic flint industry from the Bekaa Valley in Lebanon and suggested that it could have been used by the earliest nomadic shepherds. He dated this industry to the Epipaleolithic or Pre-Pottery Neolithic as it is evidently not Paleolithic, Mesolithic or even Pottery Neolithic. The presence of these animals gave the region a large advantage in cultural and economic development. As the climate in the Middle East changed and became drier, many of the farmers were forced to leave, taking their domesticated animals with them. It was this massive emigration from the Middle East that would later help distribute these animals to the rest of Afroeurasia. This emigration was mainly on an east - west axis of similar climates, as crops usually have a narrow optimal climatic range outside of which they can not grow for reasons of light or rain changes. For instance, wheat does not normally grow in tropical climates, just like tropical crops such as bananas do not grow in colder climates. Some authors, like Jared Diamond, have postulated that this East - West axis is the main reason why plant and animal domestication spread so quickly from the Fertile Crescent to the rest of Eurasia and North Africa, while it did not reach through the North - South axis of Africa to reach the Mediterranean climates of South Africa, where temperate crops were successfully imported by ships in the last 500 years. Similarly, the African Zebu of central Africa and the domesticated bovines of the fertile - crescent -- separated by the dry sahara desert -- were not introduced into each other 's region.
Despite the significant technological advance, the Neolithic revolution did not lead immediately to a rapid growth of population. Its benefits appear to have been offset by various adverse effects, mostly diseases and warfare.
It has long been taken for granted that the introduction of agriculture had been an unequivocal progress. This is now questioned in view of findings by archaeologists and paleopathologists showing that nutritional standards of Neolithic populations were generally inferior to that of hunter - gatherers, and that their life expectancy may well have been shorter too, in part due to diseases and harder work. Hunter - gatherers must have covered their food needs with about 20 hours work a week, while agriculture required much more and was at least as uncertain. The hunter - gatherers ' diet was more varied and balanced than what agriculture later allowed. Average height went down from 5'10 '' (178 cm) for men and 5'6 '' (168 cm) for women to 5'5 '' (165 cm) and 5'1 '' (155 cm), respectively, and it took until the twentieth century for average human height to come back to the pre-Neolithic Revolution levels. Agriculturalists had more anaemias and vitamin deficiencies, more spinal deformations and more dental pathologies.
However, the decrease in individual nutrition was accompanied by an increase in population.
The traditional view is that agricultural food production supported a denser population, which in turn supported larger sedentary communities, the accumulation of goods and tools, and specialization in diverse forms of new labor. The development of larger societies led to the development of different means of decision making and to governmental organization. Food surpluses made possible the development of a social elite who were not otherwise engaged in agriculture, industry or commerce, but dominated their communities by other means and monopolized decision - making. Jared Diamond (in The World Until Yesterday) identifies the availability of milk and / or cereal grains as permitting mothers to raise both an older (e.g. 3 or 4 year old) child and a younger child concurrently, whereas this was not possible previously. The result is that a population can significantly more - rapidly increase its size than would otherwise be the case, resources permitting.
Recent analyses point out that agriculture also brought about deep social divisions and in particular encouraged inequality between the sexes.
Andrew Sherratt has argued that following upon the Neolithic Revolution was a second phase of discovery that he refers to as the secondary products revolution. Animals, it appears, were first domesticated purely as a source of meat. The Secondary Products Revolution occurred when it was recognised that animals also provided a number of other useful products. These included:
Sherratt argued that this phase in agricultural development enabled humans to make use of the energy possibilities of their animals in new ways, and permitted permanent intensive subsistence farming and crop production, and the opening up of heavier soils for farming. It also made possible nomadic pastoralism in semi arid areas, along the margins of deserts, and eventually led to the domestication of both the dromedary and Bactrian camel. Overgrazing of these areas, particularly by herds of goats, greatly extended the areal extent of deserts.
Living in one spot would have more easily permitted the accrual of personal possessions and an attachment to certain areas of land. From such a position, it is argued, prehistoric people were able to stockpile food to survive lean times and trade unwanted surpluses with others. Once trade and a secure food supply were established, populations could grow, and society would have diversified into food producers and artisans, who could afford to develop their trade by virtue of the free time they enjoyed because of a surplus of food. The artisans, in turn, were able to develop technology such as metal weapons. Such relative complexity would have required some form of social organisation to work efficiently, so it is likely that populations that had such organisation, perhaps such as that provided by religion, were better prepared and more successful. In addition, the denser populations could form and support legions of professional soldiers. Also, during this time property ownership became increasingly important to all people. Ultimately, Childe argued that this growing social complexity, all rooted in the original decision to settle, led to a second Urban Revolution in which the first cities were built.
Throughout the development of sedentary societies, disease spread more rapidly than it had during the time in which hunter - gatherer societies existed. Inadequate sanitary practices and the domestication of animals may explain the rise in deaths and sickness following the Neolithic Revolution, as diseases jumped from the animal to the human population. Some examples of infectious diseases spread from animals to humans are influenza, smallpox, and measles. In concordance with a process of natural selection, the humans who first domesticated the big mammals quickly built up immunities to the diseases as within each generation the individuals with better immunities had better chances of survival. In their approximately 10,000 years of shared proximity with animals, such as cows, Eurasians and Africans became more resistant to those diseases compared with the indigenous populations encountered outside Eurasia and Africa. For instance, the population of most Caribbean and several Pacific Islands have been completely wiped out by diseases. 90 % or more of many populations of the Americas were wiped out by European and African diseases before recorded contact with European explorers or colonists. Some cultures like the Inca Empire did have a large domestic mammal, the llama, but llama milk was not drunk, nor did llamas live in a closed space with humans, so the risk of contagion was limited. According to bioarchaeological research, the effects of agriculture on physical and dental health in Southeast Asian rice farming societies from 4000 to 1500 B.P. was not detrimental to the same extent as in other world regions.
In his book Guns, Germs, and Steel, Jared Diamond argues that Europeans and East Asians benefited from an advantageous geographical location that afforded them a head start in the Neolithic Revolution. Both shared the temperate climate ideal for the first agricultural settings, both were near a number of easily domesticable plant and animal species, and both were safer from attacks of other people than civilizations in the middle part of the Eurasian continent. Being among the first to adopt agriculture and sedentary lifestyles, and neighboring other early agricultural societies with whom they could compete and trade, both Europeans and East Asians were also among the first to benefit from technologies such as firearms and steel swords.
The dispersal of Neolithic culture from the Middle East has recently been associated with the distribution of human genetic markers. In Europe, the spread of the Neolithic culture has been associated with distribution of the E1b1b lineages and Haplogroup J that are thought to have arrived in Europe from North Africa and the Near East respectively. In Africa, the spread of farming, and notably the Bantu expansion, is associated with the dispersal of Y - chromosome haplogroup E1b1a from West Africa.
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what does the td in td ameritrade stand for | TD Ameritrade - wikipedia
TD Ameritrade is a brokerage firm based in Omaha, Nebraska with a major trading center in St Louis, Missouri. The letters TD are derived from Toronto - Dominion Bank, the largest shareholder. The company provides services for individuals and institutions that are investing online. The company offers an electronic trading platform for the purchase and sale of financial securities including common stocks, preferred stocks, futures contracts, exchange - traded funds, options, mutual funds, and fixed income investments. It also provides margin lending, and cash management services.
As of September 30, 2017, Ameritrade had 11,004,000 funded customer accounts and client assets of $1.118 trillion. In fiscal year 2017, the company executed an average of 510,710 client transactions per day.
In fiscal year 2017, the company derived 37.6 % of its revenues from commissions and fees including fees for order flow, 30.1 % of its revenues from Toronto - Dominion Bank for investment of idle cash balances, 18.8 % of revenues from interest, 11.5 % from investment product fees, and 2.0 % from other sources.
In 1975, the Securities and Exchange Commission banned the practice of fixed brokerage commissions and J. Joseph Ricketts and three partners opened First Omaha Securities, Inc. in Omaha, Nebraska.
In 1983, Ameritrade Clearing Inc. was established as a Central counterparty clearing broker.
In 1988, the company introduced the first quote and order entry system via the touch - tone phone.
In 1995, the company acquired K. Aufhauser & Company, Inc., the first firm to offer online securities trading.
In January 1996, TransTerra 's Accutrade launched "Accutrade for Windows, '' which led to a surge in investing online.
In September 1996, TransTerra merged with Ameritrade.
In March 1997, Ameritrade became a public company via an initial public offering.
In February 2001, Ameritrade acquired TradeCast, which had approximately 60 broker / dealer, hedge fund and money management customers, for $67.3 million.
In July 2001, Ameritrade acquired National Discount Brokers for $154 million, adding $6.3 billion in client assets.
In September 2002, Ameritrade acquired Datek Online Holdings Corporation.
In June 2003, Ameritrade acquired Mydiscountbroker.com.
In 2004, Ameritrade acquired Bidwell and Company in January, BrokerageAmerica in February, and JB Oxford and Company in October.
In January 2006, Ameritrade Holding Corporation acquired the United States brokerage business branded as TD Waterhouse from Toronto - Dominion Bank. The business was renamed TD Ameritrade.
In February 2008, the company acquired accounts from Fiserv.
In May 2008, CEO Joe Moglia announced he would be vacating the CEO position and would become Chairman. Fredric Tomczyk, the former COO, was named his successor.
In January 2009, TD Ameritrade acquired Thinkorswim, a producer of software for active traders, in a cash and stock deal valued at approximately $606 million.
In 2013, the company opened a new $250 million headquarters in Omaha.
In September 2017, the company acquired Scottrade, based in St Louis, Missouri, making St Louis the second largest hub for TD Ameritrade. The transition of client accounts occurred in February 2018.
In April 2018, TD Ameritrade and Havas placed an ad inserted within the bitcoin blockchain.
In November 2007, the company reported that hackers gained access to most of its clients ' names, Social Security numbers, dates of birth, addresses, phone numbers and trading activity. In 2011, after being sued in a class action lawsuit, the company settled by agreeing to compensate customers that were victim to identity theft between $50 and $2,500 each. The settlement was criticized for netting the attorneys almost as much money as the victims.
In 2009, TD Ameritrade settled a lawsuit alleging it had marketed auction rate securities as short - term investments. The settlement included a $456 million payment and the buyback of the securities, compensating investors for losses.
The company recommended to its customers to invest cash holdings in a money market fund that was an affiliate of the Reserve Primary Fund and the fund gained approximately $1 billion in assets as a result of such marketing by the company. The company received commissions from the fund for steering customers. In September 2008, during the financial crisis of 2007 -- 2008, as a result of its holdings in securities of Lehman Brothers, the fund was forced to break the buck and $1 billion in cash equivalents of TD Ameritrade clients were frozen. The company was accused of having a conflict of interest as a result of commissions that it received, for having poor marketing ethics, and for misrepresenting the safety of the investment. Fredric Tomczyk, President of the company, argued that the contract with the Reserve Fund was a standard contract and that "an investment firm has to make money in some way. '' The company was named in class action lawsuits by its customers and the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission launched an investigation into its marketing practices. In 2008, the company agreed to reimburse its customers for up to a 3 % loss in the Reserve Primary Fund, or up to $50 million. In 2011, the company settled the SEC case and agreed to pay 1.2 ¢ per share of the Reserve Yield Plus Fund that was held by its customers, or $10 million in total. The Reserve Yield Plus made its final distribution in 2016 and investors received 97 to 98 cents on the dollar in addition to compensation from TD Ameritrade.
The company owns the naming rights to TD Ameritrade Park Omaha for which it pays an average of $1 million a year.
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who is the father of rachel's child | Friends (season 8) - wikipedia
The eighth season of Friends, an American sitcom created by David Crane and Marta Kauffman, premiered on NBC on September 27, 2001. Friends was produced by Bright / Kauffman / Crane Productions, in association with Warner Bros. Television. The season contains 24 episodes and concluded airing on May 16, 2002. This season had an average of 24.5 million viewers, and was the most watched TV show of the 2001 -- 02 television season.
Everybody thinks Monica 's pregnant, but her denial quickly shifts the focus to Phoebe, who takes the heat off of Rachel -- who is actually pregnant. Chandler 's shoes are slippery, rendering his dance lessons useless. Joey tries to impress a Broadway director. Ross dances with children to impress Monica 's attractive, funny friend Mona, which leads to him getting injured quite a bit.
Chandler and Monica prepare to leave for their honeymoon as Rachel prepares to tell the father of her baby. Phoebe and Joey try to get into Monica and Chandler 's apartment by telling Mr. Treeger there is a gas leak. However, not all goes to plan when Treeger, who could not find Monica and Chandler 's key, orders firefighters to break down the door.
Phoebe begins dating a guy who works for Monica, causing a problem when Phoebe wants to dump him on the same day Monica plans to fire him. A guy at Chandler 's work thinks that Chandler 's name is Toby. Rachel goes on a date with Joey 's costar, despite being pregnant, much to Ross ' annoyance.
Monica buys very expensive boots and promises Chandler to wear them all the time. After a while they are killing Monica 's feet but she does n't dare to tell Chandler. Joey 's youngest sister Dina (Marla Sokoloff) is pregnant and comes to Rachel for advice. Phoebe finds out that Sting 's son is in Ben 's class so she goes to see Sting 's wife (real wife (Trudie Styler) pretending to want to talk about Ben and Jack in order to get tickets to Sting 's concert.
Ross, shocked at Joey 's declaration, avoids him, but eventually convinces him to tell Rachel. Joey confesses his love for Rachel, but Rachel politely and lovingly turns him down. Phoebe is convinced that a British man called Don is Monica 's soulmate.
54th Primetime Emmy Awards
59th Golden Globe Awards
8th Screen Actors Guild Awards
18th TCA Awards
7th Golden Satellite Awards
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what does the flag of dominican republic represent | Flag of the Dominican Republic - wikipedia
The flag of the Dominican Republic represents the Dominican Republic and, together with the coat of arms and the national anthem, has the status of national symbol. The blue on the flag stands for liberty, the white for salvation, and the red for the blood of heroes. The civil ensign follows the same design, but without the charge in the center. The flag was designed by Juan Pablo Duarte.
As described by Article 21 of the Dominican Constitution, the flag features a centered white cross that extends to the edges and divides the flag into four rectangles; the top ones are blue (hoist side) and red, and the bottom ones are red (hoist side) and blue. The national coat of arms, featuring a shield with the flag design and supported by a bay laurel branch (left) and a palm frond (right), is at the center of the cross. Above the shield, a blue ribbon displays the national motto Dios, Patria, Libertad (English: God, Fatherland, Liberty). Below the shield, the words República Dominicana appear on a red ribbon (this red ribbon is depicted in more recent versions as having its tips pointing upward). In the center of the shield, flanked by three spears (two of them holding Dominican banners) on each side, is a Bible with a small cross above it and said to be opened to the Gospel of John, chapter 8, verse 32, which reads Y la verdad os hará libres (And the truth shall make you free).
Media related to Flags of the Dominican Republic at Wikimedia Commons
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